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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8
+       "Atherstone" to "Austria"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2010 [EBook #34312]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOLUME 2 SL 8 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ATTICA: "The place in Attica which has been the chief scene
+      of excavations (independently of Athens and its vicinity) is
+      Eleusis ..." 'vicinity' amended from 'vicinty'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME II, SLICE VIII
+
+           Atherstone to Austria
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON      AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE
+  ATHERSTONE                      AUDEFROI LE BATARD
+  ATHERTON                        AUDIENCE
+  ATHETOSIS                       AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDMÉ ARMAND GASTON
+  ATHIAS, JOSEPH                  AUDIT and AUDITOR
+  ATHLETE                         AUDLEY, SIR JAMES
+  ATHLETIC SPORTS                 AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY
+  ATHLONE                         AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR
+  ATHOL                           AUDRAN
+  ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF      AUDRAN, EDMOND
+  ATHOLL                          AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D'
+  ATHOS                           AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES
+  ATHY                            AUE
+  ATINA                           AUERBACH, BERTHOLD
+  ATITLÁN                         AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER
+  ATKINSON, EDWARD                AUFIDENA
+  ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT      AUGEAS
+  ATLANTA                         AUGER
+  ATLANTIC                        AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES
+  ATLANTIC CITY                   AUGHRIM
+  ATLANTIC OCEAN                  AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE
+  ATLANTIS                        AUGITE
+  ATLAS                           AUGMENT
+  ATLAS MOUNTAINS                 AUGMENTATION
+  ATMOLYSIS                       AUGSBURG
+  ATMOSPHERE                      AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF
+  ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY         AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF
+  ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY             AUGURS
+  ATOLL                           AUGUST
+  ATOM                            AUGUSTA (Georgia, U.S.A.)
+  ATONEMENT and DAY OF ATONEMENT  AUGUSTA (Maine, U.S.A.)
+  ATRATO                          AUGUSTA (Sicily)
+  ATREK                           AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM
+  ATREUS                          AUGUSTAN HISTORY
+  ATRI                            AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM
+  ATRIUM                          AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM
+  ATROPHY                         AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
+  ATROPOS                         AUGUSTINE, SAINT (archbishop)
+  ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS           AUGUSTINIAN CANONS
+  ATTACAPA                        AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS
+  ATTACHMENT                      AUGUSTINIANS
+  ATTAINDER                       AUGUSTOWO
+  ATTAINT, WRIT OF                AUGUSTUS
+  ATTALIA                         AUGUSTUS I
+  ATTAR OF ROSES                  AUGUSTUS II
+  ATTEMPT                         AUGUSTUS III
+  ATTENTION                       AUGUSTUSBAD
+  ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS    AUK
+  ATTERBURY, FRANCIS              AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE
+  ATTESTATION                     AULIC COUNCIL
+  ATTHIS                          AULIE-ATA
+  ATTIC                           AULIS
+  ATTICA                          AULNOY, MARIE CATHERINE DE LA MOTTE
+  ATTIC BASE                      AULOS
+  ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS        AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE D'ORLÉANS
+  ATTICUS HERODES, CLAUDIUS       AUMALE
+  ATTILA                          AUMONT
+  ATTIS                           AUNCEL
+  ATTLEBOROUGH                    AUNDH
+  ATTOCK                          AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD
+  ATTORNEY                        AUNT SALLY
+  ATTORNEY-GENERAL                AURA
+  ATTORNMENT                      AURANGABAD
+  ATTRITION                       AURANGZEB
+  ATTWOOD, THOMAS (composer)      AURAY
+  ATTWOOD, THOMAS (reformer)      AURELIA, VIA
+  ATWOOD, GEORGE                  AURELIAN
+  AUBADE                          AURELIANUS, CAELIUS
+  AUBAGNE                         AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN D'
+  AUBE                            AUREOLA
+  AUBENAS                         AURICH
+  AUBER, DANIEL FRANÇOIS ESPRIT   AURICLE
+  AUBERGINE                       AURICULA
+  AUBERVILLIERS                   AURIFABER
+  AUBIGNAC, FRANÇOIS HÉDELIN      AURIGA
+  AUBIGNÉ, CONSTANT D'            AURILLAC
+  AUBIGNÉ, JEAN HENRI MERLE D'    AURISPA, GIOVANNI
+  AUBIGNÉ, THÉODORE AGRIPPA D'    AUROCHS
+  AUBIN                           AURORA (Roman goddess)
+  AUBREY, JOHN                    AURORA (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  AUBURN (Maine, U.S.A.)          AURORA (Missouri, U.S.A.)
+  AUBURN (New York, U.S.A.)       AURORA (New York, U.S.A.)
+  AUBURN (colour)                 AURORA POLARIS
+  AUBUSSON, PIERRE D'             AURUNCI
+  AUBUSSON                        AUSCULTATION
+  AUCH                            AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS
+  AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL            AUSSIG
+  AUCHTERARDER                    AUSTEN, JANE
+  AUCHTERMUCHTY                   AUSTERLITZ
+  AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN           AUSTIN, ALFRED
+  AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN          AUSTIN, JOHN
+  AUCKLAND                        AUSTIN, SARAH
+  AUCKLAND ISLANDS                AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER
+  AUCTION PITCH                   AUSTIN (Minnesota, U.S.A.)
+  AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS        AUSTIN (Texas, U.S.A.)
+  AUCUBA                          AUSTRALASIA
+  AUDAEUS                         AUSTRALIA
+  AUDE (river of France)          AUSTRASIA
+  AUDE (department of France)     AUSTRIA
+
+
+
+
+ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON (1813-1898), British geologist, one of the
+pioneers in South African geology, was born in 1813, in the district of
+Uitenhage, Cape Colony. Having qualified as M.D. he settled in early
+life as a medical practitioner at Grahamstown, subsequently becoming
+F.R.C.S. In 1839 his interest was aroused in geology, and from that date
+he "devoted the leisure of a long and successful medical practice" to
+the pursuit of geological science. In 1857 he published an account of
+the rocks and fossils of Uitenhage (the latter described more fully by
+R. Tate, _Quart. Journal Geol. Soc._, 1867). He also obtained many
+fossil reptilia from the Karroo beds, and presented specimens to the
+British Museum. These were described by Sir Richard Owen. Atherstone's
+identification in 1867 as a diamond of a crystal found at De Kalk near
+the junction of the Riet and Vaal rivers, led indirectly to the
+establishment of the great diamond industry of South Africa. He
+encouraged the workings at Jagersfontein, and he also called attention
+to the diamantiferous neck at Kimberley. He was one of the founders of
+the Geological Society of South Africa at Johannesburg in 1895; and for
+some years previously he was a member of the Cape parliament. He died at
+Grahamstown, on the 26th of June 1898.
+
+  See the obituary by T. Rupert Jones, _Natural Science_, vol. xiv.
+  (January 1899).
+
+
+
+
+ATHERSTONE, a market-town in the Nuneaton parliamentary division of
+Warwickshire, England, 102½ m. N.W. from London by the London &
+North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5248. It lies in the upper valley of
+the Anker, under well-wooded hills to the west, and is on the Roman
+Watling Street, and the Coventry canal. The once monastic church of St
+Mary is rebuilt, excepting the central tower and part of the chancel.
+The chief industry is hat-making. On the high ground to the west lie
+ruins of the Cistercian abbey of Merevale, founded in 1149; they include
+the gatehouse chapel, part of the refectory and other remains exhibiting
+beautiful details of the 14th century. Coal is worked at Baxterley, 3 m.
+west of Atherstone.
+
+  Atherstone (_Aderestone, Edridestone, Edrichestone_), though not
+  mentioned in any pre-Conquest record, is of unquestionably ancient
+  origin. A Saxon barrow was opened near the town in 1824. It is
+  traversed by Watling Street, and portions of the ancient Roman road
+  have been discovered in modern times. Atherstone is mentioned in
+  Domesday among the possessions of Countess Godiva, the widow of
+  Leofric. In the reign of Henry III. it passed to the monks of Bec in
+  Normandy, who in 1246 obtained the grant of an annual fair at the
+  feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, and the next year of a market
+  every Tuesday. This market became so much frequented that in 1319 a
+  toll was levied upon all goods coming into the town, in order to
+  defray the cost of the repair to the roads necessitated by the
+  constant traffic, and in 1332 a similar toll was levied on all goods
+  passing over the bridge called Feldenbrigge near Atherstone. The
+  September fair and Tuesday markets are still continued. In the reign
+  of Edward III. a house of Austin Friars was founded at Atherstone by
+  Ralph Lord Basset of Drayton, which, however, never rose to much
+  importance, and at its dissolution in 1536 was valued at 30 shillings
+  and 3 pence only.
+
+
+
+
+ATHERTON, or CHOWBENT, an urban district in the Leigh parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 13 m. W.N.W. of Manchester on the
+London & North-Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901)
+16,211. The cotton factories are the principal source of industry; there
+are also iron-works and collieries. The manor was held by the local
+family of Atherton from John's reign to 1738, when it passed by marriage
+to Robert Gwillym, who assumed that name. In 1797 his eldest daughter
+and co-heiress married Thomas Powys, afterwards the second Lord Lilford.
+Up to 1891 the lord of the manor held a court-leet and court-baron
+annually in November, but in that year Lord Lilford sold to the local
+board the market tolls, stallages and pickages, and since this sale the
+courts have lapsed. The earliest manufactures were iron and cotton.
+Silk-weaving, formerly an extensive industry, has now almost entirely
+decayed. The first chapel or church was built in 1645. James Wood, who
+became Nonconformist minister in the chapel at Atherton in 1691, earned
+fame and the familiar title of "General" by raising a force from his
+congregation, uncouthly armed, to fight against the troops of the
+Pretender (1715).
+
+
+
+
+ATHETOSIS (Gr. [Greek: hathetos], "without place"), the medical term
+applied to certain slow, purposeless, deliberate movements of the hands
+and feet. The fingers are separately flexed and extended, abducted and
+adducted in an entirely irregular way. The hands as a whole are also
+moved, and the arms, toes and feet may be affected. The condition is
+usually due to some lesion of the brain which has caused hemiplegia, and
+is especially common in childhood. It is occasionally congenital (so
+called), and is then due to some injury of the brain during birth. It is
+more usually associated with hemiplegia, in which condition there is
+first of all complete voluntary immobility of the parts affected: but
+later, as there is a return of a certain amount of power over the limbs
+affected, the slow rhythmic movements of athetosis are first noticed.
+This never develops, however, where there is no recovery of voluntary
+power. Its distribution is thus nearly always hemiplegic, and it is
+often associated with more or less mental impairment. The movements may
+or may not continue during sleep. They cannot be arrested for more than
+a moment by will power, and are aggravated by voluntary movements. The
+prognosis is unsatisfactory, as the condition usually continues
+unchanged for years, though improvement occasionally occurs in slight
+cases, or even complete recovery.
+
+
+
+
+ATHIAS, JOSEPH (d. 1700), Jewish rabbi and printer, was born in Spain
+and settled in Amsterdam. His editions of the Hebrew Bible (1661, 1667)
+are noted for beauty of execution and the general correctness of the
+text. He also printed a Judaeo-German edition of the Bible in 1679, a
+year after the appearance of the edition by Uri Phoebus.
+
+
+
+
+ATHLETE (Gr. [Greek: athletes]; Lat. _athleta_), in Greek and Roman
+antiquities, one who contended for a prize ([Greek: athlon]) in the
+games; now a general term for any one excelling in physical strength.
+Originally denoting one who took part in musical, equestrian, gymnastic,
+or any other competitions, the name became restricted to the competitors
+in gymnastic contests, and, later, to the class of professional
+athletes. Whereas in earlier times competitors, who were often persons
+of good birth and position, entered the lists for glory, without any
+idea of material gain, the professional class, which arose as early as
+the 5th century B.C., was chiefly recruited from the lower orders, with
+whom the better classes were unwilling to associate, and took up
+athletics entirely as a means of livelihood. Ancient philosophers,
+moralists and physicians were almost unanimous in condemning the
+profession of athletics as injurious not only to the mind but also to
+the body. The attack made upon it by Euripides in the fragment of the
+_Autolycus_ is well known. The training for the contests was very
+rigorous. The matter of diet was of great importance; this was
+prescribed by the _aleiptes_, whose duty it also was to anoint the
+athlete's body. At one time the principal food consisted of fresh
+cheese, dried figs and wheaten bread. Afterwards meat was introduced,
+generally beef, or pork; but the bread and meat were taken separately,
+the former at breakfast, the latter at dinner. Except in wine, the
+quantity was unlimited, and the capacity of some of the heavy-weights
+must have been, if such stories as those about Milo are true, enormous.
+In addition to the ordinary gymnastic exercises of the palaestra, the
+athletes were instructed in carrying heavy loads, lifting weights,
+bending iron rods, striking at a suspended leather sack filled with sand
+or flour, taming bulls, &c. Boxers had to practise delving the ground,
+to strengthen their upper limbs. The competitions open to athletes were
+running, leaping, throwing the discus, wrestling, boxing and the
+pancratium, or combination of boxing and wrestling. Victory in this last
+was the highest achievement of an athlete, and was reserved only for men
+of extraordinary strength. The competitors were naked, having their
+bodies salved with oil. Boxers wore the _caestus_, a strap of leather
+round the wrists and forearms, with a piece of metal in the fist, which
+was sometimes employed with great barbarity. An athlete could begin his
+career as a boy in the contests set apart for boys. He could appear
+again as a youth against his equals, and though always unsuccessful,
+could go on competing till the age of thirty-five, when he was debarred,
+it being assumed that after this period of life he could not improve.
+The most celebrated of the Greek athletes whose names have been handed
+down are Milo of Crotona, Hipposthenes, Polydamas, Promachus and
+Glaucus. Cyrene, famous in the time of Pindar for its athletes, appears
+to have still maintained its reputation to at least the time of
+Alexander the Great; for in the British Museum are to be seen six prize
+vases carried off from the games at Athens by natives of that district.
+These vases, found in the tombs, probably, of the winners, are made of
+clay, and painted on one side with a representation of the contest in
+which they were won, and on the other side with a figure of Pallas
+Athena, with an inscription telling where they were gained, and in some
+cases adding the name of the eponymous magistrate of Athens, from which
+the exact year can be determined.
+
+Amongst the Romans athletic contests had no doubt taken place from the
+earliest times, but according to Livy (xxxix. 22) professional Greek
+athletes were first introduced at Rome by M. Fulvius Nobilior in 186
+B.C. After the institution of the Actian games by Augustus, their
+popularity increased, until they finally supplanted the gladiators. In
+the time of the empire, gilds or unions of athletes were formed, each
+with a temple, treasury and exercise-ground of its own. The profession,
+although it ranked above that of a gladiator or an actor, was looked
+upon as derogatory to the dignity of a Roman, and it is a rare thing to
+find a Roman name amongst the athletes on inscriptions. The system was
+entirely, and the athletes themselves nearly always, Greek. (See also
+GAMES, CLASSICAL.)
+
+  Krause, _Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen_ (1841); Friedländer,
+  _Sittengeschichte Roms_, ii.; Reisch, in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyc_.
+
+
+
+
+ATHLETIC SPORTS. Various sports were cultivated many hundred years
+before the Christian era by the Egyptians and several Asiatic races,
+from whom the early Greeks undoubtedly adopted the elements of their
+athletic exercises (see ATHLETE), which reached their highest
+development in the Olympic games, and other periodical meetings of the
+kind (see GAMES, CLASSICAL). The original Celtic inhabitants of Great
+Britain were an athletic race, and the earliest monuments of Teutonic
+literature abound in records of athletic prowess. After the Norman
+conquest of England the nobles devoted themselves to the chase and to
+the joust, while the people had their games of ball, running at the
+quintain, fencing with club and buckler, wrestling and other pastimes on
+green and river. The chroniclers of the succeeding centuries are for the
+most part silent concerning the sports of the folk, except such as were
+regarded as a training for war, as archery, while they love to record
+the prowess of the kings and their courts. Thus it is told of Henry V.
+that he "was so swift a runner that he and two of his lords, without bow
+or other engine, would take a wild buck in a large park." Several
+romances of the middle ages, quoted by Strutt (_Sports and Pastimes of
+the People of England_), chronicle the fact that young men of good
+family were taught to run, leap, wrestle and joust. In spite of the
+general silence of the historians concerning the sports of the people,
+it is evident that they were indulged in very largely, since several
+English sovereigns found it necessary to curtail, and even prohibit,
+certain popular pastimes, on the ground that they seduced the people
+from the practice of archery. Thus Edward III. prohibited weight-putting
+by statute. Nevertheless a variety of this exercise, "casting of the
+barre," continued to be a popular pastime, and was afterwards one of the
+favourite sports of Henry VIII., who attained great proficiency at it.
+The prowess of the same monarch at throwing the hammer is a matter of
+history, and his reign seems to have been at a time of general athletic
+revival. We even find his secretary, Richard Pace, advising the sons of
+noblemen to practise their sports and "leave study and learning to the
+children of meaner people," and Sir William Forest, in his _Poesye of
+Princeelye Practice_, thus admonishes his high-born readers:--
+
+  "In featis of maistries bestowe some diligence.
+   Too ryde, runne, lepe, or caste by violence
+   Stone, barre or plummett, or such other thinge,
+   It not refuseth any prince or kynge."
+
+Mr Montague Shearman, to whose volume on _Athletics_ in the Badminton
+series the reader is referred, notes that Sir Thomas Elyot, who wrote at
+about the same period, deprecated too much study and flogging for
+schoolboys, saying: "A discrete master may with as much or more ease
+both to himself and his scholler lead him to play at tennis or shoote."
+Elyot recommends the perusal of Galen's _De sanitate tuenda_, and
+suggests as suitable athletic exercises within doors "deambulations,
+labouryng with poyses made of ledde, lifting and throwing the heavy
+stone or barre, playing at tennis," and dwells upon "rennyng" as a "good
+exercise and laudable solace." It is probable that the disciples of the
+"new learning," who had become prominent in Sir Thomas's time,
+endeavoured to combat the influence of athletic exercises, their point
+of view being exemplified by the dictum of Roger Ascham, who, in his
+_Toxophilus_, declares that "running, leaping and quoiting be too vile
+for scholars."
+
+In the 16th century the great football match played annually at Chester
+was abolished in favour of a series of foot-races, which took place in
+the presence of the mayor. A list of the common sports of that time is
+contained in some verses by Randel Holme, a minstrel of the North
+country, and makes mention of throwing the sledge, jumping, "wrastling,"
+stool-ball (cricket), running, pitching the bar, shooting, playing
+loggets, "nine holes or ten pins," "football by the shinnes," leap-frog,
+morris, shove-groat, leaping the bonfire, stow-ball (golf), and many
+other outdoor and indoor sports, some of them now obsolete. Shakespeare
+and the other Elizabethan poets abound in allusions to sport, which
+formed an important feature in school life and at every fair. The Stuart
+kings were warm encouragers of sport, the _Basilikon Doron_ of James I.,
+written for his son, containing a recommendation to the young prince to
+practise "running, leaping, wrestling, fencing, dancing, and playing at
+the caitch, or tennise, archerie, palle-malle, and such like other fair
+and pleasant field games."
+
+An extraordinary variety of sports has been popular in Great Britain
+with high and low for the past five centuries, no other country
+comparing with it in this respect. Nor have Ireland and Scotland lagged
+behind England in athletic prowess. Indeed, so far as history and legend
+record, Ireland boasts of by far the most ancient organized sports
+known, the Tailtin Games, or Lugnasad, traditionally established by
+Lugaid of the Long Arm, one of the gods of Dia and Ana, in honour of his
+foster-mother Tailti, some three thousand years ago. For many centuries
+these games, and others like them, were kept up in Ireland, and though
+the almost constant wars which harried the country finally destroyed
+their organization, yet the Irish have always been, and still are, a
+very important factor in British athletics, as well as in America and
+the colonies.
+
+The Scottish people have, like the Irish, ever delighted in feats of
+strength and skill, especially the Celtic highlanders, the character of
+whose country and mode of life have, however, prevented organized
+athletics from attaining the same prominence as in England.
+Nevertheless, the celebrated Highland games held at Braemar, Bridge of
+Allan, Luss, Aboyne and other places have served to bring into
+prominence many athletes of the first class, although the records, on
+account of the roughness of the grounds, have not generally vied with
+those made farther south.
+
+The Briton does not lose his love of sport upon leaving his native soil,
+and the development of athletics in the United States and the British
+colonies has kept step with that of the mother-land. Upon the continent
+of Europe sports have occupied a more or less prominent place in the
+life of the nations, but their development has been but an echo of that
+in Great Britain. A great advance, however, has been made since the
+institution of the modern Olympic games.
+
+About the year 1812 the Royal Military College at Sandhurst inaugurated
+regular athletic sports, but the example was not followed until about
+1840, when Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury and the Royal Military
+Academy at Woolwich came to the front, the "Crick Run" at Rugby having
+been started in 1837. At the two great English universities there were
+no organized sports of any kind until 1850, when Exeter College, Oxford,
+held a meeting; this example has been followed, one after the other, by
+the other colleges of both institutions. The first contest between
+Oxford and Cambridge occurred at Oxford in 1864, the programme
+consisting of eight events, of which four were won by each side. The
+same year saw the first contest of the Civil Servants, still an annual
+event.
+
+In 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club was formed in London for "gentlemen
+amateurs," most of its members being old university men. Its first
+championship meeting, held in that year, was the beginning of a series
+afterwards continued to the present day by the Amateur Athletic
+Association, founded in 1880, which has jurisdiction over British
+athletic sports. The most important individual English athletic
+organization is the London Athletic Club, which antedated the Amateur
+Athletic Club, and whose meetings have always been the most important
+events except the championships.
+
+In America a revival of interest in athletic sports took place about the
+year 1870. Ten years later was formed the National Association of
+Amateur Athletes of America, which, in 1888, became the Amateur Athletic
+Union. This body controls athletics throughout the United States, and is
+allied with the Canadian Amateur Athletic Association. It is supreme in
+matters of amateur status, records and licensing of meetings, and has
+control over the following branches of sport: basket-ball, billiards,
+boxing, fencing (in connexion with the Amateur Fencers' League of
+America), gymnastics, hand-ball (fives), running, jumping, walking,
+weight-putting (hammer, shot, discus, weights), hurdle-racing, lacrosse,
+pole-vaulting, swimming, tugs-of-war and wrestling. The Amateur Athletic
+Union has eight sectional groups, and is allied with the Intercollegiate
+Association of Amateur Athletes of America (founded 1876) and the
+Western Intercollegiate Association. The first American intercollegiate
+athletic meeting took place at Saratoga in 1873, only three universities
+competing, though the next year there were eight and in 1875 thirteen.
+Professional athletes in America are confined almost entirely to
+base-ball, boxing, bicycling, wrestling and physical training.
+
+The Canadian athletic championships are held independently of the
+American. Annual championship meetings are also held in South Africa,
+New Zealand and the different states of Australia. For the Australasian
+championships New Zealand joins with Australia.
+
+The organization of university sports in America differs from that at
+Oxford and Cambridge, where there is no official control on the part of
+the university authorities, and where a man is eligible to represent his
+college or university while in residence. In nearly all American
+universities and colleges athletic and other sports are under the
+general control of faculty committees, to which the undergraduate
+athletic committees are subordinate, and which have the power to forbid
+the participation of any student who has not attained a certain standard
+of scholarship. For some years prior to 1906 no student of an American
+university was allowed to represent his university in any sport for
+longer than four years. Early in that year, however, many of the most
+important institutions, including Harvard, Yale, Princeton and
+Pennsylvania, entered upon a new agreement, that only students who have
+been in residence one year should play in 'varsity teams in any branch
+of athletics and that no student should play longer than three years.
+This, together with many other reformatory changes, was directly due to
+a widespread outcry against the growing roughness of play exhibited in
+American football, basket-ball, hockey and other sports, the too evident
+desire to win at all hazards, the extraordinary luxury of the training
+equipment, and the enormous gate-receipts of many of the large
+institutions--the Yale Athletic Association held a surplus of about
+$100,000 (£20,000) in December 1905, after deducting immense amounts for
+expenses. The new rule against the participation of freshmen in 'varsity
+sports was to discourage the practice of offering material advantages of
+different kinds to promising athletes, generally those at preparatory
+schools, to induce them to become students at certain universities.
+
+At the present day athletic sports are usually understood to consist of
+those events recognized in the championship programmes of the different
+countries. Those in the competitions between Oxford and Cambridge are
+the 100 yards, 440 yards, 880 yards, 1-mile and 3-mile runs; 120 yards
+hurdle-race; high and long jumps; throwing the hammer; and putting the
+weight (shot). To the above list the English A.A.A. adds the 4-mile and
+10-mile runs; the 2-mile and 7-mile walking races; the 2-mile
+steeplechase; and the pole-vault. The American intercollegiate programme
+is identical with that of the Oxford-Cambridge meeting, except that a
+2-mile run takes the place of the 3-mile, and the pole-vault is added.
+The American A.A.U. programme includes the 100 yards, 220 yards, 440
+yards, 880 yards, 1-mile and 5-mile runs; 120 yards high-hurdle race;
+220 yards low-hurdle race; high and broad (long) jumps; throwing the
+hammer; throwing 56-lb. weight; putting 16-lb. shot; throwing the
+discus; and pole-vault. Of these the running contests are called "track
+athletics," and the rest "field" events.
+
+International athletic contests of any importance have, with the
+exception of the modern Olympic games, invariably taken place between
+Britons, Americans and Canadians, the continental European countries
+having as yet produced few track or field athletes of the first class,
+although the interest in sports in general has greatly increased in
+Europe during the last ten years. In 1844 George Seward, an American
+professional runner, visited England and competed with success against
+the best athletes there; and in 1863 Louis Bennett, called "Deerfoot," a
+full-blooded Seneca Indian, repeated Seward's triumphs, establishing
+running records up to 12 miles. In 1878 the Canadian, C.C. McIvor,
+champion sprinter of America, went to England, but failed to beat his
+British professional rivals. In 1881 L.E. Myers of New York and E.E.
+Merrill of Boston competed successfully in England, Myers winning every
+short-distance championship except the 100-yards, and Merrill all the
+walking championships save the 7-miles. The same year W.C. Davies of
+England won the 5-mile championship of America, but, like several other
+British runners who have had success in America, he competed under the
+colours of an American club. In 1882 the famous English runner, W.G.
+George, ran against Myers in America in races of 1 mile, ¾ mile and ½
+mile, winning over the first two distances. In 1884 Myers again went to
+England and made new British records over 500, 600, 800 and 1000 yards,
+and world's records over ½ mile and 1200 yards. The next year he won
+both the British ¼-mile and ½-mile championships. The same year a team
+of Irish athletes, among them W.J.M. Barry, won several Canadian
+championships. In 1888 a team of the Manhattan Athletic Club, New York,
+competed in England with fair success, and during the same season an
+Irish team from the Gaelic Athletic Association visited America without
+much success. In 1890 a team from the Salford Harriers was invited to
+America by the Manhattan Athletic Club, but the evidently commercial
+character of the enterprise caused its failure. One of the Harriers,
+E.W. Parry, won the American steeplechase championship. The next year
+saw another visit to Europe of the Manhattan athletes, who had fair
+success in England and won every event at Paris. In 1895 the London
+Athletic Club team competed in New York against the New York Athletic
+Club, but lost every one of the eleven events, several new records being
+established. During the previous summer (1894) occurred the first of the
+international matches between British and American universities which
+still retain their place as the most interesting athletic event. In that
+contest, which took place at Queen's Club, London, Oxford beat Yale by
+5½ to 3½ events. The next summer Cambridge, as the champion English
+university, visited America and was beaten by Yale (3 to 8). In 1899
+both British universities competed at Queen's Club against the combined
+athletes of Harvard and Yale, who were beaten by the odd event. The
+return match took place between the same universities at New York in the
+summer of 1901, the Americans winning 6 to 3 events. In 1904 Harvard and
+Yale beat Oxford and Cambridge at Queen's Club by the same score.
+
+Outside Great Britain and America the most important athletic events are
+undoubtedly the revived Olympic games. They were instituted by delegates
+from the different nations who met in Paris on the 16th of June 1894,
+principally at the instigation of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the result
+being the formation of an International Olympic Games Committee with
+Baron de Coubertin at its head, which resolved that games should be held
+every fourth year in a different country. The first modern Olympiad took
+place at Athens, 6th to 12th April 1896, in the ancient stadium, which
+was rebuilt through the liberality of a Greek merchant and seated about
+45,000 people. The programme of events included the usual field and
+track sports, gymnastics, wrestling, pole-climbing, lawn tennis,
+fencing, rifle and revolver shooting, weight-lifting, swimming, the
+Marathon race and bicycle racing. Among the contestants were
+representatives of nearly every European nation, besides Americans and
+Australians. Great Britain took little direct interest in the occasion
+and was inadequately represented, but the United States sent five men
+from Boston and four from Princeton University, who, though none of them
+held American championships, succeeded in winning every event for which
+they were entered. The Marathon race of 42 kilometres (26 miles),
+commemorative of the famous run of the Greek messenger to Athens with
+the news of the victory of Marathon, was won by a Greek peasant. The
+second Olympiad was held in Paris in June 1900. Again Great Britain was
+poorly represented, but American athletes won eighteen of the
+twenty-four championship events. The third Olympiad was held at St Louis
+in the summer of 1904 in connexion with the Louisiana Purchase
+Exposition, its success being due in great measure to James E. Sullivan,
+the physical director of the Exposition, and Caspar Whitney, the
+president of the American Olympic Games Committee. The games were much
+more numerous than at the previous Olympiads, including sports of all
+kinds, handicaps, inter-club competitions, and contests for aborigines.
+In the track and field competitions the American athletes won every
+championship except weight-throwing (56 lb.) and lifting the bar. The
+sports of the savages, among whom were American Indians, Africans of
+several tribes, Moros, Patagonians, Syrians, Ainus and Filipinos, were
+disappointing; their efforts in throwing the javelin, shooting with bow
+and arrow, weight-lifting, running and jumping, proving to be feeble
+compared with those of white races. The Americanized Indians made the
+best showing.
+
+The Greeks, however, were not altogether satisfied with the cosmopolitan
+character of the revival of these celebrated games of their ancestors,
+and resolved to give the revival a more definitely Hellenic stamp by
+intercalating an additional series, to take place at Athens, in the
+middle of the quadrennial period. Their action was justified by the
+success which attended the first of this additional series at Athens in
+1906. This success may have been partly due to the personal interest
+taken in the games by the king and royal family of Greece, and to the
+presence of King Edward VII., Queen Alexandra, and the prince and
+princess of Wales; but to whatever cause it should be assigned it was
+generally acknowledged that neither in France nor in America had the
+games acquired the same prestige as those held on the classical soil of
+Greece. In 1906 the governments of Germany, France and the United States
+made considerable grants of money to defray the expenses of the
+competitors from those countries. These games aroused much more interest
+in England than the earlier ones in the series, but though upwards of
+fifty British competitors took part in the contests, they were by no
+means representative in all cases of the best British athletics. The
+American representatives were slightly less numerous, but they were more
+successful. It was noteworthy that no British or Americans took part in
+the rowing races in the Bay of Phalerum, nor in the tennis, football or
+shooting competitions. The Marathon race, by far the most important
+event in the games, was won in 1906 by a British athlete, M.D. Sherring,
+a Canadian by birth. The Americans won a total of 75 prizes, the British
+39, and the Swedes and Greeks each 28.
+
+The games of the 4th Olympiad (1908) were held in London in connexion
+with the Franco-British Exhibition of that year. An immense sensation
+was caused by the finish for the Marathon race from Windsor Castle to
+the stadium in the Exhibition grounds in London. The first competitor to
+arrive was the Italian, Dorando Pietri, whose condition of physical
+collapse was such that, appearing to be on the point of death, he had to
+be assisted over the last few yards of the course. He was therefore
+disqualified, and J. Hayes, an American, was adjudged the winner; a
+special prize was presented to the Italian by Queen Alexandra. In the
+whole series of contests the United Kingdom made 38 wins, the Americans
+22, and the Swedes 7. In the Olympic games proper, British athletes,
+including two wins by colonials from Canada and Africa, scored 25
+successes, and the Americans 18. In the track events 8 wins fell to the
+British, including two Colonials, and 6 to American athletes; but the
+latter gained complete supremacy in the field events, of which they won
+9, while British competitors secured only two of minor importance.
+
+  For records, &c., see the annual _Sporting and Athletic Register_; for
+  the Olympic games see Theodore Andrea Cook's volume, published in
+  connexion with the Olympiad of 1908.
+
+
+
+
+ATHLONE, a market-town of Co. Westmeath, Ireland, on both banks of the
+Shannon. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6617. The urban district, under
+the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1900, is wholly in county Westmeath,
+but the same area is divided by the Shannon between the parliamentary
+divisions of South Westmeath and South Roscommon. Athlone is 78 m. W.
+from Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway, and is also served by
+a branch from Portarlington of the Great Southern & Western line,
+providing an alternative and somewhat longer route from the capital. The
+main line of the former company continues W. to Galway, and a branch
+N.W. serves counties Roscommon and Mayo. The Shannon divides the town
+into two portions, known as the Leinster side (east), and the Connaught
+side (west), which are connected by a handsome bridge opened in 1844.
+There is a swivel railway bridge. The rapids of the Shannon at this
+point are obviated by means of a lock communication with a basin, which
+renders the navigation of the river practicable above the town. The
+steamers of the Shannon Development Company ply on the river, and some
+trade by water is carried on with Limerick, and with Dublin by the river
+and the Grand and Royal canals. Athlone is an important agricultural
+centre, and there are woollen factories. The salmon fishing both
+provides sport and is a source of commercial wealth. There are two
+parish churches, St Mary and St Peter, both erected early in the 19th
+century, of which the first has near it an isolated church tower of
+earlier date. There are three Roman Catholic chapels, a court-house and
+other public offices. Early remains include portions of the castle, of
+the town walls (1576), of the abbey of St Peter and of a Franciscan
+foundation. On several islands of the picturesque Lough Ree, to the
+north, are ecclesiastical and other remains.
+
+The military importance of Athlone dates from the erection of the castle
+and of a bridge over the river by John de Grey, bishop of Norwich and
+justiciar of Ireland, in 1210. It became the seat of the presidency of
+Connaught under Elizabeth, and withstood a siege by the insurgents in
+1641. In the war of 1688 the possession of Athlone was considered of the
+greatest importance, and it consequently sustained two sieges, the first
+by William III. in person, which failed, and the second by General
+Godart van Ginkel (q.v.), who, on the 30th of June 1691, in the face
+of the Irish, forded the river and took possession of the town, with the
+loss of only fifty men. Ginkel was subsequently created earl of Athlone,
+and his descendants held the title till it became extinct in 1844. In
+1797 the town was strongly fortified on the Roscommon side, the works
+covering 15 acres and containing two magazines, an ordnance store, an
+armoury with 15,000 stands of arms and barracks for 1500 men. The works
+are now dismantled. Athlone was incorporated by James I., and returned
+two members to the Irish parliament, and one member to the imperial
+parliament till 1885.
+
+
+
+
+ATHOL, a township of Worcester county, northern Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
+having an area of 35 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 7061, of whom 986 were
+foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 8536. Its surface is irregular and
+hilly. The village of Athol is on Miller's river, and is served by the
+Boston & Albany and the Boston & Maine railways. The streams of the
+township furnish good water-power, and manufactures of varied character
+are its leading interests. Athol was first settled in 1735, and was
+incorporated as a township in 1762. It was named by its largest
+landowner Col. James Murray, after the ancestral home of the Murrays,
+dukes of Atholl.
+
+  See L.B. Caswell, _Athol, Mass., Past and Present_ (Athol, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Stewart line of the Scottish earls of
+Atholl, which ended with the 5th Stewart earl in 1595, the earldom
+reverting to the crown, had originated with Sir John Stewart of Balveny
+(d. 1512), who was created earl of Atholl about 1457 (new charter 1481).
+The 5th earl's daughter, Dorothea, married William Murray, earl of
+Tullibardine (cr. 1606), who in 1626 resigned his earldom in favour of
+Sir Patrick Murray, on condition of the revival of the earldom of Atholl
+in his wife and her descendants. The earldom thus passed to the Murray
+line, and John Murray, their only son (d. 1642), was accordingly
+acknowledged as earl of Atholl (the 1st of the Murrays) in 1629.
+
+JOHN STEWART, 4th earl of Atholl, in the Stewart line (d. 1579), son of
+John, 3rd earl, and of Grizel, daughter of Sir John Rattray, succeeded
+his father in 1542. He supported the government of the queen dowager,
+and in 1560 was one of the three nobles who voted in parliament against
+the Reformation and the Confession of Faith, and declared their
+adherence to Roman Catholicism. Subsequently, however, he joined the
+league against Huntly, whom with Murray and Morton he defeated at
+Corrichie in October 1562, and he supported the projected marriage of
+Elizabeth with Arran. On the arrival of Mary from France in 1561 he was
+appointed one of the twelve privy councillors, and on account of his
+religion obtained a greater share of the queen's favour than either
+Murray or Maitland. He was one of the principal supporters of the
+marriage with Darnley, became the leader of the Roman Catholic nobles,
+and with Lennox obtained the chief power in the government, successfully
+protecting Mary and Darnley from Murray's attempts to regain his
+ascendancy by force of arms. According to Knox he openly attended mass
+in the queen's chapel, and was especially trusted by Mary in her project
+of reinstating Roman Catholicism. The fortress of Tantallon was placed
+in his keeping, and in 1565 he was made lieutenant of the north of
+Scotland. He is described the same year by the French ambassador as
+"très grand catholique hardi et vaillant et remuant, comme l'on dict,
+mais de nul jugement et expérience." He had no share in the murders of
+Rizzio or Darnley, and after the latter crime in 1567, he joined the
+Protestant lords against Mary, appeared as one of the leaders against
+her at Carberry Hill, and afterwards approved of her imprisonment at
+Lochleven Castle. In July he was present at the coronation of James, and
+was included in the council of regency on Mary's abdication. He,
+however, was not present at Langside in May 1568, and in July became
+once more a supporter of Mary, voting for her divorce from Bothwell
+(1569). In March 1570 he signed with other lords the joint letter to
+Elizabeth asking for the queen's intercession and supporting Mary's
+claims, and was present at the convention held at Linlithgow in April in
+opposition to the assembly of the king's party at Edinburgh. In 1574 he
+was proceeded against as a Roman Catholic and threatened with
+excommunication, subsequently holding a conference with the ministers
+and being allowed till midsummer to overcome his scruples. He had failed
+in 1572 to prevent Morton's appointment to the regency, but in 1578 he
+succeeded with the earl of Argyll in driving him from office. On the
+24th of March James took the government into his own hands and dissolved
+the regency, and Atholl and Argyll, to the exclusion of Morton, were
+made members of the council, while on the 29th Atholl was appointed lord
+chancellor. Subsequently, on the 24th of May, Morton succeeded in
+getting into Stirling Castle and in regaining his guardianship of James.
+Atholl and Argyll, who were now corresponding with Spain in hopes of
+assistance from that quarter, then advanced to Stirling with a force of
+7000 men, when a compromise was arranged, the three earls being all
+included in the government. While on his way from a banquet held on the
+20th of April 1579 on the occasion of the reconciliation, Atholl was
+seized with sudden illness, and died on the 25th, not without strong
+suspicions of poison. He was buried at St. Giles's cathedral in
+Edinburgh. He married (1) Elizabeth, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl
+of Huntly, by whom he had two daughters, and (2) Margaret, daughter of
+Malcolm Fleming, 3rd Lord Fleming, by whom, besides three daughters, he
+had John, 5th earl of Atholl, at whose death in 1595 the earldom in
+default of male heirs reverted to the crown.
+
+JOHN MURRAY, 1st earl of Atholl in the Murray line (see above), died in
+1642. On the outbreak of the civil war he called out the men of Atholl
+for the king, and was imprisoned by the marquess of Argyll in Stirling
+Castle in 1640.
+
+JOHN MURRAY, 2nd earl and 1st marquess of Atholl (1631-1703), son of the
+1st earl and of Jean, daughter of Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy, was
+born on the 2nd of May 1631. In 1650 he joined in the unsuccessful
+attempt to liberate Charles II. from the Covenanters, and in 1653 was
+the chief supporter of Glencairn's rising, but was obliged to surrender
+with his two regiments to Monk on the 2nd of September 1654. At the
+restoration Atholl was made a privy councillor for Scotland and sheriff
+of Fife, in 1661 lord justice-general of Scotland, in 1667 a
+commissioner for keeping the peace in the western Highlands, in 1670
+colonel of the king's horseguards, in 1671 a commissioner of the
+exchequer, and in 1672 keeper of the privy seal in Scotland and an
+extraordinary lord of session. In 1670 he became earl of Tullibardine by
+the death of his cousin James, 4th earl, and on the 7th of February 1676
+he was created marquess of Atholl, earl of Tullibardine, viscount of
+Balquhidder, Lord Murray, Balvenie and Cask. He at first zealously
+supported Lauderdale's tyrannical policy, but after the raid of 1678,
+called the "Highland Host," in which Atholl was one of the chief
+leaders, he joined in the remonstrance to the king concerning the
+severities inflicted upon the Covenanters, and was deprived of his
+office of justice-general and passed over for the chancellorship in
+1681. In 1679, however, he was present at the battle of Bothwell Brig;
+in July 1680 he was made vice-admiral of Scotland, and in 1681 president
+of parliament. In 1684 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Argyll, and
+invaded the country, capturing the earl of Argyll after his return from
+abroad in June 1685 at Inchinnan. The excessive severities with which he
+was charged in this campaign were repudiated with some success by him
+after the Revolution.[1] The same year he was reappointed lord privy
+seal, and in 1687 was made a knight of the Thistle on the revival of the
+order. At the Revolution he wavered from one side to the other, showing
+no settled purpose but waiting upon the event, but finally in April 1689
+wrote to William to declare his allegiance, and in May took part in the
+proclamation of William and Mary as king and queen at Edinburgh. But on
+the occasion of Dundee's insurrection he retired to Bath to drink the
+waters, while the bulk of his followers joined Dundee and brought about
+in great measure the defeat of the government troops at Killiecrankie.
+He was then summoned from Bath to London and imprisoned during August.
+In 1690 he was implicated in the Montgomery plot and subsequently in
+further Jacobite intrigues. In June 1691 he received a pardon, and acted
+later for the government in the pacification of the Highlands. He died
+on the 6th of May 1703. He married Amelia, daughter of James Stanley,
+7th earl of Derby (through whom the later dukes of Atholl acquired the
+sovereignty of the Isle of Man), and had, besides one daughter, six
+sons, of whom John became 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl; Charles
+was made 1st earl of Dunmore, and William married Margaret, daughter of
+Sir Robert Nairne, 1st Lord Nairne, becoming in her right 2nd Lord
+Nairne.
+
+JOHN MURRAY, 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl (1660-1724), was born
+on the 24th of February 1660, and was styled during his father's
+lifetime Lord Murray, till 1696, when he was created earl of
+Tullibardine. He was a supporter of William and the Revolution in 1688,
+taking the oaths in September 1689, but was unable to prevent the
+majority of his clan, during his father's absence, from joining Dundee
+under the command of his brother James. In 1693 as one of the
+commissioners he showed great energy in the examination into the
+massacre of Glencoe and in bringing the crime home to its authors. In
+1694 he obtained a regiment, in 1695 was made sheriff of Perth, in 1696
+secretary of state, and from 1696 to 1698 was high commissioner. In the
+latter year, however, he threw up office and went into opposition. At
+the accession of Anne he was made a privy councillor, and in 1703 lord
+privy seal for Scotland. The same year he succeeded his father as 2nd
+marquess of Atholl, and on the 30th of June he was created duke of
+Atholl, marquess of Tullibardine, earl of Strathtay and Strathardle,
+Viscount Balquhidder, Glenalmond and Glenlyon, and Lord Murray, Balvenie
+and Gask. In 1704 he was made a knight of the Thistle. In 1703-1704 an
+unsuccessful attempt was made by Simon, Lord Lovat, who used the duke of
+Queensberry as a tool, to implicate him in a Jacobite plot against Queen
+Anne; but the intrigue was disclosed by Robert Ferguson, and Atholl sent
+a memorial to the queen on the subject, which resulted in Queensberry's
+downfall. But he fell nevertheless into suspicion, and was deprived of
+office in October 1705, subsequently becoming a strong antagonist of the
+government, and of the Hanoverian succession. He vehemently opposed the
+Union during the years 1705-1707, and entered into a project for
+resisting by force and for holding Stirling Castle with the aid of the
+Cameronians, but nevertheless did not refuse a compensation of £1000.
+According to Lockhart, he could raise 6000 of the best men in the
+kingdom for the Jacobites. On the occasion, however, of the invasion of
+1708 he took no part, on the score of illness, and was placed under
+arrest at Blair Castle. On the downfall of the Whigs and the advent of
+the Tories to power, Atholl returned to office, was chosen a
+representative peer in the Lords in 1710 and 1713, in 1712 was an
+extraordinary lord of session, from 1713 to 1714 was once more keeper of
+the privy seal, and from 1712 to 1714 was high commissioner. On the
+accession of George I. he was again dismissed from office, but at the
+rebellion of 1715, while three of his sons joined the Jacobites, he
+remained faithful to the government, whom he assisted in various ways,
+on the 4th of June 1717 apprehending Robert Macgregor (Rob Roy), who,
+however, succeeded in escaping. He died on the 14th of November 1724. He
+married (1) Catherine, daughter of William Douglas, 3rd duke of
+Hamilton, by whom, besides one daughter, he had six sons, of whom John
+was killed at Malplaquet in 1709, William was marquess of Tullibardine,
+and James succeeded his father as 2nd duke on account of the share
+taken by his elder brother in the rebellion; and (2) Mary, daughter of
+William, Lord Ross, by whom he had three sons and several daughters.
+
+The _Atholl Chronicles_ have been privately printed by the 7th duke of
+Atholl (b. 1840). See also S. Cowan, _Three Celtic Earldoms_ (1909).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A. Lang, _Hist. of Scotland_, iii. 407.
+
+
+
+
+ATHOLL, or ATHOLE, a district in the north of Perthshire, Scotland,
+covering an area of about 450 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by
+Badenoch, on the N.E. by Braemar, on the E. by Forfarshire, on the S. by
+Breadalbane, on the W. and N.W. by Lochaber. The Highland railway
+bisects it diagonally from Dunkeld to the borders of Inverness-shire. It
+is traversed by the Grampian mountains and watered by the Tay, Tummel,
+Garry, Tilt, Bruar and other streams. Glen Garry and Glen Tilt are the
+chief glens, and Loch Rannoch and Loch Tummel the principal lakes. The
+population mainly centres around Dunkeld, Pitlochry and Blair Atholl.
+The only cultivable soil occurs in the valleys of the large rivers, but
+the deer-forest and the shootings on moor and mountain are among the
+most extensive in Scotland. It is said to have been named Athfotla
+(Atholl) after Fotla, son of the Pictish king Cruithne, and was under
+the rule of a Celtic _mormaer_ (thane or earl) until the union of the
+Picts and Scots under Kenneth Macalpine in 843. The duke of Atholl's
+seats are Blair Castle and Dunkeld House. What is called Atholl brose is
+a compound, in equal parts, of whisky and honey (or oatmeal), which was
+first commonly used in the district for hoarseness and sore throat.
+
+
+
+
+ATHOS (Gr. [Greek: Agion Oros]; Turk. _Aineros_; Ital. _Monte Santo_),
+the most eastern of the three peninsular promontories which extend, like
+the prongs of a trident, southwards from the coast of Macedonia
+(European Turkey) into the Aegean Sea. Before the 19th century the name
+Athos was usually confined to the terminal peak of the promontory, which
+was itself known by its ancient name, _Acte_. The peak rises like a
+pyramid, with a steep summit of white marble, to a height of 6350 ft.,
+and can be seen at sunset from the plain of Troy on the east, and the
+slopes of Olympus on the west. On the isthmus are distinct traces of the
+canal cut by Xerxes before his invasion of Greece in 480 B.C. The
+peninsula is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and derives a
+peculiar interest from its unique group of monastic communities with
+their medieval customs and institutions, their treasures of Byzantine
+art and rich collections of documents. It is about 40 m. in length, with
+a breadth varying from 4 to 7 m.; its whole area belongs to the various
+monasteries. It was inhabited in the earliest times by a mixed Greek and
+Thracian population; of its five cities mentioned by Herodotus few
+traces remain; some inscriptions discovered on the sites were published
+by W.M. Leake (_Travels in N. Greece_, 1835, iii. 140) and Kinch. The
+legends of the monks attribute the first religious settlements to the
+age of Constantine (274-337), but the hermitages are first mentioned in
+historical documents of the 9th century. It is conjectured that the
+mountain was at an earlier period the abode of anchorites, whose numbers
+were increased by fugitives from the iconoclastic persecutions
+(726-842). The "coenobian" rule to which many of the monasteries still
+adhere was established by St Athanasius, the founder of the great
+monastery of Laura, in 969. Under a constitution approved by the emperor
+Constantine Monomachos in 1045, women and female animals were excluded
+from the holy mountain. In 1060 the community was withdrawn from the
+authority of the patriarch of Constantinople, and a monastic republic
+was practically constituted. The taking of Constantinople by the Latins
+in 1204 brought persecution and pillage on the monks; this reminded them
+of earlier Saracenic invasions, and led them to appeal for protection to
+Pope Innocent III., who gave them a favourable reply. Under the
+Palaeologi (1260-1453) they recovered their prosperity, and were
+enriched by gifts from various sources. In the 14th century the
+peninsula became the chosen retreat of several of the emperors, and the
+monasteries were thrown into commotion by the famous dispute over the
+mystical Hesychasts.
+
+Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks after the
+capture of Salonica (1430), their privileges were respected by
+successive sultans: a tribute is paid to the Turkish government, which
+is represented by a resident _kaimakam_, and the community is allowed to
+maintain a small police force. Under the present constitution, which
+dates from 1783, the general affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted
+to an assembly ([Greek: oynaxis]) of twenty members, one from each
+monastery; a committee of four members, chosen in turn, styled
+_epistatae_ ([Greek: epistatai]), forms the executive. The president of
+the committee ([Greek: ho protos]) is also the president of the
+assembly, which holds its sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of
+government since the 10th century. The twenty monasteries, which all
+belong to the order of St Basil, are: Laura ([Greek: ae Laura]), founded
+in 963; Vatopédi ([Greek: Batopedios]), said to have been founded by the
+emperor Theodosius; Rossikon ([Greek: 'Rossikon]), the Russian monastery
+of St Panteleïmon; Chiliándari ([Greek: Chiliantarios]: supposed to be
+derived from [Greek: chilioi andres] or [Greek: chilia leontaria]),
+founded by the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya (1159-1195); Iveron
+([Greek: ae monae ton Ibaeron]), founded by Iberians, or Georgians;
+Esphigmenu ([Greek: tou Esphigmenou]: the name is derived from the
+confined situation of the monastery); Kutlumush ([Greek:
+Koutloumousae]); Pandocratoros ([Greek: tou Pantokratoros]); Philotheu
+([Greek: Philotheou]); Caracallu ([Greek: tou Karakallou]); St Paul
+([Greek: tou agiou Paulou]); St Denis ([Greek: tou agiou Dionusiou]); St
+Gregory ([Greek: tou agiou Graegoriou]); Simópetra ([Greek: Simopetra]);
+Xeropotámu ([Greek: tou Xaeropotamou]); St Xenophon ([Greek: tou agiou
+Xenophontos]); Dochiaríu ([Greek: Docheiareiou]); Constamonítu ([Greek:
+Konstamonitou]); Zográphu ([Greek: tou Zographou]); and Stavronikítu
+([Greek: tou Stavronikitou], the last built, founded in 1545). The
+"coenobian" monasteries ([Greek: koinobia]), each under the rule of an
+abbot ([Greek: aegoumenos]), are subjected to severe discipline; the
+brethren are clothed alike, take their meals (usually limited to bread
+and vegetables) in the refectory, and possess no private property. In
+the "idiorrhythmic" monasteries ([Greek: idiorrythma]), which are
+governed by two or three annually elected wardens ([Greek: epitropoi]),
+a less stringent rule prevails, and the monks are allowed to supplement
+the fare of the monastery from their private incomes. Dependent on the
+several monasteries are twelve _sketae_ ([Greek: skaetai]) or monastic
+settlements, some of considerable size, in which a still more ascetic
+mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several farms ([Greek:
+metochia]), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining habitations
+([Greek: kellia]) and hermitages ([Greek: askaetaeria]). The
+monasteries, with the exception of Rossikón (St Panteleïmon) and the
+Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliándari and Zográphu, are occupied exclusively by
+Greek monks. The large _skete_ of St Andrew and some others belong to
+the Russians; there are also Rumanian and Georgian _sketae_. The great
+monastery of Rossikón, which is said to number about 3000 inmates, has
+been under a Russian abbot since 1875; it is regarded as one of the
+principal centres of the Russian politico-religious propaganda in the
+Levant. The tasteless style of its modern buildings is out of harmony
+with the quaint beauty of the other monasteries. Furnished with ample
+means, the Russian monks neglect no opportunity of adding to their
+possessions on the holy mountain; their encroachments are resisted by
+the Greek monks, whose wealth, however, was much diminished by the
+secularization of their estates in Rumania (1864). The population of the
+holy mountain numbers from 6000 to 7000; about 3000 are monks ([Greek:
+kalogeroi]), the remainder being lay brothers ([Greek: kosmikoi]). The
+monasteries, which are all fortified, generally consist of large
+quadrangles enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present
+a wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed from the
+sea. Their inmates, when not engaged in religious services, occupy
+themselves with husbandry, fishing and various handicrafts; the standard
+of intellectual culture is not high. A large academy, founded by the
+monks of Vatopedi in 1749, for a time attracted students from all parts
+of the East, but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The
+muniment rooms of the monasteries contain a marvellous series of
+documents, including chrysobulls of various emperors and princes,
+_sigilla_ of the patriarchs, _typica_, iradés and other documents, the
+study of which will throw an important light on the political and
+ecclesiastical history and social life of the East from the middle of
+the 10th century. Up to comparatively recent times a priceless
+collection of classical manuscripts was preserved in the libraries; many
+of them were destroyed during the War of Greek Independence (1821-1829)
+by the Turks, who employed the parchments for the manufacture of
+cartridges; others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks,
+who, it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been
+sold to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed to Moscow
+and Paris. The library of Simopetra was destroyed by fire in 1891, and
+that of St Paul in 1905. There is now little hope of any important
+discovery of classical manuscripts. The codices remaining in the
+libraries are for the most part theological and ecclesiastical works. Of
+the Greek manuscripts, numbering about 11,000, 6618 have been catalogued
+by Professor Spyridion Lambros of Athens; his work, however, does not
+include the MSS. in some of the _sketae_, or those in the libraries of
+Laura and Vatopedi, of which catalogues (hitherto unpublished) have been
+prepared by resident monks. The canonic MSS. only of Vatopedi and Laura
+have been catalogued by Benessevich in the supplement to vol. ix. of the
+_Bizantiyskiy Vremennik_ (St Petersburg, 1904). The Slavonic and
+Georgian MSS. have not been catalogued. Apart from the illuminated MSS.,
+the mural paintings, the mosaics, and the goldsmith's work of Mount
+Athos are of infinite interest to the student of Byzantine art. The
+frescoes in general date from the 15th or 16th century: some are
+attributed by the monks to Panselinos, "the Raphael of Byzantine
+painting," who apparently flourished in the time of the Palaeologi. Most
+of them have been indifferently restored by local artists, who follow
+mechanically a kind of hieratic tradition, the principles of which are
+embodied in a work of iconography by the monk Dionysius, said to have
+been a pupil of Panselinos. The same spirit of conservatism is manifest
+in the architecture of the churches, which are all of the medieval
+Byzantine type. Some of the monasteries were seriously damaged by an
+earthquake in 1905.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R.N.C. Curzon, _Visits to Monasteries in the Levant_
+  (London, 1849); J.P. Fallmerayer, _Fragmenta aus dem Orient_
+  (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1845); V. Langlois, _Le Mont Athos et ses
+  monastères_, with a complete bibliography (Paris, 1867); Duchesne and
+  Bayet, _Mémoirs sur une mission en Macédoine et au Mont Athos_ (Paris,
+  1876); Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_ (London, 1864); H.
+  Brockhaus, _Die Kunst in den Athosklöstern_ (Leipzig, 1891); A. Riley,
+  _Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks_ (London, 1887); S. Lambros,
+  _Catalogue of the Greek Manuscripts on Mount Athos_ (2 vols.,
+  Cambridge, 1895 and 1900); M.I. Gedeon, [Greek: o Athos]
+  (Constantinople, 1885); P. Meyer, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der neueren
+  Geschichte und des gegenwärtigen Zustandes der Athosklöster," in
+  _Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte_, 1890; _Die Haupturkunden für die
+  Geschichte der Athosklöster_ (Leipzig, 1894); G. Millet, J. Pargoire
+  and L. Petit, _Recueil des inscriptions chrétiennes de l'Athos_
+  (Paris, 1904); H. Gelzer, _Vom Heiligen Berge und aus Makedonien_
+  (Leipzig, 1904); K. Vlachu (Blachos), [Greek: Ae Chersonaesos tou
+  Hagiou Orous] (Athens, 1903); G. Smurnakes, [Greek: To Hagiou
+  Archaiologia Orous Atho], (Athens, 1904).     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+
+
+ATHY (pronounced Athý), a market-town of Co. Kildare, Ireland, in the
+south parliamentary division, 45 m. S.W. of Dublin on a branch of the
+Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3599. It
+is intersected by the river Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge of
+five arches. The crossing of the river here was guarded and disputed
+from the earliest times, and the name of the town is derived from a king
+of Munster killed here in the 2nd century. There are picturesque remains
+of Woodstock Castle of the 12th or 13th century, and White Castle built
+in 1506, and rebuilt in 1575 by a member of the family whose name it
+bears, and still occupied. Both were erected to defend the ford of the
+Barrow. There are also an old town gate, and an ancient cemetery with
+slight monastic remains. Previous to the Union Athy returned two members
+to the Irish parliament. The trade, chiefly in grain, is aided by
+excellent water communication, by a branch of the Grand Canal to Dublin,
+and by the river Barrow, navigable from here to Waterford harbour.
+
+
+
+
+ATINA, the name of three ancient towns of Italy.
+
+1. A town (mod. _Àtena_) of Lucania, upon the Via Popillia, 7 m. N. of
+Tegianum, towards which an ancient road leads, in the valley of the
+river now known as Diano. Its ancient importance is vouched for by its
+walls of rough cyclopean work, which may have had a total extent of some
+2 m. (see G. Patroni in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1897, 112; 1901, 498).
+The date of these walls has not as yet been ascertained, recent
+excavations, which led to the discovery of a few tombs in which the
+earliest objects showing Greek influence may go back to the 7th century
+B.C., not having produced any decisive evidence on the point. To the
+Roman period belong the remains of an amphitheatre and numerous
+inscriptions.
+
+2. A town (mod. _Atina_) of the Volsci, 12 m. N. of Casinum, and about
+14 m. E. of Arpinum, on a hill 1607 ft. above sea-level. The walls, of
+carefully worked polygonal blocks of stone, are still preserved in
+parts, and the modern town does not fill the whole area which they
+enclose. Cicero speaks of it as a prosperous country town, which had not
+as yet fallen into the hands of large proprietors; and inscriptions show
+that under the empire it was still flourishing. One of these last is a
+boundary stone relating to the assignation of lands in the time of the
+Gracchi, of which six other examples have been found in Campania and
+Lucania.
+
+3. A town of the Veneti, mentioned by Pliny, _H.N._ iii. 131.
+
+
+
+
+ATITLÁN, or SANTIAGO DE ATITLÁN, a town in the department of Sololá,
+Guatemala, on the southern shore of Lake Atitlán. Pop. (1905) about
+9000, almost all Indians. Cotton-spinning is the chief industry. Lake
+Atitlán is 24 m. long and 10 m. broad, with 64 m. circumference. It
+occupies a crater more than 1000 ft. deep and about 4700 ft. above
+sea-level. The peaks of the Guatemala Cordillera rise round it,
+culminating near its southern end in the volcanoes of San Pedro (7000
+ft.) and Atitlán (11,719 ft.). Although the lake is fed by many small
+mountain torrents, it has no visible outlet, but probably communicates
+by an underground channel with one of the rivers which drain the
+Cordillera. Mineral springs abound in the neighbourhood. The town of
+Sololá (q.v.) is near the north shore of the lake.
+
+
+
+
+ATKINSON, EDWARD (1827-1905), American economist, was born at Brookline,
+Massachusetts, on the 10th of February 1827. For many years he was
+engaged in managing various business enterprises, and became, in 1877,
+president of the Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire Insurance Company, a
+post which he held till his death. He was a strong controversialist and
+a prolific writer on such economic subjects as banking, railways, cotton
+manufacture, the tariff and free trade, and the money question. He was
+appointed in 1887 a special commissioner to report upon the status of
+bimetallism in Europe. He also made a special study of mill construction
+and fire prevention, and invented an improved cooking apparatus, called
+the "Aladdin oven." He was an active supporter of anti-imperialism. He
+died at Boston on the 11th of December 1905.
+
+  His principal works were _Right Methods of Preventing Fires in Mills_
+  (1881); _Distribution of Products_ (1885); _Industrial Progress of the
+  Nation_ (1889); _Taxation and Work_ (1892); _Science of Nutrition_
+  (10th ed., 1898).
+
+
+
+
+ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT (1831-1892), British colonial statesman,
+prime minister and speaker of the legislative council, New Zealand, was
+born at Chester in 1831, and in 1855 emigrated to Taranaki, New Zealand,
+where he became a farmer. In 1860 the Waitara war broke out, and from
+its outset Atkinson, who had been selected as a captain of the New
+Plymouth Volunteers, distinguished himself by his contempt for
+appearances and tradition, and by the practical skill, energy and
+courage which he showed in leading his Forest Rangers in the tiresome
+and lingering bush warfare of the next five years. For this work he was
+made a major of militia, and thanked by the government. Elected to the
+house of representatives in 1863, he joined Sir Frederick Weld's
+ministry at the end of November 1864 as minister of defence, and, during
+eleven months of office, was identified with the well-known
+"self-reliance" policy, a proposal to dispense with imperial regulars,
+and meet the Maori with colonials only. Parliament accepted this
+principle, but turned out the Weld ministry for other reasons. For four
+years Atkinson was out of parliament; in October 1873 he re-entered it,
+and a year later became minister of lands under Sir Julius Vogel. Ten
+months later he was treasurer, and such was his aptitude for finance
+that, except during six months in 1876, he thenceforth held that post
+whenever his party was in power. From October 1874 to January 1891
+Atkinson was only out of office for about five years. Three times he was
+premier, and he was always the most formidable debater and fighter in
+the ranks of the Conservative opponents of the growing Radical party
+which Sir George Grey, Sir Robert Stout and John Ballance led in
+succession. It was he, who was mainly responsible for the abolition of
+the provinces into which the colony was divided from 1853 to 1876. He
+repealed the Ballance land-tax in 1879, and substituted a property-tax.
+He greatly reduced the cost of the public service in 1880, and again in
+1888. In both these years he raised the customs duties, amongst other
+taxes, and gave them a quasi-protectionist character. In 1880 he struck
+10% off all public salaries and wages; in 1887 he reduced the salary of
+the governor by one-third, and the pay and number of ministers and
+members of parliament. By these resolute steps revenue was increased,
+expenditure checked, and the colony's finance reinstated. Atkinson was
+an advocate of compulsory national assurance, and the leasing as opposed
+to the selling of crown lands. Defeated in the general election of
+December 1890, he took the appointment of speaker of the legislative
+council. There, while leaving the council chamber after the sitting of
+the 28th of June 1892, he was struck down by heart disease and died in a
+few minutes. Though brusque in manner and never popular, he was esteemed
+as a vigorous, upright and practical statesman. He was twice married,
+and had seven children, of whom three sons and a daughter survived him.
+     (W. P. R.)
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTA, the capital and the largest city of Georgia, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Fulton county, situated at an altitude of 1000-1175 ft.,
+in the N.W. part of the state, near the Chattahoochee river. Pop. (1860)
+9554; (1880) 37,409; (1890) 65,533; (1900) 89,872, of whom 35,727 were
+negroes and 2531 were foreign-born; (1910) 154,839. It is served by the
+Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Seaboard Air Line,
+the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis (which enters the city over the
+Western & Atlantic, one of its leased lines), the Louisville &
+Nashville, the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlanta & West
+Point railways. These railway communications, and the situation of the
+city (on the Piedmont Plateau) on the water-parting between the streams
+flowing into the Atlantic Ocean and those flowing into the Gulf of
+Mexico, have given Atlanta its popular name, the "Gate City of the
+South." Atlanta was laid out in the form of a circle, the radius being
+1¾ m. and the centre the old railway station, the Union Depot (the new
+station is called the Terminal); large additions have been made beyond
+this circle, including West End, Inman Park on the east, and North
+Atlanta. Among the best residence streets are Peachtree and West
+Peachtree streets to the north, and the older streets to the south of
+the business centre of the city--Washington Street, Whitehall, Pryor and
+Capitol Avenues. Among the principal office buildings are the Empire,
+the Equitable, the Prudential, the Fourth National, the Austell, the
+Peters, the Century, the English-American and the Candler buildings; and
+there are many fine residences, particularly in Peachtree and Washington
+streets, Inman Park and Ponce de Leon Circle. Among prominent public
+buildings are the State Capitol (completed 1889), containing a law
+library of about 65,000 volumes and a collection of portraits of famous
+Georgians, the north-west front of the Capitol grounds containing an
+equestrian statue (unveiled in 1907) of John Brown Gordon (1832-1904), a
+distinguished Confederate general in the American Civil War and governor
+of Georgia in 1887-1890; the court house; the Carnegie library, in which
+the young men's library, organized in 1867, was merged in 1902; the post
+office building; and the Federal prison (about 4 m. south of the city).
+The principal parks are: the Piedmont (189 acres), the site of the
+Piedmont Exposition of 1887 and of the Cotton States and International
+Exposition of 1895; the Grant, given to the city by L.P. Grant, an
+Atlanta railroad builder, in 1882, and subsequently enlarged by the city
+(in its south-east corner is Fort Walker); the Lakewood, 6 m. south of
+the city; and Ponce de Leon Park, owned by an electric railway company
+and having mineral springs and a fine baseball ground. Four miles south
+of the centre of Atlanta is Fort McPherson, an important United States
+military post, occupying a reservation of 40 acres and having barracks
+for the accommodation of 1000 men. In Oakland Cemetery is a large
+monument to Confederate soldiers; another monument in Oakland, "To the
+unknown Confederate Dead," is a reproduction of the Lion of Lucerne; in
+West View Cemetery (4 m. west of the city) is a memorial erected by the
+United Confederate Veterans. The city obtains its water-supply from the
+Chattahoochee river (above the mouth of Peachtree Creek), whence the
+water is pumped by four pumps, which have a daily capacity of 55,000,000
+gallons. Atlanta is widely known for its public spirit and enterprise,
+to which the expositions of 1881, 1887 and 1895 bear witness. The air is
+bracing, largely because of the city's altitude; the mean annual
+temperature is 60.8° F. (winter 44.1°, spring 60.5°, summer 77°, autumn
+61.5°).
+
+Atlanta is an important educational centre. Its public-school system was
+organized in 1871. Here are the Georgia School of Technology, founded in
+1885 (opened 1888) as a branch of the university of Georgia; the Atlanta
+College of Physicians and Surgeons (established in 1898 by the union of
+the Atlanta Medical College, organized in 1855, and the Southern Medical
+College, organized in 1878); the Atlanta School of Medicine (1905); the
+Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine; the Atlanta Theological Seminary
+(1901, Congregational), the only theological school of the denomination
+in the South in 1908; the Atlanta Dental College; the Southern College
+of Pharmacy (1903); Washington Seminary (1877) for girls; and the
+following institutions for negroes--Atlanta University, founded in 1869,
+which is one of the best institutions in the country for the higher
+education of negroes, standing particularly for "culture" education (as
+opposed to industrial training), which has done particularly good work
+in the department of sociology, under the direction of Prof. W.E.B. du
+Bois (b. 1868), one of the most prominent teachers of negro descent in
+the country, and which had in 1908 339 students; Clark University,
+founded in 1870 by the Freedman's Aid and Southern Educational Society
+of the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Atlanta Baptist College, founded
+in 1867; Morris Brown College (African Methodist Episcopal, founded in
+1882, and opened in 1885), which has college preparatory, scientific,
+academic, normal and missionary courses, correspondence courses in
+English and theology, an industrial department, and departments of law,
+theology (Turner Theological Seminary), nurse-training, music and art;
+the Gammon Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal, chartered in
+1888), which has its buildings just outside the city limits; and the
+Spelman Seminary for women and girls (Baptist) opened in 1881 as the
+Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary--the present name being adopted in 1883
+in honour of the parents of Mrs John D. Rockefeller--and incorporated in
+1888. At Decatur (pop. 1418 in 1900), a residential suburb, 6 m.
+east-north-east of Atlanta, is the Agnes Scott College (1890) for white
+girls; connected with the college is a school of music, art and
+expression, and an academy.
+
+The city's principal charitable institutions are the Grady Memorial
+hospital (opened in 1892), supported by the city and named in honour of
+Henry W. Grady; the Presbyterian hospital; the Baptist Tabernacle
+Infirmary; the Wesley Memorial hospital; St Joseph's infirmary; the
+Municipal hospital for contagious diseases; the Florence Crittenden
+home. Three miles south-east of the city is a (state) soldiers' home,
+for aged, infirm and disabled Confederate veterans. The Associated
+Charities of Atlanta was organized in 1905.
+
+The principal newspapers are the _Constitution_ (morning), edited from
+1880 until 1889 by Henry W. Grady (1851-1889),[1] one of the most
+eloquent of Southern orators, who did much to promote the reconciliation
+of the North and the South after the Civil War, and whose statue stands
+opposite the post office; the _Journal_ (evening), of which Hoke Smith
+(b. 1855), a prominent political leader, secretary of the interior in
+President Cleveland's cabinet in 1893-1896, and later governor of
+Georgia, was long the proprietor; and the _Georgian_ (evening), founded
+in 1906 as a Prohibition organ.
+
+As regards commerce and manufactures, Atlanta ranks first among the
+cities of Georgia. In 1907 its whosesale and retail trade was estimated
+at $100,000,000. The city is said to receive two-fifths of the total
+freight delivered in the state of Georgia. From 1895 to 1907 the bank
+clearings increased from about $65,000,000 to about $260,000,000. In
+recognition of the city's financial strength, Atlanta has been
+designated by the secretary of the treasury as one of the cities whose
+bonds will be accepted as security for Federal deposits. Atlanta is the
+Southern headquarters for a number of fire and life insurance companies,
+and is the third city of the United States in the amount of insurance
+business written and reported to resident agents, the annual premium
+receipts averaging about $10,000,000. It is an important horse and mule
+market, and handles much tobacco.
+
+The development of manufactures has been especially notable. In 1880 the
+capital invested in manufacturing industries was approximately
+$2,468,000; in 1890 it was $9,508,962; in 1900 it had increased to
+$16,045,156; and in 1905, when only establishments under the "factory
+system" were counted in the census, to $21,631,162. In 1900 the total
+product was valued at $16,707,027, and the factory product at
+$14,418,834; and in 1905 the factory product was valued at $25,745,650,
+an increase of 78.6% in five years. Among the products are cotton goods
+(the product value of which in 1905 was 14% of the total value of the
+city's manufactures), foundry and machine-shop products, lumber, patent
+medicines, confectionery, men's clothing, mattresses, spring-beds and
+other furniture. Since 1904 part of the power utilized for manufacturing
+has been obtained from the Chattahoochee river, 15 m. from the city.
+There are many manufactories just outside the city limits.
+
+_History._--Atlanta owes its origin to the development of pioneer
+railroads of Georgia. In 1836 the Western & Atlantic, the first road
+built into North Georgia, was chartered, and the present site of Atlanta
+was chosen as its southern terminal, which it reached in 1843, and which
+was named "Terminus." The Georgia and the Central of Georgia then
+projected branches to Terminus in order to connect with the Western &
+Atlantic, and completed them in 1845 and 1846. The town charter of 1843
+changed the name to Marthasville, in honour of the daughter of Governor
+Wilson Lumpkin; and the city charter of 1847 changed this to Atlanta.
+The population in 1850 was 2572; in 1860, 9554. Manufacturing interests
+soon became important, and during the Civil War Atlanta was the seat of
+Confederate military factories and a depot of supplies. In 1864 it was
+the objective point of the first stage of General William T. Sherman's
+invasion of Georgia (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR), which is therefore
+generally known as the "Atlanta campaign."
+
+After the battles around Marietta (q.v.), and the crossing of the
+Chattahoochee river on the 8th and 9th of July, Sherman continued his
+advance against Atlanta. His plan of operations was directed primarily
+to the seizure of the Decatur railway, by which the Confederate
+commander, General J.E. Johnston, might receive support from Virginia
+and the Carolinas. The three Union armies under Sherman's command,
+outnumbering the Confederates about 3 to 2, began their movement on the
+16th of July; the Army of the Cumberland (Gen. G.H. Thomas) on the right
+marching from Marietta by the fords of the Upper Chattahoochee on
+Atlanta, the Army of the Ohio (Gen. J.M. Schofield) in the centre direct
+on Decatur, and the Army of the Tennessee (Gen. J.B. McPherson) still
+farther east towards Stone Mountain. At the moment of marching out to
+meet the enemy, Johnston was relieved of his command and was replaced by
+Gen. J.B. Hood (July 17). Hood at once prepared to attack Thomas as soon
+as that general should have crossed Peachtree Creek (6 m. north of the
+city) and thus isolated himself from Schofield and McPherson. Sherman's
+confidence in Thomas and his troops was, however, justified. Hood's
+attack (battle of Peachtree Creek, July 20) was everywhere repulsed, and
+Schofield and McPherson closed up at the greatest speed. Hood had to
+retire to Atlanta, with a loss of more than 4000 men, and the three
+Union armies gradually converged on the north and east sides of the
+city. But Hood, who had been put in command as a fighting general, was
+soon ready to attack afresh. This time he placed Gen. W.J. Hardee's
+corps, the largest of his army, to the south of Atlanta, facing the left
+flank of McPherson's army. As Hardee's attack rolled up the Union army
+from left to right, the remainder of the Confederate army was to issue
+from the Atlanta fortifications and join in the battle. Hardee opened
+his attack at noon on the 22nd of July (battle of Atlanta). The troops
+of the Army of the Tennessee were swiftly driven back, and their
+commander, McPherson, killed; but presently the Federals re-formed and a
+severe struggle ensued, in which most of Hood's army joined. The
+veterans of the Army of the Tennessee, led by Gen. J.A. Logan, offered a
+stubborn resistance, however, and Schofield's army now intervened. After
+prolonged attacks lasting to nightfall, Hood had once more to draw off,
+with about 10,000 men killed and wounded. The Confederates now abandoned
+all idea of regaining the Decatur line, and based themselves on
+Jonesboro' and the Macon railway. Sherman quickly realized this, and the
+Army of the Tennessee, now commanded by Gen. O.O. Howard, was
+counter-marched from left to right, until it formed up on the right of
+the Union line about Ezra Church (about 4 m. west of Atlanta). The
+railway from Chattanooga to Atlanta, destroyed by Johnston as he fell
+back in May and June, was now repaired and working up to Thomas's camps.
+Hood had meanwhile extended his entrenchments southwards to cover the
+Macon railway, and Howard's movement led to another engagement (battle
+of Ezra Church, July 28) in which the XV. corps under Logan again bore
+the brunt of Hood's attack. The Confederates were once more
+unsuccessful, and the losses were so heavy that the "fighting" policy
+ordered by the Confederate government was countermanded. Sherman's
+cavalry had hitherto failed to do serious damage to the railway, and the
+Federal general now proceeded to manoeuvre with his main body so as to
+cut off Hood from his Southern railway lines (August). Covered by Howard
+at Ezra Church, Schofield led this advance, but the new Confederate
+lines baffled him. A bombardment of the Atlanta fortifications was then
+begun, but it had no material result. Another cavalry raid effected but
+slight damage to the line, and Sherman now decided to take his whole
+force to the south side. This apparently dangerous movement (August 25)
+is a remarkable illustration of Sherman's genius for war, and in fact
+succeeded completely. Only a small force was left to guard the
+Chattanooga railway, and the Union forces, Howard on the right, Thomas
+in the centre, and Schofield on the left, reached the railway after some
+sharp fighting (action of Jonesboro', September 1). The defence of
+Atlanta was now hopeless; Hood's forces retreated southward the same
+evening, and on the 2nd of September the Union detachment left behind on
+the north side entered Atlanta unopposed.
+
+All citizens were now ordered to leave, the place was turned into a
+military camp, and when Sherman started on his "March to the Sea," on
+the 15th of November, a large part of the city was burned. Consequently
+the present city is a product of the post-bellum development of Georgia.
+The military government of Georgia was established here in 1865. In 1868
+Atlanta was made the capital of the state.
+
+In 1881 an International Cotton Exposition was held in Atlanta. This was
+American, even local, in character; its inception was due to a desire to
+improve the cultivation and manufacture of cotton; but it brought to the
+notice of the whole country the industrial transformation wrought in the
+Southern states during the last quarter of the 19th century. In 1887 the
+Piedmont Exposition was held in Atlanta. The Cotton States and
+International Exposition, also held at Atlanta, in 1895, attracted
+widespread attention, and had exhibits from thirty-seven states and
+thirteen foreign countries.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Grady was succeeded as managing editor by Clark Howell (b. 1863);
+    and Joel Chandler Harris was long a member of the editorial staff.
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTIC, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Iowa, U.S.A., on
+East Nishnabatna river, about 80 m. W. by S. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890)
+4351; (1900) 5046; (1905, state census) 5180 (625 foreign-born); (1910)
+4560. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway, and by
+an inter-urban electric line connecting with Elkhorn and Kimballton, and
+is the trade centre of a fine agricultural country; among its
+manufactures are machine-shop products, canned corn, flour, umbrellas,
+drugs and bricks. The municipality owns the water-works and
+electric-lighting plant. Atlantic was chartered as a city in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTIC CITY, a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
+Atlantic Ocean, 58 m. S.E. of Philadelphia and 137 m. S. by W. of New
+York. Pop. (1890) 13,055; (1900) 27,838, of whom 6513 were of negro
+descent and 3189 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 46,150. It is served
+by the Atlantic City (Philadelphia & Reading) and the West Jersey &
+Seashore (Pennsylvania system) railways. Atlantic City is the largest
+and most popular all-the-year-round resort in the United States, and has
+numerous fine hotels. The city extends for 3 m. along a low sandy island
+(Absecon Beach), 10 m. long by ¾ m. wide, separated from the mainland by
+a narrow strip of salt water and 4 or 5 m. of salt marshes, partly
+covered with water at highest storm tide. There are good bathing,
+boating, sailing, fishing and wild-fowl shooting. A "Board Walk"
+stretches along the beach for about 5 m.--the newest part of it is of
+concrete--and along or near this walk are the largest hotels, and
+numerous shops, and places of amusement; from the walk into the ocean
+extend several long piers. Other features of the place are the broad
+driveway (Atlantic Avenue) and an automobile boulevard. There are
+several seaside sanitoriums and hospitals, including the Atlantic City
+hospital, the Mercer Memorial home, and the Children's Seashore home. On
+the north end of the beach is Absecon Lighthouse, 160 ft. high. The
+municipality owns the water-works. Oysters are dredged here and are
+shipped hence in large quantities. There was a settlement of fishermen
+on the island in the latter part of the 18th century. In 1852 a movement
+was made to develop it as a seaside resort for Philadelphia, and after
+the completion of the Camden & Atlantic City railway in 1854 the growth
+of the place was rapid. A heavy loss occurred by fire on the 3rd of
+April 1902.
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTIC OCEAN,
+
+
+  Extent.
+
+a belt of water, roughly of an S-shape, between the western coasts of
+Europe and Africa and the eastern coasts of North and South America. It
+extends northward to the Arctic Basin and southward to the Great
+Southern Ocean. For purposes of measurement the polar boundaries are
+taken to be the Arctic and Antarctic circles, although in discussing the
+configuration and circulation it is impossible to adhere strictly to
+these limits. The Atlantic Ocean consists of two characteristic
+divisions, the geographical equator forming a fairly satisfactory line
+of division into North and South Atlantic. The North Atlantic, by far
+the best-known of the main divisions of the hydrosphere, is remarkable
+for the immense length of its coast-line and for the large number of
+enclosed seas connected with it, including on the western side the
+Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St Lawrence and Hudson
+Bay, and on the eastern side the Mediterranean and Black Sea, the North
+Sea and the Baltic. The North Atlantic is connected with the Arctic
+Basin by four main channels: (1) Hudson Strait, about 60 m. wide,
+communicating with the gulfs and straits of the North American Arctic
+archipelago; (2) Davis Strait, about 200 m. wide, leading to Baffin Bay;
+(3) Denmark Strait, between Greenland and Iceland, 130 m. wide; and (4)
+the "Norwegian Sea," about 400 m. wide, extending from Iceland to the
+Faeroe Islands, the Shetland Islands and the coast of Norway. The width
+of the North Atlantic in lat. 60°, approximately where it breaks up into
+the branches just named, is nearly 2000 m.; in about lat. 50° N. the
+coasts of Ireland and Newfoundland approach to 1750 m.; the breadth then
+increases rapidly to lat. 40° N., and attains its maximum of 4500 m. in
+lat. 25° N.; farther south the minimum breadth is reached between Africa
+and South America, Cape Palmas being only 1600 m. distant from Cape St
+Roque. In marked contrast to this, the South Atlantic is distinguished
+by great simplicity of coast-line; inland seas there are none, and it
+attains its greatest breadth as it merges with the Southern Ocean; in
+lat. 35° S. the width is 3700 m.
+
+The total area of the North Atlantic, not counting inland seas connected
+with it, is, according to G. Karstens, 36,438,000 sq. kilometres, or
+10,588,000 sq. m.; including the inland seas the area is 45,641,000 sq.
+kilometres or 13,262,000 sq. m. The area of the South Atlantic is
+43,455,000 sq. kilometres, or 12,627,000 sq. m. Although not the most
+extensive of the great oceans, the Atlantic has by far the largest
+drainage area. The "long slopes" of the continents on both sides are
+directed towards the Atlantic, which accordingly receives the waters of
+a large proportion of the great rivers of the world, including the St
+Lawrence, the Mississippi, the Orinoco, the Amazon, the rivers of the La
+Plata, the Congo, the Niger, the Loire, the Rhine, the Elbe and the
+great rivers of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Sir J. Murray
+estimates the total area of land draining to the Atlantic to be
+13,432,000 sq. m., or with the Arctic area nearly 20,000,000 sq. m.,
+nearly four times the area draining to the Pacific Ocean, and almost
+precisely four times the area draining to the Indian Ocean. Murray's
+calculations give the amount of precipitation received on this area at
+15,800 cub. m. annually, and the river discharge from it at 3900 cub. m.
+
+
+  Relief of the bed.
+
+The dominant feature of the relief of the Atlantic basin is a submarine
+ridge running from north to south from about lat. 50° N. to lat. 40° S.,
+almost exactly in the central line, and following the S-shape of the
+coasts. Over this ridge the average depth is about 1700 fathoms. Towards
+its northern end the ridge widens and rises to the plateau of the
+Azores, and in about 50° N. lat. it merges with the "Telegraph Plateau,"
+which extends across nearly the whole ocean from Ireland to
+Newfoundland. North of the fiftieth parallel the depths diminish towards
+the north-east, two long submarine ridges of volcanic origin extend
+north-eastwards to the south-west of Iceland and to the Faeroe Islands,
+and these, with their intervening valleys, end in a transverse ridge
+connecting Greenland, through Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, with
+North-western Scotland and the continental mass of Europe. The mean
+depth over this ridge is about 250 fathoms, and the maximum depth
+nowhere reaches 500 fathoms. The main basin of the Atlantic is thus cut
+off from the Arctic basin, with which the area north of the ridge has
+complete deep-water communication. This intermediate region, which has
+Atlantic characteristics down to 300 fathoms, and at greater depths
+belongs more properly to the Arctic Sea, commonly receives the name of
+Norwegian Sea. On both sides of the central ridge deep troughs extend
+southwards from the Telegraph plateau to the Southern Ocean, the deep
+water coming close to the land all the way down on both sides. In these
+troughs the depth is seldom much less than 3000 fathoms, and this is
+exceeded in a series of patches to which Murray has given the name of
+"Deeps." In the eastern trough the Peake Deep lies off the Bay of Biscay
+in 20° W. long., Monaco Deep and Chun Deep off the north-west of Africa,
+Moseley Deep off the Cape Verde Islands, Krech Deep off the Liberian
+coast, and Buchanan Deep off the mouth of the Congo. The western trough
+extends northwards into Davis Strait, forming a depression in the
+Telegraph plateau; to the south of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia are
+Sigsbee Deep, Libbey Deep and Suhm Deep, each of small area; north-east
+of the Bahamas Nares Deep forms the largest and deepest depression in
+the Atlantic, in which a sounding of 4561 fathoms was obtained (70 m.
+north of Porto Rico) by the U.S. ship "Blake" in 1883. Immediately to
+the south of Nares Deep lies the smaller Makarov Deep; and off the coast
+of South America are Tizard Deep and Havergal Deep.
+
+Before the Antarctic expeditions of 1903-1904 our knowledge of the form
+of the sea bottom south of 40° S. lat. was almost wholly derived from
+the soundings of the expedition of Sir J.C. Ross in the "Erebus" and
+"Terror" (1839-1843), and the bathymetrical maps published were largely
+the result of deductions based on one sounding taken by Ross in 68° 34'
+S. lat., 12° 49' W. long., in which he recorded a depth exceeding 4000
+fathoms. The Scottish Antarctic expedition has shown this sounding to be
+erroneous; the "Scotia" obtained samples of bottom, in almost the same
+spot, from a depth of 2660 fathoms. Combining the results of recent
+soundings, Dr W.S. Bruce, the leader of the Scottish expedition, finds
+that there is a ridge "extending in a curve from Madagascar to Bouvet
+Island, and from Bouvet Island to the Sandwich group, whence there is a
+forked connexion through the South Orkneys to Graham's Land, and through
+South Georgia to the Falkland Islands and the South American continent."
+Again, the central ridge of the South Atlantic extends a thousand miles
+farther south than was supposed, joining the east and west ridge, just
+described, between the Bouvet Islands and the Sandwich group.
+
+The foundations of our knowledge of the relief of the Atlantic basin may
+be said to have been laid by the work of H.M.S. "Challenger"
+(1873-1876), and the German ship "Gazelle" (1874-1876), the French
+expedition in the "Travailleur" (1880), and the U.S. surveying vessel
+"Blake" (1877 and later). Large numbers of additional soundings have
+been made in recent years by cable ships, by the expeditions of H.S.H.
+the prince of Monaco, the German "Valdivia" expedition under Professor
+Chun (1898), and the combined Antarctic expeditions (1903-1904).
+
+
+  Islands.
+
+The Atlantic Ocean contains a relatively small number of islands. The
+only continental groups, besides some islands in the Mediterranean, are
+Iceland, the British Isles, Newfoundland, the West Indies, and the
+Falklands, and the chief oceanic islands are the Azores, Madeira, the
+Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan da Cunha
+and Bouvet Island.
+
+
+  Mean depth, and bottom deposits.
+
+The mean depth of the North Atlantic is, according to G. Karstens, 2047
+fathoms. If we include the enclosed seas, the North Atlantic has a mean
+depth of 1800 fathoms. The South Atlantic has a mean depth of 2067
+fathoms.
+
+The greater part of the bottom of the Atlantic is covered by a deposit
+of Globigerina ooze, roughly the area between 1000 and 3000 fathoms, or
+about 60% of the whole. At a depth of about 3000 fathoms, i.e. in the
+"Deeps," the Globigerina ooze gradually gives place to red clay. In the
+shallower tropical waters, especially on the central ridge, considerable
+areas are covered by Pteropod ooze, a deposit consisting largely of the
+shells of pelagic molluscs. Diatom ooze is the characteristic deposit in
+high southern latitudes. The terrigenous deposits consist of blue muds,
+red muds (abundant along the coast of Brazil, where the amount of
+organic matter present is insufficient to reduce the iron in the matter
+brought down by the great rivers to produce blue muds), green muds and
+sands, and volcanic and coral detritus.
+
+The question of the origin of the Atlantic basin, like that of the other
+great divisions of the hydrosphere, is still unsettled. Most geologists
+include the Atlantic with the other oceans in the view they adopt as to
+its age; but E. Suess and M. Neumayr, while they regard the basin of the
+Pacific as of great antiquity, believe the Atlantic to date only from
+the Mesozoic age. Neumayr finds evidence of the existence of a continent
+between Africa and South America, which protruded into the central North
+Atlantic, in Jurassic times. F. Kossmat has shown that the Atlantic had
+substantially its present form during the Cretaceous period.
+
+
+  Distribution of temperature.
+
+In describing the mean distribution of temperature in the waters of the
+Atlantic it is necessary to treat the northern and southern divisions
+separately. The heat equator, or line of maximum mean surface
+temperature, starts from the African coast in about 5° N. lat., and
+closely follows that parallel to 40° W. long., where it bends northwards
+to the Caribbean Sea. North of this line, near which the temperature is
+a little over 80° F., the gradient trends somewhat to the east of north,
+and the temperature is slightly higher on the western than on the
+eastern side until, in 45° N. lat., the isothermal of 60° F. runs nearly
+east and west. Beyond this parallel the gradient is directed towards the
+north-west, and temperatures are much higher on the European than on the
+American side. From the surface to 500 fathoms the general form of the
+isothermals remains the same, except that instead of an equatorial
+maximum belt there is a focus of maximum temperature off the eastern
+coast of the United States. This focus occupies a larger area and
+becomes of greater relative intensity as the depth increases until, at
+500 fathoms, it becomes an elongated belt extending right across the
+ocean in about 30° N. lat. Below 500 fathoms the western centres of
+maximum disappear, and higher temperatures occur in the eastern Atlantic
+off the Iberian peninsula and north-western Africa down to at least 1000
+fathoms; at still greater depths temperature gradually becomes more and
+more uniform. The communication between the Atlantic and Arctic basins
+being cut off, as already described, at a depth of about 300 fathoms,
+the temperatures in the Norwegian Sea below that level are essentially
+Arctic, usually below the freezing-point of fresh water, except where
+the distribution is modified by the surface circulation. The isothermals
+of mean surface temperature in the South Atlantic are in the lower
+latitudes of an ~-shape, temperatures being higher on the American than
+on the African side. In latitudes south of 30° S. the curved form tends
+to disappear, the lines running more and more directly east and west.
+Below the surface a focus of maximum temperature appears off the coast
+of South America in about 30° S. lat., and of minimum temperature north
+and north-east of this maximum. This distribution is most marked at
+about 300 fathoms, and disappears at 500 fathoms, beyond which depth the
+lines tend to become parallel and to run east and west, the gradient
+slowly diminishing.
+
+
+  Salinity.
+
+The Atlantic is by far the saltest of the great oceans. Its saltest
+waters are found at the surface in two belts, one extending east and
+west in the North Atlantic between 20° and 30° N. lat., and another of
+almost equal salinity extending eastwards from the coast of South
+America in 10° to 20° S. lat. In the equatorial region between these
+belts the salinity is markedly less, especially in the eastern part.
+North of the North Atlantic maximum the waters become steadily fresher
+as latitude increases until the channels opening into the Arctic basin
+are reached. In all of these water of relatively high salinity usually
+appears for a long distance towards the north on the eastern side of the
+channel, while on the western side the water is comparatively fresh; but
+great variations occur at different seasons and in different years. In
+the higher latitudes of the South Atlantic the salinity diminishes
+steadily and tends to be uniform from east to west, except near the
+southern extremity of South America, where the surface waters are very
+fresh. Our knowledge of the salinity of waters below the surface is as
+yet very defective, large areas being still unrepresented by a single
+observation. The chief facts already established are the greater
+saltness of the North Atlantic compared with the South Atlantic at all
+depths, and the low salinity at all depths in the eastern equatorial
+region, off the Gulf of Guinea.
+
+
+  Meteorology.
+
+The wind circulation over the Atlantic is of a very definite character.
+In the South Atlantic the narrow land surfaces of Africa and South
+America produce comparatively little effect in disturbing the normal
+planetary circulation. The tropical belt of high atmospheric pressure is
+very marked in winter; it is weaker during the summer months, and at
+that season the greater relative fall of pressure over the land cuts it
+off into an oval-shaped anticyclone, the centre of which rests on the
+coolest part of the sea surface in that latitude, near the Gulf of
+Guinea. South of this anticyclone, from about the latitude of the Cape,
+we find the region where, on account of the uninterrupted sea surface
+right round the globe, the planetary circulation is developed to the
+greatest extent known; the pressure gradient is steep, and the region is
+swept continuously by strong westerly winds--the "roaring forties."
+
+In the North Atlantic the distribution of pressure and resulting wind
+circulation are very largely modified by the enormous areas of land and
+frozen sea which surround the ocean on three sides. The tropical belt of
+high pressure persists all the year round, but the immense demand for
+air to supply the ascending currents over the heated land surfaces in
+summer causes the normal descending movement to be largely reinforced;
+hence the "North Atlantic anticyclone" is much larger, and its
+circulation more vigorous, in summer than in winter. Again, during the
+winter months pressure is relatively high over North America, Western
+Eurasia and the Arctic regions; hence vast quantities of air are brought
+down to the surface, and circulation must be kept up by ascending
+currents over the ocean. The Atlantic anticyclone is, therefore, at its
+weakest in winter, and on its polar side the polar eddy becomes a trough
+of low pressure, extending roughly from Labrador to Iceland and Jan
+Mayen, and traversed by a constant succession of cyclones. The net
+effect of the surrounding land is, in fact, to reverse the seasonal
+variations of the planetary circulation, but without destroying its
+type. In the intermediate belt between the two high-pressure areas the
+meteorological equator remains permanently north of the geographical
+equator, moving between it and about 11° N. lat.
+
+
+  Currents.
+
+The part of this atmospheric circulation which is steadiest in its
+action is the trade winds, and this is, therefore, the most effective in
+producing drift movement of the surface waters. The trade winds give
+rise, in the region most exposed to their influence, to two
+westward-moving drifts--the equatorial currents, which are separated in
+parts of their course by currents moving in the opposite direction along
+the equatorial belt. These last may be of the nature of "reaction"
+currents; they are collectively known as the equatorial counter-current.
+On reaching the South American coast, the southern equatorial current
+splits into two parts at Cape St Roque: one branch, the Brazil current,
+is deflected southwards and follows the coast as a true stream current
+at least as far as the river Plate. The second branch proceeds
+north-westwards towards the West Indies, where it mingles with the
+waters of the northern equatorial; and the two drifts, blocked by the
+<-shape of the land, raise the level of the surface in the Gulf of
+Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the whole area outside the West
+Indies. This congestion is relieved by what is probably the most rapid
+and most voluminous stream current in the world, the Gulf Stream, which
+runs along the coast of North America, separated from it by a narrow
+strip of cold water, the "cold wall," to a point off the south-east of
+Newfoundland. At this point the Gulf Stream water mixes with that from
+the Labrador current (see below), and a drift current eastwards is set
+up under the influence of the prevailing westerly winds: this is
+generally called the Gulf Stream drift. When the Gulf Stream drift
+approaches the eastern side of the Atlantic it splits into two parts,
+one going southwards along the north-west coast of Africa, the Canaries
+current, and another turning northwards and passing to the west of the
+British Isles. Most of the Canaries current re-enters the northern
+equatorial, but a certain proportion keeps to the African coast, unites
+with the equatorial return currents, and penetrates into the Gulf of
+Guinea. This last feature of the circulation is still somewhat obscure;
+it is probably to be accounted for by the fact that on this part of the
+coast the prevailing winds, although to a considerable extent monsoonal,
+are off-shore winds, blowing the surface waters out to sea, and the
+place of the water thus removed is filled up by the water derived either
+from lower levels or from "reaction" currents.
+
+The movements of the northern branch of the Gulf Stream drift have been
+the object of more careful and more extended study than all the other
+currents of the ocean put together, except, perhaps, the Gulf Stream
+itself. The cruises of the "Porcupine" and "Lightning" which led
+directly to the despatch of the "Challenger" expedition, were altogether
+within its "sphere of influence"; so also was the great Norwegian
+Atlantic expedition. More recently, the area has been further explored
+by the German expedition in the ss. "National," the Danish "Ingolf"
+expedition, and the minor expeditions of the "Michael Sars," "Jackal,"
+"Research," &c., and since 1902 it has been periodically examined by the
+International Council for the Study of the Sea. Much has also been done
+by the discussion of observations made on board vessels belonging to the
+mercantile marine of various countries. It may now be taken as generally
+admitted that the current referred to breaks into three main branches.
+The first passes northwards, most of it between the Faeroe and Shetland
+Islands, to the coast of Norway, and so on to the Arctic basin, which,
+as Nansen has shown, it fills to a great depth. The second, the Irminger
+stream, passes up the west side of Iceland; and the third goes up to the
+Greenland side of Davis Strait to Baffin Bay. These branches are
+separated from one another at the surface by currents moving southwards:
+one passes east of Iceland; the second, the Greenland current, skirts
+the east coast of Greenland; and the third, the Labrador current already
+mentioned, follows the western side of Davis Strait.
+
+The development of the equatorial and the Brazil currents in the South
+Atlantic has already been described. On the polar side of the
+high-pressure area a west wind drift is under the control of the
+"roaring forties," and on reaching South Africa part of this is
+deflected and sent northwards along the west coast as the cold Benguella
+current which rejoins the equatorial. In the central parts of the two
+high-pressure areas there is practically no surface circulation. In the
+North Atlantic this region is covered by enormous banks of gulf-weed
+(_Sargassum bucciferum_), hence the name Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea
+is bounded, roughly, by the lines of 20°-35° N. lat. and 40°-75° W.
+long.
+
+The sub-surface circulation in the Atlantic may be regarded as
+consisting of two parts. Where surface water is banked up against the
+land, as by the equatorial and Gulf Stream drift currents, it appears to
+penetrate to very considerable depths; the escaping stream currents are
+at first of great vertical thickness and part of the water at their
+sources has a downward movement. In the case of the Gulf Stream, which
+is not much impeded by the land, this descending motion is relatively
+slight, being perhaps largely due to the greater specific gravity of the
+water; it ceases to be perceptible beyond about 500 fathoms. On the
+European-African side the descending movement is more marked, partly
+because the coast-line is much more irregular and the northward current
+is deflected against it by the earth's rotation, and partly because of
+the outflow of salt water from the Mediterranean; here the movement is
+traceable to at least 1000 fathoms. The northward movement of water
+across the Norwegian Sea extends down from the surface to the
+Iceland-Shetland ridge, where it is sharply cut off; the lower levels of
+the Norwegian Sea are filled with ice-cold Arctic water, close down to
+the ridge. The south-moving currents originating from melting ice are
+probably quite shallow. The second part of the circulation in the depth
+is the slow "creep" of water of very low temperature along the bottom.
+The North Atlantic being altogether cut off from the Arctic regions, and
+the vertical circulation being active, this movement is here practically
+non-existent; but in the South Atlantic, where communication with the
+Southern Ocean is perfectly open, Antarctic water can be traced to the
+equator and even beyond.
+
+The tides of the Atlantic Ocean are of great complexity. The tidal wave
+of the Southern Ocean, which sweeps uninterruptedly round the globe from
+the east to west, generates a secondary wave between Africa and South
+America, which travels north at a rate dependent only on the depth of
+the ocean. With this "free" wave is combined a "forced" wave, generated,
+by the direct action of the sun and moon, within the Atlantic area
+itself. Nothing is known about the relative importance of these two
+waves.     (H. N. D.)
+
+  See also OCEANS AND OCEANOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTIS, ATLANTIS, or ATLANTICA, a legendary island in the Atlantic
+Ocean, first mentioned by Plato in the _Timaeus_. Plato describes how
+certain Egyptian priests, in a conversation with Solon, represented the
+island as a country larger than Asia Minor and Libya united, and
+situated just beyond the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar).
+Beyond it lay an archipelago of lesser islands. According to the
+priests, Atlantis had been a powerful kingdom nine thousand years before
+the birth of Solon, and its armies had overrun the lands which bordered
+the Mediterranean. Athens alone had withstood them with success. Finally
+the sea had overwhelmed Atlantis, and had thenceforward become
+unnavigable owing to the shoals which marked the spot. In the _Critias_
+Plato adds a history of the ideal commonwealth of Atlantis. It is
+impossible to decide how far this legend is due to Plato's invention,
+and how far it is based on facts of which no record remains. Medieval
+writers, for whom the tale was preserved by the Arabian geographers,
+believed it true, and were fortified in their belief by numerous
+traditions of islands in the western sea, which offered various points
+of resemblance to Atlantis. Such in particular were the Greek Isles of
+the Blest, or Fortunate Islands, the Welsh Avalon, the Portuguese
+Antilia or Isle of Seven Cities, and St Brendan's island, the subject of
+many sagas in many languages. These, which are described in separate
+articles, helped to maintain the tradition of an earthly paradise which
+had become associated with the myth of Atlantis; and all except Avalon
+were marked in maps of the 14th and 15th centuries, and formed the
+object of voyages of discovery, in one case (St Brendan's island) until
+the 18th century. In early legends, of whatever nationality, they are
+almost invariably described in terms which closely resemble Homer's
+account of the island of the Phaeacians (_Od._ viii.)--a fact which may
+be an indication of their common origin in some folk-tale current among
+several races. Somewhat similar legends are those of the island of
+Brazil (q.v.), of Lyonnesse (q.v.), the sunken land off the Cornish
+coast, of the lost Breton city of Is, and of Mayda or Asmaide--the
+French _Isle Verte_ and Portuguese _Ilha Verde_ or "Green Island"--which
+appears in many folk-tales from Gibraltar to the Hebrides, and until
+1853 was marked on English charts as a rock in 44° 48' N. and 26° 10' W.
+After the Renaissance, with its renewal of interest in Platonic studies,
+numerous attempts were made to rationalize the myth of Atlantis. The
+island was variously identified with America, Scandinavia, the Canaries
+and even Palestine; ethnologists saw in its inhabitants the ancestors of
+the Guanchos, the Basques or the ancient Italians; and even in the 17th
+and 18th centuries the credibility of the whole legend was seriously
+debated, and sometimes admitted, even by Montaigne, Buffon and Voltaire.
+
+  For the theory that Atlantis is to be identified with Crete in the
+  Minoan period, see "The Lost Continent" in _The Times_ (London) for
+  the 19th of February 1909. See also "Dissertation sur l'Atlantide" in
+  T.H. Martin's _Études sur le Timée_ (1841).
+
+
+
+
+ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the "endurer," a son of the Titan Iapetus and
+Clymene (or Asia), brother of Prometheus. Homer, in the _Odyssey_ (i.
+52) speaks of him as "one who knows the depths of the whole sea, and
+keeps the tall pillars which hold heaven and earth asunder." In the
+first instance he seems to have been a marine creation. The pillars
+which he supported were thought to rest in the sea, immediately beyond
+the most western horizon. But as the Greeks' knowledge of the west
+increased, the name of Atlas was transferred to a hill in the north-west
+of Africa. Later, he was represented as a king of that district, rich in
+flocks and herds, and owner of the garden of the Hesperides, who was
+turned into a rocky mountain when Perseus, to punish him for his
+inhospitality, showed him the Gorgon's head (Ovid, _Metam._ iv. 627).
+Finally, Atlas was explained as the name of a primitive astronomer, who
+was said to have made the first celestial globe (Diodorus iii. 60). He
+was the father of the Pleiades and Hyades; according to Homer, of
+Calypso. In works of art he is represented as carrying the heavens or
+the terrestrial globe. The Farnese statue of Atlas in the Naples museum
+is well known.
+
+The plural form ATLANTES is the classical term in architecture for the
+male sculptured figures supporting a superstructure as in the baths at
+Pompeii, and in the temple at Agrigentum in Sicily. In 18th-century
+architecture half-figures of men with strong muscular development were
+used to support balconies (see CARYATIDES and TELAMONES).
+
+A figure of Atlas supporting the heavens is often found as a
+frontispiece in early collections of maps, and is said to have been
+first thus used by Mercator. The name is hence applied to a volume of
+maps (see MAP), and similarly to a volume which contains a tabular
+conspectus of a subject, such as an atlas of ethnographical, subjects or
+anatomical plates. It is also used of a large size of drawing paper.
+
+The name "atlas," an Arabic word meaning "smooth," applied to a smooth
+cloth, is sometimes found in English, and is the usual German word, for
+"satin."
+
+
+
+
+ATLAS MOUNTAINS, the general name for the mountain chains running more
+or less parallel to the coast of North-west Africa. They extend from
+Cape Nun on the west to the Gulf of Gabes on the east, a distance of
+some 1500 m., traversing Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. To their south
+lies the Saharan desert. The Atlas consist of many distinct ranges, but
+they can be roughly divided into two main chains: (1) the Maritime
+Atlas, i.e. the ranges overlooking the Mediterranean from Ceuta to
+Cape Bon; (2) the inner and more elevated ranges, which, starting from
+the Atlantic at Cape Ghir in Sús, run south of the coast ranges and are
+separated from them by high plateaus. This general disposition is seen
+most distinctly in eastern Morocco and Algeria. The western inner ranges
+are the most important of the whole system, and in the present article
+are described first as _the Moroccan Ranges_. The maritime Atlas and the
+inner ranges in Algeria and Tunisia are then treated under the heading
+_Eastern Ranges_.
+
+_The Moroccan Ranges._--This section of the Atlas, known to the
+inhabitants of Morocco by its Berber name, Idráren Dráren or the
+"Mountains of Mountains," consists of five distinct ranges, varying in
+length and height, but disposed more or less parallel to one another in
+a general direction from south-west to north-east, with a slight
+curvature towards the Sahara.
+
+1. The main range, that known as the Great Atlas, occupies a central
+position in the system, and is by far the longest and loftiest chain. It
+has an average height of over 11,000 ft., whereas the loftiest peaks in
+Algeria do not exceed 8000 ft., and the highest in Tunisia are under
+6000 ft. Towards the Dahra district at the north-east end the fall is
+gradual and continuous, but at the opposite extremity facing the
+Atlantic between Agadir and Mogador it is precipitous. Although only one
+or two peaks reach the line of perpetual snow, several of the loftiest
+summits are snowclad during the greater part of the year. The northern
+sides and tops of the lower heights are often covered with dense forests
+of oak, cork, pine, cedar and other trees, with walnuts up to the limit
+of irrigation. Their slopes enclose well-watered valleys of great
+fertility, in which the Berber tribes cultivate tiny irrigated fields,
+their houses clinging to the hill-sides. The southern flanks, being
+exposed to the hot dry winds of the Sahara, are generally destitute of
+vegetation.
+
+At several points the crest of the range has been deeply eroded by old
+glaciers and running waters, and thus have been formed a number of
+devious passes. The central section, culminating in Tizi n 'Tagharat or
+Tinzár, a peak estimated at 15,000 ft. high, maintains a mean altitude
+of 11,600 ft., and from this great mass of schists and sandstones a
+number of secondary ridges radiate in all directions, forming divides
+between the rivers Dra'a, Sús, Um-er-Rabía, Sebú, Mulwíya and Ghír,
+which flow respectively to the south-west, the west, north-west, north,
+north-east and south-east. All are swift and unnavigable, save perhaps
+for a few miles from their mouths. With the exception of the Dra'a, the
+streams rising on the side of the range facing the Sahara do not reach
+the sea, but form marshes or lagoons at one season, and at another are
+lost in the dry soil of the desert.
+
+For a distance of 100 m. the central section nowhere presents any passes
+accessible to caravans, but south-westward two gaps in the range afford
+communication between the Tansíft and Sús basins, those respectively of
+Gindáfi and Bíbáwan. A few summits in the extreme south-west in the
+neighbourhood of Cape Ghir still exceed 11,000 ft., and although the
+steadily rising ground from the coast and the prominence of nearer
+summits detract from the apparent height, this is on an average greater
+than that of the European Alps. The most imposing view is to be obtained
+from the plain of Marrákesh, only some 1000 ft. above sea-level,
+immediately north of the highest peaks. Besides huge masses of old
+schists and sandstones, the range contains extensive limestone, marble,
+diorite, basalt and porphyry formations, while granite prevails on its
+southern slopes. The presence of enormous glaciers in the Ice Age is
+attested by the moraines at the Atlantic end, and by other indications
+farther east. The best-known passes are: (1) The Bíbáwan in the upper
+Wad Sús basin (4150 ft.); (2) the Gindáfi, giving access from Marrákesh
+to Tárudánt, rugged and difficult, but low; (3) the Tagharat, difficult
+and little used, leading to the Dra'a valley (11,484 ft.); (4) the Gláwi
+(7600 ft.); (5) Tizi n 'Tilghemt (7250 ft.), leading to Tafilet
+(Tafílált) and the Wad Ghír.
+
+2. The lower portion of the Moroccan Atlas (sometimes called the Middle
+Atlas), extending north-east and east from an undefined point to the
+north of the Great Atlas to near the frontier of Algeria, is crossed by
+the pass from Fez to Tafílált. Both slopes are wooded, and its forests
+are the only parts of Morocco where the lion still survives. From the
+north this range, which is only partly explored, presents a somewhat
+regular series of snowy crests.
+
+3. The Anti-Atlas or Jebel Saghru, also known as the Lesser Atlas,
+running parallel to and south of the central range, is one of the least
+elevated chains in the system, having a mean altitude of not more than
+5000 ft., although some peaks and even passes exceed 6000 ft. At one
+point it is pierced by a gap scarcely five paces wide with walls of
+variegated marbles polished by the transport of goods. As to the
+relation of the Anti-Atlas to the Atlas proper at its western end
+nothing certain is known.
+
+The two more or less parallel ranges which complete the western system
+are less important:--(4) the Jebel Bani, south of the Anti-Atlas, a low,
+narrow rocky ridge with a height of 3000 ft. in its central parts; and
+(5) the Mountains of Ghaiáta, north of the Middle Atlas, not a
+continuous range, but a series of broken mountain masses from 3000 to
+3500 ft. high, to the south of Fez, Táza and Tlemçen.
+
+_The Eastern Ranges._--The eastern division of the Atlas, which forms
+the backbone of Algeria and Tunisia, is adequately known with the
+exception of the small portion in Morocco forming the province of
+Er-Ríf. The lesser range, nearer the sea, known to the French as the
+Maritime Atlas, calls for little detailed notice. From Ceuta, above
+which towers Jebel Músa--about 2800 ft.--to Melilla, a distance of some
+150 m., the Ríf Mountains face the Mediterranean, and here, as along the
+whole coast eastward to Cape Bon, many rugged rocks rise boldly above
+the general level. In Algeria the Maritime Atlas has five chief ranges,
+several mountains rising over 5000 ft. The Jurjura range, extending
+through Kabylia from Algiers to Bougie, contains the peaks of Lalla
+Kedija (7542 ft.), the culminating point of the maritime chains, and
+Babor (6447 ft.). (See further ALGERIA.) The Mejerda range, which
+extends into Tunisia, has no heights exceeding 3700 ft. It was in these
+coast mountains of Algeria that the Romans quarried the celebrated
+Numidian marbles.
+
+The southern or main range of the Eastern division is known by the
+French as the Saharan Atlas. On its western extremity it is linked by
+secondary ranges to the mountain system of Morocco. The Saharan Atlas is
+essentially one chain, though known under different names: Jebel K'sur
+and Jebel Amur on the west, and Jebel Aures in the east. The central
+part, the Záb Mountains, is of lower elevation, the Saharan Atlas
+reaching its culminating point, Jebel Shellia (7611 ft. above the sea),
+in the Aures. This range sends a branch northward which joins the
+Mejerda range of the Maritime Atlas, and another branch runs south by
+Gafsa to the Gulf of Gabes. Here Mount Sidi Ali bu Musin reaches a
+height of 5700 ft., the highest point in Tunisia. In the Saharan Atlas
+the passes leading to or from the desert are numerous, and in most
+instances easy. Both in the east (at Batna) and the west (at Ain Sefra)
+the mountains are traversed by railways, which, starting from
+Mediterranean seaports, take the traveller into the Sahara.
+
+_History and Exploration._--The name Atlas given to these mountains by
+Europeans--but never used by the native races--is derived from that of
+the mythical Greek god represented as carrying the globe on his
+shoulders, and applied to the high and distant mountains of the west,
+where Atlas was supposed to dwell. From time immemorial the Atlas have
+been the home of Berber races, and those living in the least accessible
+regions have retained a measure of independence throughout their
+recorded history. Thus some of the mountain districts of Kabylia had
+never been visited by Europeans until the French military expedition of
+1857. But in general the Maritime range was well known to the Romans.
+The Jebel Amur was traversed by the column which seized El Aghuat in
+1852, and from that time dates the survey of the mountains.
+
+The ancient caravan route from Mauretania to the western Sudan crossed
+the lower Moroccan Atlas by the pass of Tilghemt and passed through the
+oasis of Tafílált, formerly known as Sajilmása ["Sigilmassa"], on the
+east side of the Anti-Atlas. The Moroccan system was visited, and in
+some instances crossed, by various European travellers carried into
+slavery by the Salli rovers, and was traversed by René Caillé in 1828 on
+his journey home from Timbuktu, but the first detailed exploration was
+made by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861-1862. Previous to that almost the only
+special report was the misleading one of Lieut. Washington, attached to
+the British embassy of 1837, who from insufficient data estimated the
+height of Mount Tagharat, to which he gave the indefinite name of
+Miltsin (i.e. _Mul et-Tizin_, "Lord of the Peaks"), as 11,400 ft.
+instead of about 15,000 ft.
+
+In 1871 the first scientific expedition, consisting of Dr (afterwards
+Sir) J.D. Hooker, Mr John Ball and Mr G. Maw, explored the central part
+of the Great Atlas with the special object of investigating its flora
+and determining its relation to that of the mountains of Europe. They
+ascended by the Ait Mízan valley to the Tagharat pass (11,484 ft.), and
+by the Amsmiz valley to the summit of Jebel Tezah (11,972 ft.). In the
+Tagharat pass Mr Maw was the only one of the party who reached the
+watershed; but from Jebel Tezah a good view was obtained southward
+across the great valley of the Sús to the Anti-Atlas, which appeared to
+be from 9000 to 10,000 ft. high. Dr Oskar Lenz in 1879-1880 surveyed a
+part of the Great Atlas north of Tárudant, determined a pass south of
+Iligh in the Anti-Atlas, and penetrated thence across the Sahara to
+Timbuktu. He was followed in 1883-1884 by Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, whose
+extensive itineraries include many districts that had never before been
+visited by any Europeans. Such were parts of the first and middle
+ranges, crossed once; three routes over the Great Atlas, which was,
+moreover, followed along both flanks for nearly its whole length; and
+six journeys across the Anti-Atlas, with a general survey of the foot of
+this range and several passages over the Jebel Bani. Then came Joseph
+Thomson, who explored some of the central parts, and made the highest
+ascent yet achieved, that of Mount Likimt, 13,150 ft., but broke little
+new ground, and failed to cross the main range (1888); and Walter B.
+Harris, who explored some of the southern slopes and crossed the Atlas
+at two points during his expedition to Tafílált in 1894. In 1901 and
+again in 1905 the marquis de Segonzac, a Frenchman, made extensive
+journeys in the Moroccan ranges. He crossed the Great Atlas in its
+central section, explored its southern border, and, in part, the Middle
+and Anti-Atlas ranges. A member of his expeditions, de Flotte
+Rocquevaire, made a triangulation of part of the western portion of the
+main Atlas, his labours affording a basis for the co-ordination of the
+work of previous explorers. (See also MOROCCO, ALGERIA, TUNISIA and
+SAHARA.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, _Reconnaissance au Maroc
+  1883-1884_ (Paris, 1888, almost the sole authority for the geography
+  of the Atlas; his book gives the result of careful surveys, and is
+  illustrated with a good collection of maps and sketches); Hooker, Ball
+  and Maw, _Marocco and the Great Atlas_ (London, 1879, a most valuable
+  contribution, always scientific and trustworthy, especially as to
+  botany and geology); Joseph Thomson, _Travels in the Atlas and
+  Southern Morocco_ (London, 1889, valuable geographical and geological
+  data); Louis Gentil, _Mission de Segonzac, &c._ (Paris, 1906; the
+  author was geologist to the 1905 expedition); Gerhard Rohlfs,
+  _Adventures in Morocco_ (London, 1874); Walter B. Harris, _Tafilet, a
+  Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Mountains, &c._ (London, 1895),
+  full of valuable information; Budgett Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_
+  (London, 1901), first and last chapters; Dr Oskar Lenz _Timbuktu:
+  Reise durch Marokko_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+ATMOLYSIS (Gr. [Greek: atmos], vapour: [Greek: lyein], to loosen), a
+term invented by Thomas Graham to denote the separation of a mixture of
+gases by taking advantage of their different rates of diffusion through
+a porous septum or diaphragm (see DIFFUSION).
+
+
+
+
+ATMOSPHERE (Gr. [Greek: atmos], vapour; [Greek: sphaira], a sphere), the
+aeriform envelope encircling the earth; also the envelope of a
+particular gas or gases about any solid or liquid. Meteorological
+phenomena seated more directly in the atmosphere obtained early
+recognition; thus Hesiod, in his _Works and Days_, speculated on the
+origin of winds, ascribing them to the heating effects of the sun on the
+air. Ctesibius of Alexandria, Hero and others, founded the science of
+pneumatics on observations on the physical properties of air. Anaximenes
+made air the primordial substance, and it was one of the Aristotelian
+elements. A direct proof of its material nature was given by Galileo,
+who weighed a copper ball containing compressed air.
+
+Before the development of pneumatic chemistry, air was regarded as a
+distinct chemical unit or element. The study of calcination and
+combustion during the 17th and 18th centuries culminated in the
+discovery that air consists chiefly of a mixture of two gases, oxygen
+and nitrogen. Cavendish, Priestley, Lavoisier and others contributed to
+this result. Cavendish made many analyses: from more than 500
+determinations of air in winter and summer, in wet and clear weather,
+and in town and country, he discerned the mean composition of the
+atmosphere to be, oxygen 20.833% and nitrogen 79.167% The same
+experimenter noticed the presence of an inert gas, in very minute
+amount; this gas, afterwards investigated by Rayleigh and Ramsay, is now
+named argon (q.v.).
+
+The constancy of composition shown by repeated analyses of atmospheric
+air led to the view that it was a chemical compound of nitrogen and
+oxygen; but there was no experimental confirmation of this idea, and all
+observations tended to the view that it is simply a mechanical mixture.
+Thus, the gases are not present in simple multiples of their combining
+weights; atmospheric air results when oxygen and nitrogen are mixed in
+the prescribed ratio, the mixing being unattended by any manifestation
+of energy, such as is invariably associated with a chemical action; the
+gases may be mechanically separated by atmolysis, i.e. by taking
+advantage of the different rates of diffusion of the two gases; the
+solubility of air in water corresponds with the "law of partial
+pressures," each gas being absorbed in amount proportional to its
+pressure and coefficient of absorption, and oxygen being much more
+soluble than nitrogen (in the ratio of .04114 to .02035 at 0°); air
+expelled from water by boiling is always richer in oxygen.
+
+Various agencies are at work tending to modify the composition of the
+atmosphere, but these so neutralize each other as to leave it
+practically unaltered. Minute variations, however, do occur. Bunsen
+analysed fifteen examples of air collected at the same place at
+different times, and found the extreme range in the percentage of oxygen
+to be from 20.97 to 20.84. Regnault, from analyses of the air of Paris,
+obtained a variation of 20.999 to 20.913; country air varied from 20.903
+to 21.000; while air taken from over the sea showed an extreme variation
+of 20.940 to 20.850. Angus Smith determined London air to vary in oxygen
+content from 20.857 to 20.95, the air in parks and open spaces showing
+the higher percentage; Glasgow air showed similar results, varying from
+20.887 in the streets to 20.929 in open spaces.
+
+In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, there are a number of other gases
+and vapours generally present in the atmosphere. Of these, argon and its
+allies were the last to be definitely isolated. Carbon dioxide is
+invariably present, as was inferred by Dr David Macbride (1726-1778) of
+Dublin in 1764, but in a proportion which is not absolutely constant; it
+tends to increase at night, and during dry winds and fogs, and it is
+greater in towns than in the country and on land than on the sea. Water
+vapour is always present; the amount is determined by instruments termed
+hygrometers (q.v.). Ozone (q.v.) occurs, in an amount supposed to be
+associated with the development of atmospheric electricity (lightning,
+&c.); this amount varies with the seasons, being a maximum in spring,
+and decreasing through summer and autumn to a minimum in winter.
+Hydrogen dioxide occurs in a manner closely resembling ozone. Nitric
+acid and lower nitrogen oxides are present, being formed by electrical
+discharges, and by the oxidation of atmospheric ammonia by ozone. The
+amount of nitric acid varies from place to place; rain-water, collected
+in the country, has been found to contain an average of 0.5 parts in a
+million, but town rain-water contains more, the greater amounts being
+present in the more densely populated districts. Ammonia is also
+present, but in very varying amounts, ranging from 135 to 0.1 parts
+(calculated as carbonate) in a million parts of air. Ammonia is carried
+back to the soil by means of rain, and there plays an important part in
+providing nitrogenous matter which is afterwards assimilated by
+vegetable life.
+
+The average volume composition of the gases of the atmosphere may be
+represented (in parts per 10,000) as follows:--
+
+  Oxygen          2065.94      Ozone             0.015
+  Nitrogen        7711.60      Aqueous vapour  140.00
+  Argon (about)     79.00      Nitric acid       0.08
+  Carbon dioxide     3.36      Ammonia           0.005
+
+In addition to these gases, there are always present in the atmosphere
+many micro-organisms or bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY); another invariable
+constituent is dust (q.v.), which plays an important part in
+meteorological phenomena.
+
+Reference should be made to the articles BAROMETER, CLIMATE and
+METEOROLOGY for the measurement and variation of the pressure of the
+atmosphere, and the discussion of other properties.
+
+
+
+
+ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 1. It was not until the middle of the 18th
+century that experiments due to Benjamin Franklin showed that the
+electric phenomena of the atmosphere are not fundamentally different
+from those produced in the laboratory. For the next century the rate of
+progress was slow, though the ideas of Volta in Italy and the
+instrumental devices of Sir Francis Ronalds in England merit
+recognition. The invention of the portable electrometer and the
+water-dropping electrograph by Lord Kelvin in the middle of the 19th
+century, and the greater definiteness thus introduced into observational
+results, were notable events. Towards the end of the 19th century came
+the discovery made by W. Linss (6)[1] and by J. Elster and H. Geitel (7)
+that even the most perfectly insulated conductors lose their charge, and
+that this loss depends on atmospheric conditions. Hard on this came the
+recognition of the fact that freely charged positive and negative ions
+are always present in the atmosphere, and that a radioactive emanation
+can be collected. Whilst no small amount of observational work has been
+done in these new branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has
+still not developed to a considerable extent beyond preliminary stages.
+Observations have usually been limited to a portion of the year, or to a
+few hours of the day, whilst the results from different stations differ
+much in details. It is thus difficult to form a judgment as to what has
+most claim to acceptance as the general law, and what may be regarded as
+local or exceptional.
+
+2. _Potential Gradient._--In dry weather the electric potential in the
+atmosphere is normally positive relative to the earth, and increases
+with the height. The existence of _earth currents_ (q.v.) shows that the
+earth, strictly speaking, is not all at one potential, but the natural
+differences of potential between points on the earth's surface a mile
+apart are insignificant compared to the normal potential difference
+between the earth and a point one foot above it. What is aimed at in
+ordinary observations of atmospheric potential is the measurement of the
+difference of potential between the earth and a point a given distance
+above it, or of the difference of potential between two points in the
+same vertical line a given distance apart. Let a conductor, say a
+metallic sphere, be supported by a metal rod of negligible electric
+capacity whose other end is earthed. As the whole conductor must be at
+zero (i.e. the earth's) potential, there must be an induced charge on
+the sphere, producing at its centre a potential equal but of opposite
+sign to what would exist at the same spot in free air. This neglects any
+charge in the air displaced by the sphere, and assumes a statical state
+of conditions and that the conductor itself exerts no disturbing
+influence. Suppose now that the sphere's earth connexion is broken and
+that it is carried without loss of charge inside a building at zero
+potential. If its potential as observed there is -V (volts), then the
+potential of the air at the spot occupied by the sphere was +V. This
+method in one shape or another has been often employed. Suppose next
+that a fixed insulated conductor is somehow kept at the potential of the
+air at a given point, then the measurement of its potential is
+equivalent to a measurement of that of the air. This is the basis of a
+variety of methods. In the earliest the conductor was represented by
+long metal wires, supported by silk or other insulating material, and
+left to pick up the air's potential. The addition of sharp points was a
+step in advance; but the method hardly became a quantitative one until
+the sharp points were replaced by a flame (fuse, gas, lamp), or by a
+liquid jet breaking into drops. The matter leaving the conductor,
+whether the products of combustion or the drops of a liquid, supplies
+the means of securing equality of potential between the conductor and
+the air at the spot where the matter quits electrical connexion with the
+conductor. Of late years the function of the collector is discharged in
+some forms of apparatus by a salt of radium. Of flame collectors the two
+best known are Lord Kelvin's portable electrometer with a fuse, or F.
+Exner's gold leaf electroscope in conjunction with an oil lamp or gas
+flame. Of liquid collectors the representative is Lord Kelvin's
+water-dropping electrograph; while Benndorf's is the form of radium
+collector that has been most used. It cannot be said that any one form
+of collector is superior all round. Flame collectors blow out in high
+winds, whilst water-droppers are apt to get frozen in winter. At first
+sight the balance of advantages seems to lie with radium. But while
+gaseous products and even falling water are capable of modifying
+electrical conditions in their immediate neighbourhood, the "infection"
+produced by radium is more insidious, and other drawbacks present
+themselves in practice. It requires a radium salt of high radioactivity
+to be at all comparable in effectiveness with a good water-dropper.
+Experiments by F. Linke (8) indicated that a water-dropper having a
+number of fine holes, or having a fine jet under a considerable
+pressure, picks up the potential in about a tenth of the time required
+by the ordinary radium preparation protected by a glass tube. These fine
+jet droppers with a mixture of alcohol and water have proved very
+effective for balloon observations.
+
+  TABLE I.--_Annual Variation Potential Gradient._
+
+  +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+  | Place and Period.               | Jan.| Feb.|March|April| May | June|July|Aug.|Sept.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.|
+  +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+  | Karasjok (10), 1903-1904        | 143 | 150 | 137 |  94 |  74 |  65 | 70 | 67 |  67 |  87 | 120 | 126 |
+  | Sodankylä (31), 1882-1883       |  94 | 133 | 148 | 155 | 186 |  93 | 53 | 77 |  47 |  72 |  71 |  71 |
+  | Potsdam (9), 1904               | 167 |  95 | 118 |  88 |  93 |  72 | 73 | 65 |  97 | 101 | 108 | 123 |
+  | Kew (12), 1898-1904             | 127 | 141 | 113 |  87 |  77 |  70 | 61 | 72 |  76 |  96 | 126 | 153 |
+  | Greenwich (13), 1893-1894, 1896 | 110 | 112 | 127 | 107 |  83 |  71 | 76 | 84 |  83 | 104 | 104 | 139 |
+  | Florence (14), 1883-1886        | 132 | 110 |  98 |  84 |  86 |  81 | 77 | 90 |  89 |  99 | 129 | 125 |
+  | Perpignan (15), 1886-1888       | 121 | 112 | 108 |  89 |  91 |  92 | 89 | 82 |  74 |  99 | 122 | 121 |
+  | Lisbon (16), 1884-1886          | 104 | 105 | 104 |  92 |  91 |  93 | 87 | 92 | 100 |  99 | 115 | 117 |
+  | Tokyo (17), 1897-1898, 1900-1901| 165 | 145 | 117 |  86 |  62 |  58 | 41 | 59 |  59 |  97 | 134 | 176 |
+  | Batavia (18)(2 m.), 1887-1890   |  97 | 115 | 155 | 127 | 129 | 105 | 79 | 62 |  69 |  79 |  90 |  93 |
+  |     "     (7.8 m.)  1890-1895   | 100 |  89 | 103 | 120 |  98 | 103 | 85 | 99 |  73 | 101 | 117 | 112 |
+  +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+3. Before considering observational data, it is expedient to mention
+various sources of uncertainty. Above the level plain of absolutely
+smooth surface, devoid of houses or vegetation, the equipotential
+surfaces under normal conditions would be strictly horizontal, and if we
+could determine the potential at one metre above the ground we should
+have a definite measure of the potential gradient at the earth's
+surface. The presence, however, of apparatus or observers upsets the
+conditions, while above uneven ground or near a tree or a building the
+equipotential surfaces cease to be horizontal. In an ordinary climate a
+building seems to be practically at the earth's potential; near its
+walls the equipotential surfaces are highly inclined, and near the
+ridges they may lie very close together. The height of the walls in the
+various observatories, the height of the collectors, and the distance
+they project from the wall vary largely, and sometimes there are
+external buildings or trees sufficiently near to influence the
+potential. It is thus futile to compare the absolute voltages met with
+at two stations, unless allowance can be made for the influence of the
+environment. With a view to this, it has become increasingly common of
+late years to publish not the voltages actually observed, but values
+deduced from them for the potential gradient in the open in volts per
+metre. Observations are made at a given height over level open ground
+near the observatory, and a comparison with the simultaneous results
+from the self-recording electrograph enables the records from the latter
+to be expressed as potential gradients in the open. In the case,
+however, of many observatories, especially as regards the older records,
+no data for reduction exist; further, the reduction to the open is at
+best only an approximation, the success attending which probably varies
+considerably at different stations. This is one of the reasons why in
+the figures for the annual and diurnal variations in Tables I., II. and
+III., the potential has been expressed as percentages of its mean value
+for the year or the day. In most cases the environment of a collector is
+not absolutely invariable. If the shape of the equipotential surfaces
+near it is influenced by trees, shrubs or grass, their influence will
+vary throughout the year. In winter the varying depth of snow may exert
+an appreciable effect. There are sources of uncertainty in the
+instrument itself. Unless the insulation is perfect, the potential
+recorded falls short of that at the spot where the radium is placed or
+the water jet breaks. The action of the collector is opposed by the
+leakage through imperfect insulation, or natural dissipation, and this
+may introduce a fictitious element into the apparent annual or diurnal
+variation. The potentials that have to be dealt with are often hundreds
+and sometimes thousands of volts, and insulation troubles are more
+serious than is generally appreciated. When a water jet serves as
+collector, the pressure under which it issues should be practically
+constant. If the pressure alters as the water tank empties, a
+discontinuity occurs in the trace when the tank is refilled, and a
+fictitious element may be introduced into the diurnal variation. When
+rain or snow is falling, the potential frequently changes rapidly. These
+changes are often too rapid to be satisfactorily dealt with by an
+ordinary electrometer, and they sometimes leave hardly a trace on the
+photographic paper. Again rain dripping from exposed parts of the
+apparatus may materially affect the record. It is thus customary in
+calculating diurnal inequalities either to take no account of days on
+which there is an appreciable rainfall, or else to form separate tables
+for "dry" or "fine" days and for "all" days. Speaking generally, the
+exclusion of days of rain and of negative potential comes pretty much to
+the same thing, and the presence or absence of negative potential is not
+infrequently the criterion by reference to which days are rejected or
+are accepted as normal.
+
+  4. The potential gradient near the ground varies with the season of
+  the year and the hour of the day, and is largely dependent on the
+  weather conditions. It is thus difficult to form even a rough estimate
+  of the mean value at any place unless hourly readings exist, extending
+  over the whole or the greater part of a year. It is even somewhat
+  precipitate to assume that a mean value deduced from a single year is
+  fairly representative of average conditions. At Potsdam, G. Lüdeling
+  (9) found for the mean value for 1904 in volts per metre 242. At
+  Karasjok in the extreme north of Norway G.C. Simpson (10) in 1903-1904
+  obtained 139. At Kremsmünster for 1902 P.B. Zölss(11) gives 98. At Kew
+  (12) the mean for individual years from 1898 to 1904 varied from 141
+  in 1900 to 179 in 1899, the mean from the seven years combined being
+  159. The large difference between the means obtained at Potsdam and
+  Kremsmünster, as compared to the comparative similarity between the
+  results for Kew and Karasjok, suggests that the mean value of the
+  potential gradient may be much more dependent on local conditions than
+  on difference of latitude.
+
+  At any single station potential gradient has a wide range of values.
+  The largest positive and negative values recorded are met with during
+  disturbed weather. During thunderstorms the record from an
+  electrograph shows large sudden excursions, the trace usually going
+  off the sheet with every flash of lightning when the thunder is near.
+  Exactly what the potential changes amount to under such circumstances
+  it is impossible to say; what the trace shows depends largely on the
+  type of electrometer. Large rapid changes are also met with in the
+  absence of thunder during heavy rain or snow fall. In England the
+  largest values of a sufficiently steady character to be shown
+  correctly by an ordinary electrograph occur during winter fogs. At
+  such times gradients of +400 or +500 volts per metre are by no means
+  unusual at Kew, and voltages of 700 or 800 are occasionally met with.
+
+  5. Annual Variation.--Table I. gives the annual variation of the
+  potential gradient at a number of stations arranged according to
+  latitude, the mean value for the whole year being taken in each case
+  as 100. Karasjok as already mentioned is in the extreme north of
+  Norway (69° 17' N.); Sodankylä was the Finnish station of the
+  international polar year 1882-1883. At Batavia, which is near the
+  equator (6° 11' S.) the annual variation seems somewhat irregular.
+  Further, the results obtained with the water-dropper at two
+  heights--viz. 2 and 7.8 metres--differ notably. At all the other
+  stalions the difference between summer and winter months is
+  conspicuous. From the European data one would be disposed to conclude
+  that the variation throughout the year diminishes as one approaches
+  the equator. It is decidedly less at Perpignan and Lisbon than at
+  Potsdam, Kew and Greenwich, but nowhere is the seasonal difference
+  more conspicuous than at Tokyo, which is south of Lisbon.
+
+
+    TABLE II.--_Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient_.
+
+    +-------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+-------------+---------+
+    |Station|Karasjok|Sodankylä| Kew(19, 12).|Greenwich|Florence|Perpignan| Lisbon.| Tokyo.|   Batavia.  |  Cape   |
+    |       |        |         |             |         |        |         |        |       |             |Horn(20).|
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+    |Period | 1903-4.| 1882-83 | 1862-| 1898-| 1893-96.|1883-85.| 1886-88.|1884-86.|1897-98| 1887-| 1890-| 1882-83.|
+    |       |        |         | 1864.| 1904.|         |        |         |        |1900-1.| 1890.| 1895.|         |
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+    | Days. |        |   All.  | All. |Quiet.|   All.  |  All.  |  Fine.  |  All.  |  All. | Dry. | Dry. |   Pos.  |
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+    |   h   |  5.5   |   3.0   | 3.5  | 3.35 |   3.0   |        |   8.4   |   3.0  |  1.7  |   2  |  7.8 |   3.5   |
+    |   l   |        |   2.5   | 1.0  | 1.3  |   1.8   |        |   1.5   |   0.5  |  2.0  |      |  7.8 |   2.0   |
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+    |  Hour |        |         |      |      |         |        |         |        |       |      |      |         |
+    |   1   |   83   |    91   |   87 |   93 |    97   |    92  |    78   |    84  |  101  |  147 |  125 |    82   |
+    |   2   |   73   |    85   |   79 |   88 |    89   |    83  |    72   |    80  |   98  |  141 |  114 |    73   |
+    |   3   |   66   |    82   |   74 |   84 |    87   |    77  |    71   |    78  |   97  |  135 |  109 |    85   |
+    |   4   |   63   |    84   |   72 |   83 |    86   |    75  |    72   |    81  |   99  |  128 |  102 |    81   |
+    |   5   |   60   |    89   |   71 |   85 |    86   |    74  |    77   |    83  |  121  |  127 |  101 |    85   |
+    |   6   |   68   |    91   |   77 |   93 |    92   |    82  |    92   |    92  |  154  |  137 |  117 |    95   |
+    |   7   |   81   |    97   |   92 |  103 |   100   |   100  |   107   |   101  |  167  |  158 |  147 |   106   |
+    |   8   |   87   |   100   |  106 |  112 |   102   |   112  |   114   |   105  |  149  |  104 |  119 |   118   |
+    |   9   |   94   |    98   |  107 |  115 |   100   |   113  |   111   |   104  |  117  |   67 |   82 |   119   |
+    |  10   |  101   |   102   |  100 |  112 |   101   |   107  |   100   |   104  |   87  |   42 |   55 |   123   |
+    |  11   |   99   |    98   |   90 |  101 |    96   |   100  |    96   |   102  |   70  |   35 |   46 |   123   |
+    | Noon. |  103   |   102   |   92 |   94 |    97   |    95  |    99   |   108  |   61  |   30 |   43 |   115   |
+    |   1   |  106   |   105   |   90 |   89 |    96   |    92  |    99   |   111  |   54  |   30 |   42 |   112   |
+    |   2   |  108   |   107   |   91 |   87 |    94   |    90  |    97   |   114  |   49  |   30 |   43 |    94   |
+    |   3   |  108   |   108   |   92 |   88 |    95   |    89  |    99   |   109  |   53  |   33 |   46 |    89   |
+    |   4   |  109   |   108   |   98 |   93 |    97   |    89  |   105   |   108  |   61  |   41 |   53 |    88   |
+    |   5   |  110   |   108   |  108 |   99 |   102   |    94  |   113   |   108  |   76  |   67 |   73 |    84   |
+    |   6   |  119   |   110   |  121 |  108 |   108   |   113  |   126   |   111  |   95  |   91 |  108 |   110   |
+    |   7   |  129   |   102   |  134 |  115 |   111   |   121  |   131   |   116  |  107  |  120 |  145 |   107   |
+    |   8   |  136   |   111   |  139 |  118 |   115   |   129  |   129   |   114  |  114  |  137 |  155 |   123   |
+    |   9   |  139   |   111   |  138 |  119 |   117   |   132  |   120   |   109  |  119  |  146 |  155 |   112   |
+    |  10   |  133   |   104   |  128 |  115 |   117   |   127  |   109   |   102  |  120  |  148 |  147 |    99   |
+    |  11   |  121   |   108   |  113 |  108 |   111   |   114  |    97   |    92  |  119  |  151 |  143 |    85   |
+    |  12   |  102   |    93   |   99 |   99 |   104   |   100  |    86   |    85  |  112  |  147 |  130 |    98   |
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+
+
+    TABLE III.--_Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient_.
+
+    +--------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+    |Station.| Karasjok. | Sodankylä.|       Kew.      | Greenwich.|  Bureau   | Eiffel  | Perpignan |  Batavia  |
+    |        |           |           |                 |           |Central(21)|Tower(21)|   (21).   |  (2 m.)   |
+    +--------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Period.|  1903-4.  |  1882-83. |    1898-1904.   |1894, 1896.|  1894-99. | 1896-98.|  1885-95. |  1887-90. |
+    +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |        | Win-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Win-|Equi-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Summer. | Win-| Sum-| Win | Sum-|
+    |        | ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.| ter.| nox.| mer.| ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.|         | ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.|
+    +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |  Hour. |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |         |     |     |     |     |
+    |    1   |  76 | 104 |  90 |  99 |  91 |  93 |  96 |  87 | 110 |  79 | 102 |    90   |  72 |  88 | 145 | 149 |
+    |    2   |  66 |  96 |  79 |  84 |  86 |  88 |  90 |  84 | 101 |  71 |  92 |    83   |  67 |  83 | 139 | 142 |
+    |    3   |  57 |  89 |  78 |  90 |  82 |  85 |  85 |  76 |  98 |  70 |  88 |    79   |  66 |  81 | 137 | 135 |
+    |    4   |  55 |  83 |  74 |  99 |  81 |  84 |  84 |  77 |  96 |  69 |  84 |    76   |  67 |  83 | 131 | 127 |
+    |    5   |  50 |  79 |  74 | 111 |  82 |  87 |  90 |  78 |  94 |  75 |  94 |    78   |  72 |  92 | 132 | 123 |
+    |    6   |  61 |  83 |  80 | 114 |  86 |  97 | 101 |  82 | 101 |  83 | 106 |    87   |  84 | 107 | 138 | 136 |
+    |    7   |  78 |  89 |  86 | 117 |  95 | 109 | 113 |  94 | 107 |  98 | 118 |    97   | 104 | 114 | 166 | 153 |
+    |    8   |  82 |  93 |  95 | 122 | 104 | 118 | 120 |  97 | 111 | 111 | 120 |   103   | 122 | 108 | 118 |  92 |
+    |    9   |  90 |  93 |  91 | 109 | 111 | 119 | 119 |  98 | 102 | 113 | 106 |   110   | 126 | 100 |  74 |  64 |
+    |   10   | 104 |  93 | 106 | 101 | 114 | 110 | 110 | 102 |  98 | 111 |  94 |   109   | 114 |  93 |  43 |  40 |
+    |   11   | 102 |  92 |  98 |  97 | 107 |  95 |  97 | 103 |  86 | 108 |  84 |   107   |  98 |  90 |  35 |  36 |
+    |  Noon. | 119 |  90 |  98 | 100 | 102 |  86 |  87 | 107 |  94 | 106 |  77 |   104   |  99 |  95 |  31 |  30 |
+    |    1   | 116 |  94 | 116 |  97 |  99 |  81 |  80 | 107 |  85 | 112 |  79 |   107   |  96 |  93 |  29 |  33 |
+    |    2   | 118 |  97 | 113 |  97 |  97 |  80 |  76 | 109 |  82 | 112 |  81 |   110   |  94 |  90 |  28 |  32 |
+    |    3   | 119 | 100 | 121 |  93 |  99 |  82 |  76 | 111 |  78 | 111 |  78 |   107   |  95 |  88 |  24 |  41 |
+    |    4   | 115 |  99 | 111 |  96 | 103 |  88 |  80 | 116 |  81 | 113 |  80 |   105   | 102 |  92 |  30 |  49 |
+    |    5   | 120 | 106 | 105 | 106 | 108 |  96 |  87 | 112 |  93 | 120 |  85 |   106   | 115 |  98 |  60 |  74 |
+    |    6   | 131 | 104 | 115 |  92 | 111 | 109 |  98 | 114 |  98 | 124 |  97 |   109   | 128 | 110 |  88 |  94 |
+    |    7   | 136 | 110 | 118 | 102 | 114 | 120 | 111 | 117 |  99 | 124 | 123 |   113   | 133 | 122 | 119 | 122 |
+    |    8   | 134 | 113 | 117 | 106 | 112 | 124 | 123 | 113 | 108 | 116 | 134 |   110   | 131 | 127 | 138 | 135 |
+    |    9   | 137 | 125 | 115 |  90 | 111 | 123 | 129 | 111 | 118 | 104 | 130 |   109   | 124 | 125 | 145 | 147 |
+    |   10   | 125 | 135 | 112 |  90 | 108 | 118 | 125 | 110 | 124 |  97 | 122 |   105   | 111 | 117 | 148 | 148 |
+    |   11   | 114 | 126 | 113 | 103 | 103 | 109 | 116 | 102 | 120 |  90 | 115 |   101   |  96 | 108 | 149 | 152 |
+    |   12   |  96 | 111 |  95 |  85 |  96 |  99 | 105 |  93 | 116 |  83 | 108 |    94   |  83 |  95 | 148 | 146 |
+    +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  At the temperate stations the maximum occurs near midwinter; in the
+  Arctic it seems deferred towards spring.
+
+  6. _Diurnal Variation._--Table II. gives the mean diurnal variation
+  for the whole year at a number of stations arranged in order of
+  latitude, the mean from the 24 hourly values being taken as 100. The
+  data are some from "all" days, some from "quiet," "fine" or "dry"
+  days. The height, h, and the distance from the wall, l, were the
+  potential is measured are given in metres when known. In most cases
+  two distinct maxima and minima occur in the 24 hours. The principal
+  maximum is usually found in the evening between 8 and 10 P.M., the
+  principal minimum in the morning from 3 to 5 A.M. At some stations the
+  minimum in the afternoon is indistinctly shown, but at Tokyo and
+  Batavia it is mu	ch more conspicuous than the morning minimum.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  7. In Table III. the diurnal inequality is shown for "winter" and
+  "summer" respectively. In all cases the mean value for the 24 hours is
+  taken as 100. By "summer" is meant April to September at Sodankylä,
+  Greenwich and Batavia; May to August at Kew, Bureau Central (Paris),
+  Eiffel Tower and Perpignan; and May to July at Karasjok. "Winter"
+  includes October to March at Sodankylä, Greenwich and Batavia;
+  November to February at Kew and Bureau Central; November to January at
+  Karasjok, and December and January at Perpignan. Mean results from
+  March, April, September and October at Kew are assigned to "Equinox."
+
+  At Batavia the difference between winter and summer is comparatively
+  small. Elsewhere there is a tendency for the double period, usually so
+  prominent in summer, to become less pronounced in winter, the
+  afternoon minimum tending to disappear. Even in summer the double
+  period is not prominent in the arctic climate of Karasjok or on the
+  top of the Eiffel Tower. The diurnal variation in summer at the latter
+  station is shown graphically in the top curve of fig. 1. It presents a
+  remarkable resemblance to the adjacent curve, which gives the diurnal
+  variation at mid-winter at the Bureau Central. The resemblance between
+  these curves is much closer than that between the Bureau Central's own
+  winter and summer curves. All three Paris curves show three peaks, the
+  first and third representing the ordinary forenoon and afternoon
+  maxima. In summer at the Bureau Central the intermediate peak nearly
+  disappears in the profound afternoon depression, but it is still
+  recognizable. This three-peaked curve is not wholly peculiar to Paris,
+  being seen, for instance, at Lisbon in summer. The December and June
+  curves for Kew are good examples of the ordinary nature of the
+  difference between midwinter and midsummer. The afternoon minimum at
+  Kew gradually deepens as midsummer approaches. Simultaneously the
+  forenoon maximum occurs earlier and the afternoon maximum later in the
+  day. The two last curves in the diagram contrast the diurnal variation
+  at Kew in potential gradient and in barometric pressure for the year
+  as a whole. The somewhat remarkable resemblance between the diurnal
+  variation for the two elements, first remarked on by J.D. Everett
+  (19), is of interest in connexion with recent theoretical conclusions
+  by J.P. Elster and H.F.K. Geitel and by H. Ebert.
+
+  In the potential curves of the diagram the ordinates represent the
+  hourly values expressed--as in Tables II. and III.--as percentages of
+  the mean value for the day. If this be overlooked, a wrong impression
+  may be derived as to the absolute amplitudes of the changes. The Kew
+  curves, for instance, might suggest that the range (maximum less
+  minimum hourly value) was larger in June than in December. In reality
+  the December range was 82, the June only 57 volts; but the mean value
+  of the potential was 243 in December as against 111 in June. So again,
+  in the case of the Paris curves, the absolute value of the diurnal
+  range in summer was much greater for the Eiffel Tower than for the
+  Bureau Central, but the mean voltage was 2150 at the former station
+  and only 134 at the latter.
+
+  8. _Fourier Coefficients._--Diurnal inequalities such as those of
+  Tables II. and III. and intended to eliminate irregular changes, but
+  they also to some extent eliminate regular changes if the hours of
+  maxima and minima or the character of the diurnal variation alter
+  throughout the year. The alteration that takes place in the regular
+  diurnal inequality throughout the year is best seen by analysing it
+  into a Fourier series of the type
+
+    c1 sin(t + a1) + c2 sin(2t + a2) + c3 sin(3t + a3) +
+       + c4 sin(4t + a4) + ...
+
+  where t denotes time counted from (local) midnight, c1, c2, c3, c4,
+  ... are the amplitudes of the component harmonic waves of periods 24,
+  12, 8 and 6 hours; a1, a2, a3, a4, are the corresponding phase angles.
+  One hour of time t is counted as 15°, and a delay of one hour in the
+  time of maximum answers to a diminution of 15° in a1, of 30° in a2,
+  and so on. If a1, say, varies much throughput the year, or if the
+  ratios of c2, c3, c4, ... to c1, vary much, then a diurnal inequality
+  derived from a whole year, or from a season composed of several
+  months, represents a mean curve arising from the superposition of a
+  number of curves, which differ in shape and in the positions of their
+  maxima and minima. The result, if considered alone, inevitably leads
+  to an underestimate of the average amplitude of the regular diurnal
+  variation.
+
+  It is also desirable to have an idea of the size of the irregular
+  changes which vary from one day to the next. On stormy days, as
+  already mentioned, the irregular changes hardly admit of satisfactory
+  treatment. Even on the quietest days irregular changes are always
+  numerous and often large.
+
+  Table IV. aims at giving a summary of the several phenomena for a
+  single station, Kew, on electrically quiet days. The first line gives
+  the mean value of the potential gradient, the second the mean excess
+  of the largest over the smallest hourly value on individual days. The
+  hourly values are derived from smoothed curves, the object being to
+  get the mean ordinate for a 60-minute period. If the actual crests of
+  the excursions had been measured the figures in the second line would
+  have been even larger. The third line gives the range of the _regular_
+  diurnal inequality, the next four lines the amplitudes of the first
+  four Fourier waves into which the regular diurnal inequality has been
+  analysed. These mean values, ranges and amplitudes are all measured in
+  volts per metre (in the open). The last four lines of Table IV. give
+  the phase angles of the first four Fourier waves.
+
+
+    TABLE IV.--_Absolute Potential Data at Kew_ (12).
+
+    +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                                | Jan.| Feb.| Mar.| Apr.| May | June| July| Aug.| Sep.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.|
+    +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Mean Potential Gradient        | 201 | 224 | 180 | 138 | 123 | 111 |  98 | 114 | 121 | 153 | 200 | 243 |
+    | Mean of individual daily ranges| 203 | 218 | 210 | 164 | 143 | 143 | 117 | 129 | 141 | 196 | 186 | 213 |
+    | Range in Diurnal inequality    |  73 |  94 |  83 |  74 |  71 |  57 |  55 |  60 |  54 |  63 |  52 |  82 |
+    |                           / c1 |  22 |  22 |  17 |  13 |  18 |   9 |   6 |   6 |   9 |   7 |  14 |  30 |
+    | Amplitudes of Fourier     | c2 |  21 |  33 |  34 |  31 |  22 |  23 |  24 |  26 |  23 |  30 |  17 |  21 |
+    |   waves                  <  c3 |   7 |  10 |   5 |   5 |   3 |   1 |   3 |   2 |   3 |   6 |   5 |   7 |
+    |                           \ c4 |   2 |   3 |   5 |   6 |   4 |   1 |   4 |   3 |   4 |   3 |   2 |   3 |
+    |                                +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                                |  °  |  °  |  °  |  °  |  °  |  °  |  °  |  °  |  °     °  |  °  |  °  |
+    |                           / a1 | 206 | 204 | 123 |  72 |  86 |  79 |  48 | 142 | 154 | 192 | 202 | 208 |
+    | Phase angles of Fourier   | a1 | 170 | 171 | 186 | 193 | 188 | 183 | 185 | 182 | 199 | 206 | 212 | 175 |
+    |  waves                   <  a3 |  11 |   9 |  36 |  96 | 100 | 125 | 124 | 107 |  16 |  18 |  38 |  36 |
+    |                           \ a1 | 235 | 225 | 307 | 314 | 314 | 277 | 293 | 313 | 330 | 288 | 238 | 249 |
+    +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  It will be noticed that the difference between the greatest and least
+  hourly values is, in all but three winter months, actually larger than
+  the mean value of the potential gradient for the day; it bears to the
+  range of the regular diurnal inequality a ratio varying from 2.0 in
+  May to 3.6 in November.
+
+  At midwinter the 24-hour term is the largest, but near midsummer it is
+  small compared to the 12-hour term. The 24-hour term is very variable
+  both as regards its amplitude and its phase angle (and so its hour of
+  maximum). The 12-hour term is much less variable, especially as
+  regards its phase angle; its amplitude shows distinct maxima near the
+  equinoxes. That the 8-hour and 6-hour waves, though small near
+  midsummer, represent more than mere accidental irregularities, seems a
+  safe inference from the regularity apparent in the annual variation of
+  their phase angles.
+
+
+    TABLE V.--_Fourier Series Amplitudes and Phase Angles._
+
+    +------------------+---------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+    |                  |         |         Winter.         |         Summer .        |
+    |      Place.      | Period. +------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+
+    |                  |         |  c1. |  c2. | a1. | a2. |  c1. |  c2. | a1. | a2. |
+    +------------------+---------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+
+    |                  |         |      |      |  °  |  °  |      |      |  °  |  °  |
+    | Kew              | 1862-64 |0.283 |0.160 | 184 | 193 |0.127 |0.229 | 111 | 179 |
+    |  "               |1898-1904| .102 | .103 | 206 | 180 | .079 | .213 |  87 | 186 |
+    | Bureau Central   | 1894-98 | .220 | .104 | 223 | 206 | .130 | .200 |  95 | 197 |
+    | Eiffel Tower     | 1896-98 |  ..  |  ..  | ..  | ..  | .133 | .085 | 216 | 171 |
+    | Sonnblick (22)   | 1902-03 |  ..  |  ..  | ..  | ..  | .208 | .120 | 178 | 145 |
+    | Karasjok         | 1903-04 | .356 | .144 | 189 | 155 | .165 | .093 | 141 | 144 |
+    | Kremsmünster (23)|  1902   | .280 | .117 | 224 | 194 | .166 | .153 | 241 | 209 |
+    | Potsdam          |  1904   | .269 | .101 | 194 | 185 | .096 | .152 | 343 | 185 |
+    +------------------+---------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+
+
+  9. Table V. gives some data for the 24-hour and 12-hour Fourier
+  coefficients, which will serve to illustrate the diversity between
+  different stations. In this table, unlike Table IV., amplitudes are
+  all expressed as decimals of the mean value of the potential gradient
+  for the corresponding season. "Winter" means generally the four
+  midwinter, and "summer" the four midsummer, months; but at Karasjok
+  three, and at Kremsmünster six, months are included in each season.
+  The results for the Sonnblick are derived from a comparatively small
+  number of days in August and September. At Potsdam the data represent
+  the arithmetic means derived from the Fourier analysis for the
+  individual months comprising the season. The 1862-1864 data from
+  Kew--due to J.D. Everett (19)--are based on "all" days; the others,
+  except Karasjok to some extent, represent electrically quiet days. The
+  cause of the large difference between the two sets of data for c1 at
+  Kew is uncertain. The potential gradient is in all cases lower in
+  summer than winter, and thus the reduction in c1 in summer would
+  appear even larger than in Table V. if the results were expressed in
+  absolute measure. At Karasjok and Kremsmünster the seasonal variation
+  in a1 seems comparatively small, but at Potsdam and the Bureau Central
+  it is as large as at Kew. Also, whilst the winter values of a1 are
+  fairly similar at the several stations the summer values are widely
+  different. Except at Karasjok, where the diurnal changes seem somewhat
+  irregular, the relative amplitude of the 12-hour term is considerably
+  greater in summer than in winter. The values of a2 at the various
+  stations differ comparatively little, and show but little seasonal
+  change. Thus the 12-hour term has a much greater uniformity than the
+  24-hour term. This possesses significance in connexion with the view,
+  supported by A.B. Chauveau (21), F. Exner (24) and others, that the
+  12-hour term is largely if not entirely a local phenomenon, due to the
+  action of the lower atmospheric strata, and tending to disappear even
+  in summer at high altitudes. Exner attributes the double daily
+  maximum, which is largely a consequence of the 12-hour wave, to a thin
+  layer near the ground, which in the early afternoon absorbs the solar
+  radiation of shortest wave length. This layer he believes specially
+  characteristic of arid dusty regions, while comparatively non-existent
+  in moist climates or where foliage is luxuriant. In support of his
+  theory Exner states that he has found but little trace of the double
+  maximum and minimum in Ceylon and elsewhere. C. Nordmann (25)
+  describes some similar results which he obtained in Algeria during
+  August and September 1905. His station, Philippeville, is close to the
+  shores of the Mediterranean, and sea breezes persisted during the day.
+  The diurnal variation showed only a single maximum and minimum,
+  between 5 and 6 P.M. and 4 and 5 A.M. respectively. So again, a few
+  days' observations on the top of Mont Blanc (4810 metres) by le Cadet
+  (26) in August and September 1902, showed only a single period, with
+  maximum between 3 and 4 P.M., and minimum about 3 A.M. Chauveau points
+  to the reduction in the 12-hour term as compared to the 24-hour term
+  on the Eiffel Tower, and infers the practical disappearance of the
+  former at no great height. The close approach in the values for c1 in
+  Table V. from the Bureau Central and the Eiffel Tower, and the
+  reduction of c2 at the latter station, are unquestionably significant
+  facts; but the summer value for c2 at Karasjok--a low level
+  station--is nearly as small as that at the Eiffel Tower, and notably
+  smaller than that at the Sonnblick (3100 metres). Again, Kew is
+  surrounded by a large park, not devoid of trees, and hardly the place
+  where Exner's theory would suggest a large value for c2, and yet the
+  summer value of c2 at Kew is the largest in Table V.
+
+  10. Observations on mountain tops generally show high potentials near
+  the ground. This only means that the equipotential surfaces are
+  crowded together, just as they are near the ridge of a house. To
+  ascertain how the increase in the voltage varies as the height in the
+  free atmosphere increases, it is necessary to employ kites or
+  balloons. At small heights Exner (27) has employed captive balloons,
+  provided with a burning fuse, and carrying a wire connected with an
+  electroscope on the ground. He found the gradient nearly uniform for
+  heights up to 30 to 40 metres above the ground. At great heights free
+  balloons seem necessary. The balloon carries two collectors a given
+  vertical distance apart. The potential difference between the two is
+  recorded, and the potential gradient is thus found. Some of the
+  earliest balloon observations made the gradient increase with the
+  height, but such a result is now regarded as abnormal. A balloon may
+  leave the earth with a charge, or become charged through discharge of
+  ballast. These possibilities may not have been sufficiently realized
+  at first. Among the most important balloon observations are those by
+  le Cadet (1) F. Linke (28) and H. Gerdien (29). The following are
+  samples from a number of days' results, given in le Cadet's book. h is
+  the height in metres, P the gradient in volts per metre.
+
+    Aug. 9, 1893  / h  824  830 1060 1255 1290 1745 1940 2080 2310 2520
+                  \ P   37   43   43   41   42   34   25   21   18   16
+
+    Sep. 11, 1897 / h 1140 1378 1630 1914 2370 2786 3136 3364 3912 4085
+                  \ P   43   38   33   25   22   21   19   19   14   13
+
+  The ground value on the last occasion was 150. From observations
+  during twelve balloon ascents, Linke concludes that below the
+  1500-metre level there are numerous sources of disturbance, the
+  gradient at any given height varying much from day to day and hour to
+  hour; but at greater heights there is much more uniformity. At heights
+  from 1500 to 6000 metres his observations agreed well with the formula
+
+    dV/dh = 34 - 0.006h,
+
+  V denoting the potential, h the height in metres. The formula makes
+  the gradient diminish from 25 volts per metre at 1500 metres height to
+  10 volts per metre at 4000 metres. Linke's mean value for dV/dh at the
+  ground was 125. Accepting Linke's formula, the potential at 4000
+  metres is 43,750 volts higher than at 1500 metres. If the mean of the
+  gradients observed at the ground and at 1500 metres be taken as an
+  approximation to the mean value of the gradient throughout the lowest
+  1500 metres of the atmosphere, we find for the potential at 1500
+  metres level 112,500 volts. Thus at 4000 metres the potential seems of
+  the order of 150,000 volts. Bearing this in mind, one can readily
+  imagine how close together the equipotential surfaces must lie near
+  the summit of a high sharp mountain peak.
+
+  11. At most stations a negative potential gradient is exceptional,
+  unless during rain or thunder. During rain the potential is usually
+  but not always negative, and frequent alternations of sign are not
+  uncommon. In some localities, however, negative potential gradient is
+  by no means uncommon, at least at some seasons, in the absence of
+  rain. At Madras, Michie Smith (30) often observed negative potential
+  during bright August and September days. The phenomenon was quite
+  common between 9.30 A.M. and noon during westerly winds, which at
+  Madras are usually very dry and dusty. At Sodankylä, in 1882-1883,
+  K.S. Lemström and F.C. Biese (31) found that out of 255 observed
+  occurrences of negative potential, 106 took place in the absence of
+  rain or snow. The proportion of occurrences of negative potential
+  under a clear sky was much above its average in autumn. At Sodankylä
+  rain or snowfall was often unaccompanied by change of sign in the
+  potential. At the polar station Godthaab (32) in 1882-1883, negative
+  potential seemed sometimes associated with aurora (see AURORA
+  POLARIS).
+
+  Lenard, Elster and Geitel, and others have found the potential
+  gradient negative near waterfalls, the influence sometimes extending
+  to a considerable distance. Lenard (33) found that when pure water
+  falls upon water the neighbouring air takes a negative charge. Kelvin,
+  Maclean and Gait (34) found the effect greatest in the air near the
+  level of impact. A sensible effect remained, however, after the
+  influence of splashing was eliminated. Kelvin, Maclean and Galt regard
+  this property of falling water as an objection to the use of a
+  water-dropper indoors, though not of practical importance when it is
+  used out of doors.
+
+  12. Elster and Geitel (35) have measured the charge carried by
+  raindrops falling into an insulated vessel. Owing to observational
+  difficulties, the exact measure of success attained is a little
+  difficult to gauge, but it seems fairly certain that raindrops usually
+  carry a charge. Elster and Geitel found the sign of the charge often
+  fluctuate repeatedly during a single rain storm, but it seemed more
+  often than not opposite to that of the simultaneous potential
+  gradient. Gerdien has more recently repeated the experiments,
+  employing an apparatus devised by him for the purpose. It has been
+  found by C.T.R. Wilson (36) that a vessel in which freshly fallen rain
+  or snow has been evaporated to dryness shows radioactive properties
+  lasting for a few hours. The results obtained from equal weights of
+  rain and snow seem of the same order.
+
+  13. W. Linss (6) found that an insulated conductor charged either
+  positively or negatively lost its charge in the free atmosphere; the
+  potential V after time t being connected with its initial value V0 by
+  a formula of the type V = V0e^(-at) where a is constant. This was
+  confirmed by Elster and Geitel (7), whose form of dissipation
+  apparatus has been employed in most recent work. The percentage of the
+  charge which is dissipated per minute is usually denoted by a+ or a-
+  according to its sign. The mean of a+ and a- is usually denoted by a±
+  or simply by a, while q is employed for the ratio a-/a+. Some
+  observers when giving mean values take [Sigma](a-/a+) as the mean
+  value of q, while others take [Sigma](a-)/[Sigma](a+). The Elster
+  and Geitel apparatus is furnished with a cover, serving to protect the
+  dissipator from the direct action of rain, wind or sunlight. It is
+  usual to observe with this cover on, but some observers, e.g. A.
+  Gockel, have made long series of observations without it. The loss of
+  charge is due to more than one cause, and it is difficult to attribute
+  an absolutely definite meaning even to results obtained with the cover
+  on. Gockel (37) says that the results he obtained without the cover
+  when divided by 3 are fairly comparable with those obtained under the
+  usual conditions; but the appropriate divisor must vary to some extent
+  with the climatic conditions. Thus results obtained for a+ or a-
+  without the cover are of doubtful value for purposes of comparison
+  with those found elsewhere with it on. In the case of q the
+  uncertainty is much less.
+
+
+    TABLE VI.--_Dissipation. Mean Values._
+
+    +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+
+    |           Place.         |Period.|    Season.   |     Observer or     |  a±  |  q   |
+    |                          |       |              |      Authority.     |      |      |
+    +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+
+    | Karasjok                 | 1903-4|     Year     | Simpson (10)        | 3.57 | 1.15 |
+    | Wolfenbüttel             |             Year     | Elster & Geitel (39)| 1.33 | 1.05 |
+    | Potsdam                  |  1904 |     Year     | Lüdeling (40)       | 1.13 | 1.33 |
+    | Kremsmüster              |  1902 |     Year     | Zölss (42)          | 1.32 | 1.18 |
+    |     "                    |  1903 |     Year     | Zölss (41)          | 1.35 | 1.14 |
+    | Freiburg                 |       |     Year     | Gockel (43)         |  ..  | 1.41 |
+    | Innsbruck                |  1902 |              | Czermak (44)        | 1.95 | 0.94 |
+    |     "                    |  1905 | Jan. to June | Defant (45)         | 1.47 | 1.17 |
+    | Mattsee (Salzburg)       |  1905 | July to Sept.| von Schweidler (46) |  ..  | 0.99 |
+    | Seewalchen               |  1904 | July to Sept.| von Schweidler (38) |  ..  | 1.18 |
+    | Trieste                  | 1902-3|     Year     | Mazelle (47)        | 0.58 | 1.09 |
+    | Misdroy                  |  1902 |              | Lüdeling (40)       | 1.09 | 1.58 |
+    | Swinemünde               |  1904 |Aug. and Sept.| Lüdeling (40)       | 1.23 | 1.37 |
+    | Heligoland (sands)       |  1903 |    Summer    | Elster & Geitel (40)| 1.14 | 1.71 |
+    |     "      plateau       |   "   |      "       |    "        "   (40)| 3.07 | 1.50 |
+    | Juist (Island)           |       |      "       |    "        "   (48)| 1.56 | 1.56 |
+    | Atlantic and German Ocean|  1904 |    August    | Boltzmann (49)      | 1.83 | 2.69 |
+    | Arosa (1800 m.)          |  1903 |Feb. to April | Saake (50)          | 1.79 | 1.22 |
+    | Rothhorn (2300 m.)       |  1903 |   September  | Gockel (43)         |  ..  | 5.31 |
+    | Sonnblick (3100 m.)      |  1903 |   September  | Conrad (22)         |  ..  | 1.75 |
+    | Mont Blanc (4810 m.)     |  1902 |   September  | le Cadet (43)       |  ..  |10.3  |
+    +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+
+
+  Table VI. gives the mean values of a± and q found at various places.
+  The observations were usually confined to a few hours of the day, very
+  commonly between 11 A.M. and 1 P.M., and in absence of information as
+  to the diurnal variation it is impossible to say how much this
+  influences the results. The first eight stations lie inland; that at
+  Seewalchen (38) was, however, adjacent to a large lake. The next five
+  stations are on the coast or on islands. The final four are at high
+  levels. In the cases where the observations were confined to a few
+  months the representative nature of the results is more doubtful.
+
+  On mountain summits q tends to be large, i.e. a negative charge is
+  lost much faster than a positive charge. Apparently q has also a
+  tendency to be large near the sea, but this phenomenon is not seen at
+  Trieste. An exactly opposite phenomenon, it may be remarked, is seen
+  near waterfalls, q becoming very small. Only Innsbruck and Mattsee
+  give a mean value of q less than unity. Also, as later observations at
+  Innsbruck give more normal values for q, some doubt may be felt as to
+  the earlier observations there. The result for Mattsee seems less open
+  to doubt, for the observer, von Schweidler, had obtained a normal
+  value for q during the previous year at Seewalchen. Whilst the average
+  q in at least the great majority of stations exceeds unity, individual
+  observations making q less than unity are not rare. Thus in 1902 (51)
+  the percentage of cases in which q fell short of 1 was 30 at Trieste,
+  33 at Vienna, and 35 at Kremsmünster; at Innsbruck q was less than 1
+  on 58 days out of 98.
+
+  In a long series of observations, individual values of q show usually
+  a wide range. Thus during observations extending over more than a
+  year, q varied from 0.18 to 8.25 at Kremsmünster and from 0.11 to 3.00
+  at Trieste. The values of a+, a- and a± also show large variations.
+  Thus at Trieste a+ varied from 0.12 to 4.07, and a- from 0.11 to 3.87;
+  at Vienna a+ varied from 0.32 to 7.10, and a- from 0.78 to 5.42; at
+  Kremsmünster a± varied from 0.14 to 5.83.
+
+  14. _Annual Variation._--When observations are made at irregular
+  hours, or at only one or two fixed hours, it is doubtful how
+  representative they are. Results obtained at noon, for example,
+  probably differ more from the mean value for the 24 hours at one
+  season than at another. Most dissipation results are exposed to
+  considerable uncertainty on these grounds. Also it requires a long
+  series of years to give thoroughly representative results for any
+  element, and few stations possess more than a year or two's
+  dissipation data. Table VII. gives comparative results for winter
+  (October to March) and summer at a few stations, the value for the
+  season being the arithmetic mean from the individual months composing
+  it. At Karasjok (10), Simpson observed thrice a day; the summer value
+  there is nearly double the winter both for a+ and a-. The Kremsmünster
+  (42) figures show a smaller but still distinct excess in the summer
+  values. At Trieste (47), Mazelle's data from all days of the year show
+  no decided seasonal change in a+ or a-; but when days on which the
+  wind was high are excluded the summer value is decidedly the higher.
+  At Freiburg (43), q seems decidedly larger in winter than in summer;
+  at Karasjok and Trieste the seasonal effect in q seems small and
+  uncertain.
+
+
+    TABLE VII.--_Dissipation._
+
+    +--------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
+    |                    |           Winter.         |           Summer.         |
+    +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |       Place.       |  a+  |  a-  |  a±  |  q   |  a+  |  a-  |  a±  |  q   |
+    +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    | Karasjok 1903-1904 | 2.28 | 2.69 | 2.49 | 1.18 | 4.38 | 4.94 | 4.65 | 1.13 |
+    | Kremsmüster 1903   | 1.14 | 1.30 | 1.22 | 1.14 | 1.38 | 1.56 | 1.47 | 1.12 |
+    | Freiburg           |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  | 1.57 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  | 1.26 |
+    | Trieste 1902-1903  | 0.56 | 0.59 | 0.58 | 1.07 | 0.55 | 0.61 | 0.58 | 1.13 |
+    |   "     calm days  |  ..  |  ..  | 0.35 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  | 0.48 |  ..  |
+    +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  15. _Diurnal Variation._--P.B. Zölss (41, 42) has published diurnal
+  variation data for Kremsmünster for more than one year, and
+  independently for midsummer (May to August) and midwinter (December to
+  February). His figures show a double daily period in both a+ and a-,
+  the principal maximum occurring about 1 or 2 P.M. The two minima
+  occur, the one from 5 to 7 A.M., the other from 7 to 8 P.M.; they are
+  nearly equal. Taking the figures answering to the whole year, May 1903
+  to 1904, a+ varied throughout the day from 0.82 to 1.35, and a- from
+  0.85 to 1.47. At midsummer the extreme hourly values were 0.91 and
+  1.45 for a+, 0.94 and 1.60 for a-. The corresponding figures at
+  midwinter were 0.65 and 1.19 for a+, 0.61 and 1.43 for a-. Zölss' data
+  for q show also a double daily period, but the apparent range is
+  small, and the hourly variation is somewhat irregular. At Karasjok,
+  Simpson found a+ and a- both larger between noon and 1 P.M. than
+  between either 8 and 9 A.M. or 6 and 7 P.M. The 6 to 7 P.M. values
+  were in general the smallest, especially in the case of a+; the
+  evening value for q on the average exceeded the values from the two
+  earlier hours by some 7%.
+
+  Summer observations on mountains have shown diurnal variations very
+  large and fairly regular, but widely different from those observed at
+  lower levels. On the Rothhorn, Gockel (43) found a+ particularly
+  variable, the mean 7 A.M. value being 4½ times that at 1 P.M. q (taken
+  as [Sigma](a-/a+)) varied from 2.25 at 5 A.M. and 2.52 at 9 P.M. to
+  7.82 at 3 P.M. and 8.35 at 7 P.M. On the Sonnblick, in early
+  September, V. Conrad (22) found somewhat similar results for q, the
+  principal maximum occurring at 1 P.M., with minima at 9 P.M. and 6
+  A.M.; the largest hourly value was, however, scarcely double the
+  least. Conrad found a- largest at 4 A.M. and least at 6 P.M., the
+  largest value being double the least; a+ was largest at 5 A.M. and
+  least at 2 P.M., the largest value being fully 2½ times the least. On
+  Mont Blanc, le Cadet (43) found q largest from 1 to 3 P.M., the value
+  at either of these hours being more than double that at 11 A.M. On the
+  Patscherkofel, H. von Ficker and A. Defant (52), observing in
+  December, found q largest from 1 to 2 P.M. and least between 11 A.M.
+  and noon, but the largest value was only 1½ times the least. On
+  mountains much seems to depend on whether there are rising or falling
+  air currents, and results from a single season may not be fairly
+  representative.
+
+  16. Dissipation seems largely dependent on meteorological conditions,
+  but the phenomena at different stations vary so much as to suggest
+  that the connexion is largely indirect. At most stations a+ and a-
+  both increase markedly as wind velocity rises. From the observations
+  at Trieste in 1902-1903 E. Mazelle (47) deduced an increase of about
+  3% in a+ for a rise of 1 km. per hour in wind velocity. The following
+  are some of his figures, the velocity v being in kilometres per
+  hour:--
+
+    +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |  v  | 0 to 4. | 20 to 24. | 40 to 49. | 60 to 69. |
+    +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |  a  |  0.33   |    0.64   |    1.03   |    1.38   |
+    |  q  |  1.13   |    1.19   |    1.00   |    0.96   |
+    +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  For velocities from 0 to 24 km. per hour q exceeded unity in 74 cases
+  out of 100; but for velocities over 50 km. per hour q exceeded unity
+  in only 40 cases out of 100. Simpson got similar results at Karasjok;
+  the rise in a+ and a- with increased wind velocity seemed, however,
+  larger in winter than in summer. Simpson observed a fall in q for wind
+  velocities exceeding 2 on Beaufort's scale. On the top of the
+  Sonnblick, Conrad observed a _slight_ increase of a± as the wind
+  velocity increased up to 20 km. per hour, but for greater velocities
+  up to 80 km. per hour no further decided rise was observed.
+
+  At Karasjok, treating summer and winter independently, Simpson (10)
+  found a+ and a- both increase in a nearly linear relation with
+  temperature, from below -20° to +15° C. For example, when the
+  temperature was below -20° mean values were 0.76 for a+ and 0.91 for
+  a-; for temperatures between -10° and -5° the corresponding means were
+  2.45 and 2.82; while for temperatures between +10° and +15° they were
+  4.68 and 5.23. Simpson found no certain temperature effect on the
+  value of q. At Trieste, from 470 days when the wind velocity did not
+  exceed 20 km. per hour, Mazelle (47) found somewhat analogous results
+  for temperatures from 0° to 30° C.; a-, however, increased faster than
+  a+, i.e. q increased with temperature. When he considered all days
+  irrespective of wind velocity, Mazelle found the influence of
+  temperature obliterated. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found a±
+  increase appreciably as temperature rose up to 4° or 5° C.; but at
+  higher temperatures a decrease set in.
+
+  Observations on the Sonnblick agree with those at low-level stations
+  in showing a diminution of dissipation with increase of relative
+  humidity. The decrease is most marked as saturation approaches. At
+  Trieste, for example, for relative humidities between 90 and 100 the
+  mean a± was less than half that for relative humidities under 40. With
+  certain dry winds, notably Föhn winds in Austria and Switzerland,
+  dissipation becomes very high. Thus at Innsbruck Defant (45) found the
+  mean dissipation on days of Föhn fully thrice that on days without
+  Föhn. The increase was largest for a+, there being a fall of about 15%
+  in q. In general, a+ and a- both tend to be less on cloudy than on
+  bright days. At Kiel (53) and Trieste the average value of q is
+  considerably less for wholly overcast days than for bright days. At
+  several stations enjoying a wide prospect the dissipation has been
+  observed to be specially high on days of great visibility when distant
+  mountains can be recognized. It tends on the contrary to be low on
+  days of fog or rain.
+
+  The results obtained as to the relation between dissipation and
+  barometric pressure are conflicting. At Kremsmünster, Zölss (42) found
+  dissipation vary with the absolute height of the barometer, a± having
+  a mean value of 1.36 when pressure was below the normal, as against
+  1.20 on days when pressure was above the normal. He also found a± on
+  the average about 10% larger when pressure was falling than when it
+  was rising. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found dissipation increase
+  decidedly as the absolute barometric pressure was larger, and he found
+  no difference between days of rising and falling barometer. At
+  Trieste, Mazelle (47) found no certain connexion with absolute
+  barometric pressure. Dissipation was above the average when cyclonic
+  conditions prevailed, but this seemed simply a consequence of the
+  increased wind velocity. At Mattsee, E.R. von Schweidler (46) found no
+  connexion between absolute barometric pressure and dissipation, also
+  days of rising and falling pressure gave the same mean. At Kiel, K.
+  Kaehler (53) found a+ and a- both greater with rising than with
+  falling barometer.
+
+  V. Conrad and M. Topolansky (54) have found a marked connexion at
+  Vienna between dissipation and ozone. Regular observations were made
+  of both elements. Days were grouped according to the intensity of
+  colouring of ozone papers, 0 representing no visible effect, and 14
+  the darkest colour reached. The mean values of _a+_ and _a-_ answering
+  to 12 and 13 on the ozone scale were both about double the
+  corresponding values answering to 0 and 1 on that scale.
+
+  17. A charged body in air loses its charge in more than one way. The
+  air, as is now known, has always present in it ions, some carrying a
+  positive and others a negative charge, and those having the opposite
+  sign to the charged body are attracted and tend to discharge it. The
+  rate of loss of charge is thus largely dependent on the extent to
+  which ions are present in the surrounding air. It depends, however, in
+  addition on the natural mobility of the ions, and also on the
+  opportunities for convection. Of late years many observations have
+  been made of the ionic charges in air. The best-known apparatus for
+  the purpose is that devised by Ebert. A cylinder condenser has its
+  inner surface insulated and charged to a high positive or negative
+  potential. Air is drawn by an aspirator between the surfaces, and the
+  ions having the opposite sign to the inner cylinder are deposited on
+  it. The charge given up to the inner cylinder is known from its loss
+  of potential. The volume of air from which the ions have been
+  extracted being known, a measure is obtained of the total charge on
+  the ions, whether positive or negative. The conditions must, of
+  course, be such as to secure that no ions shall escape, otherwise
+  there is an underestimate. I+ is used to denote the charge on positive
+  ions, I- that on negative ions. The unit to which they are ordinarily
+  referred is 1 electrostatic unit of electricity per cubic metre of
+  air. For the ratio of the mean value of I+ to the mean value of I-,
+  the letter Q is employed by Gockel (55), who has made an unusually
+  complete study of ionic charges at Freiburg. Numerous observations
+  were also made by Simpson (10)--thrice a day--at Karasjok, and von
+  Schweidler has made a good many observations about 3 P.M. at Mattsee
+  (46) in 1905, and Seewalchen (38) in 1904. These will suffice to give
+  a general idea of the mean values met with.
+
+    +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+
+    | Station.   |    Authority.   |  I+  |  I-  |   Q  |
+    +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+
+    | Freiburg   | Gockel          | 0.34 | 0.24 | 1.41 |
+    | Karasjok   | Simpson         | 0.38 | 0.33 | 1.17 |
+    | Mattsee    | von Schweidler  | 0.35 | 0.29 | 1.19 |
+    | Seewalchen |        "        | 0.45 | 0.38 | 1.17 |
+    +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+
+
+  Gockel's mean values of I+ and Q would be reduced to 0.31 and 1.38
+  respectively if his values for July--which appear abnormal--were
+  omitted. I+ and I- both show a considerable range of values, even at
+  the same place during the same season of the year. Thus at Seewalchen
+  in the course of a month's observations at 3 P.M., I+ varied from 0.31
+  to 0.67, and I- from 0.17 to 0.67.
+
+  There seems a fairly well marked annual variation in ionic contents,
+  as the following figures will show. Summer and winter represent each
+  six months and the results are arithmetic means of the monthly values.
+
+    +--------+--------------------+--------------------+
+    |        |      Freiburg.     |      Karasjok.     |
+    +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |        |  I+  |  I-  |  Q   |  I+  |  I-  |  Q   |
+    +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    | Winter | 0.29 | 0.21 | 1.49 | 0.33 | 0.27 | 1.22 |
+    | Summer | 0.39 | 0.28 | 1.34 | 0.44 | 0.39 | 1.13 |
+    +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  If the exceptional July values at Freiburg were omitted, the summer
+  values of I+ and Q would become 0.33 and 1.25 respectively.
+
+  18. _Diurnal Variation._--At Karasjok Simpson found the mean values of
+  I+ and I- throughout the whole year much the same between noon and 1
+  P.M. as between 8 and 9 A.M. Observations between 6 and 7 P.M. gave
+  means slightly lower than those from the earlier hours, but the
+  difference was only about 5% in I+ and 10% in I-. The evening values
+  of Q were on the whole the largest. At Freiburg, Gockel found I+ and
+  I- decidedly larger in the early afternoon than in either the morning
+  or the late evening hours. His greatest and least mean hourly values
+  and the hours of their occurrence are as follows:--
+
+    +-------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+    |            Winter.            |            Summer.            |
+    +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |      I+       |      I-       |      I+       |      I-       |
+    +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |  Max. |  Min. |  Max. |  Min. |  Max. |  Min. |  Max. |  Min. |
+    | 0.333 | 0.193 | 0.242 | 0.130 | 0.430 | 0.244 | 0.333 | 0.192 |
+    | 2 P.M.| 7 P.M.| 2 P.M.| 8 P.M.| 4 P.M.| 9 to  | 4 P.M.| 9 to  |
+    |       |       |       |       |       |10 P.M.|       |10 P.M.|
+    +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  Gockel did not observe between 10 P.M. and 7 A.M.
+
+  19. Ionization seems to increase notably as temperature rises. Thus at
+  Karasjok Simpson found for mean values:--
+
+    Temp. less than -20°        -10° to -5°             10° to 15°
+    I+ = 0.18, I- = 0.36    I+ = 0.36, I- = 0.30   I+ = 0.45, I- = 0.43
+
+  Simpson found no clear influence of temperature on Q. Gockel observed
+  similar effects at Freiburg--though he seems doubtful whether the
+  relationship is direct--but the influence of temperature on I+ seemed
+  reduced when the ground was covered with snow. Gockel found a
+  diminution of ionization with rise of relative humidity. Thus for
+  relative humidities between 40 and 50 mean values were 0.306 for I+
+  and 0.219 for I-; whilst for relative humidities between 90 and 100
+  the corresponding means were respectively 0.222 and 0.134. At
+  Karasjok, Simpson found a slight decrease in I- as relative humidity
+  increased, but no certain change in I+. Specially large values of I+
+  and I- have been observed at high levels in balloon ascents. Thus on
+  the 1st of July 1901, at a height of 2400 metres, H. Gerdien (29)
+  obtained 0.86 for I+ and 1.09 for I-.
+
+  20. In 1901 Elster and Geitel found that a radioactive emanation is
+  present in the atmosphere. Their method of measuring the radioactivity
+  is as follows (48): A wire not exceeding 1 mm. in diameter, charged to
+  a negative potential of at least 2000 volts, is supported between
+  insulators in the open, usually at a height of about 2 metres. After
+  two hours' exposure, it is wrapped round a frame supported in a given
+  position relative to Elster and Geitel's dissipation apparatus, and
+  the loss of charge is noted. This loss is proportional to the length
+  of the wire. The radioactivity is denoted by A, and A=1 signifies that
+  the potential of the dissipation apparatus fell 1 volt in an hour per
+  metre of wire introduced. The loss of the dissipation body due to the
+  natural ionization of the air is first allowed for. Suppose, for
+  instance, that in the absence of the wire the potential falls from 264
+  to 255 volts in 15 minutes, whilst when the wire (10 metres long) is
+  introduced it falls from 264 to 201 volts in 10 minutes, then
+
+    10A = (254 - 201)×6 - (264 - 255)×4 = 342; or A = 34.2.
+
+  The values obtained for A seem largely dependent on the station. At
+  Wolfenbüttel, a year's observations by Elster and Geitel (56) made A
+  vary from 4 to 64, the mean being 20. In the island of Juist, off the
+  Friesland coast, from three weeks' observations they obtained only 5.2
+  as the mean. On the other hand, at Altjoch, an Alpine station, from
+  nine days' observations in July 1903 they obtained a mean of 137, the
+  maximum being 224, and the minimum 92. At Freiburg, from 150 days'
+  observations near noon in 1903-1904, Gockel (57) obtained a mean of
+  84, his extreme values being 10 and 420. At Karasjok, observing
+  several times throughout the day for a good many months, Simpson (10)
+  obtained a mean of 93 and a maximum of 432. The same observer from
+  four weeks' observations at Hammerfest got the considerably lower mean
+  value 58, with a maximum of 252. At this station much lower values
+  were found for A with sea breezes than with land breezes. Observing on
+  the pier at Swinemünde in August and September 1904, Lüdeling (40)
+  obtained a mean value of 34.
+
+  Elster and Geitel (58), having found air drawn from the soil highly
+  radioactive, regard ground air as the source of the emanation in the
+  atmosphere, and in this way account for the low values they obtained
+  for A when observing on or near the sea. At Freiburg in winter Gockel
+  (55) found A notably reduced when snow was on the ground, I+ being
+  also reduced. When the ground was covered by snow the mean value of A
+  was only 42, as compared with 81 when there was no snow.
+
+  J.C. McLennan (59) observing near the foot of Niagara found A only
+  about one-sixth as large as at Toronto. Similarly at Altjoch, Elster
+  and Geitel (56) found A at the foot of a waterfall only about
+  one-third of its normal value at a distance from the fall.
+
+  21. _Annual and Diurnal Variations._--At Wolfenbüttel, Elster and
+  Geitel found A vary but little with the season. At Karasjok, on the
+  contrary, Simpson found A much larger at midwinter--notwithstanding
+  the presence of snow--than at midsummer. His mean value for November
+  and December was 129, while his mean for May and June was only 47. He
+  also found a marked diurnal variation, A being considerably greater
+  between 3 and 5 A.M. or 8.30 to 10.30 P.M. than between 10 A.M. and
+  noon, or between 3 and 5 P.M.
+
+  At all seasons of the year Simpson found A rise notably with increase
+  of relative humidity. Also, whilst the mere absolute height of the
+  barometer seemed of little, if any, importance, he obtained larger
+  values of A with a falling than with a rising barometer. This last
+  result of course is favourable to Elster and Geitel's views as to the
+  source of the emanation.
+
+  22. For a wire exposed under the conditions observed by Elster and
+  Geitel the emanation seems to be almost entirely derived from radium.
+  Some part, however, seems to be derived from thorium, and H.A.
+  Bumstead (60) finds that with longer exposure of the wire the relative
+  importance of the thorium emanation increases. With three hours'
+  exposure he found the thorium emanation only from 3 to 5% of the
+  whole, but with 12 hours' exposure the percentage of thorium emanation
+  rose to about 15. These figures refer to the state of the wire
+  immediately after the exposure; the rate of decay is much more rapid
+  for the radium than for the thorium emanation.
+
+  23. The different elements--potential gradient, dissipation,
+  ionization and radioactivity--are clearly not independent of one
+  another. The loss of a charge is naturally largely dependent on the
+  richness of the surrounding air in ions. This is clearly shown by the
+  following results obtained by Simpson (10) at Karasjok for the mean
+  values of a± corresponding to certain groups of values of I±. To
+  eliminate the disturbing influence of wind, different wind strengths
+  are treated separately.
+
+
+    TABLE VIII.--_Mean Values of a±._
+
+    +----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |   Wind   |I±0 to 0.1.|0.1 to 0.2|0.2 to 0.3|0.3 to 0.4|0.4 to 0.5|
+    | Strength.|           |          |          |          |          |
+    +----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |  0 to 1  |   0.45    |   0.60   |   1.26   |   2.04   |   3.03   |
+    |  1 "  2  |   0.65    |   1.08   |   1.85   |   2.92   |   3.83   |
+    |  2 "  3  |    ..     |    ..    |   2.70   |   3.88   |   5.33   |
+    +----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  Simspon concluded that for a given wind velocity dissipation is
+  practically a linear function of ionization.
+
+  24. Table IX. will give a general idea of the relations of potential
+  gradient to dissipation and ionization.
+
+
+    TABLE IX.--_Potential, Dissipation, Ionization._
+
+    +------------+----------------------------+----------------------------------+
+    | Potential  |             q              |      Karasjok (Simpson (10)).    |
+    | gradients  |                            |                                  |
+    | volts per  +----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |   metre.   | Kremsmün-| Freibu-| Rothho-|  a+  |  a-  |  I+  |  I-  |   Q  |
+    |            | ster(41).|rg (43).| rn(43).|      |      |      |      |      |
+    +------------+----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |   0 to  50 |    ..    |  1.12  |   ..   |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+    |  50 "  100 |   1.14   |  1.31  |   ..   | 4.29 | 4.67 | 0.43 | 0.39 | 1.11 |
+    | 100 "  150 |   1.24   |  1.69  |   ..   | 3.38 | 3.93 | 0.37 | 0.32 | 1.15 |
+    | 150 "  200 |   1.48   |  1.84  |   ..   | 1.85 | 2.58 | 0.36 | 0.28 | 1.28 |
+    | 200 "  300 |    ..    |   ..   |  3.21  | 1.37 | 1.58 | 0.26 | 0.19 | 1.42 |
+    | 300 "  400 |    ..    |   ..   |  4.33  | 0.60 | 0.85 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+    | 400 "  500 |    ..    |   ..   |  5.46  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+    | 500 "  700 |    ..    |   ..   |  8.75  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+    +------------+----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  If we regard the potential gradient near the ground as representing a
+  negative charge on the earth, then if the source of supply of that
+  charge is unaffected the gradient will rise and become high when the
+  operations by which discharge is promoted slacken their activity. A
+  diminution in the number of positive ions would thus naturally be
+  accompanied by a rise in potential gradient. Table IX. associates with
+  rise in potential gradient a reduced number of both positive and
+  negative ions and a diminished rate of dissipation whether of a
+  negative or a positive charge. The rise in q and Q indicates that the
+  diminished rate of dissipation is most marked for positive charges,
+  and that negative ions are even more reduced then positive.
+
+  At Kremsmünster Zölss (41) finds a considerable similarity between the
+  diurnal variations in q and in the potential gradient, the hours of
+  the forenoon and afternoon maxima being nearly the same in the two
+  cases.
+
+  No distinct relationship has yet been established between potential
+  gradient and radioactivity. At Karasjok Simpson (10) found fairly
+  similar mean values of A for two groups of observations, one confined
+  to cases when the potential gradient exceeded +400 volts, the other
+  confined to cases of negative gradient.
+
+  At Freiburg Gockel (55, 57) found that when observations were grouped
+  according to the value of A there appeared a distinct rise in both a-
+  and I+ with increasing A. For instance, when A lay between 100 and 150
+  the mean value of a- was 1.27 times greater than when A lay between 0
+  and 50; while when A lay between 120 and 150 the mean value of I+ was
+  1.53 times larger than when A lay between 0 and 30. These apparent
+  relationships refer to mean values. In individual cases widely
+  different values of a- or I+ are associated with the same value of A.
+
+  25. If V be the potential, [rho] the density of free electricity at a
+  point in the atmosphere, at a distance r from the earth's centre, then
+  assuming statical conditions and neglecting variation of V in
+  horizontal directions, we have
+
+    r^(-2)(d/dr)(r² dV/dr) + 4[pi][rho] = 0.
+
+  For practical purposes we may treat r² as constant, and replace d/dr
+  by d/dh, where h is height in centimetres above the ground.
+
+  We thus find    [rho] = -(1/4[pi]) d²V/dh².
+
+  If we take a tube of force 1 sq. cm. in section, and suppose it cut by
+  equipotential surfaces at heights h1 and h2 above the ground, we have
+  for the total charge M included in the specified portion of the tube
+
+    4[pi]M = (dV/dh)h1 - (dV/dh)h2.
+
+  Taking Linke's (28) figures as given in § 10, and supposing h1 = 0, h2
+  = 15 × 10^4, we find for the charge in the unit tube between the
+  ground and 1500 metres level, remembering that the centimetre is now
+  the unit of length, M = (1/(4[pi])) (125.25)/100. Taking 1 volt equal
+  1/300 of an electrostatic unit, we find M = 0.000265. Between 1500 and
+  4000 metres the charge inside the unit tube is much less, only
+  0.000040. The charge on the earth itself has its surface density given
+  by [sigma] = - (1/(4[pi])) × 125 volts per metre, = 0.000331 in e
+  ectrostatic units. Thus, on the view now generally current, in the
+  circumstances answering to Linke's experiments we have on the ground a
+  charge of -331 × 10^(-6) C.G.S. units per sq. cm. Of the corresponding
+  positive charge, 265 × 10^(-6) lies below the 1500 metres level, 40 ×
+  10^(-6) between this and the 4000 metres level, and only 26 × 10^(-6)
+  above 4000 metres.
+
+  There is a difficulty in reconciling observed values of the ionization
+  with the results obtained from balloon ascents as to the variation of
+  the potential with altitude. According to H. Gerdien (61), near the
+  ground a mean value for d²V/dh² is - (1/10) volt/(metre)². From this
+  we deduce for the charge [rho] per cubic centimetre (1/(4[pi])) ×
+  10^(-5) (volt/cm²), or 2.7 × 10^(-9) electrostatic units. But taking,
+  for example, Simpson's mean values at Karasjok, we have observed
+
+    [rho] [equivalent] I+ - I1 = 0.05 × (cm./metre)^3 = 5 × 10^(-8),
+
+  and thus (calculated [rho])/(observed [rho]) = 0.05 approximately.
+  Gerdien himself makes I+ - I- considerably larger than Simpson, and
+  concludes that the observed value of [rho] is from 30 to 50 times that
+  calculated. The presumption is either that d²V/dh² near the ground is
+  much larger numerically than Gerdien supposes, or else that the
+  ordinary instruments for measuring ionization fail to catch some
+  species of ion whose charge is preponderatingly negative.
+
+  26. Gerdien (61) has made some calculations as to the probable average
+  value of the vertical electric current in the atmosphere in fine
+  weather. This will be composed of a conduction and a convection
+  current, the latter due to rising or falling air currents carrying
+  ions. He supposes the field near the earth to be 100 volts per metre,
+  or 1/300 electrostatic units. For simplicity, he assumes I+ and I-
+  each equal 0.25 × 10^(-6) electrostatic units. The specific velocities
+  of the ions--i.e. the velocities in unit field--he takes to be 1.3 ×
+  300 for the positive, and 1.6 × 300 for the negative. The positive and
+  negative ions travel in opposite directions, so the total current is
+  (1/300)(0.25 × 10^(-6))(1.3 × 300 + 1.6 × 300), or 73 × 10^(-8) in
+  electrostatic measure, otherwise 2.4 × 10^(-16) amperes per sq. cm. As
+  to the convection current, Gerdien supposes--as in § 25--[rho] = 2.7 ×
+  10^(-9) electrostatic units, and on fine days puts the average
+  velocity of rising air currents at 10 cm. per second. This gives a
+  convection current of 2.7 × 10^(-8) electrostatic units, or about 1/27
+  of the conduction current. For the total current we have approximately
+  2.5 × 10^(-16) amperes per sq. cm. This is insignificant compared to
+  the size of the currents which several authorities have calculated
+  from considerations as to terrestrial magnetism (q.v.). Gerdien's
+  estimate of the convection current is for fine weather conditions.
+  During rainfall, or near clouds or dust layers, the magnitude of this
+  current might well be enormously increased; its direction would
+  naturally vary with climatic conditions.
+
+  27. H. Mache (62) thinks that the ionization observed in the
+  atmosphere may be wholly accounted for by the radioactive emanation.
+  If this is true we should have q = [alpha] n², where q is the number
+  of ions of one sign made in 1 cc. of air per second by the emanation,
+  [alpha] the constant of recombination, and n the number of ions found
+  simultaneously by, say, Ebert's apparatus. Mache and R. Holfmann, from
+  observations on the amplitude of saturation currents, deduce q = 4 as
+  a mean value. Taking for [alpha] Townsend's value 1.2 × 10^(-6), Mache
+  finds n = 1800. The charge on an ion being 3.4 × 10^(-10) Mache
+  deduces for the ionic charge, I+ or I-, per cubic metre 1800 × 3.4 ×
+  10^(-10) × 10^6, or 0.6. This is at least of the order observed, which
+  is all that can be expected from a calculation which assumes I+ and I-
+  equal. If, however, Mache's views were correct, we should expect a
+  much closer connexion between I and A than has actually been observed.
+
+  28. C.T.R. Wilson (63) seems disposed to regard the action of rainfall
+  as the most probable source of the negative charge on the earth's
+  surface. That great separation of positive and negative electricity
+  sometimes takes place during rainfall is undoubted, and the charge
+  brought to the ground seems preponderatingly negative. The difficulty
+  is in accounting for the continuance in extensive fine weather
+  districts of large positive charges in the atmosphere in face of the
+  processes of recombination always in progress. Wilson considers that
+  convection currents in the upper atmosphere would be quite inadequate,
+  but conduction may, he thinks, be sufficient alone. At barometric
+  pressures such as exist between 18 and 36 kilometres above the ground
+  the mobility of the ions varies inversely as the pressure, whilst the
+  coefficient of recombination [alpha] varies approximately as the
+  pressure. If the atmosphere at different heights is exposed to
+  ionizing radiation of uniform intensity the rate of production of ions
+  per cc., q, will vary as the pressure. In the steady state the number,
+  n, of ions of either sign per cc. is given by n = [root](q/[alpha]),
+  and so is independent of the pressure or the height. The conductivity,
+  which varies as the product of n into the mobility, will thus vary
+  inversely as the pressure, and so at 36 kilometres will be one hundred
+  times as large as close to the ground. Dust particles interfere with
+  conduction near the ground, so the relative conductivity in the upper
+  layers may be much greater than that calculated. Wilson supposes that
+  by the fall to the ground of a preponderance of negatively charged
+  rain the air above the shower has a higher positive potential than
+  elsewhere at the same level, thus leading to large conduction currents
+  laterally in the highly conducting upper layers.
+
+  29. _Thunder._--Trustworthy frequency statistics for an individual
+  station are obtainable only from a long series of observations, while
+  if means are taken from a large area places may be included which
+  differ largely amongst themselves. There is the further complication
+  that in some countries thunder seems to be on the increase. In
+  temperate latitudes, speaking generally, the higher the latitude the
+  fewer the thunderstorms. For instance, for Edinburgh (64) (1771 to
+  1900) and London (65) (1763 to 1896) R.C. Mossman found the average
+  annual number of thunderstorm days to be respectively 6.4 and 10.7;
+  while at Paris (1873-1893) E. Renou (66) found 27.3 such days. In some
+  tropical stations, at certain seasons of the year, thunder is almost a
+  daily occurrence. At Batavia (18) during the epoch 1867-1895, there
+  were on the average 120 days of thunder in the year.
+
+  As an example of a large area throughout which thunder frequency
+  appears fairly uniform, we may take Hungary (67). According to the
+  statistics for 1903, based on several hundred stations, the average
+  number of days of thunder throughout six subdivisions of the country,
+  some wholly plain, others mainly mountainous, varied only from 21.1 to
+  26.5, the mean for the whole of Hungary being 23.5. The antithesis of
+  this exists in the United States of America. According to A.J. Henry
+  (68) there are three regions of maximum frequency: one in the
+  south-east, with its centre in Florida, has an average of 45 days of
+  thunder in the year; a second including the middle Mississippi valley
+  has an average of 35 days; and a third in the middle Missouri valley
+  has 30. With the exception of a narrow strip along the Canadian
+  frontier, thunderstorm frequency is fairly high over the whole of the
+  United States to the east of the 100th meridian. But to the west of
+  this, except in the Rocky Mountain region where storms are numerous,
+  the frequency steadily diminishes, and along the Pacific coast there
+  are large areas where thunder occurs only once or twice a year.
+
+  30. The number of thunderstorm days is probably a less exact measure
+  of the relative _intensity_ of thunderstorms than statistics as to the
+  number of persons killed annually by lightning per million of the
+  population. Table X. gives a number of statistics of this kind. The
+  letter M stands for "Midland."
+
+
+    TABLE X.--_Deaths by Lightning, per annum, per million Inhabitants._
+
+    Hungary                  7.7     Upper Missouri and Plains   15
+    Netherlands              2.8     Rocky Mountains and Plateau 10
+    England, N. M.           1.8     South Atlantic               8
+       "     E.              1.3     Central Mississippi          7
+       "     S. M.           1.2     Upper    "                   7
+       "     York and W. M.  1.1     Ohio Valley                  7
+       "     N.              1.0     Middle Atlantic              6
+    Wales                    0.9     Gulf States                  5
+    England, S. E.           0.8     New England                  4
+       "     N. W.           0.7     Pacific Coast               <1*
+       "     S. W.           0.6     North and South Dakota      20
+    London                   0.1     California                   0
+
+    * Note in case of Pacific coast, Table X., "<1" means "less than 1."
+
+  The figure for Hungary is based on the seven years 1897-1903; that for
+  the Netherlands, from data by A.J. Monné (69) on the nine years
+  1882-1890. The English data, due to R. Lawson (70), are from
+  twenty-four years, 1857-1880; those for the United States, due to
+  Henry (68), are for five years, 1896-1900. In comparing these data
+  allowance must be made for the fact that danger from lightning is much
+  greater out of doors than in. Thus in Hungary, in 1902 and 1903, out
+  of 229 persons killed, at least 171 were killed out of doors. Of the
+  229 only 67 were women, the only assignable explanation being their
+  rarer employment in the fields. Thus, _ceteris paribtis_, deaths from
+  lightning are much more numerous in a country than in an industrial
+  population. This is well brought out by the low figure for London. It
+  is also shown conspicuously in figures given by Henry. In New York
+  State, where the population is largely industrial, the annual deaths
+  per million are only three, but of the agricultural population eleven.
+  In states such as Wyoming and the Dakotas the population is largely
+  rural, and the deaths by lightning rise in consequence. The frequency
+  and intensity of thunderstorms are unquestionably greater in the Rocky
+  Mountain than in the New England states, but the difference is not so
+  great as the statistics at first sight suggest.
+
+
+    TABLE XI.--_Annual Variation of Thunderstorms._
+
+    +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |              | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
+    +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    | Ediburgh     |  1.8 |  1.4 |  1.4 |  3.8 | 12.3 | 20.8 | 28.2 | 19.1 |  7.0 |  2.3 |  1.1 |  0.8 |
+    | London       |  0.6 |  0.5 |  1.6 |  6.6 | 12.7 | 18.3 | 25.5 | 19.2 |  9.3 |  3.1 |  1.7 |  0.9 |
+    | Paris        |  0.2 |  0.4 |  2.3 |  7.5 | 14.9 | 21.6 | 22.0 | 17.0 |  9.9 |  3.5 |  0.4 |  0.4 |
+    | Netherlands  |  2.2 |  1.8 |  3.7 |  6.5 | 14.0 | 14.7 | 15.6 | 14.7 | 10.3 | 10.1 |  3.8 |  2.5 |
+    | France       |  2.2 |  2.8 |  4.1 |  8.4 | 13.8 | 18.7 | 14.6 | 13.5 | 10.0 |  6.3 |  3.1 |  2.4 |
+    | Switzerland  |  0.2 |  0.3 |  0.5 |  4.9 | 11.9 | 22.9 | 29.9 | 18.0 |  9.8 |  1.1 |  0.3 |  0.2 |
+    | Hungary (a)  |  0.0 |  0.1 |  1.6 |  5.7 | 20.9 | 25.0 | 23.2 | 15.9 |  5.7 |  1.3 |  0.4 |  0.2 |
+    |    "    (b)  |  0.0 |  0.0 |  1.0 |  3.2 | 11.8 | 20.6 | 30.7 | 25.3 |  6.9 |  0.5 |  0.0 |  0.0 |
+    | United States|  0.1 |  0.1 |  1.2 |  4.0 | 14.3 | 25.0 | 27.2 | 20.4 |  5.8 |  1.4 |  0.3 |  0.1 |
+    | Hong-Kong    |  0.0 |  2.1 |  4.3 |  8.5 | 12.8 | 23.4 | 14.9 | 21.3 | 10.6 |  2.1 |  0.0 |  0.0 |
+    | Trevandrum   |  3.2 |  3.8 | 13.1 | 20.9 | 18.6 |  4.9 |  1.2 |  3.5 |  2.5 | 12.9 | 12.0 |  3.3 |
+    | Batavia      | 10.4 |  9.2 | 11.1 | 10.5 |  7.9 |  5.5 |  4.3 |  3.8 |  5.4 |  8.8 | 12.2 | 10.9 |
+    +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  31. Even at the same place thunderstorms vary greatly in intensity and
+  duration. Also the times of beginning and ending are difficult to
+  define exactly, so that several elements of uncertainty exist in data
+  as to the seasonal or diurnal variation. The monthly data in Table XI.
+  are percentages of the total for the year. In most cases the figures
+  are based on the number of days of thunder at a particular station, or
+  at the average station of a country; but the second set for Hungary
+  relates to the number of lightning strokes causing fire, and the
+  figures for the United States relate to deaths by lightning. The data
+  for Edinburgh, due to R.C. Mossman (64), refer to 130 years, 1771 to
+  1900. The data for London (1763-1896) are also due to Mossman (65);
+  for Paris (1873-1893) to Renou (66); for the Netherlands (1882-1900)
+  to A.J. Monné (69); for France(71) (1886-1899) to Frou and Hann; for
+  Switzerland to K. Hess (72); for Hungary (67) (1896-1903) to L. von
+  Szalay and others; for the United States (1890-1900) to A.J. Henry
+  (68); for Hong-Kong (73) (1894-1903) to W. Doberck. The Trevandrum
+  (74) data (1853-1864) were due originally to A. Broun; the Batavia
+  data (1867-1895) are from the Batavia _Observations_, vol. xviii.
+
+  Most stations in the northern hemisphere have a conspicuous maximum at
+  midsummer with little thunder in winter. Trevandrum (8° 31' N.) and
+  Batavia (6° 11' S.), especially the former, show a double maximum and
+  minimum.
+
+
+    TABLE XII.--_Diurnal Variation of Thunderstorms._
+
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |         Hour.      | 0-2.| 2-4.| 4-6.| 6-8.|8-10.|10-12.|0'-2'.|2'-4'.|4'-6'.|6'-8'.|8'-10'|10'-12'|
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    | Finland (76)       | 2.3 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 3.0 | 4.6 | 12.1 | 18.9 | 19.2 | 16.1 | 10.1 |  6.1 |  3.4  |
+    | Edinburgh (64)     | 1.7 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 4.7 | 14.2 | 22.4 | 23.7 | 11.9 |  9.2 |  5.1 |  2.0  |
+    | Belgium (77)       | 3.0 | 2.9 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 2.0 |  6.4 | 12.9 | 21.6 | 19.4 | 15.8 |  8.4 |  4.1  |
+    | Brocken (78)       | 1.6 | 2.5 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 4.2 |  3.1 | 12.1 | 28.6 | 22.4 | 10.1 |  7.2 |  5.6  |
+    | Switzerland (72)   | 3.1 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 2.0 |  7.3 | 13.8 | 20.9 | 20.8 | 14.6 |  8.0 |  3.5  |
+    | Italy (77)         | 1.3 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 2.0 | 3.0 |  8.5 | 19.5 | 26.5 | 16.6 |  9.8 |  8.3 |  1.5  |
+    | Hungary (i.) (67)  | 2.1 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 2.1 | 2.9 | 11.5 | 18.1 | 22.0 | 17.9 | 10.7 |  6.2 |  2.8  |
+    |    "    (ii.) (67) | 6.9 | 4.2 | 2.3 | 2.0 | 2.0 |  5.0 |  9.9 | 16.9 | 18.2 | 10.7 | 11.7 | 10.0  |
+    |    "    (iii.) (75)| 2.3 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 2.4 | 2.7 |  7.9 | 16.1 | 22.1 | 19.1 | 12.7 |  7.6 |  3.2  |
+    |    "    (iv.) (75) | 2.6 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 3.6 | 13.3 | 19.9 | 20.7 | 15.2 |  9.2 |  6.2 |  3.3  |
+    | Trevandrum (74)    | 5.6 | 4.9 | 4.3 | 1.3 | 1.4 |  2.0 | 13.3 | 24.5 | 15.9 | 13.3 |  7.6 |  5.9  |
+    | Agustia (74)       | 2.9 | 2.9 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 1.7 |  2.9 | 15.1 | 36.1 | 22.2 |  9.3 |  4.6 |  2.0  |
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+  32. _Daily Variation._--The figures in Table XII. are again
+  percentages. They are mostly based on data as to the hour of
+  commencement of thunderstorms. Data as to the hour when storms are
+  most severe would throw the maximum later in the day. This is
+  illustrated by the first two sets of figures for Hungary (67). The
+  first set relate as usual to the hour of commencement, the second to
+  the hours of occurrence of lightning causing fires. Of the two other
+  sets of figures for Hungary (75), (iii.) relates to the central plain,
+  (iv.) to the mountainous regions to north and south of this. The hour
+  of maximum is earlier for the mountains, thunder being more frequent
+  there than in the plains between 8 A.M. and 4 P.M., but less frequent
+  between 2 and 10 P.M. Trevandrum (8° 31' N., 76° 59' E., 195 ft. above
+  sea-level) and Agustia (8° 37' N., 77° 20' E., 6200 ft. above
+  sea-level) afford a contrast between low ground and high ground in
+  India. In this instance there seems little difference in the hour of
+  maximum, the distinguishing feature being the great concentration of
+  thunderstorm occurrence at Agustia between noon and 6 P.M.
+
+
+    TABLE XIII.
+
+    +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+
+    | Year.| Netherlands.| France.| Hungary.| U.S.A.|
+    +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+
+    | 1882 |      98     |   ..   |   141   |  ..   |
+    | 1883 |     117     |   ..   |   195   |  ..   |
+    | 1884 |      95     |   ..   |   229   |  ..   |
+    | 1885 |      93     |   ..   |   192   |  ..   |
+    | 1886 |     102     |   251  |   319   |  ..   |
+    | 1887 |      78     |   292  |   236   |  ..   |
+    | 1888 |      94     |   286  |   232   |  ..   |
+    | 1889 |     126     |   294  |   258   |  ..   |
+    | 1890 |      93     |   299  |   265   |  ..   |
+    | 1891 |      98     |   317  |   302   |  204  |
+    | 1892 |      86     |   324  |   350   |  251  |
+    | 1893 |     102     |   288  |   233   |  209  |
+    | 1894 |     111     |   300  |   333   |  336  |
+    | 1895 |     119     |   309  |   280   |  426  |
+    | 1896 |     109     |   266  |   299   |  341  |
+    | 1897 |     119     |   297  |   350   |  362  |
+    | 1898 |      95     |   299  |   386   |  367  |
+    | 1899 |     112     |   299  |   368   |  563  |
+    | 1900 |     108     |   ..   |   401   |  713  |
+    | 1901 |     ..      |   ..   |   502   |  ..   |
+    | 1902 |     ..      |   ..   |   322   |  ..   |
+    | 1903 |     ..      |   ..   |   256   |  ..   |
+    +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+
+
+  33. Table XIII. gives some data as to the variability of thunder from
+  year to year. The figures for the Netherlands (69) and France (71) are
+  the number of days when thunder occurred somewhere in the country. Its
+  larger area and more varied climate give a much larger number of days
+  of thunder to France. Notwithstanding the proximity of the two
+  countries, there is not much parallelism between the data. The figures
+  for Hungary (67) give the number of lightning strokes causing fire;
+  those for the United States (68) give the number of persons killed by
+  lightning. The conspicuous maximum in 1901 and great drop in 1902 in
+  Hungary are also shown by the statistics as to the number of days of
+  thunder. This number at the average station of the country fell from
+  38.4 in 1901 to 23.1 in 1902. On the whole, however, the number of
+  destructive lightning strokes and of days of thunder do not show a
+  close parallelism.
+
+
+    TABLE XIV.
+
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Decade ending  | 1810| 1820| 1830| 1840| 1850| 1860| 1870| 1880| 1890| 1900|
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Edinburgh      |  4.9|  5.7|  7.7|  6.7|  5.7|  6.5|  5.4| 10.6|  9.4|  9.2|
+    | London         |  9.5|  8.3| 11.5| 11.8| 10.5| 11.9|  9.6| 15.7| 13.0|  .. |
+    | Tilsit         |  .. |  .. | 12.5| 12.1| 16.1| 15.3| 11.9| 17.6| 21.8|  .. |
+    | Germany, South |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  49 |  66 |  91 | 143 | 175 |
+    |    "     West  |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  92 | 106 | 187 | 244 | 331 |
+    |    "     North |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. | 124 | 135 | 245 | 288 | 352 |
+    |    "     East  |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. | 102 | 143 | 186 | 210 | 273 |
+    |    "     Whole |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  90 | 116 | 189 | 254 | 318 |
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  34. Table XIV. deals with the variation of thunder over longer
+  periods. The data for Edinburgh (64) and London (65) due to Mossman,
+  and those for Tilsit, due to C. Kassner (79), represent the average
+  number of days of thunder per annum. The data for Germany, due to O.
+  Steffens (80), represent the average number of houses struck by
+  lightning in a year per million houses; in the first decade only seven
+  years (1854-1860) are really included. Mossman thinks that the
+  apparent increase at Edinburgh and London in the later decades is to
+  some extent at least real. The two sets of figures show some
+  corroborative features, notably the low frequency from 1860 to 1870.
+  The figures for Germany--representing four out of six divisions of
+  that country--are remarkable. In Germany as a whole, out of a million
+  houses the number struck per annum was three and a half times as great
+  in the decade 1890 to 1900 as between 1854 and 1860. Von Bezold (81)
+  in an earlier memoir presented data analogous to Steffens', seemingly
+  accepting them as representing a true increase in thunderstorm
+  destructiveness. Doubts have, however, been expressed by others--e.g.
+  A. Gockel, _Das Gewitter_, p. 106--as to the real significance of the
+  figures. Changes in the height or construction of buildings, and a
+  greater readiness to make claims on insurance offices, may be
+  contributory causes.
+
+  35. The fact that a considerable number of people sheltering under
+  trees are killed by lightning is generally accepted as a convincing
+  proof of the unwisdom of the proceeding. When there is an option
+  between a tree and an adjacent house, the latter is doubtless the
+  safer choice. But when the option is between sheltering under a tree
+  and remaining in the open it is not so clear. In Hungary (67), during
+  the three years 1901 to 1903, 15% of the total deaths by lightning
+  occurred under trees, as against 57% wholly in the open. In the United
+  States (68) in 1900, only 10% of the deaths where the precise
+  conditions were ascertained occurred under trees, as against 52% in
+  the open. If then the risk under trees exceeds that in the open in
+  Hungary and the United States, at least five or six times as many
+  people must remain in the open as seek shelter under trees. An
+  isolated tree occupying an exposed position is, it should be
+  remembered, much more likely to be struck than the average tree in the
+  midst of a wood. A good deal also depends on the species of tree. A
+  good many years' data for Lippe (82) in Germany make the liability to
+  lightning stroke as follows--the number of each species being supposed
+  the same:--Oak 57, Fir 39, Pine 5, Beech 1. In Styria, according to K.
+  Prohaska (83), the species most liable to be struck are oaks, poplars
+  and pear trees; beech trees again are exceptionally safe. It should,
+  however, be borne in mind that the apparent differences between
+  different species may be partly a question of height, exposure or
+  proximity to water. A good deal may also depend on the soil. According
+  to Hellmann, as quoted by Henry (82), the liability to lightning
+  stroke in Germany may be put at chalk 1, clay 7, sand 9, loam 22.
+
+  36. Numerous attempts have been made to find periodic variations in
+  thunderstorm frequency. Among the periods suggested are the 11-year
+  sun-spot period, or half this (cf. v. Szalay (67)). Ekholm and
+  Arrhenius (84) claim to have established the existence of a tropical
+  lunar period, and a 25.929-day period; while P. Polis (85) considers a
+  synodic lunar period probable. A.B. MacDowall (86) and others have
+  advanced evidence in favour of the view that thunderstorms are most
+  frequent near new moon and fewest near full moon. Much more evidence
+  would be required to produce a general acceptance of any of the above
+  periods.
+
+  37. _St Elmo's Fire._--Luminous discharges from masts, lightning
+  conductors, and other pointed objects are not very infrequent,
+  especially during thunderstorms. On the Sonnblick, where the
+  phenomenon is common, Elster and Geitel (87) have found St Elmo's fire
+  to answer to a discharge sometimes of positive sometimes of negative
+  electricity. The colour and appearance differ in the two cases, red
+  predominating in a positive, blue in a negative discharge. The
+  differences characteristic of the two forms of discharge are described
+  and illustrated in Gockel's _Das Gewitter_. Gockel states (l.c. p. 74)
+  that during snowfall the sign is positive or negative according as the
+  flakes are large or are small and powdery. The discharge is not
+  infrequently accompanied by a sizzling sound.
+
+  38. Of late years many experiments have been made on the influence of
+  electric fields or currents on plant growth. S. Lemström (88), who was
+  a pioneer in this department, found an electric field highly
+  beneficial in some but not in all cases. Attempts have been made to
+  apply electricity to agriculture on a commercial scale, but the exact
+  measure of success attained remains somewhat doubtful. Lemström
+  believed atmospheric electricity to play an important part in the
+  natural growth of vegetation, and he assigned a special rôle to the
+  needles of fir and pine trees.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following abbreviations are here used:--M.Z.,
+  _Meteorologische Zeitschrift_; P.Z., _Physikalische Zeitschrift_; S.,
+  _Sitzungsberichte k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. Naturw. Klasse_, Theil
+  ii. 2; P.T., "Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London";
+  T.M., _Terrestrial Magnetism_, edited by Dr L.A. Bauer.
+
+  Text-books:--(1) G. le Cadet, _Étude du champ électrique de
+  l'atmosphère_ (Paris, 1898); (2) Svante A. Arrhenius, _Lehrbuch der
+  kosmischen Physik_ (Leipzig, 1903); (3) A. Gockel, _Das Gewitter_
+  (Cologne, 1905).
+
+  Lists of original authorities:--(4) F. Exner, M.Z., vol. 17, 1900, p.
+  529 (especially pp. 542-3); (5) G.C. Simpson, _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol.
+  31, 1905, p. 295 (especially pp. 305-6). References in the text:--(6)
+  M.Z., vol. 4, 1887, p. 352; (7) T.M., vol. 4, 1899, p. 213; (8) P.Z.,
+  vol. 4, p. 661; (9) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 114; (10) P.T., vol. 205
+  A, 1906, p. 61; (11) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 260; (12) C. Chree, P.T., vol.
+  206 A, p. 299; (13) Annual volumes, _Greenwich Magnetical and
+  Meteorological Observations_; (14) M.Z., vol. 8, 1891, p. 357; (15)
+  M.Z., vol. 7, 1890, p. 319 and vol. 8, 1891, p. 113; (16) Annual
+  volumes, _Annaes do Obs. do Infante D. Luiz_; (17) _Annual Reports_,
+  Central Meteorological Observatory of Japan; (18) _Observations made
+  at the Mag. and Met. Obs. at Batavia_, vol. 18, 1895; (19) J.D.
+  Everett, P.T., vol. 158, 1868, p. 347; (20) M.Z., vol. 6, 1889, p. 95;
+  (21) A.B. Chauveau, _Ann. bureau central météorologique, Paris, année
+  1900_, "Mémoires," p. C1; (22) V. Conrad, S., 113, p. 1143; (23) P.B.
+  Zölss, P.Z., vol. 5, p. 260; (24) T.M., vol. 7, 1902, p. 89; (25)
+  _Revue générale des sciences_, 1906, p. 442; (26) T.M., vol. 8, 1903,
+  p. 86. and vol. 9, 1904, p. 147; (27) S., 93, p. 222; (28) M.Z., vol.
+  22, 1905, p. 237; (29) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 632; (30) _Phil. Mag._, vol.
+  20, 1885, p. 456; (31) _Expédition polaire finlandaise_, vol. 3
+  (Helsingfors, 1898); (32) A. Paulsen, _Bull. de l'Acad. ... de
+  Danemarke_, 1894, p. 148; (33) _Wied. Ann._, vol. 46, 1892, p. 584;
+  (34) P.T., vol. 191 A, p. 187; (35) M.Z., vol. 5, 1888, p. 95; S., 99,
+  p. 421; T.M., vol. 4, 1899, p. 15; (36) _Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc._, vol.
+  11, p. 428, and vol. 12, pp. 17 and 85; (37) P.Z., vol. 4, pp. 267 and
+  873; (38) E.R. v. Schweidler, S., 113, p. 1433; (39) S., 111, July
+  1902; (40) _Veröffentl. des Kg. Preuss. Met. Inst._, 1904; (41) P.Z.,
+  vol. 5, p. 106; (42) S., 114, p. 198; (43) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 871; (44)
+  P.Z., vol. 4, p. 93; (45) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 229; (46) S., 114,
+  p. 1705; (47) S., 114, p. 399; (48) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 522; (49) S.,
+  113, p. 1455; (50) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 627; (51) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 90;
+  (52) S., 114, p. 151; (53) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 253; (54) P.Z.,
+  vol. 5, p. 749; (55) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, pp. 53 and 339; (56) P.Z.,
+  vol. 5, p. 11; (57) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 591; (58) T.M., vol. 9, 1904, p.
+  49; (59) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 295; (60) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 504; (61) T.M.,
+  vol. 10, 1905, p. 65; (62) S., 114, p. 1377; (63) _Camb. Phil. Soc.
+  Proc._, vol. 13, p. 363; (64) _Trans. R.S. Edin._, vol. 39, p. 63, and
+  vol. 40, p. 484; (65) _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol. 24, 1898, p. 31; (66)
+  M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 277; (67) _Jahrbücher der Konigl. Ung.
+  Reichsanstalt für Met. und Erdmag._, vol. 33, 1903, III. Theil with
+  appendix by L. von Szalay; (68) U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, _Weather
+  Bureau Bulletin_, No. 30, 1901; (69) M.Z., vol. 19, 1902, p. 297; (70)
+  _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol. 15, 1889, p. 140; (71) M.Z., vol. 20, 1903,
+  p. 227; (72) M.Z., vol. 20, 1903, p. 522; (73) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p.
+  367; (74) M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p. 175; (75) J. Hegyfoky, M.Z., vol.
+  20, 1903, p. 218; (76) M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p. 575; (77) S. Arrhenius,
+  M.Z., vol. 5, 1888, p. 348; (78) G. Hellmann, M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p.
+  223; (79) M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 239; (80) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p.
+  468; (81) _Berlin Sitz._, 1889, No. 16; (82) A.J. Henry, _U.S. Dept.
+  of Agriculture Bull._, No. 26, 1899; (83) M.Z., vol. 16, 1899, p. 128;
+  (84) _K. Sven. Vet. Akad. Hand._, Bd. 19, No. 8, Bd. 20, No. 6, Bd.
+  31, Nos. 2 and 3; (85) M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 230; (86) _Nature_,
+  vol. 65, 1902, p. 367; (87) M.Z., vol. 8, 1891, p. 321; (88) _Brit.
+  Assoc. Report_ for 1898, p. 808, also _Electricity in Agriculture and
+  Horticulture_ (London, 1904).     (C. Ch.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] see _Authorities_ below.
+
+
+
+
+ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. About 1840-1845 great interest was excited by a
+method of propelling railway trains through the agency of atmospheric
+pressure. Various inventors worked at the realization of this idea. On
+the system worked out in England by Jacob Samuda and S. Clegg, a
+continuous pipe or main was laid between the rails, and in it a partial
+vacuum was maintained by means of air pumps. A piston fitting closely in
+it was connected to the leading vehicle of the train by an iron plate
+which passed through a longitudinal groove or aperture running the whole
+length of the pipe. This aperture was covered by a valve consisting of a
+continuous strip of leather, strengthened on each side with iron plates;
+one edge was fastened, while the other was free to rise, and was closed
+against a composition of beeswax and tallow placed in the groove, the
+surface of which was slightly melted by a heater, carried on each train,
+in order to secure an air-tight joint. Connected behind the piston was a
+frame carrying four wheels which lifted and sustained the continuous
+valve for a distance of about 15 ft. Thus the piston having atmospheric
+pressure on one side of it and a vacuum equal to 15 or 16 in. of mercury
+on the other, was forced along the tube, taking the train with it.
+Various advantages were claimed by the advocates of the system,
+including cheapness of operation as compared with steam locomotives, and
+safety from collision, because the main was divided into sections by
+separating valves and only one train could be in each section at a given
+time. It was installed on about 2 m. of line between Kingstown and
+Dalkey (Ireland) in 1843 and worked till 1855; it was also tried on the
+London and Croydon and on the South Devon lines, but was soon abandoned.
+The same principle is applied in the system of pneumatic despatch (q.v.)
+to the transmission of small parcels in connexion with postal and
+telegraph work.
+
+  For further particulars see three papers by J. Samuda, P.W. Barlow and
+  G. Berkeley, with reports of the discussions upon them, in _Proc.
+  Inst. C.E._, 1844 and 1845.
+
+
+
+
+ATOLL (native name _atollon_ in the Maldive Islands), a horse-shoe or
+ring shaped coral reef enclosing a lagoon. The usual shape is that of a
+partly submerged dish with a broken edge, forming the ring of islands,
+standing upon a conical pedestal. The dish is formed of coral rock and
+the shells of various reef-dwelling mollusca, covered, especially at the
+seaward edges, with a film of living coral polyps that continually
+extend the fringe, and enlarge the diameter of the atoll. The lagoon
+tends to deepen when the land is stationary by the death of the coral
+animals in the still water, and the patchy disintegration of the "hard"
+coral, while waves and storms tear off blocks of rock and pile them up
+at the margin, increasing the height of the islands, which become
+covered by vegetation. The lagoon entrance in the open part of the
+horse-shoe is always to leeward of prevailing winds, since the coral
+growth is there slower than where the waves constantly renew the polyps'
+food supply. The conical pedestal rising from the depths is frequently a
+submarine volcanic cone or island, though any submerged peak may be
+crowned by an atoll. For the theory of atoll formation see CORAL-REEFS.
+
+
+
+
+ATOM
+
+  Theories of matter.
+
+(Gr. [Greek: atomos], indivisible, from [Greek: a-] privative, and
+[Greek: temnein], to cut), the term given in physical science to the
+ultimate indivisible particle of matter, and so by analogy to something
+minutely small in size. If we examine such a substance as sugar we find
+that it can be broken up into fine grains, and these again into finer,
+the finest particles still appearing to be of the same nature as sugar.
+The same is true in the case of a liquid such as water; it can be
+divided into drops and these again into smaller drops, or into the
+finest spray the particles of which are too small to be detected by our
+unaided vision. In fact, so far as the direct evidence of our senses
+tells us, matter appears to be indefinitely divisible. Moreover, small
+particles do not seem to exist in the water until it is broken up; so
+far as we can see, the material of the water is continuous not granular.
+This conception of matter, _as infinitely divisible and continuous_, was
+taught by Anaxagoras more than four centuries before the Christian era,
+and in the philosophy of Aristotle the same ideas are found. But some
+phenomena are difficult to reconcile with this view; for example, a
+cubic foot of air can be compressed into less than one five-hundredth of
+a cubic foot, or, if allowed to expand, the air originally occupying the
+cubic foot can be made to fill, apparently uniformly, a space of a
+million cubic feet or more. This enormous capacity for expansion and
+contraction is astonishing if we believe matter to be continuous, but if
+we imagine air to be made up of little particles separated by relatively
+large empty spaces the changes in volume are more easily conceivable.
+Moreover, if we attribute such a structure to gases, we are led to
+attribute it to liquids and to solids also, since gases can be liquefied
+without any abrupt change, and many substances usually solid can be
+converted into gases by heating them. This conception of the _grained_
+structure of matter is very ancient; traces of it are to be found in
+Indian philosophy, perhaps twelve centuries before the Christian era,
+and the Greek philosophers Democritus and Epicurus, in the 3rd and 4th
+centuries B.C., taught it very definitely. Their view was that "matter
+is not indefinitely divisible, but that all substances are formed of
+indivisible particles or atoms which are eternal and unchangeable, that
+the atoms are separated from one another by void, and that these atoms,
+by their combinations, form the matter we are conscious of." The Roman
+poet Lucretius (_De Rerum Natura_) was an eloquent exponent of this
+theory, but throughout the middle ages, indeed until the 17th century,
+it was eclipsed by the prestige of Aristotle. In the time, however, of
+Boyle[1] and Newton, we again find an atomic theory of matter; Newton[2]
+regarded a gas as consisting of small separate particles which repelled
+one another, the tendency of a gas to expand being attributed to the
+supposed repulsion between the particles.
+
+Let us consider some common phenomena in the light of these rival
+theories as to the nature of matter. When a few lumps of sugar are added
+to a glass of water and stirred, the sugar soon disappears and we are
+left with a uniform liquid resembling water, except that it is sweet.
+What has become of the sugar? Does it still exist? The atomist would
+say, "Yes, it is broken up into its atoms, and these are distributed
+throughout the spaces between the particles of water." The rival
+philosopher, who believes water to be continuous and without spaces
+between its particles, has a greater difficulty in accounting for the
+disappearance of the sugar; he would probably say that the sugar, and
+the water also, had ceased to exist, and that a new continuous substance
+had been formed from them, but he could offer no picture of how this
+change had taken place. Or consider a well-marked case of what we are in
+the habit of calling _chemical combination_. If 127 parts of iodine,
+which is an almost black solid, and 100 parts of mercury, which is a
+white liquid metal, be intimately mixed by rubbing them together in a
+mortar, the two substances wholly disappear, and we obtain instead a
+brilliant red powder quite unlike the iodine or the mercury; almost the
+only property that is unchanged is the weight. The question again
+arises, what has become of the original substances? The atomist has an
+easy answer; he says that the new body is made up by the juxtaposition
+of the atoms of iodine and mercury, which still exist in the red powder.
+His opponent would be disposed to say that the iodine and the mercury
+ceased to exist when the red powder was formed, that they were
+_components_ but not _constituents_ of it. The fact that the two
+components can be recovered from the compound by destroying it does not
+decide the question. It is remarkable that pure chemistry, even to-day,
+has no very conclusive arguments for the settlement of this controversy;
+but the sister science of physics is steadily accumulating evidence in
+favour of the atomic conception.
+
+[Illustation: From Dalton's _New System of Chemical Philosophy_.]
+
+  Hydrogen Gas.
+  Nitrous Gas.
+  Carbonic Acid Gas.]
+
+[Illustation:
+
+        (·) hydrogen.
+        ( ) oxygen.
+        (|) nitrogen.
+        (O) carbon.
+     (·)( ) water.
+     (·)(|) ammonia.
+     (·)(O) ethylene.
+     (O)( ) carbon monoxide.
+  ( )(O)( ) carbon dioxide.
+     (|)( ) nitric oxide (nitous gas).
+  (|)( )(|) nitrous oxide.
+  ( )(|)( ) nitrogen peroxide.]
+
+
+  Dalton.
+
+Until the time of John Dalton, the atomic conception remained purely
+qualitative, and until then it does not appear to have advanced
+chemistry or to have found further confirmation in the facts of
+chemistry. Dalton (1803) gave the atomic theory a quantitative form, and
+showed that, by means of it, a vast number of the facts of chemistry
+could be predicted or explained. In fact, he did so much to make the
+atomic theory of matter probable that he is popularly regarded as its
+originator. Dalton lived in a period marked by great advances in
+experimental chemistry. Rather before the commencement of the 19th
+century the work of Lavoisier had rendered it very probable that
+chemical changes are not accompanied by any change in weight, and this
+principle of the conservation of matter was becoming universally
+accepted; chemists were also acquiring considerable skill in chemical
+analysis, that is, in the determination of the nature and relative
+amounts of the elements contained in compounds. But Sir H.E. Roscoe and
+A. Harden, _New View of the Atomic Theory_ (1896), have shown, from a
+study of Dalton's manuscript notes, that we do not owe his atomic theory
+to such experiments. If their view is correct, the theory appears to be
+a remarkable example of deductive reasoning. Dalton, who was a
+mathematical physicist even more than a chemist, had given much thought
+to the study of gases. Following Newton, he believed a gas to be made up
+of particles or atoms, separated from one another by considerable
+spaces. Certain difficulties that he met with in his speculations led
+him to the conclusion that the particles of any one kind of gas, though
+all of them alike, must differ from those of another gas both in _size_
+and _weight_. He thus arrived at the conception of a definite atomic
+weight peculiar to the particles of each gas, and he thought that he
+could determine these atomic weights, in terms of one of them, by means
+of the quantitative analysis of compounds. The conclusion that each
+element had a definite atomic weight, peculiar to it, was the new idea
+that made his speculations fruitful, because it allowed of quantitative
+deduction and verification. He drew simple diagrams, three of which,
+taken from Dalton's _New System of Chemical Philosophy_, part ii.
+(1810), are reproduced here, in which gases are represented as composed
+of atoms. Knowing that the gas which he called "nitrous gas" was
+composed of oxygen and nitrogen, and believing it to be the simplest
+compound of these two elements, he naturally represented its atom as
+formed of an atom of oxygen and an atom of nitrogen in juxtaposition.
+When two elements form more than one compound, as is the case with
+oxygen and carbon, he assigned to the compound which he thought the more
+complex an atom made up of two atoms of the one element and one atom of
+the other; the diagram for carbonic acid illustrates this, and an
+extension of the same plan enabled him to represent any compound,
+however complex its structure. The table here given contains some of
+Dalton's diagrams of atoms. They are not all considered to be correct at
+the present time; for example, we now think that the ultimate particle
+of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, and that
+that of ammonia contains three atoms of hydrogen to one of nitrogen. But
+these differences between Dalton's views and our present ones do not
+impair the accuracy of the arguments which follow. The diagrams show
+that Dalton formed a very definite conception of the nature of chemical
+combination; it was the union of a small number of atoms of one kind
+with a small number of another kind to form a compound atom, or as we
+now say a "molecule," this identical process being repeated millions of
+times to form a perceptible amount of a compound. The conceptions of
+"element," "compound" and "mixture" became more precise than they had
+been hitherto; in an element all the atoms are alike, in a compound all
+the molecules are alike, in a mixture there are different kinds of
+molecules. If we accept the hypothesis that each kind of atom has a
+specific and invariable weight, we can, with the aid of the above
+theory, make most important inferences concerning the proportions by
+weight in which substances combine to form compounds. These inferences
+are often summarized as the laws of _constant, multiple and reciprocal
+proportions_.
+
+
+  Law of constant proportions.
+
+The law of _constant proportions_ asserts that _when two elements unite
+to form a compound the weights that combine are in an invariable ratio,
+a ratio that is characteristic of that compound._ Thus if Dalton's
+diagram for the molecule, or compound atom, of water be correct, it
+follows that in all samples of water the total number of the hydrogen
+atoms is equal to that of the oxygen atoms; consequently, the ratio of
+the weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen in water is the same as the
+ratio of the weights of an oxygen and a hydrogen atom, and _this is
+invariable_. Different samples of water cannot therefore differ ever so
+little in percentage composition, and the same must be true for every
+compound as distinguished from a mixture. Apart from the atomic theory
+there is no obvious reason why this should be so. We give the name bread
+to a substance containing variable proportions of flour and water.
+Similarly the substance we call wine is undeniably variable in
+composition. Why should not the substance we call water also vary more
+or less? The Aristotelian would find no difficulty in such a
+variability; it is only the disciple of Dalton to whom it seems
+impossible. It is evident that we have in this law a definite prediction
+that can be tested by experiment.
+
+
+  Law of multiple proportions.
+
+The law of _multiple proportions_ asserts that _if two elements form
+more than one compound, then the weights of the one element which are
+found combined with unit weight of the other in the different compounds,
+must be in the ratio of two or more whole numbers._ If we compare
+Dalton's diagrams of the two oxides of carbon or of the three oxides of
+nitrogen that are given in the preceding table, we at once see the
+necessity of this law; for the more complex molecule has to be formed
+from the simpler one by the addition of one or more whole atoms. In the
+oxides of carbon the same weight of carbon must be combined with weights
+of oxygen that are as 1 : 2, and in the oxides of nitrogen a fixed
+weight of nitrogen must be in union with weights of oxygen that are as 1
+: 2 : ½, which are the same ratios as 2 : 4 : 1. This law has been
+abundantly verified by experiment; for example, five oxides of nitrogen
+are known, and independent analyses show that, if we consider the same
+weight of nitrogen in every case, the weights of oxygen combined with it
+are to one another as 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5. The discovery of this law is
+due to Dalton; it is a direct deduction from his atomic theory. Here
+again, apart from this theory, there is no obvious reason why the
+composition of different substances should be related in so simple a
+way. As Dalton said, "The doctrine of definite proportions appears
+mysterious unless we adopt the atomic hypothesis." "It appears like the
+mystical ratios of Kepler which Newton so happily elucidated." The
+chemists of Dalton's time were not unanimous in accepting these laws;
+indeed C.L. Berthollet (_Essai de statique chimique_, 1803) expressly
+controverted them. He maintained that, under varying conditions, two
+substances could combine in an indefinitely large number of different
+ratios, that there could in fact be a continuous variation in the
+combining ratio. This view is clearly inconsistent with the atomic
+theory, which requires that when the combining ratio of two substances
+changes it should do so, _per saltum_, to quite another value.
+
+
+  Law of reciprocal proportions.
+
+The law of _reciprocal proportions_, or, as it might well be named, the
+law of _equivalence_, cannot be adequately enunciated in a few words.
+The following gives a partial statement of it. _If we know the weights a
+and b of two elements that are found in union with unit weight of a
+third element, then we can predict the composition of the compounds
+which the first two elements can form with each other; either the
+weights a and b will combine exactly, or if not, these weights must be
+multiplied by integers to obtain the composition of a compound._ To see
+how this law follows from Dalton's theory let us consider his diagrams
+for the molecules of water, ethylene and the oxides of carbon. In water
+and in ethylene experiment shows that 8 parts by weight of oxygen and 6
+parts of carbon, respectively, are in union with one part of hydrogen;
+also, if the diagrams are correct, these numbers must be in the ratio of
+the atomic weights of oxygen and carbon. We can therefore predict that
+all oxides of carbon will have compositions represented by the ratio of
+8m parts of oxygen to 6n parts of carbon, where m and n are whole
+numbers. This prediction is verified by the result of analysis.
+Similarly, if we know by experiment the composition of water and of
+ammonia, we can predict the probable composition of the oxides of
+nitrogen. Experiment shows that, in water and ammonia, we have,
+respectively, 8 parts of oxygen and 4.67 parts of nitrogen in union with
+one part of hydrogen; we can therefore infer that the oxides of nitrogen
+will all have the composition of 8m parts of oxygen to 4.67n parts of
+nitrogen. Experiment alone can tell us the values of m and n; all that
+the theory tells us is that they are whole numbers. In this particular
+case, n turns out to be 3, and m has in succession the values 1, 2, 3,
+4, 5.
+
+It is evident that these laws all follow from the idea that a compound
+molecule can only alter through the addition or subtraction of one or
+more complete atoms, together with the idea that all the molecules in a
+pure substance are alike. Fortunately, the compounds at first examined
+by the chemists engaged in verifying these laws were comparatively
+simple, so that the whole numbers referred to above were small. The
+astonishing variety of ratios in which carbon and hydrogen combine was
+not at first realized. Otherwise Berthollet's position would have been a
+much stronger one, and the atomic theory might have had to wait a long
+while for acceptance. Even at the present time, it would be too much to
+say that all the complex organic substances have been proved by analysis
+to obey these laws; all we can assert is that their composition and
+properties can be satisfactorily explained on the assumption that they
+do so.
+
+The above statement does not by any means exhaust the possible
+predictions that can be made from the atomic theory, but it shows how to
+test the theory. If chemical compounds can be proved by experiment to
+obey these laws, then the atomic theory acquires a high degree of
+probability; if they are contradicted by experiment then the atomic
+theory must be abandoned, or very much modified. Dalton himself made
+many analyses with the purpose of establishing his views, but his skill
+as an analyst was not very great. It is in the work of the great Swedish
+chemist J.J. Berzelius, and somewhat later, in the experiments of the
+Belgian chemist J.S. Stas, that we find the most brilliant and vigorous
+verification of these laws, and therefore of the atomic theory.
+
+We shall now give an outline of the experimental evidence for the truth
+of these laws.
+
+
+  Experimental evidence.
+
+The law of the conservation of matter, an important element in the
+atomic theory, has been roughly verified by innumerable analyses, in
+which, a given weight of a substance having been taken, each ingredient
+in it is isolated and its weight separately determined; the total weight
+of the ingredients is always found to be very nearly equal to the weight
+of the original substance. But on account of experimental errors in
+weighing and measuring, and through loss of material in the transfer of
+substances from one vessel to another, such analyses are rarely
+trustworthy to more than one part in about 500; so that small changes in
+weight consequent on the chemical change could not with certainty be
+proved or disproved. A few experimenters have carried the verification
+much further. Stas, in his syntheses of silver iodide, weighed the
+silver and the iodine separately, and after converting them into the
+compound he weighed this also. In each of a number of experiments he
+found that the weight of the silver iodide did not differ by one
+twenty-thousandth of the whole from the sum of the weights of the silver
+and the iodine used. His analyses of another compound, silver iodate,
+confirm the law to one part in 78,000. In E.W. Morley's experiments on
+the synthesis of water the hydrogen, the oxygen and the water that had
+been formed were separately determined; taking the mean of his results,
+the sum of the weights of the ingredients is not found to differ from
+the weight of the product by one part in 10,000. It is evident that if
+our experiments are solely directed to the verification of this law,
+they should, if possible, be carried out in a hermetically closed
+vessel, the vessel and its contents being weighed before and after the
+chemical change. The extremely careful experiments of this kind, by H.
+Landolt and others, made it at first appear that the change in weight,
+if there is any, consequent on a chemical change can rarely exceed
+one-millionth of the weight of the reacting substances, and that it must
+often be much less. The small discrepancies found are so easily
+accounted for by attributing them to experimental errors that, until
+recently, every chemist would have regarded the law as sufficiently
+verified. Landolt's subsequent experiments showed, what was already
+noticed in the earlier ones, that these minute changes in weight are
+nearly always losses, the products weigh less than the components, while
+if they had been purely experimental errors, due to weighing, they might
+have been expected to be as frequently gains as losses. Landolt was
+disposed to attribute these losses in weight to the containing vessel,
+which was of glass or quartz, not being absolutely impervious, but in
+1908 he showed that, by making allowance for the moisture adsorbed on
+the vessel, the errors were both positive and negative, and were less
+than one in ten million. He concluded that _no change of weight can be
+detected._ Modern researches (see RADIOACTIVITY) on the complex nature
+of the atom have a little shaken the belief in the absolute permanence
+of matter. But it seems pretty clear that if there is any change in
+weight consequent on chemical change, it is _too minute to be of
+importance to the chemist_, though the methods of modern physics may
+settle the question. (See ELEMENT.)
+
+The law of constant proportions is easily verified to a moderate degree
+of accuracy by such experiments as the following. We can prepare, in the
+laboratory, a white powder that proves to be calcium carbonate, that is,
+it appears to be wholly composed of carbon dioxide and lime. We find in
+nature two other unlike substances, marble and Iceland spar, each of
+which is wholly composed of carbon dioxide and lime. Thus these three
+substances, unlike in appearance and origin, are composed of the same
+ingredients: if small variations in the combining ratio of the
+components were possible, we might expect to find them in such a case as
+this. But analysis has failed to find such differences; the ratio of the
+weights of lime and carbon dioxide is found to be the same in all three
+substances. Such analyses, which do not always admit of great accuracy,
+have been confirmed by a few carefully planned experiments in which two
+components were brought together under very varied conditions, and the
+resulting compound analysed. Stas carried out such experiments on the
+composition of silver chloride and of ammonium chloride, but he never
+found a variation of one part in 10,000 in the composition of the
+substances.
+
+The two laws discussed above were more or less accepted before the
+promulgation of the atomic theory, but the law of multiple proportions
+is the legitimate offspring of this theory. Berzelius saw at once that
+it afforded an admirable test for the correctness of Dalton's views, and
+he made numerous experiments expressly designed to test the law. One of
+these experiments may be described. Two chlorides of copper are known,
+one a highly coloured substance, the other quite white. Berzelius took 8
+grams of copper, converted it into the coloured chloride, and sealed up
+the whole of this in solution, together with a weighed strip of copper.
+After some time the colour entirely disappeared; the strip of copper was
+then taken out and reweighed, and it was found to have lost 8.03 grams.
+Thus the chlorine, which in the coloured compound was in union with 8
+grams of copper, appears, in the colourless chloride, to be combined
+with 16.03 grams, or almost exactly double the amount. It is easy to
+verify this result. In a series of repetitions of the experiment, by
+different observers, the following numbers were obtained for the ratio
+of the copper in the two chlorides: 1.98, 1.97, 2.03, 2.003, the mean
+value being 1.996. It will be noticed that the ratio found is sometimes
+above and sometimes below the number 2, which is required by the atomic
+theory, and therefore the deviations may not unreasonably be attributed
+to experimental errors. Such experiments--and numerous ones of about
+this degree of accuracy have been made on a variety of substances--give
+a high degree of probability to the law, but leave it an open question
+whether it has the exactitude of the law of the conservation of matter,
+or whether it is only approximately true. The question is, however,
+vital to the atomic theory. It is, therefore, worth while to quote a
+verification of great exactitude from the work of Stas and J.B.A.
+Dumas[3] on the composition of the two oxides of carbon. From their work
+it follows that the ratio of the weights of oxygen combined with unit
+weight of carbon in the two oxides is 1.99995, or with somewhat
+different data, 1.9996.
+
+The law of reciprocal proportion, of which some examples have been
+already given, is part of a larger law of equivalence that underlies
+most of our chemical methods and calculations. One section of the law
+expresses the fact that the weights of two substances, not necessarily
+elements, that are equivalent in one reaction, are often found to be
+equivalent in a number of other reactions. The neutralization of acids
+by bases affords many illustrations, known even before the atomic
+theory, of the truth of the statement. It is universally found that the
+weights of two bases which neutralize the same weight of one acid are
+equivalent in their power of neutralizing other acids. Thus 5 parts by
+weight of soda, 7 of potash and 3.5 of quicklime will each neutralize
+4.56 parts of hydrochloric acid or 7.875 of nitric or 6.125 parts of
+sulphuric acid; these weights, in fact, are mutually equivalent to one
+another. The Daltonian would say that each of these weights represents a
+certain group of atoms, and that these groups can replace, or combine
+with, each other, to form new molecules. The change from a binary
+compound, that is, one containing two elements, to a ternary compound in
+which these two elements are associated with a third, sometimes affords
+a very good test for the theory. The atomic theory can picture the
+change from the binary to the ternary compound simply as the addition of
+one or more atoms of the third element to the previously existing
+molecule; in such a case the combining ratio of the first two elements
+should be absolutely the same in both compounds. Berzelius tested this
+prediction. He showed that lead sulphide, a black substance containing
+only lead and sulphur, could be _converted_ by oxidation into lead
+sulphate, a white compound containing oxygen as well as lead and
+sulphur. The whole of the lead and sulphur of the sulphide was found to
+be present in the sulphate; in other words, the combining ratio of the
+lead and sulphur was not altered by the addition of the oxygen. This is
+found to be a general rule. It was verified very exactly by Stas's
+experiments, in which he removed the oxygen from the ternary compound
+silver iodate and found that the whole of the silver and the iodine
+remained in combination with each other as silver iodide; his results
+prove, to one part in ten millions, that the combining ratio of the
+silver and the iodine is unaltered by the removal of the oxygen.
+
+The above gives some idea of the evidence that has been accumulated in
+favour of the laws of chemical combination, laws which can be deduced
+from the atomic theory. Whenever any of these laws, or indeed any
+prediction from the theory, can be tested it has so far proved to be in
+harmony with experiment. The existence of the periodic law (see
+ELEMENT), and the researches of physicists on the constitution of
+matter (q.v.), also furnish very strong support to the theory.
+
+
+  Atomic weight.
+
+Dalton was of the opinion that it was possible to determine the weights
+of the elementary atoms in terms of any one by the analysis of
+compounds. It is evident that this is practicable if the number and kind
+of atoms contained in the molecule of a compound can be determined. To
+take the simplest possible case, if Dalton had been correct in assuming
+that the molecule of water was made up of one atom of oxygen and one of
+hydrogen, then the experimental fact that water contains eight parts by
+weight of oxygen to one part of hydrogen, would at once show that the
+atom of oxygen is eight times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen, or that,
+taking the atomic weight of hydrogen as the unit, the atomic weight of
+oxygen is 8. Similarly, Dalton's diagram for ammonia, together with the
+fact that ammonia contains 4.67 parts of nitrogen to one of hydrogen, at
+once leads to the conclusion that the atomic weight of nitrogen is 4.67.
+But, unfortunately, the assumption as to the number of atoms in the
+molecules of these two compounds was an arbitrary one, based on no valid
+evidence. It is now agreed that the molecule of water contains two atoms
+of hydrogen and one of oxygen, so that the atomic weight of oxygen
+becomes 16, and similarly that the molecule of ammonia contains three
+atoms of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, and that consequently the atomic
+weight of nitrogen is 14. On account of this difficulty, the atomic
+weights published by Dalton, and the more accurate ones of Berzelius,
+were not always identical with the values now accepted, but were often
+simple multiples or submultiples of these.
+
+
+  Formulae.
+
+The "symbols" for the elements used by Dalton, apparently suggested by
+those of the alchemists, have been rejected in favour of those which
+were introduced by Berzelius. The latter employed the first letter, or
+the first two letters, of the name of an element as its symbol. The
+symbol, like that of Dalton, always stands for the atomic weight of the
+element, that is, while H stands for one part by weight of hydrogen, O
+stands for 16 parts of oxygen, and so on. The symbols of compounds
+become very concise, as the number of atoms of one kind in a molecule
+can be expressed by a sub-index. Thus the symbol or formula H2O for
+water expresses the view that the molecule of water consists of one atom
+of oxygen and two of hydrogen; and if we know the atomic weights of
+oxygen and hydrogen, it also tells us the composition of water by
+weight. Similarly, the modern formula for ammonia is NH3.
+
+The superiority of this notation over that of Dalton is not so obvious
+when we consider such simple cases as the above, but chemists are now
+acquainted with very complex molecules containing numerous atoms; cane
+sugar, for example, has the formula C12H22O11. It would be a serious
+business to draw a Daltonian diagram for such a molecule.
+
+Dalton believed that the molecules of the elementary gases consisted
+each of one atom; his diagram for hydrogen gas makes the point clear. We
+now believe that the molecule of an element is frequently made up of two
+or more atoms; thus the formulae for the gases hydrogen, oxygen and
+nitrogen are H2, O2, N2, while gaseous phosphorus and sulphur are
+probably P4 and S6, and gaseous mercury is Hg1,--that is, the molecule
+of this element is monatomic. This view, as to the frequently complex
+nature of the elementary molecule, is logically and historically
+connected with the striking hypothesis of Amadeo Avogadro and A.M.
+Ampère. These natural philosophers suggested that equal volumes of all
+gaseous substances must contain, at the same temperature and pressure,
+the same number of molecules. Their hypothesis explains so many facts
+that it is now considered to be as well established as the parts of the
+theory due to Dalton.[4] This principle at once enables the weights of
+molecules to be compared even when their composition is unknown; it is
+only necessary to determine the specific gravities of the various gases
+referred to some one of them, say hydrogen; the numbers so obtained
+giving the weights of the molecules referred to that of the hydrogen
+molecule.
+
+
+  Present position of the atomic theory.
+
+The atomic theory has been of priceless value to chemists, but it has
+more than once happened in the history of science that a hypothesis,
+after having been useful in the discovery and the co-ordination of
+knowledge, has been abandoned and replaced by one more in harmony with
+later discoveries. Some distinguished chemists have thought that this
+fate may be awaiting the atomic theory, and that in future chemists may
+be able to obtain all the guidance they need from the science of the
+transformations of energy. But modern discoveries in radioactivity[5]
+are in favour of the existence of the atom, although they lead to the
+belief that the atom is not so eternal and unchangeable a thing as
+Dalton and his predecessors imagined, and in fact, that the atom itself
+may be subject to that eternal law of growth and decay of which
+Lucretius speaks.     (F. H. Ne.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Robert Boyle, _The Sceptical Chymist_ (1661); _The Usefulness of
+    Natural Philosophy_ (1663).
+
+  [2] Sir Isaac Newton, _Principia_, bk. ii. prop. 23.
+
+  [3] Freund, _The Study of Chemical Composition_.
+
+  [4] It will be seen that in the three gas diagrams of Dalton that are
+    reproduced above, equal numbers of molecules are contained in equal
+    volumes, but if Dalton held this view at one time he certainly
+    afterwards abandoned it.
+
+  [5] Rutherford, _Radioactivity_.
+
+
+
+
+ATONEMENT and DAY OF ATONEMENT.
+
+  The religious doctrine.
+
+"Atone" (originally--see below--"at one") and "atonement" terms
+ordinarily used as practically synonymous with satisfaction, reparation,
+compensation, with a view to reconciliation. As the English technical
+terms representing a theological doctrine which plays an important part
+not only in Christianity but in most religions, the underlying ideas
+require more detailed analysis. A doctrine of atonement makes the
+following presuppositions. (a) There is a natural relation between God
+and man in which God looks favourably upon man. (b) This relation has
+been disturbed so that God regards man's character and conduct with
+disapproval, and inflicts suffering upon him by way of punishment. In
+the higher religions the disturbance is due, as just implied, to
+unsatisfactory conduct on man's part, i.e. sin. (c) The normal
+relation may be restored, i.e. sin may be forgiven; and this
+restoration is the atonement.
+
+The problem of the atonement is the means or condition of the
+restoration of man to God's favour; this has been variously found (a) in
+the endurance of punishment; (b) in the payment of compensation for the
+wrong done, the compensation consisting of sacrifices and other
+offerings; (c) in the performance of magical or other ritual, the
+efficacy of the ritual consisting in its being pleasing to or appointed
+by God, or even in its having a coercive power over the deity; (d) in
+repentance and amendment of life. Most theories of atonement would
+combine two or more of these, and would include repentance and
+amendment. Some or all of the conditions of atonement may be fulfilled,
+according to various views, either by the sinner or vicariously on his
+behalf by some kinsman; or by his family, clan or nation; or by some one
+else.
+
+
+  Old Testament.
+
+In the Old Testament, "atonement," "make an atonement" represent the
+Hebrew _kippur_ and its derivatives. It is doubtful whether this root
+meant originally to "cover" or "wipe out"; but probably it is used as a
+technical term without any consciousness of its etymology. The Old
+Testament presents very varied teaching on this subject without
+attempting to co-ordinate its doctrines in a harmonious system. In some
+cases there is no suggestion of any forgiveness; sinners are "cut off"
+from the chosen people; individuals and nations perish in their
+iniquity.[1] Some passages refer exclusively to the endurance of
+punishment as a condition of pardon;[2] others to the penitence and
+amendment of the sinner.[3] In Ezekiel xxxvi. 25-31, repentance is
+called forth by the divine forgiveness.
+
+Sacrifice and other rites are also spoken of as conditions of the
+restoration of man to happy relations with God. The Priestly Code
+(Leviticus and allied passages) seems to confine the efficacy of
+sacrifice to ritual, venial and involuntary sins,[4] and requires that
+the sacrifices should be offered at Jerusalem by the Aaronic priests;
+but these limitations did not belong to the older religion; and even in
+later times popular faith ascribed a larger efficacy to sacrifice. On
+the other hand, other passages protest against the ascription of great
+importance to sacrifice; or regard the rite as a consequence rather than
+a cause of forgiveness.[5] The Old Testament has no theory of sacrifice;
+in connexion with sin the sacrifice was popularly regarded as payment of
+penalty or compensation. Lev. xvii. 11 suggests a mystic or symbolic
+explanation by its statement "the life of the flesh is in the blood; and
+I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your
+lives:[6] for it is the blood that maketh atonement by reason of the
+life." The Old Testament nowhere explains why this importance is
+attached to the blood, but the passage is often held to mean that the
+life of the victim represented the forfeited life of the offerer.
+
+
+  Jewish day of atonement.
+
+The atoning ritual reached its climax on the Day of Atonement [Hebrew:
+yom hakipurim] [Greek: aemera exilasmon], in the Mishna simply "the
+Day," (_Yoma_), observed annually on the 10th day of the 7th month
+(Tisri), in the autumn, about October, shortly before the Feast of
+Tabernacles or vintage festival. At one time the year began in Tisri.
+The laws of the Day of Atonement belong to the Priestly Code.[7] There
+is no trace of this function before the exile; the earliest reference to
+any such special time of atonement being the proposal of Ezek. xlv.
+18-20 to establish two days of atonement, in the first and seventh
+months.[8] No doubt, however, both the principles and ritual are partly
+derived from earlier times. The object of the observances was to cleanse
+the sanctuary, the priesthood and the people from all their sins, and to
+renew and maintain favourable relations between Yahweh and Israel. The
+ritual includes features found on other holy days, sacrifices,
+abstinence from work, &c.; and also certain unique acts. The Day of
+Atonement is the only fast provided in the Law; it is only on this
+occasion that (a) the Jews are required to "afflict their souls," (b)
+the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies, (c) the High Priest offers
+incense before the mercy seat and sprinkles it with blood, and (d) the
+scapegoat or Azazel is sent away into the wilderness, bearing upon him
+all the iniquities of the people. In later Judaism, especially from
+about 100 B.C., great stress was laid on the Day of Atonement, and it is
+now the most important religious function of the Jews. On that day many
+attend the synagogues who are seldom or never seen in them at other
+times.
+
+The idea of vicarious atonement appears in the Old Testament in
+different forms. The nation suffers for the sin of the individual;[9]
+and the individual for the sin of his kinsfolk[10] or of the nation.[11]
+Above all the Servant of Yahweh[12] appears as atoning for sinners by
+his sufferings and death. Again, the Old Testament speaks of the
+restoration of heathen nations, and of the salvation of the heathen;[13]
+but does not formulate any theory of atonement in this connexion. The
+Old Testament, however, only prepares the way for the Christian doctrine
+of the atonement; this is clear, inasmuch as its teaching is largely
+concerned with the nation, and hardly touches on the future life.
+Moreover, it could not define the relation of Christ to the atonement.
+Later Judaism emphasized the idea of vicarious atonement for Israel
+through the sufferings of the righteous, especially the martyrs; but it
+is very doubtful whether the idea of the atonement through the death of
+the Messiah is a pre-Christian Jewish doctrine.[14]
+
+
+  New Testament.
+
+In the New Testament, the English version uses "atonement" once, Rom. v.
+11, for [Greek: katallagae] (R.V. here and elsewhere "reconciliation").
+This Greek word corresponds to the idea suggested by the etymology of
+at-one-ment, the re-uniting in amity of those at variance, a sense which
+the word had in the 17th century but has since lost. But the idea which
+is now usually expressed by "atonement" is rather represented in the New
+Testament by [Greek: ilasmos] and its cognates, e.g. 1 John ii. 2 R.V.,
+"He (Jesus) is the propitiation ([Greek: ilasmos]) for our sins." But
+these words are rare, and we read more often of "salvation" ([Greek:
+sotaeria]) and "being saved," which includes or involves that
+restoration to divine favour which is called atonement. The leading
+varieties of teaching, the Sayings of Jesus, Paul, the Johannine
+writings, the Epistle to the Hebrews, connect the atonement with Christ
+especially with His death, and associate it with faith in Him and with
+repentance and amendment of life.[15]
+
+These ideas are also common to Christian teaching generally. The New
+Testament, however, does not indicate that its writers were agreed as to
+any formal dogma of the atonement, as regards the relation of the death
+of Christ to the sinner's restoration to God's favour; but various
+suggestions are made as to the solution of the problem. St Paul's
+teaching connects with the Jewish doctrine of vicarious suffering,
+represented in the Old Testament by Is. liii., and probably, though not
+expressly, with the ritual sacrifices. Christ suffering on behalf of
+sinners satisfies the divine righteousness, which was outraged by their
+sin.[16] His work is an expression of God's love to man;[17] the
+redeeming power of Christ's death is also explained by his solidarity
+with humanity as the second Adam,[18]--the redeemed sinner has "died
+with Christ."[19] Some atoning virtue seems also attributed to the
+Resurrection;[20] Christ's sayings connect admission to the kingdom of
+God with susceptibility to the influence of His personality, faith in
+Himself and His mission, and the loyalty that springs from faith.[21] In
+John, Christ is a "propitiation" ([Greek: ilasmos]) provided by the love
+of God that man may be cleansed from sin; He is also their advocate
+([Greek: Paraklaetos]) with God that they may be forgiven, for His
+name's sake.[22] _Hebrews_ speaks of Christ as transcending the rites
+and officials of the law; He accomplishes the realities which they could
+only foreshadow; in relation to the perfect, heavenly sacrifice which
+atones for sin, He is both priest and victim.[23]
+
+
+  Later interpretation.
+
+The subsequent development of the Christian doctrine has chiefly shaped
+itself according to the Pauline formula of vicarious atonement; the
+sufferings of Christ were accepted as a substitute for the punishment
+which men deserved, and so the divine righteousness was satisfied--a
+formula, however, which left much room for controversy. The creeds and
+confessions are usually vague. Thus the Apostles' Creed, "I believe in
+the forgiveness of sins"; the Nicene Creed, "I believe in one Lord Jesus
+Christ ... who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven
+... I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins"; the Athanasian
+Creed, "Who (Christ) suffered for our salvation." In the Thirty-nine
+Articles of the Church of England we have (ii.) "Christ suffered ... to
+reconcile his Father to us, and to be a sacrifice, not only for original
+guilt, but also for all actual sins of men"; and (xxxi.) "The offering
+of Christ once made is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and
+satisfaction, for all the sins of the whole world." The council of Trent
+declared that "_Christus ... nobis sua sanctissima passione ligno crucis
+justificationem meruit et pro nobis deo patri satisfecit_," "Christ
+earned our justification by His most holy passion and satisfied God the
+Father for us." The Confession of Augsburg uses words equivalent to the
+Articles quoted above which were based upon it. The Westminster
+Confession declares: "The Lord Jesus Christ, by His perfect obedience
+and sacrifice of Himself, which He through the Eternal Spirit once
+offered up to God, hath fully satisfied the justice of His Father, and
+purchased not only reconciliation, but an everlasting inheritance in the
+kingdom of heaven, for all those whom the Father hath given unto Him."
+
+Individual theologians have sought to define more exactly the points on
+which the standards are vague. For instance, how was justice satisfied
+by Christ? The early Fathers, from Irenaeus (d. c. 200) to Anselm (d.
+1109),[24] held, _inter alia_, that Christ paid a ransom to Satan to
+induce him to release men from his power. Anselm and the scholastics
+regarded the atonement as an offering to God of such infinite value as
+to outweigh men's sins, a view sometimes styled the "Commerical
+Theory."[25] The leading reformers emphasized the idea that Christ bore
+the punishment of sin, sufferings equivalent to the punishments deserved
+by men, a view maintained later on by Jonathan Edwards junior. But the
+intellectual activity of the Reformation also developed other views; the
+Socinians, with their humanitarian theory of the Person of Christ,
+taught that He died only to assure men of God's forgiving love and to
+afford them an example of obedience--"Forgiveness is granted upon the
+ground of repentance and obedience."[26] Grotius put forward what has
+been called the _Governmental_ Theory, viz. that the atonement took
+place not to satisfy the wrath of God, but in the practical interests of
+the divine government of the world, "The sufferings and death of the Son
+of God are an exemplary exhibition of God's hatred of moral evil, in
+connexion with which it is safe and prudent to remit that penalty, which
+so far as God and the divine attributes are concerned, might have been
+remitted without it."[27]
+
+
+  Modern views.
+
+The formal legal view continued to be widely held, though it was
+modified in many ways by various theologians. For instance, it has been
+held that Christ atoned for mankind not by enduring the penalty of sin,
+but by identifying Himself with the sinner in perfect sympathy, and
+feeling for him an "equivalent repentance" for his sin. Thus McLeod
+Campbell (q.v.) held that Christ atoned by offering up to God a perfect
+confession of the sins of mankind and an adequate repentance for them,
+with which divine justice is satisfied, and a full expiation is made for
+human guilt. A similar view was held by F.D. Maurice.[28] Others hold
+that the effect of the atoning death of Christ is not to propitiate God,
+but to reconcile man to God; it manifests righteousness, and thus
+reveals the heinousness of sin; it also reveals the love of God, and
+conveys the assurance of His willingness to forgive or receive the
+sinner; thus it moves men to repentance and faith, and effects their
+salvation; so substantially Ritschl.[29] In England much influence has
+been exerted by Dr R.W. Dale's _Atonement_ (1875), the special point of
+which is that the death of Christ is not required by the personal demand
+of God to be propitiated, but by the necessity of honouring an ideal law
+of righteousness; thus, "the death of Christ is the objective ground on
+which the sins of men are remitted, because it was an act of submission
+to the righteous authority of the law by which the human race was
+condemned ... and because in consequence of the relation between Him and
+us--His life being our own--His submission is the expression of ours,
+and carries ours with it ... (and) because in His submission to the
+awful penalty of sin ... there was a revelation of the righteousness of
+God, which must otherwise have been revealed in the infliction of the
+penalties of sin on the human race."[30] This view, however, leads to a
+dilemma; if the law of righteousness is simply an expression of the
+divine will, satisfaction to law is equivalent to propitiation offered
+to God; if the law has an independent position, the view is inconsistent
+with pure monotheism.
+
+The present position may be illustrated from a work representing the
+more liberal Anglican theology. Bishop Lyttelton in _Lux Mundi_[31]
+stated that the death of Christ is propitiatory towards God because it
+expressed His perfect obedience, it manifested God's righteous wrath
+against sin, and in virtue of Christ's human nature involved man's
+recognition of the righteousness of God's condemnation of sin; also
+because in some mysterious way death has a propitiatory value; and
+finally because Christ is the representative of the human race. Towards
+man, the death of Christ has atoning efficacy because it delivers from
+sin, bestows the divine gift of life and conveys the assurance of
+pardon. The benefits of the atonement are appropriated by "the
+acceptance of God's forgiveness in Christ, our self-identification with
+Christ's atoning attitude, and then working out, by the power of the
+life bestowed upon us, all the (moral and spiritual) consequence of
+forgiveness."
+
+At present the belief in an objective atonement is still widely held;
+whether in the form of penal theories--the old forensic view that the
+death of Christ atones by paying the penalty of man's sin--or in the
+form of governmental theories; that the Passion fulfilled a necessity of
+divine government by expressing and vindicating God's righteousness. But
+there is also a widespread inclination to minimize, ignore or deny the
+objective aspect of the atonement, the effect of the death of Christ on
+God's attitude towards men; and to follow the moral theories in
+emphasizing the subjective aspect of the atonement, the influence of the
+Passion on man. There is a tendency to eclectic views embracing the more
+attractive features of the various theories; and attempts are made to
+adapt, interpret and qualify the imagery and language of older formulae,
+in order so to speak, to issue them afresh in new editions, compatible
+with modern natural science, psychology and historical criticism. Such
+attempts are necessary in a time of transition, but they involve a
+measure of obscurity and ambiguity.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Atonement: H. Bushnell, _Vicarious Sacrifice_ (1871);
+  J. McLeod Campbell, _Nature of the Atonement_ (1869); T.J. Crawford,
+  _Doctrine of the Holy Spirit respecting the Atonement_ (1871); R.W.
+  Dale, _Atonement_ (1875); J. Denney, _Death of Christ_, _Atonement and
+  the Modern Mind_ (1903); A. Lyttelton, _Lux Mundi_, pp. 201 ff.
+  (Atonement), (1889); R. Moberly, _Atonement and Personality_; A.
+  Ritschl, _Die christliche Lehre van der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung_
+  (1870-1874); G.B. Stevens, _Christian Doctrine of Salvation_ (1905).
+
+  Day of Atonement: articles in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, and in the
+  _Encyclopaedia Biblica_.     (W. H. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. Exodus xii. 15, &c.; Josh. vii. 24 (Achan); Jer. li. 62
+    (Babylon).
+
+  [2] 2 Sam. xii. 13, 14 (David); Isaiah xl. 2 (Jerusalem): in such
+    cases, however, the context implies repentance.
+
+  [3] Ezek. xviii., Micah vi.
+
+  [4] Lev. iv. 2, "sin unwittingly," _bishegag[=a]_, c. 450 B.C., &c.
+
+  [5] Psalm l. 10, li. 16-19; Isaiah i. 11; Micah vi. 6-8.
+
+  [6] Heb. _nephesh_, also translated "soul."
+
+  [7] Lev. xvi., xxiii. 27-32; Numb. xxix. 7-11.
+
+  [8] So Davidson, &c. with LXX. The A.V. with Hebrew text has "seventh
+    day of the month."
+
+  [9] e.g. Achan, Josh. vii. 10-15.
+
+  [10] 2 Sam. xxi. 1-9; Deut. v. 9, 10.
+
+  [11] Ezek. xxi. 3, 4.
+
+  [12] Isaiah liii.
+
+  [13] Isaiah xix. 25, xlix. 6.
+
+  [14] Köberle, _Sunde und Gnade_, pp. 592 ff.
+
+  [15] Mark x. 45; Matt. xxvi. 28; 1 Cor. xv. 3; John xi. 48-52; Heb.
+    ii. 9.
+
+  [16] Rom. iii. 25.
+
+  [17] Rom. v. 8.
+
+  [18] Rom. v. 15-19.
+
+  [19] Rom. vi. 8.
+
+  [20] Rom. iv. 25.
+
+  [21] Matt. xxv. 34 f.; Mark viii. 34 ff., ix. 36 f., x. 21.
+
+  [22] 1 John ii. 1, 2, 12, iii. 5, 8, iv. 10.
+
+  [23] Heb. ii. 17, ix. 14.
+
+  [24] Stevens, _Christian Doctrine of Salvation_, p. 138.
+
+  [25] _Ibid._ p. 151.
+
+  [26] Shedd, _Hist. of Christ. Doctr._ ii. 385 ff.; cf. van Oosterzee,
+    _Christ. Dogmatics_, 611.
+
+  [27] Shedd ii. 358 f.
+
+  [28] Crawford, _Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement_, pp. 327 ff.
+
+  [29] Orr, _Ritschlian Theology_, pp. 149 ff.
+
+  [30] Dale, _Atonement_, pp. 430 ff.
+
+  [31] Pp. 209, 212, 214, 216, 219, 221, 225.
+
+
+
+
+ATRATO, a river of western Colombia, South America, rising on the slopes
+of the Western Cordilleras, in 5° 36' N. lat., and flowing almost due
+north to the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, where it forms a large delta. Its
+length is about 400 m., but owing to the heavy rainfall of this region
+it discharges no less than 175,000 cub. ft. of water per second,
+together with a very large quantity of sediment, which is rapidly
+filling the gulf. The river is navigable to Quibdo (250 m.), and for the
+greater part of its course for large vessels, but the bars at its mouth
+prevent the entrance of sea-going steamers. Flowing through the narrow
+valley between the Cordillera and coast range, it has only short
+tributaries, the principal ones being the Truando, Sucio and Murri. The
+gold and platinum mines of Choco were on some of its affluents, and the
+river sands are auriferous. The Atrato at one time attracted
+considerable attention as a feasible route for a trans-isthmian canal,
+which, it was estimated, could be excavated at a cost of £11,000,000.
+
+
+
+
+ATREK, a river which rises in 37° 10' N. lat. and 59° E., in the
+mountains of the north-east of the Persian province of Khorasan, and
+flows west along the borders of Persia and the Russian Transcaspian
+province, till it falls, after a course of 350 m., into the
+south-eastern corner of the Caspian, a short distance north-north-west
+of Astarabad.
+
+
+
+
+ATREUS, in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodameia, and elder
+brother of Thyestes. Having murdered his stepbrother Chrysippus, Atreus
+fled with Thyestes to Mycenae, where he succeeded Eurystheus in the
+sovereignty. His wife Aërope was seduced by Thyestes, who was driven
+from Mycenae. To avenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthenes (Atreus' son
+whom Thyestes had brought up as his own) to kill Atreus, but Pleisthenes
+was himself slain by his own father. After this Atreus, apparently
+reconciled to his brother, recalled him to Mycenae and invited him to a
+banquet to eat of his son, whom Atreus had slain. Thyestes fled in
+horror. Subsequently Atreus married the daughter of Thyestes, Pelopia,
+who had by her own father a son, Aegisthus, who was adopted by Atreus.
+Thyestes was found by Agamemnon and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus, and
+imprisoned at Mycenae. Aegisthus being sent to murder Thyestes, mutual
+recognition took place, and Atreus was slain by the father and son, who
+seized the throne, and drove Agamemnon and Menelaus out of the country
+(Thucydides i. 9; Hyginus, _Fabulae_; Apollodorus). Homer does not speak
+of the horrors of the story, which are first found in the tragedians; he
+merely states (_Iliad_, ii. 105) that Atreus at his death left the
+kingdom to Thyestes.
+
+  See T. Voigt in _Dissert. philol. Halenses._ vi. (1886).
+
+
+
+
+ATRI, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Teramo, 6 m. W.
+of the station of that name on the railway from Ancona to Foggia, and 18
+m. due E.S.E. of Teramo, on the site of the ancient _Hadria_ (q.v.).
+Pop. (1901) 13,448. Its Gothic cathedral (1285-1305) is remarkably fine;
+and the interior, though spoilt by restoration in 1657, contains some
+important frescoes of the end of the 15th century by Andrea di Lecce and
+his pupils. The crypt was originally a cistern of the Roman period. The
+palace of the Acquaviva family, who were dukes of Atri from 1398 to
+1775, is a massive building situated in the principal square.
+
+
+
+
+ATRIUM (either from _ater_, black, referring to the blackening of the
+walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek [Greek: aethrion],
+open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of
+building is supposed to have originated), the principal entrance hall or
+court of a Roman dwelling, giving access and light to the rooms round
+it. The centre of the roof over the atrium was open to the sky and
+called the _compluvium_; the rain-water from the roof collected in the
+gutters was discharged into a marble tank underneath, which was known as
+the _impluvium_. In the early periods of Roman civilization the atrium
+was the common public apartment, and was used for the reception of
+visitors and clients, and for ordinary domestic purposes, as cooking and
+dining. In it were placed the ancestral pictures, the marriage-couch,
+the hearth and generally a small altar. At a somewhat later period, and
+among the wealthy, separate apartments were built for kitchens and
+dining-rooms, and the atrium was kept as a general reception-room for
+clients and visitors. There were many varieties of the atrium, depending
+on the way in which the roof was carried. These are described by
+Vitruvius under the title of _cavaedium_.
+
+Other buildings, both consecrated and unconsecrated, were called by the
+term (corresponding to the English "hall"), such as the Atrium Vestae,
+where the vestal virgins lived, and the Atrium Libertatis, the residence
+of the censor, where Asinius Pollio established the first public library
+at Rome.
+
+The word _atrium_ in Rome had a second signification, being given to an
+open court with porticos round, sometimes placed in front of a temple. A
+similar arrangement was adopted by the early Christians with relation to
+the Basilica, in front of which there was an open court surrounded by
+colonnades or arcades. The church of San Clemente at Rome, that of Sant'
+Ambrogio at Milan and the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria still retain
+their atria.
+
+
+
+
+ATROPHY (Gr. [Greek: a]- priv., [Greek: trophae], nourishment), a term
+in medicine used to describe a state of wasting due to some interference
+with the function of healthy nutrition (see PATHOLOGY). In the living
+organism there are always at work changes involving the waste of its
+component tissues, which render necessary, in order to maintain and
+preserve life, the supply and proper assimilation of nutritive material.
+It is also essential for the maintenance of health that a due relation
+exist between these processes of waste and repair, so that the one may
+not be in excess of the other. When the appropriation of nutriment
+exceeds the waste, hypertrophy (q.v.) or increase in bulk of the tissues
+takes place. When, on the other hand, the supply of nutritive matter is
+suspended or diminished, or when the power of assimilation is impaired,
+atrophy or wasting is the result. Thus the whole body becomes atrophied
+in many diseases; and in old age every part of the frame, with the
+single exception of the heart, undergoes atrophic change. Atrophy may,
+however, affect single organs or parts of the body, irrespective of the
+general state of nutrition, and this may be brought about in a variety
+of ways. One of the most frequently observed of such instances is
+atrophy from disuse, or cessation of function. Thus, when a limb is
+deprived of the natural power of motion, either by paralysis or by
+painful joint disease, the condition of exercise essential to its
+nutrition being no longer fulfilled, atrophy of all its textures sooner
+or later takes place. The brain in imbeciles is frequently observed to
+be shrivelled, and in many cases of blindness there is atrophy of the
+optic nerve and optic tract. This form of atrophy is likewise well
+exemplified in the case of those organs and structures of the body which
+subserve important ends during foetal life, but which, ceasing to be
+necessary after birth, undergo a sort of natural atrophy, such as the
+thymus gland, and certain vessels specially concerned in the foetal
+circulation. The uterus after parturition undergoes a certain amount of
+atrophy, and the ovaries, after the child-bearing period, become
+shrunken. Atrophy of a part may also be caused by interruption to its
+normal blood-supply, as in the case of the ligature or obstruction of an
+artery. Again, long-standing disease, by affecting the nutrition of an
+organ and by inducing the deposit of morbid products, may result in
+atrophy, as frequently happens in affections of the liver and kidneys.
+Parts that are subjected to continuous pressure are liable to become
+atrophied, as is sometimes seen in internal organs which have been
+pressed upon by tumours or other morbid growths, and is well illustrated
+in the Chinese practice of foot-binding. Atrophy may manifest itself
+simply by loss of substance; but, on the other hand, it is often found
+to co-exist with degenerative changes in the textures affected and the
+formation of adventitious growth, so that the part may not be reduced in
+bulk although atrophied as regards its proper structure. Thus, in the
+case of the heart, when affected with fatty degeneration, there is
+atrophy of the proper muscular texture, but as this is largely replaced
+by fatty matter, the organ may undergo no diminution in volume, but may,
+on the contrary, be increased in size. Atrophy is usually a gradual and
+slow process, but sometimes it proceeds rapidly. In the disease known by
+the name of _acute yellow atrophy of the liver_, that organ undergoes
+such rapidly destructive change as results in its shrinking to half, or
+one-third, of its normal size in the course of a few days. The term
+_progressive muscular atrophy_ (synonyms, _wasting_ or _creeping palsy_)
+is applied to an affection of the muscular system, which is
+characterized by the atrophy and subsequent paralysis of certain
+muscles, or groups of muscles, and is associated with morbid changes in
+the anterior roots of the nerves of the spinal cord. This disease begins
+insidiously, and is often first observed to affect the muscles of one
+hand, generally the right. The attention of the sufferer is first
+attracted by the power of the hand becoming weakened, and then there is
+found to be a wasting of certain of its muscles, particularly those of
+the ball of the thumb. Gradually other muscles in the arms and legs
+become affected in a similar manner, their atrophy being attended with a
+corresponding diminution in power. Although sometimes arrested, this
+disease tends to progress, until in course of time the greater part of
+the muscular system is implicated and a fatal result ensues.
+
+
+
+
+ATROPOS, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the three Fates (see FATE).
+Her name, the "Unalterable" ([Greek: a]- privative, and [Greek:
+trepein], to turn), indicates her function, that of rendering the
+decisions of her sisters irreversible or immutable. Atropos is most
+frequently represented with scales, a sun-dial or a cutting instrument,
+the "abhorred shears," with which she slits the thin-spun thread of life
+that has been placed on the spindle by Clotho and drawn off by Lachesis.
+
+
+
+
+ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS, or QUINTICIUS (d. 77 B.C.), Roman comedy writer,
+was, like Titinius and Afranius, distinguished as a writer of _fabulae
+togatae_, national comedies. He had the reputation of being a vivid
+delineator of character, especially female. He also seems to have
+published a collection of epigrams. The scanty fragments contain many
+archaisms, but are lively in style. According to Horace (_Epistles_, ii
+1. 79) the plays of Atta were still put on the stage in his time.
+
+  Aulus Gellius vii. 9; fragments in Neukirch, _De fabula togata
+  Romanorum_ (1833); Ribbeck, _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+ATTACAPA (Choctaw for "cannibal"), a tribe of North-American Indians,
+whose home was in south-west Louisiana; they are now practically
+extinct.
+
+
+
+
+ATTACHMENT,[1] in law, a process from a court of record, awarded by the
+justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion, or on their own
+knowledge, and properly grantable in cases of contempt. It differs from
+arrest (q.v.), in that he who arrests a man carries him to a person of
+higher power to be forthwith disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the
+party attached, and presents him in court at the day assigned, as
+appears by the words of the writ. Another difference is, that arrest is
+only upon the body of a man, whereas an attachment is often upon his
+goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to lands, as
+the latter does; nor does a distress touch the body, as an attachment
+does. Every court of record has power to fine and imprison for contempt
+of its authority. Attachment being merely a process to bring the
+defendant before the court, is not necessary in cases of contempt in the
+presence of the court itself. Attachment will be granted in England
+against peers and members of parliament only for such gross contempts as
+rescues, disobedience to the sovereign's writs and the like. Attachment
+will not lie against a corporation. The county courts in this respect
+are regulated by acts of 1846 and 1849. They can only punish for
+contempts committed in presence of the court (see CONTEMPT OF COURT).
+Attachments are granted on a rule in the first instance to show cause,
+which must be personally served before it can be made absolute, except
+for non-payment of costs on a master's allocatur, and against a sheriff
+for not obeying a rule to return a writ or to bring in the body. The
+offender is then arrested, and when committed will be compelled to
+answer interrogatories, exhibited against him by the party at whose
+instance the proceedings have been had; and the examination when taken
+is referred to the master, who reports thereon, and on the contempt
+being reported, the court gives judgment according to its discretion, in
+the same manner as upon a conviction for a misdemeanour at common law.
+Sir W. Blackstone observes that "this method of making the defendant
+answer upon oath to a criminal charge is not agreeable to the genius of
+the common law in any other instance"; and the elasticity of the legal
+definitions of contempt of court, especially with respect to comments on
+judicial proceedings, is the subject of much complaint.
+
+_Attachment of Debts._--It was suggested by the common law commissioners
+in 1853 that a remedy analogous to that of Foreign Attachment (see
+below) might be made available to creditors, after judgment, against
+debts due to their debtors. Accordingly, the Common Law Procedure Act
+1854 enacted that any creditor, having obtained judgment in the superior
+courts, should have an order that the judgment debtor might be examined
+as to any debts due and owing to him before a master of the court. The
+rules and regulations under the Judicature Act 1873 retained the process
+for attachment of debts as established by the Procedure Act of 1854. On
+affidavit that the judgment was still unsatisfied, and that any other
+person within the jurisdiction was indebted to the judgment debtor, the
+judge was empowered to attach all debts due from such third person
+(called the _garnishee_) to the judgment debtor, to answer the judgment
+debt. This order binds the debts in the hands of the garnishee, and if
+he does not dispute his liability execution issues against him at once.
+If he disputes his liability the question must be tried. Payment by the
+garnishee or execution against him is a complete discharge as against
+the judgment debtor. These provisions were, by an order in council of
+the 18th of November 1867, extended to the county courts. By the Wages
+Attachment Abolition Act 1870 it is enacted that no order for the
+attachment of the wages of any servant, labourer or workman shall be
+made by the judge of any court of record or inferior court, and by the
+Merchant Shipping Act 1894 it is enacted that the wages of a seaman or
+apprentice are not subject to attachment.
+
+In the United States attachment of debts is a statutory remedy accorded
+in most of the states in certain circumstances for the security of
+creditors, by the seizure by the sheriff of the debtor's goods or the
+imposition of a lien upon his land, before judgment, and sometimes at
+the very commencement of the action. In some states it is only allowed
+in special cases, as when the debtor has absconded, or is a non-resident
+or guilty of fraud; in a few it may be had, as of right, at the
+commencement of ordinary actions. The common-law courts of the United
+States (by act of Congress) follow the practice in this regard of the
+state in which they sit. Such attachments (on mesne process) can
+generally be dissolved by the substitution of a bond with surety. The
+body can also be attached in most states on civil actions of tort (for a
+wrongful or negligent act to the damage of another), but not in actions
+on contract.
+
+_Foreign Attachment_ is an important custom prevailing in the city of
+London, whereby a creditor may attach money owing to his debtor, or
+property belonging to him in the possession of third parties. The person
+holding the property or owing the money must be within the city at the
+time of being served with the process, but all persons are entitled to
+the benefit of the custom. The plaintiff having commenced his action,
+and made a satisfactory affidavit of his debt, is entitled to issue
+attachment, which thereupon affects all the money or property of the
+defendant in the hands of the third party, the garnishee. The garnishee,
+of course, has as against the attachment all the defences which would be
+available to him against the defendant, his alleged creditor. The
+garnishee may plead payment under the attachment, if there has been no
+fraud or collusion, in bar to an action by the defendant for his debt or
+property. The court to which this process belongs is the mayor's court
+of London, the procedure in which is regulated by the Mayor's Court of
+London Procedure Act 1857. This custom, and all proceedings relating
+thereto, are expressly exempted from the operation of the Debtor's Act
+1869. Similar customs exist in Bristol and a few other towns in England
+and also in Scotland.
+
+_A Writ of Attachment_ enforces answers and obedience to decrees and
+orders of the High Court of Justice, and is made out without order upon
+an affidavit of the due service of the process, &c., with whose
+requirements compliance is sought. A corporation, however, is proceeded
+against by distringas and not by attachment. It was formerly competent
+to the plaintiff to compel the appearance of a defendant in chancery by
+attachment, but the usual course was to enter appearance for him in case
+of default. It is one of the modes of execution allowed for the recovery
+of property other than land or money.
+
+_Attachment of the Forest_ was the proceeding in the courts of
+attachments, Woodmote, or Forty Days' courts. These courts have fallen
+into desuetude. They were held before the verderers of the royal forests
+in different parts of the kingdom once in every forty days, for the
+purpose of inquiring into all offences against "vert (greensward) and
+venison." The attachment was by the bodies of the offenders, if taken in
+the very act of killing venison, or stealing wood, or preparing so to
+do, or by fresh and immediate pursuit after the act was done; else they
+must be attached by their goods. These attachments were received by the
+verderers and enrolled, and certified under their seals to the
+Swainmote, or Court of Justice-seat, which was the superior of the
+forest courts.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "To attach" is first used in English in the legal sense of arrest
+    or seizure, and the sense of "fasten to" is comparatively late. The
+    Old French _atachier_, modern _attacher_, from which the English
+    "attach" is derived, is from a word for a peg or nail, in English
+    "tack," which is found in many forms in Scandinavian and Celtic
+    languages, and is ultimately connected with the root seen in Latin
+    _tangere_, to touch. The Italian _attacare_, especially in the phrase
+    _attacare battaglia_, to join battle, gave the French _attaquer_,
+    whence the English "attack," which is therefore by origin a doublet
+    of "attach."
+
+
+
+
+ATTAINDER (from the O. Fr. _ataindre, ateindre_, to attain, i.e. to
+strike, accuse, condemn; Lat. _attingere, tangere_, to touch; the
+meaning has been greatly affected by the confusion with Fr. _taindre,
+teindre_, to taint, stain, Lat. _tingere_, to dye), in English law, was
+the immediate and inseparable consequence from the common law upon the
+sentence of death. When it was clear beyond all dispute that the
+criminal was no longer fit to live he was called _attaint_, and could
+not, before the Evidence Act 1843, be a witness in any court. This
+attainder took place after judgment of death, or upon such circumstances
+as were equivalent to judgment of death, such as judgment of outlawry on
+a capital crime, pronounced for absconding from justice. Conviction
+without judgment was not followed by attainder. The consequences of
+attainder were (1) forfeiture, (2) corruption of blood. On attainder for
+treason, the criminal forfeited to the crown his lands, rights of entry
+on lands, and any interest he might have in lands for his own life or a
+term of years. For murder, the offender forfeited to the crown the
+profit of his freeholds during life, and in the case of lands held in
+fee-simple, the lands themselves for a year and a day; subject to this,
+the lands escheated to the lord of the fee. These forfeitures related
+back to the time of the offence committed. Forfeitures of goods and
+chattels ensued not only on attainder, but on conviction for a felony of
+any kind, or on flight from justice, and had no relation backwards to
+the time of the offence committed. By _corruption of blood_, "both
+upwards and downwards," the attainted person could neither inherit nor
+transmit lands. The lands escheated to the lord of the fee, subject to
+the crown's right of forfeiture. The doctrine of attainder has, however,
+ceased to be of much importance. The Forfeiture Act 1870 enacted that
+henceforth no confession, verdict, inquest, conviction or judgment of or
+for any treason or felony, or _felo de se_, should cause any attainder
+or corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat. Sentence of death,
+penal servitude or imprisonment with hard labour for more than twelve
+months, after conviction for treason or felony, disqualifies from
+holding or retaining a seat in parliament, public offices under the
+crown or otherwise, right to vote at elections, &c., and such disability
+is to remain until the punishment has been suffered or a pardon
+obtained. Provision was made for the due administration of convicts'
+estates, in the interests of themselves and their families. Forfeiture
+consequent on outlawry was exempted from the provisions of the act. The
+United States constitution (Art. III. s. 3) says: "The Congress shall
+have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of
+treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the
+life of the person attainted."
+
+_Bills of Attainder_, in English legal procedure, were formerly a
+parliamentary method of exercising judicial authority. They were
+ordinarily initiated in the House of Lords and the proceedings were the
+same as on other bills, but the parties against whom they were brought
+might appear by counsel and produce witnesses in both Houses. In the
+case of an impeachment (q.v.), the House of Commons was prosecutor and
+the House of Lords judge; but such bills being _legislative_ in form,
+the consent of crown, lords and commons was necessary to pass them.
+Bishops, who do not exercise but who claim the right to vote in cases of
+impeachment (q.v.), have a right to vote upon bills of attainder, but
+their vote is not conclusive in passing judgment upon the accused. First
+passed in 1459, such bills were employed, more particularly during the
+reigns of the Tudor kings, as a species of extrajudicial procedure, for
+the direct punishment of political offences. Dispensing with the
+ordinary judicial forms and precedents, they took away from the accused
+whatever advantages he might have gained in the courts of law; such
+evidence only was admitted as might be necessary to secure conviction;
+indeed, in many cases bills of attainder were passed without any
+evidence being produced at all. In the reign of Henry VIII. they were
+much used, through a subservient parliament, to punish those who had
+incurred the king's displeasure; many distinguished victims who could
+not have been charged with any offence under the existing laws being by
+this means disposed of. In the 17th century, during the disputes with
+Charles I., the Long Parliament made effective use of the same
+procedure, forcing the sovereign to give his consent. After the
+Restoration it became less frequent, though the Jacobite movement in
+Scotland produced several instances of attainder, without, however, the
+infliction of the extreme penalty of death. The last bill of attainder
+passed in England was in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the
+Irish rebel leaders of 1798.
+
+A bill for reversing attainder took a form contrary to the usual rule.
+It was first signed by the sovereign and presented by a peer to the
+House of Lords by command of the crown, then passed through the ordinary
+stages and on to the commons, to whom the sovereign's assent was
+communicated before the first reading was taken, otherwise the whole
+proceedings were null and void.
+
+A _Bill of Pains and Penalties_ resembles a bill of attainder in object
+and procedure, but imposes a lesser punishment than death. The most
+notable instances of the passing of a bill of pains and penalties are
+those of Bishop Atterbury in 1722, and of Queen Caroline, wife of George
+IV., in 1820.
+
+The constitution of the United States declares that "no bill of
+attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed."
+
+
+
+
+ATTAINT, WRIT OF, an obsolete method of procedure in English law, for
+inquiring by a jury of twenty-four whether a false verdict had been
+given in a trial before an ordinary jury of twelve. If it were found
+that an erroneous judgment had been given, the wrong was redressed and
+the original jury incurred infamy, with imprisonment and forfeiture of
+their goods, which punishments were, however, commuted later for a
+pecuniary penalty. In criminal cases a writ of attaint was issued at
+suit of the king, and in civil cases at the suit of either party. In
+criminal cases it appears to have become obsolete by the end of the 15th
+century. Procedure by attaint in civil cases had also been gradually
+giving place to the practice of granting new trials, and after the
+decision in Bushell's case in 1670 (see JURY) it became obsolete, and
+was finally abolished by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurors
+guilty of embracery (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+ATTALIA, an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its name from
+Attalus II., king of Pergamum; the modern Adalia (q.v.). It was
+important as the nearest seaport to the rich districts of south-west
+Phrygia. A much-frequented "half-sea" route led through it to the Lycus
+and Maeander valleys, and so to Ephesus and Smyrna. This was the natural
+way from any part of central Asia Minor to Syria and Egypt, and
+accordingly we hear of Paul and Barnabas taking ship at Attalia for
+Antioch. Originally the port of Perga, Attalia eclipsed the old
+Pamphylian capital in early Christian times and became the metropolis.
+There are extensive remains of the ancient walls, including some
+portions which go back to the foundation of the Pergamenian city. The
+most conspicuous monument is the triple Gate of Hadrian, flanked by a
+tower built by the empress Julia. This lies about half-way round the
+_enceinte_ and formerly admitted the road from Perga.
+
+
+
+
+ATTAR [or OTTO] OF ROSES (Pers. _'atar_, essence), a perfume consisting
+of essential oil of roses, prepared by distilling, or, in some
+districts, by macerating the flowers. The manufacture is chiefly carried
+out in India, Persia and the Balkans; the last named supplying the bulk
+of the European demand. It is used by perfumery manufacturers as an
+ingredient. The genuine attar of roses is costly and it is frequently
+adulterated.
+
+
+
+
+ATTEMPT (Lat. _adtemptare, attentare_, to try), in law, an act done with
+intent to commit a crime, and forming one of a series of acts which
+would constitute its actual commission if it were not interrupted. An
+attempt must proceed beyond mere preparation, but at the same time it
+must fall short of the ultimate purpose in any part of it. The actual
+point, however, at which an act ceases to be an attempt, and becomes
+criminal, depends upon the circumstances of each particular case. A
+person may be guilty of an attempt to commit a crime, even if its
+commission in the manner proposed was impossible. Every attempt to
+commit a treason, felony or indictable misdemeanour is in itself an
+indictable misdemeanour, punishable by fine or imprisonment, unless the
+attempt to commit is specifically punishable by statute as a felony, or
+in a defined manner as a misdemeanour; and a person who has been
+indicted for a felony or misdemeanour may, if the evidence so warrants,
+be found guilty only of the attempt, provided that it too is a
+misdemeanour.
+
+
+
+
+ATTENTION (from Lat. _ad-tendo_, await, expect; the condition of being
+"stretched" or "tense"), in psychology, the concentration of
+consciousness upon a definite object or objects. The result is brought
+about, not by effecting any change in the perceptions themselves, but
+simply by isolating them from other objects. Since all consciousness
+involves this isolation, attention may be defined generally as the
+necessary condition of consciousness. Such a definition, however, throws
+no light upon the nature of the psychological process, which is partly
+explained by the general law that the greater the number of objects on
+which attention is concentrated the less will each receive ("pluribus
+intentus, minor est ad singula sensus"), and conversely. There are also
+special circumstances which determine the amount of attention, e.g.
+influences not subject to the will, such as the vividness of the
+impression (e.g. in the case of a shock), strong change in pleasurable
+or painful sensations. Secondly, an exercise of volition is employed in
+fixing the mind upon a definite object. This is a purely voluntary act,
+which can be strengthened by habit and is variable in different
+individuals; to it the name "attention" is sometimes restricted. The
+distinction is expressed by the words "reflex" or "passive," and
+"volitional" or "active." It is important to notice that in every case
+of attention to an object, there must be in consciousness an implicit
+apprehension of surrounding objects from which the particular object is
+isolated. These objects are known as the "psychic fringe," and are
+essential to the systematic unity of the attention-process. Attempts
+have been made to examine the attention-process from the physiological
+standpoint by investigating the muscular and neural changes which
+accompany it, and even to assign to it a specific local centre. It has,
+for example, been remarked that uniformity of environment, resulting in
+practically automatic activity, produces mental equilibrium and the
+comparative disappearance of attention-processes; whereas the necessity
+of adapting activity to abnormal conditions produces a comparatively
+high degree of attention. In other words, attention is absent where
+there is uniformity of activity in accordance with uniform, or uniformly
+changing, environment. In spite of the progress made in this branch of
+study, it has to be remembered that all psycho-physical experiments are
+to some extent vitiated by the fact that the phenomena can scarcely
+remain normal under inspection.
+
+  See G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (London, 1896), especially part
+  ii. chap. 2; also PSYCHOLOGY, BRAIN, &c.
+
+
+
+
+ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS (1790-1855), Swedish poet, son of a country
+parson, was born in the province of Östergötland on the 19th of January
+1790. He studied in the university of Upsala from 1805 to 1815, and
+became professor of philosophy there in 1828. He was the first great
+poet of the romantic movement which, inaugurated by the critical work of
+Lorenzo Hammersköld, was to revolutionize Swedish literature. In 1807,
+when in his seventeenth year, he founded at Upsala an artistic society,
+called the Aurora League, the members of which included V.F. Palmblad,
+A.A. Grafström (d. 1870), Samuel Hedborn (d. 1849), and other youths
+whose names were destined to take a foremost rank in the literature of
+their generation. Their first newspaper, _Polyfem_, was a crude effort,
+soon abandoned, but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, _Fosforos_,
+edited by Atterbom, which lasted for three years and finds a place in
+classic Swedish literature. It consisted entirely of poetry and
+aesthetico-polemical essays; it introduced the study of the newly arisen
+Romantic school of Germany, and formed a vehicle for the early works,
+not of Atterbom only, but of Hammersköld, Dahlgren, Palmblad and others.
+Later, the members of the Aurora League established the _Poetisk
+Kalender_ (1812-1822), in which their poems appeared, and a new critical
+organ, _Svensk Litteraturtidning_ (1813-1824). Among Atterbom's
+independent works the most celebrated is _Lycksalighetens Ö_ (_The
+Fortunate Island_), a romantic drama of extraordinary beauty, published
+in 1823. Before this he had published a somewhat in the manner of
+Novalis. Of a dramatized fairy tale, _Fågel blå (The Blue Bird_), only a
+fragment, which is among the most exquisite of his writings, is
+preserved. As a purely lyrical poet he has not been excelled in Sweden,
+but his more ambitious works are injured by his weakness for allegory
+and symbolism, and his consistent adoption of the mannerisms of Tieck
+and Novalis. In his later years he became less violent in literary
+controversy. He became in 1835 professor of aesthetics and literature at
+Upsala, and four years later he was admitted to the Swedish Academy. He
+died on the 21st of July 1855. His _Svenska Siare och Skalder_ (6 vols.,
+1841-1855, supplement, 1864) consists of a series of biographies of
+Swedish poets and men of letters, which forms a valuable history of
+Swedish letters down to the end of the "classical" period. Atterbom's
+works were collected (13 vols., Örebro) in 1854-1870.
+
+
+
+
+ATTERBURY, FRANCIS (1662-1732), English man of letters, politician and
+bishop, was born in the year 1662, at Milton or Middleton Keynes in
+Buckinghamshire, a parish of which his father was rector. He was
+educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he
+became a tutor. In 1682 he published a translation of _Absalom and
+Ahithophel_ into Latin verse; but neither the style nor the
+versification was that of the Augustan age. In English composition he
+succeeded much better. In 1687 he published _An Answer to some
+Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original of the
+Reformation_, a reply to Obadiah Walker, who, elected master of
+University College in 1676, had printed in a press set up by him there
+an attack on the Reformation, written by Abraham Woodhead. Atterbury's
+treatise, though highly praised by Bishop Burnet, is perhaps more
+distinguished for the vigour of his rhetoric than for the soundness of
+his arguments, and the Papists were so much galled by his sarcasms and
+invectives that they accused him of treason, and of having, by
+implication, called King James a Judas.
+
+After the Revolution, Atterbury, though bred in the doctrines of
+non-resistance and passive obedience, readily swore fealty to the new
+government. He had taken holy orders in 1687, preached occasionally in
+London with an eloquence which raised his reputation, and was soon
+appointed one of the royal chaplains. But he ordinarily resided at
+Oxford, where he was the chief adviser and assistant of Dean Aldrich,
+under whom Christ Church was a stronghold of Toryism. Thus he became the
+inspirer of his pupil, Charles Boyle, in the attack (1698) on the Whig
+scholar, Richard Bentley (q.v.), arising out of Bentley's impugnment of
+the genuineness of the _Epistles of Phalaris_. He was figured by Swift
+in the _Battle of the Books_ as the Apollo who directed the fight, and
+was, no doubt, largely the author of Boyle's essay. Bentley spent two
+years in preparing his famous reply, which proved not only that the
+letters ascribed to Phalaris were spurious, but that all Atterbury's
+wit, eloquence and skill in controversial fence was only a cloak for an
+audacious pretence of scholarship.
+
+Atterbury was soon occupied, however, in a dispute about matters still
+more important and exciting. The rage of religious factions was extreme.
+High Church and Low Church divided the nation. The great majority of the
+clergy were on the High Church side; the majority of King William's
+bishops were inclined to latitudinarianism. In 1700 Convocation, of
+which the lower house was overwhelmingly Tory, had not been suffered to
+meet for ten years. This produced a lively controversy, into which
+Atterbury threw himself with characteristic energy, publishing a series
+of treatises written with much wit, audacity and acrimony. By the mass
+of the clergy he was regarded as the most intrepid champion that had
+ever defended their rights against the oligarchy of Erastian prelates.
+In 1701 he was rewarded with the archdeaconry of Totnes and a prebend in
+Exeter cathedral. The lower house of Convocation voted him thanks for
+his services; the university of Oxford created him a doctor of divinity;
+and in 1704, soon after the accession of Anne, while the Tories still
+had the chief weight in the government, he was promoted to the deanery
+of Carlisle.
+
+Soon after he had obtained this preferment the Whig party came into
+power. From that party he could expect no favour. Six years elapsed
+before a change of fortune took place. At length, in the year 1710, the
+prosecution of Sacheverell produced a formidable explosion of High
+Church fanaticism. At such a moment Atterbury could not fail to be
+conspicuous. His inordinate zeal for the body to which he belonged, his
+turbulent and aspiring temper, his rare talents for agitation and for
+controversy, were again signally displayed. He bore a chief part in
+framing that artful and eloquent speech which the accused divine
+pronounced at the bar of the Lords, and which presents a singular
+contrast to the absurd and scurrilous sermon which had very unwisely
+been honoured with impeachment. During the troubled and anxious months
+which followed the trial, Atterbury was among the most active of those
+pamphleteers who inflamed the nation against the Whig ministry and the
+Whig parliament. When the ministry had been changed and the parliament
+dissolved, rewards were showered upon him. The lower house of
+Convocation elected him prolocutor, in which capacity he drew up, in
+1711, the often-cited _Representation of the State of Religion_; and, in
+August 1711, the queen, who had selected him as her chief adviser in
+ecclesiastical matters, appointed him dean of Christ Church on the death
+of his old friend and patron Aldrich.
+
+At Oxford he was as conspicuous a failure as he had been at Carlisle,
+and it was said by his enemies that he was made a bishop because he was
+so bad a dean. Under his administration Christ Church was in confusion,
+scandalous altercations took place, and there was reason to fear that
+the great Tory college would be ruined by the tyranny of the great Tory
+doctor. In 1713 he was removed to the bishopric of Rochester, which was
+then always united with the deanery of Westminster. Still higher
+dignities seemed to be before him. For, though there were many able men
+on the episcopal bench, there was none who equalled or approached him in
+parliamentary talents. Had his party continued in power it is not
+improbable that he would have been raised to the archbishopric of
+Canterbury. The more splendid his prospects the more reason he had to
+dread the accession of a family which was well known to be partial to
+the Whigs, and there is every reason to believe that he was one of those
+politicians who hoped that they might be able, during the life of Anne,
+to prepare matters in such a way that at her decease there might be
+little difficulty in setting aside the Act of Settlement and placing the
+Pretender on the throne. Her sudden death confounded the projects of
+these conspirators, and, whatever Atterbury's previous views may have
+been, he acquiesced in what he could not prevent, took the oaths to the
+house of Hanover, and did his best to ingratiate himself with the royal
+family. But his servility was requited with cold contempt; and he became
+the most factious and pertinacious of all the opponents of the
+government. In the House of Lords his oratory, lucid, pointed, lively
+and set off with every grace of pronunciation and of gesture, extorted
+the attention and admiration even of a hostile majority. Some of the
+most remarkable protests which appear in the journals of the peers were
+drawn up by him; and, in some of the bitterest of those pamphlets which
+called on the English to stand up for their country against the aliens
+who had come from beyond the seas to oppress and plunder her, critics
+easily detected his style. When the rebellion of 1715 broke out, he
+refused to sign the paper in which the bishops of the province of
+Canterbury declared their attachment to the Protestant succession, and
+in 1717, after having been long in indirect communication with the
+exiled family, he began to correspond directly with the Pretender.
+
+In 1721, on the discovery of the plot for the capture of the royal
+family and the proclamation of King James, Atterbury was arrested with
+the other chief malcontents, and in 1722 committed to the Tower, where
+he remained in close confinement during some months. He had carried on
+his correspondence with the exiled family so cautiously that the
+circumstantial proofs of his guilt, though sufficient to produce entire
+moral conviction, were not sufficient to justify legal conviction. He
+could be reached only by a bill of pains and penalties. Such a bill the
+Whig party, then decidedly predominant in both Houses, was quite
+prepared to support, and in due course a bill passed the Commons
+depriving him of his spiritual dignities, banishing him for life, and
+forbidding any British subject to hold intercourse with him except by
+the royal permission. In the Lords the contest was sharp, but the bill
+finally passed by eighty-three votes to forty-three.
+
+Atterbury took leave of those whom he loved with a dignity and
+tenderness worthy of a better man, to the last protesting his innocence
+with a singular disingenuousness. After a short stay at Brussels he went
+to Paris, and became the leading man among the Jacobite refugees there.
+He was invited to Rome by the Pretender, but Atterbury felt that a
+bishop of the Church of England would be out of place at the Vatican,
+and declined the invitation. During some months, however, he seemed to
+stand high in the good graces of James. The correspondence between the
+master and the servant was constant. Atterbury's merits were warmly
+acknowledged, his advice was respectfully received, and he was, as
+Bolingbroke had been before him, the prime minister of a king without a
+kingdom. He soon, however, perceived that his counsels were disregarded,
+if not distrusted. His proud spirit was deeply wounded. In 1728 he
+quitted Paris, fixed his residence at Montpelier, gave up politics, and
+devoted himself entirely to letters. In the sixth year of his exile he
+had so severe an illness that his daughter, Mrs Morice, herself very
+ill, determined to run all risks that she might see him once more. She
+met him at Toulouse, received the communion from his hand, and died that
+night.
+
+Atterbury survived the severe shock of his daughter's death two years.
+He even returned to Paris and to the service of the Pretender, who had
+found out that he had not acted wisely in parting with one who, though a
+heretic, was the most able man of the Jacobite party. In the ninth year
+of his banishment he published a luminous, temperate and dignified
+vindication of himself against John Oldmixon, who had accused him of
+having, in concert with other Christ Church men, garbled the new edition
+of Clarendon's _History of the Rebellion_. The charge, as respected
+Atterbury, had not the slightest foundation; for he was not one of the
+editors of the _History_, and never saw it till it was printed. A copy
+of this little work he sent to the Pretender, with a letter singularly
+eloquent and graceful. It was impossible, the old man said, that he
+should write anything on such a subject without being reminded of the
+resemblance between his own fate and that of Clarendon. They were the
+only two English subjects who had ever been banished from their country
+and debarred from all communication with their friends by act of
+parliament. But here the resemblance ended. One of the exiles had been
+so happy as to bear a chief part in the restoration of the royal house.
+All that the other could now do was to die asserting the rights of that
+house to the last. A few weeks after this letter was written Atterbury
+died, on the 22nd of February 1732. His body was brought to England, and
+laid, with great privacy, under the nave of Westminster Abbey. No
+inscription marks his grave.
+
+It is agreeable to turn from Atterbury's public to his private life. His
+turbulent spirit, wearied with faction and treason, now and then
+required repose, and found it in domestic endearments, and in the
+society of the most illustrious literary men of his time. Of his wife,
+Katherine Osborn, whom he married while at Oxford, little is known; but
+between him and his daughter there was an affection singularly close and
+tender. The gentleness of his manners when he was in the company of a
+few friends was such as seemed hardly credible to those who knew him
+only by his writings and speeches. Though Atterbury's classical
+attainments were not great, his taste in English literature was
+excellent; and his admiration of genius was so strong that it
+overpowered even his political and religious antipathies. His fondness
+for Milton, the mortal enemy of the Stuarts and of the Church, was such
+as to many Tories seemed a crime; and he was the close friend of
+Addison. His favourite companions, however, were, as might have been
+expected, men whose politics had at least a tinge of Toryism. He lived
+on friendly terms with Swift, Arbuthnot and Gay. With Prior he had a
+close intimacy, which some misunderstanding about public affairs at
+last dissolved. Pope found in Atterbury not only a warm admirer, but a
+most faithful, fearless and judicious adviser.
+
+  See F. Williams, _Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury with Notes_,
+  &c. (1869); _Stuart Papers_, vol. i.: _Letters of Atterbury to the
+  Chevalier St George_, &c. (1847); J. Nichols, _Epistolary
+  Correspondence_, &c. (1783-1796); and H.C. Beeching, _Francis
+  Atterbury_, (1909).
+
+
+
+
+ATTESTATION (Lat. _adtestare, attestare_, to bear witness, _testis_, a
+witness), the verification of a deed, will or other instrument by the
+signature to it of a witness or witnesses, who endorse or subscribe
+their names under a memorandum, to the effect that it was signed or
+executed in their presence. The essence of attestation is to show that
+at the execution of the document there was present some disinterested
+person capable of giving evidence as to what took place. The clause at
+the end of the instrument, immediately preceding the signatures of the
+witnesses to the execution, and stating that they have witnessed it, is
+known as the attestation clause. In Scots law, the corresponding clause
+is called the testing-clause (see DEED; WILL OR TESTAMENT; WITNESS).
+
+
+
+
+ATTHIS (an adjective meaning "Attic"), the name given to a monograph or
+special treatise on the religious and political history, antiquities and
+topography of Attica and Athens. During the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C.,
+a class of writers arose, who, making these subjects their particular
+study, were called atthidographi, or compilers of atthides. The first of
+these was Clidemus or Clitodemus (about 378 B.C.); the last, Ister of
+Cyrene (died 212 B.C.); the most important was Philochorus (first half
+of the 3rd century B.C.), of whose work considerable fragments have been
+preserved. The names of the other atthidographi known to us are
+Phanodemus, Demon, Androtion, Andron, Melanthius. They laid no claim to
+literary skill; their style was monotonous and soon became wearisome.
+They were in fact chroniclers or annalists--not historians. Their only
+object was to set down, in plain and simple language, all that seemed
+worthy of note in reference to the legends, history, constitution,
+religion and civilization of Attica. They followed the order of the
+olympiads and archons, and their work was supported by the authority of
+original documents, monuments and inscriptions. Their writings were much
+used by historians, as well as by the scholiasts and grammarians.
+
+  Fragments in Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, i.
+
+
+
+
+ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style"), an architectural term given to the
+masonry rising above the main cornice of a building, the earliest
+example known being that of the monument of Thrasyllus at Athens. It was
+largely employed by the Romans, who in their arches of triumph utilized
+it for inscriptions or for bas-relief sculpture. It was used also to
+increase the height of enclosure walls such as those of the Forum of
+Nerva. By the Italian revivalists it was utilized as a complete storey,
+pierced with windows, as found in Palladio's work at Vicenza and in
+Greenwich hospital. The largest attic in existence is that which
+surmounts the entablature of St Peter's at Rome, which measures 39 ft.
+in height. The term is also employed in modern terminology to designate
+an upper storey in a roof, and the feature is sometimes introduced to
+hide a roof behind.
+
+
+
+
+ATTICA, a district of ancient Greece, triangular in shape, projecting in
+a south-easterly direction into the Aegean Sea, the base line being
+formed by the continuous chain of Mounts Cithaeron and Parnes, the apex
+by the promontory of Sunium. It was washed on two sides by the sea, and
+the coast is broken up into numerous small bays and harbours, which,
+however, are with few exceptions exposed to the south wind. The surface
+of Attica, as of the rest of Greece, is very mountainous, and between
+the mountain chains lie several plains of no great size, open on one
+side to the sea. On the west its natural boundary is the Corinthian
+Gulf, so that it would include Megaris; indeed, before the Dorian
+invasion, which resulted in the foundation of Megara, the whole country
+was politically one, in the hands of the Ionian race. This is proved by
+the column which, as we learn from Strabo, once stood on the Isthmus of
+Corinth, bearing on one side in Greek the inscription, "This land is
+Peloponnesus, not Ionia," and on the other, "This land is not
+Peloponnesus, but Ionia."
+
+The position of Attica was one main cause of its historical importance.
+Hence in part arose the maritime character of its inhabitants; and when
+they had once taken to the sea, the string of neighbouring islands,
+Ceos, Cythnos and others, some of which lay within sight of their
+coasts, and from one to another of which it was possible to sail without
+losing sight of land, served to tempt them on to further enterprises.
+Similarly on land, the post it occupied between northern Greece and the
+Peloponnese materially influenced its relation to other states, both in
+respect of its alliances, such as that with Thessaly, towards which it
+was drawn by mutual hostility to Boeotia, which lay between them; and
+also in respect of offensive combinations of other powers, as that
+between Thebes and Sparta, which throughout an important part of Greek
+history were closely associated in their politics, through mutual dread
+of their powerful neighbour.
+
+
+  Mountains.
+
+The mountains of Attica, which form its most characteristic feature, are
+a continuation of that chain which, starting from Tymphrestus at the
+southern extremity of Pindus, passes through Phocis and Boeotia under
+the names of Parnassus and Helicon; from this proceeds the range which,
+as Cithaeron in its western and Parnes in its eastern portion, separates
+Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs southward towards the Saronic
+Gulf in Aegaleos and Hymettus, which bound the plain of Athens. Again,
+the eastern extremity of Parnes is joined by another line of hills,
+which, separating from Mount Oeta, skirts the Euboic Gulf, and, after
+entering Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus, overlooking
+the plain of Marathon, and then sinks towards the sea at Sunium to rise
+once more in the outlying islands. Finally, at the extreme west of the
+whole district, Cithaeron is bent round at right angles in the direction
+of the isthmus, at the northern approach to which it abuts against the
+mighty mass of Mount Geraneia, which is interposed between the
+Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. Both Cithaeron and Parnes are about
+4600 ft. high, Pentelicus 3635, and Hymettus 3370, while Aegaleos does
+not rise higher than 1534 ft. At the present day they are extremely
+bare, and in this respect almost repellent; but the lack of colour is
+compensated by the delicacy of the outlines, the minute articulation of
+the minor ridges and valleys, and the symmetrical grouping of the
+several mountains.
+
+
+  Soil.
+
+The soil is light and thin, and requires very careful agriculture not
+only on the rocky mountain sides but to some extent also in the maritime
+plains. This fact had considerable influence on the inhabitants, both by
+enforcing industrious habits and by leading them at an early period to
+take to the sea. Still, the level ground was sufficiently fertile to
+form a marked contrast to the rest of the district. Thucydides
+attributes to the nature of the soil (i. 2 [Greek: to leptogeon]), which
+presented no attraction to invaders, the permanence of the same
+inhabitants in the country, whence arose the claim to indigenousness on
+which the Athenians so greatly prided themselves; while at the same time
+the richer ground fostered that fondness for country life, which is
+proved by the enthusiastic terms in which it is always spoken of by
+Aristophanes. That we are not justified in judging of the ancient
+condition of the soil by, the aridity which prevails at the present day,
+is shown by the fact that out of the 182 demes (see CLEISTHENES) into
+which Attica was divided, one-tenth were named from trees or plants.
+
+
+  Climate.
+
+The climate of Attica has always been celebrated. In approaching Attica
+from Boeotia a change of temperature is felt as soon as a person
+descends from Cithaeron or Parnes, and the sea breeze, which in modern
+times is called [Greek: ho embates], or that which sets towards shore,
+moderates the heat in summer. The Attic comedians and Plato speak with
+enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the Athenian
+intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attic atmosphere. It
+was in the neighbourhood of Athens itself that the air was thought to
+be purest. So Euripides describes the inhabitants as "ever walking
+gracefully through the most luminous ether" (_Med._ 829); and Milton--
+
+  "Where, on the Aegean shore, a city stands,
+   Built nobly, pure the air, and light the soil--
+   Athens, the eye of Greece."
+
+Or again Xenophon says "one would not err in thinking that this city is
+placed near the centre of Greece--nay, of the civilized world--because,
+the farther removed persons are from it, the severer is the cold or heat
+they meet with" (_Vectigal._ i. 6). The air is so clear that one can see
+from the Acropolis the lines of white marble that streak the sides of
+Pentelicus. The brilliant colouring which is so conspicuous in an
+Athenian sunset is due to the same cause. The epithet "violet-crowned,"
+used of Athens by Pindar, is due either to the blue haze on the
+surrounding hills, or to the use of violets (or irises) for festal
+wreaths. This otherwise perfect climate is slightly marred by the
+prevalence of the north wind. This is expressed on the Horologium of
+Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or Tower of the Winds, at
+Athens, where Boreas is represented as a bearded man of stern aspect,
+thickly clad, and wearing strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell,
+which he holds in his hand as a sign of his tempestuous character.
+
+
+  Vegetation.
+
+  Minerals.
+
+Of the flora of Attica, the olive is the most important. This tree, we
+learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one time to have been found
+in that country only; and the enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (_Oed.
+Col._ 700) teach us that it was the land in which it flourished best. So
+great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the early legend of
+the struggle between the gods of sea and land, Poseidon and Athena, for
+the patronage of the country, the sea-god is represented as having to
+retire vanquished before the giver of the olive; and at a later period
+the evidences of this contention were found in an ancient olive tree in
+the Acropolis, together with three holes in the rock, said to have been
+made by the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well
+hard by. The fig also found its favourite home in this country, for
+Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian
+Phytalus, i.e. "the gardener." Both Cithaeron and Parnes must have been
+wooded in former times; for on the former are laid the picturesque
+silvan scenes in the _Bacchae_ of Euripides, and it was from the latter
+that the wood came which caused the neighbouring deme of Acharnae to be
+famous for its charcoal--the [Greek: anthrakes Parnesioi] of the
+_Acharnians_ of Aristophanes (348). From the thymy slopes of Hymettus
+came the famous Hymettian honey. Among the other products we must notice
+the marble--both that of Pentelicus, which afforded a material of
+unrivalled purity and whiteness for building the Athenian temples, and
+the blue marble of Hymettus--the _trabes Hymettiae_ of Horace--which
+used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces. But the
+richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the silver mines of
+Laurium, the yield of which was so considerable as to render silver the
+principal medium of exchange in Greece, so that "a silver piece"
+([Greek: argurion]) was the Greek equivalent term for money. Hence
+Aeschylus speaks of the Athenians as possessing a "fountain of silver"
+(_Pers._ 235), and Aristophanes makes his chorus of birds promise the
+audience that, if they show him favour, owls from Laurium (i.e. silver
+pieces with the emblem of Athens) shall never fail them (_Birds_, 1106).
+The reputation of these coins for purity of metal and accuracy of weight
+was so great that they had a very wide circulation, and in consequence
+it was thought undesirable to make any alteration in the types lest
+their genuineness should be doubted. This accounts for the somewhat
+inartistic character which the Athenian coins maintained to the last
+(see further NUMISMATICS: _Greek_, § Athens). In Strabo's time, though
+the mines had almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in
+considerable quantities from the scoriae; and at the present day a large
+amount of lead is got in the same way, the work being chiefly carried on
+by two companies, one of which is French and the ether Greek. In the
+ancient workings, many of which are in the same condition as they were
+left 1800 years ago, there are in all 2000 shafts and galleries.
+
+
+  Plain of Megara.
+
+It has been already mentioned that the base line of Attica is formed by
+the chain of Cithaeron and Parnes, running from west to east; and that
+from this transverse chains run southward, dividing Attica into a
+succession of plains. The westernmost of these, which is separated from
+the innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Alcyonium, by
+an offshoot of Cithaeron, and is bounded on the east by a ridge which
+ends towards the Saronic Gulf in a striking two-horned peak called
+Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for geographical purposes
+that we include this district under Attica, for both the Dorian race of
+the inhabitants, and its dangerous proximity to Athens, caused it to be
+at perpetual feud with that city; but its position as an outpost for the
+Peloponnesians, together with the fact of its having once been Ionian
+soil, sufficiently explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians
+towards the Megarians. The great importance of Megara arose from its
+commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were three in
+number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, which, owing to the
+nature of the ground, makes a long detour; the other two starting from
+Megara, and passing, the one by a lofty though gradual route over the
+ridge of Geraneia, the other along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous
+precipices of the Scironian rocks.
+
+
+  Plain of Eleusis.
+
+To the east of the plain of Megara lies that of Eleusis, bounded on the
+one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that of Aegaleos,
+through a depression in which was the line of the sacred way, where the
+torchlight processions from Athens used to descend to the coast, the
+"brightly gleaming shores" ([Greek: lampades aktai]) of Sophocles (_Oed.
+Col._ 1049). The deep bay which here runs into the land is bounded on
+its southern side by the rocky island of Salamis, which was at all times
+an important possession to the Athenians on account of its proximity to
+their city; and the winding channel which separates that island from the
+mainland in the direction of the Peiraeus was the scene of the battle of
+Salamis, while on the last declivities of Mt. Aegaleos, which here
+descends to the sea, was the spot where, as Byron wrote--
+
+  "A king sate on the rocky brow
+   Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis."
+
+The eastern portion of the plain of Eleusis was called the Thriasian
+plain, and the city itself was situated in the recesses of the bay just
+mentioned.
+
+
+  Plain of Athens.
+
+Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came that of Athens, which is the
+most extensive of all, reaching from the foot of Parnes to the sea, and
+bounded on the west by Aegaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most
+conspicuous feature is the broad line of dark green along its western
+side, formed by the olive-groves of Colonus and the gardens of the
+Academy, which owe their fertility to the waters of the Cephisus. This
+river is fed by copious sources on the side of Mt. Parnes, and thus,
+unlike the other rivers of Attica, has a constant supply of water, which
+was diverted in classical times, as it still is, into the neighbouring
+plantations (cf. Sophocles, _Oed. Col._ 685). The position of Colonus
+itself is marked by two bare knolls of light-coloured earth, which
+caused the poet in the same chorus to apply the epithet "white" ([Greek:
+argeta]) to that place. On the opposite side of the plain runs the other
+river, the Ilissus, which rises from two sources on the side of Mt.
+Hymettus, and skirts the eastern extremity of the city of Athens; but
+this, notwithstanding its celebrity, is a mere brook, which stands in
+pools a great part of the year, and in summer is completely dry. The
+situation of Athens relatively to the surrounding objects is singularly
+harmonious; for, while it forms a central point, so as to be the eye of
+the plain, and while the altar-rock of the Acropolis and the hills by
+which it is surrounded are conspicuous from every point of view, there
+is no such exactness in its position as to give formality, since it is
+nearer to the sea than to Parnes, and nearer to Hymettus than to
+Aegaleos. The most striking summit in the neighbourhood of the city is
+that of Lycabettus, on the north-eastern side; and the variety is still
+further increased by the continuation of the ridge which it forms for
+some distance northwards through the plain. Three roads lead to Athens
+from the Boeotian frontier over the intervening mountain barrier--the
+easternmost over Parnes, from Delium and Oropus by Decelea, which was
+the usual route of the invading Lacedaemonians during the Peloponnesian
+War; the westernmost over Cithaeron, by the pass of Dryoscephalae, or
+the "Oakheads," leading from Thebes by Plataea to Eleusis, and so to
+Athens, which we hear of in connexion with the battle of Plataea, and
+with the escape of the Plataeans at the time of the siege of that city
+in the Peloponnesian War; the third, midway between the two, by the pass
+of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged height overlooking the
+Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by Thrasybulus in the days of the
+Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast to the south-west of Athens rises the
+hill of Munychia, a mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the
+town of Peiraeus. It was probably at one time an island; this was
+Strabo's opinion, and at the present day the ground which joins it to
+the mainland is low and swampy, and seems to have been formed by
+alluvial soil brought down by the Cephisus. On one side of this, towards
+Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of Phalerum, on the other the harbour
+of Peiraeus, a completely land-locked inlet, safe, deep and spacious,
+the approach to which was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern
+side of the hill was further indented by two small but commodious
+havens, which were respectively called Zea and Munychia.
+
+
+  Eastern Attica.
+
+The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Athens is formed by the
+graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, which received its name from the deme of
+Pentele at its foot, but was far more commonly known as Brilessus in
+ancient times. This mountain did not form a continous chain with
+Hymettus, for between them intervenes a level space of ground 2 m. in
+width, which formed the entrance to the Mesogaea, an elevated undulating
+plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching nearly to Sunium. At the
+extremity of Hymettus, where it projects into the Saronic Gulf, was the
+promontory of Zoster ("the Girdle"), which was so called because it
+girdles and protects the neighbouring harbour; but in consequence of the
+name, a legend was attached to it, to the effect that Latona had loosed
+her girdle there. From this promontory to Sunium there runs a lower line
+of mountains, and between these and the sea a fertile strip of land
+intervenes, which was called the Paralia. Beyond Sunium, on the eastern
+coast, were two safe ports, that of Thoricus, which is defended by the
+island of Helene, forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that
+of Prasiac, now called Porto Raphti ("the Tailor"), from a statue at the
+entrance to which the natives have given that name. In the north-east
+corner is the little plain of Marathon (q.v.), the scene of the battle
+against the Persians (490 B.C.). It lies between Parnes, Pentelicus and
+the sea. The bay in front is sheltered by Euboea, and on the north by a
+projecting tongue of land, called Cynosura. The mountains in the
+neighbourhood were the home of the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being
+poor mountaineers, and having nothing to lose, were the principal
+advocates of political reform; while, on the other hand, the Pedieis, or
+inhabitants of the plains, being wealthy landholders, formed the strong
+conservative element, and the Parali, or occupants of the sea-coast,
+representing the mercantile interest, held an intermediate position
+between the two (see CLEISTHENES). Finally, there was one district of
+Attica, the territory of Oropus, which properly belonged to Boeotia, as
+it was situated to the north of Parnes; but on this the Athenians always
+endeavoured to retain a firm hold, because it facilitated their
+communications with Euboea. The command of that island was of the utmost
+importance to them; for, if Aegina could rightly be called "the eyesore
+of the Peiraeus," Euboea was quite as truly a thorn in the side of
+Attica; for we learn from Demosthenes (_De Cor._ p. 307) that at one
+period the pirates that made it their headquarters so infested the
+neighbouring sea as to prevent all navigation.
+
+
+  Excavations.
+
+The place in Attica which has been the chief scene of excavations
+(independently of Athens and its vicinity) is Eleusis (q.v.), where
+the remains of the sanctuary of Demeter, the home of the Eleusinian
+Mysteries, together with other buildings in its neighbourhood, were
+cleared by the Greek Archaeological Society in 1882-1887 and 1895-1896.
+Of the other classical ruins in Attica the best-known is the temple of
+Athena at Sunium, which forms a conspicuous object on the headland, to
+which it gave the name of Cape Colonnae, still used by the peasants. It
+is in the Doric style, of white marble, and eleven columns of the
+peristyle and one of the pronaos are now standing. At Thoricus there is
+a theatre, which was cleared of earth by the archaeologists of the
+American School in 1886. In the neighbourhood of Rhamnus are the remains
+of two temples that stood side by side, the larger of which was
+dedicated to Nemesis, the smaller probably to Themis, of which goddess a
+fine statue was discovered in its ruins in the course of the excavations
+of the Greek Archaeological Society in 1890. The same Society, in
+1884,1886 and 1887, excavated the sanctuary of Amphiaraus, 4 m. from
+Oropus; in ancient times this was the resort of numerous invalids, who
+came thither to consult the healing divinity. Within it were found a
+temple of Amphiaraus, a large altar, and a long colonnade, which may
+have been the dormitory where the patients slept in hope of obtaining
+counsel in dreams. There were also baths and a small theatre, and
+numerous inscriptions relating to the arrangement and observances of the
+sanctuary and oracle. The walls and towers also of the city of
+Eleutherae and the fortress of Phyle are fine specimens of Hellenic
+fortifications.
+
+Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern times little need be
+said, for it has followed for the most part the fortunes of Athens. The
+population, however, has undergone a great change, independently of the
+large admixture of Slavonic blood that has affected the Greeks of the
+mainland generally, by the immigration of Albanian colonists, who now
+occupy a great part of the country. The district formed part of the
+_nome_ (administrative division) of Boeotia and Attica until 1899, when
+it became a separate _nome_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols.
+  ii. and v. (London, 1898); W.M. Leake, _The Demi of Attica_ (2nd ed.,
+  London, 1841); Chr. Wordsworth, _Athens and Attica_ (4th ed., London,
+  1869); C. Bursian, _Geographic von Griechenland_, vol. i. (Leipzig,
+  1862); Baedeker's _Greece_ (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1908); _Karten von
+  Attica_, published by the German Archaeological Institute of Athens,
+  with explanatory text, chiefly by Professor Milchhofer (1875-1903);
+  see also ATHENS, ELEUSIS and GREECE: _Topography_.     (H. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ATTIC BASE, the term given in architecture to the base of the Roman
+Ionic order, consisting of an upper and lower torus, separated by a
+scotia (q.v.) and fillets. It was the favourite base of the Romans,
+and was employed by them for columns of the Corinthian and Composite
+orders, and in Byzantine and Romanesque work would seem to have been
+generally adopted as a model.
+
+
+
+
+ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS (109-32 B.C.), Roman patron of letters, was
+born at Rome three years before Cicero, with whom he and the younger
+Marius were educated. His name was Titus Pomponius, that of Atticus, by
+which he is known, being given him afterwards from his long residence in
+Athens (86-65) and his intimate acquaintance with the Greek literature
+and language. His family is said to have been of noble and ancient
+descent; his father belonged to the equestrian order, and was very
+wealthy. When Pomponius was still a young man his father died, and he at
+once took the prudent resolution of transferring himself and his fortune
+to Athens, in order to escape the dangers of the civil war, in which he
+might have been involved through his connexion with the murdered
+tribune, Sulpicius Rufus. Here he lived in retirement, devoting himself
+entirely to study. On his return to Rome, he took possession of an
+inheritance left him by his uncle and assumed the name of Quintus
+Caecilius Pomponianus. From this time he kept aloof from political
+strife, attaching himself to no particular party, and continuing on
+intimate terms with men so opposed as Caesar and Pompey, Antony and
+Octavian. His most intimate friend, however, was Cicero, whose
+correspondence with him extended over many years, and who seems to have
+found his prudent counsel and sympathy a remedy for all his many
+troubles. His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry till
+he was fifty-three years of age, and his only child became the wife of
+Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister of Augustus. In 32,
+being seized with an illness believed to be incurable, he starved
+himself to death. Of his writings none is extant, but mention is made of
+two: a Greek history of Cicero's consulship, and some annals, in Latin,
+an epitome of the events of Roman history down to the year 54. His most
+important work was his edition of the letters addressed to him by
+Cicero. He also formed a large library at Athens, and engaged a staff of
+slaves to make copies of valuable works.
+
+  See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Berwick, _Lives of Messalla Corvinus and
+  T.P.A._ (1813); Fialon, _Thesis in T.P.A._ (1861); Boissier, _Cicéron
+  et ses amis_ (1888: Eng. trans. A.D. Jones, 1897); Peter,
+  _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta._
+
+
+
+
+ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS (c. A.D. 101-177), Greek rhetorician,
+was born at Marathon in Attica. He belonged to a wealthy and
+distinguished family, and received a careful education under the most
+distinguished masters of the time, especially in rhetoric and
+philosophy. His talents gained him the favourable notice of Hadrian, who
+appointed him praefect of the free towns in the province of Asia (125).
+On his return to Athens, he attained great celebrity as an orator and
+teacher of rhetoric, and was elected to the office of archon. In 140 he
+was summoned by Antoninus Pius to undertake the education of Marcus
+Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and received many marks of favour, amongst
+them the consulship (143). He is principally celebrated, however, for
+the vast sums he expended on public purposes. He built at Athens a great
+race-course of Pentelic marble, and a splendid musical theatre, called
+the Odeum in memory of his wife Regilla, which still exists. At Corinth
+he built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium, at Thermopylae hot baths, at
+Canusium in Italy an aqueduct. He even contemplated cutting a canal
+through the Isthmus of Corinth, but was afraid to carry out his plan
+because the same thing had been unsuccessfully attempted before by the
+emperor Nero. Many of the partially ruined cities of Greece were
+restored by Atticus, and numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude
+to their benefactor. His latter years were embittered by family
+misfortune, and having incurred the enmity of the Athenians, he withdrew
+from Athens to his villa near Marathon, where he died. He enjoyed a very
+high reputation amongst his contemporaries, and wrote numerous works, of
+which the only one to come down to us is a rhetorical exercise _On the
+Constitution_ (ed. Hass, 1880), advocating an alliance of the Thebans
+and Peloponnesians against Archelaus, king of Macedonia. The genuineness
+of this speech, which is of little merit, has been disputed.
+
+  Philostratus, _Vit. Soph._ ii. 1; Fiorillo, _Herodis Attici quae
+  supersunt_ (1801); _A Biographical Notice of A.H._ (London, 1832),
+  privately printed; Fuelles, _De Herodis Attici Vita_ (1864);
+  Vidal-Lablache, _Hérode Atticus_ (1871).
+
+
+
+
+ATTILA (d. 453), king of the Huns, became king in 433, along with his
+brother Bleda, on the death of his uncle Roua. We hear but little as to
+Bleda, who died about 445, possibly slain by his brother's orders. In
+the first eight years of his reign Attila was chiefly occupied in the
+wars with other barbarian tribes, by which he made himself virtually
+supreme in central Europe. His own special kingdom comprised the
+countries which are now called Hungary and Transylvania, his capital
+being possibly not far from the modern city of Buda-Pest; but having
+made the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae and many other Teutonic tribes his
+subject-allies, and having also sent his invading armies into Media, he
+seems for nearly twenty years to have ruled practically without a rival
+from the Caspian to the Rhine. Very early in his reign, Honoria,
+grand-daughter of the emperor Theodosius II., being subjected to severe
+restraint on account of an amorous intrigue with one of the chamberlains
+of the palace, sent her ring to the king of the Huns and called on him
+to be her husband and her deliverer. Nothing came of the proposed
+engagement, but the wrongs of Honoria, his affianced wife, served as a
+convenient pretext for some of the constantly recurring embassies with
+which Attila, fond of trampling on the fallen majesty of Rome, worried
+and bullied the two courts of Constantinople and Ravenna. Another
+frequent subject of complaint was found in certain sacred vessels which
+the bishop of Sirmium had sent as a bribe to the secretary of Attila,
+and which had been by him, fraudulently, as his master contended, pawned
+to a silversmith at Rome. There were also frequent and imperious demands
+for the surrender of fugitives who had sought shelter from the wrath of
+Attila within the limits of the empire. One of the return embassies from
+Constantinople, that sent in 448, had the great advantage of being
+accompanied by a rhetorician named Priscus, whose minute journalistic
+account of the negotiations, including as it does a vivid picture of the
+great Hun in his banquet-hall, is by far the most valuable source of
+information as to the court and camp of Attila. What lends additional
+interest to the story is the fact that in the ambassador's suite there
+was an interpreter named Vigilas, who for fifty pounds of gold had
+promised to assassinate Attila. This base design was discovered by the
+Hunnish king, but had never been revealed to the head of the embassy or
+to his secretary. The situations created by this strange combination of
+honest diplomacy and secret villainy are described by Priscus with real
+dramatic power.
+
+In 450 Theodosius II., the incapable emperor of the East, died, and his
+throne was occupied by a veteran soldier named Marcian, who answered the
+insulting message of Attila in a manlier tone than his predecessor.
+Accordingly the Hun, who had something of the bully in his nature, now
+turned upon Valentinian III., the trembling emperor of the West, and
+demanded redress for the wrongs of Honoria, and one-half of
+Valentinian's dominions as her dowry. Allying himself with the Franks
+and Vandals, he led his vast many-nationed army to the Rhine in the
+spring of 451, crossed that river, and sacked, apparently, most of the
+cities in Belgic Gaul. Most fortunately for Europe, the Teutonic races
+already settled in Gaul rallied to the defence of the empire against
+invaders infinitely more barbarous than themselves. Prominent in this
+new coalition was Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, whose capital city
+was Toulouse. His firm fighting alliance with the Roman general Aëtius,
+with whom he had had many a conflict in previous years, was one of the
+best auguries for the new Europe that was to arise out of the ruins of
+the Roman empire. Meanwhile Attila had reached the Loire and was
+besieging the strong city of Orléans. The citizens, under the leadership
+of their bishop Anianus, made a heroic defence, but the place was on the
+point of being taken when, on the 24th of June, the allied Romano-Gothic
+army was seen on the horizon. Attila, who knew the difficulty that he
+should have in feeding his immense army if his march was further
+delayed, turned again to the north-east, was persuaded by the venerable
+bishop Lupus to spare the city of Troyes, but halted near that place in
+the Catalaunian plains and offered battle to his pursuers Aëtius and
+Theodoric. The battle which followed--certainly one of the decisive
+battles of the world--has been well described by the Gothic historian
+Jordanes as "ruthless, manifold, immense, obstinate." It lasted for the
+whole day, and the number of the slain is variously stated at 175,000
+and 300,000. All such estimates are, of course, untrustworthy, but there
+is no doubt that the carnage was terrible. The Visigothic king was
+slain, but the victory, though hardly earned, remained with his people
+and his allies. Attila did not venture to renew the engagement on the
+morrow, but retreated, apparently in good order, on the Rhine, recrossed
+that river and returned to his Pannonian home. From thence in the spring
+of 452 he again set forth to ravage or to conquer Italy. Her great
+champion Aëtius showed less energy in her cause than he had shown in his
+defence of Gaul. After a stubborn contest, Attila took and utterly
+destroyed Aquileia, the chief city of Venetia, and then proceeded on his
+destructive course, capturing and burning the cities at the head of the
+Adriatic, Concordia, Altinum and Patavium (Padua). The fugitives from
+these cities, but especially from the last, seeking shelter in the
+lagoons of the Adriatic, laid the foundations of that which was one day
+to become the glorious city of Venice. Upon Milan and the cities of
+western Lombardy the hand of Attila seems to have weighed more lightly,
+plundering rather than utterly destroying; and at last when Pope Leo I.,
+at the head of a deputation of Roman senators, appeared in his camp on
+the banks of the Mincio, entreating him not to pursue his victorious
+career to the gates of Rome, he yielded to their entreaties and
+consented to cross the Alps, with a menace, however, of future return,
+should the wrongs of Honoria remain unredressed. As he himself jokingly
+said: he knew how to conquer men, but the Lion and the Wolf (Leo and
+Lupus) were too strong for him. No further expeditions to Italy were
+undertaken by Attila, who died suddenly in 453, in the night following a
+great banquet which celebrated his marriage with a damsel named Ildico.
+Notwithstanding some rumours of violence it is probable that his death
+was natural and due to his own intemperate habits.
+
+Under his name of Etzel, Attila plays a great part in Teutonic legend
+(see NIBELUNGENLIED) and under that of Atli in Scandinavian Saga, but
+his historic lineaments are greatly obscured in both. He was short of
+stature, swarthy and broad-chested, with a large head which early turned
+grey, snub nose and deep-set eyes. He walked with proud step, darting a
+haughty glance this way and that as if he felt himself lord of all.
+
+  The chief authorities for the life of Attila are Priscus, Jordanes,
+  the _Historia Miscella_, Apollonius Sidonius and Gregory of Tours.
+       (T. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ATTIS, or ATYS, a deity worshipped in Phrygia, and later throughout the
+Roman empire, in conjunction with the Great Mother of the Gods. Like
+Aphrodite and Adonis in Syria, Baal and Astarte at Sidon, and Isis and
+Osiris in Egypt, the Great Mother and Attis formed a duality which
+symbolized the relations between Mother Earth and her fruitage. Their
+worship included the celebration of mysteries annually on the return of
+the spring season. Attis was also known as Papas, and the Bithynians and
+Phrygians, according to evidence of the time of the late Empire, called
+him Zeus. He was never worshipped independently, however, though the
+worship of the Great Mother was not always accompanied by his. He was
+confused with Pan, Sabazios, Men and Adonis, and there were resemblances
+between the orgiastic features of his worship and that of Dionysus. His
+resemblance to Adonis has led to the theory that the names of the two
+are identical, and that Attis is only the Semitic companion of Syrian
+Aphrodite grafted on to the Phrygian Great Mother worship (Haakh,
+_Stuttgarter-Philolog.-Vers._, 1857, 176 ff.). It is likely, however,
+that Attis, like the Great Mother, was indigenous to Asia Minor, adopted
+by the invading Phrygians, and blended by them with a deity of their
+own.
+
+_Legends._--According to Pausanias (vii. 17), Attis was a beautiful
+youth born of the daughter of the river Sangarius, who was descended
+from the hermaphroditic Agdistis, a monster sprung from the earth by the
+seed of Zeus. Having become enamoured of Attis, Agdistis struck him with
+frenzy as he was about to wed the king's daughter, with the result that
+he deprived himself of manhood and died. Agdistis in repentance
+prevailed upon Zeus to grant that the body of the youth should never
+decay or waste. In Arnobius (v. 5-8) Attis emasculates himself under a
+pine tree, which the Great Mother bears into her cave as she and
+Agdistis together wildly lament the death of the youth. Zeus grants the
+petition as in the version of Pausanias, but permits the hair of Attis
+to grow, and his little finger to move. The little finger, _digitus_,
+[Greek: daktylos], is interpreted as the phallus by Georg Kaibel
+(_Gottinger Nachrichten_, 1901, p. 513). In Diodorus (in. 58, 59) the
+Mother is the carnal lover of Attis, and, when her father the king
+discovers her fault and kills her lover, roams the earth in wild grief.
+In Ovid (_Fasti_, iv. 223 ff.) she is inspired with chaste love for him,
+which he pledges himself to reciprocate. On his proving unfaithful, the
+Great Mother slays the nymph with whom he has sinned, whereupon in
+madness he mutilates himself as a penalty. Another form of the legend
+(Paus. vii. 17), showing the influence of the Aphrodite-Adonis myth,
+relates that Attis, the impotent son of the Phrygian Caläust Lydia to
+institute the worship of the Great Mother, and was there slain by a boar
+sent by Zeus.
+
+  See GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS; J.G. Frazer, _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_
+  (1906).     (G. Sn.)
+
+
+
+
+ATTLEBOROUGH, a township of Bristol county, in south-east Massachusetts,
+U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 7577; (1900) 11,335, of whom 3237 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 16,215 It is traversed by the New York, New Haven &
+Hartford railway, and by inter-urban electric lines. It has an area of
+28 sq. m. The population is largely concentrated in and about the
+village which bears the name of the township. In Attleborough are the
+Attleborough Home Sanitarium, and a public library (1885). The principal
+manufactures of the township are jewelry, silverware, cotton goods,
+cotton machinery, coffin trimmings, and leather. In 1905 the total value
+of the township's factory products was $10,050,384, of which $5,544,285
+was the value of jewelry, Attleborough ranking fourth among the cities
+of the country in this industry, and producing 10.4% of the total
+jewelry product of the United States. Attleborough was incorporated in
+1694, though settled soon after 1661 (records since 1672) as part of
+Rehoboth. In 1887 the township was divided in population, wealth and
+area by the creation of the township of NORTH ATTLEBOROUGH--pop. (1890)
+6727; (1900) 7253, of whom 1786 were foreign-born; (1905, state census)
+7878. This township produced manufactured goods in 1900 to the value of
+$3,990,731, jewelry valued at $2,785,567; it maintains the Richards
+memorial library.
+
+  See J. Daggett, _A Sketch of the History of Attleborough to 1887_
+  (Boston, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+ATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Rawalpindi district of
+the Punjab, 47 m. by rail from Peshawar, and situated on the eastern
+bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901) 2822. The place is of both political and
+commercial importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the military and
+trade route through the Khyber Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the
+Great, Tamerlane and Nadir Shah are believed to have successively
+crossed the Indus at or about this spot in their respective invasions of
+India. The river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yds.
+broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen. The
+rocky gorges through which it flows, with a distant view of the Hindu
+Kush, form some of the finest scenery in the world. In 1883 an iron
+girder bridge of five spans was opened, which carries the North-Western
+railway to Peshawar, and has also a subway for wheeled traffic and foot
+passengers. The fort of Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in 1581,
+on a low hillock beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and
+the whole structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is
+of little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is
+divided only by a ravine. On the opposite side of the river is the
+village of Khairabad, with a fort, also erected by Akbar according to
+some, or by Nadir Shah according to others. The military importance of
+Attock has diminished, but it still has a small detachment of British
+troops.
+
+
+
+
+ATTORNEY (from O. Fr. _atorné_ a person appointed to act for another,
+from _atourner_, legal Lat. _attornare_, attorn, literally to turn over
+to another or commit business to another), in English law, in its widest
+sense, any substitute or agent appointed to act in "the turn, stead or
+place of another." Attorneys are of two kinds, attorneys-in-fact and
+attorneys-at-law. An attorney-in-fact is simply an agent, the extent of
+whose capacity to act is bounded only by the powers embodied in his
+authority, his _power of attorney_. An attorney-at-law was a public
+officer, conducting legal proceedings on behalf of others, known as his
+clients, and attached to the supreme courts of common law at
+Westminster. Attorneys-at-law corresponded to the solicitors of the
+courts of chancery and the proctors of the admiralty, ecclesiastical,
+probate and divorce courts. Since the passing of the Judicature Act of
+1873, however, the designation "attorney" has become obsolete in
+England, all persons admitted as solicitors, attorneys or proctors of
+an English court being henceforth called "solicitors of the supreme
+court" (see SOLICITOR).
+
+In the United States an attorney-at-law exercises all the functions
+distributed in England between barristers, attorneys and solicitors, and
+his full title is "attorney and counsellor-at-law." When acting in a
+court of admiralty he is styled "proctor" or "advocate." Formerly, in
+some states, there existed a grade among lawyers of attorneys-at-law,
+which was inferior to that of counsellors-at-law, and in colonial times
+New Jersey established a higher rank still--that of serjeant-at-law. Now
+the term attorney-at-law is precisely equivalent to that of lawyer.
+Attorneys are admitted by some court to which the legislature confides
+the power, and on examination prescribed by the court, or by a board of
+state examiners, as the case may be. The term of study required is
+generally two or three years, but in some states less. In one no
+examination is required. College graduates are often admitted to
+examination after a shorter term of study than that required from those
+not so educated. In the courts of the United States, admission is
+regulated by rules of court and based upon a previous admission to the
+state bar. In almost all states aliens are not admitted as attorneys,
+and in many states women are ineligible, but during recent years several
+states have passed statutes permitting them to practise. Since 1879
+women have been eligible to practise before the U.S. Supreme Court, if
+already admitted to practise in some state court, under the same
+conditions as men. A _state attorney_ or _district attorney_ is the
+local public prosecutor. He is either elected by popular vote at the
+state elections for the district in which he resides and goes out of
+office with the political party for which he was elected, or he is
+appointed by the governor of the state for that district and for the
+same term. He represents the state in criminal prosecutions and also in
+civil actions within his district. There is a _United States district
+attorney_ in each federal district, similarly representing the federal
+government before the courts.
+
+An attorney is an officer of the court which admits him to practise, and
+he is subject to its discipline. He is liable to his client in damages
+for failure to exercise ordinary care and skill, and he can bring action
+for the value of his services. He has a lien on his client's papers, and
+usually on any judgment in favour of his client to secure the payment of
+his fees. (See also under BAR, THE.)
+
+
+
+
+ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England, the chief law officer appointed to manage
+all the legal affairs and suits in which the crown is interested. He is
+appointed by letters-patent authorizing him to hold office during the
+sovereign's pleasure. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and only
+counsel of the highest eminence are appointed to the office. The origin
+of the office is uncertain, but as far back as 1277 we find an
+_attornatus regis_ appointed to look after the interests of the crown,
+in proceedings affecting it before the courts. He has precedence in all
+the courts, and in the House of Lords he has precedence of the lord
+advocate, even in Scottish appeals, but unlike the lord advocate and the
+Irish attorney-general he is not necessarily made a privy councillor. He
+is a necessary party to all proceedings affecting the crown, and has
+extensive powers of control in matters relating to charities, lunatics'
+estates, criminal prosecutions, &c. The attorney-general and the
+solicitor-general are always members of the House of Commons (except for
+temporary difficulties in obtaining a seat) and of the ministry, being
+selected from the party in power, and their advice is at the disposal of
+the government and of each department of the government, while in the
+House of Commons they defend the legality of ministerial action if
+called in question. Previously to 1895 there was no restriction placed
+on the law officers as to their acceptance of private practice, but
+since that date this privilege has been withdrawn, and the salary of the
+attorney-general is fixed at £7000 a year and in addition such fees
+according to the ordinary professional scales as he may receive for any
+litigious business he may conduct on behalf of the crown. The crown has
+also as a legal adviser an attorney-general in Ireland. In Scotland he
+is called lord advocate (q.v.). There is also an attorney-general in
+almost all the British colonies, and his duties are very similar to
+those of the same officer in England. In the self-governing colonies he
+is appointed by the administration of the colony, and in the crown
+colonies by royal warrant under the signet and sign-manual. There is an
+attorney-general for the duchy of Cornwall and also one for the duchy of
+Lancaster, each of whom sues in matters relating to that duchy.
+
+The United States has an officer of this name, who has a seat in the
+cabinet. His duties are in general to represent the federal government
+before the United States Supreme Court, to advise the president on
+questions of law, and to advise similarly the heads of the state
+departments with reference to matters affecting their department. His
+opinions are published by the government periodically for the use of its
+officials and they are frequently cited by the courts. Every state but
+one or two has a similar officer. He represents the state in important
+legal matters, and is often required to assist the local prosecutor in
+trials for capital offences. He appears for the public interest in suits
+affecting public charities. He is generally elected by the people for
+the same term as the governor and on the same ticket.
+
+
+
+
+ATTORNMENT (from Fr. _tourner_, to turn), in English real property law,
+the acknowledgment of a new lord by the tenant on the alienation of
+land. Under the feudal system, the relations of landlord and tenant were
+to a certain extent reciprocal. So it was considered unreasonable to the
+tenant to subject him to a new lord without his own approval, and it
+thus came about that alienation could not take place without the consent
+of the tenant. Attornment was also extended to all cases of lessees for
+life or for years. The necessity for attornment was abolished by an act
+of 1705. The term is now used to indicate an acknowledgment of the
+existence of the relationship of landlord and tenant. An
+attornment-clause, in mortgages, is a clause whereby the mortgagor
+attorns tenant to the mortgagee, thus giving the mortgagee the right to
+distrain, as an additional security.
+
+
+
+
+ATTRITION (Lat. _attritio_, formed from _atterere_, to rub away), a
+rubbing away; a term used in pathology and geology. Theologians have
+also distinguished "attrition" from "contrition" in the matter of sin,
+as an imperfect stage in the process of repentance; attrition being due
+to servile fear of the consequences of sin, contrition to filial fear of
+God and hatred of sin for His sake. It has been held among the Roman
+Catholics that in the sacrament of penance attrition becomes contrition.
+
+
+
+
+ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1765-1838), English composer, the son of a coal
+merchant who had musical tastes, was born in London on the 23rd of
+November 1765. At the age of nine he became a chorister in the Chapel
+Royal, where he remained for five years. In 1783 he was sent to study
+abroad at the expense of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.),
+who had been favourably impressed by his skill at the harpsichord. After
+spending two years at Naples, Attwood proceeded to Vienna, where he
+became a favourite pupil of Mozart. On his return to London in 1787 he
+held for a short time an appointment as one of the chamber musicians to
+the prince of Wales. In 1796 he was chosen organist of St Paul's, and in
+the same year he was made composer to the Chapel Royal. His court
+connexion was further confirmed by his appointment as musical instructor
+to the duchess of York, and afterwards to the princess of Wales. For the
+coronation of George IV. he composed the anthem, "The King shall
+rejoice," a work of high merit. The king, who had neglected him for some
+years on account of his connexion with the princess of Wales, now
+restored him to favour, and in 1821 appointed him organist to his
+private chapel at Brighton. Soon after the institution of the Royal
+Academy of Music in 1823, Attwood was chosen one of the professors. He
+was also one of the original members of the Philharmonic Society,
+founded in 1813. He wrote the anthem, "O Lord, grant the King a Long
+Life," which was performed at the coronation of William IV., and he was
+composing a similar work for the coronation of Queen Victoria when he
+died at his house in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, on the 24th of March 1838. He
+was buried under the organ in St Paul's cathedral. His services and
+anthems were published in a collected form after his death by his pupil
+Walmisley. Of his secular compositions several songs and glees are well
+known and popular. The numerous operas which he composed in early life
+are now practically forgotten. Of his songs the most popular was "The
+Soldier's Dream," and the best of his glees were "In peace Love tunes
+the shepherd's reed," and "To all that breathe the air of Heaven."
+Attwood was a friend of Mendelssohn, for whom he professed an admiration
+at a time when the young German's talent was little appreciated by the
+majority of English musicians.
+
+
+
+
+ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1783-1856), English political reformer, was born at
+Halesowen, Worcestershire, on the 6th of October 1783. In 1800 he
+entered his father's banking business in Birmingham, where he was
+elected high bailiff in 1811. He took a leading part in the public life
+of the city, and became very popular with the artisan class. He is now
+remembered for his share in the movement which led to the carrying of
+the Reform Act of 1832. He was one of the founders, in January 1830, of
+the Political Union, branches of which were soon formed throughout
+England. Under his leadership vast crowds of working-men met
+periodically in the neighbourhood of Birmingham to demonstrate in favour
+of reform of the franchise, and Attwood used his power over the
+multitude to repress any action on their part which might savour of
+illegality. His successful exertions in favour of reform made him a
+popular hero all over the country, and he was presented with the freedom
+of the city of London. After the passing of the Reform Act in 1832 he
+was elected one of the members for the new borough of Birmingham, for
+which he sat till 1839. He failed in the House of Commons to maintain
+the reputation which he had made outside it, for in addition to an eager
+partisanship in favour of every ultra-democratic movement, he was
+wearisomely persistent in advocating his peculiar monetary theory. This
+theory, which became with him a monomania, was that the existing
+currency should be rectified in favour of state-regulated and
+inconvertible paper-money, and the adoption of a system for altering the
+standard of value as prices fluctuated. His waning influence with his
+constituents led him to retire from parliament in 1837, and, though
+invited to re-enter political life in 1843, he had by that time become a
+thoroughly spent force. He died at Great Malvern on the 6th of March
+1856.
+
+  His grandson, C.M. Wakefield, wrote his life "for private circulation"
+  (there is a copy in the British Museum), and his economic theories are
+  set forth in a little book, _Gemini_, by T.B. Wright and J. Harlow,
+  published in 1844.
+
+
+
+
+ATWOOD, GEORGE (1746-1807), English mathematician, was born in the early
+part of the year 1746. He entered Westminster school, and in 1759 was
+elected to a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in
+1769, with the rank of third wrangler and first Smith's prizeman.
+Subsequently he became a fellow and a tutor of the college, and in 1776
+was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In the year 1784 he
+left Cambridge, and soon afterwards received from William Pitt the
+office of a patent searcher of the customs, which required but little
+attendance, and enabled him to devote a considerable portion of his time
+to his special studies. He died in July 1807. Atwood's published works,
+exclusive of papers contributed to the _Philosophical Transactions_, for
+one of which he obtained the Copley medal, are as follows:--_Analysis of
+a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophy_
+(Cambridge, 1784); _Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of
+Bodies_ (Cambridge, 1784), which gives some interesting experiments, by
+means of which mechanical truths can be ocularly exhibited and
+demonstrated, and describes the machine, since called by Atwood's name,
+for verifying experimentally the laws of simple acceleration of motion;
+_Review of the Statutes and Ordinances of Assize which have been
+established in England from the 4th year of King John, 1202, to the 37th
+of his present Majesty_ (London, 1801), a work of some historical
+research; _Dissertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches_
+(London, 1801), with supplement, pt. i., 1801, pt. ii., 1804, an
+elaborate work, now completely superseded.
+
+
+
+
+AUBADE (a French word from _aube_, the dawn), the dawn-song of the
+troubadours of Provence, developed by the Minnesingers (q.v.) of Germany
+into the _Tagelied_, the song of the parting at dawn of lovers at the
+warning of the watchman. In France in modern times the term is applied
+to the performance of a military band in the early morning in honour of
+some distinguished person.
+
+
+
+
+AUBAGNE, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of
+Bouches-du-Rhône on the Huveaune, 11 m. E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop.
+(1906) 6039. The town carries on the manufacture of earthenware and
+pottery, leather, &c. and the cultivation of fruit and wine. There is a
+fountain to the memory of the statesman, F. Barthélemy (d. 1830), born
+at Aubagne.
+
+
+
+
+AUBE, a department of north-eastern France, bounded N. by the department
+of Marne, N.W. by Seine-et-Marne, W. by Yonne, S. by Yonne and
+Cote-d'Or, and E. by Haute-Marne; it was formed in 1790 from
+Basse-Champagne, and a small portion of Burgundy. Area, 2326 sq. m. Pop.
+(1906) 243,670. The department belongs to the Seine basin, and is
+watered chiefly by the Seine and the Aube. These rivers follow the
+general slope of the department, which is from south-east, where the
+Bois du Mont (1200 ft.), the highest point, is situated, to north-west.
+The southern and eastern districts are fertile and well wooded. The
+remainder of the department, with the exception of a more broken and
+picturesque district in the extreme north-west, forms part of the
+sterile and monotonous plain known as Champagne Pouilleuse. The climate
+is mild but damp. The annual rainfall over the greater part varies from
+24 to 28 in.; but in the extreme south-east it at times reaches a height
+of 36 in. Aube is an agricultural department; more than one third of its
+surface consists of arable land of which the chief products are wheat
+and oats, and next to them rye, barley and potatoes; vegetables are
+extensively cultivated in the valleys of the Seine and the Aube. The
+vine flourishes chiefly on the hills of the south-east; the wines of Les
+Riceys, Bar-sur-Aube, Bouilly and Laines-aux-Bois are most esteemed. The
+river valleys abound in natural pasture, and sainfoin, lucerne and other
+forage crops are largely grown; cattle-raising is an important source of
+wealth, and the cheeses of Troyes are well known. There are excellent
+nurseries and orchards in the neighbourhood of Troyes, Bar-sur-Seine,
+Méry-sur-Seine and Brienne. Chalk, from which _blanc de Troyes_ is
+manufactured, and clay are abundant; and there are peat workings and
+quarries of building-stone and limestone. The spinning and weaving of
+cotton and the manufacture of hosiery, of both of which Troyes is the
+centre, are the main industries of the department; there are also a
+large number of distilleries, tanneries, oil works, tile and brick
+works, flour-mills, saw-mills and dye-works. The Eastern railway has
+works at Romilly, and there are iron works at Clairvaux and wire-drawing
+works at Plaines; but owing to the absence of coal and iron mines, metal
+working is of small importance. The exports of Aube consist of timber,
+cereals, agricultural products, hosiery, wine, dressed pork, &c.; its
+imports include wool and raw cotton, coal and machinery, especially
+looms. The department is served by the Eastern railway, of which the
+main line to Belfort crosses it. The river Aube is navigable for 28 m.
+(from Arcis-sur-Aube to its confluence with the Seine); the Canal de la
+Haute-Seine extends beside the Seine from Bar-sur-Seine to Marcilly
+(just outside the department) a distance of 46 m.; below Marcilly the
+Seine is canalized.
+
+Aube is divided into 5 arrondissements with 26 cantons and 446 communes.
+It falls within the educational circumscription (_academie_) of Dijon
+and the military circumscription of the XX. army corps; its court of
+appeal is in Paris. It constitutes the diocese of Troyes and part of the
+archiepiscopal province of Sens. The capital of the department is
+Troyes; of the arrondissements the capitals are Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube,
+Arcis-sur-Aube, Bar-sur-Seine and Nogent-sur-Seine. The architecture of
+the department is chiefly displayed in its churches, many of which
+possess stained glass of the 16th century. Besides the cathedral and
+other churches of Troyes, those of Mussy-sur-Seine (13th century),
+Chaource (16th century) and Nogent-sur-Seine (15th and 16th centuries),
+are of note. The abbey buildings of Clairvaux are the type of the
+Cistercian abbey.
+
+
+
+
+AUBENAS, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Ardèche,
+19 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 3976 (town), 7064 (commune).
+Aubenas is beautifully situated on the slope of a hill, on the right
+bank of the Ardèche, but its streets generally are crooked and narrow.
+It has a castle of the 13th and 16th centuries, now occupied by several
+of the public institutions of the town. These include a tribunal and
+chamber of commerce, and a conditioning-house for silk. Iron and coal
+mines are worked in the vicinity. As the centre of the silk trade of
+southern France Aubenas is a place of considerable traffic. It has also
+a large silk spinning and weaving industry, and carries on tanning and
+various minor industries together with trade in silk. The district is
+rich in plantations of mulberries and olives.
+
+
+
+
+AUBER, DANIEL FRANÇOIS ESPRIT (1782-1871), French musical composer, the
+son of a Paris printseller, was born at Caen in Normandy on the 29th of
+January 1782. Destined by his father to the pursuits of trade, he was
+allowed, nevertheless, to indulge his fondness for music, and learnt to
+play at an early age on several instruments, his first teacher being the
+Tirolean composer, I.A. Ladurner. Sent at the age of twenty to London to
+complete his business training, he was obliged to leave England in
+consequence of the breach of the treaty of Amiens (1804). He had already
+attempted musical composition, and at this period produced several
+_concertos pour basse_, in the manner of the violoncellist, Lamarre, in
+whose name they were published. The praise given to his concerto for the
+violin, which was played at the Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him
+to undertake the resetting of the old comic opera, _Julie_ (1811).
+Conscious by this time of the need of regular study of his chosen art,
+he placed himself under the severe training of Cherubini, by which the
+special qualities of the young composer were admirably developed. In
+1813 he made his _début_ in an opera in one act, the _Séjour militaire_,
+the unfavourable reception of which put an end for some years to his
+attempts as composer. But the failure in business and death of his
+father, in 1819, compelled him once more to turn to music, and to make
+that which had been his pastime the serious employment of his life. He
+produced another opera, the _Testament et les billets-deux_ (1819),
+which was no better received than the former. But he persevered, and the
+next year was rewarded by the complete success of his _Bergère
+châtelaine_, an opera in three acts. This was the first in a long series
+of brilliant successes. In 1822 began his long association with A.E.
+Scribe, who shared with him, as librettist, the success and growing
+popularity of his compositions. The opera of _Leicester_, in which they
+first worked together (1823), is remarkable also as showing evidences of
+the influence of Rossini. But his own style was an individual one,
+marked by lightness and facility, sparkling vivacity, grace and
+elegance, clear and piquant melody--characteristically French. In _La
+Muette de Portici_, familiarly known as _Masaniello_, Auber achieved his
+greatest musical triumph. Produced at Paris in 1828, it rapidly became a
+European favourite, and its overture, songs and choruses were everywhere
+heard. The duet, "Amour sacré de la patrie," was welcomed like a new
+_Marseillaise_; sung by Nourrit at Brussels in 1830, it became the
+signal for the revolution which broke out there. Of Auber's remaining
+operas (about 50 in all) the more important are: _Le Maçon_ (1825), _La
+Fiancée_ (1829), _Fra Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _Le Cheval de
+bronze_ (1835), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino noir_ (1837), _Le
+Lac des fées_ (1839), _Les Diamants de la couronne_ (1841), _Haydée_
+(1847), _Marco Spada_ (1853), _Manon Lescaut_ (1856), and _La Fiancée du
+roi des Garbes_ (1864). Official and other dignities testified the
+public appreciation of Auber's works. In 1829 he was elected member of
+the Institute, in 1830 he was named director of the court concerts, and
+in 1842, at the wish of Louis Philippe, he succeeded Cherubini as
+director of the Conservatoire. He was also a member of the Legion of
+Honour from 1825, and attained the rank of commander in 1847. Napoleon
+III. made Auber his Imperial Maître de Chapelle in 1857.
+
+One of Auber's latest compositions was a march, written for the opening
+of the International Exhibition in London in 1862. His fascinating
+manners, his witty sayings, and his ever-ready kindness and beneficence
+won for him a secure place in the respect and love of his
+fellow-citizens. He remained in his old home during the German siege of
+Paris, 1870-71, but the miseries of the Communist war which followed
+sickened his heart, and he died in Paris on the 13th of May 1871.
+
+  See Adolph Kohut, "Auber," vol. xvii. of _Musiker Biographien_
+  (Leipzig, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+AUBERGINE (diminutive of Fr. _auberge_, a variant of _alberge_, a kind
+of peach), or EGG PLANT (_Solanum melongena_, var. _ovigerum_), a tender
+annual widely cultivated in the warmer parts of the earth, and in France
+and Italy, for the sake of its fruits, which are eaten as a vegetable.
+The seed should be sown early in February in a warm pit, where the
+plants are grown till shifted into 8-in. or 10-in. pots, in well-manured
+soil. Liquid manure should be given occasionally while the fruit is
+swelling; about four fruits are sufficient for one plant. The French
+growers sow them in a brisk heat in December, or early in January, and
+in March plant them out four or eight in a hot-bed with a bottom heat of
+from 60° to 68°, the sashes being gradually more widely opened as the
+season advances, until at about the end of May they may be taken off.
+The two main branches which are allowed are pinched to induce laterals,
+but when the fruits are set all young shoots are taken off in order to
+increase their size. The best variety is the large purple, which
+produces oblong fruit, sometimes reaching 6 or 7 in. in length and 10 or
+12 in. in circumference. The fruit of the ordinary form almost exactly
+resembles the egg of the domestic fowl. It is also grown as an
+ornamental plant, for covering walls or trellises; especially the
+black-fruited kind.
+
+
+
+
+AUBERVILLIERS, or AUBERVILLIERS-LES-VERTUS, a town of northern France,
+in the department of Seine, on the canal St Denis, 2 m. from the right
+bank of the Seine and 1 m. N. of the fortifications of Paris. Pop.
+(1906) 33,358. Its manufactures include cardboard, glue, oils, colours,
+fertilizers, chemical products, perfumery, &c. During the middle ages
+and till modern times Aubervilliers was the resort of numerous pilgrims,
+who came to pay honour to Notre Dame des Vertus. In 1814 the locality
+was the scene of a stubborn combat between the French and the Allies.
+
+
+
+
+AUBIGNAC, FRANÇOIS HÉDELIN, ABBÉ D' (1604-1676), French author, was born
+at Paris on the 4th of August 1604. His father practised at the Paris
+bar, and his mother was a daughter of the great surgeon Ambroise Paré.
+François Hédelin was educated for his father's profession, but, after
+practising for some time at Nemours he abandoned law, took holy orders,
+and was appointed tutor to one of Richelieu's nephews, the duc de
+Fronsac. This patronage secured for him the abbey of Aubignac and of
+Mainac. The death of the duc de Fronsac in 1646 put an end to hopes of
+further preferment, and the Abbé d'Aubignac retired to Nemours,
+occupying himself with literature till his death on the 25th of July
+1676. He took an energetic share in the literary controversies of his
+time. Against Gilles Ménage he wrote a _Térence justifié_ (1656); he
+laid claim to having originated the idea of the "_Carte de tendre_" of
+Mlle de Scudéry's _Clélie_; and after being a professed admirer of
+Corneille he turned against him because he had neglected to mention the
+abbé in his _Discours sur le poème dramatique_. He was the author of
+four tragedies: _La Cyminde_ (1642), _La Pucelle d'Orléans_ (1642),
+_Zénobie_ (1647) and _Le Martyre de Sainte Catherine_ (1650). _Zénobie_
+was written with the intention of affording a model in which the strict
+rules of the drama, as understood by the theorists, were observed. In
+the choice of subjects for his plays, he seems to have been guided by a
+desire to illustrate the various kinds of tragedy--patriotic, antique
+and religious. The dramatic authors whom he was in the habit of
+criticizing were not slow to take advantage of the opportunity for
+retaliation offered by the production of these mediocre plays. It is as
+a theorist that D'Aubignac still arrests attention. It has been proved
+that to Jean Chapelain belongs the credit of having been the first to
+establish as a practical law the convention of the unities that plays
+so large a part in the history of the French stage; but the laws of
+dramatic method and construction generally were codified by d'Aubignac
+in his _Pratique du théâtre._ The book was only published in 1657, but
+had been begun at the desire of Richelieu as early as 1640. His
+_Conjectures académiques sur l'Iliade d'Homère_, which was not published
+until nearly forty years after his death, threw doubts on the existence
+of Homer, and anticipated in some sense the conclusions of Friedrich
+August Wolf in his _Prolegomena ad Homerum_ (1795).
+
+  The contents of the _Pratique du théâtre_ are summarized by F.
+  Brunetière in his notice of Aubignac in the _Grande Encydopédie._ See
+  also G. Saintsbury, _Hist. of Criticism_, bk. v., and H. Rigault,
+  _Hist. de la querelle des anciens et modernes._ (1859).
+
+
+
+
+AUBIGNÉ, CONSTANT D' [BARON DE SURINEAU] (c. 1584-1647), French
+adventurer, was the son of Théodore Agrippa d'Aubigné, and the father of
+Madame de Maintenon. Born a Protestant, he became by turns Catholic or
+Protestant as it suited his interests. He betrayed the Protestants in
+1626, revealing to the court, after a voyage to England, the projects of
+the English upon La Rochelle. He was renounced by his father; then
+imprisoned by Richelieu's orders at Niort, where he was detained ten
+years. After having tried his fortunes in the Antilles, he died in
+Provence, leaving in destitution his wife, Jeanne de Cardillac, whom he
+had married in 1627. He had two children, Charles, father of the duchess
+of Noailles, and Françoise, known in history as Madame de Maintenon.
+
+  See T. Lavallée, _La Famille d'Aubigné et l'enfance de Madame de
+  Maintenon_ (Paris, 1863).
+
+
+
+
+AUBIGNÉ, JEAN HENRI MERLE D' (1794-1872), Swiss Protestant divine and
+historian, was born on the 16th of August 1794, at Eaux Vives, near
+Geneva. The ancestors of his father, Aimé Robert Merle d'Aubigné
+(1755-1799), were French Protestant refugees. Jean Henri was destined by
+his parents to a commercial life; but at college he decided to be
+ordained. He was profoundly influenced by Robert Haldane, the Scottish
+missionary and preacher who visited Geneva. When in 1817 he went abroad
+to further his education, Germany was about to celebrate the
+tercentenary of the Reformation; and thus early he conceived the
+ambition to write the history of that great epoch. At Berlin he received
+stimulus from teachers so unlike as J.A.W. Neander and W.M.L. de Wette.
+After presiding for five years over the French Protestant church at
+Hamburg, he was, in 1823, called to become pastor of a congregation in
+Brussels and preacher to the court. He became also president of the
+consistory of the French and German Protestant churches. At the Belgian
+revolution of 1830 he thought it advisable to undertake pastoral work at
+home rather than to accept an educational post in the family of the
+Dutch king. The Evangelical Society had been founded with the idea of
+promoting evangelical Christianity in Geneva and elsewhere, but it was
+found that there was also needed a theological school for the training
+of pastors. On his return to Switzerland, d'Aubigné was invited to
+become professor of church history in an institution of the kind, and
+continued to labour in the cause of evangelical Protestantism. In him
+the Evangelical Alliance found a hearty promoter. He frequently visited
+England, was made a D.C.L. by Oxford University, and received civic
+honours from the city of Edinburgh. He died suddenly in 1872.
+
+His principal works are--_Discours sur l'étude de l'histoire de
+Christianisme_ (Geneva, 1832); _Le Luthéranisme et la Réforme_ (Paris,
+1844); _Germany, England and Scotland, or Recollections of a Swiss
+Pastor_ (London, 1848); _Trois siècles de lutte en Écosse, ou deux rois
+et deux royaumes; Le Protecteur ou la république d'Angleterre aux jours
+de Cromwell_ (Paris, 1848); _Le Concile et l'infaillibililé_ (1870);
+_Histoire de la Réformation au XVI^ième siècle_ (Paris, 1835-1853; new
+ed:, 1861-1862, in 5 vols.); and _Histoire de la Réformation en Europe
+au temps de Calvin_ (8 vols., 1862-1877).
+
+The first portion of his _Histoire de la Réformation_, which was devoted
+to the earlier period of the movement in Germany, gave him at once a
+foremost place amongst modern French ecclesiastical historians, and was
+translated into most European tongues. The second portion, dealing with
+reform in the time of Calvin, was not less thorough, and had a subject
+hitherto less exhaustively treated, but it did not meet with the same
+success. This part of the subject, with which he was most competent to
+deal, was all but completed at the time of his death. Among his minor
+treatises, the most important are the vindication of the character and
+aims of Oliver Cromwell, and the sketch of the contendings of the Church
+of Scotland.
+
+Indefatigable in sifting original documents, Aubigné had amassed a
+wealth of authentic information; but his desire to give in all cases a
+full and graphic picture, assisted by a vivid imagination, betrayed him
+into excess of detail concerning minor events, and in a few cases into
+filling up a narrative by inference from later conditions. Moreover, in
+his profound sympathy with the Reformers, he too frequently becomes
+their apologist. But his work is a monument of painstaking sincerity,
+and brings us into direct contact with the spirit of the period.
+
+
+
+
+AUBIGNÉ, THÉODORE AGRIPPA D' (1552-1630), French poet and historian, was
+born at St Maury, near Pons, in Saintonge, on the 8th of February 1552.
+His name Agrippa (_aegre partus_) was given him through his mother dying
+in childbirth. In his childhood he showed a great aptitude for
+languages; according to his own account he knew Latin, Greek and Hebrew
+at six years of age; and he had translated the _Crito_ of Plato before
+he was eleven. His father, a Huguenot who had been one of the
+conspirators of Amboise, strengthened his Protestant sympathies by
+showing him, while they were passing through that town on their way to
+Paris, the heads of the conspirators exposed upon the scaffold, and
+adjuring him not to spare his own head in order to avenge their death.
+After a brief residence he was obliged to flee from Paris to avoid
+persecution, but was captured and threatened with death. Escaping
+through the intervention of a friend, he went to Montargis. In his
+fourteenth year he was present at the siege of Orléans, at which his
+father was killed. His guardian sent him to Geneva, where he studied for
+a considerable time under the direction of Beza. In 1567 he made his
+escape from tutelage, and attached himself to the Huguenot army under
+the prince of Condé. Subsequently he joined Henry of Navarre, whom he
+succeeded in withdrawing from the corrupting influence of the house of
+Valois (1576), and to whom he rendered valuable service, both as a
+soldier and as a counsellor, in the wars that issued in his elevation to
+the throne as Henry IV. After a furious battle at Casteljaloux, and
+suffering from fever from his wounds, he wrote his _Tragiques_ (1571).
+He was in the battle of Coutras (1587), and at the siege of Paris
+(1590). His career at camp and court, however, was a somewhat chequered
+one, owing to the roughness of his manner and the keenness of his
+criticisms, which made him many enemies and severely tried the king's
+patience. In his _tragédie-ballet Circe_ (1576) he did not hesitate to
+indulge in the most outspoken sarcasm against the king and other members
+of the royal family. Though he more than once found it expedient to
+retire into private life he never entirely lost the favour of Henry, who
+made him governor of Maillezais. After the conversion of the king to
+Roman Catholicism, d'Aubigné remained true to the Huguenot cause, and a
+fearless advocate of the Huguenot interests. The first two volumes of
+the work by which he is best known, his _Histoire universelle depuis
+1550 jusqu'à l'an 1601_, appeared in 1616 and 1618 respectively. The
+third volume was published in 1619, but, being still more free and
+personal in its satire than those which had preceded it, it was
+immediately ordered to be burned by the common hangman. The work is a
+lively chronicle of the incidents of camp and court life, and forms a
+very valuable source for the history of France during the period it
+embraces. In September 1620 its author was compelled to take refuge in
+Geneva, where he found a secure retreat for the last ten years of his
+life, though the hatred of the French court showed itself in procuring a
+sentence of death to be recorded against him more than once. He devoted
+the period of his exile to study, and the superintendence of works for
+the fortifications of Bern and Basel which were designed as a material
+defence of the cause of Protestantism. He died at Geneva on the 29th of
+April 1630.
+
+  A complete edition of his works according to the original MSS. was
+  begun by E. Réaume and F. de Caussade (1879). It contains all the
+  literary works, the _Aventures du baron de Faeneste_ (1617), and the
+  _Mémoires_ (6 vols., 1873-1892). The best edition of the _Histoire
+  universelle_ is by A. de Ruble. The _Mémoires_ were edited by L.
+  Lalanne (1854).
+
+
+
+
+AUBIN, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron on the
+Enne, 30 m. N.W. of Rodez. In 1906 the urban population was 2229, the
+communal population 9986. Aubin is the centre of important coal-mines
+worked in the middle ages, and also has iron-mines, the product of which
+supplies iron works close to the town. Sheep-breeding is important in
+the vicinity. The church dates from the 12th century.
+
+
+
+
+AUBREY, JOHN (1626-1697), English antiquary, was born at Easton Pierse
+or Percy, near Malmesbury, Wiltshire, on the 12th of March 1626, his
+father being a country gentleman of considerable fortune. He was
+educated at the Malmesbury grammar school under Robert Latimer, who had
+numbered Thomas Hobbes among his earlier pupils, and at his
+schoolmaster's house Aubrey first met the philosopher about whom he was
+to leave so many curious and interesting details. He entered Trinity
+College, Oxford, in 1642, but his studies were interrupted by the Civil
+War. In 1646 he became a student of the Middle Temple, but was never
+called to the bar. He spent much of his time in the country, and in 1649
+he brought into notice the megalithic remains at Avebury. His father
+died in 1652, leaving to Aubrey large estates, and with them,
+unfortunately, complicated lawsuits. Aubrey, however, lived gaily, and
+used his means to gratify his passion for the company of celebrities and
+for every sort of knowledge to be gleaned about them. Anthony à Wood
+prophesied that he would one day break his neck while running downstairs
+after a retreating guest, in the hope of extracting a story from him. He
+took no active share in the political troubles of the time, but from his
+description of a meeting of the Rota Club, founded by James Harrington,
+the author of _Oceana_, he appears to have been a theorizing republican.
+His reminiscences on this subject date from the Restoration, and are
+probably softened by considerations of expediency. In 1663 he became a
+member of the Royal Society, and in the next year he met Joan Somner,
+"in an ill hour," he tells us. This connexion did not end in marriage,
+and a lawsuit with the lady complicated his already embarrassed affairs.
+He lost estate after estate, until in 1670 he parted with his last piece
+of property, Easton Pierse. From this time he was dependent on the
+hospitality of his numerous friends. In 1667 he had made the
+acquaintance of Anthony à Wood at Oxford, and when Wood began to gather
+materials for his invaluable _Athenae Oxonienses_, Aubrey offered to
+collect information for him. From time to time he forwarded memoranda to
+him, and in 1680 he began to promise the "Minutes for Lives," which Wood
+was to use at his discretion. He left the task of verification largely
+to Wood. As a hanger-on in great houses he had little time for
+systematic work, and he wrote the "Lives" in the early morning while his
+hosts were sleeping off the effects of the dissipation of the night
+before. He constantly leaves blanks for dates and facts, and many
+queries. He made no attempt at a fair copy, and, when fresh information
+occurred to him, inserted it at random. He made some distinction between
+hearsay and authentic information, but had no pretence to accuracy, his
+retentive memory being the chief authority. The principal charm of his
+"Minutes" lies in the amusing details he has to recount about his
+personages, and in the plainness and truthfulness that he permits
+himself in face of established reputations. In 1592 he complained
+bitterly that Wood had destroyed forty pages of his MS., probably
+because of the dangerous freedom of Aubrey's pen. Wood Was prosecuted
+eventually for insinuations against the judicial integrity of the earl
+of Clarendon. One of the two statements called in question was certainly
+founded on information provided by Aubrey. This perhaps explains the
+estrangement between the two antiquaries and the ungrateful account that
+Wood gives of the elder man's character. "He was a shiftless person,
+roving and magotic-headed, and sometimes little better than crased. And
+being exceedingly credulous, would stuff his many letters sent to A.W.
+with follies and misinformations, which sometimes would guide him into
+the paths of error."[1] In 1673 Aubrey began his "Perambulation" or
+"Survey" of the county of Surrey, which was the result of many years'
+labour in collecting inscriptions and traditions in the country. He
+began a "History of his Native District of Northern Wiltshire," but,
+feeling that he was too old to finish it as he would wish, he made over
+his material, about 1695, to Thomas Tanner, afterwards bishop of St
+Asaph. In the next year he published his only completed, though
+certainly not his most valuable work, the _Miscellanies_, a collection
+of stories on ghosts and dreams. He died at Oxford in June 1697, and was
+buried in the church of St Mary Magdalene.
+
+  Beside the works already mentioned, his papers included:
+  "Architectonica Sacra," notes on ecclesiastical antiquities; and "Life
+  of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury," which served as the basis of Dr
+  Blackburn's Latin life, and also of Wood's account. His survey of
+  Surrey was incorporated in R. Rawlinson's _Natural History and
+  Antiquities of Surrey_ (1719); his antiquarian notes on Wiltshire were
+  printed in _Wiltshire; the Topographical Collections of John Aubrey_,
+  corrected and enlarged by J.E. Jackson (Devizes, 1862); part of
+  another MS. on "The Natural History of Wiltshire" was printed by John
+  Britton in 1847 for the Wiltshire Topographical Society; the
+  _Miscellanies_ were edited in 1890 for the _Library of Old Authors_;
+  the "Minutes for Lives" were partially edited in 1813. A complete
+  transcript, _Brief Lives chiefly of Contemporaries set down by John
+  Aubrey between the Years 1669 and 1696_, was edited for the Clarendon
+  Press in 1898 by the Rev. Andrew Clark from the MSS. in the Bodleian,
+  Oxford.
+
+  See also John Britton, _Memoir of John Aubrey_ (1845); David Masson,
+  in the _British Quarterly Review_, July 1856; Émile Montégut, _Heures
+  de lecture d'un critique_ (1891); and a catalogue of Aubrey's
+  collections in _The Life and Times of Anthony Wood_ ..., by Andrew
+  Clark (Oxford, 1891-1900, vol. iv. pp. 191-193), which contains many
+  other references to Aubrey.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "Life of Anthony à Wood written by Himself" (_Athen. Oxon._, ed.
+    Bliss).
+
+
+
+
+AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Androscoggin county, Maine,
+U.S.A., on the Androscoggin river, opposite Lewiston (with which it
+practically forms an industrial unit), in the S.W. part of the state.
+Pop. (1890) 11,250; (1900) 12,951, of whom 2076 were foreign-born;
+(1910, census) 15,064. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Maine
+Central railways. The river furnishes abundant water-power, and the city
+ranked fourth in the state as a manufacturing centre in 1905. Boots and
+shoes are the principal products; in 1905 seven-tenths of the city's
+wage-earners were engaged in their manufacture, and Auburn's output
+($4,263,162 = 66.5% of the total factory product of the city) was
+one-third of that of the whole state. Other manufactures are butter,
+bread and other bakery products, cotton goods, furniture and leather.
+The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Auburn was first
+settled in 1786, and was incorporated in 1842, but the present charter
+dates only from 1869.
+
+
+
+
+AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A.,
+25 m. S.W. of Syracuse, on an outlet of Owasco Lake. Pop. (1890) 25,858;
+(1900) 30,345, of whom 5436 were foreign-born, 2084 being from Ireland
+and 1023 from England; (1910) 34,668. It is served by the Lehigh Valley
+and the New York Central & Hudson River railways, and by inter-urban
+electric lines. The city is attractively situated amidst a group of low
+hills in the heart of the lake country of western New York; the streets
+are wide, with a profusion of shade trees. Auburn has a city hall, the
+large Burtis Auditorium, the Auburn hospital, two orphan asylums, and
+the Seymour library in the Case Memorial building. There is a fine
+bronze statue of William H. Seward, who made his home here after 1823,
+and was buried in Fort Hill Cemetery. In Auburn are the Auburn (State)
+prison (1816), in connexion with which there is a women's prison; the
+Auburn Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), founded in 1819, chartered
+in 1820, and opened for students in 1821; the Robinson school for girls;
+and the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, for the education of
+working girls, with a building erected in 1907. The city owns its
+water-supply system, the water being pumped from Owasco Lake, about 2½
+m. S.S.E. of the city. There is a good water-power, and the city has
+important manufacturing interests. The principal manufactures are
+cordage and twine, agricultural implements, engines, pianos, boots and
+shoes, cotton and woollen goods, carpets and rugs, rubber goods, flour
+and machinery. The total factory product in 1905 was valued at
+$13,420,863; of this $2,890,301 was the value of agricultural
+implements, in the manufacture of which Auburn ranked fifth among the
+cities of the United States. There are a number of grey and blue
+limestone quarries, one of which is owned and operated by the
+municipality.
+
+Settled soon after the close of the War of Independence, Auburn was laid
+out in 1793 by Captain John L. Hardenburgh, a veteran of the war, and
+for some years was known as Hardenburgh's Corners. In 1805, when it was
+made the county-seat, it was renamed Auburn. It was incorporated in
+1814, and was chartered as a city in 1848.
+
+  See C. Hawley, _Early Chapters of Cayuga History_ (Auburn, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+AUBURN (from the Low Lat. _alburnus_, whitish, light-coloured),
+ruddy-brown; the meaning has changed from the original one of
+brownish-white or light yellow (_citrinus_, in _Promptorium
+Parvulorum_), probably through the intensification of the idea of brown
+caused by the early spelling "abron" or "abrown."
+
+
+
+
+AUBUSSON, PIERRE D' (1423-1503), grand-master of the order of St John of
+Jerusalem, and a zealous opponent of the Turks, was born in 1423. He
+belonged to a noble French family, and early devoted himself to the
+career of a soldier in the service of the emperor Sigismund. Under the
+archduke Albert of Austria he took part in a campaign against the Turks,
+and on his return to France sided with the Armagnacs against the Swiss,
+greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of St Jacob in 1444. He
+then joined the order of the knights of Rhodes, and successfully
+conducted an expedition against the pirates of the Levant and an embassy
+to Charles VII. He soon rose to the most important offices in the order,
+and in 1476 was elected grand-master. It was the period of the conquests
+of Mahommed II., who, supreme in the East, now began to threaten Europe.
+In December 1479 a large Turkish fleet appeared in sight of Rhodes; a
+landing was effected, and a vigorous attack made upon the city. But in
+July of the next year, being reinforced from Spain, the knights forced
+the Mussulmans to retire, leaving behind them 9000 dead. The siege, in
+which d'Aubusson was seriously wounded, enhanced his renown throughout
+Europe. Mahommed was furious, and would have attacked the island again
+but for his death in 1481. His succession was disputed between his sons
+Bayezid and Jem. The latter, after his defeat by Bayezid, sought refuge
+at Rhodes under a safe-conduct from the grand-master and the council of
+the knights. What followed remains a stain on d'Aubusson's memory.
+Rhodes not being considered secure, Jem with his own consent was sent to
+France. Meanwhile, in spite of the safe-conduct, d'Aubusson accepted an
+annuity of 45,000 ducats from the sultan; in return for which he
+undertook to guard Jem in such a way as to prevent his design of
+appealing to the Christian powers to aid him against his brother. For
+six years Jem, in spite of frequent efforts to escape, was kept a close
+prisoner in various castles of the Rhodian order in France, until in
+1489 he was handed over to Pope Innocent VIII., who had been vying with
+the kings of Hungary and Naples for the possession of so valuable a
+political weapon. D'Aubusson's reward was a cardinal's hat (1489), and
+the power to confer all benefices connected with the order without the
+sanction of the papacy; the order of St John received the wealth of the
+suppressed orders of the Holy Sepulchre and St Lazarus. The remaining
+years of his life d'Aubusson spent in the attempt to restore discipline
+and zeal in his order, and to organize a grand international crusade
+against the Turks. The age of the Renaissance, with Alexander Borgia on
+the throne of St Peter, was, however, not favourable to such an
+enterprise; the death of Jem in 1495 had removed the most formidable
+weapon available against the sultan; and when in 1501 d'Aubusson led an
+expedition against Mytilene, dissensions among his motley host rendered
+it wholly abortive. The old man's last years were embittered by chagrin
+at his failure, which was hardly compensated by his success in
+extirpating Judaism in Rhodes, by expelling all adult Jews and forcibly
+baptizing their children. In the summer of 1503 he died.
+
+  See P. Bouhours, _Hist. de Pierre d'Aubusson_ (Paris, 1676; Hague,
+  1793; abridged ed. Bruges, 1887); G.E. Streck, _Pierre d'Aubusson,
+  Grossmeister_, &c. (Chemnitz, 1873); J.B. Bury in _Cambridge Mod.
+  Hist._ vol. i. p. 85, &c. (for relations with Jem).
+
+
+
+
+AUBUSSON, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Creuse, picturesquely situated on the river Creuse 24 m.
+S.E. of Guéret by rail. Pop. (1906) 6475. It has celebrated
+manufactories of carpets, &c., employing about 2000 workmen, the
+artistic standard of which is maintained by a national school of
+decorative arts, founded in 1869. Nothing certain is known as to the
+foundation of this industry, but it was in full activity at least as far
+back as 1531. From the 10th to the 13th century Aubusson was the centre
+of a viscounty, and the viscountess Marguerite, wife of Rainaud VI., was
+sung by many a troubadour. After the death of the viscount Guy II. (a
+little later than 1262) Aubusson was incorporated in the countship of La
+Marche by Hugh XII. of Lusignan, and shared in its fortunes. Louis XIV.
+revived the title of viscount of Aubusson in favour of François, first
+marshall de la Feuillade (1686). From the family of the old viscounts
+was descended Pierre d'Aubusson (q.v.). Admiral Sallandrouze de
+Lamornaix (1840-1902) belonged to a family of tapestry manufacturers
+established at Aubusson since the beginning of the 19th century.
+Aubusson was also the native place of the novelists Leonard Sylvain,
+Julien Sandeau and Alfred Assollant (1827-1886).
+
+  See Le Père Anselme, _Hist. généalogique de la maison de France_, vol.
+  v. pp. 318 et seq.; P. Mignaton, _Hist. de la maison d'Aubusson_
+  (Paris, 1886); Cyprien Pérathon, _Hist. d'Aubusson_ (Limoges, 1886).
+       (A. T.)
+
+
+
+
+AUCH, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Gers,
+55 m. W. of Toulouse on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 9294. Auch is
+built on the summit and sides of a hill at the foot of which flow the
+yellow waters of the Gers. It consists of a lower and upper quarter
+united in several places by flights of steps. The streets are in general
+steep and narrow, but there is a handsome promenade in the upper town,
+laid out in the 18th century by the _intendant_ Antoine Mégret d'Etigny.
+Three bridges lead from the left to the right bank of the Gers, on which
+the suburb of Patte d'Oie is situated. The most interesting part of the
+town lies in the old quarter around the Place Salinis, a spacious
+terrace which commands an extensive view over the surrounding country.
+On its eastern side it communicates with the left bank of the river by a
+handsome series of steps; on its north side rises the cathedral of
+Sainte-Marie. This church, built from 1489 to 1662, belongs chiefly to
+the Gothic style, of which it is one of the finest examples in southern
+France. The façade, however, with its two square and somewhat heavy
+flanking towers dates from the 17th century, and is Greco-Roman in
+architecture. Sainte-Marie contains many artistic treasures, the chief
+of which are the magnificent stained-glass windows of the Renaissance
+which light the apsidal chapels, and the 113 choir-stalls of carved oak,
+also of Renaissance workmanship. The archbishop's palace adjoins the
+cathedral; it is a building of the 18th century with a Romanesque hall
+and a tower of the 14th century. Opposite the south side of the
+cathedral stands the lycée on the site of a former Jesuit college. Only
+scanty remains are left of the once celebrated abbey of St Orens. The
+ecclesiastical seminary contains an important library with a collection
+of manuscripts, and there is a public library in the Carmelite chapel, a
+building of the 17th century. The former palace of the _intendants_ of
+Gascony is now used as the _préfecture_. Auch is the seat of an
+archbishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of
+first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycée,
+training-colleges, a school of design, a branch of the Bank of France
+and an important lunatic asylum. The manufactures include agricultural
+implements, leather, vinegar and plaited sandals, and there is a trade
+in brandy, wine, cattle, poultry and wool; there are quarries of
+building-stone in the neighbourhood.
+
+Auch (Elimberris) was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe, the Ausci, and
+under the Roman domination was one of the most important cities in
+Gaul. In the 4th century this importance was increased by the foundation
+of its bishopric, and after the destruction of Eauze in the 9th century
+it became the metropolis of Novempopulana. Till 732, Auch stood on the
+right bank of the Gers, but in that year the ravages of the Saracens
+drove the inhabitants to take refuge on the left bank of the river,
+where a new city was formed. In the 10th century Count Bernard of
+Armagnac founded the Benedictine abbey of St Orens, the monks of which,
+till 1308, shared the jurisdiction over Auch with the archbishops--an
+arrangement which gave rise to constant strife. The counts of Armagnac
+possessed a castle in the city, which was the capital of Armagnac in the
+middle ages. During the Religious Wars of the 16th century Auch remained
+Catholic, except for a short occupation in 1569 by the Huguenots under
+Gabriel, count of Montgomery. In the 18th century it was capital of
+Gascony, and seat of a generality. Antoine Mégret d'Etigny, intendant
+from 1751 to 1767, did much to improve the city and its commerce.
+
+
+
+
+AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL (1756-1822), British general, was born at New York
+in 1756, and served as a loyalist in the American War of Independence,
+being given an ensigncy in the royal army in 1777, and in 1778 a
+lieutenancy in the 45th Foot, without purchase. When his regiment
+returned to England after the war, having neither private means nor
+influence, he exchanged into the 52nd, in order to proceed to India. He
+took part in the last war against Hyder Ali; he was given a staff
+appointment by Lord Cornwallis in 1790, served in the operations against
+Tippoo Sahib, and continued in various staff appointments up to 1797,
+when he returned to England a brevet lieut.-colonel. In 1800 he was made
+lieut.-colonel and brevet colonel; and in the following year, as
+adjutant-general to Sir David Baird in Egypt, took a distinguished share
+in the march across the desert and the capture of Alexandria. On his
+return to England in 1803 he was knighted, and three years later he went
+out to the River Plate as a brigadier-general. Auchmuty was one of the
+few officers who came out of the disastrous Buenos Aires expedition of
+1806-7 with enhanced reputation. While General Whitelocke, the
+commander, was cashiered, Auchmuty was at once re-employed and promoted
+major-general, and was sent out in 1810 to command at Madras. In the
+following year he commanded the expedition organized for the conquest of
+Java, which the governor-general, Lord Minto, himself accompanied. The
+storming of the strongly fortified position of Meester Cornelis (28th
+August 1811), stubbornly defended by the Dutch garrison under General
+Janssens, practically achieved the conquest of the island, and after the
+action of Samarang (September 8th) Janssens surrendered. Auchmuty
+received the thanks of parliament and the order of K.C.B. (G.C.B. in
+1815), and in 1813, on his return home, was promoted to the rank of
+lieut.-general. In 1821 he became commander-in-chief in Ireland, and a
+member of the Irish privy council. He died suddenly on the 11th of
+August 1822.
+
+
+
+
+AUCHTERARDER (Gaelic, "upper high land"), a police burgh of Perthshire,
+Scotland, 13¾ m. S.W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901)
+2276. It is situated on Ruthven Water, a right-hand tributary of the
+Earn. The chief manufactures are those of tartans and other woollens,
+and of agricultural implements. At the beginning of the 13th century it
+obtained a charter from the earl of Strathearn, afterwards became a
+royal burgh for a period, and was represented in the Scottish
+parliament. Its castle, now ruinous, was built as a hunting-lodge for
+Malcolm Canmore, but of the abbey which it possessed as early as the
+reign of Alexander II. (1198-1249) no remains exist. The ancient church
+of St Mungo, now in ruins, was a building in the Norman or Early Pointed
+style. The town was almost entirely burned down by the earl of Mar in
+1716 during the abortive Jacobite rising. It was in connexion with this
+parish that the ecclesiastical dispute arose which led to the disruption
+in the Church of Scotland in 1843. The estate of Kincardine, 1 m. south,
+gives the title of earl of Kincardine to the duke of Montrose. The old
+castle, now in ruins, was dismantled in 1645 by the marquis of Argyll in
+retaliation for the destruction of Castle Campbell in Dollar Glen on the
+south side of the Ochils. The old ruined castle of Tullibardine, 2 m
+west of the burgh, once belonged to the Murrays of Tullibardine,
+ancestors of the duke of Atholl, who derives the title of marquis of
+Tullibardine from the estate. The ancient chapel adjoining, also
+ruinous, was a burial-place of the Murrays.
+
+
+
+
+AUCHTERMUCHTY (Gaelic, "the high ground of the wild sow"), a royal and
+police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, built on an elevation about 9 m. W.
+by S. of Cupar, with a station on a branch of the North British railway
+from Ladybank to Mawcarse Junction. Pop. 1387. The rapid Loverspool Burn
+divides the town. The principal industries include the weaving of linen
+and damasks, bleaching, distilling and malting. John Glas, founder of
+the sect known as Glassites or Sandemanians, was a native of the town. A
+mile and a half to the south-west is the village of Strathmiglo (pop.
+966), on the river Eden, with a linen factory and bleaching works.
+
+
+
+
+AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF (1784-1849), English statesman, was the
+second son of the 1st Baron Auckland. He completed his education at
+Oxford, and was admitted to the bar in 1809. His elder brother was
+drowned in the Thames in the following year; and in 1814, on the death
+of his father, he took his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland.
+He supported the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made
+president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In 1834 he held
+office for a few months as first lord of the admiralty, and in 1835 he
+was appointed governor-general of India. He proved himself to be a
+painstaking and laborious legislator, and devoted himself specially to
+the improvement of native schools, and the expansion of the commercial
+industry of the nation committed to his care. These useful labours were
+interrupted in 1838 by complications in Afghanistan, which excited the
+fears not only of the Anglo-Indian government but of the home
+authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war, and on the 1st
+of October 1838 published at Simla his famous manifesto dethroning Dost
+Mahommed. The early operations were crowned with success, and the
+governor-general received the title of earl of Auckland. But reverses
+followed quickly, and in the ensuing campaigns the British troops
+suffered the most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double
+mortification of seeing his policy a complete failure and of being
+superseded before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of 1841
+he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and returned to England
+in the following year. In 1846 he was made first lord of the admiralty,
+which office he held until his death, on the 1st of January 1849. He
+died unmarried, and the earldom became extinct, the barony (see below)
+passing to his brother Robert.
+
+  See S.J. Trotter, _The Earl of Auckland_ ("Rulers of India" series),
+  1893.
+
+
+
+
+AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, 1ST BARON (1745-1814), English statesman, son of
+Sir Robert Eden, 3rd Bart., of Windlestone Hall, Durham, and of Mary,
+daughter of William Davison, was born in 1745, educated at Eton and
+Christ Church, Oxford, and called to the bar at the Middle Temple in
+1768. In 1771 he published _Principles of Penal Law_, and was early
+recognized as an authority on commercial and economic questions, and in
+1772 he was appointed an under secretary of state. He represented New
+Woodstock in the parliaments of 1774 and 1780, and Heytesbury in those
+of 1784 and 1790. In 1776 he was appointed a commissioner on the board
+of trade and plantations. In 1778 he carried an act for the improvement
+of the treatment of prisoners, and accompanied the earl of Carlisle as a
+commissioner to North America on an unsuccessful mission to settle the
+disputes with the colonists. On his return in 1779 he published his
+widely read _Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle_, and in 1780 became
+chief secretary for Ireland. He was elected to the Irish House of
+Commons as member for Dungannon in 1781 and sworn of the Irish privy
+council, and while in Ireland established the National Bank. He advised
+the increase of the secret service fund, and was reputed, according to
+Lord Charlemont (a political opponent), as especially skilful in the
+arts of corruption and in overcoming political prejudices. He resigned
+in 1782, but in the following year he took office again as
+vice-treasurer of Ireland under the coalition ministry, which he had
+been instrumental in arranging, and was included in the privy council,
+resigning with the government in December. He opposed strongly Pitt's
+propositions for free trade between England and Ireland in 1785, but
+took office with Pitt as a member of the committee on trade and
+plantations, and negotiated in 1786 and 1787 Pitt's important commercial
+treaty with France, and agreements concerning the East India Companies
+and Holland. In 1787 he published his _History of New Holland_. Next
+year he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and after his return was
+created (September 1789) Baron Auckland in the Irish peerage. The same
+year he was sent on a mission to Holland, and represented English
+interests there with great zeal and prudence during the critical years
+of 1790 to 1793, obtaining the assistance of the Dutch fleet in 1790 on
+the menace of a war with Spain, signing the convention relating to the
+Netherlands the same year, and in 1793 attending the congress at
+Antwerp. He retired from the public service in the latter year, received
+a pension of £2300, and was created Baron Auckland of West Auckland,
+Durham, in the English peerage. During his retirement in the country at
+Beckenham, he continued his intimacy with Pitt, his nearest neighbour at
+Holwood, who at one time had thoughts of marrying his daughter; and with
+Pitt's sanction he published his _Remarks on the Apparent Cicumstances
+of the War_ in 1795, to prepare public opinion for a peace. In 1798 he
+was included in Pitt's government as joint postmaster-general, and
+supported strongly the income tax and the Irish Union, assisting in
+drawing up the act embodying the latter. In 1799 he brought in a bill to
+check adultery by preventing the marriage of the guilty parties, and the
+same year took a mischievous part in the cabal against Sir Ralph
+Abercromby. He severely criticized Pitt's resignation in 1801, from
+which he had endeavoured to dissuade him, and retained office under
+Addington. This terminated his friendship with Pitt, who excluded him
+from his administration in 1804 though he increased his pension.
+Auckland was included in Granville's ministry of "All the Talents" as
+president of the board of trade in 1806. He held the appointments of
+auditor and director of Greenwich hospital, recorder of Grantham, and
+chancellor of the Marischal College in Aberdeen. He died on the 28th of
+May 1814.
+
+He had married in 1776 Eleanor, sister of the first Lord Minto, and had
+a large family. Emily Eden (1797-1869), the novelist, was one of his
+daughters. On the death of his son George, 2nd baron and earl of
+Auckland (q.v.), the barony passed to the 1st baron's younger son Robert
+John (1790-1870), bishop of Bath and Wells, from whom the later barons
+were descended, and who was also the father of Sir Ashley Eden
+(1831-1887), lieutenant-governor of Bengal. The 1st baron had two
+distinguished brothers--Morton Eden (1752-1830), a diplomatist, who
+married Lady Elizabeth Henley, and in 1799 was created 1st Baron Henley
+(his family, from 1831, taking the name of Henley instead of Eden); and
+Sir Robert Eden, governor of Maryland, whose son, Sir Frederic Morton
+Eden (1766-1809), was a well-known economist.
+
+  Lord Auckland's _Journal and Correspondence_, published in 1861-1862,
+  throws much light on the political history of the time.
+
+
+
+
+AUCKLAND, a city and seaport on the east coast of North Island, New
+Zealand, in Eden county; capital of the province of its name, and the
+seat of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 37,736; including suburbs, 82,101. It is
+situated at the mouth of an arm of Hauraki Gulf, and is only 6 m.
+distant from the head of Manukau harbour on the western coast. The
+situation is extremely beautiful. The Hauraki Gulf, a great square inlet
+opening northward, is studded with islands of considerable elevation;
+Rangitoto, which protects the harbour, is a volcanic cone reaching
+nearly 1000 ft. The isthmus on which the town stands (which position has
+caused it to be likened to Corinth) can be crossed without surmounting
+any great elevation, and offers a feasible canal route. A number of
+small extinct volcanoes, however, appear in all directions. To the west
+the Titirangi hills exceed 1400 ft. Some of the volcanic soil is barren,
+but much of the district is clothed in luxuriant vegetation.
+
+Auckland harbour, one of the best in New Zealand, is approachable by the
+largest vessels at the lowest tide. There are two graving docks. Queen
+Street, the principal thoroughfare, leads inland from the main dock, and
+contains the majority of the public buildings. There is a small
+government house, standing in beautiful grounds, adjoining Albert Park,
+with plantations of oaks and pines. The government offices, art gallery
+and exchange, with St Mary's cathedral (Anglican), a building in a
+combination of native timbers, St Paul's and St Patrick's cathedral
+(Roman Catholic), are noteworthy buildings. The art gallery and free
+library contain excellent pictures, and valuable books and MSS.
+presented by Sir G. Grey. The museum contains one of the best existing
+collections of Maori art. There are an opera-house and an academy of
+music. The Auckland University College and the grammar school are the
+principal educational establishments. The parks are the Domain, with a
+botanical garden, the Albert Park near the harbour, with a bronze statue
+of Queen Victoria, the extensive grounds at One Tree Hill on the
+outskirts, and Victoria Park on Freeman's Bay. The principal
+thoroughfares are served by electric tramway. Of the suburbs, Newton,
+Parnell and Newmarket are in reality outlying parts of the town itself.
+Devonport, Birkenhead and Northcote are beautifully situated on the
+north shore of the inlet, and are served by steam-ferries. Several other
+residential suburbs lie among the hills on the mainland, such as Mount
+Albert, Mount Eden and Epsom. Onehunga is a small port on Manukau
+harbour, served by rail. In Parnell is the former residence of Bishop
+Selwyn, who, arriving in the colony in 1842, assisted to draw up the
+constitution of the Anglican church. There are many associations with
+his name in the neighbourhood. The prospect over the town and its
+environs from Mount Eden is justly famous. The hill is terraced with
+former native fortifications.
+
+Auckland has industries of sugar-refining, ship-building and paper-,
+rope- and brick-making, and timber is worked. The town was founded as
+capital of the colony in 1840 by Governor Hobson. There is communication
+both south and north by rail, and regular steamers serve the ports of
+the colony, the principal Pacific Islands, Australia, &c. From 1853 to
+1876 Auckland was the seat of the provincial government, and until 1865
+that of the central government, which was then transferred to
+Wellington. The first session of the general assembly took place here in
+1854. Auckland is under municipal government.
+
+
+
+
+AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1806 by
+Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler "Ocean," in 50° 24' S., 166° 7'
+E. The islands, of volcanic origin, are very fertile, and are covered
+with forest. They were granted to the Messrs Enderby by the British
+government as a whaling station, but the establishment was abandoned in
+1852. The islands belong politically to New Zealand.
+
+
+
+
+AUCTION PITCH, a card game which is a popular variation of All Fours
+(q.v.). The name is derived from the rule that the first card played, or
+_pitched_, is the trump suit, and that the eldest hand has the privilege
+of pitching it or of selling out to the highest bidder. A full pack is
+used, and the cards rank as in All Fours, namely from ace down to 2, ace
+being highest in cutting also. From four to seven may play, each player
+being provided with seven white counters, and also with red counters in
+case stakes are played for. Each player receives six cards in every
+deal, three at a time, no trump being turned. The object is to get rid
+of the white counters, one of which may be put into the pool either (1)
+for holding the highest trump played; (2) for having the lowest trump
+dealt to one; (3) for taking the Jack (knave) of trumps; or (4) for
+winning the _game_, namely the greatest number of pips that count. In
+case of a tie of pips no game is scored. If the eldest hand decides to
+pitch and not to sell out, he may do so, but is obliged to make four
+points or be set back that number. If he decides to sell, he says "I
+pass," and the player at his left bids for the privilege of pitching the
+trump or passes, &c. When a bid has been made the rest must pass or bid
+higher, and the eldest hand must either accept a bid or undertake to
+make as many points as the bidder. If no bid is made he pitches the
+trump himself, without the obligation of making anything. The first card
+played is the trump suit, the winner of the trick leading again. In
+trumps a player must follow suit if he can, and the same rule applies in
+plain suits, excepting that a trump may be played at any time ("follow
+suit or trump"). In play the highest card wins the trick unless trumped.
+When the hand is played out each player puts a white counter into the
+pool for every point won, and the first player to get rid of all his
+seven white counters wins the pool and takes from it all the red
+counters, which represent cash. This ends the game. In case two players
+count out during the same deal, the bidder has the first right to the
+pool, the rule being "bidder counts out first." If the two players who
+count out are neither of them bidder, then they go out in regular order,
+i.e. high first, then low, Jack and game. If a bidder fails to make his
+points he is set back that number. A revoke is punished by the offender
+being set back the number of points bid and forfeiting a red counter to
+the pool.
+
+
+
+
+AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS. An auction (Lat. _auctio_, increase) is a
+proceeding at which people are invited to compete for the purchase of
+property by successive offers of advancing sums. The advantages of
+conducting a sale in this way are obvious, and we naturally find that
+auctions are of great antiquity. Herodotus describes a custom which
+prevailed in Babylonian villages of disposing of the maidens in marriage
+by delivering them to the highest bidders in an assembly annually held
+for the purpose (Book i. 196). So also among the Romans the quaestor
+sold military booty and captives in war by auction--_sub hasta_--the
+spear being the symbol of quiritarian ownership. The familiarity of such
+proceedings is forcibly suggested by the conduct of the Praetorian Guard
+when Sulpicianus was treating for the imperial dignity after the murder
+of Pertinax. Apprehending that they would not obtain a sufficient price
+by private contract, the Praetorians proclaimed from their ramparts that
+the Roman world was to be disposed of by public auction to the best
+bidder. Thereupon Julian proceeded to the foot of the ramparts and
+outbid his competitor (Gibbon, vol. i. ch. v.). Though, however,
+auctions were undoubtedly common among the Romans both in public and
+private transactions, the rules whereby they were governed are by no
+means clearly enunciated in the _Corpus Juris Civilis_.
+
+In England the method of conducting auctions has varied. In some places
+it has been usual to set up an inch of lighted candle, the person making
+the last bid before the fall of the wick becoming the purchaser. By an
+act of William III. (1698), this method of sale was prescribed for goods
+and merchandise imported from the East Indies. Lord Eldon speaks of
+"candlestick biddings," where the several bidders did not know what the
+others had offered. A "dumb bidding" was the name given to a proceeding
+at which a price was put by the owner under a candlestick with a
+stipulation that no bidding should avail if not equal to it. In a "Dutch
+auction" property is offered at a certain price and then successively at
+lower prices until one is accepted.
+
+According to the practice now usual in England, a proposed auction is
+duly advertised, and a printed catalogue in the case of chattels, or
+particulars of sale in the case of land, together with conditions of
+sale, are circulated. Sometimes, in sales of goods, the conditions are
+merely suspended in the auction room. At the appointed time and place,
+the auctioneer, standing in a desk or rostrum, "puts up" the several
+lots in turn by inviting biddings from the company present. He announces
+the acceptance of the last bid by a tap with his hammer and so "knocks
+down" the lot to the person who has made it. Sometimes property is
+offered on lease to the highest bidder. "Roup" is the Scottish term for
+an auction. A bid in itself is only an offer, and may accordingly be
+retracted at any time before its acceptance by the fall of the hammer or
+otherwise. Puffing is unlawful. Unless a right to bid is expressly
+reserved on behalf of the vendor, he must neither bid himself nor employ
+any one else to bid. When a right to bid has been expressly reserved,
+the seller or any one person (but no more) on his behalf may bid at the
+auction. If it is simply announced that the sale is to be subject to a
+reserved or upset price, no bidding by or on behalf of the seller is
+permissible: it is only lawful to declare by some appropriate terms that
+the property is withdrawn. Where a sale is expressed to be without
+reserve, or where an upset price has been reached, the auctioneer must,
+after the lapse of a reasonable interval, accept the bid of the highest
+_bona fide_ bidder. By not doing so he would render the vendor liable in
+damages. The auctioneer must not make a pretence of receiving bids which
+are not in fact made, as it would be fraudulent to run up the price by
+such an artifice. A "knock-out" is a combination of persons to prevent
+competition between themselves at an auction by an arrangement that only
+one of their number shall bid, and that anything obtained by him shall
+be afterwards disposed of privately among themselves. Such a combination
+is not illegal. A "mock auction" is a proceeding at which persons
+conspire by artifice to make it appear, contrary to the fact, that a
+_bona fide_ sale is being conducted, and so attempt to induce the public
+to purchase articles at prices far above their value. Those who invite
+the public to enter the room where the supposed auction is proceeding,
+or otherwise endeavour to attract bidders, are called "barkers." A
+conspiracy to defraud in this way is an indictable offence.
+
+American law is in general the same as the English law with regard to
+auctions. As to bidding by the vendor, however, it is less stringent.
+For, though puffing or by-bidding, as it is often called, will, under
+both systems alike, render an auction sale voidable at the option of a
+purchaser when it amounts to fraud, the weight of authority in the
+United States is in favour of the view that an owner may, without
+notice, employ a person to bid for him, if he does so with no other
+purpose than to prevent a sacrifice of the property under a given price.
+
+By a charter of Henry VII., confirmed by Charles I., the business of
+selling by auction was confined to an officer called an _outroper_, and
+all other persons were prohibited from selling goods or merchandise by
+public claim or outcry (see Henry Blackstone's _Reports_, vol. ii. p.
+557). The only qualification now required by an auctioneer is a licence
+on which a duty of £10 has to be paid, and which must be renewed before
+the 5th of July in each year. A liability to a penalty of £100 is
+incurred by acting as an auctioneer without being duly licensed. The
+duty formerly imposed upon the purchase-money payable by virtue of a
+sale at auction was abolished by an act of 1845. An auctioneer is bound
+under a penalty of £20 to see that his full name and address are
+displayed before the commencement of an auction and during its
+continuance in the place where he conducts it. He is the agent of the
+vendor only, except in so far that, after he has knocked down a lot to
+the highest bidder, he has authority to affix the name of the latter to
+a memorandum of the transaction, so as to render the contract of sale
+enforceable where written evidence is necessary. An auctioneer does not,
+by merely announcing that a sale of certain articles will take place,
+render himself liable to those who, in consequence, attend at the time
+and place advertised, if the sale is not in fact proceeded with,
+provided he acts in good faith. One of the chief risks run by an
+auctioneer is that of being held liable for the conversion of goods
+which he has sold upon the instructions of a person whom he believed to
+be the owner, but who in fact had no right to dispose of them.
+
+The number of auctioneers' licences issued during the year ended the
+31st of March 1908 was in England 6639, in Scotland 760, and in Ireland
+839. A central organization having its headquarters in London, the
+Auctioneers' Institute of the United Kingdom, was founded in 1886, in
+order to elevate the status and further the interests of auctioneers,
+estate agents and valuers. It has nearly 2000 members.     (H. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+AUCUBA, the Japanese name for a small genus of the Dogwood order
+(Cornaceae). The familiar Japanese laurel of gardens and shrubberies is
+_Aucuba japonica_. It bears male and female flowers on distinct plants;
+the red berries often last till the next season's flowers appear. There
+are numerous varieties in cultivation, differing in the variegation of
+their leaves.
+
+
+
+
+AUDAEUS, or AUDIUS, a church reformer of the 4th century, by birth a
+Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from the Syrian clergy for
+his fearless censure of their irregular lives, and was expelled from the
+church, thereupon establishing an episcopal monastic community. He was
+afterwards banished into Scythia, where he worked successfully among the
+Goths, not living to see the destruction of his labours by Athanaric.
+The Audaeans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as the
+Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing to the
+Deity a human shape, an opinion which they appear to have founded on
+Genesis i. 26. Theodoret groundlessly accuses them of Manichean
+tendencies.
+
+  The main source of information is Epiphanius (_Haer._ 70).
+
+
+
+
+AUDE, a river of south-western France, rising in the eastern Pyrenees
+and flowing into the Golfe du Lion. Rising in a small lake a short
+distance east of the Puy de Carlitte, it soon takes a northerly
+direction and flows for many miles through deep gorges of great beauty
+as far as the plain of Axat. Beyond Axat its course again lies through
+defiles which become less profound as the river nears Carcassonne. Below
+that town it receives the waters of the Fresquel and turns abruptly
+east. From this point to its junction with the Cesse its course is
+parallel with that of the Canal du Midi. The river skirts the northern
+spurs of the Corbières, some distance below which it is joined by the
+Orbieu and the Cesse. It then divides into two branches, the
+northernmost of which, the Aude proper, runs east and empties into the
+Mediterranean some 12 m. east-north-east of Narbonne, while the other
+branch, the Canal de la Robine, turning south, traverses that town,
+below which its course to the sea lies between two extensive lagoons,
+the Étang de Bages et de Sigean and the Étang de Gruissan. The Aude has
+a length of 140 m. and a basin 2061 sq. m. in extent. There is
+practically no traffic upon it.
+
+
+
+
+AUDE, a maritime department of southern France, formed in 1790 from part
+of the old province of Languedoc. Area, 2448 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 308,327.
+It is bounded E. by the Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Hérault
+and Tarn, N.W. by Haute-Garonne, W. by Ariège, and S. by
+Pyrénées-Orientales. The department is traversed on its western boundary
+from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which unites the
+Pyrenees with the southern Cévennes; and its northern frontier is
+occupied by the Montagne Noire, the most westerly portion of the
+Cévennes. The Corbières, a branch of the Pyrenees, run in a south-west
+and north-east direction along the southern district. The Aude (q.v.),
+its principal river, has almost its entire length in the department, and
+its lower course, together with its tributary the Fresquel, forms the
+dividing line between the Montagne Noire and the Pyrenean system.
+
+The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagoons, the chief of
+which are those of Bages et Sigean, Gruissan, Lapalme and Leucate. The
+climate is warm and dry, but often sudden in its alterations. The wind
+from the north-west, known as the _cers_, blows with great violence, and
+the sea-breeze is often laden with pestilential effluvia from the
+lagoons. The agriculture of the department is in a flourishing
+condition. The meadows are extensive and well watered, and are pastured
+by numerous flocks and herds. The grain produce, consisting mainly of
+wheat, oats, rye and Indian corn, exceeds the consumption, and the
+vineyards yield an abundant supply of both white and red wines, those of
+Limoux and the Narbonnais being most highly esteemed. Truffles are
+abundant. The olive and chestnut are the chief fruits. Mines of iron,
+manganese, and especially of mispickel, are worked, and there are
+stone-quarries and productive salt-marshes. Brewing, distilling,
+cooperage, iron-founding, hat-making and machine construction are
+carried on, and there are flour-mills, brick-works, saw-mills, sulphur
+refineries and leather and paper works. The formerly flourishing textile
+industries are now of small importance. The department imports coal,
+lime, stone, salt, raw sulphur, skins and timber and exports
+agricultural and mineral products, bricks and tiles, and other
+manufactured goods. It is served by the Southern railway. The Canal du
+Midi, following the courses of the Fresquel and the Aude, traverses it
+for 76 m.; and a branch, the Canal de la Robine, which passes through
+Narbonne to the sea, has a length of 24 m. The capital is Carcassonne,
+and the department is divided into the four arrondissements of
+Carcassonne, Limoux, Narbonne and Castelnaudary, with 31 cantons and 439
+communes. It belongs to the 16th military region, and to the académie
+(educational division) of Montpellier, where also is its court of
+appeal. It forms the diocese of Carcassonne, and part of the province of
+the archbishop of Toulouse. Carcassonne, Narbonne and Castelnaudary are
+the principal towns. At Alet, which has hot springs of some note, there
+are ruins of a fine Romanesque cathedral destroyed in the religious wars
+of the 16th century. The extensive buildings of the Cistercian abbey of
+Fontfroide, near Bizanet, include a Romanesque church, a cloister,
+dormitories and a refectory of the 12th century. A curious polygonal
+church of the 11th century at Rieux-Minervois, the abbey-church at St
+Papoul, with its graceful cloister of the 14th century, and the remains
+of the important abbey of St Hilaire, founded in the 6th century and
+rebuilt from the 12th to the 15th century, are also of antiquarian
+interest. Rennes-les-Bains has mineral springs of repute.
+
+
+
+
+AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1759-1800), French artist and naturalist, was
+born at Rochefort in 1759. He studied painting and drawing at Paris, and
+gained considerable reputation as a miniature-painter. Employed in
+preparing plates for the _Histoire des coléoptères_ of G.A. Olivier
+(1756-1814), he acquired a taste for natural history. In 1800 appeared
+his first original work, _L'Histoire naturelle des singes, des makis et
+des galéopithèques_, illustrated by sixty-two folio plates, drawn and
+engraved by himself. The colouring in these plates was unusually
+beautiful, and was applied by a method devised by himself. Audebert died
+in Paris in 1800, leaving complete materials for another great work,
+_Histoire des colibris, des oiseaux-mouches, des jacamars et des
+promérops_, which was published in 1802. Two hundred copies were printed
+in folio, one hundred in large quarto, and fifteen were printed with the
+whole text in letters of gold. Another work, left unfinished, was also
+published after the author's death, _L'Histoire des grimpereaux et des
+oiseaux de paradis_. The last two works also appeared together in two
+volumes, _Oiseaux dorés ou à reflets métalliques_ (1802).
+
+
+
+
+AUDEFROI LE BATARD, French _trouvère_, flourished at the end of the 12th
+century and was born at Arras. Of his life nothing is known. The
+seigneur de Nesles, to whom some of his songs are addressed, is probably
+the châtelain of Bruges who joined the crusade of 1200. Audefroi was the
+author of at least five lyric romances: _Argentine, Belle Idoine, Belle
+Isabeau, Belle Emmelos_ and _Béatrix_. These romances follow older
+_chansons_ in subject, but the smoothness of the verse and beauty of
+detail hardly compensate for the spontaneity of the shorter form.
+
+  See A. Jeanroy, _Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen
+  âge_ (Paris, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+AUDIENCE (from Lat. _audire_, to hear), the act or state of hearing, the
+term being therefore transferred to those who hear or listen, as in a
+theatre, at a concert or meeting. In a more technical sense, the term is
+applied to the right of access to the sovereign enjoyed by the peers of
+the realm individually and by the House of Commons collectively. More
+particularly it means the ceremony of the admission of ambassadors,
+envoys or others to an interview with a sovereign or an important
+official for the purpose of presenting their credentials. In France,
+_audience_ is the term applied to the sitting of a law court for hearing
+actions. In Spain, _audiencia_ is the name given to certain tribunals
+which try appeals from minor courts. The Spanish judges were originally
+known as _oidores_, hearers, from the Spanish _oir_, to hear; but they
+are now called _ministros_, or _magistrados togados_, robed judges, as
+the gown of the Spanish judge is called a _toga_. The _audiencia
+pretorial_, i.e. of the praetor, was a court in Spanish America from
+which there was no appeal to the viceroy, but only to the council of
+the Indies in Spain. It is not the custom in Spain to speak of
+_audiencias reales_, royal courts, but of the _audiencias del Reino_,
+courts of the kingdom.
+
+In England the _Audience-court_ was an ecclesiastical court, held by the
+archbishops of Canterbury and York, in which they once exercised a
+considerable part of their jurisdiction, dealing with such matters as
+they thought fit to reserve for their own hearing. It has been long
+disused and is now merged in the court of arches.
+
+
+
+
+AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDMÉ ARMAND GASTON, DUC D' (1823-1905), French
+statesman, was the grand-nephew and adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis
+Pasquier. He was created duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council
+of state in 1846. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private
+life. Under the empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the
+legislature, but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly,
+and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the fall of
+Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different royalist
+parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused to give up the
+tricolour for the flag of the old _régime_, the project failed. Yet he
+retained the confidence of the chamber, and was its president in 1875
+when the constitutional laws were being drawn up. Nominated senator
+under the new constitution, he likewise was president of the senate from
+March 1876 to 1879 when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was
+less prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation and
+uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon from taking
+violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the French Academy, but
+never published anything.
+
+
+
+
+AUDIT and AUDITOR. An audit is the examination of the accounts kept by
+the financial officers of a state, public corporations and bodies, or
+private persons, and the certifying of their accuracy. In the United
+Kingdom the public accounts were audited from very early times, though,
+until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to
+1559 this duty was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially
+appointed, at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the
+auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314. But in
+1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing of the public
+accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the imprests. These
+officers were paid by fee and did their work by deputy, but as the
+results were thoroughly unsatisfactory the offices were abolished in
+1785. An audit board, consisting of five commissioners, was appointed in
+their place, but in order to concentrate under one authority the
+auditing of the accounts of the various departments, some of which had
+been audited separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit
+Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length the
+duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint a
+"comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to examine
+and verify the accounts prepared by the different departments of the
+public service. In examining accounts of the appropriation of the
+several supply grants, the comptroller and auditor-general "ascertains
+first whether the payments which the account department has charged to
+the grant are supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second,
+whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose or purposes
+for which such grant was intended to provide." The treasury may also
+submit certain other accounts to the audit of the comptroller-general.
+All public moneys payable to the exchequer (q.v.) are paid to the
+"account of His Majesty's exchequer" at the Bank of England, and daily
+returns of such payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly
+accounts of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared
+and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the
+consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances.
+
+In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is in the
+charge of the treasury department, under the supervision of the
+comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors, (1) for the
+treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the interior, (4) for the
+navy, (5) for the state, &c., (6) for the post office, as well as a
+register and assistant register, who keep all general receipt and
+expenditure ledgers; there are official auditors in most of the states
+and in many cities. In practically all European countries there is a
+department of the administration, charged with the auditing of the
+public accounts, as the _cour des comptes_ in France, the _Rechnungshof
+des deutschen Reiches_ in Germany, &c. All local boards, large cities,
+corporations, and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of
+examining and checking their accounts and looking after their
+expenditure. So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in
+connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building
+societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies,
+savings banks, &c., the word auditor is now almost synonymous with
+"skilled accountant," and his duties are discussed in the article
+ACCOUNTANTS.
+
+In Scotland there is an "auditor" who is an official of the court of
+session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who corresponds to
+the English taxing-master. In France there are legal officers, called
+auditors, attached to the _Conseil d'État_, whose duties consist in
+drawing up briefs and preparing documents. On the continent of Europe,
+lawyers skilled in military law are called "auditors" (see MILITARY
+LAW).
+
+Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman curia.
+The _auditores Rotae_ are the judges of the court of the Rota (so
+called, according to Hinschius, probably from the form of the panelling
+in the room where they originally met). These were originally
+ecclesiastics appointed to _hear_ particular questions in dispute and
+report to the pope, who retained the decision in his own hands. In the
+_Speculum juris_ of Durandus (published in 1272 and re-edited in 1287
+and 1291) the _auditores palatii domini papae_ are cited as permanent
+officials appointed to instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The
+court of the Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull
+_Romani Pontificis_ of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by this time
+had developed into a permanent tribunal to which the definitive decision
+of certain disputes, hitherto relegated to a commission of cardinals or
+to the pope himself, was assigned. From this time the powers of the
+auditores increased until the reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the
+creation of the congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended
+gradually to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It
+still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal
+curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges.
+They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have others
+conceded by successive popes, e.g. that of holding benefices in
+plurality, of non-residence, &c. When the pope says mass pontifically
+the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores must be in priest's or
+deacon's orders, and have always been selected--nominally at
+least--after severe tests as to their moral and intellectual
+qualifications. They are twelve in number, and, by the constitution of
+Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners; one French, one Spanish,
+one German and one Venetian; while the nomination of others was the
+privilege of certain, cities. No bishop, unless _in partibus_ (see
+BISHOP), may be an auditor. On the other hand, from the auditores, as
+the intellectual _élite_ of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature
+and the cardinalate are largely recruited. The _auditor camerae_
+(_uditore generale della reverenda camera apostolica_) is an official
+formerly charged with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull
+of Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all civil
+and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it from the
+papal territories. In addition he received the function of watching over
+the execution of all sentences passed by the curia. This was extended
+later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive function in respect of all
+papal bulls and briefs, wherever no special executor was named. This
+right was confirmed by Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still
+in principle issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function
+was at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to a
+prelate _locum tenens_, who also took over the auditor's jurisdiction in
+the papal states (Hinschius, _Kathol. Kirchenrecht_, i. 409, &c.).
+
+_Auditores_ (listeners), in the early Church, was another name. for
+catechumens (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+AUDLEY, or AUDELEY, SIR JAMES (c. 1316-1386), one of the original
+knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the eldest son of
+Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire. When the order of
+the Garter was founded, he was instituted as one of the first founders,
+and his stall in St George's chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the
+side of Edward, the Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in
+1346, and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When
+hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354 Sir James
+was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince, and earned a great
+reputation for valour. At the battle of Poitiers on the 19th of
+September 1356 he took his stand in front of the English army, and after
+fighting for a long time was severely wounded and carried from the
+fight. After the victory, the prince inquired for Sir James, who was
+brought to the royal tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest
+knight on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks.
+Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had attended him
+during the battle, and received from the prince a further pension of six
+hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of the leaders of an expedition into
+France, in 1360 he took the fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was
+present at Calais when peace was made between England and France in
+October 1360. He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great
+seneschal of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La
+Roche-sur-Yon by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at
+Fontenay-le-Comte, where he had gone to reside, and was buried at
+Poitiers.
+
+  See Jean Froissart, _Chronigues_, translated by T. Johnes (Hafod,
+  1810); G.F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_
+  (London, 1841).
+
+
+
+
+AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY, BARON (c. 1488-1544), lord chancellor of England,
+whose parentage is unknown, is believed to have studied at Buckingham
+College, Cambridge. He was educated for the law, entered the Middle
+Temple (becoming autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester,
+and was on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he was
+returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this constituency in
+subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom of the chamber, and became
+a member of Wolsey's household. On the fall of the latter in 1529, he
+was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker
+of the House of Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the
+Black or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the papal
+jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of the Commons to the
+king to complain of Bishop Fisher's speech against their proceedings. He
+interpreted the king's "moral" scruples to parliament concerning his
+marriage with Catherine, and made himself the instrument of the king in
+the attack upon the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy.
+In 1531 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant; and on
+the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded Sir Thomas More as
+lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed lord chancellor on the
+26th of January 1533. He supported the king's divorce from Catherine and
+the marriage with Anne Boleyn; and presided at the trial of Fisher and
+More in 1535, at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a
+conviction has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn
+and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate queen's
+execution, and recommended to parliament the new act of succession. In
+1537 he condemned to death as traitors the Lincolnshire and the
+Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November 1538 he was created Baron
+Audley of Walden; and soon afterwards presided as lord steward at the
+trials of Henry Pole, Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of
+Exeter. In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made
+himself the king's instrument in enforcing religious conformity, and in
+the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of April 1540 he was
+made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently managed the attainder of
+Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and the dissolution of Henry's marriage
+with Anne of Cleves. In 1542 he warmly supported the privileges of the
+Commons in the case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested and
+imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as usual by
+subservience to the court, which desired to secure a subsidy, and his
+opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has been questioned by
+good authority. He resigned the great seal on the 21st of April 1544,
+and died on the 30th, being buried at Saffron Walden, where he had
+prepared for himself a splendid tomb. He received several grants of
+monastic estates, including the priory of Christ Church in London and
+the abbey of Walden in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of
+Suffolk, built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 he
+re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambridge, under the
+new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in the statutes that his
+heirs, "the possessors of the late monastery of Walden," should be
+visitors of the college _in perpetuum_. _A Book of Orders for the Warre
+both by Sea and Land_ (Harleian MS. 297, f. 144) is attributed to his
+authorship. He married (1) Christina, daughter of Sir Thomas
+Barnardiston, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of
+Dorset, by whom he had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his
+death.
+
+
+
+
+AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR (1797-1841), French naturalist, was born at Paris
+on the 27th of April 1797. He began the study of law, but was diverted
+from it by his strong predilection for natural history, and entered the
+medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to P.A. Latreille
+(1762-1833) in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural
+history, and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of the
+Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November 1841. His
+principal work, _Histoire des insectes nuisibles à la vigne_ (1842), was
+completed after his death by Henry Milne-Edwards and Émile Blanchard.
+His papers mostly appeared in the _Annales des sciences naturelles_,
+which, with A.T. Brongniart and J.B.A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in
+the proceedings of the Société Entomologique de France, of which he was
+one of the founders in 1832.
+
+
+
+
+AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and engravers. The first
+who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born
+1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude's great-grandson, who died in
+1772. The two most distinguished members of the family are Gérard and
+Jean.
+
+GÉRARD, or GIRARD, AUDRAN, the most celebrated French engraver, was the
+third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught
+the first principles of design and engraving by his father; and,
+following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself
+in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun "Constantine's
+Battle with Maxentius," his "Triumph," and the "Stoning of Stephen,"
+which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran in the
+very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set out for Rome,
+where he resided three years, and engraved several fine plates. That
+great patron of the arts, J.B. Colbert, was so struck with the beauty of
+Audran's works, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On
+his return he applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was
+appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great
+encouragement. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the
+Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun's
+"Battles of Alexander" are regarded as the best of his numerous works.
+"He was," says the Abbé Fontenay, "the most celebrated engraver that
+ever existed in the historical line. We have several subjects, which he
+engraved from his own designs, that manifested as much taste as
+character and facility. But in the 'Battles of Alexander' he surpassed
+even the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gérard published in 1683 a
+work entitled _Les Proportions du corps humain mesurées sur les plus
+belles figures de l'antiquité_.
+
+JEAN AUDRAN, nephew of Gérard, was born at Lyons in 1667. After having
+received instructions from his father, he went to Paris to perfect
+himself in the art of engraving under his uncle, next to whom he was the
+most distinguished member of his family. At the age of twenty his genius
+began to display itself in a surprising manner; and his subsequent
+success was such, that in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the
+king, Louis XIV., who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the
+Gobelins; and the following year he was made a member of the Royal
+Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the graver, and
+nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of this artist are those
+which appear not so pleasing to the eye at first sight. In these the
+etching constitutes a great part; and he has finished them in a bold,
+rough style. The "Rape of the Sabines," after Poussin, is considered his
+masterpiece.
+
+
+
+
+AUDRAN, EDMOND (1842-1901), French musical composer, was born at Lyons
+on the 11th of April 1842. He studied music at the École Niedermeyer,
+where he won the prize for composition in 1859. Two years later he
+accepted the post of organist of the church of St Joseph at Marseilles.
+He made his first appearance as a dramatic composer at Marseilles with
+_L'Ours et le Pacha_ (1862), a musical version of one of Scribe's
+vaudevilles. This was followed by _La Chercheuse d'Esprit_ (1864), a
+comic opera, also produced at Marseilles. Audran wrote a funeral march
+on the death of Meyerbeer, which was performed with some success, and
+made various attempts to win fame as a writer of sacred music. He
+produced a mass (Marseilles, 1873), an oratorio, _La Sulamite_
+(Marseilles, 1876), and numerous minor works, but he is known almost
+entirely as a composer of the lighter forms of opera. His first Parisian
+success was made with _Les Noces d'Olivette_ (1879), a work which
+speedily found its way to London and (as _Olivette_) ran for more than a
+year at the Strand theatre (1880-1881). Audran's music has, in fact, met
+with as much favour in England as in France, and all save a few of his
+works have been given in a more or less adapted form in London theatres.
+Besides those already mentioned, the following have been the most
+undeniably successful of Audran's many comic operas: _Le Grand Mogol_
+(Marseilles, 1876; Paris, 1884; London, as _The Grand Mogul_, 1884), _La
+Mascotte_ (Paris, 1880; London, as _The Mascotte_, 1881), _Gillette de
+Narbonne_ (Paris, 1882; London, as _Gillette_, 1883), _La Cigale et la
+Fourmi_ (Paris, 1886; London, as _La Cigale_, 1890), _Miss Hélyett_
+(Paris, 1890; London, as _Miss Decima_ 1891), _La Poupée_ (Paris, 1896;
+London, 1897). Audran was one of the best of the successors of
+Offenbach. He had little of Offenbach's humour, but his music is
+distinguished by an elegance and a refinement of manner which lift it
+above the level of opéra bouffe to the confines of genuine opéra
+comique. He was a fertile if not a very original melodist, and his
+orchestration is full of variety, without being obtrusive or vulgar.
+Many of his operas, _La Mascotte_ in particular, reveal a degree of
+musicianship which is rarely associated with the ephemeral productions
+of the lighter stage. He died in Paris on the 16th of August 1901.
+
+
+
+
+AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D' (c. 1305-1370), French soldier, was born at
+Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de Calais, near St Omer.
+Nothing is known of his career before 1332, when he is heard of at the
+court of the king of France. Between 1335 and 1342 he went three times
+to Scotland to aid King David Bruce in his wars. In 1342 he became
+captain for the king of France in Brittany; then he seems to have served
+in the household of the duke of Normandy, and in 1346, as one of the
+main defenders of Calais, was taken as a prisoner to England by Edward
+III. From 1349 he holds an important place in the military history of
+France, first as captain in Angoulême, and from June 1351, in succession
+to the lord of Beaujeu, as marshal of France. In March 1352 he was
+appointed lieutenant for the king in the territory between the Loire and
+the Dordogne, in June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy
+and the Boulonnais. It was Audrehem who arrested Charles the Bad, king
+of Navarre, and his partisans, at the banquet given by the dauphin at
+Rouen in 1356. At Poitiers he was one of those who advised King John to
+attack the English, and, charging in the front line of the French army,
+was slightly wounded and taken prisoner. From England he was several
+times given safe-conducts to France, and he took an active part in the
+negotiations for the treaty of Bretigny, recovering his liberty the same
+time as King John. In 1361, as the king's lieutenant in Languedoc, he
+prevented the free companies from seizing the castles, and negotiated
+the treaty with their chiefs under which they followed Henry, count of
+Trastamara (later Henry II. of Castile), into Spain. In 1365 he himself
+joined du Guesclin in the expedition to Spain, was taken prisoner with
+him by the Black Prince at the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable
+to pay his ransom until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was
+relieved of the office of marshal, being appointed bearer of the
+oriflamme, with a pension of 2000 livres. He was sent to Spain in 1370
+by Charles V., to urge his friend du Guesclin to return to France, and
+in spite of his age he took part in the battle of Pontvallain (December
+1370), but fell ill and died, probably at Saumur, in the latter part of
+December 1370.
+
+  See Émile Molinier, "Étude sur la vie d'Arnoul d'Audrehem, maréchal de
+  France," in _Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l'académie des
+  inscriptions et belles-lettres_, 2^e série, iv. (1883).
+
+
+
+
+AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES (1780-1851), American naturalist, is said to have
+been born on the 5th of May 1780 in Louisiana, his father being a French
+naval officer and his mother a Spanish Creole. He was educated in Paris,
+where he had lessons from the painter, J.L. David. Returning to America
+in 1798 he settled on a farm near Philadelphia, and gave himself up to
+the study of natural history, and especially to drawing birds. In 1826
+he went to England in the hope of getting his drawings published, and by
+the following year he had obtained sufficient subscribers to enable him
+to begin the publication of his _Birds of America_, which on its
+completion in 1838 consisted of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055
+figures of birds the size of life. Cuvier called it "le plus magnifique
+monument que l'art ait encore élevé à la nature." The descriptive matter
+to accompany the plates appeared at Edinburgh in 5 vols. from 1831 to
+1839 under the title of _American Ornithological Biography._ During the
+publication of these works Audubon divided his time between Great
+Britain and America, devoting his leisure to expeditions to various
+parts of the United States and Canada for the purpose of collecting new
+material. In 1842 he bought an estate on the Hudson, now Audubon Park in
+New York City. In 1844 he published in America a popular octavo edition
+of his _Birds of America._ He also took up the preparation of a new
+work, _The Quadrupeds of America_, with the collaboration of John
+Bachman, the publication of which was begun in New York in 1846 and
+finished in 1853-1854. He died at New York on the 27th of January 1851.
+
+  See ORNITHOLOGY; also _Audubon and his Journals_ (1897), by his
+  grand-daughter Maria R. Audubon, with notes by Elliot Coues.
+
+
+
+
+AUE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, at the confluence of
+the Mulde and Schwarzwasser, 21 m. S.W. from Chemnitz on the railway to
+Adorf. It has a school of lace-making, foundries, and manufactures of
+machinery, tin-plate and cotton goods. Pop. (1905) 17,102.
+
+
+
+
+AUERBACH, BERTHOLD (1812-1882), German novelist, was born on the 28th of
+February 1812 at Nordstetten in the Württemberg Black Forest. His
+parents were Jews, and he was intended for the ministry; but after
+studying philosophy at Tübingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming
+estranged from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted
+himself to literature. He made a fortunate beginning in a romance on the
+life of Spinoza (1837), so interesting in itself, and so close in its
+adherence to fact, that it may be read with equal advantage as a novel
+or as a biography. _Dichter und Kaufmann_ followed in 1839, and a
+translation of Spinoza's works in 1841, when Auerbach turned to the
+class of fiction which has made him famous, the _Schwarzwälder
+Dorfgeschichten_ (1843), stories of peasant life in the Black Forest. In
+these, as well as in _Barfüssele_ (1856), _Edelweiss_ (1861), and other
+novels of greater compass, he depicts the life of the south German
+peasant as "Jeremias Gotthelf" (Albrecht Bitzius) had painted the
+peasantry of Switzerland, but in a less realistic spirit. When this vein
+was exhausted Auerbach returned to his first phase as a philosophical
+novelist, producing _Auf der Höhe_ (1865), _Das Landhaus am Rhein_
+(1869), and other romances of profound speculative tendencies, turning
+on plots invented by himself. With the exception of _Auf der Höhe_,
+these works did not enjoy much popularity, and suffer from lack of form
+and concentration. Auerbach's fame continues to rest upon his
+_Dorfgeschichten_, although the celebrity of even these has been
+impaired by the growing demand for a more uncompromising realism.
+Auerbach died at Cannes on the 8th of February 1882.
+
+  The first collected edition of Auerbach's _Schriften_ appeared in 22
+  vols. in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895).
+  Auerbach's _Briefe an seinen Freund J. Auerbach_ (with a preface by F.
+  Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel, _B.
+  Auerbach_ (1882); and E. Lasker, _B. Auerbach, ein Gedenkblatt_
+  (1882).
+
+
+
+
+AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER, GRAF VON (1806-1876), Austrian poet, who
+wrote under the pseudonym of ANASTASIUS GRÜN, was born on the 11th of
+April 1806, at Laibach, the capital of the Austrian duchy of Carniola,
+and was head of the Thurn-am-Hart branch of the Carniolan cadet line of
+the house of Auersperg. He received his university education first at
+Graz and then at Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he
+succeeded to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member of
+the estates of Carniola on the _Herrenbank_ of the diet at Laibach. Here
+he distinguished himself by his outspoken criticism of the Austrian
+government, leading the opposition of the duchy to the exactions of the
+central power. In 1832 the title of "imperial chamberlain" was conferred
+upon him, and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After
+the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of Laibach
+at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main, to which he
+tried in vain to persuade his Slovene compatriots to send
+representatives. After a few months, however, disgusted with the violent
+development of the revolution, he resigned his seat, and again retired
+into private life. In 1860 he was summoned to the remodelled _Reichsrat_
+by the emperor, who next year nominated him a life member of the
+Austrian upper house (_Herrenhaus_), where, while remaining a keen
+upholder of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism of
+Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one of the most
+intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of liberalism, in both
+political and religious matters, until his death at Graz on the 12th of
+September 1876.
+
+Count Auersperg's first publication, a collection of lyrics, _Blätter
+der Liebe_ (1830), showed little originality; but his second production,
+_Der letzte Ritter_ (1830), brought his genius to light. It celebrates
+the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maximilian I. (1493-1519) in a
+cycle of poems written in the strophic form of the _Nibelungenlied_. But
+Auersperg's fame rests almost exclusively on his political poetry; two
+collections entitled _Spaziergänge eines Wiener Poeten_ (1831) and
+_Schutt_ (1835) created a sensation in Germany by their originality and
+bold liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely for
+their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification and
+powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German political poetry of
+1840-1848. His _Gedichte_ (1837), if anything, increased his reputation;
+his epics, _Die Nibelungen im Frack_ (1843) and _Der Pfaff vom
+Kahlenberg_ (1850), are characterized by a fine ironic humour. He also
+produced masterly translations of the popular Slovenic songs current in
+Carniola (_Volkslieder aus Krain_, 1850), and of the English poems
+relating to "Robin Hood" (1864).
+
+  Anastasius Grün's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published by L.A. Frankl in
+  5 vols. (Berlin, 1877); his _Briefwechsel mit L.A. Frankl_ (Berlin,
+  1897). A selection of his _Politische Reden und Schriften_ has been
+  published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics, _Anastasius
+  Grün_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+AUFIDENA, an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site of which is
+just north of the modern Alfedena,[1] Italy, a station on the railway
+between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the latter. Its remains are
+fully and accurately described by L. Mariani in _Monumenti dei Lincei_
+(1901), 225 seq.: cf. _Notizie degli scavi_, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516
+seq. The ancient city occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above
+sea-level (in the valley between were found the supposed remains of the
+later forum), and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile
+in length. A fortified outpost lay on a still higher hill to the north.
+Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one public
+building of the 5th century B.C. was excavated in 1901, and a small
+sanctuary in 1902), attention having been chiefly devoted to the
+necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs had already been examined in
+1908, though this number is conjectured to be only a sixteenth of the
+whole. They are all inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and
+date from the 7th to the 4th century B.C., falling into three
+classes--those without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone
+slabs, and those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered
+are preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we find
+Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road between Sulmo and
+Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangro, crossing the river
+by an ancient bridge some 5 m. to the north-east. Castel di Sangro has
+remains of ancient walls, but these are attributed to a road by Mariani,
+and in any case the fortified area there was quite small, only
+one-sixteenth the size of Aufidena. The attempted identification of
+Castel di Sangro with Aufidena must therefore be rejected, though we
+must allow that it was probably the Roman post station; the ancient
+city, since its capture by the Romans in the 3rd century B.C., having
+lost something of its importance.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Two churches here contain paintings of interest in the history of
+    Abruzzese art, and one of them, the Madonna del Campo, contained
+    fragments of a temple of considerable size.
+
+
+
+
+AUGEAS, or AUGEIAS, in Greek legend, a son of Helios, the sun-god, and
+king of the Epeians in Elis. He possessed an immense wealth of herds,
+including twelve bulls sacred to Helios, and white as swans. Eurystheus
+imposed upon Heracles the task of clearing out all his stalls unaided in
+one day. This he did by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through
+them. Augeas had promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this,
+alleging that Heracles had acted only in the service of Eurystheus.
+Heracles thereupon sent an army against him, and, though at first
+defeated, finally slew Augeas and his sons.
+
+  Apollodorus ii. 5, 7; Pindar, _Olympia_, xi, 24; Diodorus iv. 13;
+  Theocritus, _Idyll_ 25.
+
+
+
+
+AUGER (from the O. Eng. _nafu-gár_, nave-borer; the original initial n
+having been lost, as in "adder," through a confusion in the case of a
+preceding indefinite article), a tool for boring (q.v.) or drilling.
+
+
+
+
+AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, duke of Castiglione (1757-1816),
+marshal of France, was born in Paris in a humble station of life. At the
+age of seventeen he enlisted in the carabineers and thereafter came into
+note as a duellist. Having drawn his sword upon an officer who insulted
+him, he fled from France and roamed about in the Levant. He served in
+the Russian army against the Turks; but afterwards escaped into Prussia
+and enlisted in the guards. Tiring of this, he deserted with several
+others and reached the Saxon frontier. Service in the Neapolitan army
+and a sojourn in Portugal filled up the years 1788-1791; but the events
+of the French Revolution brought him back to his native land. He served
+with credit against the Vendeans and then joined the troops opposing the
+Spaniards in the south. There he rose rapidly, becoming general of
+division on the 23rd of December 1793. His division distinguished itself
+even more when transferred to the army of Italy; and under Bonaparte he
+was largely instrumental in gaining the battle of Millesimo and in
+taking the castle of Cosseria and the camp of Ceva. At the battle of
+Lodi (May 10, 1796), the turning movement of Augereau and his division
+helped to decide the day. But it was at Castiglione that he rendered the
+most signal services. Marbot describes him as encouraging even Bonaparte
+himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle,
+and, though this is exaggerated, there is no doubt that Augereau largely
+decided the fortunes of those critical days. Bonaparte thus summed up
+his military qualities: "Has plenty of character, courage, firmness,
+activity; is inured to war; is well liked by the soldiery; is fortunate
+in his operations." In 1797 Bonaparte sent him to Paris to encourage the
+Jacobinical Directors, and it was Augereau and the troops led by him
+that coerced the "moderates" in the councils and carried through the
+_coup d'état_ of 18 Fructidor (4th of September) 1797. He was then sent
+to lead the united French forces in Germany; but peace speedily ensued;
+and he bore a grudge against the Directors and Bonaparte for their
+treatment of him at that time. He took no part in the _coup d'état_ of
+Brumaire 1799, and did not distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign
+which ensued. Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte's
+fortunes, he received a marshal's baton at the beginning of the Empire
+(May 19, 1804). In the campaign of 1805 he did good service around
+Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena (October 14, 1806) his corps
+distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell ill of a fever, and at the
+battle of Eylau he had to be supported on his horse, but directed the
+movements of his corps with his wonted bravery. His corps was almost
+annihilated and the marshal himself received a wound from which he never
+quite recovered. When transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes
+but tarnished his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 1812 in Russia and
+in the Saxon campaign of 1813 his conduct was little more than mediocre.
+Before the battle of Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19, 1813), Napoleon
+reproached him with not being the Augereau of Castiglione; to which he
+replied, "Give me back the old soldiers of Italy, and I will show you
+that I am." In 1814 he had command of the army of Lyons, and his
+slackness exposed him to the charge of having come to an understanding
+with the Austrian invaders. Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but,
+after reviling Napoleon, went over to him during the Hundred Days. The
+emperor repulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to France in
+1814. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne, deprived him of his
+military title and pension. He died at his estate of La Houssaye on the
+12th of June 1816. In person he was tall and commanding, but his loud
+and vulgar behaviour frequently betrayed the soldier of fortune.
+
+  As authorities consult: Kock's _Mémoires de Masséna_; Bouvier,
+  _Bonaparte en Italie_; Count A.F. Andréossi, _La Campagne sur le
+  Mein, 1800-1801_; Baron A. Ducasse, _Précis de la campagne de l'armée
+  de Lyon en 1814_; and the _Memoirs_ of Marbot.     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGHRIM, or AGHRIM, a small village in Co. Galway, Ireland, 4 m. W. by
+S. of Ballinasloe. It is rendered memorable by the decisive victory
+gained here on the 12th of July 1691 by the forces of William III. under
+General Ginkel, over those of James II. under the French general St
+Ruth, who fell in the fight. The Irish numbering 25,000, and strongly
+posted behind marshy ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance;
+but Ginkel having penetrated their line of defence, and their general
+being struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they were at
+length overcome and routed with terrible slaughter. The loss of the
+English did not exceed 700 killed and 1000 wounded; while the Irish, in
+their disastrous flight, lost about 7000 men, besides the whole material
+of the army. This defeat rendered the adherents of James in Ireland
+incapable of further efforts, and was speedily followed by the complete
+submission of the country.
+
+
+
+
+AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE (1820-1889), French dramatist, was born
+at Valence, Drôme, on the 17th of September 1820. He was the grandson of
+Pigault Lebrun, and belonged to the well-to-do _bourgeoisie_ in
+principles and in thought as well as by actual birth. He received a good
+education and studied for the bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts
+and in verse, _La Ciguë_, refused at the Théâtre Français, but produced
+with considerable success at the Odéon. This settled his career.
+Thenceforward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in
+collaboration with other writers--Jules Sandeau, Eugène-Marie Labiche,
+Éd. Foussier--he produced plays which were in their way eventful. _Le
+Fils de Giboyer_ (1862)--which was regarded as an attack on the clerical
+party in France, and was only brought out by the direct intervention of
+the emperor--caused some political excitement. His last comedy, _Les
+Fourchambault_, belongs to the year 1879. After that date he wrote no
+more, restrained by an honourable fear of producing inferior work. The
+Academy had long before, on the 31st of March 1857, elected him to be
+one of its members. He died in his house at Croissy on the 25th of
+October 1889. Such, in briefest outline, is the story of a life which
+Augier himself describes as "without incident"--a life in all senses
+honourable. Augier, with Dumas _fils_ and Sardou, may be said to have
+held the French stage during the Second Empire. The man respected
+himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side--for he did not
+disdain to be a teacher--has high qualities of rectitude and
+self-restraint. Uprightness of mind and of heart, generous honesty, as
+Jules Lemaitre well said, constituted the very soul of all his dramatic
+work. _L'Aventurière_ (1848), the first of Augier's important works,
+already shows a deviation from romantic models; and in the _Mariage
+d'Olympe_ (1855) the courtesan is shown as she is, not glorified as in
+Dumas's _Dame aux Camélias_. In _Gabrielle_ (1849) the husband, not the
+lover, is the sympathetic, poetic character. In the _Lionnes pauvres_
+(1858) the wife who sells her favours comes under the lash. Greed of
+gold, social demoralization, ultramontanism, lust of power, these are
+satirized in _Les Effrontés_ (1861), _Le Fils de Giboyer_ (1862),
+_Contagion_, first announced under the title of _Le Baron d'Estrigaud_
+(1866), _Lions et renards_ (1869)--which, with _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_
+(1854), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, reach the
+high-water mark of Augier's art; in _Philiberte_ (1853) he produced a
+graceful and delicate drawing-room comedy; and in _Jean de Thommeray_,
+acted in 1873 after the great reverses of 1870, the regenerating note of
+patriotism rings high and clear. His last two dramas, _Madame Caverlet_
+(1876) and _Les Fourchambault_ (1879), are problem plays. But it would
+be unfair to suggest that Émile Augier was a preacher only. He was a
+moralist in the great sense, the sense in which the term can be applied
+to Molière and the great dramatists--a moralist because of his large and
+sane outlook on life. Nor does the interest of his dramas depend on
+elaborate plot. It springs from character and its evolution. His men and
+women move as personality, that mysterious factor, dictates. They are
+real, several of them typical. Augier's first drama, _La Ciguë_, belongs
+to a time (1844) when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost
+exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric
+outbursts of pure poetry. But his verse, if not that of a great poet,
+has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose dramas is
+admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large and effective
+wit. Perhaps it wanted these qualities to enlist laughter on his side in
+such a war as he waged against false passion and false sentiment.
+     (F. T. M.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGITE, an important member of the pyroxene (q.v.) group of rock-forming
+minerals. The name (from [Greek: augae], lustre) has at various times
+been used in different senses; it is now applied to aluminous pyroxenes
+of the monoclinic series which are dark-greenish, brownish or black in
+colour. Like the other pyroxenes it is characterized crystallographically
+by its distinct cleavages parallel to the prism-faces (M), the angle
+between which is 87°. A typical crystal is represented in fig. 1, whilst
+fig. 2 shows a crystal twinned on the orthopinacoid (r'). Such crystals,
+of short prismatic habit and black in colour, are common as phenocrysts
+in many basalts, and are hence known as "basaltic augite"; when the
+containing rock weathers to a clayey material the augite is left as black
+isolated crystals, and such specimens, usually from Bohemia, are
+represented in all mineral collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks,
+augite is also an important constituent of many other kinds of igneous
+rocks, and a rock composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite.
+It also occurs in metamorphic rocks; for example, in the crystalline
+limestones of the Fassathal in Tirol, where the variety known as fassaite
+is found as pistachio-green crystals resembling epidote in appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly of CaMgSi2O6,
+but it contains in addition alumina and ferric iron as (Mg, Fe") (Al,
+Fe"')2 SiO6; the acmite (NaFe"'Si2O6,) and jadeite (NaAlSi2O6)
+molecules are also sometimes present. Variations in the amount of iron
+in mixtures of these isomorphous molecules are accompanied by variations
+in the optical characters of the augite.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGMENT (Lat. _augere_, to increase), in Sanskrit and Greek grammar the
+vowel prefixed to indicate the past tenses of a verb; in Greek grammar
+it is called _syllabic_, when only the [epsilon] is prefixed;
+_temporal_, when it causes an initial vowel in the verb to become a
+diphthong or long vowel.
+
+
+
+
+AUGMENTATION, or enlargement, a term in heraldry for an addition to a
+coat of arms; in music, for the imitation in longer notes of an original
+theme; in biology, an addition to the normal number of parts; in Scots
+law, an increase of a minister's stipend by an action called "Process of
+Augmentation." The "Court of Augmentation" in Henry VIII.'s time was
+established to try cases affecting the suppression of monasteries, and
+was dissolved in Mary's reign.
+
+
+
+
+AUGSBURG, a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Bavaria, chief town of the district of Swabia. Pop. (1885) 65,905;
+(1900) 89,109; (1905) 93,882. It lies on a high plateau, 1500 ft. above
+the sea, between the rivers Wertach and Lech, which unite below the
+city, 39 m. W.N.W. from Munich, with which, as with Regensburg,
+Ingolstadt and Ulm, it is connected by main lines of railway. It
+consists of an upper and a lower town, the old Jakob suburb and various
+modern suburbs. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1703 and have
+since been converted into public promenades. Maximilian Street is
+remarkable for its breadth and architectural beauty. One of its most
+interesting edifices is the Fugger Haus, of which the entire front is
+painted in fresco. Among the public buildings of Augsburg most worthy of
+notice is the town-hall in Renaissance style, one of the finest in
+Germany, built by Elias Holl in 1616-1620. One of its rooms, called the
+"Golden Hall," from the profusion of its gilding, is 113 ft. long, 59
+broad and 53 high. The palace of the bishops, where the memorable
+Confession of Faith was presented to Charles V., is now used for
+government offices. Among the seventeen Reman Catholic churches and
+chapels, the cathedral, a basilica with two Romanesque towers, dates in
+its oldest portions from the 10th century. The church of St Ulrich and
+St Afra, built 1474-1500, is a Late Gothic edifice, with a nave of
+magnificent proportions and a tower 300 ft. high. The church stands on
+the spot where the first Christians of the district suffered martyrdom,
+and where a chapel was erected in the 6th century over the grave of St
+Afra. There are also a Protestant church, St Anne's, a school of arts, a
+polytechnic institution, a picture gallery in the former monastery of St
+Catherine, a museum, observatory, botanical gardens, an exchange,
+gymnasium, deaf-mute institution, orphan asylum, several remarkable
+fountains dating from the 16th century, &c. Augsburg is particularly
+well provided with special and technical schools. The newer buildings,
+all in the modern west quarter of the city, include law courts, a
+theatre, and a municipal library with 200,000 volumes. The "Fuggerei,"
+built in 1519 by the brothers Fugger, is a miniature town, with six
+streets or alleys, three gates and a church, and consists of a hundred
+and six small houses let to indigent Roman Catholic citizens at a
+nominal rent. The manufactures of Augsburg are of great importance. It
+is the chief seat of the textile industry in south Germany, and its
+cloth, cotton goods and linen manufactories employ about 10,000 hands.
+It is also noted for its bleach and dye works, its engine works,
+foundries, paper factories, and production of silk goods, watches,
+jewelry, mathematical instruments, leather, chemicals, &c. Augsburg is
+also the centre of the acetylene gas industry of Germany.
+Copper-engraving, for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried
+on; but printing, lithography and publishing have acquired a
+considerable development, one of the best-known Continental newspapers
+being the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ or _Augsburg Gazette_. On the opposite
+side of the river, which is here crossed by a bridge, lies the township
+of Lechhausen.
+
+Augsburg (the _Augusta Vindelicorum_ of the Romans) derives its name
+from the Roman emperor Augustus, who, on the conquest of Rhaetia by
+Drusus, established here a Roman colony about 14 B.C. In the 5th century
+it was sacked by the Huns, and afterwards came under the power of the
+Frankish kings. It was almost entirely destroyed in the war of
+Charlemagne against Tassilo III., duke of Bavaria; and after the
+dissolution and division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the
+dukes of Swabia. After this it rose rapidly into importance as a
+manufacturing and commercial town, becoming, after Nuremberg, the centre
+of the trade between Italy and the north of Europe; its merchant
+princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the Medici of Florence; but
+the alterations produced in the currents of trade by the discoveries of
+the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned a great decline. In 1276 it was
+raised to the rank of a free imperial city, which it retained, with many
+changes in its internal constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to
+the kingdom of Bavaria. Meanwhile, it was the scene of numerous events
+of historical importance. It was besieged and taken by Gustavus Adolphus
+in 1632, and in 1635 it surrendered to the imperial forces; in 1703 it
+was bombarded by the electoral prince of Bavaria, and forced to pay a
+contribution of 400,000 dollars; and in the war of 1803 it suffered
+severely. Of its conventions the most memorable are those which gave
+birth to the Augsburg confession (1530) and to the Augsburg alliance
+(1686).
+
+  See Wagenseil, _Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg_ (Augs., 1820-1822);
+  Werner, _Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg_ (1899); Roth, _Augsburg's
+  Reformationsgeschichte_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF, the most important Protestant statement of
+belief drawn up at the Reformation. In summoning a diet for April 1530,
+Charles V. offered a fair hearing to all religious parties in the
+Empire. Luther, Justus Jonas, Melanchthon and Johann Bugenhagen were
+appointed to draw up a statement of the Saxon position. These "Torgau
+Articles" (March 1530) tell merely why Saxony had abolished certain
+ecclesiastical abuses. Melanchthon, however, soon found that, owing to
+attacks by Johann Eck of Ingolstadt ("404 Articles"), Saxony must state
+its position in doctrinal matters as well. Taking the Articles of
+Marburg (see MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF) and of Schwabach as the point of
+departure, he repudiated all connexion with heretics condemned by the
+ancient church. On the 11th of May he sent the draft to Luther, who
+approved it, adding that he himself "could not tread so softly and
+gently." On the 23rd of June the Confession, originally intended as the
+statement of Electoral Saxony alone, was discussed and signed by a
+number of other Protestant princes and cities, and read before the diet
+on the 25th of June. Articles 1-21 attempt to show that the Evangelicals
+had deviated from current doctrine only in order to restore the pure and
+original teaching of the church. In spite of significant omissions (the
+sole authority of scripture; rejection of transubstantiation), the
+Confession contains nothing contradictory to Luther's position, and in
+its emphasis on justification by faith alone enunciates a cardinal
+concept of the Evangelical churches. Articles 22-28 describe and defend
+the reformation of various "abuses." On the 3rd of August, shorn of much
+of its original bitterness, the so-called _Confutatio pontificia_ was
+read; it well expresses the views approved in substance by the emperor
+and all the Catholic party. In answer, Melanchthon was ordered to
+prepare an Apology of the Confession, which the emperor refused to
+receive; so Melanchthon enlarged it and published the _editio princeps_
+of both Confession and Apology in 1531.
+
+  As he felt free to make slight changes, the first edition does not
+  represent the exact text of 1530; the edition of 1533 was further
+  improved, while that of 1540, rearranged and in part rewritten, is
+  known as the _Variata_. Dogmatic changes in this seem to have drawn
+  forth no protest from Luther or Brenz, so Melanchthon made fresh
+  alterations in 1542. Later, the _Variata_ of 1540 became the creed of
+  the Melanchthonians and even of the Crypto-calvinists; so the framers
+  of the Formula of Concord, promulgated in 1580, returned to the text
+  handed in at the Diet. By mistake they printed from a poor copy and
+  not from the original, from which their German text varies at over 450
+  places. Their Latin text, that of Melanchthon's _editio princeps_, is
+  more nearly accurate. The _textus receptus_ is that of the Formula of
+  Concord, the divergent Latin and German forms being equally binding.
+
+Acceptance of the Confession and Apology was made a condition of
+membership in the Schmalkalden League. The Wittenberg Concord (1536)
+and the Articles of Schmalkalden (1537) reaffirmed them. The Confession
+was the ultimate source of much of the Thirty-nine Articles. The
+Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognized no Protestants save
+adherents of the Confession; this was modified in 1648. To-day the
+_Invariata_ is of symbolical authority among Lutherans generally, while
+the _Variata_ is accepted by the Reformed churches of certain parts of
+Germany (see Löber, pp. 79-83.)
+
+  Editions of the received text: J.T. Müller, _Die symbolischen Bücher
+  der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche_ (10th ed., Gütersloh, 1907), with
+  a valuable historical introduction by Th. Kolde; Theodor Kolde, _Die
+  Augsburgische Konfession_ (Gotha, 1896), (contains also the Marburg,
+  Schwabach and Torgau Articles, the _Confutatio_ and the _Variata_ of
+  1540). For translations of these, as well as of Zwingli's Reckoning of
+  his Faith, and of the Tetrapolitan Confession, see H.E. Jacobs, _The
+  Book of Concord_ (Philadelphia, 1882-83). The texts submitted to the
+  emperor, lost before 1570, are reconstructed and compared with the
+  _textus receptus_ by P. Tschackert, _Die unveranderte Augsburgische
+  Konfession_ (Leipzig, 1901). For the genesis of the Confession, see
+  Th. Kolde, _Die alteste Redaktion der Augsburger Konfession_
+  (Gütersloh, 1906), also Kolde's article, "Augsburger Bekenntnis," in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed., vol. ii., Leipzig, 1897).
+  The standard commentary is still G.L. Plitt, _Einleitung in die
+  Augustana_ (Erlangen, 1867 ff.); compare also J. Ficker, _Die
+  Konfutation des Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses in ihrer ersten Gestalt_
+  (Leipzig, 1891); also A. Petzold, _Die Konfutation des
+  Vierstädtebekenntnisses_ (Leipzig, 1900). On its present use see G.
+  Löber, _Die im evangelischen Deutschland geltenden
+  Ordinationsverpflichtungen geschichtlich geordnet_ (Leipzig, 1905), 79
+  ff.     (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF, the name applied to the European war of
+1688-1697. The league of Augsburg was concluded on the 9th of July 1686
+by the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg and other princes, against
+the French. Spain, Sweden, England and other non-German states joined
+the league, and formed the Grand Alliance by the treaty of Vienna (July
+12, 1689). (See GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGURS, in ancient Rome, members of a religious college whose duty it
+was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices) of approval or
+disapproval sent by the gods in reference to any proposed undertaking.
+The _augures_ were originally called _auspices_, but, while _auspex_[1]
+fell into disuse and was replaced by _augur_, _auspicium_ was retained
+as the scientific term for the observation of signs.
+
+The early history of the college is obscure. Its institution has been
+attributed to Romulus or Numa. It probably consisted originally of three
+members, of whom the king himself was one. This number was doubled by
+Tarquinius Priscus, but in 300 B.C. it was only four, two places,
+according to Livy (x. 6), being vacant. The Ogulnian law in the same
+year increased the number to nine, five plebeian being added to the four
+patrician members. In the time of Sulla the number was fifteen, which
+was increased to sixteen by Julius Caesar. This number continued in
+imperial times; the college itself was certainly in existence as late as
+the 4th century. The office of augur, which was bestowed only upon
+persons of distinguished merit and was much sought after by reason of
+its political importance, was held for life. Vacancies were originally
+filled by co-optation, but by the Domitian law (104) the selection was
+made, by seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes chosen by lot, from
+candidates previously nominated by the college. The insignia of office
+were the _lituus_, a staff free from knots and bent at the top, and the
+_trabea_, a kind of toga with bright scarlet stripes and a purple
+border. The science of augury was contained in various written works,
+which were consulted as occasion arose: such were the _libri augurum_, a
+manual of augural ritual, and the _commentarii augurum_, a collection of
+decrees or answers given by the college to the senate in certain
+definite cases.
+
+The natural region to look to for signs of the will of Jupiter was the
+sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed by him as
+counsel to men. The latter, however, was the more difficult of
+interpretation, and upon it, therefore, mainly hinged the system of
+divination with which the augurs were occupied. It was the duty of the
+augur, before the auspices properly so called (those from the sky and
+from birds) were taken, to mark out with his staff the templum or
+consecrated space within which his observations were intended to be
+made. The method of procedure was as follows. At midnight, when the sky
+was clear and there was an absence of wind, the augur, in the presence
+of a magistrate, took up his position on a hill which afforded a wide
+view. After prayer and sacrifice, he marked out the templum both in the
+sky and on the ground and dedicated it. Within its limits he then
+pitched a tent, in which he sat down with covered head, asked the gods
+for a sign, and waited for an answer. As the augur looked south he had
+the east, the lucky quarter, on his left, and therefore signs on the
+left side were considered favourable, those on the right unfavourable.
+The practice was the reverse in Greece; the observers of signs looked
+towards the north, so that signs on the right were regarded as the
+favourable ones, and this is frequently adopted in the Roman poets. The
+augur afterwards announced the result of his observations in a set form
+of words, by which the magistrate was bound. Signs of the will of the
+gods were of two kinds, either in answer to a request (_auspicia
+impetrativa_), or incidental (_auspicia oblativa_). Of such signs there
+were five classes: (1) Signs in the sky (_caelestia auspicia_),
+consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning, but not excluding falling
+stars and other phenomena. Lightning from left to right was favourable,
+from right to left unfavourable; but on its mere appearance, in either
+direction, all business in the public assemblies was suspended for the
+day. Since the person charged to take the auspices for a certain day was
+constitutionally subject to no other authority who could test the truth
+or falsehood of his statement that he had observed lightning, this
+became a favourite device for putting off meetings of the public
+assembly. Restrictions were, however, imposed in later republican times.
+When a new consul, praetor or quaestor entered on his first day of
+office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of custom to
+report to him that lightning from the left had been seen. (2) Signs from
+birds (_signa ex avibus_), with reference to the direction of their
+flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other sounds. To the
+first class, called _alites_, belonged the eagle and the vulture; to the
+second, called _oscines_, the owl, the crow and the raven. The mere
+appearance of certain birds indicated good or ill luck, while others had
+a reference only to definite persons or events. In matters of ordinary
+life on which divine counsel was prayed for, it was usual to have
+recourse to this form of divination. For public affairs it was, by the
+time of Cicero, superseded by the fictitious observation of lightning.
+(3) Feeding of birds (_auspicia ex tripudiis_), which consisted in
+observing whether a bird--usually a fowl--on grain being thrown before
+it, let fall a particle from its mouth (_tripudium sollistimum_). If it
+did so, the will of the gods was in favour of the enterprise in
+question. The simplicity of this ceremony recommended it for very
+general use, particularly in the army when on service. The fowls were
+kept in cages by a servant, styled _pullarius_. In imperial times
+_decuriales pullarii_ are mentioned. (4) Signs from animals (_pedestria
+auspicia_, or _ex quadrupedibus_), i.e. observation of the course of,
+or sounds uttered by, quadrupeds and reptiles within a fixed space,
+corresponding to the observations of the flight of birds, but much less
+frequently employed. It had gone out of use by the time of Cicero. (5)
+Warnings (_signa ex diris_), consisting of all unusual phenomena, but
+chiefly such as boded ill. Being accidental in their occurrence, they
+belonged to the _auguria oblativa_, and their interpretation was not a
+matter for the augurs, unless occurring in the course of some public
+transaction, in which case they formed a divine veto against it.
+Otherwise, reference was made for an interpretation to the pontifices in
+olden times, afterwards frequently to the Sibylline books, or the
+Etruscan haruspices, when the incident was not already provided for by a
+rule, as, for example, that it was unlucky for a person leaving his
+house to meet a raven, that the sudden death of a person from epilepsy
+at a public meeting was a sign to break up the assembly.
+
+Among the other means of discovering the will of the gods were the
+casting of lots, oracles of Apollo (in the hands of the college _sacris
+faciundis_), but chiefly the examination of the entrails of animals
+slain for sacrifice (see OMEN). Anything abnormal found there was
+brought under the notice of the augurs, but usually the Etruscan
+haruspices were employed for this. The persons entitled to ask for an
+expression of the divine will on a public affair were the magistrates.
+To the highest offices, including all persons of consular and praetorian
+rank, belonged the right of taking _auspicia maxima_; to the inferior
+offices of aedile and quaestor, the _auspicia minora_; the differences
+between these, however, must have been small. The subjects for which
+_auspicia publica_ were always taken were the election of magistrates,
+their entering on office, the holding of a public assembly to pass
+decrees, the setting out of an army for war. They could only be taken in
+Rome itself; and in case of a commander having to renew his _auspicia_,
+he must either return to Rome or select a spot in the foreign country to
+represent the hearth of that city. The time for observing auspices was,
+as a rule, between midnight and dawn of the day fixed for any proposed
+undertaking. In military affairs this course was not always possible, as
+in the case of taking auspices before crossing a river. The founding of
+colonies, the beginning of a battle, the calling together an army, the
+sittings of the senate, decisions of peace or war, were occasions, not
+always but frequently, for taking auspices. The place where the ceremony
+was performed was not fixed, but selected with a view to the matter in
+hand. A spot being selected, the official charged to make the
+observation pitched his tent there some days before. A matter postponed
+through adverse signs from the gods could on the following or some
+future day be again brought forward for the auspices. If an error
+(_vitium_) occurred in the auspices, the augurs could, of their own
+accord or at the request of the senate, inform themselves of the
+circumstances, and decree upon it. A consul could refuse to accept their
+decree while he remained in office, but on retiring he could be
+prosecuted. _Auspicia oblativa_ referred mostly to the comitia. A
+magistrate was not bound to take notice of signs reported merely by a
+private person, but he could not overlook such a report from a brother
+magistrate. For example, if a quaestor on his entry to office observed
+lightning and announced it to the consul, the latter must delay the
+public assembly for the day.
+
+  On the subject generally, see A. Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la
+  divination dans l'antiquité_ (1879), and his articles, with
+  bibliography, in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_,
+  also articles "Augures," "Auspicium," by Wissowa in Pauly's
+  _Realencyclopädie_ (II. pt. ii., 1896), and by L.C. Purser (and
+  others) in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd
+  ed., 1890). (See also DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY, &c.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There is no doubt that _auspex_ = _avi-spex_ ("observer of
+    birds"), but the derivation of _augur_ is still unsettled. The
+    following have been suggested: (1) _augur_ (or _augus_) is a
+    substantive originally meaning "increase" (related to _augustus_ as
+    _robur_ to _robustus_), then transferred to the priest as the giver
+    of increase or blessing; (2) = _avi-gur_, the second part of the word
+    pointing to (a) _garrire_, "chatter," or (b) _gerere_, the augur
+    being conceived as "carrying" or guiding the flight of the birds; (3)
+    from a lost verb _augo_ = "tell," "declare." It is now generally
+    agreed that the science of augury is of Italian, not Etruscan,
+    origin.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUST (originally _Sextilis_), the sixth month in the pre-Julian Roman
+year, which received its present name from the emperor Augustus. The
+preceding month, _Quintilis_, had been called "July" after Julius
+Caesar, and the emperor chose August to be rechristened in his own
+honour because his greatest good fortune had then happened. In that
+month he had been admitted to the consulate, had thrice celebrated a
+triumph, had received the allegiance of the soldiers stationed on the
+Janiculum, had concluded the civil wars, and had subdued Egypt. As July
+contained thirty-one days, and August only thirty, it was thought
+necessary to add another day to the latter month, in order that the
+month of Augustus might not be in any respect inferior to that of
+Julius.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA, a city and the county-seat of Richmond county, Georgia, U.S.A.,
+at the head of steamboat navigation on the Savannah river, 132 m. N.W.
+of Savannah by rail and 240 m. by river course. Pop. (1890) 33,300;
+(1900) 39,441, of whom 18,487 were negroes and only 995 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 41,040. Augusta is served by the Southern,
+the Augusta Southern (controlled by the Southern), the Atlantic Coast
+Line, the Charleston & Western Carolina (controlled by the Atlantic
+Coast Line), the Georgia and the Central of Georgia railways, by an
+electric line to Aiken, South Carolina, and by a line of steamers to
+Savannah. The city extends along the river bank for a distance of more
+than 3 m., and is connected by a bridge with Hamburg, and with North
+Augusta, South Carolina, two residential suburbs. Augusta is well known
+as a winter resort (mean winter temperature, 47° F.), and there are many
+fine winter homes here of wealthy Northerners. There are good roads,
+stretching from Augusta for miles in almost every direction. In North
+Augusta there is a large hotel, and there is another in Summerville
+(pop. in 1910, 4361), 2½ m. N.W., an attractive residential suburb and
+winter resort, in which there are a country club and a large United
+States arsenal, established in 1831. Broad Street is the principal
+thoroughfare of Augusta, and Greene Street, with a park in the centre
+and flanking rows of oaks and elms, is the finest residential street. Of
+historical interest is St Paul's church (Protestant Episcopal); the
+present building was erected in 1819 and is the third St Paul's church
+on the same site. The first church was "built by the gentlemen of
+Augusta" in 1750. In the crypt of the church General Leonidas Polk is
+buried; and in the churchyard are the graves of George Steptoe
+Washington, a nephew of George Washington, and of William Longstreet,
+the inventor. Among the city's principal buildings are the Federal
+building, the Richmond county court house, the Augusta orphan asylum,
+the city hospital, the Lamar hospital for negroes, and the buildings of
+Richmond Academy (incorporated in 1783), of the Academy of the Sacred
+Heart (for girls), of Paine's Institute (for negroes), of Houghton
+Institute, endowed in 1852 to be "free to all the children of Augusta,"
+and of the medical school of the university of Georgia, founded in 1829,
+and a part of the university since 1873. A granite obelisk 50 ft. high
+was erected in 1861 as a memorial to the signers for Georgia of the
+Declaration of Independence; beneath it are buried Lyman Hall
+(1726-1790) and George Walton (1740-1804). There are two Italian marble
+monuments in honour of Confederate soldiers, and monuments to the
+Southern poets, Paul Hamilton Hayne and Richard Henry Wilde (1789-1847).
+
+In commerce and manufacturing, Augusta ranks second among the cities of
+Georgia. As a centre of trade for the "Cotton Belt," it has a large
+wholesale and retail business; and it is an important cotton market. The
+principal manufacture is cotton goods; among the other products are
+lumber, flour, cotton waste, cotton-seed oil and cake, ice, silk,
+boilers and engines, and general merchandise staples. Water-power for
+factories is secured by a system of "water-power canals" from a large
+dam across the Savannah, built in 1847 and enlarged in 1871; the
+principal canal, owned by the city, is so valuable as nearly to pay the
+interest on the municipal debt. In 1905 the value of the city's total
+factory product was $8,829,305, of which $3,832,009, or 43.4%, was the
+value of the cotton goods. The principal newspaper is the _Augusta
+Chronicle_, founded in 1785.
+
+Augusta was established in 1735-1736 by James Edward Oglethorpe, the
+founder of Georgia, and was named in honour of the princess of Wales.
+The Carolina colonists had a trading post in its vicinity before the
+settlement by Oglethorpe. The fort, built in 1736, was first named Fort
+Augusta, and in 1780, at the time of the British occupation, was
+enlarged and renamed Fort Cornwallis; its site is now marked by a
+Memorial Cross, erected by the Colonial Dames of Georgia in the
+churchyard of St Paul's. Tobacco was the principal agricultural product
+during the 18th century, and for its culture negro slaves were
+introduced from Carolina, before the restrictions of the Georgia
+Trustees on slavery were removed. During the colonial period several
+treaties with Indians were made at Augusta; by the most important, that
+of 1763, the Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, Cherokees and Catawbas agreed
+(in a meeting with the governors of North and South Carolina, Virginia
+and Georgia) to the terms of the treaty of Paris. At the opening of the
+American War of Independence, the majority of the people of Augusta were
+Loyalists. The town was taken by the British under Lieut.-Col. Archibald
+Campbell (1739-1791) in January 1779, but was evacuated a month later;
+it was the seat of government of Georgia for almost the entire period
+from the capture of Savannah in December 1778 until May 1780, and was
+then abandoned by the Patriots and was occupied chiefly by Loyalists
+under Lieut.-Col. Thomas Brown. In September 1780 a force of less than
+500 patriots under Col. Elijah Clarke marched against the town in three
+divisions, and while one division, attacking a neighbouring Indian camp,
+drew off most of the garrison, the other two divisions entered the town;
+but British reinforcements arrived before Brown could be dislodged from
+a building in which he had taken refuge, and Clarke was forced to
+withdraw. A stronger American force, under Lieut.-Col. Henry Lee,
+renewed the siege in May 1781 and gained possession on the 5th of June.
+From 1783 until 1795 Augusta was again the seat of the state government.
+It was the meeting-place of the Land Court which confiscated the
+property of the Loyalists of Georgia, and of the convention which
+ratified for Georgia the Constitution of the United States. In 1798 it
+was incorporated as a town, and in 1817 it was chartered as a city.
+Augusta was the home of the inventor, William Longstreet (1759-1814),
+who as early as 1788 received a patent from the state of Georgia for a
+steamboat, but met with no practical success until 1808; as early as
+1801 he had made experiments in the application of steam to cotton gins
+and saw-mills at Augusta. Near Augusta, on the site now occupied by the
+Eli Whitney Country Club, Eli Whitney is said to have first set up and
+operated his cotton gin; he is commemorated by a mural tablet in the
+court house. The establishment of a steamboat line to Savannah in 1817
+aided Augusta's rapid commercial development. There was a disastrous
+fire in 1829, an epidemic of yellow fever in 1839, and a flood in 1840,
+but the growth of the city was not seriously checked; the cotton
+receipts of 1846 were 212,019 bales, and in 1847 a cotton factory was
+built. During the Civil War Augusta was the seat of extensive military
+factories, the tall chimney of the Confederate powder mills still
+standing as a memorial. The economic development has, since the Civil
+War, been steady and continuous. An exposition was held in Augusta in
+1888, and another in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA, the capital of Maine, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Kennebec
+county, on the Kennebec river[1] (at the head of navigation), 44 m. from
+its mouth, 62 m. by rail N.E. of Portland, and 74 m. S.W. of Bangor.
+Pop. (1890) 10,527; (1900) 11,683, of whom 2131 were foreign-born;
+(1910, census) 13,211. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by
+several electric lines, and by steamboat lines to Portland, Boston and
+several other ports. It is built on a series of terraces, mostly on the
+west bank of the river, which is spanned here by a bridge 1100 ft. long.
+The state house, built of granite quarried in the vicinity, occupies a
+commanding site along the south border of the city, and in it is the
+state library. The Lithgow library is a city public library. Near the
+state house is the former residence of James G. Blaine. On the other
+side of the river, nearly opposite, is the Maine insane hospital. Among
+other prominent buildings are the court house, the post office and the
+city hall. In one of the parks is a soldiers' and sailors' monument. By
+means of a dam across the river, 17 ft. high and nearly 600 ft. long,
+good water-power is provided, and the city manufactures cotton goods,
+boots and shoes, paper, pulp and lumber. A leading industry is the
+printing and publishing of newspapers and periodicals, several of the
+periodicals published here having an enormous circulation. The total
+value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,886,833. Augusta occupies
+the site of the Indian village, Koussinoc, at which the Plymouth Colony
+established a trading post about 1628. In 1661 Plymouth sold its
+interests, and soon afterward the four purchasers abandoned the post. In
+1754, however, their heirs brought about the erection here of Fort
+Western, the main building of which is still standing at the east end of
+the bridge, opposite the city hall. Augusta was originally a part of the
+township of Hallowell (incorporated in 1771); in 1797 the north part of
+Hallowell was incorporated as a separate town and named Harrington; and
+later in the same year the name was changed to Augusta. It became the
+county-seat in 1799; was chosen by the Maine legislature as the capital
+of the state in 1827, but was not occupied as such until the completion
+of the state house in 1831; and was chartered as a city in 1849.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Kennebec was first explored to this point in 1607.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA, a seaport of the province of Syracuse, Sicily, 19 m. N. of it
+by rail. Pop. (1901) 16,402. It occupies a part of the former peninsula
+of Xiphonia, now a small island, connected with the mainland by a
+bridge. It was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in 1232, and almost
+entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1693, after which it was rebuilt.
+The castle is now a large prison. The fortified port, though
+unfrequented except as a naval harbour of refuge, is a very fine one.
+There are considerable saltworks at Augusta. To the south, on the left
+bank of the Molinello. 1½ m. from its mouth, Sicel tombs and Christian
+catacombs, and farther up the river a cave village of the early middle
+ages, have been explored (_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1902, 411, 631;
+_Römische Quartalschrift_, 1902, 205). Whether there was ever a town
+bearing the name Xiphonia is doubted by E.A. Freeman (_Hist. of Sic._ i.
+583); cf., however, E. Pais, _Atakta_ (Pisa, 1891), 55, who attributes
+its foundation, under the name of Tauromenion (which it soon lost), to
+the Zancleans of Hybla (afterwards Megara Hyblaea).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM, the chief town of the Ligurian tribe of the
+Bagienni, probably identical with the modern Bene Vagienna, on the upper
+course of the Tanaro, about 35 m. due south of Turin. The town retained
+its position as a tribal centre in the reorganization of Augustus, whose
+name it bears, and was erected on a systematic plan. Considerable
+remains of public buildings, constructed in concrete faced with small
+stones with bands of brick at intervals, an amphitheatre with a major
+axis of 390 ft. and a minor axis of 305 ft., a theatre with a stage 133
+ft. in length, and near it the foundations of what was probably a
+basilica, an open space (no doubt the forum), an aqueduct, baths, &c.,
+have been discovered by recent excavations, and also one of the city
+gates, flanked by two towers 22 ft. sq.
+
+  See G. Assandria and G. Vacchetta in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1894),
+  155; (1896), 215; (1897), 441; (1898), 299; (1900), 389; (1901), 413.
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTAN HISTORY, the name given to a collection of the biographies of
+the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus (A.D. 117-284). The work
+professes to have been written during the reigns of Diocletian and
+Constantine, and is to be regarded as the composition of six
+authors,--Aelius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius,
+Vulcacius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus--known as
+Scriptores Historiae Augustae, writers of Augustan history. It is
+generally agreed, however, that there is a large number of
+interpolations in the work, which are referred to the reign of
+Theodosius; and that the documents inserted in the lives are almost all
+forgeries. The more advanced school of critics holds that the names of
+the supposed authors are purely fictitious, as those of some of the
+authorities which they profess to quote certainly are. The lives, which
+(with few exceptions) are arranged in chronological order, are
+distributed as follows:--To Spartianus: the biographies of Hadrian,
+Aelius Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger,
+Caracallus, Geta (?); to Vulcacius Gallicanus: Avidius Cassius; to
+Capitolinus: Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Verus, Pertinax,
+Clodius Albinus, the two Maximins, the three Gordians, Maximus and
+Balbinus, Opilius Macrinus (?); to Lampridius: Commodus, Diadumenus,
+Elagabalus, Alexander Severus; to Pollio: the two Valerians, the
+Gallieni, the so-called Thirty Tyrants or Usurpers, Claudius (his lives
+of Philip, Decius, and Gallus being lost); to Vopiscus: Aurelian,
+Tacitus, Florian, Probus, the four tyrants (Firmus, Saturninus,
+Proculus, Bonosus), Carus, Numerian, Carinus.
+
+The importance of the Augustan history as a repertory of information is
+very considerable, but its literary pretensions are of the humblest
+order. The writers' standard was confessedly low. "My purpose," says
+Vopiscus, "has been to provide materials for persons more eloquent than
+I." Considering the perverted taste of the age, it is perhaps fortunate
+that the task fell into the hands of no showy declaimer who measured his
+success by his skill in making surface do duty for substance, but of
+homely, matter-of-fact scribes, whose sole concern was to record what
+they knew. Their narrative is unmethodical and inartificial; their style
+is tame and plebeian; their conception of biography is that of a
+collection of anecdotes; they have no notion of arrangement, no measure
+of proportion, and no criterion of discrimination between the important
+and the trivial; they are equally destitute of critical and of
+historical insight, unable to sift the authorities on which they rely,
+and unsuspicious of the stupendous social revolution comprised within
+the period which they undertake to describe. Their value, consequently,
+depends very much on that of the sources to which they happen to have
+recourse for any given period of history, and on the fidelity of their
+adherence to these when valuable. Marius Maximus and Aelius Junius
+Cordus, to whose qualifications they themselves bear no favourable
+testimony, were their chief authorities for the earlier lives of the
+series. Marius Maximus, who lived about 165-230, wrote biographies of
+the emperors, in continuation of those of Suetonius, from Nerva to
+Elagabalus; Junius Cordus dealt with the less-known emperors, perhaps
+down to Maximus and Balbinus. The earlier lives, however, contain a
+substratum of authentic historical fact, which recent critics have
+supposed to be derived from a lost work by a contemporary writer,
+described by one of these scholars as "the last great Roman historian."
+For the later lives the Scriptores were obliged to resort more largely
+to public records, and thus preserved matter of the highest importance,
+rescuing from oblivion many imperial rescripts and senatorial decrees,
+reports of official proceedings and speeches on public occasions, and a
+number of interesting and characteristic letters from various emperors.
+Their incidental allusions sometimes cast vivid though undesigned light
+on the circumstances of the age, and they have made large contributions
+to our knowledge of imperial jurisprudence in particular. Even their
+trivialities have their use; their endless anecdotes respecting the
+personal habits of the subjects of their biographies, if valueless to
+the historian, are most acceptable to the archaeologist, and not
+unimportant to the economist and moralist. Their errors and deficiencies
+may in part be ascribed to the contemporary neglect of history as a
+branch of instruction. Education was in the hands of rhetoricians and
+grammarians; historians were read for their style, not for their matter,
+and since the days of Tacitus, none had arisen worth a schoolmaster's
+notice. We thus find Vopiscus acknowledging that when he began to write
+the life of Aurelian, he was entirely misinformed respecting the
+latter's competitor Firmus, and implying that he would not have ventured
+on Aurelian himself if he had not had access to the MS. of the emperor's
+own diary in the Ulpian library. The writers' historical estimates are
+superficial and conventional, but report the verdict of public opinion
+with substantial accuracy. The only imputation on the integrity of any
+of them lies against Trebellius Pollio, who, addressing his work to a
+descendant of Claudius, the successor and probably the assassin of
+Gallienus, has dwelt upon the latter versatile sovereign's carelessness
+and extravagance without acknowledgment of the elastic though fitful
+energy he so frequently displayed in defence of the empire. The caution
+of Vopiscus's references to Diocletian cannot be made a reproach to him.
+
+No biographical particulars are recorded respecting any of these
+writers. From their acquaintance with Latin and Greek literature they
+must have been men of letters by profession, and very probably
+secretaries or librarians to persons of distinction. There seems no
+reason to accept Gibbon's contemptuous estimate of their social
+position. They appear particularly versed in law. Spartianus's reference
+to himself as "Diocletian's own" seems to indicate that he was a
+domestic in the imperial household. They address their patrons with
+deference, acknowledging their own deficiencies, and seem painfully
+conscious of the profession of literature having fallen upon evil days.
+
+  Editio princeps (Milan, 1475); Casaubon (1603) showed great critical
+  ability in his notes, but for want of a good MS. left the restoration
+  of the text to Salmasius (1620), whose notes are a most remarkable
+  monument of erudition, combined with acuteness in verbal criticism and
+  general vigour of intellect. Of recent years considerable attention
+  has been devoted by German scholars to the _History_, especially by
+  Peter, whose edition of the text in the Teubner series (2nd ed., 1884)
+  contains (praef. xxxv.-xxxvii.) a bibliography of works on the subject
+  preceding the publication of his own special treatise. The edition by
+  Jordan-Eyssenhardt (1863) should also be mentioned. Amongst the most
+  recent treatises on the subject are: A. Gemoll, _Die Scriptores
+  Historiae Augustae_ (1886); H. Peter, _Die Scriptores Historiae
+  Augustae_ (1892); G. Tropea, _Studi sugli Scriptores Historiae
+  Augustae_ (1899-1903); J.M. Heer, _Der historische Wert der Vita
+  Commodi in der Sammlung der Scriptores Historiae Augustae_ (1901); C.
+  Lécrivain, _Études sur l'histoire Auguste_ (1904); E. Kornemann,
+  _Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom_ (1905),
+  according to whom "the last great historian of Rome" is Lollius
+  Urbicus; O. Schulz, _Das Kaiserhaus der Antonine und der letzte
+  Historiker Roms_ (1907). On their style, see C. Paucker, _De
+  Latinitate Scriptorum Historiae Augustae_ (1870); special lexicon by
+  C. Lessing (1901-1906). An English translation is included in _The
+  Lives of the Roman Emperors_, by John Bernard (1698). See further
+  ROME: _History_ (anc. _ad fin._), section "Authorities"; M. Schanz,
+  _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_, iii. p. 69 (for Marius Maximus
+  and Junius Cordus), iv. p. 47; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman
+  Literature_ (Eng. tr.), § 392; H. Peter, bibliography from 1893 to
+  1905 in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, cxxix. (1907).
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM (mod. _Aosta_, q.v.), an ancient town of
+Italy in the district of the Salassi, founded by Augustus about 24 B.C.
+on the site of the camp of Varro Murena, who subdued this tribe in 25
+B.C., and settled with 3000 praetorians. Pliny calls it the last town of
+Italy on the north-west, and its position at the confluence of two
+rivers, at the end of the Great and Little St Bernard, gave it
+considerable military importance, which is vouched for by considerable
+remains of Roman buildings. The ancient town walls, enclosing a
+rectangle 793 by 624 yds., are still preserved almost in their entire
+extent. The walls are 21 ft. high. They are built of concrete faced with
+small blocks of stone, and at the bottom are nearly 9 ft. thick, and at
+the top 6 ft. There are towers at the angles of the _enceinte_, and
+others at intervals, and two at each of the four gates, making a total
+of twenty towers altogether. They are roughly 32 ft. square, and project
+14 ft. from the wall. The Torre del Pailleron on the south and the Torre
+del Leproso in the west are especially well preserved. The east and
+south gates exist (the latter, a double gate with three arches flanked
+by two towers, is the Porta Praetoria, and is especially fine), while
+the rectangular arrangement of the streets perpetuates the Roman plan,
+dividing the town into 16 blocks (_insulae_). The main road, 32 ft.
+wide, divides the city into two equal halves, running from east to west,
+an arrangement which makes it clear that the guarding of the road was
+the main _raison d'être_ of the city. Some arcades of the amphitheatre
+(the diameters of which are 282 ft. and 239 ft.), and the south wall of
+the theatre are also preserved, the latter to a height of over 70 ft.,
+and a market-place some 300 ft. square, surrounded by storehouses on
+three sides with a temple in the centre, and two on the open (south)
+side, and the _thermae_, have been discovered. Outside the town is a
+handsome triumphal arch in honour of Augustus. About 5 m. to the west is
+a single-arched Roman bridge, the Pondel, which has a closed passage
+lighted by windows for foot passengers in winter, and above it an open
+footpath, both being about 3½ ft. in width. There are considerable
+remains of the ancient road from Eporedia (mod. _Ivrea_) to Augusta
+Praetoria, up the Valle d' Aosta, which the modern railway follows,
+notably the Pont St Martin, with a single arch with a span of 116 ft.
+and a roadway 15 ft. wide, the cutting of Donnaz, and the Roman bridges
+of Châtillon (Pont St Vincent) and Aosta (Pont de Pierre), &c.
+
+  See C. Promis, _Le antichità di Aosta_ (Turin, 1862); E. Bérard in
+  _Atti della Società di Archeologia di Torino_, iii. 119 seq.; _Notizie
+  degli Scavi_, passim; A. d'Andrade, _Relazione dell' Ufficio Regionale
+  per la consenazione dei Monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria_
+  (Turin, 1899), 46 seq.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM (1772-1841), German theologian, born
+at Eschenberga, near Gotha, was of Jewish descent, his grandfather
+having been a converted rabbi. He was educated at the gymnasium at Gotha
+and the university of Jena. At Jena he studied oriental languages, of
+which he became professor there in 1803. Subsequently he became ordinary
+professor of theology (1812), and for a time rector, at Breslau. In 1819
+he was transferred to the university of Bonn, where he was made
+professor primarius. In 1828 he was appointed chief member of the
+consistorial council at Coblenz. Here he was afterwards made director of
+the consistory. He died at Coblenz in 1841. Augusti had little sympathy
+with the modern philosophical interpretations of dogma, and although he
+took up a position of free criticism with regard to the Biblical
+narratives, he held fast to the traditional faith. His works on theology
+(_Dogmengeschichte_, 1805; 4th ed., 1835) are simple statements of fact;
+they do not attempt a speculative treatment of their subjects. In 1809
+he published in conjunction with W.M.L. de Wette a new translation of
+the Old Testament. Mention should also be made of his _Grundriss einer
+historischkritischen Einleitung ins Alte Testament_ (1806), his
+_Exegetisches Handbuch des Alten Testaments_ (1797-1800), and his
+edition of _Die Apokryphen des A. T._ (1804). In addition to these, his
+most important writings are the _Denkwürdigkeiten aus der Christlichen
+Archäologie_, 12 vols. (1817-1831), a partially digested mass of
+materials, and the _Handbuch der Christ. Archäologie_, 3 vols.
+(1836-1837), which gives the substance of the larger work in a more
+compact and systematic form.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430), one of the four great fathers of the Latin
+Church. Augustinus--the _praenomen_ Aurelius is used indeed by his
+disciples Orosius and Prosper, and is found in the oldest Augustine
+MSS., but is not used by himself, nor in the letters addressed to
+him--was born at Tagaste, a town of Numidia, now Suk Ahras in
+Constantine, on the 13th of November 354. His father, Patricius, was a
+burgess of Tagaste and still a pagan at the time of his son's birth. His
+mother, Monica, was not only a Christian, but a woman of the most tender
+and devoted piety, whose beautiful faith and enthusiasm and patient
+prayer for both her husband and son (at length crowned with success in
+both cases) have made her a type of womanly saintliness for all ages.
+She early instructed her son in the faith and love of Jesus Christ, and
+for a time he seems to have been impressed by her teaching. Falling ill,
+he wished to be baptized; but when the danger was past, the rite was
+deferred and, in spite of his mother's admonitions and prayers,
+Augustine grew up without any profession of Christian piety or any
+devotion to Christian principles.
+
+Inheriting from his father a passionate nature, he formed while still a
+mere youth an irregular union with a girl, by whom he became the father
+of a son, whom in a fit of pious emotion he named Adeodatus ("by God
+given"), and to whom he was passionately attached. In his _Confessions_
+he afterwards described this period of his life in the blackest colours;
+for in the light of his conversion he saw behind him only shadows. Yet,
+whatever his youthful aberrations, Augustine was from the first an
+earnest student. His father, noticing his early promise, destined him
+for the brilliant and lucrative career of a rhetorician, for which he
+spared no expense in training him. Augustine studied at his native town
+and afterwards at Madaura and Carthage, especially devoting himself to
+the works of the Latin poets, many traces of his love for which are to
+be found in his writings. His acquaintance with Greek literature was
+much more limited, and, indeed, it has been doubted, though without
+sufficient reason, whether he could use the Greek scriptures in the
+original. Cicero's _Hortensius_, which he read in his nineteenth year,
+first awakened in his mind the spirit of speculation and the impulse
+towards the knowledge of the truth. But he passed from one phase of
+thought to another, unable to find satisfaction in any. Manichaeism,
+that mixed product of Zoroastrian and Christian-gnostic elements, first
+enthralled him. He became a fervent member of the sect, and was admitted
+into the class of _auditors_ or "hearers." Manichaeism seemed to him to
+solve the mysteries of the world, and of his own experiences by which he
+was perplexed. His insatiable imagination drew congenial food from the
+fanciful religious world of the Manichaeans, decked out as this was with
+the luxuriant wealth of Oriental myth. His strongly developed sense of a
+need of salvation sought satisfaction in the contest of the two
+principles of Good and Evil, and found peace, at least for the moment,
+in the conviction that the portions of light present in him would be
+freed from the darkness in which they were immersed. The ideal of
+chastity and self-restraint, which promised a foretaste of union with
+God, amazed him, bound as he was in the fetters of sensuality and for
+ever shaking at these fetters. But while his moral force was not
+sufficient for the attainment of this ideal, gradually everything else
+which Manichaeism seemed to offer him dissolved before his criticism.
+Increasingly occupied with the exact sciences, he learnt the
+incompatibility of the Manichaean astrology with the facts. More and
+more absorbed in the problems of psychology, he realized the
+insufficiency of dualism, which did not solve the ultimate questions but
+merely set them back. The Manichaean propaganda seemed to him
+invertebrate and lacking in force, and a discussion which he had with
+Faustus, a distinguished Manichaean bishop and controversialist, left
+him greatly disappointed.
+
+Meanwhile nine years had passed. Augustine, after finishing his studies,
+had returned to Tagaste, where he became a teacher of grammar. He must
+have been an excellent master, who knew how to influence the whole
+personality of his pupils. It was then that Alypius, who in the later
+stages of Augustine's life proved a true friend and companion, attached
+himself to him. He remained in his native town little more than a year,
+during which time he lived with his mother, who was comforted by the
+bishop for the estrangement of her son from the Catholic faith ("a son
+of so many tears cannot be lost": _Confess._ III. xii. § 21), comforted
+also, and above all, by the famous vision, which Augustine thus
+describes: "She saw herself standing on a certain wooden rule, and a
+shining youth coming towards her, cheerful and smiling upon her the
+while she grieved, and was consumed with grief: and when he had inquired
+of her the causes of her grief and daily tears (for the sake, as is
+their wont, of teaching, not of learning) and she had made answer that
+she was bewailing my perdition, he bade her be at ease, and advised her
+to look and observe, 'That where she was, there was I also.' And when
+she looked there, she saw me standing by her on the same rule"
+(_Confess._ III. xi.). Augustine now returned for a second time to
+Carthage, where he devoted himself zealously to work. Thence, probably
+in the spring of 383, he migrated to Rome. His Manichaean friends urged
+him to take this step, which was rendered easier by the licentious lives
+of the students at Carthage. His stay at Rome may have lasted about a
+year, no agreeable time for Augustine, since his patrons and friends
+belonged to just those Manichaean circles with which he had in the
+meantime entirely lost all intellectual touch. He, therefore, accepted
+an invitation from Milan, where the people were in search of a teacher
+of rhetoric.
+
+At Milan the conflict within his mind in search of truth still
+continued. It was now that he separated himself openly from the
+Manichaean sect. As a thinker he came entirely under the influence of
+the New Academy; he professed the Sceptic philosophy, without being able
+to find in it the final conclusion of wisdom. He was, however, not far
+from the decision. Two things determined his further development. He
+became acquainted with the Neo-Platonic philosophy; its monism replaced
+the dualism, its intellectualized world of ideas the materialism of
+Manichaeism. Here he found the admonition to seek for truth outside the
+material world, and from created things he learnt to recognize the
+invisible God; he attained the certainty that this God is, and is
+eternal, always the same, subject to change neither in his parts nor in
+his motions. And while thus Augustine's metaphysical convictions were
+being slowly remodelled, he met, in Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a man in
+whom complete worldly culture and the nobility of a ripe Christian
+personality were wonderfully united. He heard him preach; but at first
+it was the orator and not the contents of the sermons that enchained
+him. He sought an opportunity of conversation with him, but this was not
+easily found. Ambrose had no leisure for philosophic discussion. He was
+accessible to all who sought him, but never for a moment free from study
+or the cares of duty. Augustine, as he himself tells us, used to enter
+without being announced, as all persons might; but after staying for a
+while, afraid of interrupting him, he would depart again. He continued,
+however, to hear Ambrose preach, and gradually the gospel of divine
+truth and grace was received into his heart. He was busy with his friend
+Alypius in studying the Pauline epistles; certain words were driven home
+with irresistible force to his conscience. His struggle of mind became
+more and more intolerable, the thought of divine purity fighting in his
+heart with the love of the world and the flesh. That sensuality was his
+worst enemy he had long known. The mother of his child had accompanied
+him to Milan. When he became betrothed he dismissed her; but neither the
+pain of this parting nor consideration for his not yet marriageable
+bride prevented him from forming a fresh connexion of the same kind.
+Meanwhile, the determination to renounce the old life with its pleasures
+of sense, was ever being forced upon him with more and more
+distinctness. He then received a visit from a Christian compatriot named
+Pontitian, who told him about St Anthony and the monachism in Egypt, and
+also of a monastery near Milan. He was shaken to the depths when he
+learnt from Pontitian that two young officials, like himself betrothed,
+had suddenly formed a determination to turn their backs upon the life of
+the world. He could no longer bear to be inside the house; in terrible
+excitement he rushed into the garden; and now followed that scene which
+he himself in the _Confessions_ has described to us with such graphic
+realism. He flung himself under a fig tree, burst into a passion of
+weeping, and poured out his heart to God. Suddenly he seemed to hear a
+voice bidding him consult the divine oracle: "Take up and read, take up
+and read." He left off weeping, rose up, sought the volume where Alypius
+was sitting, and opening it read in silence the following passage from
+the Epistle to the Romans (xiii. 13, 14): "Not in rioting and
+drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and
+envying. But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for
+the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." He adds: "I had neither desire
+nor need to read further. As I finished the sentence, as though the
+light of peace had been poured into the heart, all the shadows of doubt
+dispersed. Thus hast Thou converted me to Thee, so as no longer to seek
+either for wife or other hope of the world, standing fast in that rule
+of faith in which Thou so many years before hadst revealed me to my
+mother" (_in qua me ante lot annos ei revelaveras: Confess_. VIII. xii.
+§ 30).[1]
+
+The conversion of Augustine, as we have been accustomed to call this
+event, took place in the late summer of 386, a few weeks before the
+beginning of the vacation. The determination to give up his post was
+rendered easier by a chest-trouble which was not without danger, and
+which for months made him incapable of work. He withdrew with several
+companions to the country estate of Cassisiacum near Milan, which had
+been lent him by a friend, and announced himself to the bishop as a
+candidate for baptism. His religious opinions were still to some extent
+unformed, and even his habits by no means altogether such as his great
+change demanded. He mentions, for example, that during this time he
+broke himself of a habit of profane swearing, and in other ways sought
+to discipline his character and conduct for the reception of the sacred
+rite. He received baptism the Easter following, in his thirty-third
+year, and along with him his son Adeodatus and his friend Alypius were
+admitted to the Church. Monica, his mother, had rejoined him, and at
+length rejoiced in the fulfilment of her prayers. She died at Ostia,
+just as they were about to embark for Africa, her last hours being
+gladdened by his Christian sympathy. In the account of the conversation
+which he had with his mother before her end, in the narrative of her
+death and burial (_Confess_. IX. x.-xi., §§ 23-28), Augustine's literary
+power is displayed at its highest.
+
+The plan of returning home, remained for the present unaccomplished.
+Augustine stayed for a year in Rome, occupied in literary work,
+particularly in controversy with Manichaeism. It was not until the
+autumn of 388 that he returned to Tagaste, probably still accompanied by
+his son, who, however, must have died shortly afterwards. With some
+friends, who joined him in devotion, he formed a small religious
+community, which looked to him as its head. Their mode of life was not
+formally monastic according to any special rule, but the experience of
+this time of seclusion was, no doubt, the basis of that monastic system
+which Augustine afterwards sketched and which derived its name from him
+(see AUGUSTINIANS). As may be imagined, the fame of such a convert in
+such a position soon spread, and invitations to a more active
+ecclesiastical life came to him from many quarters. He shrank from the
+responsibility, but his destiny was not to be avoided. After two and a
+half years spent in retirement he went to Hippo, to see a Christian
+friend, who desired to converse with him as to his design of quitting
+the world and devoting himself to a religious life. The Christian
+community there being in want of a presbyter and Augustine being present
+at the meeting, the people unanimously chose him and he was ordained to
+the presbyterate. A few years afterwards, 395 or 396, he was made
+coadjutor to the bishop, and finally became bishop of the see.
+
+Henceforth Augustine's life is filled up with his ecclesiastical
+labours, and is more marked by the series of his numerous writings and
+the great controversies in which they engaged him than by anything else.
+His life was spent in a perpetual strife. During the first half this had
+been against himself; but even when others stepped into his place, it
+always seems as though a part of Augustine himself were incarnate in
+them. Augustine had early distinguished himself as an author. He had
+written several philosophical treatises, and, as teacher of rhetoric at
+Carthage, he had composed a work _De pulchro et apto_, which is no
+longer extant. Whenat Cassisiacum he had combated the scepticism of the
+New Academy (_Contra Academicos_), had treated of the "blessed life"
+(_De Vita beata_), of the significance of evil in the order of the world
+(_De ordine_), of the means for the elucidation of spiritual truths
+(_Soliloquia_). Shortly before the time of his baptism, he was occupied
+with the question of the immortality of the soul (_De immortalitate
+animae_), and in Rome and at Tagaste he was still engaged with
+philosophical problems, as is evidenced by the writings _De quantitate
+animae_ and _De magistro_. In all these treatises is apparent the
+influence of the Neo-Platonic method of thought, which for him, as for
+so many others, had become the bridge to the Christian. While still in
+Rome, he began to come to a reckoning with the Manichaeans, and wrote
+two books on the morals of the Catholic Church and of the Manichaeans
+(_De moribus ecclesiae Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum libri
+duo_). For many years he pursued this controversy in a long series of
+writings, of which the most conspicuous is the elaborate reply to his
+old associate and disputant, Faustus of Mileve (_Contra Faustum
+Manichaeum_, A.D. 400). It was natural that the Manichaean heresy, which
+had so long enslaved his own mind, should have first exercised
+Augustine's great powers as a theological thinker and controversialist.
+He was able from his own experience to give force to his arguments for
+the unity of creation and of the spiritual life, and to strengthen the
+mind of the Christian Church in its last struggle with that dualistic
+spirit which had animated and moulded in succession so many forms of
+thought at variance with Christianity.
+
+But the time was one of almost universal ecclesiastical and intellectual
+excitement; and so powerful a mental activity as his was naturally drawn
+forth in all directions. Following his writings against the Manichaeans
+came those against the Donatists. The controversy was one which strongly
+interested him, involving as it did the whole question of the
+constitution of the Church and the idea of catholic order, to which the
+circumstances of the age gave special prominence. The Donatist
+controversy sprang out of the Diocletian persecution in the beginning of
+the century. A party in the Church of Carthage, fired with fanatic zeal
+on behalf of those who had courted martyrdom by resistance to the
+imperial mandates, resented deeply the appointment of a bishop of
+moderate opinions, whose consecration had been performed, they alleged,
+by a _traditor_, viz. a bishop who had "delivered" the holy scriptures
+to the magistrates. They set up, in consequence, a bishop of their own,
+of the name of Majorinus, succeeded in 315 by Donatus. The party made
+great pretensions to purity of discipline, and rapidly rose in popular
+favour, notwithstanding a decision given against them both by the bishop
+of Rome and by the emperor Cons tan tine. Augustine was strongly moved
+by the lawlessness of the party and launched forth a series of writings
+against them, the most important of which survive. Amongst these are
+"Seven Books on Baptism" (_De baptismo contra Donatistas_, c. A.D. 400)
+and a lengthy answer, in three books, to Petilian, bishop of Cirta, who
+was the most eminent theologian amongst the Donatist divines. At a later
+period, about 417, Augustine wrote a treatise concerning the correction
+of the Donatists (_De correctione Donatistarum_) "for the sake of
+those," he says in his _Retractations_, "who were not willing that the
+Donatists should be subjected to the correction of the imperial laws."
+In these writings, while vigorously maintaining the validity of the
+Church as it then stood in the Roman world, and the necessity for
+moderation in the exercise of church discipline, Augustine yet gave
+currency, in his zeal against the Donatists, to certain maxims as to the
+duty of the civil power to control schism, which were of evil omen, and
+have been productive of much disaster in the history of Christianity.
+
+The third controversy in which Augustine engaged was the most important,
+and the most intimately associated with his distinctive greatness as a
+theologian. As may be supposed, owing to the conflicts through which he
+had passed, the bishop of Hippo was intensely interested in what may be
+called the anthropological aspect of the great Christian idea of
+redemption. He had himself been brought out of darkness into "marvellous
+light," only by entering into the depths of his own soul, and finding,
+after many struggles, that there was no power but divine grace, as
+revealed in the life and death of the Son of God, which could bring rest
+to human weariness, or pardon and peace for human guilt. He had found
+human nature in his own case too weak and sinful to find any good for
+itself. In God alone he had found good. This deep sense of human
+sinfulness coloured all his theology, and gave to it at once its
+depth--its profound and sympathetic adaptation to all who feel the
+reality of sin--and that tinge of darkness and exaggeration which has as
+surely repelled others. When the expression "Augustinism" is used, it
+points especially to those opinions of the great teacher which were
+evoked in the Pelagian controversy, to which he devoted the most mature
+and powerful period of his life. His opponents in this controversy were
+Pelagius, from whom it derives its name, and Coelestius and Julianus,
+pupils of the former. Nothing is certainly known as to the home of
+Pelagius. Augustine calls him Brito, and so do Marius Mercator and
+Orosius. Jerome points to his Scottish descent, in such terms, however,
+as to leave it uncertain whether he was a native of Scotland or of
+Ireland. He was a man of blameless character, devoted to the reformation
+of society, full of that confidence in the natural impulses of humanity
+which often accompanies philanthropic enthusiasm. About the year 400 he
+came, no longer a young man, to Rome, where he lived for more than a
+decade, and soon made himself conspicuous by his activity and by his
+opinions. His pupil Coelestius, a lawyer of unknown origin, developed
+the views of his master with a more outspoken logic, and, while
+travelling with Pelagius in Africa, in the year 411, was at length
+arraigned before the bishop of Carthage for the following, amongst other
+heretical opinions:--(1) that Adam's sin was purely personal, and
+affected none but himself; (2) that each man, consequently, is born with
+powers as incorrupt as those of Adam, and only falls into sin under the
+force of temptation and evil example; (3) that children who die in
+infancy, being untainted by sin, are saved without baptism. Views such
+as these were obviously in conflict with the whole course of Augustine's
+experience, as well as with his interpretation of the catholic doctrine
+of the Church. And when his attention was drawn to them by the trial and
+excommunication of Coelestius, he undertook their refutation, first of
+all in three books on the punishment and forgiveness of sins and the
+baptism of infants (_De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo
+parvulorum_), addressed to his friend Marcellinus, in which he
+vindicated the necessity of baptism of infants because of original sin
+and the grace of God by which we are justified (_Retract._ ii. 23). This
+was in 412. In the same year he addressed a further treatise to the same
+Marcellinus on _The Spirit and the Letter_ (_De spiritu et littera_).
+Three years later he composed the treatises on _Nature and Grace_ (_De
+natura et gratia_) and the relation of the human to the divine
+righteousness (_De perfectione iustitiae hominis_). The controversy was
+continued during many years in no fewer than fifteen treatises. Upon no
+subject did Augustine bestow more of his intellectual strength, and in
+relation to no other have his views so deeply and permanently affected
+the course of Christian thought. Even those who most usually agree with
+his theological standpoint will hardly deny that, while he did much in
+these writings to vindicate divine truth and to expound the true
+relations of the divine and human, he also, here as elsewhere, was
+hurried into extreme expressions as to the absoluteness of divine grace
+and the extent of human corruption. Like his great disciple in a later
+age--Luther--Augustine was prone to emphasize the side of truth which he
+had most realized in his own experience, and, in contradistinction to
+the Pelagian exaltation of human nature, to depreciate its capabilities
+beyond measure.
+
+In addition to these controversial writings, which mark the great epochs
+of Augustine's life and ecclesiastical activity after his settlement as
+a bishop at Hippo, he was the author of other works, some of them better
+known and even more important. His great work, the most elaborate, and
+in some respects the most significant, that came from his pen, is _The
+City of God_ (_De civitate Dei_). It is designed as a great apologetic
+treatise in vindication of Christianity and the Christian Church,--the
+latter conceived as rising in the form of a new civic order on the
+crumbling ruins of the Roman empire,--but it is also, perhaps, the
+earliest contribution to the philosophy of history, as it is a repertory
+throughout of his cherished theological opinions. This work and his
+_Confessions_ are, probably, those by which he is best known, the one as
+the highest expression of his thought, and the other as the best
+monument of his living piety and Christian experience. _The City of God_
+was begun in 413, and continued to be issued in its several portions for
+a period of thirteen years, or till 426. The _Confessions_ were written
+shortly after he became a bishop, about 397, and give a vivid sketch of
+his early career. To the devout utterances and aspirations of a great
+soul they add the charm of personal disclosure, and have never ceased to
+excite admiration in all spirits of kindred piety. Something of this
+charm also belongs to the _Retractations_, that remarkable work in which
+Augustine, in 427, towards the end of his life, held as it were a review
+of his literary activity, in order to improve what was erroneous and to
+make clear what was doubtful in it. His systematic treatise on _The
+Trinity_ (_De Trinitate_) which extends to fifteen books and occupied
+him for nearly thirty years, must not be passed over. This important
+work, unlike most of his dogmatic writings, was not provoked by any
+special controversial emergency, but grew up silently during this long
+period in the author's mind. This has given it something more of
+completeness and organic arrangement than is usual with Augustine, if it
+has also led him into the prolonged discussion of various analogies,
+more curious than apt in their bearing on the doctrine which he
+expounds. Brief and concise is the presentation of the Catholic doctrine
+in the compendium, which, about 421, he wrote at the request of a Roman
+layman named Laurentius (_Encheiridion, sive de fide spe et caritate_).
+In spite of its title, the compendious work on Christian doctrine (_De
+doctrina Christiana_), begun as early as 393, but only finished in 426,
+does not belong to the dogmatic writings. It is a sort of Biblical
+hermeneutic, in which homiletic questions are also dealt with. His
+catechetical principles Augustine developed in the charming writing _De
+catechizandis rudibus_ (c. 400). A large number of tractates are devoted
+to moral and theological problems (_Contra mendacium_, c. 420; _De bono
+conjugali_, 401, &c.). A widespread influence was exercised by the
+treatise _De opere monachorum_ (c. 400), in which, on the ground of
+Holy Scripture, manual work was demanded of monks. Of less importance
+than the remaining works are the numerous exegetical writings, among
+which the commentary on the Gospel of St John deserves a special
+mention. These have a value owing to Augustine's appreciation of the
+deeper spiritual meaning of scripture, but hardly for their exegetical
+qualities. His _Letters_ are full of interest owing to the light they
+throw on many questions in the ecclesiastical history of the time, and
+owing to his relations with such contemporary theologians as Jerome.
+They have, however, neither the liveliness nor the varied interest of
+the letters of Jerome himself. As a preacher Augustine was of great
+importance. We still possess almost four hundred sermons which may be
+ascribed to him with certainty. Many others only pass under his
+celebrated name.
+
+The closing years of the great bishop were full of sorrow. The Vandals,
+who had been gradually enclosing the Roman empire, appeared before the
+gates of Hippo, and laid siege to it. Augustine was ill with his last
+illness, and could only pray for his fellow-citizens. He passed away
+during the siege, on the 28th of August 430, at the age of seventy-five,
+and thus was spared the indignity of seeing the city in the hands of the
+enemy.
+
+The character of Augustine, both as a man and as a theologian, has been
+briefly indicated in the course of our sketch. None can deny the
+greatness of Augustine's soul--his enthusiasm, his unceasing search
+after truth, his affectionate disposition, his ardour, his
+self-devotion. And even those who may doubt the soundness of his
+dogmatic conclusions, cannot but acknowledge the depth of his spiritual
+convictions, and the logical force and penetration with which he handled
+the most difficult questions, thus weaving all the elements of his
+experience and of his profound scriptural knowledge into a great system
+of Christian thought. Of the four great Fathers of the Church he was
+admittedly the greatest--more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual
+father, more original and systematic than Jerome, his correspondent, and
+intellectually far more distinguished than Gregory the Great, his pupil
+on the papal throne. The theological position and influence of Augustine
+may be said to be unrivalled. No single name has ever exercised such
+power over the Christian Church, and no one mind ever made so deep an
+impression upon Christian thought. In him scholastics and mystics, popes
+and the opponents of the papal supremacy, have seen their champion. He
+was the fulcrum on which Luther rested the thoughts by which he sought
+to lift the past of the Church out of the rut; yet the judgment of
+Catholics still proclaims the ideas of Augustine as the only sound basis
+of philosophy.
+
+  The best complete edition of Augustine's works is that of the
+  Maurines, in 11 vols. fol. published at Paris, 1679-1700, and
+  reprinted in Migne's _Patrologie_ (Paris, 1841-1842). Of the new
+  critical edition in the _Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum
+  Latinorum_, issued by the Vienna Academy, thirteen volumes had been
+  published in 1908, including the _Confessions_, the _Retractations_,
+  _De civitate Dei_, and a number of exegetical and of dogmatic
+  polemical works, together with a portion of the _Letters_. An English
+  translation of nearly the whole of Augustine's writings will be found
+  in the _Select Library of the Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the
+  Christian Church_ (series 1, Buffalo, 1886, &c.). Tillemont, in his
+  _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique des VI premiers
+  siècles_, has devoted a quarto volume (vol. xiii.) to Augustine's life
+  and writings. The most complete monographs are those on the Catholic
+  side by Kloth (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1839-1840, 3 vols.) and J.J.F.
+  Poujoulat (7th ed., Paris, 1886, 2 vols.), and on the Protestant side
+  by Bindemann (Berlin, Leipzig, Greifswald, 1844-1869, 3 vols,). There
+  are interesting sketches, from quite different points of view, by von
+  Hertling, _Augustinus_ (2nd ed., Mainz, 1904), and Joseph McCabe, _St
+  Augustine and His Age_ (London, 1902). See also Nourrisson, _La
+  Philosophie de St Augustin_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1866, 2 vols.); H.A.
+  Naville, _St Augustin, étude sur la développement de sa pensée jusqu'à
+  l'époque de son ordination_ (Geneva, 1872); Dorner, _Augustinus_
+  (Berlin, 1873); Reuter, _Augustinische Studien_ (Gotha, 1886); F.
+  Scheel, _Die Anschauung Augustins über Christi Person und Werk_
+  (Tübingen, 1901); A. Hatzfeld, _Saint Augustin_ (6th ed., Paris,
+  1902); G. von Hertling, _Augustin_ (Mainz, 1902); A. Egger, _Der
+  heilige Augustinus_ (Kempten, 1904); J.N. Espenberger, _Die Elemente
+  der Erbsunde nach Augustin und der Fruhscholastik_ (Mainz, 1905); S.
+  Angus, _The Sources of the First Ten Books of Augustine's De Civitate
+  Dei_ (Princeton, 1906); and the more modern text-books of the history
+  of dogma, especially Harnack.     (G. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The reference is to the vision described above.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c. 613), first archbishop of Canterbury, occupied a
+position of authority in the monastery of St Andrew at Rome, when
+Gregory I. summoned him to lead a mission to England in A.D. 596. The
+apprehensions of Augustine's followers caused him to return to Rome, but
+the pope furnished him with letters of commendation and encouraged him
+to proceed. He landed in Thanet in A.D. 597, and was favourably received
+by Æthelberht, king of Kent, who granted a dwelling-place for the monks
+in Canterbury, and allowed them liberty to preach. Augustine first made
+use of the ancient church of St Martin at Canterbury, which before his
+arrival had been the oratory of the Queen Berhta and her confessor
+Liudhard. Æthelberht upon his conversion employed all his influence in
+support of the mission. In 601 Augustine received the pallium from
+Gregory and was given authority over the Celtic churches in Britain, as
+well as all future bishops consecrated in English territory, including
+York. Authority over the see of York was not, however, to descend to
+Augustine's successors. In 603 he consecrated Christ Church, Canterbury,
+and built the monastery of SS. Peter and Paul, afterwards known as St
+Augustine's. At the conference of Augustine's Oak he endeavoured in vain
+to bring over the Celtic church to the observance of the Roman Easter.
+He afterwards consecrated Mellitus and Justus to the sees of London and
+Rochester respectively. The date of his death is not recorded by Bede,
+but MS. F of the Saxon Chronicle puts it in 614, and the _Annales
+Monasterienses_ in 612.
+
+  See Bede, _Eccl. Hist._ (ed. by Plummer), i. 23-ii. 3.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINIAN CANONS, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church,
+called also Austin Canons, Canons Regular, and in England Black Canons,
+because their cassock and mantle were black, though they wore a white
+surplice: elsewhere the colour of the habit varied considerably.
+
+The canons regular (see CANON) grew out of the earlier institute of
+canonical life, in consequence of the urgent exhortations of the Lateran
+Synod of 1059. The clergy of some cathedrals (in England, Carlisle), and
+of a great number of collegiate churches all over western Europe,
+responded to the appeal; and the need of a rule of life suited to the
+new regime produced, towards the end of the 11th century, the so-called
+Rule of St Augustine (see AUGUSTINIANS). This Rule was widely adopted by
+the canons regular, who also began to bind themselves by the vows of
+poverty, obedience and chastity. In the 12th century this discipline
+became universal among them; and so arose the order of Augustinian
+canons as a religious order in the strict sense of the word. They
+resembled the monks in so far as they lived in community and took
+religious vows; but their state of life remained essentially clerical,
+and as clerics their duty was to undertake the pastoral care and serve
+the parish churches in their patronage. They were bound to the choral
+celebration of the divine office, and in its general tenor their manner
+of life differed little from that of monks.
+
+Their houses, at first without bonds between them, soon tended to draw
+together and coalesce into congregations with corporate organization and
+codes of constitutions supplementary to the Rule. The popes encouraged
+these centralizing tendencies; and in 1339 Benedict XII. organized the
+Augustinian canons on the same general lines as those laid down for the
+Benedictines, by a system of provincial chapters and visitations.
+
+Some thirty congregations of canons regular of St Augustine are
+numbered. The most important were: (1) the Lateran canons, formed soon
+after the synod of 1059, by the clergy of the Lateran Basilica; (2)
+Congregation of St Victor in Paris, c. 1100, remarkable for the
+theological and mystical school of Hugh, Richard and Adam of St Victor;
+(3) Gilbertines (see GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST); (4) Windesheim
+Congregation, c. 1400, in the Netherlands and over north and central
+Germany (see GROOT, GERHARD), to which belonged Thomas à Kempis; (5)
+Congregation of Ste Geneviève in Paris, a reform c. 1630. During the
+later middle ages the houses of these various congregations of canons
+regular spread all over Europe and became extraordinarily numerous. They
+underwent the natural and inevitable vicissitudes of all orders, having
+their periods of depression and degeneracy, and again of revival and
+reform. The book of Johann Busch, himself a canon of Windesheim, _De
+Reformatione monasteriorum_, shows that in the 15th century grave
+relaxation had crept into many monasteries of Augustinian canons in
+north Germany, and the efforts at reform were only partially successful.
+The Reformation, the religious wars and the Revolution have swept away
+nearly all the canons regular, but some of their houses in Austria still
+exist in their medieval splendour. In England there were as many as 200
+houses of Augustinian canons, and 60 of them were among the "greater
+monasteries" suppressed in 1538-1540 (for list see Tables in F.A.
+Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The first foundation was Holy
+Trinity, Aldgate, by Queen Maud, in 1108; Carlisle was an English
+cathedral of Augustinian canons. In Ireland the order was even more
+numerous, Christ Church, Dublin, being one of their houses. Three houses
+of the Lateran canons were established in England towards the close of
+the 19th century. Most of the congregations of Augustinian canons had
+convents of nuns, called canonesses; many such exist to this day.
+
+  See the works of Amort and Du Molinet, mentioned under CANON. Vol. ii.
+  of Helyot's _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792) is devoted to canons
+  regular of all kinds. The information is epitomized by Max Heimbucher,
+  _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), §§ 54-60, where copious
+  references to the literature of the subject are supplied. See also
+  Otto Zöckler, _Askese und Mönchtum_, ii. (1897), p. 422; and Wetzer
+  und Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Canonici Regulares" and
+  "Canonissae." For England see J.W. Clark, _Observances in use at the
+  Augustinian Priory at Barnwell_ (1897); and an article in _Journal of
+  Theological Studies_ (v.) by Scott Holmes.     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS, or FRIARS, a religious order in the Roman Catholic
+Church, sometimes called (but improperly) Black Friars (see FRIARS). In
+the first half of the 13th century there were in central Italy various
+small congregations of hermits living according to different rules. The
+need of co-ordinating and organizing these hermits induced the popes
+towards 1250 to unite into one body a number of these congregations, so
+as to form a single religious order, living according to the Rule of St
+Augustine, and called the Order of Augustinian Hermits, or simply the
+Augustinian Order. Special constitutions were drawn up for its
+government, on the same lines as the Dominicans and other mendicants--a
+general elected by chapter, provincials to rule in the different
+countries, with assistants, definitors and visitors. For this reason,
+and because almost from the beginning the term "hermits" became a
+misnomer (for they abandoned the deserts and lived conventually in
+towns), they ranked among the friars, and became the fourth of the
+mendicant orders. The observance and manner of life was, relatively to
+those times, mild, meat being allowed four days in the week. The habit
+is black. The institute spread rapidly all over western Europe, so that
+it eventually came to have forty provinces and 2000 friaries with some
+30,000 members. In England there were not more than about 30 houses (see
+Tables in F.A. Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The reaction against
+the inevitable tendencies towards mitigation and relaxation led to a
+number of reforms that produced upwards of twenty different
+congregations within the order, each governed by a vicar-general, who
+was subject to the general of the order. Some of these congregations
+went in the matter of austerity beyond the original idea of the
+institute; and so in the 16th century there arose in Spain, Italy and
+France, Discalced or Barefooted Hermits of St Augustine, who provided in
+each province one house wherein a strictly eremitical life might be led
+by such as desired it.
+
+About 1500 a great attempt at a reform of this kind was set on foot
+among the Augustinian Hermits of northern Germany, and they were formed
+into a separate congregation independent of the general. It was from
+this congregation that Luther went forth, and great numbers of the
+German Augustinian Hermits, among them Wenceslaus Link the provincial,
+followed him and embraced the Reformation, so that the congregation was
+dissolved in 1526.
+
+The Reformation and later revolutions have destroyed most of the houses
+of Augustinian Hermits, so that now only about a hundred exist in
+various parts of Europe and America; in Ireland they are relatively
+numerous, having survived the penal times. The Augustinian school of
+theology (Noris, Berti) was formed among the Hermits. There have been
+many convents of Augustinian Hermitesses, chiefly in the Barefooted
+congregations; such convents exist still in Europe and North America,
+devoted to education and hospital work. There have also been numerous
+congregations of Augustinian Tertiaries, both men and women, connected
+with the order and engaged on charitable works of every kind (see
+TERTIARIES).
+
+  See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), iii.; Max Heimbucher,
+  _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), § 61-65; Wetzer und Welte,
+  _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Augustiner"; Herzog,
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed.), art. "Augustiner." The chief book on the
+  subject is Th. Kolde, _Die deutschen Augustiner-Kongregationen_
+  (1879).     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINIANS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a generic name for religious
+orders that follow the so-called "Rule of St Augustine." The chief of
+these orders are:--Augustinian Canons (q.v.), Augustinian Hermits (q.v.)
+or Friars, Premonstratensians (q.v.), Trinitarians (q.v.), Gilbertines
+(see GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST). The following orders, though not
+called Augustinians, also have St Augustine's Rule as the basis of their
+life: Dominicans, Servites, Our Lady of Ransom, Hieronymites,
+Assumptionsts and many others; also orders of women: Brigittines,
+Ursulines, Visitation nuns and a vast number of congregations of women,
+spread over the Old and New Worlds, devoted to education and charitable
+works of all kinds.
+
+  See Helyot, _Ordres religieux_ (1792), vols. ii., iii., iv.; Max
+  Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), § 66-85; Wetzer und
+  Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_, i., 1665-1667.
+
+St Augustine never wrote a Rule, properly so called; but _Ep._ 211
+(_al._ 109) is a long letter of practical advice to a community of nuns,
+on their daily life; and _Serm._ 355, 356 describe the common life he
+led along with his clerics in Hippo. When in the second half of the 11th
+century the clergy of a great number of collegiate churches were
+undertaking to live a substantially monastic form of life (see CANON),
+it was natural that they should look back to this classical model for
+clerics living in community. And so attention was directed to St
+Augustine's writings on community life; and out of them, and spurious
+writings attributed to him, were compiled towards the close of the 11th
+century three Rules, the "First" and "Second" being mere fragments, but
+the "Third" a substantive rule of life in 45 sections, often grouped in
+twelve chapters. This Third Rule is the one known as "the Rule of St
+Augustine." Being confined to fundamental principles without entering
+into details, it has proved itself admirably suited to form the
+foundation of the religious life of the most varied orders and
+congregations, and since the 12th century it has proved more prolific
+than the Benedictine Rule. In an uncritical age it was attributed to St
+Augustine himself, and Augustinians, especially the canons, put forward
+fantastic claims to antiquity, asserting unbroken continuity, not merely
+from St Augustine, but from Christ and the Apostles.
+
+  The three Rules are printed in Dugdale, _Monasticon_ (ed. 1846), vi.
+  42; and in Holsten-Brockie, _Codex Regularum_, ii. 121. For the
+  literature see Otto Zöckler, _Askese und Mönchtum_ (1897), pp. 347,
+  354.     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTOWO, a city of Russian Poland, in the government of Suwalki, 20 m.
+S. of the town of that name, on a canal (65 m.) connecting the Vistula
+with the Niemen. It was founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. (Augustus), and
+is laid out in a very regular manner, with a spacious market-place. It
+carries on a large trade in cattle and horses, and manufactures linen
+and huckaback. Pop. (1897) 12,746.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS (a name[1] derived from Lat. _augeo_, increase, i.e. venerable,
+majestic, Gr. [Greek: Sebastos]), the title given by the Roman senate,
+on the 17th of January 27 B.C., to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (63
+B.C.-A.D. 14), or as he was originally designated, Gaius Octavius, in
+recognition of his eminent services to the state (_Mon. Anc._ 34), and
+borne by him as the first of the Roman emperors. The title was adopted
+by all the succeeding Caesars or emperors of Rome long after they had
+ceased to be connected by blood with the first Augustus.
+
+Gaius Octavius was born in Rome on the 23rd of September 63 B.C., the
+year of Cicero's consulship and of Catiline's conspiracy. He came of a
+family of good standing, long settled at Velitrae (Velletri), but his
+father was the first of the family to obtain a curule magistracy at Rome
+and senatorial dignity. His mother, however, was Atia, daughter of
+Julia, the wife of M. Atius Balbus, and sister of Julius Caesar, and it
+was this connexion with the great dictator which determined his career.
+In his fifth year (58 B.C.) his father died; about a year later his
+mother remarried, and the young Octavius passed under her care to that
+of his stepfather, L. Marcius Philippus. At the age of twelve (51 B.C.)
+he delivered the customary funeral panegyric on his grandmother Julia,
+his first public appearance. On the 18th of October 48 (or ? 47) B.C. he
+assumed the "toga virilis" and was elected into the pontifical college,
+an exceptional honour which he no doubt owed to his great-uncle, now
+dictator and master of Rome. In 46 B.C. he shared in the glory of
+Caesar's African triumph, and in 45 he was made a patrician by the
+senate, and designated as one of Caesar's "masters of the horse" for the
+next year. In the autumn of 45, Caesar, who was planning his Parthian
+campaign, sent his nephew to study quietly at the Greek colony of
+Apollonia, in Illyria. Here the news of Caesar's murder reached him and
+he crossed to Italy. On landing he learnt that Caesar had made him his
+heir and adopted him into the Julian gens, whereby he acquired the
+designation of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. The inheritance was a
+perilous one; his mother and others would have dissuaded him from
+accepting it, but he, confident in his abilities, declared at once that
+he would undertake its obligations, and discharge the sums bequeathed by
+the dictator to the Roman people. Mark Antony had possessed himself of
+Caesar's papers and effects, and made light of his young nephew's
+pretensions. Brutus and Cassius paid him little regard, and dispersed to
+their respective provinces. Cicero, much charmed at the attitude of
+Antonius, hoped to make use of him, and flattered him to the utmost,
+with the expectation, however, of getting rid of him as soon as he had
+served his purpose. Octavianus conducted himself with consummate
+adroitness, making use of all competitors for power, but assisting none.
+Considerable forces attached themselves to him. The senate, when it
+armed the consuls against Antonius, called upon him for assistance; and
+he took part in the campaign in which Antonius was defeated at Mutina
+(43 B.C.). The soldiers of Octavianus demanded the consulship for him,
+and the senate, though now much alarmed, could not prevent his election.
+He now effected a coalition with Antonius and Lepidus, and on the 27th
+of November 43 B.C. the three were formally appointed a triumvirate for
+the reconstitution of the commonwealth for five years. They divided the
+western provinces among them, the east being held for the republic by
+Brutus and Cassius. They drew up a list of proscribed citizens, and
+caused the assassination of three hundred senators and two thousand
+knights. They further confiscated the territories of many cities
+throughout Italy, and divided them among their soldiers. Cicero was
+murdered at the demand of Antonius. The remnant of the republican party
+took refuge either with Brutus and Cassius in the East, or with Sextus
+Pompeius, who had made himself master of the seas.
+
+Octavianus and Antonius crossed the Adriatic in 42 B.C. to reduce the
+last defenders of the republic. Brutus and Cassius were defeated, and
+fell at the battle of Philippi. War soon broke out between the victors,
+the chief incident of which was the siege and capture by famine of
+Perusia, and the alleged sacrifice of three hundred of its defenders by
+the young Caesar at the altar of his uncle. But peace was again made
+between them (40 B.C.). Antonius married Octavia, his rival's sister,
+and took for himself the eastern half of the empire, leaving the west to
+Caesar. Lepidus was reduced to the single province of Africa. Meanwhile
+Sextus Pompeius made himself formidable by cutting off the supplies of
+grain from Rome. The triumvirs were obliged to concede to him the
+islands in the western Mediterranean. But Octavianus could not allow the
+capital to be kept in alarm for its daily sustenance. He picked a
+quarrel with Sextus, and when his colleagues failed to support him,
+undertook to attack him alone. Antonius, indeed, came at last to his
+aid, in return for military assistance in the campaign he meditated in
+the East. But Octavianus was well served by the commander of his fleet,
+M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Sextus was completely routed, and driven into
+Asia, where he perished soon afterwards (36 B.C.). Lepidus was an object
+of contempt to all parties, and Octavianus and Antonius remained to
+fight for supreme power.
+
+The five years (36-31 B.C.) which preceded the decisive encounter
+between the two rivals were wasted by Antony in fruitless campaigns, and
+in a dalliance with Cleopatra which shocked Roman sentiment. By Octavian
+they were employed in strengthening his hold on the West, and his claim
+to be regarded as the one possible saviour of Rome and Roman
+civilization. His marriage with Livia (38 B.C.) placed by his side a
+sagacious counsellor and a loyal ally, whose services were probably as
+great as even those of his trusted friend Marcus Agrippa. With their
+help he set himself to win the confidence of a public still inclined to
+distrust the author of the proscriptions of 43 B.C. Brigandage was
+suppressed in Italy, and the safety of the Italian frontiers secured
+against the raids of Alpine tribes on the north-west and of Illyrians on
+the east, while Rome was purified and beautified, largely with the help
+of Agrippa (aedile in 33 B.C.). Meanwhile, indignation at Antony's
+un-Roman excesses, and alarm at Cleopatra's rumoured schemes of founding
+a Greco-Oriental empire, were rapidly increasing. In 32 B.C. Antony's
+repudiation of his wife Octavia, sister of Octavian, and the discovery
+of his will, with its clear proofs of Cleopatra's dangerous ascendancy,
+brought matters to a climax, and war was declared, not indeed against
+Antony, but against Cleopatra.
+
+The decisive battle was fought on the 2nd of September 31 B.C. at Actium
+on the Epirot coast, and resulted in the almost total destruction of
+Antony's fleet and the surrender of his land forces. Not quite a year
+later (Aug. 1, 30 B.C.) followed the capture of Alexandria and the
+deaths by their own hands of Antony and Cleopatra. On the 11th of
+January 29 B.C. the restoration of peace was marked by the closing of
+the temple of Janus for the first time for 200 years. In the summer
+Octavian returned to Italy, and in August celebrated a three days'
+triumph. He was welcomed, not as a successful combatant in a civil war,
+but as the man who had vindicated the sovereignty of Rome against its
+assailants, as the saviour of the republic and of his fellow-citizens,
+above all as the restorer of peace.
+
+He was now, to quote his own words, "master of all things," and the
+Roman world looked to him for some permanent settlement of the
+distracted empire. His first task was the re-establishment of a regular
+and constitutional government, such as had not existed since Julius
+Caesar crossed the Rubicon twenty years before. To this task he devoted
+the next eighteen months (Aug. 29-Jan. 27 B.C.). In the article on ROME:
+_History_ (q.v.), his achievements are described in detail, and only a
+brief summary need be given here. The "principate," to give the new form
+of government its most appropriate name, was a compromise thoroughly
+characteristic of the combination of tenacity of purpose with cautious
+respect for forms and conventions which distinguished its author. The
+republic was restored; senate, magistrates and assembly resumed their
+ancient functions; and the public life of Rome began to run once more in
+the familiar grooves. The triumvirate with its irregularities and
+excesses was at an end. The controlling authority, which Octavian
+himself wielded, could not indeed be safely dispensed with. But
+henceforward he was to exercise it under constitutional forms and
+limitations, and with the express sanction of the senate and people.
+Octavian was legally invested for a period of ten years with the
+government of the important frontier provinces, with the sole command of
+the military and naval forces of the state, and the exclusive control of
+its foreign relations. At home it was understood that he would year by
+year be elected consul, and enjoy the powers and pre-eminence attached
+to the chief magistracy of the Roman state. Thus the republic was
+restored under the presidency and patronage of its "first citizen"
+(_princeps civitatis_).
+
+In acknowledgment of this happy settlement and of his other services
+further honours were conferred upon Octavian. On the 13th of January 27
+B.C., the birthday of the restored republic, he was awarded the civic
+crown to be placed over the door of his house, in token that he had
+saved his fellow-citizens and restored the Republic. Four days later
+(Jan. 17) the senate conferred upon him the cognomen of Augustus.
+
+But it was not only the machinery of government in Rome that needed
+repair. Twenty years of civil war and confusion had disorganized the
+empire, and the strong hand of Augustus, as he must now be called,
+could alone restore confidence and order. Towards the end of 27 B.C. he
+left Rome for Gaul, and from that date until October 19 B.C. he was
+mainly occupied with the reorganization of the provinces and of the
+provincial administration, first of all in the West and then in the
+East. It was during his stay in Asia (20 B.C.) that the Parthian king
+Phraates voluntarily restored the Roman prisoners and standards taken at
+Carrhae (53 B.C.), a welcome tribute to the respect inspired by
+Augustus, and a happy augury for the future. In October 19 B.C. he
+returned to Rome, and the senate ordered that the day of his return
+(Oct. 12) should thenceforward be observed as a public holiday. The
+period of ten years for which his _imperium_ had been granted him was
+nearly ended, and though much remained to be done, very much had been
+accomplished. The pacification of northern Spain by the subjugation of
+the Astures and Cantabri, the settlement of the wide territories added
+to the empire by Julius Caesar in Gaul--the "New Gaul," or the
+"long-haired Gaul" (Gallia Comata) as it was called by way of
+distinction from the old province of Gallia Narbonensis (see GAUL)--and
+the re-establishment of Roman authority over the kings and princes of
+the Near East, were achievements which fully justified the acclamations
+of senate and people.
+
+In 18 B.C. Augustus's _imperium_ was renewed for five years, and his
+tried friend Marcus Agrippa, now his son-in-law, was associated with him
+as a colleague. From October of 19 B.C. till the middle of 16 B.C.
+Augustus's main attention was given to Rome and to domestic reform, and
+to this period belong such measures as the Julian law "as to the
+marriage of the orders." In June of 17 B.C. the opening of the new and
+better age, which he had worked to bring about, was marked by the
+celebration in Rome of the Secular games. The chief actors in the
+ceremony were Augustus himself and his colleague Agrippa,--while, as the
+extant record tells us, the processional hymn, chanted by youths and
+maidens first before the new temple of Apollo on the Palatine and then
+before the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, was composed by Horace. The
+hymn, the well-known _Carmen Saeculare_, gives fervent expression to the
+prevalent emotions of joy and gratitude.
+
+In the next year (16 B.C.), however, Augustus was suddenly called away
+from Rome to deal with a problem which engrossed much of his attention
+for the next twenty-five years. The defeat of Marcus Lollius, the legate
+commanding on the Rhine, by a horde of German invaders, seems to have
+determined Augustus to take in hand the whole question of the frontiers
+of the empire towards the north, and the effective protection of Gaul
+and Italy. The work was entrusted to Augustus's step-sons Tiberius and
+Drusus. The first step was the annexation of Noricum and Raetia (16-15
+B.C.), which brought under Roman control the mountainous district
+through which the direct routes lay from North Italy to the upper waters
+of the Rhine and the Danube. East of Noricum Tiberius reduced to order
+for the time the restless tribes of Pannonia, and probably established a
+military post at Carnuntum on the Danube. To Drusus fell the more
+ambitious task of advancing the Roman frontier line from the Rhine to
+the Elbe, a work which occupied him until his death in Germany in 9 B.C.
+In 13 B.C. Augustus had returned to Rome; his return, and the conclusion
+of his second period of rule, were commemorated by the erection of one
+of the most beautiful monuments of the Augustan age, the Ara Pacis
+Augustae (see ROMAN ART, Pl. II, III). His _imperium_ was renewed, again
+for five years, and in 12 B.C., on the death of his former
+fellow-triumvir Lepidus, he was elected Pontifex Maximus. But this third
+period of his imperium brought with it losses which Augustus must have
+keenly felt. Only a few months after his reappointment as Augustus's
+colleague, Marcus Agrippa, his trusted friend since boyhood, died. As
+was fully his due, his funeral oration was pronounced by Augustus, and
+he was buried in the mausoleum near the Tiber built by Augustus for
+himself and his family. Three years later his brilliant step-son Drusus
+died on his way back from a campaign in Germany, in which he had reached
+the Elbe. Finally in 8 B.C. he lost the comrade who next to Agrippa had
+been the most intimate friend and counsellor of his early manhood, Gaius
+Cilnius Maecenas, the patron of Virgil and Horace.
+
+For the moment Augustus turned, almost of necessity, to his surviving
+step-son. Tiberius was associated with him as Agrippa had been in the
+tribunician power, was married against his will to Julia, and sent to
+complete his brother Drusus's work in Germany (7-6 B.C.). But Tiberius
+was only his step-son, and, with all his great qualities, was never a
+very lovable man. On the other hand, the two sons of Agrippa and Julia,
+Gaius and Lucius, were of his own blood and evidently dear to him. Both
+had been adopted by Augustus (178. c.). In 6 B.C. Tiberius, who had just
+received the tribunician power, was transferred from Germany to the
+East, where the situation in Armenia demanded attention. His sudden
+withdrawal to Rhodes has been variously explained, but, in part at
+least, it was probably due to the plain indications which Augustus now
+gave of his wish that the young Caesars should be regarded as his heirs.
+The elder, Gaius, now fifteen years old (5 B.C.), was formally
+introduced to the people as consul-designate by Augustus himself, who
+for this purpose resumed the consulship (12th) which he had dropped
+since 23 B.C., and was authorized to take part in the deliberations of
+the senate. Three years later (2 B.C.) Augustus, now consul for the 13th
+and last time, paid a similar compliment to the younger brother Lucius.
+In 1 B.C. Gaius was given proconsular imperium, and sent to re-establish
+order in Armenia, and a few years afterwards (A.D. 2) Lucius was sent to
+Spain, apparently to take command of the legions there. But the fates
+were unkind; Lucius fell sick and died at Marseilles on his way out, and
+in the next year (A.D. 3) Gaius, wounded by an obscure hand in Armenia,
+started reluctantly for home, only to die in Lycia. Tiberius alone was
+left, and Augustus, at once accepting facts, formally and finally
+declared him to be his colleague and destined successor (A.D. 4) and
+adopted him as his son.
+
+The interest of the last ten years of Augustus's life centres in the
+events occurring on the northern frontier. The difficult task of
+bringing the German tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe under Roman
+rule, commenced by Drusus in 13 B.C., had on his death been continued by
+Tiberius (9-6 B.C.). During Tiberius's retirement in Rhodes no decisive
+progress was made, but in A.D. 4 operations on a large scale were
+resumed. From Velleius Paterculus, who himself served in the war, we
+learn that in the first campaign Roman authority was restored over the
+tribes between the Rhine and the Weser, and that the Roman forces,
+instead of returning as usual to their headquarters on the Rhine, went
+into winter-quarters near the source of the Lippe. In the next year
+(A.D. 5) the Elbe was reached by the troops, while the fleet, after a
+hazardous voyage, arrived at the mouth of the same river and sailed some
+way up it. Both feats are deservedly commemorated by Augustus himself in
+the Ancyran monument. To complete the conquest of Germany and to connect
+the frontier with the line of the Danube, it seemed that only one thing
+remained to be done, to break the power of the Marcomanni and their king
+Maroboduus. In the spring of A.D. 6 preparations were made for this
+final achievement; the territory of the Marcomanni (now Bohemia) was to
+be invaded simultaneously by two columns. One, starting apparently from
+the headquarters of the army of Upper Germany at Mainz, was to advance
+by way of the Black Forest and attack Maroboduus on the west; the other,
+led by Tiberius himself, was to start from the new military base at
+Carnuntum on the Danube and operate from the south-east.
+
+But the attack was never delivered, for at this moment, in the rear of
+Tiberius, the whole of Pannonia and Dalmatia burst into a blaze of
+insurrection. The crisis is pronounced by Suetonius to have been more
+serious than any which had confronted Rome since the Hannibalic war, for
+it was not merely the loss of a province but the invasion of Italy that
+was threatened, and Augustus openly declared in the senate that the
+insurgents might be before Rome in ten days. He himself moved to
+Ariminum to be nearer the seat of war, recruiting was vigorously carried
+on in Rome and Italy, and legions were summoned from Moesia and even
+from Asia. In the end, and not including the Thracian cavalry of King
+Rhoemetalces, a force of 15 legions with an equal number of auxiliaries
+was employed. Even so the task of putting down the insurrection was
+difficult enough, and it was not until late in the summer of A.D. 9,
+after three years of fighting, that Germanicus, who had been sent to
+assist Tiberius, ended the war by the capture of Andetrium in Dalmatia.
+
+Five days later the news reached Rome of the disaster to Varus and his
+legions, in the heart of what was to have been the new province of
+Germany beyond the Rhine. The disaster was avowedly due entirely to
+Varus's incapacity and vanity, and might no doubt have been repaired by
+leaders of the calibre of Tiberius and Germanicus. Augustus, however,
+was now seventy-two, the Dalmatian outbreak had severely tried his
+nerve, and now for the second time in three years the fates seemed to
+pronounce clearly against a further prosecution of his long-cherished
+scheme of a Roman Germany reaching to the Elbe.
+
+All that was immediately necessary was done. Recruiting was pressed
+forward in Rome, and first Tiberius and then Germanicus were despatched
+to the Rhine. But the German leaders were too prudent to risk defeat,
+and the Roman generals devoted their attention mainly to strengthening
+the line of the Rhine.
+
+The defeat of Varus, and the tacit abandonment of the plans of expansion
+begun twenty-five years before, are almost the last events of importance
+in the long principate of Augustus. The last five years of his life
+(A.D. 10-14) were untroubled by war or disaster. Augustus was ageing
+fast, and was more and more disinclined to appear personally in the
+senate or in public. Yet in A.D. 13 he consented, reluctantly we are
+told, to yet one more renewal of his _imperium_ for ten years,
+stipulating, however, that his step-son Tiberius, himself now over
+fifty, should be associated with himself on equal terms in the
+administration of the empire. Early in the same year (January 16, A.D.
+13) the last triumph of his principate was celebrated. Tiberius was now
+in Rome, the command on the Rhine having been given to Germanicus, who
+went out to it immediately after his consulship (A.D. 12), and the time
+had come to celebrate the Dalmatian and Pannonian triumph, which the
+defeat of Varus had postponed. Augustus witnessed the triumphal
+procession, and Tiberius, as it turned from the Forum to ascend the
+Capitol, halted, descended from his triumphal car, and did reverence to
+his adopted father.
+
+One last public appearance Augustus made in Rome. During A.D. 13 he and
+Tiberius conducted a census of Roman citizens, the third taken by his
+orders; the first having been in 28 B.C. at the very outset of his rule.
+The business of the census lasted over into the next year, but on the
+11th of May, A.D. 14, before a great crowd in the Campus Martius,
+Augustus took part in the solemn concluding ceremony of burying away out
+of sight the old age and inaugurating the new. The ceremony had been
+full of significance in 28 B.C., and now more than forty years later it
+was given a pathetic interest by Augustus himself. When the tablets
+containing the vows to be offered for the welfare of the state during
+the next lustrum were handed to him, he left the duty of reciting them
+to Tiberius, saying that he would not take vows which he was never
+destined to perform.
+
+It was apparently at the end of June or early in July that Augustus left
+Rome on his last journey. Travelling by road to Astura (Torre Astura) at
+the southern point of the little bay of Antium, he sailed thence to
+Capri and to Naples. On his way at Puteoli, the passengers and crew of a
+ship just come from Alexandria cheered the old man by their spontaneous
+homage, declaring, as they poured libations, that to him they owed life,
+safe passage on the seas, freedom and fortune.
+
+At Naples, in spite of increasing disease, he bravely sat out a
+gymnastic contest held in his honour, and then accompanied Tiberius as
+far as Beneventum on his way to Brundusium and Illyricum. On his return
+he was forced by illness to stop at Nola, his father's old home.
+Tiberius was hastily recalled and had a last confidential talk on
+affairs of state. Thenceforward, says Suetonius, he gave no more thought
+to such great affairs. He bade farewell to his friends, inquired after
+the health of Drusus's daughter who was ill, and then quietly expired in
+the arms of the wife who for more than fifty years had been his most
+intimate and trusted guide and counsellor, and to whom his last words
+were an exhortation to "live mindful of our wedded life." He died on the
+19th of August, A.D. 14, in the same room in which his father had died
+before him, and on the anniversary of his entrance upon his first
+consulship fifty-seven years before (43 B.C.). The corpse was carried to
+Rome in slow procession along the Appian Way. On the day of the funeral
+it was borne to the Campus Martius on the shoulders of senators and
+there burnt. The ashes were reverently collected by Livia, and placed in
+the mausoleum by the Tiber which her husband had built for himself and
+his family. The last act was the formal decree of the senate by which
+Augustus, like his father Julius before him, was added to the number of
+the gods recognized by the Roman state.
+
+If we except writers like Voltaire who could see in Augustus only the
+man who had destroyed the old republic and extinguished political
+liberty, the verdict of posterity on Augustus has varied just in
+proportion as his critics have fixed their attention, mainly, on the
+means by which he rose to power, or the use which he made of the power
+when acquired. The lines of argument followed respectively by friendly
+and hostile contemporaries immediately after his death (Tac. _Ann_. i.
+9, 10) have been followed by later writers with little change. But of
+late years, our increasing mistrust of the current gossip about him, and
+our increased knowledge of the magnitude of what he actually
+accomplished, have conspicuously influenced the judgments passed upon
+him. We allow the faults and crimes of his early manhood, his cruelties
+and deceptions, his readiness to sacrifice everything that came between
+him and the end he had in view. On the other hand, a careful study of
+what he achieved between the years 38 B.C., when he married Livia, and
+his death in A.D. 14, is now held to give him a claim to rank, not
+merely as an astute and successful intriguer, or an accomplished
+political actor, but as one of the world's great men, a statesman who
+conceived and carried through a scheme of political reconstruction which
+kept the empire together, secured peace and tranquillity, and preserved
+civilization for more than two centuries.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive work on Augustus and his age is
+  that of V. Gardthausen, _Augustus und seine Zeit_ (2 vols., Leipzig,
+  1891-1904), which deals with all aspects of Augustus's life, vol. ii.
+  consisting of elaborate critical and bibliographical notes. See also
+  histories of Rome generally, and among special works:--E.S.
+  Shuckburgh, _Augustus_ (London, 1903; reviewed by F.T. Richards in
+  _Class. Rev._ vol. xviii.), containing the text of the _Monumentum
+  Ancyranum_ (see also Gardthausen, book xiii.); J.B. Firth, _Augustus
+  Caesar_ (London, 1903), in "Heroes of the Nations" series; O. Seeck,
+  "Kaiser Augustus" (_Monographien zur Weltgeschichte_, xvii., 1902),
+  nine essays on special problems, e.g. the campaigns of Mutina, Perusia
+  and against Sextus Pompeius, "das Augustische Zeitalter"; A. Duméril,
+  "Auguste et la fondation de l'empire romain," in the _Annales de la
+  Fac. des lett. de Bordeaux_ (1890); a suggestive monograph on the
+  reforms of Augustus in relation to the decrease of population is Jules
+  Ferlet's _L'Abaissement de la natalité à Rome_ (Paris, 1902).
+       (H. F. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] On the name see Neumann, in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie f.
+    cl. alterth._, s.v. 2374.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS I. (1526-1586), elector of Saxony, was the younger son of
+Henry, duke of Saxony, and consequently belonged to the Albertine branch
+of the Wettin family. Born at Freiberg on the 31st of July 1526, and
+brought up as a Lutheran, he received a good education and studied at
+the university of Leipzig. When Duke Henry died in 1541 he decreed that
+his lands should be divided equally between his two sons, but as his
+bequest was contrary to law, it was not carried out, and the dukedom
+passed almost intact to his elder son, Maurice. Augustus, however,
+remained on friendly terms with his brother, and to further his policy
+spent some time at the court of the German king, Ferdinand I., in
+Vienna. In 1544 Maurice secured the appointment of his brother as
+administrator of the bishopric of Merseburg; but Augustus was very
+extravagant and was soon compelled to return to the Saxon court at
+Dresden. Augustus supported his brother during the war of the league of
+Schmalkalden, and in the policy which culminated in the transfer of the
+Saxon electorate from John Frederick I., the head of the Ernestine
+branch of the Wettin family, to Maurice. On the 7th of October 1548
+Augustus was married at Torgau to Anna, daughter of Christian III., king
+of Denmark, and took up his residence at Weissenfels. But he soon
+desired a more imposing establishment. The result was that Maurice made
+more generous provision for his brother, who acted as regent of Saxony
+in 1552 during the absence of the elector. Augustus was on a visit to
+Denmark when by Maurice's death in July 1553 he became elector of
+Saxony.
+
+The first care of the new elector was to come to terms with John
+Frederick, and to strengthen his own hold upon the electoral position.
+This object was secured by a treaty made at Naumburg in February 1554,
+when, in return for the grant of Altenburg and other lands, John
+Frederick recognized Augustus as elector of Saxony. The elector,
+however, was continually haunted by the fear that the Ernestines would
+attempt to deprive him of the coveted dignity, and his policy both in
+Saxony and in Germany was coloured by this fear. In imperial politics
+Augustus acted upon two main principles: to cultivate the friendship of
+the Habsburgs, and to maintain peace between the contending religious
+parties. To this policy may be traced his share in bringing about the
+religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, his tortuous conduct at the diet of
+Augsburg eleven years later, and his reluctance to break entirely with
+the Calvinists. On one occasion only did he waver in his allegiance to
+the Habsburgs. In 1568 a marriage was arranged between John Casimir, son
+of the elector palatine, Frederick III., and Elizabeth, a daughter of
+Augustus, and for a time it seemed possible that the Saxon elector would
+support his son-in-law in his attempts to aid the revolting inhabitants
+of the Netherlands. Augustus also entered into communication with the
+Huguenots; but his aversion to foreign complications prevailed, and the
+incipient friendship with the elector palatine soon gave way to serious
+dislike. Although a sturdy Lutheran the elector hoped at one time to
+unite the Protestants, on whom he continually urged the necessity of
+giving no cause of offence to their opponents, and he favoured the
+movement to get rid of the clause in the peace of Augsburg concerning
+ecclesiastical reservation, which was offensive to many Protestants. His
+moderation, however, prevented him from joining those who were prepared
+to take strong measures to attain this end, and he refused to jeopardize
+the concessions already won.
+
+The hostility between the Albertines and the Ernestines gave serious
+trouble to Augustus. A preacher named Matthias Flacius held an
+influential position in ducal Saxony, and taught a form of Lutheranism
+different from that taught in electoral Saxony. This breach was widened
+when Flacius began to make personal attacks on Augustus, to prophesy his
+speedy downfall, and to incite Duke John Frederick to make an effort to
+recover his rightful position. Associated with Flacius was a knight,
+William of Grumbach, who, not satisfied with words only, made inroads
+into electoral Saxony and sought the aid of foreign powers in his plan
+to depose Augustus. After some delay Grumbach and his protector, John
+Frederick, were placed under the imperial ban, and Augustus was
+entrusted with its execution. His campaign in 1567 was short and
+successful. John Frederick surrendered, and passed his time in prison
+until his death in 1595; Grumbach was taken and executed; and the
+position of the elector was made quite secure.
+
+The form of Lutheranism taught in electoral Saxony was that of
+Melanchthon, and many of its teachers and adherents, who were afterwards
+called Crypto-Calvinists, were favoured by the elector. When Augustus,
+freed from the fear of an attack by the Ernestines, became gradually
+estranged from the elector palatine and the Calvinists, he seemed to
+have looked with suspicion upon the Crypto-Calvinists, who did not
+preach the pure doctrines of Luther. Spurred on by his wife the matter
+reached a climax in 1574, when letters were discovered, which, while
+revealing a hope to bring over Augustus to Calvinism, cast some
+aspersions upon the elector and his wife. Augustus ordered the leaders
+of the Crypto-Calvinists to be seized, and they were tortured and
+imprisoned. A strict form of Lutheranism was declared binding upon all
+the inhabitants of Saxony, and many persons were banished from the
+country. In 1576 he made a serious but unsuccessful attempt to unite the
+Protestants upon the basis of some articles drawn up at Tolgau, which
+inculcated a strict form of Lutheranism. The change in Saxony, however,
+made no difference to the attitude of Augustus on imperial questions. In
+1576 he opposed the proposal of the Protestant princes to make a grant
+for the Turkish War conditional upon the abolition of the clause
+concerning ecclesiastical reservation, and he continued to support the
+Habsburgs.
+
+Much of the elector's time was devoted to extending his territories. In
+1573 he became guardian to the two sons of John William, duke of
+Saxe-Weimar, and in this capacity was able to add part of the county of
+Henneberg to electoral Saxony. His command of money enabled him to take
+advantage of the poverty of his neighbours, and in this way he secured
+Vogtland and the county of Mansfeld. In 1555 he had appointed one of his
+nominees to the bishopric of Meissen, in 1561 he had secured the
+election of his son Alexander as bishop of Merseburg, and three years
+later as bishop of Naumburg; and when this prince died in 1565 these
+bishoprics came under the direct rule of Augustus.
+
+As a ruler of Saxony Augustus was economical and enlightened. He
+favoured trade by encouraging Flemish emigrants to settle in the
+country, by improving the roads, regulating the coinage and establishing
+the first posts. He was specially interested in benefiting agriculture,
+and added several fine buildings to the city of Dresden. His laws were
+numerous and comprehensive. The constitution of 1572 was his work, and
+by these laws the church, the universities and the police were
+regulated, the administration of justice was improved, and the raising
+of taxes placed upon a better footing (see SAXONY).
+
+In October 1585 the electress Anna died, and a few weeks later Augustus
+married Agnes Hedwig, a daughter of Joachim Ernest, prince of Anhalt.
+His own death took place at Dresden on the 21st of January 1586, and he
+was buried at Freiberg. By his first wife he had fifteen children, but
+only four of these survived him, among whom was his successor, the
+elector Christian I. (1560-1591). Augustus was a covetous, cruel and
+superstitious man, but these qualities were redeemed by his political
+caution and his wise methods of government. He wrote a small work on
+agriculture entitled _Künstlich Obstund Gartenbüchlein_.
+
+  See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte Sachsens_, Band ii.
+  (Gotha, 1870); M. Ritter, _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der
+  Gegenreformation_, Band i. (Stuttgart, 1890); R. Calinich, _Kampf und
+  Untergang des Melanchthonismus in Kursachsen_ (Leipzig, 1866); J.
+  Falke, _Geschichte des Kurfürsten August in volkswirtschaftlicher
+  Beziehung_ (Leipzig, 1868); J. Janssen, _Geschichte des Deutschen
+  Volks seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters_ (Freiburg, 1885-1894); W.
+  Wenck, _Kurfürst Moritz und Herzog August_ (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS II., king of Poland, and, as FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I., elector of
+Saxony (1670-1733), second son of John George III., elector of Saxony,
+was born at Dresden on the 12th of May 1670. He was well educated, spent
+some years in travel and in fighting against France, and on account of
+his immense strength was known as "the Strong." On the death of his
+brother, John George IV., in 1694, he became elector of Saxony, and in
+1695 and 1696 led the imperial troops against the Turks, but without
+very much success. When John Sobieski died in 1696, Augustus was a
+candidate for the Polish throne, and in order to further his chances
+became a Roman Catholic, a step which was strongly resented in Saxony.
+By a lavish expenditure of money, and by his promptness in entering the
+country, he secured his election and coronation in September 1697, and
+his principal rival F.L. de Bourbon, prince of Conti, abandoned the
+contest and returned to France. Augustus continued the war against the
+Turks for a time, and being anxious to extend his influence and to find
+a pretext for retaining the Saxon troops in Poland, made an alliance in
+1699 with Russia and Denmark against Charles XII. of Sweden. The Poles
+would not assist, and at the head of the Saxons Augustus invaded
+Livonia, but for various causes the campaign was not a success, and in
+July 1702 he was defeated by Charles at Klissow. Augustus was then
+deposed in Poland, and after holding Warsaw for a short time he fled to
+Saxony. The alliance with Russia was renewed and in reply Charles
+invaded Saxony in 1706, and compelled the elector to sign the treaty of
+Altranstädt in September of that year, to recognize Stanislaus
+Leszczynski as his successor in Poland, and to abandon the Russian
+alliance. During the War of the Spanish Succession, Augustus fought with
+the imperialists in the Netherlands, but after the defeat of Charles
+XII. at Poltawa in July 1709, he turned his attention to the recovery of
+Poland. Declaring the treaty of Altranstädt void and renewing his
+alliance with Russia and Denmark, he quickly recovered the Polish crown.
+He then attacked Swedish Pomerania. He was handicapped by the mutual
+jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle broke out in Poland
+which was only ended when the king promised to limit the number of his
+army in that country to 18,000 men. Peace was made with Sweden in
+December 1719 at Stockholm after the death of Charles XII., and Augustus
+was recognized as king of Poland. His remaining years were spent in
+futile plans to make Poland a hereditary monarchy, to weaken the power
+of the Saxon nobles, and to gain territory for his sons in various parts
+of Europe. He was a man of extravagant and luxurious tastes, and,
+although he greatly improved the city of Dresden, he cannot be called a
+good ruler. He sought to govern Saxony in an absolute fashion, and, in
+spite of his declaration that his conversion to Roman Catholicism was
+personal only, assisted the spread of the teachings of Rome. His wife
+was Christine Eberhardine, a member of the Hohenzollern family, who left
+him when he became a Roman Catholic, and died in 1727. Augustus died at
+Warsaw on the 1st of February 1733, leaving a son Frederick Augustus,
+who succeeded him in Poland and Saxony, and many illegitimate children,
+among whom was the famous general, Maurice of Saxony, known as Marshal
+Saxe (q.v.).
+
+  See Otwikowski, _History of Poland under Augustus II._ (Cracow, 1849);
+  F. Förster, _Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im achtzehnten
+  Jahrhtmdert_ (Potsdam, 1839); Jarochowski, _History of Augustus II._
+  (Posen, 1856-1874); C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte des
+  Kurstaates und Königreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, 1867-1873).
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS III., king of Poland, and, as FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II., elector
+of Saxony (1696-1763), the only legitimate son of Augustus II. ("the
+Strong"), was born at Dresden on the 17th of October 1696. Educated as a
+Protestant, he followed his father's example by joining the Roman
+Catholic Church in 1712, although his conversion was not made public
+until 1717. In August 1719 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the
+emperor Joseph I., and seems to have taken very little part in public
+affairs until he became elector of Saxony on his father's death in
+February 1733. He was then a candidate for the Polish crown; and having
+purchased the support of the emperor Charles VI. by assenting to the
+Pragmatic Sanction, and that of the czarina Anne by recognizing the
+claim of Russia to Courland, he was elected king of Poland in October
+1733. Aided by the Russians, his troops drove Stanislaus Leszczynski
+from Poland; Augustus was crowned at Cracow in January 1734, and was
+generally recognized as king at Warsaw in June 1736. On the death of
+Charles VI. in October 1740, Augustus was among the enemies of his
+daughter Maria Theresa, and, as a son-in-law of the emperor Joseph I.,
+claimed a portion of the Habsburg territories. In 1742, however, he was
+induced to transfer his support to Maria Theresa, and his troops took
+part in the struggle against Frederick the Great during the Silesian
+wars, and again when the Seven Years' War began in 1756. Saxony was in
+that year attacked by the Prussians, and with so much success that not
+only was the Saxon army forced to capitulate at Pirna in October, but
+the elector, who fled to Warsaw, made no attempt to recover Saxony,
+which remained under the dominion of Frederick. When the treaty of
+Hubertsburg was concluded in February 1763, he returned to Saxony, where
+he died on the 5th of October 1763. He left five sons, the eldest of
+whom was his successor in Saxony, Frederick Christian; and five
+daughters, one of whom was the wife of Louis, the dauphin of France, and
+mother of Louis XVI. Another daughter was the wife of Charles III., king
+of Spain, but she predeceased her father. Augustus, who showed neither
+talent nor inclination for government, was content to leave Poland under
+the influence of Russia, and Saxony to the rule of his ministers. He
+took great interest in music and painting, and added to the collection
+of art treasures at Dresden.
+
+  See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte des Kurstaates und
+  Königreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, 1867-1873); R. Röpell, _Polen um die
+  Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (Gotha, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUSBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 10
+m. E. from Dresden, close to Radeberg, in a pleasant valley. Pop. 900.
+It has five saline chalybeate springs, used both for drinking and
+bathing, and specific in feminine disorders, rheumatism, paralysis and
+neuralgia. The spa is largely frequented in summer and has agreeable
+public rooms and gardens.
+
+
+
+
+AUK, a name commonly given to several species of sea-fowl. A special
+interest attaches to the great auk (_Alca impennis_), owing to its
+recent extinction and the value of its eggs to collectors. (See
+GAREFOWL; also GUILLEMOT, PUFFIN, RAZORBILL.)
+
+
+
+
+AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE (1849-   ), French historian, was born
+at Montbron in Charente in 1849. Having obtained the degree of doctor of
+letters in 1877 with a Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French
+one upon Giacomo Leopardi (whose works he subsequently translated into
+French), he made a study of parliamentary oratory during the French
+Revolution, and published two volumes upon _Les Orateurs de la
+constituante_ (1882) and upon _Les Orateurs de la legislative et de la
+convention_ (1885). With these works, which were reprinted in 1905, he
+entered a fresh field, where he soon became an acknowledged master.
+Applying to the study of the French Revolution the rules of historical
+criticism which had produced such rich results in the study of ancient
+and medieval history, he devoted himself to profound research in the
+archives, and to the publication of numerous most important
+contributions to the political, administrative and moral history of that
+marvellous period. Appointed professor of the history of the French
+Revolution at the Sorbonne, he formed the minds of students who in their
+turn have done valuable work. To him we owe the _Recueil des actes du
+comité de salut public_ (vol. i., 1889; vol. xvi., 1904); _La Société
+des Jacobins; recueil de documents pour l'histoire du club des Jacobins
+de Paris_ (6 vols., 1889-1897); and _Paris pendant la reaction
+thermidorienne et sous le directoire, recueil de documents pour
+l'histoire de l'esprit public à Paris_ (5 vols., 1898-1902), which was
+followed by an analogous collection for Paris sous le consulat (2 vols.,
+1903-1904). For the Société de l'Histoire de la Révolution Française,
+which brought out under his supervision an important periodical
+publication called _La Révolution française_, he produced the _Registre
+des déliberations du consulat provisoire_ (1894), and _L'État de la
+France en l'an VIII et en l'an IX_, with the reports of the prefects
+(1897), besides editing various works or memoirs written by men of the
+Revolution, such as J.C. Bailleul, Chaumette, Fournier (called the
+American), Hérault de Séchelles, and Louvet de Couvrai. But these large
+collections of documents are not his entire output. Besides a little
+pamphlet upon Danton, he has written a _Histoire politique de la
+Révolution française_ (1901), and a number of articles which have been
+collected in volumes under the title _Études et leçons sur la Révolution
+française_ (5 vols., 1893-1908). In a volume entitled _Taine, historien
+de la Révolution française_ (1908), Aulard has submitted the method of
+the eminent philosopher to a criticism, severe, perhaps even unjust, but
+certainly well-informed. This is, as it were, the "manifesto" of the new
+school of criticism applied to the political and social history of the
+Revolution (see _Les Annales Révolutionnaires_, June 1908).
+
+  See A. Mathiez, "M. Aulard, historien et professeur," in the _Revue de
+  la Révolution française_ (July 1908).     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+AULIC COUNCIL (_Reichshofrat_), an organ of the Holy Roman Empire,
+originally intended for executive work, but acting chiefly as a
+judicature, which worked from 1497 to 1806. In the early middle ages
+the emperor had already his _consiliarii_; but his council was a
+fluctuating body of personal advisers. In the 14th century there first
+arose an official council, with permanent and paid members, many of whom
+were legists. Its business was largely executive, and it formed
+something of a ministry; but it had also to deal with petitions
+addressed to the king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme court of
+judicature. It was thus parallel to the king's council, or _concilium
+continuum_, of medieval England; while by its side, during the 15th
+century, stood the _Kammergericht_, composed of the legal members of the
+council, in much the same way as the Star Chamber stood beside the
+English council. But the real history of the Aulic Council, as that term
+was understood in the later days of the Empire, begins with Maximilian
+I. in 1497-1498. In these years Maximilian created three organs
+(apparently following the precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in
+the Netherlands)--a _Hofrat_, a _Hofkammer_ for finance, and a
+_Hofkanzlei._ Primarily intended for the hereditary dominions of
+Maximilian, these bodies were also intended for the whole Empire; and
+the _Hofrat_ was to deal with "all and every business which may flow in
+from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king's hereditary
+principalities." It was thus to be the supreme executive and judicial
+organ, discharging all business except that of finance and the drafting
+of documents; and it was intended to serve Maximilian as a _point
+d'appui_ for the monarchy against the system of oligarchical committees,
+instituted by Berthold, archbishop of Mainz. But it was difficult to
+work such a body both for the Empire and for the hereditary
+principalities; and under Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire
+alone (_circ._ 1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from
+its cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its composition and powers
+were fixed by the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. (1) It consisted of
+about 20 members--a president, a vice-president, the vice-chancellor of
+the Empire, and some 18 other members. These came partly from the Empire
+at large, partly (and in greater numbers) from the hereditary lands of
+the emperor. There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors
+of civil law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council
+followed the person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed at
+Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its members, whose
+office terminated with his life--an arrangement which made the council
+more dependent than it should have been on the emperor's will. (2) Its
+powers were nominally both executive and judicial. (a) Its executive
+powers were small: it gradually lost everything except the formal
+business of investiture with imperial fiefs and the confirmation of
+charters, its other powers being taken over by the _Geheimräte._ These
+_Geheimräte_, a narrow body of secret counsellors, had already become a
+determinate _concilium_ by 1527; and though at first only concerned with
+foreign affairs, they acquired, from the middle of the 16th century
+onwards, the power of dealing with imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic
+Council. (b) In its judicial aspect, the Aulic Council, exercising the
+emperor's judicial powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it
+were, to the old _Kammergericht_, had exclusive cognizance of matters
+relating to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals
+of the Empire, imperial charters, Italian affairs, and cases "reserved"
+for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic Council was a
+competitor for judicial work with the Imperial Chamber[1]
+(_Reichskammergericht_, a tribunal dating from the great diet of Worms
+of 1495: see under IMPERIAL CHAMBER). It was determined in 1648 that the
+one of these two judicial authorities which first dealt with a case
+should alone have competence to pursue it. An appeal lay from the
+decision of the council to the emperor, and judgment on appeal was given
+by those members of the council who had not joined in the original
+decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by members of
+the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could deal with cases of
+outlawry, except to prepare such cases for the decision of the diet.
+To-day the archives of the Aulic Council are in Vienna, though parts of
+its records have been given to the German states which they concern.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R. Schröder, _Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_
+  (Leipzig, 1904), gives the main facts; S. Adler, _Die Organisation der
+  Centralverwaltung unter Maximilian I._ (Leipzig, 1886), deals with
+  Maximilian's reorganization of the Council; and J. St. Pütter,
+  _Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des Teutschen
+  Reichs_ (Göttingen, 1798-1799), may be consulted for its development
+  and later form.     (E. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, with its
+    members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public court of
+    the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of the Empire.
+
+
+
+
+AULIE-ATA, a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province of Syr-darya,
+152 m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at the western end of the
+Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft. The inhabitants are mostly
+Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle, horses and hides. Pop. (1897)
+12,006.
+
+
+
+
+AULIS, an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated on a rocky
+peninsula between two bays, near the modern village of Vathy, about 3 m.
+S. of Chalcis. Its fame was due to the tradition that it was the
+starting-place of the Greek fleet before the Trojan War, the scene of
+the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The temple of Artemis was still to be seen
+in the time of Pausanias.
+
+
+
+
+AULNOY (or AUNOY), MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE,
+BARONNE D' (c. 1650-1705), French author, was born about 1650 at
+Barneville near Bourg-Achard (Eure). She was the niece of Marie Bruneau
+des Loges, the friend of Malherbe and of J.G. de Balzac, who was called
+the "tenth Muse." She married on the 8th of March 1666 François de la
+Motte, a gentleman in the service of César, duc de Vendôme, who became
+Baron d'Aulnoy in 1654. With her mother, who by a second marriage had
+become marquise de Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high
+treason against her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two
+women saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they went
+(February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed to return to
+France in reward for secret services rendered to the government. Mme.
+d'Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of January 1705. She wrote fairy
+tales, _Contes nouvelles ou les Fées a la mode_ (3 vols., 1698), in the
+manner of Charles Perrault. This collection (24 tales) included
+_L'Oiseau bleu, Finette Cendron, La Chatte blanche_ and others. The
+originals of most of her admirable tales are to be found in the
+_Pentamerone_ (1637) of Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are:
+_L'Histoire d'Hippolyte, comte de Duglas_ (1690), a romance in the style
+of Madame de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model; _Mémoires de
+la cour d'Espagne_ (1679-1681); and a _Relation du voyage d'Espagne_
+(1690 or 1691) in the form of letters, edited in 1874-1876 as _La Cour
+et la ville de Madrid_ by Mme. B. Carey; _Histoire de Jean de Bourbon_
+(1692); _Mémoires sur la cour de France_ (1692); _Mémoires de la cour
+d'Angleterre_ (1695). Her historical writings are partly borrowed from
+existing records, to which she adds much that must be regarded as
+fiction, and some vivid descriptions of contemporary manners.
+
+  The _Diverting Works of the Countess d'Anois_, including some
+  extremely untrustworthy "Memoirs of her own life," were printed in
+  London in 1707. _The Fairy Tales of Madame d'Aulnoy_, with an
+  introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For
+  biographical particulars see M. de Lescure's introduction to the
+  _Contes des Fées_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+AULOS (Gr. [Greek: aulos]; Lat. _tibia_; Egyptian hieroglyphic, _Ma-it_;
+medieval equivalents, _shalm, chalumeau, schalmei, hautbois_), in Greek
+antiquities, a class of wood-wind instruments with single or with double
+reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical or conical bore, thus
+corresponding to both oboe and clarinet. In its widest acceptation the
+_aulos_ was a generic term for instruments consisting of a tube in which
+the air column was set in vibration either directly by the lips of the
+performer, or through the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or
+a double reed. Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (_syrinx polycalamus_,[1]
+[Greek: syrinx polykalamos]) were sometimes called auloi ([Greek:
+auloi]). The aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which,
+by gradual assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe,
+reached the stage at which it became known as the _Tyrrhenian aulos_
+(Pollux iv. 70) or the _hydraulos_, according to the method of
+compressing the wind supply (see ORGAN: _Early History_; and SYRINX).
+The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during the best classical
+period had a cylindrical bore ([Greek: koilia]) like that of the modern
+clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic properties of the stopped pipe,
+whether the air column was set in vibration by means of a single or of a
+double reed, for the mouthpiece does not affect the harmonic series.[2]
+To the acoustic properties of open or stopped pipes are due those
+essential differences which underlie the classification of modern wind
+instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone one octave
+lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding length, and
+overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the third above the
+second octave of the fundamental tone, i.e. the odd numbers of the
+series; whereas the open pipe gives the whole series of harmonics, the
+octave, the twelfth, the double octave, and the third above it, &c.
+
+To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its compass, the
+stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the side of the pipe, at
+appropriate distances from each other, and from the end of the pipe,
+whereas the open pipe requires but six. The acoustic properties of the
+open pipe can only be secured in combination with a reed mouthpiece by
+making the bore conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps
+assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their indebtedness
+to the Greeks in matters relating to musical instruments, and more
+especially to the cithara and aulos) understood the acoustic principle
+utilized to-day in making wind instruments, that a hole of small
+diameter nearer the mouthpiece may be substituted for one of greater
+diameter in the theoretically correct position. This is demonstrated by
+the 4th-century grammarian Macrobius, who says (_Comm. in Somn. Scip._
+ii. 4, 5): "Nec secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis
+inflantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino
+proximis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per
+angusta" (see BASSOON). Aristotle gives directions for boring holes in
+the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe of cylindrical bore
+(_Probl_. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but three or four holes; to
+Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of having increased this number
+(Pollux iv. 80). Pronomus, the musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th
+century B.C.), further improved the aulos by making it possible to play
+on one pair of instruments the three musical scales in use at his time,
+the Dorian, the Phrygian, and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate
+pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5;
+Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass of a tenth
+in order to produce the fundamental octave in each.
+
+There are two ways in which this increased compass might have been
+obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes and covering up those
+not required, (2) by means of contrivances for lowering the pitch of
+individual notes as required. We have evidence that both means were
+known to the Greeks and Romans. The simplest device for closing holes
+not in use was a band of metal left free to slide round the pipe, and
+having a hole bored through it corresponding in diameter with the hole
+in the pipe. Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases
+prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings of metal.
+The line on fig. 1 between r and s is thought to have been one of these
+rings.
+
+Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the bone, in such
+a manner that only one could be exposed at a time. This is clearly shown
+in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments of an aulos from the museum at
+Candia, for which the writer is greatly indebted to Professor John L.
+Myres, by whom measured drawings were made from the instrument in 1893.
+These highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5), seem
+to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad pipes in the
+Castellani collection at the British Museum, illustrated below; they are
+constructed like modern flutes, but played by means of a reed inserted
+into the lateral embouchure.
+
+In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represented the
+bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 joining the broken end of No. 2 at l;
+there being a possible fit at the other end at s with a in No. 4 (the
+drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed for parts 3 and 4),
+and No. 5 joining on to No. 4 at k.
+
+According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a pair of pipes in
+the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same construction as the one in
+Candia. In the drawing, the shape and relative position of the holes _on
+the circumference_ is approximate only, but their position lengthways is
+measured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of the Fragments of an _Aulos_ (Candia
+Mus.).
+
+(From a drawing by Prof. John L. Myres.)
+
+  a, Triple wrapping of bronze as well as slide.
+  b, Slide with hole.
+  c, Slides with two holes not uncovered together.
+  d, Slides with two holes not uncovered together, one hole at back.
+  e, Slide.
+  f, Slide missing.
+  g, Slide missing, scars of slide holes.
+  h, Slide.
+  i and j, Slide.
+  k, Socket.
+  l, Male half of joint.
+  m, n, o, Slides, the top hole being in the slide only.
+  p and q, Slides, with two holes; the small hole shown is in the
+      pipe, there being a corresponding hole in the slide at the back.
+  r, Bronze covering (and slide?).
+  s, Male joint.
+  t, The wavy line shows the extreme length of fragment.
+  u, 13 mm. inside diameter, 14 mm. outside diameter.
+  w, Engraved lines and conical form of bronze covering.
+  x, Wavy line shows extreme length of fragment.
+  y, Stopped end of pipe with engraved lines.
+
+    The line between r and s is either a turned ring or part of bronze
+    cover. The double lines to the right of t are engraved lines.]
+
+Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from Pompeii[3] (fig. 2),
+as well as on two pipes belonging to the Castellani collection (fig. 4)
+and on one from Halicarnassus, in the British Museum. In order to enable
+the performer to use these bands conveniently, a contrivance such as a
+little ring, a horn or a hook termed keras (Greek: keras) was attached
+to the band.[4]
+
+Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets which
+probably originally contained _kerata_. Pollux (iv. 80) mentions that
+Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the range of the aulos, made
+lateral channels for the air ([Greek: plagiai hodoi]). These consisted
+of tubes inserted into the holes in the bands for the purpose of
+lengthening the column of air, and lowering individual notes at will,
+the sound being then produced at the extremity of the tube, instead of
+at the surface of the pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes
+in the slides of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of
+these tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modern crook
+or piston.[5] The mouthpiece of the aulos was called _zeugos_ ([Greek:
+zeugos]),[6] the reed tongue _glossa_[7] or _glotta_ ([Greek: glossa] or
+[Greek: glotta]), and the socket into which the reed was fixed
+_glottis_[8] ([Greek: glottis]).
+
+The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest form of
+mouthpiece; the word _zeugos_, moreover, signifies a pair of like
+things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting the probability
+that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece was used by the
+Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it with the as-it or arghoul
+(q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Roman Ivory Aulos found at Pompeii (Naples
+Mus.), showing slides and rings.
+
+(Drawn from a photo by Brogi.)]
+
+The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii (fig. 3) has all
+the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having, on the side not
+shown, the lay on which to fix a single or beating reed.[9] It may,
+however, have been the cap of a covered reed, or even a whistle
+mouthpiece in which the lip does not show in the photograph. It is
+difficult to form a conclusion without seeing the real instrument. On a
+mosaic of Monnus in Trèves[10] is represented an aulos which also
+appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece.
+
+The upper part of the aulos, as in the Pompeian pipes, frequently had
+the form of a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped bulb, respectively
+identified as the _holmos_ ([Greek: holmos]) and the _hypholmion_
+([Greek: hypholmion]), the support of the _holmos_. An explanation of
+the original nature and construction of the bulb and flaring cup, so
+familiar in the various representations of the aulos, and in the real
+instruments found in Pompeii, is provided by an ancient Egyptian flute
+belonging to the collection of G. Maspero, illustrated and described by
+Victor Loret.[11] Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouthpiece of the
+instrument, and describes its construction; it consists of a piece of
+reed of larger diameter than that of the flute, and eight centimetres
+long; this reed has been forcibly compressed a little more than half way
+down by means of a ligature of twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6
+mm. to 4 mm. The end of the pipe, covered by rows of waxed thread, fits
+into the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was also bound by waxed
+thread exactly as in the Elgin pipe at the British Museum, described
+below. There is no indication of the manner in which the pipe was
+sounded, and Loret assumes that there was once a whistle or flageolet
+mouthpiece. To the present writer, however, it seems probable that the
+constricted diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which
+the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case at least,
+the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated in the upper bulb or
+air-chamber. This simple contrivance was probably also employed in the
+earliest Greek pipes, and was later copied and elaborated in wood, bone
+or metal, the upper bulb being made shorter and developing into the
+flaring cup, in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the
+mouth. During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken
+directly into the mouth[12] and not enclosed in an air-chamber. The two
+pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped the holes and
+turned the bands by means of the [Greek: phorbeia] (Lat. _capistrum_), a
+bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having holes through which the
+reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth of the performer; the _phorbeia_
+also relieved the pressure of the breath on the cheeks and lips,[13]
+which is felt more especially by performers on oboe and bassoon at the
+present day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Beak mouthpiece. Found at Pompeii (Naples Mus.).
+
+(From a photo by Brogi.)]
+
+In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to the Elgin collection at the
+British Museum, one of the bulbs, partly broken, but preserved in the
+same case as the pipes, was fastened to the pipes by means of waxed
+thread, the indented lines being still visible on the rim of the bulb.
+The aulos was kept in a case called _sybene_[14] ([Greek: sybaenae]) or
+_aulotheke_[15] ([Greek: aulothaekae]), and the little bag or case in
+which the delicate reeds were carried was known by the name of
+_glottokomeion_[15] ([Greek: glottokomeion]).[16] Two Egyptian flute
+cases are extant, one in the Louvre,[17] and the other in the museum at
+Leiden. The latter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical in shape, with
+a stopper of the same wood; there is no legend or design upon it. The
+case contained seven pipes, five pieces of reed without bore or holes,
+and three pieces of straw suitable for making double-reed
+mouthpieces.[18]
+
+Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of pipes as
+over three octaves:--"For doubtless we should find an interval greater
+than the above mentioned three octaves between the highest note of the
+soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest note of the bass-clarinet
+(aulos); and again between the highest note of a clarinet player
+performing with the speaker open, and the lowest note of a clarinet
+player performing with the speaker closed."[19]
+
+This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to the full
+range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves from
+[Illustration: low "E" below the staff, bass clef] to [Illustration:
+high "F-sharp" on the fifth-stave, treble clef]. It is evident that the
+ancient Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of the
+harmonics. Proclus (_Comm. in Alcibiad._ chap. 68) states that from each
+hole of the pipe at least three tones could be produced. Moreover,
+classic writers maintain that if the performer press the _zeugos_ or the
+_glottai_ of the pipes, a sharper tone is produced.[20] This is exactly
+how a performer on a modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher
+harmonics of the instrument.[21] The small bore of the aulos in
+comparison to its length facilitated the production of the harmonics
+(cf. Zamminer p. 218), as does also the use of a small hole near the
+mouthpiece, called in Greek _syrinx_ ([Greek: syrinx]) and in the modern
+clarinet the "speaker," which when open enables the performer to
+overblow with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamental tones.
+To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University is due the credit of having
+identified the _syrinx_ of the aulos with the speaker of the
+clarinet.[22] This assumption is doubtless correct, and is supported by
+classical grammarians,[23] who state that the _syrinx_ was one of the
+holes of the aulos. It renders quite clear certain passages in
+Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch, and a scholion to Pindar's 12th
+_Pythian_, which before were difficult to understand (see SYRINX).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Plagiaulos. Castellani Collection (Maenad
+Pipes), British Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Ancient Greek Double Pipes. Elgin Collection,
+British Museum.]
+
+The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties enumerated by
+Pollux (_Onomast._ iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus (iv. 76 et seq.). They
+fall into two distinct classes, the single and the double pipes. There
+were three principal single pipes, the _monaulos_, the _plagiaulos_ and
+the _syrinx monocalamos_. The double pipes were used by the great
+musicians of ancient Greece, and notably at the musical contests at
+Delphi, and what has been said above concerning the construction of the
+aulos refers mainly to the double pipes. The _monaulos_, a single pipe
+of Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been played
+from the end by means of a reed, may have been the archetype of the oboe
+or clarinet. The _plagiaulos photinx_ or _tibia obliqua_, invented by
+the Libyans (Pollux iv. 74), or, according to Pliny (vii. 204), by Midas
+of Phrygia, was held like the modern flute, but was played by means of a
+mouthpiece containing a reed. Three of the existing pipes at the British
+Museum (the two in the Castellani collection, and the pipe from
+Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The mouthpiece projects from the
+side of the pipe and communicates with the main bore by means of a
+slanting passage; the end nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the
+modern flute; in the latter, however, the embouchure is not closed by
+the lips when playing, and therefore the flute has the acoustic
+properties of the open pipe, whereas the _plagiaulos_ having a reed
+mouthpiece gave the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double pipes existed
+in five sizes according to pitch, in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a
+treatise on the construction of the auloi ([Greek: Peri aulon
+traeseos]), unfortunately not extant,[24] divides them thus:--
+
+(1) _Parthenioi auloi_ ([Greek: parthenioi auloi]), the maiden's
+_auloi_, corresponding to the soprano compass.
+
+(2) _Paidikoi auloi_ ([Greek: paidikoi auloi]), the boy's pipes or alto
+_auloi_, used to accompany boys' songs and also in double pairs at
+feasts.
+
+(3) _Kitharisterioi auloi_ ([Greek: kitharistaerioi auloi]), used to
+accompany the cithara.
+
+(4) _Teleioi auloi_, the perfect aulos, or tenor's pipes; also known as
+the _pythic auloi_ ([Greek: pythikoi auloi]); used for the paeans and
+for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was the _pythic
+auloi_ and the _kitharisterioi auloi_ more especially which were
+provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the harmonic
+notes (see SYRINX).
+
+(5) _Hyperteleioi auloi_ ([Greek: hyperteleioi auloi]) or _andreioi
+auloi_ ([Greek: andreioi ayloi]) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi.
+
+The Phrygian pipes or _auloi Elymoi_[25] were made of box-wood and were
+tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but differed from all others
+in that the two pipes were unequal in length and in the diameter of
+their bores;[26] sometimes one of the pipes was curved upwards and
+terminated in a horn bell;[27] they seem to have had a conical bore, if
+representations on monuments are to be trusted. We may conclude that the
+archetype of the oboe with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks;
+it was frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appears on many
+has-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments. For illustrations see
+Wilhelm Froehner, _Les Musées de France_, pl. iii., "Marsyas playing the
+double pipes." There the bore is decidedly conical in the ratio of at
+least 1:4 between the mouthpiece and the end of the instrument; the vase
+is Roman, from the south of France. See also _Bulletino della
+Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma_, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd
+series, pl. vii. and p. 119 et seq., "Le Nozze di Elena e Paride," from
+a bas-relief in the monastery of S. Antonio on the Esquiline; Wilhelm
+Zahn, _Die schonsten Ornamente und die merkwurdigsten Gemälde aus
+Pompeji, Herkulaneum und Stabiae_ (German and French), vol. iii., pl. 43
+and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859).
+
+  For further information on the aulos, consult Albert A. Howard, "The
+  Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv., 1893; François A. Gevaert,
+  _Histoire de la musique dans l'antiquité_, vol. ii. p. 273 et seq.;
+  Carl von Jan's article "Flote" in August Baumeister's _Denkmaler des
+  klassischen Altertums_ (Munich, 1884-1888), vol. i.; Dr Hugo Riemann,
+  _Handbuch der Musikgeschichte_, Bd. I.T. 1, pp. 93-112 (Leipzig,
+  1904); Caspar Bartholinus, _De Tibiis Veterum_ (Amsterdam, 1779).
+       (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Pollux, _Onom._ iv. 69.
+
+  [2] See Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und musikalischen Instrumente
+    in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik_ (Giessen, 1855), p.
+    305.
+
+  [3] These pipes were discovered during the excavations in 1867, and
+    are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductions and
+    descriptions of them are given in "The Aulos or Tibia," by Albert A.
+    Howard, _Harvard Studies_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. ii. and pp.
+    48-55.
+
+  [4] For illustrations of _auloi_ provided with these contrivances,
+    see illustration (fig. 2) of an aulos from Pompeii; a relief in
+    Vatican, No. 535; Helbig's _Wandgemãlde_, Nos. 56, 69, 730, 765, &c.
+
+  [5] For illustrations of [Greek: hodoi] showing the holes at the ends
+    of the tubes, see _Description des marbres antiques du Musée
+    Campana_, by H. d'Escamps, pl. 25; Wilhelm Froehner's _Catalogue of
+    the Louvre_, No. 378; Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188; Albert A.
+    Howard, "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, 1893),
+    pl. 1, No. 1.
+
+  [6] For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and
+    mouthpiece were made see Theophrastus, _Hist. Plant._ iv. 11.
+
+  [7] Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle, _H.A._ 6, 10, 9, &c.
+
+  [8] Lucian, _Harm._ 1.
+
+  [9] Cf. article MOUTHPIECE.
+
+  [10] See _Antike Denkmaler_, Deutsches archäol. Inst., Berlin, 1891,
+    vol. i. pi. 49.
+
+  [11] See "Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques," _Journal asiatique_, 8th
+    ser. vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 212-215.
+
+  [12] See Aristotle, _De Audib._ p. 802 b, 18, and p. 804a; Festus,
+    ed. Mueller, p. 116.
+
+  [13] See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann,
+    _Gesch. d. Musik_, Bd. i. T. 1, p. 111 (Leipzig, 1904).
+
+  [14] Pollux, _Onomasticon_, vii. 153.
+
+  [15] Hesychius.
+
+  [16] Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153, x. 153-154; A.A. Howard, op. cit. pp.
+    26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given in _Denkmaler des
+    klassischen Altertums_, by August Baumeister, vol. i. p. 554, fig.
+    591.
+
+  [17] Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case
+    ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double
+    pipe. See E. de Rougé, _Notice sommaire des monuments égyptiens
+    exposés dans les galeries du Louvre_, p. 87.
+
+  [18] See Victor Loret, "Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques," in _Journal
+    asiatique_, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 199, 200 and 201 (note), pp.
+    207, 211 and 217, and Conrad Leemans, _Description raisonnée des
+    monuments égyptiens du Musée d'Antiquités de Leyde_, p. 132, No. 489;
+    contents of case Nos. 474-488.
+
+  [19] Aristoxenus, _Harm._ bk. i. 20 and 21, H.S. Macran's edition
+    with translation (Oxford, 1902), p. 179.
+
+  [20] Aristotle, _De audib._ p. 804a; Porphyry, ed. Wallis, p. 249;
+    _ibid._ p. 252.
+
+  [21] Zamminer, _op. cit._ p. 301.
+
+  [22] _Op. cit._ p. 32-35.
+
+  [23] See _Etymologicum magnum_ (Augsburg. 1848), s.v. "Syrinx."
+
+  [24] See Athenaeus xiv. 634, who quotes from Didymus.
+
+  [25] Pollux iv. 74.
+
+  [26] Servius _ad Aen._ ix. 615.
+
+  [27] Tibullus ii. 85; Virg. _Aen._ xi. 735; Ovid, _Met._ iii. 533,
+    _Ex Ponto_ i. 1. 39.
+
+
+
+
+AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE PHILIPPE LOUIS D'ORLÉANS, DUC D' (1822-1897),
+French prince and statesman, fifth son of Louis Philippe, duke of
+Orleans, afterwards king of the French, and of Marie Amélie, princess of
+the Two Sicilies, was born at Paris on the 16th of January 1822. While
+still young he inherited a large fortune from the prince de Condé.
+Brought up by his parents with great simplicity, he was educated at the
+college of Henri IV., on leaving which at the age of seventeen he
+entered the army with the rank of a captain of infantry. He
+distinguished himself during the conquest of Algeria, and was appointed
+governor of that colony, in which capacity he received the submission of
+the amir Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to
+England and busied himself with historical and military studies,
+replying in 1861 by a _Letter upon the History of France_ to Prince
+Napoleon's violent attacks upon the house of Orleans. On the outbreak of
+the Franco-Prussian War he volunteered for service in the French army,
+but his offer was declined. Elected deputy for the Oise department, he
+returned to France, and succeeded to the _fauteuil_ of the comte de
+Montalembert in the French Academy. In March 1872 he resumed his place
+in the army as general of division; and in 1873 he presided over the
+court-martial which condemned Marshal Bazaine to death. About this
+period, being appointed commandant of the VII. army corps at Besançon,
+he retired from political life, and in 1879 became inspector-general of
+the army. By the act of exception passed in 1883 all members of families
+that had reigned in France serving in the army were deprived of their
+military positions; consequently the duc d'Aumale was placed on the
+unemployed supernumerary list. Subsequently, in 1886, another law was
+promulgated which expelled from French territory the heads of former
+reigning families, and provided that henceforward all members of those
+families should be disqualified for any public position or function, and
+for election to any public body. The duc d'Aumale protested
+energetically, and was himself expelled. By his will of the 3rd of June
+1884, however, he had bequeathed to the Institute of France his
+Chantilly estate, with all the art-collection he had gathered there.
+This generosity led the government to withdraw the decree of exile, and
+the duke returned to France in 1889. He died at Zucco in Sicily on the
+7th of May 1897. Of his marriage, contracted in 1844 with his first
+cousin, Caroline de Bourbon, daughter of the prince of Salerno, were
+born two sons: the prince de Condé (d. 1866), and the due de Guise (d.
+1872). The due d'Aumale's principal literary work was an _Histoire des
+princes de Condé_, which he left unfinished.
+
+  See Georges Picot, _M. le duc d'Aumale_ (Paris, 1898); Ernest Daudet,
+  _Le duc d'Aumale_ (Paris, 1898).     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+AUMALE, a town of northern France, in the department of
+Seine-Inférieure, on the left bank of the Bresle, 47 m. N.E. of Rouen on
+the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 1999. The church is an interesting
+building of the 16th and 17th centuries, and has a portal attributed to
+Jean Goujon. The town has glass and steel works.
+
+The territory of Aumale (Albemarle, Aubemale, Aumerle; Lat. _Alba
+Marla_) in Normandy, a dependency of the archbishopric of Rouen, was
+granted to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the Conqueror,
+who founded the first line of counts of Aumale. Hawise (Hadwide, Havoise
+or Avoie), countess of Aumale, after the death of her first husband
+William de Mandeville, earl of Essex (d. 1189), married William des
+Forts (de Fors, or de Fortz; Lat. de Fortibus), a military adventurer
+who had been one of the commanders of the fleet under Richard I. during
+his first crusade. He died in 1195, and his widow married Baldwin de
+Betun, who became count of Aumale in her right. He died in 1213, and in
+1214 William de Fortibus, son of Hawise by her second husband, was
+confirmed by King John in all his mother's lands. Meanwhile, however,
+the territory of Aumale shared the fate of the rest of Normandy, and was
+annexed to the French crown by King Philip Augustus; but the title of
+earl of Albemarle, derived from it, continued to be borne in England by
+William de Fortibus, and was passed on to his heirs (see ALBEMARLE).
+Aumale itself was conferred by Philip Augustus as an appanage on his son
+Philip. It was subsequently granted by Louis VIII. to Simon, count of
+Dammartin, whose daughter, Jeanne, countess of Dammartin, transferred
+it, together with the countship of Ponthieu, to the house of Castile, by
+her marriage with Ferdinand III., king of Castile, called the Saint
+(1238). It then remained in the possession of a branch of her
+descendants bearing the name of Ponthieu, until it passed to the house
+of Harcourt on the marriage of Blanche of Ponthieu with John, count of
+Harcourt (1340). Marie d'Harcourt (d. 1476), heiress of Aumale, married
+Anthony of Lorraine, count of Vaudémont, and Aumale was created a duchy
+in the peerage of France for Claude and Francis of Lorraine in 1547. By
+the marriage of Anne of Lorraine with the duke of Nemours in 1618 the
+duchy of Aumale passed to the house of Savoy-Nemours. In 1686 Marie
+Jeanne Baptiste, duchess of Nemours and of Aumale, and wife of Charles
+Emmanuel II., duke of Savoy, sold Aumale to Louis XIV., who gave it to
+his natural son, the duke of Maine. After the death of that prince, the
+dukedom devolved upon his brother, the count of Toulouse, subsequently
+passing to the latter's son, the duke of Penthièvre, whose daughter
+married the duke of Orleans. Since the reign of Louis Philippe, king of
+the French, the title of duke of Aumale has been borne by a son of the
+duke of Orleans.
+
+
+
+
+AUMONT, the name of a family which played an important part in French
+history. The origin of the name is uncertain, but it has usually been
+derived from Aumont, now a small commune in the department of the Somme.
+The family was of great antiquity, a Jean, sire d'Aumont, having
+accompanied Louis IX. on crusade. It was already powerful in the 14th
+century, and during the English wars of that period its members fought
+in the armies of the kings of France. Towards the end of the century,
+the family took the part of the dukes of Burgundy, but returned to the
+side of France on the death of Charles the Bold. Jean d'Aumont,
+lieutenant-general to the king of France in the government of Burgundy,
+rendered important services to Louis XII. and Francis I. Another Jean
+d'Aumont (d. 1595), a marshal of France and knight of the order of the
+Holy Ghost since its institution in 1578, fought against the Huguenots
+under the last of the Valois kings; but he was among the first to
+recognize Henry IV., and was appointed governor of Champagne and of
+Brittany, where he had to fight against the League. His grandson Antoine
+(1601-1669) was also a marshal of France (1651), governor of Paris
+(1662), duke and peer (1665). Louis Marie Augustin, duc d'Aumont
+(1709-1782), was a celebrated collector of works of art. Louis Marie
+Celeste d'Aumont, due de Piennes, afterwards duc d'Aumont (1762-1831),
+emigrated during the Revolution and served in the army of the royalists,
+as also in the Swedish army. During the Hundred Days he effected a
+descent upon Normandy in the Bourbon interest, and succeeded in
+capturing Bayeux and Caen.
+
+
+
+
+AUNCEL (from the Anglo-Fr. _auncelle_, a confused derivation from
+_l'auncelle_, Ital. _lancella_, a little balance), a balance formerly
+used in England; now, in dialectical use, a term for the weighing of
+meat by hand instead of by scales.
+
+
+
+
+AUNDH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay,
+ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs. Its area is 447 sq. m.; its
+population was 63,921 in 1901, showing a decrease of 2% in the decade.
+Estimated revenue £9422. The chief, whose title is Pant Pratinidhi, is a
+Brahman by caste. The state has suffered severely from plague. The town
+of Aundh is situated 26 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. about 3500.
+
+
+
+
+AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD (1287-1345), commonly known as RICHARD DE BURY,
+English bibliophile, writer and bishop, was born near Bury St Edmunds,
+Suffolk, on the 24th of January 1287. He was the son of Sir Richard
+Aungervyle, who was descended from one of William the Conqueror's
+soldiers, settled in Leicestershire, where the family came into
+possession of the manor of Willoughby. His education was undertaken by
+his uncle, John de Willoughby, and after leaving the grammar school of
+his native place he was sent to Oxford, where he is said to have
+distinguished himself in philosophy and theology. John Pits[1] says, but
+apparently without authority, that he became a Benedictine monk. He was
+made tutor to Prince Edward of Windsor (afterwards Edward III.), and,
+according to Dibdin, inspired him with some of his own love of books. He
+was mixed up with the sordid intrigues which preceded the deposition of
+Edward II., and supplied Queen Isabella and Mortimer in Paris with money
+in 1325 from the revenues of Guienne, of which province he was
+treasurer. For some time he had to hide in Paris from the officers sent
+by Edward II. to apprehend him. On the accession of Edward III. his
+services were rewarded by rapid promotion. He was cofferer to the king,
+treasurer of the wardrobe and afterwards clerk of the privy seal. The
+king, moreover, repeatedly recommended him to the pope, and twice sent
+him, in 1330 and 1333, as ambassador to the papal court, then in exile
+at Avignon. On the first of these visits he made the acquaintance of a
+fellow bibliophile in Petrarch, who records his impression (_Epist.
+Famil._ lib. iii. Ep. 1) of the Englishman as "not ignorant of
+literature and ... from his youth up curious beyond belief of hidden
+things." He asked him for information about Thule, but Aungervyle, who
+promised information when he should once more be at home among his
+books, never sent any answer, in spite of repeated enquiries. The pope,
+John XXII., made him his principal chaplain, and presented him with a
+rochet in earnest of the first vacant bishopric in England.
+
+During his absence from England he was made (1333) dean of Wells. In
+September of the same year the see of Durham fell vacant, and the king
+overruled the choice of the monks, who had elected and actually
+installed their sub-prior, Robert de Graystanes, in favour of
+Aungervyle. In February 1334 he was made lord treasurer, an appointment
+he exchanged later in the year for that of lord chancellor. This charge
+he resigned in the next year, and, after making arrangements for the
+protection of his northern diocese from an expected inroad of the Scots,
+he proceeded in July 1336 to France to attempt a settlement of the
+claims in dispute between Edward and Philip. In the next year he served
+on three commissions for the defence of the northern counties. In June
+1338 he was once more sent abroad to secure peace, but within a month of
+his appointment Edward himself landed in Flanders to procure allies for
+his approaching campaign. Aungervyle accompanied him to Coblenz to his
+meeting with the emperor Louis IV., and in the next year was sent to
+England to raise money. This seems to have been his last visit to the
+continent. In 1340 and 1342 he was again engaged in trying to negotiate
+peace with the Scots, but from this time his life appears to have passed
+quietly in the care of his diocese and in the accumulation of a library.
+
+He sent far and wide in search of manuscripts, rescuing many treasures
+from the charge of ignorant and neglectful monks. "No dearness of
+price," he says, "ought to hinder a man from the buying of books, if he
+has the money demanded for them, unless it be to withstand the malice of
+the seller or to await a more favourable opportunity of buying." It is
+to be supposed that Richard de Bury sometimes brought undue pressure to
+bear on the owners, for it is recorded that an abbot of St Albans bribed
+him to secure his influence for the house by four valuable books, and
+that de Bury, who procured certain coveted privileges for the monastery,
+bought from him thirty-two other books, for fifty pieces of silver, far
+less than their normal price. The record of his passion for books, his
+_Philobiblon_, was completed on his fifty-eighth birthday, the 24th of
+January 1345, and he died on the 14th of April (May, according to Adam
+Murimuth) of that year. He gives an account (chapter viii.) of the
+unwearied efforts made by himself and his agents to collect books. In
+the eighteenth chapter he records his intention of founding a hall at
+Oxford, and in connexion with it a library of which his books were to
+form the nucleus. He even details the rules to be observed for the
+lending and care of the books, and he had already taken the preliminary
+steps for the foundation. The bishop died, however, in great poverty,
+and it seems likely that his collection was dispersed immediately after
+his death. But the traditional account is that the books were sent to
+the Durham Benedictines at Oxford, and that on the dissolution of the
+foundation by Henry VIII. they were divided between Duke Humphrey of
+Gloucester's library, Balliol College and Dr George Owen. Only two of
+the volumes are known to be in existence; one is a copy of John of
+Salisbury's works in the British Museum, and the other some theological
+treatises by Anselm and others in the Bodleian.
+
+The chief authority for the bishop's life is William de Chambre (printed
+in Wharton's _Anglia Sacra_, 1691, and in _Historiae Dunelmensis
+scriptores tres_, Surtees Soc. 1839), who describes him as an amiable
+and excellent man, charitable in his diocese, and the liberal patron of
+many learned men, among these being Thomas Bradwardine, afterwards
+archbishop of Canterbury, Richard Fitzralph, afterwards archbishop of
+Armagh, the enemy of the mendicant orders, Walter Burley, who translated
+Aristotle, John Mauduit the astronomer, Robert Holkot and Richard de
+Kilvington. John Bale[2] and Pits[3] mention other works of his,
+_Epistolae Familiares_ and _Orationes ad Principes_. The opening words
+of the _Philobiblon_ and the _Epistolae_ as given by Bale represent
+those of the _Philobiblon_ and its prologue, so that he apparently made
+two books out of one treatise. It is possible that the _Orationes_ may
+represent a letter book of Richard de Bury's, entitled _Liber
+Epistolaris quondam domini Ricardi de Bury, Episcopi Dunelmensis_, now
+in the possession of Lord Harlech. This MS., the contents of which are
+fully catalogued in the Fourth Report (1874) of the Historical MSS.
+Commission (Appendix, pp. 379-397), contains numerous letters from
+various popes, from the king, a correspondence dealing with the affairs
+of the university of Oxford, another with the province of Gascony,
+beside some harangues and letters evidently kept as models to be used on
+various occasions.
+
+It has often been asserted that the _Philobiblon_ itself was not written
+by Richard de Bury at all, but by Robert Holkot. This assertion is
+supported by the fact that in seven of the extant MSS. of _Philobiblon_
+it is ascribed to Holkot in an introductory note, in these or slightly
+varying terms: _Incipit prologus in philobiblon ricardi dunelmensis
+episcopi que libru composuit Robertus holcote de ordine predicalorum sub
+nomine dicti episcopi_. The Paris MS. has simply _Philobiblon olchoti
+anglici_, and does not contain the usual concluding note of the date
+when the book was completed by Richard. As a great part of the charm of
+the book lies in the unconscious record of the collector's own
+character, the establishment of Holkot's authorship would materially
+alter its value. A notice of Richard de Bury by his contemporary Adam
+Murimuth (_Continuatio Chronicarum_, Rolls Series, 1889, p. 171) gives a
+less favourable account of him than does William de Chambre, asserting
+that he was only moderately learned, but desired to be regarded as a
+great scholar.
+
+  The original Latin text was printed at Cologne (1473), Spires (1483),
+  Paris (1500), Oxford (1598 and 1599), &c. It was first translated into
+  English by J.B. Inglis in 1832, and into French by Hippolyte Cocheris
+  in 1856. The best translation is that by Mr E.C. Thomas, accompanying
+  the Latin text, with full biographical and bibliographical
+  introductions (1888). Other editions are in the _King's Classics_
+  (1902) and for the Grolier Club (New York, 1889, ed. A.W. West).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _De Ill. Angl. Script._ (1619, p. 467).
+
+  [2] _Script. Ill. Maj. Brit._ cent. v. No. 69.
+
+  [3] _De Ill. Angl. Script._ (1619, p. 468).
+
+
+
+
+AUNT SALLY, the English name for a game popular at fairs, race-courses
+and summer resorts. It consists in throwing hard balls, of wood or
+leather-covered yarn, at puppets dressed to represent different
+characters, originally a grotesque female figure called "Aunt Sally,"
+with the object of smashing a clay pipe which is inserted either in the
+mouth or forehead of the puppet. In France the game is popular under the
+name _jeu de massacre_. In a variation of the pastime the mark consists
+of a living person's head thrust through a hole in a sheet of canvas. In
+case of a hit a second shy is allowed, or a small prize is given.
+
+
+
+
+AURA (from the Gr. for "breath" or "breeze"), a term used in old days to
+denote a supposed ethereal emanation from a volatile substance; applied
+later to the "electrical aura," or air-current caused by electrical
+discharge; in epilepsy (q.v.) to one of its premonitory symptoms; and
+in spiritualism to a mysterious light associated with the presence of
+spirit-forms. See also AUREOLA.
+
+
+
+
+AURANGABAD, or AURUNGABAD, a city of India, in the dominions of the
+nizam of Hyderabad, north-west division, situated 138 m. from Poona, 207
+from Bombay via Poona, and 270 from Hyderabad on the river Kaum. It
+gives its name to a district. It was founded in 1610, under the name of
+Fatchnagar, by Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian, who had risen from the
+condition of a slave to great influence. Subsequently it became the
+capital of the Mogul conquests in the south of India. Aurangzeb, who
+erected here a mausoleum to his wife which has been compared to the Taj
+at Agra, made the city the seat of his government during his viceroyalty
+of the Deccan, and gave it the name of Aurangabad. It thus grew into the
+principal city of an extensive province of the same name, stretching
+westward to the sea, and comprehending nearly the whole of the territory
+now comprised within the northern division of the presidency of Bombay.
+Aurangabad long continued to be the capital of the succession of
+potentates bearing the modern title of nizam, after those chiefs became
+independent of Delhi. They abandoned it subsequently, and transferred
+their capital to Hyderabad, when the town at once began to decline.
+Aurangabad is a railway station on the Hyderabad-Godavari line, 435 m.
+from Bombay. In 1901 the population, with military cantonments, was
+36,837, showing an increase of 8% in the decade. It has a cotton mill.
+
+The district of Aurangabad has an area of 6172 sq. m. The population in
+1901 was 721,407. It contains the famous caves of Ajanta, and also the
+battlefield of Assaye.
+
+
+
+
+AURANGZEB (1618-1707), one of the greatest of the Mogul emperors of
+Hindustan, was the third son of Shah Jahan, and was born in November
+1618. His original name, Mahommed, was changed by his father, with whom
+he was a favourite, into Aurangzeb, meaning ornament of the throne, and
+at a later time he assumed the additional titles of Mohi-eddin, reviver
+of religion, and Alam-gir, conqueror of the world. At a very early age,
+and throughout his whole life, he manifested profound religious feeling
+perhaps instilled into him in the course of his education under some of
+the strictest Mahommedan doctors. He was employed, while very young, in
+some of his father's expeditions into the country beyond the Indus, gave
+promise of considerable military talents, and was appointed to the
+command of an army directed against the Uzbegs. In this campaign he was
+not completely successful, and soon after was transferred to the army
+engaged in the Deccan. Here he gained several victories, and in
+conjunction with the famous general, Mir Jumla, who had deserted from
+the king of Golconda, he seized and plundered the town of Hyderabad,
+which belonged to that monarch. His father's express orders prevented
+Aurangzeb from following up this success, and, not long after, the
+sudden and alarming illness of Shah Jahan turned his thoughts in another
+direction. Of Shah Jahan's four sons, the eldest, Dara, a brave and
+honourable prince, but disliked by the Mussulmans on account of his
+liberality of thought, had a natural right to the throne. Accordingly,
+on the illness of his father, he at once seized the reins of government
+and established himself at Delhi. The second son, Shuja, governor of
+Bengal, a dissolute and sensual prince, was dissatisfied, and raised an
+army to dispute the throne with Dara. The keen eye of Aurangzeb saw in
+this conjuncture of events a favourable opportunity for realising his
+own ambitious schemes. His religious exercises and temperate habits gave
+him, in popular estimation, a great superiority over his brothers, but
+he was too politic to put forward his claims openly. He made overtures
+to his younger brother Murad, governor of Gujarat, representing that
+neither of their elder brothers was worthy of the kingdom, that he
+himself had no temporal ambition, and desired only to place a fit
+monarch on the throne, and then to devote himself to religious exercises
+and make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He therefore proposed to unite his
+forces to those of Murad, who would thus have no difficulty in making
+himself master of the empire while the two elder brothers were divided
+by their own strife. Murad was completely deceived by these crafty
+representations, and at once accepted the offer. Their united armies
+then moved northward. Meanwhile Shah Jahan had recovered, and though
+Dara resigned the crown he had seized, the other brothers professed not
+to believe in their father's recovery, and still pressed on. Shuja was
+defeated by Dara's son, but the imperial forces under Jaswant Singh were
+completely routed by the united armies of Aurangzeb and Murad. Dara in
+person took the field against his brothers, but was defeated and
+compelled to fly. Aurangzeb then, by a clever stroke of policy, seized
+the person of his father, and threw him into confinement, in which he
+was kept for the remaining eight years of his life. Murad was soon
+removed by assassination, and the way being thus cleared, Aurangzeb,
+with affected reluctance, ascended the throne in August 1658. He quickly
+freed himself from all other competitors for the imperial power. Dara,
+who again invaded Gujarat, was defeated and closely pursued, and was
+given up by the native chief with whom he had taken refuge. He was
+brought up to Delhi, exhibited to the people, and assassinated. Shuja,
+who had been a second time defeated near Allahabad, was attacked by the
+imperial forces under Mir Jumla and Mahommed, Aurangzeb's eldest son,
+who, however, deserted and joined his uncle. Shuja was defeated and fled
+to Arakan, where he perished; Mahommed was captured, thrown into the
+fortress of Gwalior, and died after seven years' confinement. No similar
+contest disturbed Aurangzeb's long reign of forty-six years, which has
+been celebrated, though with doubtful justice, as the most brilliant
+period of the history of Hindustan. The empire certainly was wealthy and
+of enormous extent, for there were successively added to it the rich
+kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda, but it was internally decaying and
+ready to crumble away before the first vigorous assault. Two causes
+principally had tended to weaken the Mogul power. The one was the
+intense bigotry and intolerant policy of Aurangzeb, which had alienated
+the Hindus and roused the fierce animosity of the haughty Rajputs. The
+other was the rise and rapid growth of the Mahratta power. Under their
+able leader, Sivaji, these daring freebooters plundered in every
+direction, nor could all Aurangzeb's efforts avail to subdue them. For
+the last twenty-six years of his life Aurangzeb was engaged in wars in
+the Deccan, and never set foot in his own capital. At the close of the
+long contest the Mogul power was weaker, the Mahratta stronger than at
+first. Still the personal ability and influence of the emperor were
+sufficient to keep his realms intact during his own life. His last years
+were embittered by remorse, by gloomy forebodings, and by constant
+suspicion, for he had always been in the habit of employing a system of
+espionage, and only then experienced its evil effects. He died on the
+3rd of March 1707 at Ahmadnagar, while engaged on an extensive but
+unfortunate expedition against the Mahrattas.
+
+  See Lane-Poole, _Aurangzib_, "Rulers of India" series (1893).
+
+
+
+
+AURAY, a town of France near the mouth of the Auray river, in the
+department of Morbihan, 12 m. W. of Vannes on the railway between that
+town and Lorient. Pop. (1906) 5241. Its port, which is formed by the
+channel of the river and divides the town into two parts, is frequented
+by coasting and fishing vessels. The principal buildings are the church
+of St Esprit (13th century) now secularized; the Renaissance church of
+St Gildas; the town-hall (18th century); and, at a short distance from
+the town, the Carthusian monastery, now a deaf and dumb institute, on
+the site of the battle of 1364, at which Charles of Blois was defeated
+by John of Montfort (see BRITTANY: _History_). Adjoining the Chartreuse
+is a small chapel in which are preserved the bones of the Royalists
+captured by the Republicans in a battle fought near the spot in 1795. In
+the neighbourhood is the church of Sainte Anne d'Auray, one of the
+principal places of pilgrimage in Brittany. Auray is one of the chief
+centres in France for oyster-breeding, and carries on boat-building and
+sardine-fishing.
+
+
+
+
+AURELIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, the date of the construction
+of which is unknown. It ran from Rome to Alsium, where it reached the
+sea, and thence along the south-west coast of Italy, perhaps originally
+only as far as Cosa, and was later extended to Vada Volaterrana, and in
+109 B.C. to Genua and Dertona by means of the Via Aemilia, though a
+coast road as far as Genua at least must have existed long before. The
+name is applied in the Antonine Itinerary to these extensions, and even
+to the prolongation to Aries. Its line is in the main closely followed
+by the modern coast highroad; cf., however, for the section between Cosa
+and Populonia, O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des Öslerr. arch. Instituts_,
+vii. (1904), 54.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+AURELIAN [LUCIUS DOMITIUS AURELIANUS], one of the greatest of the Roman
+soldier emperors, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia between A.D. 212-214.
+He was of humble origin, but nothing definite is known of his family. He
+had always shown great enthusiasm for a military career, and so
+distinguished himself in the campaigns in which he took part that on one
+occasion he received a public vote of thanks. At the same time he was
+proclaimed consul elect, and adopted by Ulpius Crinitus, military
+governor of Illyria and Thrace. On the death of the emperor Claudius II.
+Gothicus (270), Aurelian was proclaimed his successor with the universal
+approval of the soldiers. His first task was to continue the war which
+had been begun by Claudius against the Goths. He drove them out of
+Moesia across the Danube, where he left them in possession of Dacia,
+which he did not think himself able to retain; the name was transferred
+to Moesia, which was then called Dacia Aureliani. The chronology,
+however, of Aurelian's reign is very confused, and the abandonment of
+Dacia is placed by some authorities towards its close. He next entered
+upon campaigns against the Juthungi, Alamanni, and other Germanic
+tribes, over whom, after a severe defeat which was said to have
+imperilled the very existence of the empire, he at length obtained a
+complete victory. Having thus secured the Rhine and Danube frontiers, he
+turned his energies towards the east, and in 271 set out on his
+expedition against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra (q.v.). At the same time he
+crushed two pretenders to the throne--Firmus and Tetricus. Firmus, a
+wealthy merchant of Seleucia, had proclaimed himself emperor of Egypt.
+Aurelian, who was at the time in Mesopotamia, hastened thither, and
+ordered him to be seized and put to death. Tetricus, who had been
+proclaimed emperor in the west after the death of Gallienus, and left
+undisturbed by Claudius II., still ruled over Gaul, Spain and Britain. A
+decisive battle was fought near the modern Châlons, in which Tetricus
+was defeated. The restoration of the unity of the empire was thus
+complete. In 274 a brilliant triumph, adorned by the persons of Zenobia
+and Tetricus, was celebrated at Rome.
+
+Aurelian now turned his attention to the internal affairs of the empire.
+He introduced sumptuary laws; relieved the poor by distributions of
+bread and meat, proceeded with great severity against informers and
+embezzlers; began the construction of various public works and
+buildings; and proclaimed a general amnesty for political crimes. The
+restoration and enlargement of the walls of Rome, commenced by him, was
+not completed till the reign of Probus. An attempt to restore the
+standard of the coinage is said to have caused a revolt of the workmen
+and officials connected with the mint, which was only put down with the
+loss of 7000 soldiers. It has been suggested that this was really an
+attempt at revolution incited by the senate and praetorian guards, the
+opportunity being found in disturbances resulting from opposition to the
+attempted reform, which by themselves could hardly have assumed such
+serious proportions. Aurelian's restless spirit was not long able to
+endure a life of inaction in the city. Towards the end of 274, he
+started on an expedition against the Persians, halting in Thrace by the
+way. While on the march between Heracleia and Byzantium, at the
+beginning of the following year, he was assassinated through the
+treachery of his secretary Eros, who, in order to escape the discovery
+of his own irregularities, incited certain officers against the emperor
+by showing them a forged list, on which their names appeared as marked
+out for death.
+
+Aurelian well deserved the title of restorer of the empire, and it must
+be remembered that he lived in an age when severity was absolutely
+necessary. He was a great soldier and a rigid but just disciplinarian.
+In more favourable circumstances he would have been a great
+administrator. He displayed a fondness for pomp and show on public
+occasions; he was the first Roman emperor to wear the diadem, and
+assumed the title of Lord and God on medals.
+
+  The chief authority for the events of Aurelian's reign is his life by
+  Vopiscus, one of the writers of the "Augustan History"; it is founded
+  on Greek memoirs and certain journals deposited in the Ulpian library
+  at Rome. See L. Homo, _Le Règne de l'empereur Aurélien_ (1904), and
+  Groag's art. in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, v. 1347 foll.
+
+
+
+
+AURELIANUS, CAELIUS, a physician of Sicca in Numidia, who probably
+flourished in the 5th century A.D., although some place him two or even
+three centuries earlier. In favour of the later date is the nature of
+his Latin, which shows a strong tendency to the Romance, and the
+similarity of his language to that of Cassius Felix, also an African
+medical writer, who about 450 wrote a short treatise, chiefly based on
+Galen. We possess a translation by Aurelianus of two works of Soranus of
+Ephesus (2nd century), the chief of the "methodist" school of medicine,
+on chronic and acute maladies--_Tardae_ or _Chronicae Passiones_, in
+five, and _Celeres_ or _Acutae Passiones_ in three books. The
+translation, which is especially valuable since the original has been
+lost, shows that Soranus possessed considerable practical skill in the
+diagnosis of ordinary and even of exceptional diseases. It is also
+important as containing numerous references to the methods of earlier
+medical authorities. We also possess considerable fragments of his
+_Medicinales Responsiones_, also adapted from Soranus, a general
+treatise on medicine in the form of question and answer; it deals with
+rules of health (_salutaria praecepta_) and the pathology of internal
+diseases (ed. Rose, _Anecdota Graeca et Latina_, ii., 1870). Where it is
+possible to compare Aurelianus's translation with the original--as in a
+fragment of his Gynaecia with Soranus's [Greek: Peri gynaikeion
+Pathon]--it is found that it is literal, but abridged. There is
+apparently no MS. of the treatises in existence. (Editions: Amman, 1709;
+Haller, 1774.)
+
+
+
+
+AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN BAPTISTE D' (1804-1877), French
+general, was born at Malzieu, Lozère, on the 9th of January 1804. He was
+educated at St Cyr, and entered the army as sub-lieutenant of foot in
+1824. He served with distinction in Algeria between 1841 and 1848,
+becoming lieut.-colonel and an officer of the Legion of Honour; took
+part in the Roman campaigns of 1848 and 1849, and was made colonel. He
+served as general of brigade throughout the Crimean War of 1854-56,
+being promoted general of division and commander of the Legion of
+Honour. During the campaign in Lombardy in 1859 he commanded at
+Marseilles, and superintended the despatch of men and stores to the seat
+of war, and for his services he was made a grand officer of the Legion
+of Honour. Placed on the reserve list in 1869, he was recalled to the
+Marseilles command on the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870-71.
+After the first capture of Orleans by the Germans, he was appointed by
+the Government of National Defence, in November 1870, to the command of
+the Army of the Loire. He was at first very successful against von der
+Tann-Rathsamhausen, winning the battle of Coulmiers and compelling the
+Germans to evacuate Orleans, but the capitulation of Metz had set free
+additional German troops to oppose him, and, after his defeat at Beaune
+la Rolande and subsequent unsuccessful fighting near Orleans, resulting
+in its recapture by the Germans in December, Aurelle retreated into the
+Sologne and was superseded. After the armistice he was elected to the
+National Assembly by the departments both of Allier and Gironde. He sat
+for Allier and was one of the fifteen officers chosen to assist in the
+peace negotiations. He was decorated with the grand cross of the Legion
+of Honour, and was given the command at Bordeaux, but retired in 1872.
+Elected a life senator in 1875, he supported the monarchical majority of
+1876. He died at Versailles on the 17th of December 1877. He was the
+author of _La Première Armée de la Loire_, published in 1872.
+
+
+
+
+AUREOLA, AUREOLE (diminutive of Lat. _aura_, air), the radiance of
+luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages, is represented
+as surrounding the whole figure. In the earliest periods of Christian
+art this splendour was confined to the figures of the persons of the
+Godhead, but it was afterwards extended to the Virgin Mary and to
+several of the saints. The aureola, when enveloping the whole body, is
+generally oval or elliptical in form, but is occasionally circular or
+quatrefoil. When it is merely a luminous disk round the head, it is
+called specifically a _nimbus_, while the combination of nimbus and
+aureole is called a _glory_. The strict distinction between nimbus and
+aureole is not commonly maintained, and the latter term is most
+frequently used to denote the radiance round the heads of saints, angels
+or persons of the Godhead. The _nimbus_ in Christian art appeared first
+in the 5th century, but practically the same device was known still
+earlier, though its history is obscure, in non-Christian art. Thus
+(though earlier Indian and Bactrian coins do not show it) it is found
+with the gods on some of the coins of the Indian kings Kanishka,
+Huvishka and Vasudeva, 58 B.C. to A.D. 41 (Gardner's _Cat. of Coins of
+Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India_, Brit. Mus. 1886, plates
+26-29). And its use has been traced through the Egyptians to the Greeks
+and Romans, representations of Trajan (arch of Constantine) and
+Antoninus Pius (reverse of a medal) being found with it. In the circular
+form it constitutes a natural and even primitive use of the idea of a
+crown, modified by an equally simple idea of the emanation of light from
+the head of a superior being, or by the meteorological phenomenon of a
+halo. The probability is that all later associations with the symbol
+refer back to an early astrological origin (cf. MITHRAS), the person so
+glorified being identified with the sun and represented in the sun's
+image; so the aureole is the _Hvareno_ of Mazdaism. From this early
+astrological use the form of "glory" or "nimbus" has been adapted or
+inherited under new beliefs.
+
+
+
+
+AURICH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, chief
+town of the district of East Friesland, on the Ems-Jade canal, 18 m.
+N.W. from Emden by rail. Pop. (1900) 6013. It is built in the Dutch
+style, and lies in a sandy but fertile plain, surrounded by pleasant
+promenades which have taken the place of the old fortifications. It has
+a palace, formerly the residence of the counts of East Friesland and now
+used as government offices, a Roman Catholic and two Protestant
+churches, a gymnasium, and four libraries. There are breweries and
+small manufactories of paper and tobacco. Close by is the
+_Upstallsboom_, the hill of oath and liberty, where every year at
+Whitsuntide representatives of the seven Frisian coast lands assembled
+to deliberate.
+
+  See Wiarda, _Bruchstücke zur Geschichte der Stadt Aurich_ (Emden,
+  1835).
+
+
+
+
+AURICLE (from Lat. diminutive of _auris_, ear), the external ear in
+animals, or an analogous part in plants, &c. From a supposed resemblance
+to the ear of a dog, the term was applied to the upper cavities of the
+heart. The adjective "auricular" is more specially used in the phrase
+"auricular confession" (see CONFESSION), i.e. private.
+
+
+
+
+AURICULA (_Primula auricula_), an Alpine plant, which has been an inmate
+of British gardens for about three hundred years, and is still prized by
+florists as a favourite spring flower. It loves a cool soil and shady
+situation. The florists' varieties are grown in rich composts, for the
+preparation of which numberless receipts have been given; but many of
+the old nostrums are now exploded, and a more rational treatment has
+taken their place. Thus Mr Douglas writes (_Hardy Florists' Flowers_):--
+
+  "There is no mystery, as some suppose, about the potting, any more
+  than there is about the potting material. The compost should consist
+  of turfy loam four parts, leaf-mould one part, sharp river or silver
+  sand one part, and a few bits of broken charcoal mixed with it. The
+  pots to be used should be from 3 to 4½ in. in diameter, inside
+  measure; about 1 in. of potsherds should be placed in the bottom of
+  each pot, and over this some fibrous turf, from which the fine
+  particles of earth have been removed. The old soil should be shaken
+  from the roots of the plants to be potted; and before potting cut off,
+  if necessary, a portion of the main root. In potting press the soil
+  rather firmly around the roots."
+
+Auriculas are best grown in a cold frame mounted on legs about 2 ft.
+from the ground, and provided with hinged sashes. A graduated stage
+formed of wood battens 6 in. broad, with a rise of 2 in., should be
+fixed so as to take each one row of pots, with the plants standing at
+about 15 in. from the glass; the spaces between the shelves should be
+closed, while the top board of the back and the front should be hinged
+so as to be let down when desired for ventilation, the sashes, too,
+being movable for the same purpose, and also to afford facilities for
+examining and attending to the plants. This frame should face the north
+from May to October, and south in winter. No protection will be needed
+except in very severe frosts, when two or three thicknesses of garden
+mats may be thrown over the glass, and allowed to remain on until the
+soil is thawed, should it become frozen.
+
+Auriculas may be propagated from seed, which is to be sown as soon as
+ripe, in July or August, in boxes, kept under cover, and exposed only to
+the rays of the morning sun. When seed has been saved from the finer
+sorts, the operation is one of considerable nicety, as it not
+unfrequently happens that the best seedlings are at first exceedingly
+weak. They generally flower in the second or third year, a few good
+sorts being all that can be expected from a large sowing. The
+established varieties are increased by taking off the offshoots, an
+operation performed at the time of potting in July or the beginning of
+August. But some varieties are very shy in producing offsets.
+
+The original of the auricula is a hardy perennial herb, of dwarf habit,
+bearing dull yellowish blossoms. This and the commoner forms raised from
+seed, as well as one or two double forms, are interesting hardy border
+flowers. The choice florists' varieties are divided into five
+classes:--the _green-edged_, with the margins of the flowers green; the
+_grey-edged_, with the green margins powdered with meal so as to appear
+to be coloured grey; the _white-edged_, with the mealy powder so dense
+as to cover the green; the _selfs_, which have none of the green
+variegation of margin seen in the foregoing, but are of some distinct
+colour, as purple, maroon, &c., but have, like the preceding, a white
+paste surrounding the eye; and the _alpines_, which resemble the selfs
+in not having any green marginal variegation, but differ in having a
+yellow centre more or less dense. The individual flowers of the first
+three groups of florists' auriculas show four distinct circles:--first
+the eye or tube, which should have the stamens lying in it, but
+sometimes has the pin-headed stigma instead, which is a defect; second,
+the paste or circle of pure white surrounding the eye; third, the body
+colour, a circle of some dark tint, as maroon or violet, which feathers
+out more or less towards the edge, but is the more perfect the less it
+is so feathered, and is quite faulty if it breaks through to the outer
+circle; fourth, the margin, which is green or grey or white. These
+circles should be about equal in width and clearly defined, and the
+nearer they are to this standard the more perfect is the flower. In the
+group of selfs the conditions are the same, except that there is no
+margin, and consequently the body colour, which should be uniform in
+tone, extends to the edge. In the alpines there should be no paste or
+white surrounding the eye, but this space should be either golden-yellow
+or creamy-yellow, which makes two subdivisions in this group; and the
+body colour is more or less distinctly shaded, the edges being of a
+paler hue. There is besides a group of laced alpines, in which a
+distinct and regular border of colour surrounds each of the marginal
+lobes.
+
+The following is a selection of the best varieties cultivated in 1909:--
+
+  _Green-edged._--Abbé Liszt, Abraham Barker, Shirley Hibberd, Prince
+  Charming, Mrs Henwood.
+
+  _Grey-edged._--Amy Robsart, George Lightbody, Marmion, Olympus, George
+  Rudd, Richard Headly.
+
+  _White-edged._--Acme, Conservative, Heather Bell, Mrs Dodson, Rachel,
+  Smiling Beauty.
+
+  _Selfs._--Andrew Miller, Gerald, Mikado, Mrs Phillips, Mrs Potts,
+  Harrison Weir.
+
+  _Alpines._--Argus, Dean Hole, Duke of York, Firefly, Flora Mclvor, Mrs
+  Douglas, Mrs Markham, Perfection, Phyllis, Rosy Morn, The Bride,
+  Teviotdale.
+
+
+
+
+AURIFABER (the latinized form of Goldschmidt), a surname borne by three
+prominent men of the Reformation period in Germany.
+
+1. ANDREAS (1514-1559) was a physician of some repute, but through his
+influence with Albert of Brandenburg, last grand-master of the Teutonic
+order, and first Protestant duke of Prussia, became an outstanding
+figure in the controversy associated with Andreas Osiander (q.v.) whose
+daughter he had married.
+
+2. JOANNES (Vratislaviensis; 1517-1568), the younger brother of Andreas,
+was born at Breslau on the 30th of January 1517, and educated at
+Wittenberg, where he formed a close and lasting friendship with
+Melanchthon. After graduating in 1538 he spent twelve years as _docent_
+at the university, and having then received his doctorate of divinity,
+was appointed professor of divinity and pastor of the church of St
+Nicholas at Rostock. He distinguished himself by his conciliatory
+disposition, earned the special confidence of Duke John Albert of
+Mecklenburg, and took a leading part in 1552 in drawing up the
+constitution of the Mecklenburg church. He also settled some religious
+disputes in the town of Lübeck. In 1553 Duke Albert of Prussia, anxious
+to heal the differences in the Prussian church caused by the discussion
+of Osiander's doctrines, invited him to Königsberg, and in the following
+year appointed him professor of divinity and president of the Samland
+diocese. Joannes, however, found it impossible to conciliate all
+parties, and in 1565 returned to Breslau, where, in 1567, he became
+pastor in the church of St Elizabeth and inspector of the Lutheran
+churches and schools. He died on the 19th of October 1568.
+
+3. JOANNES (Vinariensis; 1519-1575), was born in the county of Mansfeldt
+in 1519. He studied at Wittenberg where he heard the lectures of Luther,
+and afterwards became tutor to Count Mansfeldt. In the war of 1544-45 he
+accompanied the army as field-preacher, and then lived with Luther as
+his _famulus_ or private secretary, being present at his death in 1546.
+In the following year he spent six months in prison with John Frederick,
+elector of Saxony, who had been captured by the emperor, Charles V. He
+held for some years the office of court-preacher at Weimar, but owing to
+theological disputes was compelled to resign this office in 1561. In
+1566 he was appointed to the Lutheran church at Erfurt, and there
+remained till his death in November 1575. Besides taking a share in the
+first collected or Jena edition of Luther's works (1556), Aurifaber
+sought out and published at Eisleben in 1564-1565 several writings not
+included in that edition. He also published Luther's _Letters_ (1556,
+1565), and _Table Talk_ (1566). This popular work, which has given him
+most of his fame, is unfortunately but a second or third hand
+compilation.
+
+  See G. Kawerau's art. in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk. für prot.
+  Theologie_, and the literature there cited.
+
+
+
+
+AURIGA (the "charioteer" or "waggoner"), in astronomy, a constellation
+of the northern hemisphere, found in the catalogues of Eudoxus (4th
+century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). It was symbolized by the
+Greeks as an old man in a more or less sitting posture, with a goat and
+her kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right. The ancient Greeks
+associated this constellation with many myths. Some assume it to be
+Erichthonius, son of Athena and Hephaestus, who was translated to the
+skies by Zeus on account of his invention of chariots or coaches. Others
+assume it to be Myrtilus, a son of Hermes and Clytic, and charioteer to
+Oenomaus, who was placed in the heavens by Hermes. Another myth has it
+to be Olenus, a son of Hephaestus, and father of Aega and Helice, two
+nymphs who nursed Zeus. Ptolemy catalogued fourteen stars, Tycho Brahe
+twenty-seven, and Hevelius forty in this constellation. Interesting
+stars are: [alpha] _Aurigae_ or _Capella_ (the goat), one of the
+brightest stars in the heavens, determined by Newall and Campbell to be
+a spectroscopic binary; [beta] _Aurigae_, a star of the second magnitude
+also a spectroscopic binary; [epsilon] _Aurigae_, an irregularly
+variable star; and _Nova Aurigae_, a "new" star discovered by Anderson
+in 1892, and afterwards found on a photographic plate exposed at Harvard
+in December 1891. Several fine star clusters also appear in this
+constellation.
+
+
+
+
+AURILLAC, a town of central France, capital of the department of Cantal,
+140 m. N.N.E. of Toulouse, on the Orléans railway between Figeac and
+Murat. Pop. (1906) 14,097. Aurillac stands on the right bank of the
+Jordanne, and is dominated from the north-west by the Roc Castanet,
+crowned by the castle of St Etienne, the keep of which dates from the
+11th century. Its streets are narrow and uninteresting, with the
+exception of one which contains, among other old houses, that known as
+the Maison des Consuls, a Gothic building of the 16th century, decorated
+with sculptured stone-work. Aurillac owes its origin to an abbey founded
+in the 9th century by St Géraud, and the abbey-church, rebuilt in the
+17th century in the Gothic style, is the chief building in the town. The
+former college, which dates from the 17th century, is now occupied by a
+museum and a library. There is a statue of Pope Silvester II., born near
+Aurillac in 930 and educated in the abbey, which soon afterwards became
+one of the most famous schools of France. Aurillac is the seat of a
+prefect, and its public institutions include tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycée, training-colleges and a
+branch of the Bank of France. The chief manufactures are wooden shoes
+and umbrellas, and there is trade in cheese and in the cattle and horses
+reared in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+AURISPA, GIOVANNI (c. 1370-1459), one of the learned Italians of the
+15th century, who did so much to promote the revival of the study of
+Greek in Italy, was born at Noto in Sicily. In 1418 he visited
+Constantinople, where he remained for some years, perfecting his
+knowledge of Greek and searching for ancient MSS. His efforts were
+rewarded by the acquisition of some 250 MSS., with which he returned to
+Venice. Here he is said to have been obliged to pawn his treasures for
+50 gold florins to provide for his immediate wants. Cosimo de' Medici,
+hearing of his embarrassment, redeemed the MSS. and summoned the owner
+to Florence. In 1438, at the council of Basel, Aurispa attracted the
+attention of Pope Eugenius IV., who made him his secretary; he held a
+similar position under Nicholas V., who presented him to two lucrative
+abbacies. He died at Ferrara. Considering his long life and reputation
+Aurispa produced little: Latin translations of the commentary of
+Hierocles on the golden verses of Pythagoras (1474) and of _Philisci
+Consolatoria ad Ciceronem_ from Dio Cassius (not published till 1510);
+and, according to Gesner, a translation of the works of Archimedes.
+Aurispa's reputation rests upon the extensive collection of MSS. copied
+and distributed by him, and his persistent efforts to revive and promote
+the study of ancient literature.
+
+
+
+
+AUROCHS (from Lat. _urus_, the wild ox, and "ox") or URUS, the name of
+the extinct wild ox of Europe (_Bos taurus primigenius_), which after
+the disappearance of that animal became transferred to the bison.
+According to the German Freiherr von Herberstein (1486-1566), in his
+_Moscovia_, of which an Italian translation was published at Venice in
+1550, the aurochs survived in Poland (and probably also in Hungary)
+during the latter middle ages. In this work appear woodcuts--rude but
+characteristic and unmistakable--of two distinct types of European wild
+cattle; one the aurochs, or ur, and the other the bison. As Herberstein
+had travelled in Poland, it is probable that he had seen both species
+alive, and the drawings were most likely executed under his own
+direction. It has indeed been suggested that the figure of the aurochs
+was taken from a domesticated ox, but this is a mistaken idea. Not the
+least important feature of the work of Herberstein is the application of
+the name aurochs to the wild ox, as distinct from the bison. The
+locality where aurochs survived in Herberstein's time was the forest of
+Jaktozowka, situated about 55 kilometres west-south-west of Warsaw, in
+the provinces of Bolemow and Sochaczew. From other evidence it appears
+that the last aurochs was killed in this forest in the year 1627.
+Herberstein describes the colour of the aurochs as black, and this is
+confirmed by another old picture of the animal. Gesner's figure of the
+aurochs, or as he calls it "thur," given in the _Icones_ to his _History
+of Animals_, was probably adapted from Herberstein's. It may be added
+that an ancient gold goblet depicts the hunting and taming of the wild
+aurochs.
+
+As a wild animal, then, the aurochs appears to have ceased to exist in
+the early part of the 17th century; but as a species it survives, for
+the majority of the domesticated breeds of European cattle are its
+descendants, all diminished in point of size, and some departing more
+widely from the original type than others. Aurochs' calves were in all
+probability captured by the early inhabitants of Britain and the
+continent and tamed; and from these, with perhaps an occasional blending
+of wild blood, are descended most European breeds of cattle.
+
+Much misconception, however, has prevailed as to which breeds are the
+nearest to the ancestral wild stock. At one time this position was
+supposed to be occupied by the white half-wild cattle of Chillingham and
+other British parks. These white breeds are, however, partial albinos;
+and such semi-albinos are always the result of domestication and could
+not have arisen in the wild state. Moreover, park-cattle display
+evidence of their descent from dark-coloured breeds by the retention of
+red or black ears and brown or black muzzles. In the Chillingham cattle
+the ears are generally red, although sometimes black, and the muzzle is
+brown; while in the breed at Cadzow Chase Lanarkshire, both ears and
+muzzle are black, and there are usually flecks of black on the head and
+forequarters. It is further significant that, in the Chillingham herd,
+dark-coloured calves, which are weeded out, make their appearance from
+time to time.
+
+A very ancient British breed is the black Pembroke; and when this breed
+tends to albinism, the ears and muzzle, and more rarely the fetlocks,
+remain completely black, or very dark grey, although the colour
+elsewhere is whitish, more or less flecked and blotched with pale grey.
+In the shape and curvature of the horns, which at first incline outwards
+and forwards, and then bend somewhat upwards and inwards, this breed of
+cattle resembles the aurochs and the (by comparison) dwarfed
+park-breeds. Moreover, in both the Pembroke and the park-breeds the
+horns are light-coloured with black tips.
+
+Evidence as to the affinity between these breeds is afforded by the fact
+that a breed of cattle very similar to that at Chillingham was found in
+Wales in the 10th century; these cattle being white with red ears.
+Individuals of this race survived till at least 1850 in Pembroke, where
+they were at one time kept perfectly pure as a part of the regular
+farm-stock. Until a period comparatively recent, they were relatively
+numerous, and were driven in droves to the pasturages of the Severn and
+the neighbouring markets. Their whole essential characters are the same
+as those of the cattle at Chillingham. Their horns are white, tipped
+with black, and extended and turned upwards in the manner distinctive of
+the park-breed. The inside of the ears and the muzzle are black, and the
+feet are black to the fetlock joint. The skin is unctuous and of a
+deep-toned yellow colour. Individuals of the race were sometimes born
+entirely black, and then were not to be distinguished from the common
+Pembroke cattle of the mountains.
+
+It is thus evident that park-cattle are an albino offshoot from the
+ancient Pembroke black breed, which, from their soft and well-oiled
+skins, are evidently natives of a humid climate, such as that of the
+forests in which dwelt the wild aurochs. This disposes of a theory that
+they are descendants of a white sacrificial breed introduced into
+Britain by the ancient Romans.
+
+The Pembroke and park-cattle are, however, by no means the sole
+descendants of the aurochs, the black Spanish fighting-bulls claiming a
+similar descent. This breed shows a light-coloured line along the spine,
+which was characteristic of the aurochs. It has also been suggested that
+the Swiss Siemental cattle are nearly related to the aurochs. The latter
+was a gigantic animal, especially during the Pleistocene period; the
+skulls and limb-bones discovered in the brick-earths and gravels of the
+Thames valley and many other parts of England having belonged to animals
+that probably stood six feet at the shoulder.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+AURORA (perhaps through a form _ausosa_ from Sansk. _ush_, to burn; the
+common idea of "brightness" suggests a connexion with _aurum_, gold),
+the Roman goddess of the dawn, corresponding to the Greek goddess Eos.
+According to Hesiod (_Theog_. 271) she was the daughter of the Titan
+Hyperion and Thea (or Euryphassa), and sister of Helios and Selene. By
+the Titan Astraeus, she was the mother of the winds Zephyrus, Notus and
+Boreas, of Hesperus and the stars. Homer represents her as rising every
+morning from the couch of Tithonus (by whom she was the mother of
+Emathion and Memnon), and drawn out of the east in a chariot by the
+horses Lampus and Phaëthon to carry light to gods and men (_Odyssey_,
+xxiii. 253); in Homer, she abandons her course when the sun is fully
+risen (or at the latest at mid-day, _Iliad_, ix. 66), but in later
+literature she accompanies the sun all day and thus becomes the goddess
+of the daylight. From the roseate shafts of light which herald the dawn,
+she bears in Homer the epithet "rosy-fingered." The conception of a
+dawn-goddess is common in primitive religions, especially in the Vedic
+mythology, where the deity Usás is closely parallel to the Greco-Roman;
+see Paul Regnaud, _Le Rig-Véda_ in _Annales du musée Guimet_, vol. i. c.
+6 (Paris, 1892). She is also represented as the lover of the hunter
+Orion (_Odyssey_, v. 121), the representative of the constellation that
+disappears at the flush of dawn, and the youthful hunter Cephalus, by
+whom she was the mother of Phaëthon (Apollodorus iii. 14. 3). In works
+of art, Eos is represented as a young woman, fully clothed, walking fast
+with a youth in her arms; or rising from the sea in a chariot drawn by
+winged horses; sometimes, as the goddess who dispenses the dews of the
+morning, she has a pitcher in each hand. In the fresco-painting by Guido
+Reni in the Rospigliosi palace at Rome, Aurora is represented strewing
+flowers before the chariot of the sun. Metaphorically the word Aurora
+was used (e.g. Virg. _Aen_. viii. 686, vii. 606) for the East generally.
+
+
+
+
+AURORA, a city of Kane county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the
+state, on the Fox river, about 37 m. W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 19,688;
+(1900) 24,147, of whom 5075 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,807. Aurora is
+served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western,
+the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern, and the Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota
+railways, and is connected with Chicago by an electric line. The city
+has a soldiers' memorial hall, erected by popular subscription, and a
+Carnegie library. Aurora is an important manufacturing centre; among its
+manufactures are railway cars--the shops of the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy railway being here--flour and cotton, carriages, hardware
+specialties, corsets, suspenders, stoves and silver-plate. In 1905 the
+city's factory products were valued at $7,329,028, an increase of 30% in
+5 years. The municipality owns and operates the water-works and
+electric-lighting plants. The first settlement in the vicinity of Aurora
+was made in 1834. In 1845 the village of East Aurora was incorporated,
+and West Aurora was incorporated nine years later. In 1853 the two
+villages were united under a city charter, which was superseded by a
+revised charter in 1887.
+
+
+
+
+AURORA, a city of Lawrence county, Missouri, U.S.A., 275 m. S.W. of St
+Louis, on the St Louis & San Francisco, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain
+& Southern railways. Pop.(1890) 3482; (1900) 6191; (1910) 4148. It is
+situated near a lead and zinc mining region, where surface lead was
+discovered in 1873 and systematic mining began in 1887; among the cities
+of the state it is second to Joplin in mineral importance, and has large
+iron-works and flour-mills; mining machinery also is manufactured.
+Farming and fruit-growing are carried on in the surrounding country, and
+Aurora is the place from which the products are shipped. Aurora was
+platted in 1870 and was chartered as a city in 1886.
+
+
+
+
+AURORA, a village of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A., on Cayuga Lake, 16
+m. S.W. of Auburn. Pop. (1905) 623; (1910) 493. It is served by the
+Lehigh Valley railway. Aurora is a beautiful place and a popular summer
+resort, but it is best known as the seat of Wells College, a
+non-sectarian college for women, founded in 1868 by Henry Wells
+(1805-1878), of the Wells Fargo Express Company, and liberally endowed
+by Edwin B. Morgan (1806-1881), also connected with the same company,
+and by others. At Aurora are also the Somes school (a preparatory school
+for boys), founded in 1798 and until 1904 known as the Cayuga Lake
+Academy, and the Wells school (a preparatory school for girls). The
+village has a public library. Aurora was settled in 1789 chiefly by
+residents of New England, and was incorporated in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+AURORA POLARIS (_Aurora Borealis_ and _Australis_, Polar Light, Northern
+Lights), a natural phenomenon which occurs in many forms, some of great
+beauty.
+
+1. _Forms._--Various schemes of classification have been proposed, but
+none has met with universal acceptance; the following are at least the
+principal types. (1) _Arcs._ These most commonly resemble segments of
+circles, but are not infrequently elliptical or irregular in outline.
+The ends of arcs frequently extend to the horizon, but often one or both
+ends stop short of this. Several arcs may be visible at the same time.
+Usually the under or concave edge of the arc is the more clearly
+defined, and adjacent to it the sky often seems darker than elsewhere.
+It is rather a disputed point whether this dark segment--through which
+starlight has been seen to pass--represents a real atmospheric condition
+or is merely a contrast effect. (2) _Bands._ These may be nearly
+straight and regular in outline, as if broken portions of arcs;
+frequently they are ribbon-like serpentine forms showing numerous
+sinuosities. (3) _Rays._ Frequently an arc or band is visibly composed
+of innumerable short rays separated by distinctly less luminous
+intervals. These rays are more or less perpendicular to the arc or band;
+sometimes they are very approximately parallel to one another, on other
+occasions they converge towards a point. Longer rays often show an
+independent existence. Not infrequently rays extend from the upper edge
+of an arc towards the zenith. Combinations of rays sometimes resemble a
+luminous fan, or a series of fans, or part of a hollow luminous
+cylinder. Rays often alter suddenly in length, seeming to stretch down
+towards the horizon or mount towards the zenith. This accounts for the
+description of aurora as "Merry Dancers." (4) _Curtains or Draperies._
+This form is rare except in Arctic regions, where it is sometimes fairly
+frequent. It is one of the most imposing forms. As a rule the higher
+portion is visibly made up of rays, the light tending to become more
+continuous towards the lower edge; the combination suggests a connected
+whole, like a curtain whose alternate portions are in light and shade.
+The curtain often shows several conspicuous folds, and the lower edge
+often resembles frilled drapery. At several stations in Greenland
+auroral curtains have been observed when passing right overhead to
+narrow to a thin luminous streak, exactly as a vertical sheet of light
+would seem to do to one passing underneath it. (5) _Corona_. A fully
+developed corona is perhaps the finest form of aurora. As the name
+implies, there is a sort of crown of light surrounding a comparatively
+or wholly dark centre. Farther from the centre the ray structure is
+usually prominent. The rays may lie very close together, or may be
+widely separated from one another. (6) _Patches_. During some displays,
+auroral light appears in irregular areas or patches, which sometimes
+bear a very close resemblance to illuminated detached clouds. (7)
+_Diffused Aurora_. Sometimes a large part of the sky shows a diffuse
+illumination, which, though brighter in some parts than others,
+possesses no definite outlines. How far the different forms indicate
+real difference in the nature of the phenomenon, and how far they are
+determined by the position of the observer, it is difficult to say. Not
+infrequently several different forms are visible at the same time.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+2. _Isochasms._--Aurora is seldom observed in low latitudes. In the
+southern hemisphere there is comparatively little inhabited land in high
+latitudes and observational data are few; thus little is known as to how
+the frequency varies with latitude and longitude. Even in the northern
+hemisphere there are large areas in the Arctic about which little is
+known. H. Fritz (2) has, however, drawn a series of curves which are
+believed to give a good general idea of the relative frequency of aurora
+throughout the northern hemisphere. Fritz' curves, shown in the
+illustration, are termed isochasms, from the Greek word employed by
+Aristotle to denote aurora. Points on the same curve are supposed to
+have the same average number of auroras in the year, and this average
+number is shown adjacent to the curve. Starting from the equator and
+travelling northwards we find in the extreme south of Spain an average
+of only one aurora in ten years. In the north of France the average
+rises to five a year; in the north of Ireland to thirty a year; a little
+to the north of the Shetlands to one hundred a year. Between the
+Shetlands and Iceland we cross the curve of maximum frequency, and
+farther north the frequency diminishes. The curve of maximum frequency
+forms a slightly irregular oval, whose centre, the auroral pole, is
+according to Fritz at about 81° N. lat., 70° W. long. Isochasms reach a
+good deal farther south in America than in Europe. In other words,
+auroras are much more numerous in the southern parts of Canada and in
+the United States than in the same latitudes of Europe.
+
+3. _Annual Variation._--Table I. shows the annual variation observed in
+the frequency of aurora. It has been compiled from several authorities,
+especially Joseph Lovering (4) and Sophus Tromholt (5). The monthly
+figures denote the percentages of the total number seen in the year. The
+stations are arranged in order of latitude. Individual places are first
+considered, then a few large areas.
+
+The Godthaab data in Table I. are essentially those given by Prof. A.
+Paulsen (6) as observed by Kleinschmidt in the winters of 1865 to 1882,
+supplemented by Lovering's data for summer. Starting at the extreme
+north, we have a simple period with a well-marked maximum at midwinter,
+and no auroras during several months at midsummer. This applies to
+Hammerfest, Jakobshavn, Godthaab and the most northern division of
+Scandinavia. The next division of Scandinavia shows a transition stage.
+To the south of this in Europe the single maximum at mid-winter is
+replaced by two maxima, somewhere about the equinoxes.
+
+  4. In considering what is the real significance of the great
+  difference apparent in Table I. between higher and middle latitudes, a
+  primary consideration is that aurora is seldom seen until the sun is
+  some degrees below the horizon. There is no reason to suppose that the
+  physical causes whose effects we see as aurora are in existence only
+  when aurora is visible. Until means are devised for detecting aurora
+  during bright sunshine, our knowledge as to the hour at which these
+  causes are most frequently or most powerfully in operation must remain
+  incomplete. But it can hardly be doubted that the differences apparent
+  in Table I. are largely due to the influence of sunlight. In high
+  latitudes for several months in summer it is never dark, and
+  consequently a total absence of visible aurora is practically
+  inevitable. Some idea of this influence can be derived from figures
+  obtained by the Swedish International Expedition of 1882-1883 at Cape
+  Thorsden, Spitsbergen, lat. 78° 28' N. (7). The original gives the
+  relative frequency of aurora for each degree of depression of the sun
+  below the horizon, assuming the effect of twilight to be nil (i.e. the
+  relative frequency to be 100) when the depression is 18.5° or more.
+  The following are a selection of the figures:--
+
+    Angle of depression  4.5°  7.5°  10.5°  12.5°  15.5°.
+    Relative frequency   0.3   9.3   44.9   74.5   95.9.
+
+  These figures are not wholly free from uncertainties, arising from
+  true diurnal and annual variations in the frequency, but they give a
+  good general idea of the influence of twilight.
+
+  If sunlight and twilight were the sole cause of the apparent annual
+  variation, the frequency would have a simple period, with a maximum at
+  midwinter and a minimum at midsummer. This is what is actually shown
+  by the most northern stations and districts in Table I. When we come,
+  however, below 65° lat. in Europe the frequency near the equinoxes
+  rises above that at midwinter, and we have a distinct double period,
+  with a principal minimum at midsummer and a secondary minimum at
+  midwinter. In southern Europe--where, however, auroras are too few to
+  give smooth results in a limited number of years--in southern Canada,
+  and in the United States, the difference between the winter and summer
+  months is much reduced. Whether there is any real difference between
+  high and mean latitudes in the annual frequency of the causes rendered
+  visible by aurora, it is difficult to say. The Scandinavian data, from
+  the wealth of observations, are probably the most representative, and
+  even in the most northern district of Scandinavia the smallness of the
+  excess of the frequencies in December and January over those in March
+  and October suggests that some influence tending to create maxima at
+  the equinoxes has largely counterbalanced the influence of sunlight
+  and twilight in reducing the frequency at these seasons.
+
+  5. _Fourier Analysis._--With a view to more minute examination, the
+  annual frequency can be expressed in Fourier series, whose terms
+  represent waves, whose periods are 12, 6, 4, 3, &c. months. This has
+  been done by Lovering (4) for thirty-five stations. The nature of the
+  results will best be explained by reference to the formula given by
+  Lovering as a mean from all the stations considered, viz.:--
+
+    8.33 + 3.03 sin(30t + 100°52') + 2.53 sin(60t + 309° 5')
+         + 0.16 sin(90t + 213°31') + 0.56 sin(120t + 162°45')
+         + 0.27 sin(150t + 32°38').
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+    FIG. 1--TWO TYPES OF AURORAL ARCS.
+
+    FIG. 2--TWO TYPES OF AURORAL RAYS.
+
+    (From the _Internationale Polarforschung_, 1882-1883, by permission
+    of the _Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, Vienna.)]
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+    FIG. 3--AURORAL BANDS.
+
+    FIG. 4--AURORAL CURTAIN BELOW AN ARC.
+
+    FIG. 5.--AURORAL CORONA.]
+
+
+    TABLE I.--_Annual Frequency (Relative)._
+
+    +-----------------+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |      Place.     | Latitude. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May  | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
+    +-----------------+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |                 |     °     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+    | Hammerfest      |    70½    | 20.9 | 17.6 |  8.8 |  0   |  0   |  0   |  0   |  0   |  4.4 |  9.9 | 17.6 | 20.9 |
+    | Jakobshavn      |    69     | 14.6 | 13.0 |  9.2 |  .5  |  0   |  0   |  0   |  0   |  9.2 | 15.1 | 18.4 | 20.0 |
+    | Godthaab        |    64     | 15.5 | 12.4 |  9.7 |  4.9 |  0   |  0   |  0   |  1.2 |  8.7 | 13.3 | 17.0 | 17.4 |
+    | St Petersburg   |    60     |  6.5 |  9.1 | 16.8 | 13.8 |  3.5 |  1.2 |  1.4 |  5.9 | 13.8 | 13.1 |  7.6 |  7.3 |
+    | Christiania     |    60     |  8.6 | 11.4 | 14.0 | 11.2 |  0.6 |  0   |  0.2 |  6.5 | 14.6 | 12.2 | 10.3 | 10.3 |
+    | Upsala          |    60     |  8.4 | 12.9 | 14.9 |  7.4 |  0.7 |  0.2 |  0.4 |  7.1 | 12.4 | 14.3 | 10.7 | 10.7 |
+    | Stockholm       |    59     |  7.6 | 10.0 | 14.7 | 16.4    3.8 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  5.6 | 12.9 | 11.4 | 10.0 |  7.3 |
+    | Edinburgh       |    56     |  9.6 | 12.6 | 14.0 |  9.5 |  3.4 |  0.0 |  1.7 |  6.0 | 12.6 | 13.5 | 11.8 |  5.2 |
+    | Berlin          |    52½    |  7.6 | 10.8 | 16.4 | 15.5 | 11.4 |  0.6 |  2.9 |  2.9 |  6.5 | 13.2 |  8.5 |  4.1 |
+    | London          |    51½    |  8.6 | 10.5 | 10.2 | 10.7 |  4.0 |  1.1 |  1.9 |  5.6 | 14.5 | 16.9 |  9.6 |  6.4 |
+    | Quebec          |    47     |  3.6 | 14.8 |  8.3 | 14.2 |  4.1 |  5.9 |  7.7 |  5.9 | 11.2 | 12.4 |  7.7 |  4.1 |
+    | Toronto         |    43½    |  5.4 |  9.5 |  8.7 | 11.8 |  9.0 |  6.2 |  8.0 |  6.4 |  8.5 | 11.1 |  8.7 |  6.7 |
+    | Cambridge, Mass.|    42½    |  5.1 |  8.2 | 11.8 | 10.2 |  6.4 |  5.1 | 10.3 |  8.5 | 13.3 |  9.2 |  6.8 |  5.1 |
+    | New Haven, Conn.|    41½    |  7.7 |  7.3 |  8.9 |  8.2 |  7.6 |  5.7 |  8.9 |  8.1 | 11.9 |  7.6 | 10.6 |  7.5 |
+    | Scandinavia     | N. of 68½ | 16.4 | 13.8 | 14.8 |  1.6 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  0.4 |  7.8 | 15.1 | 14.4 | 15.7 |
+    |      "          | 68½  to 65| 15.3 | 14.6 | 13.7 |  2.9 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  1.1 |  9.7 | 14.6 | 14.0 | 14.1 |
+    |      "          | 65 to 61½ | 13.2 | 12.3 | 14.5 |  5.4 |  0.2 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  2.8 | 13.1 | 14.2 | 12.8 | 11.5 |
+    |      "          | 61½  to 58|  9.5 | 11.2 | 13.5 | 10.9 |  1.3 |  0.1 |  0.4 |  5.7 | 13.6 | 13.8 | 10.4 |  9.6 |
+    |      "          | S. of 58  |  8.2 | 11.9 | 12.6 | 13.3 |  1.5 |  0.1 |  0.6 |  4.9 | 14.9 | 13.5 | 10.3 |  8.2 |
+    | New York State  | 45 to 40½ |  6.3 |  7.4 |  9.1 | 11.0 |  7.4 |  6.6 |  8.8 | 10.4 | 11.7 |  9.7 |  6.2 |  5.4 |
+    +-----------------+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  The total number of auroras in the year is taken as 100, and t denotes
+  the time, in months, that has elapsed since the middle of January.
+  Putting t=0, 1, &c., in succession, we get the percentages of the
+  total number of auroras which occur in January, February, and so on.
+  The first periodic term has a period of twelve, the second of six
+  months, and similarly for the others. The first periodic term is
+  largest when t × 30° + 100° 52' = 450°. This makes t = 11.6 months
+  after the middle of January, otherwise the 3rd of January,
+  approximately. The 6-month term has the earliest of its two equal
+  maxima about the 26th of March. These two are much the most important
+  of the periodic terms. The angles 100° 52', 309° 5', &c., are known as
+  the phase angles of the respective periodic terms, while 3.03, 2.53,
+  &c., are the corresponding amplitudes. Table II. gives a selection of
+  Lovering's results. The stations are arranged according to latitude.
+
+
+    TABLE II.
+
+    +----------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+    |                      | Annual Term. | 6-Month Term.| 4-Month Term.|
+    |       Station.       +-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
+    |                      |  Amp. |Phase.|  Amp. |Phase.|  Amp. |Phase.|
+    +----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
+    |                      |       |   °  |       |   °  |       |   °  |
+    | Jakobshavn           | 10.40 |  123 |  1.13 |  206 |  1.41 |  333 |
+    | Godthaab             |  8.21 |  111 |  1.54 |  316 |  0.64 |  335 |
+    | St Petersburg        |  2.81 |   96 |  5.99 |  309 |  0.57 |  208 |
+    | Christiania          |  4.83 |  116 |  4.99 |  317 |  0.76 |  189 |
+    | Upsala               |  5.41 |  119 |  4.57 |  322 |  0.86 |  296 |
+    | Stockholm            |  3.68 |   91 |  5.80 |  303 |  1.31 |  180 |
+    | Makerstown (Scotland)|  5.79 |  102 |  4.47 |  310 |  2.00 |  342 |
+    | Great Britain        |  3.87 |  126 |  4.24 |  287 |  0.40 |   73 |
+    | Toronto              |  0.18 |   12 |  2.13 |  260 |  0.52 |  305 |
+    | Cambridge, Mass.     |  1.02 |  262 |  2.84 |  339 |  1.28 |  253 |
+    | New Haven, Conn.     |  0.99 |  183 |  1.02 |  313 |  0.57 |  197 |
+    | New York State       |  1.34 |  264 |  2.29 |  325 |  0.54 |  157 |
+    +----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
+
+  Speaking generally, the annual term diminishes in importance as we
+  travel south. North of 55° in Europe its phase angle seems fairly
+  constant, not differing very much from the value 110° in Lovering's
+  general formula. The 6-month term is small, in the two most northern
+  stations, but south of 60° N. lat. it is on the whole the most
+  important term. Excluding Jakobshavn, the phase angles in the 6-month
+  term vary wonderfully little, and approach the value 309° in
+  Lovering's general formula. North of lat. 50° the 4-month term is, as
+  a rule, comparatively unimportant, but in the American stations its
+  relative importance is increased. The phase angle, however, varies so
+  much as to suggest that the term mainly represents local causes or
+  observational uncertainties. Lovering's general formula suggests that
+  the 4-month term is really less important than the 3-month term, but
+  he gives no data for the latter at individual stations.
+
+  6. Sunlight is not the only disturbing cause in estimates of auroral
+  frequency. An idea of the disturbing influence of cloud may be derived
+  from some interesting results from the Cape Thorsden (7) observations.
+  These show how the frequency of visible auroras diminished as cloud
+  increased from 0 (sky quite clear) to 10 (sky wholly overcast).
+
+  Grouping the results, we have:
+
+    Amount of cloud        0    1 to 3    4 to 6    7 to 9    10
+    Relative frequency   100      82        57        46       8
+
+  Out of a total of 1714 hours during which the sky was wholly overcast
+  the Swedish expedition saw auroras on 17, occurring on 14 separate
+  days, whereas 226 hours of aurora would have occurred out of an equal
+  number of hours with the sky quite clear. The figures being based on
+  only one season's observations are somewhat irregular. Smoothing them,
+  Carlheim-Gyllensköld gives f = 100' - 7.3c as the most probable linear
+  relation between c, the amount of cloud, and f, the frequency,
+  assuming the latter to be 100 when there is no cloud.
+
+7. _Diurnal Variation._--The apparent daily period at most stations is
+largely determined by the influence of daylight on the visibility. It is
+only during winter and in high latitudes that we can hope to ascertain
+anything directly as to the real diurnal variation of the causes whose
+influence is visible at night as aurora. Table III. gives particulars of
+the number of occasions when aurora was seen at each hour of the
+twenty-four during three expeditions in high latitudes when a special
+outlook was kept.
+
+The data under A refer to Cape Thorsden (78° 28' N. lat., 15° 42' E.
+long.), those under B to Jan Mayen (8) (71° 0' N. lat., 8° 28' W.
+long.), both for the winter of 1882-1883. The data under C are given by
+H. Arctowski (9) for the "Belgica" Expedition in 1898. They may be
+regarded as applying approximately to the mean position of the
+"Belgica," or 70½° S. lat., 86½° W. long. The method of counting
+frequencies was fairly alike, at least in the case of A and B, but in
+comparing the different stations the data should be regarded as relative
+rather than absolute. The Jan Mayen data refer really to Göttingen mean
+time, but this was only twenty-three minutes late on local time. In
+calculating the percentages of forenoon and afternoon occurrences half
+the entries under noon and midnight were assigned to each half of the
+day. Even at Cape Thorsden, the sun at midwinter is only 11° below the
+horizon at noon, and its effect on the visibility is thus not wholly
+negligible. The influence of daylight is presumably the principal cause
+of the difference between the phenomena during November, December and
+January at Cape Thorsden and Jan Mayen, for in the equinoctial months
+the results from these two stations are closely similar. Whilst daylight
+is the principal cause of the diurnal inequality, it is not the only
+cause, otherwise there would be as many auroras in the morning
+(forenoon) as in the evening (afternoon). The number seen in the evening
+is, however, according to Table III., considerably in excess at all
+seasons. Taking the whole winter, the percentage seen in the evening was
+the same for the "Belgica" as for Jan Mayen, i.e. for practically the
+same latitudes South and North. At Cape Thorsden from November to
+January there seems a distinct double period, with minima near noon and
+midnight. The other months at Cape Thorsden show a single maximum and
+minimum, the former before midnight. The same phenomenon appears at Jan
+Mayen especially in November, December and January, and it is the normal
+state of matters in temperate latitudes, where the frequency is usually
+greatest between 8 and 10 P.M. An excess of evening over morning
+occurrences is also the rule, and it is not infrequently more pronounced
+than in Table III. Thus at Tasiusak (65° 37' N. lat., 37° 33' W. long.)
+the Danish Arctic Expedition (10) of 1904 found seventy-five out of
+every hundred occurrences to take place before midnight.
+
+
+  TABLE III.--_Diurnal Variation._
+
+  +-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+
+  |             |           |           |Feb., Mar.,|Sep. to Mar. (N. Lat.).|
+  |    Hour.    |    Dec.   |Nov. & Jan.|Sep. & Oct.|Mar. to Sep. (S. Lat.).|
+  |             +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+  |             |  A  |  B  |  A  |  B  |  A  |  B  |   A   |   B   |   C   |
+  +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+  |       1     |  14 |   7 |  14 |   8 |  27 |  23 |   55  |   38  |   24  |
+  |       2     |  10 |   6 |  15 |   6 |  20 |  25 |   45  |   37  |   23  |
+  |       3     |   9 |   4 |  15 |   5 |  15 |  21 |   39  |   30  |   10  |
+  |       4     |  10 |   5 |  21 |   7 |  14 |  18 |   45  |   30  |    4  |
+  |       5     |  13 |   5 |  20 |   3 |  10 |  10 |   43  |   18  |    2  |
+  |       6     |  11 |   3 |  15 |   4 |   2 |   3 |   28  |   10  |    1  |
+  |       7     |   9 |   2 |  13 |   3 |   1 |   2 |   23  |    7  |    0  |
+  |       8     |   5 |   1 |   6 |   1 |   0 |   0 |   11  |    2  |    0  |
+  |       9     |   7 |   2 |   9 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   16  |    2  |    0  |
+  |      10     |  10 |   0 |   5 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   15  |    0  |    0  |
+  |      11     |   9 |   0 |   6 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   15  |    0  |    0  |
+  |     Noon    |  10 |   0 |   4 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   14  |    0  |    0  |
+  |       1     |  10 |   0 |   6 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   16  |    0  |    0  |
+  |       2     |  14 |   0 |  10 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   24  |    0  |    0  |
+  |       3     |  18 |   1 |  20 |   3 |   0 |   0 |   38  |    4  |    0  |
+  |       4     |  16 |   7 |  19 |   7 |   1 |   1 |   36  |   15  |    0  |
+  |       5     |  12 |  11 |  22 |  10 |   5 |   2 |   39  |   23  |    3  |
+  |       6     |  14 |  10 |  21 |  16 |   8 |   5 |   43  |   31  |    3  |
+  |       7     |  16 |  13 |  23 |  16 |  20 |   9 |   59  |   38  |   14  |
+  |       8     |  15 |  12 |  22 |  18 |  24 |  24 |   61  |   54  |   25  |
+  |       9     |  14 |  15 |  18 |  17 |  27 |  28 |   59  |   60  |   31  |
+  |      10     |  12 |  15 |  19 |  15 |  31 |  25 |   62  |   55  |   29  |
+  |      11     |  10 |  12 |  18 |  17 |  33 |  26 |   61  |   55  |   26  |
+  |   Midnight  |   9 |   9 |  13 |  11 |  28 |  22 |   50  |   42  |   26  |
+  +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+  | Totals      | 277 | 140 | 354 | 167 | 266 | 244 |  897  |  551  |  221  |
+  +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+  |Percentages--|     |     |     |     |     |     |       |       |       |
+  | Forenoon    |  42 |  28 |  42 |  25 |  39 |  46 |   41  |   35  |   35  |
+  | Afternoon   |  58 |  72 |  58 |  75 |  61 |  54 |   59  |   65  |   65  |
+  +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  8. The preceding remarks relate to auroras as a whole; the different
+  forms differ considerably in their diurnal variation. Arcs, bands and,
+  generally speaking, the more regular and persistent forms, show their
+  greatest frequencies earlier in the night than rays or patches. Table
+  IV. shows the percentages of e. (evening) and m. (morning) occurrences
+  of the principal forms as recorded by the Arctic observers at Cape
+  Thorsden, Jan Mayen and Tasiusak.
+
+
+    TABLE IV.
+
+    +----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                |   Arcs.   |  Bands.   |   Rays.   |  Patches. |
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                |  e. |  m. |  e. |  m. |  e. |  m. |  e. |  m. |
+    |                +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Cape Thorsden. |  76 |  24 |  66 |  34 |  52 |  48 |  51 |  49 |
+    | Jan Mayen.     |  78 |  22 |  68 |  32 |  60 |  40 |  60 |  40 |
+    | Tasiusak       |  85 |  15 |  85 |  15 |  65 |  35 |  62 |  38 |
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  At Cape Thorsden diffused auroral light had percentages e. 65, m. 35,
+  practically identical with those for bands. At Tasiusak, 8 P.M. was
+  the hour of most frequent occurrence for arcs and bands, whereas
+  patches had their maximum frequency at 11 P.M. and rays at midnight.
+
+9. _Lunar and other Periods._--The action of moonlight necessarily gives
+rise to a true lunar period in the visibility of aurora. The extent to
+which it renders aurora invisible depends, however, so much on the
+natural brightness of the aurora--which depends on the time and the
+place--and on the sharpness of the outlook kept, that it is difficult to
+gauge it. Ekholm and Arrhenius (11) claim to have established the
+existence of a true tropical lunar period of 27-32 days, and also of a
+26-day period, or, as they make it, a 25.929-day period. A 26-day period
+has also been derived by J. Liznar (12), after an elaborate allowance
+for the disturbing effects of moonlight from the observations in
+1882-1883 at Bossekop, Fort Rae and Jan Mayen. Neither of these periods
+is universally conceded. The connexion between aurora and earth magnetic
+disturbances renders it practically certain that if a 26-day or similar
+period exists in the one phenomenon it exists also in the other, and of
+the two terrestrial magnetism (q.v.) is probably the element least
+affected by external complications, such as the action of moonlight.
+
+10. _Sun-spot Connexion._--The frequency of auroral displays is much
+greater in some years than others. At most places the variation in the
+frequency has shown a general similarity to that of sun-spots. Table V.
+gives contemporaneous data for the frequency of sun-spots and of auroras
+seen in Scandinavia. The sun-spot data prior to 1902 are from A.
+Wolfer's table in the _Met. Zeitschrift_ for 1902, p. 195; the more
+recent data are from his quarterly lists. All are observed frequencies,
+derived after Wolf's method; maxima and minima are in heavy type.
+
+The auroral data are from Table E of Tromholt's catalogue (5), with
+certain modifications. In Tromholt's yearly data the year commences with
+July. This being inconvenient for comparison with sun-spots, use was
+made of his monthly values to obtain corresponding data for years
+commencing with January. The Tromholt-Schroeter data for Scandinavia as
+a whole commenced with 1761; the figures for earlier years were obtained
+by multiplying the data for Sweden by 1.356, the factor being derived by
+comparing the figures for Sweden alone and for the whole of Scandinavia
+from July 1761 to June 1783.
+
+In a general way Table V. warrants the conclusion that years of many
+sun-spots are years of many auroras, and years of few sun-spots years of
+few auroras; but it does not disclose any very definite relationship
+between the two frequencies. The maxima and minima in the two phenomena
+in a good many cases are not found in the same years. On the other hand,
+there is absolute coincidence in a number of cases, some of them very
+striking, as for instance the remarkably low minima of 1810 and 1823.
+
+  11. During the period 1764 to 1872 there have been ten years of
+  maximum, and ten of minimum, in sun-spot frequency. Taking the three
+  years of greatest frequency at each maximum, and the three years of
+  least frequency at each minimum, we get thirty years of many and
+  thirty of few sun-spots. Also we can split the period into an earlier
+  half, 1764 to 1817, and a later half, 1818 to 1872, containing
+  respectively the earlier five and the later five of the above groups
+  of sun-spot maximum and minimum years. The annual means derived from
+  the whole group, and the two sub-groups, of years of many and few
+  sun-spots are as follows:--
+
+    +-----------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
+    |                 |     1764-1872.   |    1764-1817.    |    1818-1872.    |
+    |    Years of     +--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+    |                 | Spots. | Auroras.| Spots. | Auroras.| Spots. | Auroras.|
+    +-----------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+    | Many sun-spots. |  93.4  |   99.9  |  86.7  |   70.7  | 100.1  |  129.1  |
+    | Few     "       |  13.4  |   61.5  |  13.6  |   51.6  |  13.1  |   71.3  |
+    +-----------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+
+  In each case the excess of auroras in the group of years of many
+  sun-spots is decided, but the results from the two sub-periods do not
+  harmonize closely. The mean sun-spot frequency for the group of years
+  of few sun-spots is almost exactly the same for the two sub-periods,
+  but the auroral frequency for the later group is nearly 40% in excess
+  of that for the earlier, and even exceeds the auroral frequency in
+  the years of many sun-spots in the earlier sub-period. This
+  inconsistency, though startling at first sight, is probably more
+  apparent than real. It is almost certainly due in large measure to a
+  progressive change in one or both of the units of frequency. In the
+  case of sun-spots, A. Schuster (13) has compared J.R. Wolf and A.
+  Wolfer's frequencies with data obtained by other observers for areas
+  of sun-spots, and his figures show unquestionably that the unit in one
+  or other set of data must have varied appreciably from time to time.
+  Wolf and Wolfer have, however, aimed persistently at securing a
+  definite standard, and there are several reasons for believing that
+  the change of unit has been in the auroral rather than the sun-spot
+  frequency. R. Rubenson (14), from whom Tromholt derives his data for
+  Sweden, seems to accept this view, assigning the apparent increase in
+  auroral frequency since 1860 to the institution by the state of
+  meteorological stations in 1859, and to the increased interest taken
+  in the subject since 1865 by the university of Upsala. The figures
+  themselves in Table V. certainly point to this conclusion, unless we
+  are prepared to believe that auroras have increased enormously in
+  number. If, for instance, we compare the first and the last three
+  11-year cycles for which Table V. gives complete data, we obtain as
+  yearly means:--
+
+    1749-1781    Sun-spots 56.4   Auroras  77.5
+    1844-1876        "     55.8      "    112.2
+
+  The mean sun-spot frequencies in the two periods differ by only 1%,
+  but the auroral frequency in the later period is 45% in excess of that
+  in the earlier.
+
+  The above figures would be almost conclusive if it were not for the
+  conspicuous differences that exist between the mean sun-spot
+  frequencies for different 11-year periods. Schuster, who has
+  considered the matter very fully, has found evidence of the existence
+  of other periods--notably 8.4 and 4.8 years--in addition to the
+  recognized period of 11.125 years, and he regards the difference
+  between the maxima in successive 11-year periods as due at least
+  partly to an overlapping of maxima from the several periodic terms.
+  This cannot, however, account for all the fluctuations observed in
+  sun-spot frequencies, unless other considerably longer periods exist.
+  There has been at least one 33-year period during which the mean value
+  of sun-spot frequency has been exceptionally low, and, as we shall
+  see, there was a corresponding remarkable scarcity of auroras. The
+  period in question may be regarded as extending from 1794 to 1826
+  inclusive. Comparing it with the two adjacent periods of thirty-three
+  years, we obtain the following for the mean annual frequencies:--
+
+    +-----------------+------------+----------+
+    | 33-Year Period. | Sun-spots. | Auroras. |
+    +-----------------+------------+----------+
+    |    1761-1793    |    65.6    |   76.1   |
+    |    1794-1826    |    20.3    |   39.5   |
+    |    1827-1859    |    56.1    |   84.4   |
+    +-----------------+------------+----------+
+
+  12. The association of high auroral and sun-spot frequencies shown in
+  Table V. is not peculiar to Scandinavia. It is shown, for instance, in
+  Loomis's auroral data, which are based on observations at a variety of
+  European and American stations (_Ency. Brit._ 9th ed. art.
+  METEOROLOGY, Table XXVIII.). It does not seem, however, to apply
+  universally. Thus at Godthaab we have, according to Adam Paulsen (15),
+  comparing 3-year periods of few and many sun-spots:--
+
+    +----------------+----------------+--------------+
+    | 3-Year Period. | Total Sun-spot | Total Nights |
+    |                |   Frequency.   |  of Aurora.  |
+    +----------------+----------------+--------------+
+    |   1865-1868    |       48       |     274      |
+    |   1869-1872    |      339       |     138      |
+    |   1876-1879    |       23       |     273      |
+    +----------------+----------------+--------------+
+
+  The years start in the autumn, and 1865-1868 includes the three
+  winters of 1865 to '66, '66 to '67, and '67 to '68. Paulsen also gives
+  data from two other stations in Greenland, viz. Ivigtut (1869 to 1879)
+  and Jakobshavn (1873 to 1879), which show the same phenomenon as at
+  Godthaab in a prominent fashion. Greenland lies to the north of
+  Fritz's curve of maximum auroral frequency, and the suggestion has
+  been made that the zone of maximum frequency expands to the south as
+  sun-spots increase, and contracts again as they diminish, the number
+  of auroras at a given station increasing or diminishing as the zone of
+  maximum frequency approaches to or recedes from it. This theory,
+  however, does not seem to fit all the facts and stands in want of
+  confirmation.
+
+
+    TABLE V.
+
+    +-------+----------------------++-------+----------------------+
+    |       |      Frequency.      ||       |      Frequency.      |
+    | Year. +----------------------++ Year. +----------------------+
+    |       | Sun-spot. | Auroral. ||       | Sun-spot. | Auroral. |
+    +-------+-----------+----------++-------+-----------+----------+
+    | 1749  |   80.9    |    103   || 1829  |   67.0    |     93   |
+    | 1750  |   83.4    |    134   || 1830  |   71.0    |    132   |
+    | 1751  |   47.7    |     53   || 1831  |   47.8    |     89   |
+    | 1752  |   47.8    |    111   || 1832  |   27.5    |     54   |
+    | 1753  |   30.7    |     96   || 1833  |    8.5    |     79   |
+    | 1754  |   12.2    |     65   || 1834  |   13.2    |     81   |
+    | 1755  |    9.6    |     34   || 1835  |   56.9    |     58   |
+    | 1756  |   10.2    |     60   || 1836  |  121.5    |     98   |
+    | 1757  |   32.4    |     83   || 1837  |  138.3    |    137   |
+    | 1758  |   47.6    |     80   || 1838  |  103.2    |    159   |
+    | 1759  |   54.0    |    113   || 1839  |   85.8    |    165   |
+    | 1760  |   62.9    |     86   || 1840  |   63.2    |     82   |
+    | 1761  |   85.9    |    124   || 1841  |   36.8    |     75   |
+    | 1762  |   61.2    |    114   || 1842  |   24.2    |     91   |
+    | 1763  |   45.1    |     89   || 1843  |   10.7    |     66   |
+    | 1764  |   36.4    |    107   || 1844  |   15.0    |     81   |
+    | 1765  |   20.9    |     76   || 1845  |   40.1    |     26   |
+    | 1766  |   11.4    |     51   || 1846  |   61.5    |     50   |
+    | 1767  |   37.8    |     68   || 1847  |   98.5    |     63   |
+    | 1768  |   69.8    |     80   || 1848  |  124.3    |    107   |
+    | 1769  |  106.1    |     89   || 1849  |   95.9    |    131   |
+    | 1770  |  100.8    |     83   || 1850  |   66.5    |     95   |
+    | 1771  |   81.6    |     62   || 1851  |   64.5    |     60   |
+    | 1772  |   66.5    |     38   || 1852  |   54.2    |     92   |
+    | 1773  |   34.8    |     58   || 1853  |   39.0    |     65   |
+    | 1774  |   30.6    |     98   || 1854  |   20.6    |     64   |
+    | 1775  |    7.0    |     33   || 1855  |    6.7    |     49   |
+    | 1776  |   19.8    |     17   || 1856  |    4.3    |     46   |
+    | 1777  |   92.5    |     64   || 1857  |   22.8    |     38   |
+    | 1778  |  154.4    |     59   || 1858  |   54.8    |     88   |
+    | 1779  |  125.9    |     60   || 1859  |   93.8    |    131   |
+    | 1780  |   84.8    |     67   || 1860  |   95.7    |    119   |
+    | 1781  |   68.1    |    103   || 1861  |   77.2    |    127   |
+    | 1782  |   38.5    |     67   || 1862  |   59.1    |    135   |
+    | 1783  |   22.8    |     70   || 1863  |   44.0    |    135   |
+    | 1784  |   10.2    |     78   || 1864  |   47.0    |    124   |
+    | 1785  |   24.1    |     83   || 1865  |   30.5    |    119   |
+    | 1786  |   82.9    |    136   || 1866  |   16.3    |    130   |
+    | 1787  |  132.0    |    115   || 1867  |    7.3    |    127   |
+    | 1788  |  130.9    |     97   || 1868  |   37.3    |    144   |
+    | 1789  |  118.1    |     89   || 1869  |   73.9    |    160   |
+    | 1790  |   89.9    |     90   || 1870  |  139.1    |    195   |
+    | 1791  |   66.6    |     54   || 1871  |  111.2    |    185   |
+    | 1792  |   60.0    |     64   || 1872  |  101.7    |    200   |
+    | 1793  |   46.9    |     29   || 1873  |   66.3    |    189   |
+    | 1794  |   41.0    |     37   || 1874  |   44.7    |    158   |
+    | 1795  |   21.3    |     34   || 1875  |   17.1    |    133   |
+    | 1796  |   16.0    |     37   || 1876  |   11.3    |    137   |
+    | 1797  |    6.4    |     61   || 1877  |   12.3    |    126   |
+    | 1798  |    4.1    |     35   || 1878  |    3.4    |    ..    |
+    | 1799  |    6.8    |     28   || 1879  |    6.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1800  |   14.5    |     30   || 1880  |   32.3    |    ..    |
+    | 1801  |   34.0    |     34   || 1881  |   54.3    |    ..    |
+    | 1802  |   45.0    |     65   || 1882  |   59.7    |    ..    |
+    | 1803  |   43.1    |     73   || 1883  |   63.7    |    ..    |
+    | 1804  |   47.5    |    101   || 1884  |   63.5    |    ..    |
+    | 1805  |   42.2    |     85   || 1885  |   52.2    |    ..    |
+    | 1806  |   28.1    |     62   || 1886  |   25.4    |    ..    |
+    | 1807  |   10.1    |     42   || 1887  |   13.1    |    ..    |
+    | 1808  |    8.1    |     20   || 1888  |    6.8    |    ..    |
+    | 1809  |    2.5    |     20   || 1889  |    6.3    |    ..    |
+    | 1810  |    0.0    |      4   || 1890  |    7.1    |    ..    |
+    | 1811  |    1.4    |     13   || 1891  |   35.6    |    ..    |
+    | 1812  |    5.0    |     11   || 1892  |   73.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1813  |   12.2    |     18   || 1893  |   84.9    |    ..    |
+    | 1814  |   13.9    |     17   || 1894  |   78.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1815  |   35.4    |     10   || 1895  |   64.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1816  |   45.8    |     33   || 1896  |   41.8    |    ..    |
+    | 1817  |   41.1    |     60   || 1897  |   26.2    |    ..    |
+    | 1818  |   30.4    |     74   || 1898  |   26.7    |    ..    |
+    | 1819  |   23.9    |     43   || 1899  |   12.1    |    ..    |
+    | 1820  |   15.7    |     62   || 1900  |    9.5    |    ..    |
+    | 1821  |    6.6    |     37   || 1901  |    2.7    |    ..    |
+    | 1822  |    4.0    |     33   || 1902  |    5.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1823  |    1.8    |     13   || 1903  |   24.4    |    ..    |
+    | 1824  |    8.5    |     14   || 1904  |   42.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1825  |   16.6    |     40   || 1905  |   62.8    |    ..    |
+    | 1826  |   36.3    |     58   || 1906  |   53.8    |    ..    |
+    | 1827  |   49.7    |     79   || 1907  |   62.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1828  |   62.5    |     60   || 1908  |   48.5    |    ..    |
+    +-------+-----------+----------++-------+-----------+----------+
+
+13. _Auroral Meridian._--It is a common belief that the summit of an
+auroral arc is to be looked for in the observer's magnetic meridian. On
+any theory it would be rather extraordinary if this were invariably
+true. In temperate latitudes auroral arcs are seldom near the zenith,
+and there is reason to believe them at very great heights. In high
+latitudes the average height is probably less, but the direction in
+which the magnetic needle points changes rapidly with change of
+latitude and longitude, and has a large diurnal variation. Thus there
+must in general be a difference between the observer's magnetic
+meridian--answering to the mean position of the magnetic needle at his
+station--and the direction the needle would have at a given hour, if
+undisturbed by the aurora, at any spot where the phenomena which the
+observer sees as aurora exist.
+
+  Very elaborate observations have been made during several Arctic
+  expeditions of the azimuths of the summits of auroral arcs. At Cape
+  Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth derived from 371 arcs was
+  24° 12' W., or 11° 27' to the W. of the magnetic meridian. As to the
+  azimuths in individual cases, 130 differed from the mean by less than
+  10°, 118 by from 10° to 20°, 82 by from 20° to 30°, 21 by from 30° to
+  40°, 14 by from 40° to 50°; in six cases the departure exceeded 50°,
+  and in one case it exceeded 70°. Also, whilst the mean azimuths
+  deduced from the observations between 6 A.M. and noon, between noon
+  and 6 P.M., and between 6 P.M. and midnight, were closely alike, their
+  united mean being 22.4° W. of N. (or E. of S.), the mean derived from
+  the 113 arcs observed between midnight and 6 A.M. was 47.8° W. At Jan
+  Mayen (8) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth of the summit of the arcs was
+  28.8° W. of N., thus approaching much more closely to the magnetic
+  meridian 29.9° W. As to individual azimuths, 113 lay within 10° of the
+  mean, 37 differed by from 10° to 20°, 18 by from 20° to 30°, 6 by from
+  30° to 40°, whilst 6 differed by over 40°. Azimuths were also measured
+  at Jan Mayen for 338 auroral bands, the mean being 22.0° W., or 7.9°
+  to the east of the magnetic meridian. Combining the results from arcs
+  and bands, Carlheim-Gyllensköld gives the "anomaly" of the auroral
+  meridian at Jan Mayen as 5.7° E. At the British Polar station of 1882,
+  Fort Rae (62° 23' N. lat., 115° 44' W. long.), he makes it 15.7° W. At
+  Godthaab in 1882-1883 the auroral anomaly was, according to Paulsen,
+  15.5° E., the magnetic meridian lying 57.6° W. of the astronomical.
+
+14. _Auroral Zenith._--Another auroral direction having apparently a
+close relation to terrestrial magnetism is the imaginary line drawn to
+the eye of an observer from the centre of the corona--i.e. the point to
+which the auroral rays converge. This seems in general to be nearly
+coincident with the direction of the dipping needle.
+
+  Thus at Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 the mean of a considerable
+  number of observations made the angle between the two directions only
+  1° 7', the magnetic inclination being 80° 35', whilst the coronal
+  centre had an altitude of 79° 55' and lay somewhat to the west of the
+  magnetic meridian. Even smaller mean values have been found for the
+  angle between the auroral and magnetic "zeniths"--as the two
+  directions have been called--e.g. 0° 50' at Bossekop (16) in
+  1838-1839, and 0° 7' at Treurenberg (17) (79° 55' N. lat., 16° 51' E.
+  long.) in 1899-1900.
+
+15. _Relations to Magnetic Storms._--That there is an intimate connexion
+between aurora when visible in temperate latitudes and terrestrial
+magnetism is hardly open to doubt. A bright aurora visible over a large
+part of Europe seems always accompanied by a magnetic storm and earth
+currents, and the largest magnetic storms and the most conspicuous
+auroral displays have occurred simultaneously. Noteworthy examples are
+afforded by the auroras and magnetic storms of August 28-29 and
+September 1-2, 1859; February 4, 1872; February 13-14 and August 12,
+1892; September 9, 1898; and October 31, 1903. On some of these
+occasions aurora was brilliant in both the northern and southern
+hemispheres, whilst magnetic disturbances were experienced the whole
+world over. In high latitudes, however, where both auroras and magnetic
+storms are most numerous, the connexion between them is much less
+uniform. Arctic observers, both Danish and British, have repeatedly
+reported displays of aurora unaccompanied by any special magnetic
+disturbance. This has been more especially the case when the auroral
+light has been of a diffused character, showing only minor variability.
+When there has been much apparent movement, and brilliant changes of
+colour in the aurora, magnetic disturbance has nearly always accompanied
+it. In the Arctic, auroral displays seem sometimes to be very local, and
+this may be the explanation. On the other hand, Arctic observers have
+reported an apparent connexion of a particularly definite character.
+According to Paulsen (18), during the Ryder expedition in 1891-1892, the
+following phenomenon was seen at least twenty times by Lieut. Vedel at
+Scoresby Sound (70° 27' N. lat., 26° 10' W. long.). An auroral curtain
+travelling with considerable velocity would approach from the south,
+pass right overhead and retire to the north. As the curtain approached,
+the compass needle always deviated to the west, oscillated as the
+curtain passed the zenith, and then deviated to the east. The behaviour
+of the needle, as Paulsen points out, is exactly what it should be if
+the space occupied by the auroral curtain were traversed by electric
+currents directed upwards from the ground. The Danish observers at
+Tasiusak (10) in 1898-1899 observed this phenomenon occasionally in a
+slightly altered form. At Tasiusak the auroral curtain after reaching
+the zenith usually retired in the direction from which it had come. The
+direction in which the compass needle deviated was west or east,
+according as the curtain approached from the south or the north; as the
+curtain retired the deviation eventually diminished.
+
+  Kr. Birkeland (19). who has made a special study of magnetic
+  disturbances in the Arctic, proceeding on the hypothesis that they
+  arise from electric currents in the atmosphere, and who has thence
+  attempted to deduce the position and intensity of these currents,
+  asserts that whilst in the case of many storms the data were
+  insufficient, when it was possible to fix the position of the mean
+  line of flow of the hypothetical current relatively to an auroral arc,
+  he invariably found the directions coincident or nearly so.
+
+16. In the northern hemisphere to the south of the zone of greatest
+frequency, the part of the sky in which aurora most generally appears is
+the magnetic north. In higher latitudes auroras are most often seen in
+the south. The relative frequency in the two positions seems to vary
+with the hour, the type of aurora, probably with the season of the year,
+and possibly with the position of the year in the sun-spot cycle.
+
+  At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882-1883, out of 177 arcs whose position was
+  accurately determined, 44 were seen in the north, their summits
+  averaging 38.5° above the northern horizon; 88 were seen in the south,
+  their average altitude above the southern horizon being 33.5°; while
+  45 were in the zenith. At Tasiusak (10) in 1898-1899 the magnetic
+  directions of the principal types were noted separately. The results
+  are given in Table VI.
+
+
+  TABLE VI.
+
+  +--------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
+  | Direc- |        Absolute Number for each Type.        | Percentage |
+  |  tion. +-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+  from all  |
+  |        | Arcs. | Bands. | Curtains. | Rays. | Patches.|   Types.   |
+  +--------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+------------+
+  |   N.   |   9   |   16   |     5     |  15   |    4    |     10     |
+  |  N.E.  |   9   |   13   |     2     |  20   |    4    |      9     |
+  |   E.   |   3   |   11   |     2     |  26   |    3    |      9     |
+  |  S.E.  |   5   |    6   |     1     |  10   |    7    |      6     |
+  |   S.   |  45   |   43   |     1     |  16   |   15    |     24     |
+  |  S.W.  |   9   |    9   |     2     |  12   |   13    |      9     |
+  |   W.   |   3   |   11   |     2     |  22   |    6    |      9     |
+  |  N.W.  |   2   |    8   |     2     |   8   |    5    |      5     |
+  +--------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+------------+
+
+Table VI. accounts for only 81% of the total displays; of the remainder
+15% appeared in the zenith, while 4% covered the whole sky. Auroral
+displays generally cover a considerable area, and are constantly
+changing, so the figures are necessarily somewhat rough. But clearly,
+whilst the arcs and bands, and to a lesser extent the patches, showed a
+marked preference for the magnetic meridian, the rays showed no such
+preference.
+
+  At Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 auroras as a whole were divided into
+  those seen in the north and those seen in the south. The variation
+  throughout the twenty-four hours in the percentage seen in the south
+  was as follows:--
+
+    +--------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |  Hour. | 0-3. | 3-6. | 6-9. | 9-12. |
+    +--------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |  A.M.  |  69  |  55  |  44  |   35  |
+    |  P.M.  |  55  |  70  |  65  |   65  |
+    +--------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+  The mean from the whole twenty-four hours is sixty-three. Between 3
+  A.M. and 3 P.M. the percentage of auroras seen in the south thus
+  appears decidedly below the mean.
+
+  17. The following data for the apparent angular width of arcs were
+  obtained at Cape Thorsden, the arcs being grouped according to the
+  height of the lower edge above the horizon. Group I. contained thirty
+  arcs whose altitudes did not exceed 11° 45'; Group II. thirty arcs
+  whose altitudes lay between 12° and 35°; and Group III, thirty arcs
+  whose altitudes lay between 36° and 80°.
+
+    +-----------------+--------+--------+----------+
+    |      Group.     |   I.   |   II.  |   III.   |
+    +-----------------+--------+--------+----------+
+    | Greatest width  | 11.5°  | 12.0°  |   21.0°  |
+    | Least      "    |  1.0°  |  0.75° |    2.0°  |
+    | Mean       "    |  3.45° |  4.6°  |    6.9°  |
+    +-----------------+--------+--------+----------+
+
+  There is here a distinct tendency for the width to increase with the
+  altitude. At the same time, arcs near the horizon often appeared wider
+  than others near the zenith. Furthermore, Gyllensköld says that when
+  arcs mounted, as they not infrequently did, from the horizon, their
+  apparent width might go on increasing right up to the zenith, or it
+  might increase until an altitude of about 45° was reached and then
+  diminish, appearing much reduced when the zenith was reached. Of
+  course the phenomenon might be due to actual change in the arc, but it
+  is at least consistent with the view that arcs are of two kinds, one
+  form constituting a layer of no great vertical depth but considerable
+  real horizontal width, the other form having little horizontal width
+  but considerable vertical depth, and resembling to some extent an
+  auroral curtain.
+
+  18. According to numerous observations made at Cape Thorsden, the
+  apparent angular velocity of arcs increases on the average with their
+  altitude. Dividing the whole number of arcs, 156, whose angular
+  velocities were measured into three numerically equal groups,
+  according to their altitude, the following were the results in minutes
+  of arc per second of time (or degrees per minute of time):--
+
+    +-------------------+-------+--------+--------+------+
+    |      Group.       |   I.  |   II.  |  III.  | All. |
+    +-------------------+-------+--------+--------+------+
+    | Mean altitude     | 10.5° | 34.6°  |  72.3° |  ..  |
+    | Greatest velocity |  4.81 |  15.12 | 109.09 |  ..  |
+    | Mean velocity     |  0.48 |  2.42  |   8.67 | 3.86 |
+    +-------------------+-------+--------+--------+------+
+
+  Each group contained auroras which appeared stationary. The intervals
+  to which the velocities referred were usually from five to ten
+  minutes, but varied widely. The velocity 109.09 was much the largest
+  observed, the next being 52.38; both were from observations lasting
+  under half a minute.
+
+  19. In 1882-1883 the direction of motion of arcs was from north to
+  south in 62% of the cases at Jan Mayen, and in 58% of the cases at
+  Cape Thorsden. This seems the more common direction in the northern
+  hemisphere, at least for stations to the south of the zone of maximum
+  frequency, but a considerable preponderance of movements towards the
+  north was observed in Franz Joseph Land by the Austrian Expedition of
+  1872-1874. The apparent motion of arcs is sometimes of a complicated
+  character. One end only, for example, may appear to move, as if
+  rotating round the other; or the two ends may move in opposite
+  directions, as if the arc were rotating about a vertical axis through
+  its summit.
+
+20. _Height._--If an auroral arc represented a definite self-luminous
+portion of space of small transverse dimensions at a uniform height
+above the ground, its height could be accurately determined by
+observations made with theodolites at the two ends of a measured base,
+provided the base were not too short compared to the height. If a very
+long base is taken, it becomes increasingly open to doubt whether the
+portions of space emitting auroral light to the observers at the two
+ends are the same. There is also difficulty in ensuring that the
+observations shall be simultaneous, an important matter especially when
+the apparent velocity is considerable. If the base is short, definite
+results can hardly be hoped for unless the height is very moderate.
+Amongst the best-known theodolite determinations of height are those
+made at Bossekop in Norway by the French Expedition of 1838-1839 (16)
+and the Norwegian Expedition of 1882-1883, and those made in the latter
+year by the Swedes at Cape Thorsden and the Danes at Godthaab. At
+Bossekop and Cape Thorsden there were a considerable proportion of
+negative or impossible parallaxes. Much the most consistent results were
+those obtained at Godthaab by Paulsen (15). The base was 5.8 km. (about
+3½ miles) long, the ends being in the same magnetic meridian, on
+opposite sides of a fiord, and observations were confined to this
+meridian, strict simultaneity being secured by signals. Heights were
+calculated only when the observed parallax exceeded 1°, but this
+happened in three-fourths of the cases. The calculated heights--all
+referring to the lowest border of the aurora--varied from 0.6 to 67.8
+km. (about 0.4 to 42 m.), the average being about 20 km. (12 m.).
+Regular arcs were selected in most cases, but the lowest height obtained
+was for a collection of rays forming a curtain which was actually
+situated between the two stations.
+
+  In 1885 Messrs Garde and Eherlin made similar observations at
+  Nanortalik near Cape Farewell in Greenland, but using a base of only
+  1250 metres (about ¾ m.). Their results were very similar to
+  Paulsen's. On one occasion twelve observations, extending over half an
+  hour, were made on a single arc, the calculated heights varying in a
+  fairly regular fashion from 1.6 to 12.9 km. (about 1 to 8 m.). The
+  calculated horizontal distances of this arc varied between 5 and 24
+  km. (about 3 and 15 m.), the motion being sometimes towards, sometimes
+  away from the observers, but not apparently exceeding 3 km. (nearly 2
+  m.) per minute. Heights of arcs have often been calculated from the
+  apparent altitudes at stations widely apart in Europe or America. The
+  heights calculated in this way for the under surface of the arc, have
+  usually exceeded 100 m.; some have been much in excess of this figure.
+  None of the results so obtained can be accepted without reserve, but
+  there are several reasons for believing that the average height in
+  Greenland is much below that in lower latitudes. Heights have been
+  calculated in various less direct ways, by observing for instance the
+  angular altitude of the summit of an arc and the angular interval
+  between its extremities, and then making some assumption such as that
+  the portion visible to an observer may be treated as a circle whose
+  centre lies over the so-called auroral pole. The mean height
+  calculated at Arctic stations, where careful observations have been
+  made, in this or analogous ways, has varied from 58 km. (about 36 m.)
+  at Cape Thorsden (Gyllensköld) to 227 km. (about 141 m.) at Bossekop
+  (Bravais). The height has also been calculated on the hypothesis that
+  auroral light has its source where the atmospheric pressure is similar
+  to that at which most brilliancy is observed when electric discharges
+  pass in vacuum tubes. Estimates on this basis have suggested heights
+  of the order of 50 km. (about 31 m.). There are, of course, many
+  uncertainties, as the conditions of discharge in the free atmosphere
+  may differ widely from those in glass vessels. If the Godthaab
+  observations can be trusted, auroral discharges must often occur
+  within a few miles of the earth's surface in Arctic regions. In
+  confirmation of this view reference may be made to a number of
+  instances where observers--e.g. General Sabine, Sir John Franklin,
+  Prof. Selim Lemström, Dr David Walker (at Fort Kennedy in 1858-1859),
+  Captain Parry (Fort Bowen, 1825) and others--have seen aurora below
+  the clouds or between themselves and mountains. One or two instances
+  of this kind have even been described in Scotland. Prof. Cleveland
+  Abbe (20) has given a full historical account of the subject to which
+  reference may be made for further details.
+
+  21. _Brightness._--In auroral displays the brightness often varies
+  greatly over the illuminated area and changes rapidly. Estimates of
+  the intensity of the light have been based on various arbitrary
+  scales, such for instance as the size of type which the observer can
+  read at a given distance. The estimate depends in the case of reading
+  type on the general illumination. In other cases scales have been
+  employed which make the result mainly depend on the brightest part of
+  the display. At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882-1883 a scale was employed
+  running from 1, taken as corresponding to the brightness of the milky
+  way, to 4, corresponding to full moonlight. The following is an
+  analysis of the results obtained, showing the number of times the
+  different grades were reached:--
+
+    +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+
+    |  Scale of  |  1.  |  2.  |  3.  |  4.  |    Mean    |
+    | Intensity. |      |      |      |      | Intensity. |
+    +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+
+    | Arcs       |  27  |  53  |  13  |   1  |    1.87    |
+    | Bands      |  46  |  83  |  49  |  22  |    2.24    |
+    | Rays       |  30  | 116  | 138  |  28  |    2.21    |
+    | Corona     |   3  |  14  |  12  |  12  |    2.81    |
+    +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+
+
+  On one or two occasions at Jan Mayen auroral light is described as
+  making the full moon look like an ordinary gas jet in presence of
+  electric light, whilst rays could be seen crossing and brighter than
+  the moon's disk. Such extremely bright auroras seem very rare,
+  however, even in the Arctic. There is a general tendency for both
+  bands and rays to appear brightest at their lowest parts; arcs seldom
+  appear as bright at their summits as nearer the horizon. It is not
+  unusual for arcs and bands to look as if pulses or waves of light were
+  travelling along them; also the direction in which these pulses travel
+  does not seem to be wholly arbitrary. Movements to the east were twice
+  as numerous at Jan Mayen and thrice as numerous at Traurenberg as
+  movements to the west. In some cases changes of intensity take place
+  round the auroral zenith, simulating the effect that would be produced
+  by a cyclonic rotation of luminous matter. In the case of isolated
+  patches the intensity often waxes and wanes as if a search-light were
+  being thrown on and turned off.
+
+22. _Colour._--The ordinary colour of aurora is white, usually with a
+distinct yellow tint in the brighter forms, but silvery white when the
+light is faint. When the light is intense and changing rapidly, red is
+not infrequently present, especially towards the lower edge. Under these
+circumstances, green is also sometimes visible, especially towards the
+zenith. Thus a bright auroral ray may seem red towards the foot and
+green at its summit, with yellow intervening. In some cases the green
+may be only a contrast effect. Other colours, e.g. violet, have
+occasionally been noticed but are unusual.
+
+23. _Spectrum._--The spectrum of aurora consists of a number of lines.
+Numerous measurements have been made of the wave-lengths of the
+brightest. One line, in the yellow green, is so dominant optically as
+often to be described as the auroral line. Its wave-length is probably
+very near 5571 tenth-metres, and it is very close to, if not absolutely
+coincident with, a prominent line in the spectrum of krypton. This line
+is so characteristic that its presence or absence is the usual criterion
+for deciding whether an atmospheric light is aurora. The Swedish
+Expedition (17) of 1899-1902, engaged in measuring an arc of the meridian
+in Spitsbergen, were unusually well provided spectrographically, and
+succeeded in taking photographs of aurora in conjunction with artificial
+lines--chiefly of hydrogen--which led to results claiming exceptional
+accuracy. In the spectrograms three auroral rays--including the principal
+one mentioned above--were pre-eminent. For the two shorter wave-lengths,
+for whose measurement he claims the highest precision, the observer, J.
+Westman, gives the values 4276.4 and 3913.5. In addition, he assigns
+wave-lengths for 156 other auroral lines between wave-lengths 5205 and
+3513. The following table gives the wave-lengths of the photographically
+brightest of these, retaining four significant figures in place of
+Westman's five.
+
+
+  TABLE VII.
+
+  +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |  4830  |  4489  |  4329  |  3997  |  3861  |
+  |  4709  |  4420  |  4242  |  3986  |  3804  |
+  |  4699  |  4371  |  4230  |  3947  |  3793  |
+  |  4661  |  4356  |  4225  |  3937  |  3704  |
+  |  4560  |  4344  |  4078  |  3880  |  3607  |
+  |  4550  |  4337  |  4067  |  3876  |  3589  |
+  +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+There are a number of optically bright lines of longer wave-length. For
+the principal of these Angot (1) gives the following wave-lengths (unit
+1 µµ or 1 × 10^(-9) metre):--630, 578, 566, 535, 523, 500.
+
+Out of a total of 146 auroral lines, with wave-lengths longer than 3684
+tenth-metres, Westman identifies 82 with oxygen or nitrogen lines at the
+negative pole in vacuum discharges. Amongst the lines thus identified
+are the two principal auroral lines having wave-lengths 4276.4 and
+3913.5. The interval considered by Westman contains at least 300 oxygen
+and nitrogen lines, so that approximate coincidence with a number of
+auroral lines was almost inevitable, and an appreciable number of the
+coincidences may be accidental. E.C.C. Baly (21), making use of the
+observations of the Russian expedition in Spitsbergen in 1899, accepts
+as the wave-lengths of the three principal auroral lines 5570, 4276 and
+3912; and he identifies all three and ten other auroral lines ranging
+between 5570 and 3707 with krypton lines measured by himself. In
+addition to these, he mentions other auroral lines as very probably
+krypton lines, but in their case the wave-lengths which he quotes from
+Paulsen (22) are given to only three significant figures, so that the
+identification is more uncertain. The majority of the krypton lines
+which Baly identifies with auroral lines require for their production a
+Leyden jar and spark gap.
+
+  If, as is now generally believed, aurora represents some form of
+  electrical discharge, it is only reasonable to suppose that the
+  auroral lines arise from atmospheric gases. The conditions, however,
+  as regards pressure and temperature under which the hypothetical
+  discharges take place must vary greatly in different auroras, or even
+  sometimes in different parts of the same aurora. Further, auroras are
+  often possessed of rapid motion, so that conceivably spectral lines
+  may receive small displacements in accordance with Doppler's
+  principle. Thus the differences in the wave-lengths of presumably the
+  same lines as measured by different Arctic observers may be only
+  partly due to unfavourable observational conditions. Many of the
+  auroral lines seen in any single aurora are exceedingly faint, so that
+  even their relative positions are difficult to settle with high
+  precision.
+
+  24. Whether or not auroral displays are ever accompanied by a
+  characteristic sound is a disputed question. If sound waves originate
+  at the seat of auroral displays they seem hardly likely to be audible
+  on the earth, unless the aurora comes very low and great stillness
+  prevails. It is thus to the Arctic one looks for evidence. According
+  to Captain H.P. Dawson (26), in charge of the British Polar Station at
+  Fort Rae in 1882-1883, "The Indians and _voyageurs_ of the Hudson Bay
+  Company, who often pass their nights in the open, say that it [sound]
+  is not uncommon ... there can be no doubt that distinct sound does
+  occasionally accompany certain displays of aurora." On the one
+  occasion when Captain Dawson says he heard it himself, "the sound was
+  like the swishing of a whip or the noise produced by a sharp squall of
+  wind in the upper rigging of a ship, and as the aurora brightened and
+  faded so did the sound which accompanied it." If under these
+  conditions the sound was really due to the aurora, the latter, as
+  Captain Dawson himself remarks, must have been pretty close.
+
+  25. Usually the electric potential near the ground is positive
+  compared to the earth and increases with the height (see ATMOSPHERIC
+  ELECTRICITY). Several Arctic observers, however, especially Paulsen
+  (18) have observed a diminution of positive potential, or even a
+  change to negative, for which they could suggest no explanation except
+  the presence of a bright aurora. Other Arctic observers have failed to
+  find any trace of this phenomenon. If it exists, it is presumably
+  confined to cases when the auroral discharge comes unusually low.
+
+  26. _Artificial Phenomena resembling Aurora._--At Sodankylä, the
+  station occupied by the Finnish Arctic Expedition of 1882-1883, Selim
+  Lemström and Biese (23) described and gave drawings of optical
+  phenomena which they believed to be artificially produced aurora. A
+  number of metallic points, supported on insulators, were connected by
+  wires enclosing several hundred square metres on the top of a hill.
+  Sometimes a Holtz machine was employed, but even without it
+  illumination resembling aurora was seen on several occasions,
+  extending apparently to a considerable height. In the laboratory, Kr.
+  Birkeland (19) has produced phenomena bearing a striking resemblance
+  to several forms of aurora. His apparatus consists of a vacuum vessel
+  containing a magnetic sphere--intended to represent the earth--and the
+  phenomena are produced by sending electric discharges through the
+  vessel.
+
+  27. _Theories._--A great variety of theories have been advanced to
+  account for aurora. All or nearly all the most recent regard it as
+  some form of electrical discharge. Birkeland (19) supposes the
+  ultimate cause to be cathode rays emanating from the sun; C. Nordmann
+  (24) replaces the cathode rays by Hertzian waves; while Svante
+  Arrhenius (25) believes that negatively charged particles are driven
+  through the sun's atmosphere by the Maxwell-Bartoli repulsion of light
+  and reach the earth's atmosphere. For the size and density of
+  particles which he considers most likely, Arrhenius calculates the
+  time required to travel from the sun as forty-six hours. By modifying
+  the hypothesis as to the size and density, times appreciably longer or
+  shorter than the above would be obtained. Cathode rays usually have a
+  velocity about a tenth that of light, but in exceptional cases it may
+  approach a third of that of light. Hertzian waves have the velocity of
+  light itself. On either Birkeland's or Nordmann's theory, the electric
+  impulse from the sun acts indirectly by creating secondary cathode
+  rays in the earth's atmosphere, or ionizing it so that discharges due
+  to natural differences of potential are immensely facilitated. The
+  ionized condition must be supposed to last to a greater or less extent
+  for a good many hours to account for aurora being seen throughout the
+  whole night. The fact that at most places the morning shows a marked
+  decay of auroral frequency and intensity as compared to the evening,
+  the maximum preceding midnight by several hours, is certainly
+  favourable to theories which postulate ionization of the atmosphere by
+  some cause or other emanating from the sun.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The following works are numbered according to the
+  references in the text:--(1) A. Angot, _Les Aurores polaires_ (Paris,
+  1895); (2) H. Fritz, _Das Polarlicht_ (Leipzig, 1881); (3) Svante
+  August Arrhenius, _Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik_; (4) Joseph
+  Lovering, "On the Periodicity of the Aurora Borealis," _Mem. American
+  Acad._ vol. x. (1868); (5) Sophus Tromholt, _Catalog der in Norwegen
+  bis Juni 1878 beobachteten Nordlichter_; (6) _Observations
+  internationales polaires_ (1882-1883), _Expédition Danoise_, tome i.
+  "Aurores boréales"; (7) Carlheim-Gyllensköld, "Aurores boréales" in
+  _Observations faites au Cap Thorsden Spitzberg par l'expédition
+  suédoise_, tome ii. 1; (8) "Die Österreichische Polar Station Jan
+  Mayen" in _Die Internationale Polarforschung_, 1882-1883, Bd. ii.
+  Abth. 1; (9) Henryk Arctowski, "Aurores australes" in _Expédition
+  antarctique belge ... Voyage du S. Y. "Belgica"_; (10) G.C. Amdrup,
+  _Observations ... faites par l'expédition danoise_; H. Ravn,
+  _Observations de l'aurore boréale de Tasiusak_; (11) _K. Sven.
+  Vet.-Akad. Hand_. Bd. 31, Nos. 2, 3, &c.; (12) _Sitz. d. k. Akad. d.
+  Wiss._ (Vienna), Math. Naturw. Classe, Bd. xcvii. Abth. iia, 1888;
+  (13) _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1906, lxxvii. A, 141; (14) _Kongl. Sven.
+  Vet.-Akad. Hand._ Bd. 15, No. 5, Bd. 18, No. 1; (15) _Bull. Acad. Roy.
+  Danoise_, 1889, p. 67; (16) _Voyages ... pendant les années 1838, 1839
+  et 1840 sur ... la Recherche_, "Aurores boréales," by MM. Lottin,
+  Bravais, &c.; (17) _Missions scientifiques ... au Spitzberg ... en
+  1899-1902, Mission suédoise_, tome ii. VIII^e Section, C. "Aurores
+  boréales"; (18) _Bull. Acad. R. des Sciences de Danemark_, 1894, p.
+  148; (19) Kr. Birkeland, _Expédition norvégienne 1899-1900 pour
+  l'étude des aurores boréales_ (Christiania, 1901); (20) _Terrestrial
+  Magnetism_, vol. iii. (1898), pp. 5, 53, 149; (21) _Astrophysical
+  Journal_, 1904, xix. p. 187; (22) _Rapports présentés au Congrès
+  International de Physique réuni à Paris_, 1900, iii. 438; (23)
+  _Expédition polaire finlandaise_ (1882-1884), tome iii.; (24) Charles
+  Nordmann, _Thèses présentées à la Faculté des Sciences de Paris_
+  (1903); (25) _Terrestrial Magnetism_, vol. 10, 1905, p. 1; (26)
+  _Observations of the International Polar Expeditions 1882-1883 Fort
+  Rae_ ... by Capt. H.P. Dawson, R.A.     (C. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+AURUNCI, the name given by the Romans to a tribe which in historical
+times occupied only a strip of coast on either side of the Mons Massicus
+between the Volturnus and the Liris, although it must at an earlier
+period have extended over a considerably wider area. Their own name for
+themselves in the 4th century B.C. was _Ausones_, and in Greek writers
+we find the name _Ausonia_ applied to Latium and Campania (see Strabo v.
+p. 247; Aristotle, _Pol._ iv. (vii.) 10; Dion. Hal. i. 72), while in the
+Augustan poets (e.g. Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 795) it is used as one of
+many synonyms for Italy. In history the tribe appears only for a brief
+space, from 340 to 295 B.C. (Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. pp. 451, 463, 465),
+and their struggle with the Romans ended in complete extermination;
+their territory was parcelled out between the Latin colonies of Cales
+(Livy viii. 16) and Suessa Aurunca (_id._ ix. 28) which took the place
+of an older town called _Ausona_ (_id._ ix. 25; viii. 15), and the
+maritime colonies Sinuessa (the older _Vescia_) and Minturnae (both in
+295 B.C., Livy x. 21). The coin formerly attributed to Suessa Aurunca on
+the strength of its supposed legend _Aurunkud_ has now been certainly
+referred to Naples (see R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, 145, and
+_Verner's law in Italy_, p. 78, where the change of s to r is
+explained as probably due to the Latin conquest). Seeing that the tribe
+was blotted out at the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., we can
+scarcely wonder that no record of its speech survives; but its
+geographical situation and the frequency of the _co_-suffix in that
+strip of coast (besides _Aurunci_ itself we have the names _Vescia_,
+_Mons Massicus_, _Marica_, _Glanica_ and _Caedicii_; see _Italic
+Dialects_, pp. 283 f.) rank them beyond doubt with their neighbours the
+Volsci (q.v.).     (R. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+AUSCULTATION (from Lat. _auscultare_, to listen), a term in medicine,
+applied to the method employed by physicians for determining, by the
+sense of hearing, the condition of certain internal organs. The ancient
+physicians appear to have practised a kind of auscultation, by which
+they were able to detect the presence of air or fluids in the cavities
+of the chest and abdomen. Still no general application of this method of
+investigation was resorted to, or was indeed possible, till the advance
+of the study of anatomy led to correct ideas regarding the locality,
+structure and uses of the various organs of the body, and the
+alterations produced in them by disease. In 1761 Leopold Auenbrugger
+(1722-1809), a Viennese physician, published his _Inventum Novum_,
+describing the art of percussion in reference more especially to
+diseases of the chest. This consisted in tapping with the fingers the
+surface of the body, so as to elicit sounds by which the comparative
+resonance of the subjacent parts or organs might be estimated.
+Auenbrugger's method attracted but little attention till the French
+physician J.N. Corvisart (1755-1828) in 1808 demonstrated its great
+practical importance, and then its employment in the diagnosis of
+affections of the chest soon became general. Percussion was originally
+practised in the manner above mentioned (_immediate percussion_), but
+subsequently the method of _mediate percussion_ was introduced by P.A.
+Piorry (1794-1879). It is accomplished by placing upon the spot to be
+examined some solid substance, upon which the percussion strokes are
+made with the fingers. For this purpose a thin oval piece of ivory
+(called a _pleximeter_, or stroke-measurer) may be used, with a small
+hammer; but one or more fingers of the left hand applied flat upon the
+part answer equally well, and this is the method which most physicians
+adopt. Percussion must be regarded as a necessary part of auscultation,
+particularly in relation to the examination of the chest; for the
+physician who has made himself acquainted with the normal condition of
+that part of the body in reference to percussion is thus able to
+recognize by the ear alterations of resonance produced by disease. But
+percussion alone, however important in diagnosis, could manifestly
+convey only limited and imperfect information, for it could never
+indicate the nature or extent of functional disturbance.
+
+In 1819 the distinguished French physician R.T.H. Laënnec (1781-1826)
+published his _Traité de L'auscultation médiate_, embodying the present
+methods of auscultatory examination, and venturing definite conclusions
+based on years of his own study. He also invented the stethoscope
+([Greek: staethos], the breast, and [Greek: skopein], to examine). Since
+then many men have widened the scope of auscultation, notably Skoda,
+Wintrich, A. Geigel, Th. Weber and Gerhardt. According to Laënnec the
+essential of a good stethoscope was its capability of intensifying the
+tone vibrations. But since his time the opinion of experts on this
+matter has somewhat changed, and there are now two definite schools. The
+first and older condemns the resonating stethoscope, maintaining that
+the tones are bound to be altered; the second and younger school warmly
+advocates its use. In America, more than elsewhere, there is a type of
+phonendoscope much used by the younger men, which has the advantage that
+it can be used when the older type of instrument fails, viz. when the
+patient is recumbent and too ill to be moved. By slipping it beneath the
+patient's back a fairly accurate idea of the breathing over the bases of
+the lungs behind can often be obtained.
+
+Stethoscopes have been made of many forms and materials. They usually
+consist of a hollow stem of wood, hard rubber or metal, with an enlarged
+tip slightly funnel-shaped at one end, and an ear-plate with a hole in
+the middle, fastened perpendicularly to the other end. To enable the
+instrument to be more conveniently carried, the ear-plate can be
+unscrewed from the tube. The length of the stem of the instrument is of
+minor importance, but its bore should be as nearly as possible that of
+the entrance of the external ear. A flexible stethoscope in general use
+both in England and America transmits the sound from a funnel through
+tubes to the ears of the observer. This is the common form of a binaural
+resonating stethoscope. It is convenient and gives a loud tone, but is
+condemned by the older school, who say that the resonance is confusing,
+and that the slightest movement in handling gives rise to perplexing
+murmurs. Nevertheless, it is this form of instrument which has by far
+the greatest vogue. It is probable, however, that the most skilled
+physicians of all find a special use in each form, the monaural
+non-resonating type being more sensitive to high-pitched sounds, and of
+greater assistance in differentiating the sounds and murmurs of the
+heart, the ordinary binaural form being more useful in examining the
+lungs and other organs. In using the stethoscope, it must be applied
+very carefully, so that the edge of the funnel makes an air-tight
+connexion with the skin, and in the monaural form the ear must be but
+lightly applied to the ear-plate, not pressing heavily on the patient.
+
+The numerous diseases affecting the lungs can now be recognized and
+discriminated from each other with a precision which, but for
+auscultation and the stethoscope, would have been altogether
+unattainable. The same holds good in the case of the heart, whose varied
+and often complex forms of disease can, by auscultation, be identified
+with striking accuracy. But in addition to these its main uses,
+auscultation is found to render great assistance in the investigation of
+many obscure internal affections, such as aneurysms and certain diseases
+of the oesophagus and stomach. To the accoucheur the stethoscope yields
+valuable aid in the detection of some forms of uterine tumours, and
+especially in the diagnosis of pregnancy--the only evidence now accepted
+as absolutely diagnostic of that condition being the hearing of the
+foetal heart sounds.
+
+
+
+
+AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS (c. 310-395), Roman poet and rhetorician, was
+born at Burdigala [_Bordeaux_]. He received an excellent education,
+especially in grammar and rhetoric, but confesses that his progress in
+Greek was unsatisfactory. Having completed his studies, he practised for
+some time as an advocate, but his inclination lay in the direction of
+teaching. He set up (in 334) a school of rhetoric in his native place,
+which was largely attended, his most famous pupil being Paulinus,
+afterwards bishop of Nola. After thirty years of this work, he was
+summoned by Valentinian to the imperial court, to undertake the
+education of Gratian, the heir-apparent. The prince always entertained
+the greatest regard for his tutor, and after his accession bestowed upon
+him the highest titles and honours, culminating in the consulship (379).
+After the murder of Gratian (383), Ausonius retired to his estates near
+Burdigala. He appears to have been a (not very enthusiastic) convert to
+Christianity. He died about 395.
+
+His most important extant works are: in prose, _Gratiarum Actio_, an
+address of thanks to Gratian for his elevation to the consulship;
+_Periochae_, summaries of the books of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_; and
+one or two _epistolae_; in verse, _Epigrammata_, including several free
+translations from the Greek Anthology; _Ephemeris_, the occupations of
+a day; _Parentalia_ and _Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium_, on
+deceased relatives and literary friends; _Epitaphia_, chiefly on the
+Trojan heroes; _Caesares_, memorial verses on the Roman emperors from
+Julius Caesar to Elagabalus; _Ordo Nobilium Urbium_, short poems on
+famous cities; _Ludus Septem Sapientum_, speeches delivered by the Seven
+Sages of Greece; _Idyllia_, of which the best-known are the _Mosella_, a
+descriptive poem on the Moselle, and the infamous _Cento Nuptialis_. We
+may also mention _Cupido Cruciatus_, Cupid on the cross;
+_Technopaegion_, a literary trifle consisting of a collection of verses
+ending in monosyllables; _Eclogarum Liber_, on astronomical and
+astrological subjects; _Epistolae_, including letters to Paulinus and
+Symmachus; lastly, _Praefatiunculae_, three poetical epistles, one to
+the emperor Theodosius. Ausonius was rather a man of letters than a
+poet; his wide reading supplied him with material for a great variety of
+subjects, but his works exhibit no traces of a true poetic spirit; even
+his versification, though ingenious, is frequently defective.
+
+  There are no MSS. containing the whole of Ausonius's works. Editio
+  princeps, 1472; editions by Scaliger 1575, Souchay 1730, Schenkl 1883,
+  Peiper 1886; cf. _Mosella_, Böcking 1845, de la Ville de Mirmont
+  (critical edition with translation) 1889, and _De Ausonii Mosella_,
+  1892, Hosius 1894. See Deydou, _Un Poète bordelais_ (1868); Everat,
+  _De Ausonii Operibus_ (1885); Jullian, _Ausone et Bordeaux_ (1893); C.
+  Verrier and R. de Courmont, _Les Épigrammes d'Ausone_ (translation
+  with bibliography, 1905); R. Pichon, _Les Derviers Écrivains profanes_
+  (1907).
+
+
+
+
+AUSSIG (Czech _Oustí nad Labem_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 68 m. N.
+of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 37,255, mostly German. It is situated in
+a mountainous district, at the confluence of the Biela and the Elbe,
+and, besides being an active river port, is an important junction of the
+northern Bohemian railways. Aussig has important industries in
+chemicals, textiles, glass and boat-building, and carries on an active
+trade in coal from the neighbouring mines, stone and stoneware, corn,
+fruit and wood. It was the birthplace of the painter, Raphael Mengs
+(1728-1779). Aussig is mentioned as a trading centre as early as 993. It
+was made a city by Ottokar II. in the latter part of the 13th century.
+In 1423 it was pledged by King Sigismund to the elector Frederick of
+Meissen, who occupied it with a Saxon garrison. In 1426 it was besieged
+by the Hussites, who on the 16th of June, though only 25,000 strong,
+defeated a German army of 70,000, which had been sent to its relief,
+with great slaughter. The town was stormed and sacked next day. After
+lying waste for three years, it was rebuilt in 1429. It suffered much
+during the Thirty Years' and Seven Years' Wars, and in 1830 it had only
+1400 inhabitants. Not far from Aussig is the village of Kulm, where, on
+the 29th and 30th of August 1813, a battle took place between the French
+under Vandamme and an allied army of Austrians, Prussians and Russians.
+The French were defeated, and Vandamme surrendered with his army of
+10,000 men.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817), English novelist, was born on the 16th of
+December 1775 at the parsonage of Steventon, in Hampshire, a village of
+which her father, the Rev. George Austen, was rector. She was the
+youngest of seven children. Her mother was Cassandra Leigh, niece of
+Theophilus Leigh, a dry humorist, and for fifty years master of Balliol,
+Oxford. The life of no woman of genius could have been more uneventful
+than Miss Austen's. She did not marry, and she never left home except on
+short visits, chiefly to Bath. Her first sixteen years were spent in the
+rectory at Steventon, where she began early to trifle with her pen,
+always jestingly, for family entertainment. In 1801 the Austens moved to
+Bath, where Mr Austen died in 1805, leaving only Mrs Austen, Jane and
+her sister Cassandra, to whom she was always deeply attached, to keep up
+the home; his sons were out in the world, the two in the navy, Francis
+William and Charles, subsequently rising to admiral's rank. In 1805 the
+Austen ladies moved to Southampton, and in 1809 to Chawton, near Alton,
+in Hampshire, and there Jane Austen remained till 1817, the year of her
+death, which occurred at Winchester, on July 18th, as a memorial window
+in the cathedral testifies.
+
+During her placid life Miss Austen never allowed her literary work to
+interfere with her domestic duties: sewing much and admirably, keeping
+house, writing many letters and reading aloud. Though, however, her days
+were quiet and her area circumscribed, she saw enough of middle-class
+provincial society to find a basis on which her dramatic and humorous
+faculties might build, and such was her power of searching observation
+and her sympathetic imagination that there are not in English fiction
+more faithful representations of the life she knew than we possess in
+her novels. She had no predecessors in this genre. Miss Austen's "little
+bit (two inches wide) of ivory" on which she worked "with so fine a
+brush"--her own phrases--was her own invention.
+
+Her best-known, if not her best work, _Pride and Prejudice_, was also
+her first. It was written between October 1796 and August 1797,
+although, such was the blindness of publishers, not issued until 1813,
+two years after _Sense and Sensibility_, which was written, on an old
+scenario called "Eleanor and Marianne," in 1797 and 1798. Miss Austen's
+inability to find a publisher for these stories, and for _Northanger
+Abbey_, written in 1798 (although it is true that she sold that MS. in
+1803 for £10 to a Bath bookseller, only, however, to see it locked away
+in a safe for some years, to be gladly resold to her later), seems to
+have damped her ardour; for there is no evidence that between 1798 and
+1809 she wrote anything but the fragment called "The Watsons," after
+which year she began to revise her early work for the press. Her other
+three books belong to a later date--_Mansfield Park_, _Emma_ and
+_Persuasion_ being written between 1811 and 1816. The years of
+publication were _Sense and Sensibility_, 1811; _Pride and Prejudice_,
+1813; _Mansfield Park_, 1814; and _Emma_, 1816--all in their author's
+lifetime. _Persuasion_ and _Northanger Abbey_ were published
+posthumously in 1818. All were anonymous, agreeably to their author's
+retiring disposition.
+
+Although _Pride and Prejudice_ is the novel which in the mind of the
+public is most intimately associated with Miss Austen's name, both
+_Mansfield Park_ and _Emma_ are finer achievements--at once riper and
+richer and more elaborate. But the fact that _Pride and Prejudice_ is
+more single-minded, that the love story of Elizabeth Bennet and D'Arcy
+is not only _of_ the book but _is_ the book (whereas the love story of
+Emma and Mr Knightley and Fanny Price and Edmund Bertram have parallel
+streams), has given _Pride and Prejudice_ its popularity above the
+others among readers who are more interested by the course of romance
+than by the exposition of character. Entirely satisfactory as is _Pride
+and Prejudice_ so far as it goes, it is, however, thin beside the
+niceness of analysis of motives in _Emma_ and the wonderful management
+of two housefuls of young lovers that is exhibited in _Mansfield Park_.
+
+It has been generally agreed by the best critics that Miss Austen has
+never been approached in her own domain. No one indeed has attempted any
+close rivalry. No other novelist has so concerned herself or himself
+with the trivial daily comedy of small provincial family life,
+disdaining equally the assistance offered by passion, crime and
+religion. Whatever Miss Austen may have thought privately of these
+favourite ingredients of fiction, she disregarded all alike when she
+took her pen in hand. Her interest was in life's little perplexities of
+emotion and conduct; her gaze was steadily ironical. The most untoward
+event in any of her books is Louisa's fall from the Cobb at Lyme Regis,
+in _Persuasion_; the most abandoned, Maria's elopement with Crawford, in
+_Mansfield Park_. In pure ironical humour Miss Austen's only peer among
+novelists is George Meredith, and indeed _Emma_ may be said to be her
+_Egoist_, or the _Egoist_ his _Emma_. But irony and fidelity to the fact
+alone would not have carried her down the ages. To these gifts she
+allied a perfect sense of dramatic progression and an admirably lucid
+and flowing prose style which makes her stories the easiest reading.
+
+Recognition came to Miss Austen slowly. It was not until quite recent
+times that to read her became a necessity of culture. But she is now
+firmly established as an English classic, standing far above Miss Burney
+(Madame d'Arblay) and Miss Edgeworth, who in her day were the popular
+women novelists of real life, while Mrs Radcliffe and "Monk" Lewis,
+whose supernatural fancies' _Northanger Abbey_ was written in part to
+ridicule, are no longer anything but names. Although, however, she has
+become only lately a household word, Miss Austen had always her
+panegyrists among the best intellects--such as Coleridge, Tennyson,
+Macaulay, Scott, Sydney Smith, Disraeli and Archbishop Whately, the last
+of whom may be said to have been her discoverer. Macaulay, whose
+adoration of Miss Austen's genius was almost idolatrous, considered
+_Mansfield Park_ her greatest feat; but many critics give the palm to
+_Emma_. Disraeli read _Pride and Prejudice_ seventeen times. Scott's
+testimony is often quoted: "That young lady had a talent for describing
+the involvements, feelings and characters of ordinary life which is to
+me the most wonderful I have ever met with. The big bow-wow I can do
+myself like any one going; but the exquisite touch which renders
+commonplace things and characters interesting from the truth of the
+description and the sentiment is denied to me."
+
+  Many monographs on Miss Austen have been written, in addition to the
+  authorized _Life_ by her nephew J.E. Austen Leigh in 1870, and the
+  collection of her _Letters_ edited by Lord Brabourne in 1884. The
+  chief books on her and around her are _Jane Austen_, by S.F. Malden
+  (1889); _Jane Austen_, by Goldwin Smith (1890); _Jane Austen: Her
+  Contemporaries and Herself_, by W.H. Pollock; _Jane Austen: Her Homes
+  and Her Friends_, by Constance Hill (1902); _Jane Austen and Her
+  Times_, by G.E. Mitton (1905); _Jane Austen's Sailor Brothers_, by J
+  H. and E.C. Hubback (1906); and the essay on her in Lady Richmond
+  (Thackeray) Ritchie's _Book of Sibyls_ (1883).     (E. V. L.)
+
+
+
+
+AUSTERLITZ (Czech _Slavkov_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 15 m.
+E.S.E. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 3145, mostly Czech. It contains a
+magnificent palace belonging to the prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, and a
+beautiful church.
+
+[Illustration: (map of Austerlitz battle site)]
+
+The great battle in which the French under Napoleon I. defeated the
+Austrians and Russians on the 2nd of December 1805, was fought in the
+country to the west of Austerlitz, the position of Napoleon's left wing
+being almost equi-distant from Brünn and from Austerlitz. The wooded
+hills to the northward throw out to the south and south-west long spurs,
+between which are the low valleys of several rivers and brooks. The
+scene of the most important fighting was the Pratzen plateau. The famous
+"lakes" in the southern part of the field were artificial ponds, which
+have long since been drained. On the west or Brünn side of the Goldbach
+is another and lower ridge, which formed in the battle the first
+position of the French right and centre. On the other wing is the mass
+of hills from which the spurs and streams descend: here the Olmütz-Brünn
+road passes. The road from Brunn to Vienna, Napoleon's presumed line of
+retreat, runs in a southerly direction, and near the village of Raigern
+(3 m. west of Monitz) is very close to the extreme right of the French
+position, a fact which had a great influence on the course of the
+battle. (The course of events which led to the action is described under
+NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) Napoleon, falling back before the advance of the
+allied Austrians and Russians from Olmütz, bivouacked west of the
+Goldbach, whilst the allies, holding, near Austerlitz, the junction of
+the roads from Olmutz and from Hungary, formed up in the valleys east of
+the Pratzen heights. The cavalry of both sides remained inactive,
+Napoleon's by express order, the enemy's seemingly from mere negligence,
+since they had 177 squadrons at their disposal. Napoleon, having
+determined to fight, as usual called up every available battalion; the
+splendid III. corps of Davout only arrived upon the field after a heavy
+march, late on the night of December 1st. The plan of the allies was to
+attack Napoleon's right, and to cut him off from Vienna, and their
+advanced guard began, before dark on the 1st of December, to skirmish
+towards Telnitz. At that moment Napoleon was in the midst of his troops,
+thousands of whom had made their bivouac-straw into torches in his
+honour. The glare of these seemed to the allies to betoken the familiar
+device of lighting fires previous to a retreat, and thus confirmed them
+in the impression which Napoleon's calculated timidity had given. Thus
+encouraged, those who desired an immediate battle soon gained the upper
+hand in the councils of the tsar and the emperor Francis. The attack
+orders for the 2nd of December (drawn up by the Austrian general
+Weyrother, and explained by him to a council of superior officers, of
+whom some were hostile, the greater part indifferent, and the chief
+Russian member, General Kutusov, asleep) gave the five columns and the
+reserve, into which the Austro-Russian army was organized, the following
+tasks: the first and second (Russians) to move south-westward behind the
+Pratzen ridge towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz; the third (Russian) to
+cross the southern end of the plateau, and come into line on the right
+of the first two; the fourth (Austrians and Russians under Kolowrat) on
+the right of the third to advance towards Kobelnitz. An Austrian
+advanced guard preceded the 1st and 2nd columns. Farther still on the
+right the 5th column (cavalry under Prince John of Liechtenstein) was to
+hold the northern part of the plateau, south of the Brunn-Olmutz road;
+across the road itself was the corps of Prince Bagration, and in rear of
+Liechtenstein's corps was the reserve (Russians under the grand-duke
+Constantine). Thus, the farther the four main columns penetrated into
+the French right wing, the wider would the gap become between Bagration
+and Kolowrat, and Liechtenstein's squadrons could not form a serious
+obstacle to a heavy attack of Napoleon's centre. The whole plan was
+based upon defective information and preconceived ideas; it has gone
+down to history as a classical example of bad generalship, and its
+author Weyrother, who was perhaps nothing worse than a pedant, as a
+charlatan.
+
+Napoleon, on the other hand, with the exact knowledge of the powers of
+his men, which was the secret of his generalship, entrusted nearly half
+of his line of battle to a division (Legrand's) of Soult's corps, which
+was to be supported by Davout, some of whose brigades had marched, from
+Vienna, 90 m. in forty-eight hours. But the ground which this thin line
+was to hold against three columns of the enemy was marshy and densely
+intersected by obstacles, and the III. corps was the best in the _Grande
+Armée_, while its leader was perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon's
+marshals. The rest of the army formed in the centre and left. "Whilst
+they march to turn my right," said Napoleon in the inspiriting
+proclamation which he issued on the eve of the battle, "they present me
+their flank," and the great counterstroke was to be delivered against
+the Pratzen heights by the French centre. This was composed of Soult's
+corps, with Bernadotte's in second line. On the left, around the hill
+called by the French the Santon (which was fortified) was Lannes' corps,
+supported by the cavalry reserve under Murat. The general reserve
+consisted of the Guard and Oudinot's grenadiers.
+
+The attack of the allies was begun by the first three columns, which
+moved down from their bivouacs behind the Pratzen plateau before dawn on
+the 2nd, towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz. The Austrian advanced guard
+engaged at daybreak, and the French in Telnitz made a vigorous defence;
+both parties were reinforced, and Legrand drew upon himself, in
+fulfilling his mission, the whole weight of the allied attack. The
+contest was long and doubtful, but the Russians gradually drove back
+Legrand and a part of Davout's corps; numerous attacks both of infantry
+and cavalry were made, and by the successive arrival of reinforcements
+each side in turn received fresh impetus. Finally, at about 10 A.M., the
+allies were in possession of the villages on the Goldbach from Sokolnitz
+southwards, and Davout's line of battle had reformed more than a mile to
+rearward, still, however, maintaining touch with the French centre on
+the Goldbach at Kobelnitz. Between the two lines the fighting continued
+almost to the close of the battle. With 12,500 men of all arms the
+Marshal held in front of him over 40,000 of the enemy.
+
+In the centre, the defective arrangements of the allied staff had
+delayed the 4th column (Kolowrat), the line of march of which was
+crossed by Liechtenstein's cavalry moving in the opposite direction. The
+objective of this column was Kobelnitz, and the two emperors and Kutusov
+accompanied it. The delay had, however, opened a gap between Kolowrat
+and the 3rd column on his left; and towards this gap, and the denuded
+Pratzen plateau, Napoleon sent forward St Hilaire's division of Soult's
+corps for the decisive attack. Kutusov was pursuing this march to the
+south-west when he was surprised by the swift advance of Soult's men on
+the plateau itself. Napoleon had here double the force of the allies;
+Kutusov, however, displayed great energy, changed front to his right and
+called up his reserves. The French did not win the plateau without a
+severe struggle. St Hilaire's (the right centre) division was fiercely
+engaged by Kolowrat's column, General Miloradovich opposed the left
+centre attack under Vandamme, but the French leaders were two of the
+best fighting generals in their army. The rearmost troops of the Russian
+2nd column, not yet committed to the fight on the Goldbach, made a bold
+counter stroke against St Hilaire's right flank, but were repulsed, and
+Soult now turned to relieve the pressure on Davout by attacking
+Sokolnitz. The Russians in Sokolnitz surrendered, an opportune cavalry
+charge further discomfited the allied left, and the Pratzen plateau was
+now in full possession of the French. Even the Russian Guard failed to
+shake Vandamme's hold. In the meanwhile Lannes and Murat had been
+engaged in the defence of the Santon. Here the allied leaders displayed
+the greatest vigour, but they were unable to drive back the French. The
+cavalry charges in this quarter are celebrated in the history of the
+mounted arm; and Kellermann, the hero of Marengo, won fresh laurels
+against the cavalry of Liechtenstein's command. The French not only held
+their ground, but steadily advanced and eventually forced back the
+allies on Austerlitz, thereby barring their retreat on Olmütz. The last
+serious attempt of the allies in the centre led to some of the hardest
+fighting of the day; the Russian Imperial Guard under the grand-duke
+Constantine pressed closely upon St Hilaire and Vandamme on the plateau,
+and only gave way when the French Guard and the Grenadiers came into
+action. After the "Chevalier Guards" had been routed by Marshal
+Bessières and the Guard cavalry, the allies had no more hope of victory;
+orders had already been sent to Buxhöwden, who commanded the three
+columns engaged against Davout, to retreat on Austerlitz. No further
+attempt was made on the plateau, which was held by the French from
+Pratzen to the Olmütz road. The allied army was cut in two, and the last
+confused struggle of the three Russian columns on the Goldbach was one
+for liberty only. The fighting in Telnitz was perhaps the hardest of the
+whole battle, but the inevitable retreat, every part of which was now
+under the fire of the French on the plateau, was terribly costly. Soult
+now barred the way to Austerlitz, and the allies turned southward
+towards Satschan. As they retreated, the ice of the Satschan pond was
+broken up by the French artillery, and many of the fugitives were
+drowned. In the twelve hours from 7 A.M. to nightfall, the 65,000 French
+troops had lost 6800 men, or about 10%; the allies (82,500 engaged) had
+12,200 killed and wounded, and left in the enemy's hands 15,000
+prisoners (many wounded) and 133 guns.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, ALFRED (1835- ), English poet-laureate, was born at Headingley,
+near Leeds, on the 30th of May 1835. His father, Joseph Austin, was a
+merchant of the city of Leeds; his mother, a sister of Joseph Locke,
+M.P. for Honiton. Mr Austin was educated at Stonyhurst, Oscott, and
+London University, where he graduated in 1853. He was called to the bar
+four years later, and practised as a barrister for a short time; but in
+1861, after two comparatively false starts in poetry and fiction, he
+made his first noteworthy appearance as a writer with a satire called
+_The Season_, which contained incisive lines, and was marked by some
+promise both in wit and observation. In 1870 he published a volume of
+criticism, _The Poetry of the Period_, which was again conceived in a
+spirit of satirical invective, and attacked Tennyson, Browning, Matthew
+Arnold and Swinburne in no half-hearted fashion. The book aroused some
+discussion at the time, but its judgments were extremely uncritical. In
+1881 Mr Austin returned to verse with a tragedy, _Savonarola_, to which
+he added _Soliloquies_ in 1882, _Prince Lucifer_ in 1887, _England's
+Darling_ in 1896, _The Conversion of Winckelmann_ in 1897, &c. A keen
+Conservative in politics, for several years he edited _The National
+Review_, and wrote leading articles for _The Standard_. On Tennyson's
+death in 1892 it was felt that none of the then living poets, except
+Swinburne or William Morris, who were outside consideration on other
+grounds, was of sufficient distinction to succeed to the laurel crown,
+and for several years no new poet-laureate was nominated. In the
+interval the claims of one writer and another were much canvassed, but
+eventually, in 1896, Mr Austin was appointed. As poet-laureate, his
+occasional verses did not escape adverse criticism; his hasty poem in
+praise of the Jameson Raid in 1896 being a notable instance. The most
+effective characteristic of Mr Austin's poetry, as of the best of his
+prose, is a genuine and intimate love of nature. His prose idylls, _The
+Garden that I love_ and _In Veronica's Garden_, are full of a pleasant,
+open-air flavour, which is also the outstanding feature of his _English
+Lyrics_. His lyrical poems are wanting in spontaneity and individuality,
+but many of them possess a simple, orderly charm, as of an English
+country lane. He has, indeed, a true love of England, sometimes not
+without a suspicion of insularity, but always fresh and ingenuous. A
+drama by him, _Flodden Field_, was acted at His Majesty's theatre in
+1903.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, JOHN (1790-1859), English jurist, was born on the 3rd of March
+1790. His father was the owner of flour mills at Ipswich and in the
+neighbourhood, and was in good circumstances. John was the eldest of
+five brothers. One of his brothers, Charles (1799-1874), obtained great
+distinction at the bar. John Austin entered the army at a very early
+age; he is said to have been only sixteen. He served with his regiment
+under Lord William Bentinck in Malta and Sicily. He seems to have liked
+his profession, and to have joined in the amusements and even in the
+follies of his brother officers. Yet it appears from a journal kept by
+him at the time that he occupied himself with studies of a far more
+serious kind than is common amongst young officers in the army. He notes
+having read in the course of one year Dugald Stewart's _Philosophical
+Essays_, Drummond's _Academical Questions_, Enfield's _History of
+Philosophy_, and Mitford's _History of Greece_, and upon all of these he
+makes observations which disclose much thought and a capacity for
+criticism which must have come from extensive reading elsewhere. The
+prevailing note of this journal is one of bitter self-depreciation. He
+says in it that the retrospect of the past year (1811) "has hardly given
+rise to one single feeling of satisfaction," and farther on he says that
+"indolence, always the prominent vice of my character," has "assumed
+over me an empire I almost despair of shaking off." It is difficult to
+believe that a man only just of age, whose serious reading consisted of
+such books, and who (as appears from the same journal) was in the habit
+of turning to the classics as an alternative, could have deserved the
+reproach of indolence.
+
+In 1812, he resigned his commission in the army, and returned home. He
+then began to read law in the chambers of a barrister. He was called to
+the bar in the year 1818, and joined the Norfolk circuit, but he never
+obtained any large practice, and he finally retired from the bar in
+1825. In 1819 he married Sarah Taylor (see AUSTIN, SARAH).
+
+Although Austin had failed to attain success at the bar it was not long
+before he had an opportunity of exercising his abilities and in a manner
+peculiarly suited to his particular turn of mind. In 1826 a number of
+eminent men were engaged in the foundation of University College, and it
+was determined to establish in it a chair of jurisprudence. This chair
+was offered to Austin and he agreed to accept it. As he was not called
+upon to begin his lectures immediately, he resolved to proceed to
+Germany in order to prepare himself for his duties by studying the
+method of legal teaching pursued at German universities. He resided
+first at Heidelberg, and afterwards at Bonn, where he lived on terms of
+intimacy with such distinguished lawyers as Savigny and K.J.A.
+Mittermaier; and such eminent men of letters as Niebuhr, Brandis,
+Schlegel and A.W. Heffter. He began lecturing in 1828, and at first was
+not without encouragement. His class was a peculiarly brilliant one. It
+included a number of men who afterwards became eminent in law, politics
+and philosophy--Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Charles Buller, Charles
+Villiers, Sir Samuel Romilly and his brother Lord Romilly, Edward Strutt
+afterwards Lord Belper, Sir William Erie and John Stuart Mill were all
+members of his class. All of these have left on record expressions of
+the profound admiration which the lectures excited in the minds of those
+who heard them. But the members of his class, though exceptional in
+quality, were few in number, and as there was no fixed salary attached
+to the professorship, Austin could not afford to remain in London, and
+in 1832 he resigned. In that year he published his _Province of
+Jurisprudence determined_, being the first ten of his delivered lectures
+compressed into six.
+
+There is ample testimony that Austin's lectures were very highly
+appreciated by those who heard them. Their one fault was that they were
+over-elaborated. In his desire to avoid ambiguity, he repeats his
+explanations and qualifications to an extent which must have tired his
+hearers. Nevertheless the lectures excited an admiration which almost
+amounted to enthusiasm. Nor was Austin's influence confined to his
+lectures. Sir William Erle says in a letter written to him in 1844, "The
+interchange of mind with you in the days of Lincoln's Inn I regard as a
+deeply important event in my life, and I ever remember your friendship
+with thankfulness and affection." John Stuart Mill, whose views on
+political subjects were entirely opposed to those of Austin, spoke of
+him after his death as the man "to whom he (Mill) had been
+intellectually and morally most indebted," and he expressed the opinion
+"that few men had contributed more by their individual influence, and
+their conversation, to the formation and growth of the most active minds
+of the generation."
+
+In 1833 a royal commission was issued to draw up a digest of criminal
+law and procedure. Of this commission Austin was a member. The first
+report was signed by all the commissioners, and was presented in June
+1834. Nevertheless it appears from some notes made at the time that
+Austin, though he thought it his duty to sign the report, strongly
+objected to some passages which it contained. It is pretty obvious from
+the nature of these objections that nothing would have satisfied him
+short of a complete recasting of the criminal law, whereas what the
+commissioners were ordered to produce was not a code but a digest.
+Probably Austin felt, as Mr Justice Wills felt some years later, that
+the anomalies which a code would remove would "choke a digest."
+
+In 1834 the benchers of the Inner Temple appointed Austin to give
+lectures on the "General Principles of Jurisprudence and International
+Law." He delivered a few lectures in the spring of that year, but in
+June the course was by order of the benchers suspended on account of the
+smallness of the attendance, and it was never resumed. He then went to
+live with his wife and only child Lucie (afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon) at
+Boulogne. Here he remained for about a year and a half. He then accepted
+an appointment offered him by Sir James Stephen to go as royal
+commissioner to Malta in conjunction with Mr (afterward Sir George)
+Cornewall Lewis, to inquire into the nature and extent of the grievances
+of which the natives of that island complained.
+
+The Austins remained in Malta until July 1838. After their return they
+lived a good deal abroad, and in 1844 they settled in Paris, where they
+remained until driven out of France by the revolution of 1848. They then
+took a house at Weybridge, and there Austin remained until his death in
+December 1859. He was urged by his friends to publish a second edition
+of the _Province of Jurisprudence_, which was then out of print, and he
+went so far as to allow a prospectus to be issued by Mr Murray of an
+extended work on "The Principles and Relations of Jurisprudence and
+Ethics." But nothing came of it.
+
+In 1842 Austin published in the _Edinburgh Review_ an attack upon
+Friedrich List's system of trade protection (_Das nationale System der
+politischen Okonomie_). And in 1859 he published a pamphlet entitled "A
+Plea for the Constitution." This was occasioned by the publication of
+Lord Grey's essay on "Parliamentary Government." Its main object was to
+show that the consequences to be anticipated from Parliamentary Reform
+were all of them either impossible of realization or mischievous. He
+thought any attempt on the part of the poorer classes to improve their
+position was barred by the inexorable laws of political economy; and
+that if they obtained power they would only use it to plunder the rich;
+whilst, on the other hand, he seems not to have had any suspicion that
+the "proprietary class" were likely to disregard the interests of the
+poor. He thinks that political power is safest in the hands of those
+possessed of hereditary or acquired property; and that without property
+even intelligence and knowledge afford no presumption of political
+capacity. Undoubtedly Austin was a utilitarian in the Benthamite sense,
+and remained so to the end of his life. It must be remembered that
+Bentham's sole and immutable test of human action was the greatest
+happiness of the greatest number. This is a principle which an
+aristocrat may adopt if he chooses, no less than a democrat; an
+individualist no less than a socialist; and there is nothing in the
+"Plea for the Constitution" which contravenes this. But Austin thought,
+and in this no doubt he differed from Bentham, that the mass of the
+people did not know their own interests so well as "an aristocracy of
+independent gentlemen" who might be trusted to provide for the wants of
+all classes alike.
+
+Austin's position as a jurist is much more difficult to estimate. Twice
+his influence appeared likely to produce some impression upon English
+law, but upon both occasions it lasted only a short time, and never
+extended very far. The men whom he influenced were very eminent, but in
+numbers they were few. As a rule, students for the bar never at any time
+paid any attention to his teaching. The first published lectures were
+almost forgotten when Mr (afterwards Sir Henry) Maine was appointed to
+lecture on jurisprudence at the Inner Temple. Both in his private and
+public lectures Maine constantly urged upon his hearers the importance
+of Austin's analytical inquiries into the meaning of legal terms. He
+used to say that it was Austin's inquiries which had made a philosophy
+of law possible. Undoubtedly Maine's influence revived for a short time
+the interest in Austin's teaching. Maine was lecturing about the time of
+Austin's death, and in 1861 Mrs Austin published a second edition of the
+_Province of Jurisprudence_, and this was followed soon after by two
+volumes which contained in addition in a fragmentary form the remaining
+lectures delivered at University College and other notes (_Lectures on
+Jurisprudence; or The Philosophy of Positive Law_).
+
+It cannot be said that Austin's views of jurisprudence have had, as yet,
+any visible influence whatever on the study of English law. But if we
+consider what it was that Austin endeavoured to teach, it can hardly be
+said that the subject is one which a lawyer can with impunity neglect.
+He proposes to distinguish law from morals; to explain the notions
+which have been entertained of duty, right, liberty, injury, punishment
+and redress; and their connexion with, and relations to, sovereignty; to
+examine the distinction between rights _in rem_ and rights _in
+personam_, and between rights _ex contractu_ and rights _ex delicto_;
+and further to determine the meaning of such terms as right, obligation,
+injury, sanction, person, thing, act and forbearance. These are some of
+the terms, notions and distinctions which Austin endeavoured to explain.
+They are daily in the mouth of every practising lawyer. The only portion
+of Austin's work which has attracted much attention of recent years is
+his conception of sovereignty, and his dictum that all laws properly so
+called must be considered as sanctioned expressly or tacitly by the
+sovereign. This has been indignantly denied. It has been considered
+enough to justify this denial to point out that there are in existence
+states where the seat of sovereignty, and the ultimate source of law,
+cannot be accurately indicated. But this criticism is entirely
+misplaced; for as pointed out by Maine (_Early History of Institutions_,
+Lecture xii.), in an elaborate discussion of Austin's views, which in
+the main he accepts, what Austin was engaged upon was not an inquiry
+into the nature of sovereignty as it is found to exist, but an inquiry
+into what was the connexion between the various forms of political
+superiority. And this inquiry was undertaken in order to enable him to
+distinguish the province of jurisprudence properly so called from the
+province of morality; an inquiry which was hopeless unless the connexion
+just stated was clearly conceived. Austin's views of sovereignty,
+therefore, was an abstraction, useless it is true for some purposes, but
+by no means useless for others. "There is," as Maine says, "not the
+smallest necessity for accepting all the conclusions of these great
+writers (i.e. Bentham and Austin) with implicit deference, but there
+is the strongest necessity for knowing what these conclusions are. They
+are indispensable, if for no other object, for the purpose of clearing
+the head." These last words exactly express the work which Austin set
+himself to do. It was to clear his own head, and the heads of his
+hearers, that he laboured so hard. As Austin once said of himself, his
+special vocation was that of untying intellectual knots. The
+disentangling of classifications and distinctions, the separation of
+real from accidental distinctions, the analysis of ideas confusedly
+apprehended, these (as has been truly said) were the characteristics of
+Austin's work which specially distinguished him. Austin thought that
+this somewhat irksome task was a necessary preliminary both to the study
+of law as a science, and to the production of a code. It is a curious
+reflection that whilst the lectures in which these inquiries were begun
+(though not completed) excited the admiration of his contemporaries,
+hardly any one now thinks such inquiries worth pursuing.
+
+  The _Lectures on Jurisprudence_ were reviewed by J.S. Mill in the
+  _Edinburgh Review_ of October 1863, and this review is republished in
+  Mill's _Dissertations and Discussions_, vol. 3, p. 206. Professor
+  Jethro Brown has published (1906) an edition of Austin's earlier
+  lectures, in which they are stated in an abbreviated form. There is a
+  sketch of his life by his widow in the preface to the _Lectures on
+  Jurisprudence_, which she published after his death.     (W. Ma.)
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867), English author, was born in 1793, the
+daughter of John Taylor (d. 1826), a wool-stapler and a member of the
+well-known Taylor family of Norwich. Her great grandfather, Dr John
+Taylor (1694-1761), had been pastor of the Presbyterian church there,
+and wrote a once famous polemical work on _The Scripture Doctrine of
+Original Sin_ (1738), which called forth celebrated treatises by
+Jonathan Edwards on _Original Sin_. Her mother, Susannah Cook, was an
+exceedingly clever woman who transmitted both her beauty and her talent
+to her daughter. Their friends included Dr Alderson and his daughter Mrs
+Opie, Henry Crabbe Robinson, the Gurneys and Sir James Mackintosh. Sarah
+Taylor married in 1820 John Austin (q.v.). They lived in Queen Square,
+Westminster, where Mrs. Austin, whose tastes, unlike her husband's, were
+extremely sociable, gathered round her a large circle, Jeremy Bentham,
+James Mill and the Grotes being especially intimate. She received many
+Italian exiles, who found a real friend in her. In 1821 was born her
+only child, Lucie, afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon. Mrs. Austin never
+attempted any considerable original work, contenting herself chiefly
+with translations, of which the most important are the _History of the
+Reformation in Germany_ and the _History of the Popes_ (1840), from the
+German of Leopold von Ranke, _Report on the State of Public Instruction
+in Prussia_ (1834) from the French of V. Cousin, and F.W. Carove's _The
+Story without an End_ (1864). After her husband's death in 1859 she
+edited his _Lectures on Jurisprudence_. She also edited the _Memoirs of
+Sydney Smith_ (1855) and Lady Duff-Gordon's _Letters from Egypt_ (1865).
+She died at Weybridge on the 8th of August 1867.
+
+  See _Three Generations of Englishwomen_ (1888), by her grand-daughter,
+  Mrs Janet Ross.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836), American pioneer, was born in
+Austinville, Wythe county, Virginia, on the 3rd of November 1793. He was
+the son of Moses Austin (1767-1821), a native of Durham, Connecticut,
+who in 1820 obtained from Mexico a grant of land for an American colony
+in Texas, but died before he could carry out his project. The son was
+educated in New London, Connecticut, and at Transylvania University,
+Lexington, Kentucky, and settled in Missouri, where he was a member of
+the territorial legislature from 1813 to 1819. In 1819 he removed to
+Arkansas Territory, where he was appointed a circuit judge. After his
+father's death he obtained a confirmation of the Texas grants from the
+newly established Mexican government, and in 1821-1823 he established a
+colony of several hundred American families on the Brazos river, the
+principal town being named, in his honour, San Felipe de Austin. He was
+a firm defender of the rights of the Americans in Texas, and in 1833 he
+was sent to the city of Mexico to present a petition from a convention
+in Texas praying for the erection of a separate state government. While
+there, despairing of success for his petition, he wrote home
+recommending the organization of a state without waiting for the consent
+of the Mexican congress. This letter falling into the hands of the
+Mexican government, Austin, while returning home, was arrested at
+Saltillo, carried as a prisoner back to Mexico, and imprisoned for a
+year without trial. Returning to Texas in 1835, he found the Texans in
+armed revolt against Mexican rule, and was chosen commander-in-chief of
+the revolutionary forces, but after failing to take San Antonio he
+resigned the command, for which he had never considered himself fitted,
+and in November 1835 went to the United States as a commissioner to
+secure loans and supplies, and to learn the position the United States
+authorities would be likely to take in the event of a declaration of
+Texan independence. He succeeded in raising large sums, and received
+assurances that satisfied him that Americans would look with great
+favour on an independent Texas. Returning to Texas in the summer of
+1836, he became a candidate, rather reluctantly, for the presidency of
+the newly established republic of Texas, but was defeated by Samuel
+Houston, under whom he was secretary of state until his sudden death on
+the 7th of December 1836.
+
+  See _A Comprehensive History of Texas_, edited by D.G. Wooten (2
+  vols., Dallas, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, a city and the county-seat of Mower county, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
+on the Red Cedar river and Turtle creek, (by rail) 105 m. S. of
+Minneapolis and 100 m. from St Paul. Pop. (1900) 5474; (1905, state
+census) 6489 (913 foreign-born); (1910, U.S. census) 6960. It is served
+by the Chicago Great Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
+railways. Austin is the seat of the Southern Minnesota Normal College
+and Austin School of Commerce (1896), and has a Carnegie library, court
+house and city hall. It is a market for livestock, and for dairy and
+farm products, and has slaughtering and packing establishments, flour
+mills, creameries and cheese factories, canning and preserving
+factories, carriage works, a flax fibre mill and grain elevators. Brick,
+tile, sewer-pipe, and hydraulic cement are manufactured, and there are
+railway repair shops. A valuable water-power is utilized for
+manufacturing purposes. Fresh-water pearls of considerable value and
+beauty are found in the Red Cedar river. The city owns and operates its
+own water-supply system and electric-lighting plant. Austin was settled
+in 1855, was incorporated as a village in 1868, and was chartered as a
+city in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, the capital of Texas, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Travis
+county, on the N. bank of the Colorado river, near the centre of the
+state and about 145 m. W.N.W. of Houston. Pop. (1890) 14,575; (1900)
+22,258, of whom 5822 were negroes; (1910 census) 29,860. Austin is
+served by the Houston & Texas Central, the International & Great
+Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. The city is built
+on high bluffs 40-120 ft. above the river, which is spanned here by a
+bridge, built in 1874. The Texas State Capitol, a handsome building of
+red Texas granite, with a dome 318 ft. high, cost more than $3,500,000,
+and stands in a square in the centre of the city. It was built
+(1881-1888) by Chicago capitalists in exchange for a land grant of
+3,000,000 acres. It is in the form of a Greek cross, with an extreme
+length of 556.5 ft. and an extreme width of 288.8 ft. Next to the
+National Capitol at Washington, it is the largest capitol building in
+the United States, and it is said to be one of the ten largest buildings
+in the world. Austin is the seat of the University of Texas (opened in
+1883; co-educational); the medical department of the state university is
+at Galveston, and the departments in Austin are the college of arts,
+department of education, department of engineering, department of law,
+school of pharmacy, and school of nursing. The government of the
+university is vested in a board of eight regents nominated by the
+governor and appointed with the advice and consent of the state senate.
+At Austin are also state institutions and asylums for the insane, the
+blind, the coloured deaf and blind; the state school for the deaf and
+dumb; the state Confederate home; the Confederate woman's home (1907;
+for wives and widows of Confederate soldiers and sailors), maintained by
+the Daughters of the Confederacy; St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic,
+under the supervision of the Sisters of the Holy Cross, founded 1875,
+chartered 1886); St Edward's College (Roman Catholic, chartered 1885);
+the Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary (Presbyterian Church,
+South), opened in 1902 by the Synod of Texas, and after 1905 partly
+controlled by the Synod of Arkansas; Tillotson College (a negro school
+under Congregational control, founded by the American Missionary
+Association, chartered in 1877, and opened in 1881), and Samuel Huston
+College (for negroes; Methodist Episcopal; opened in 1900 and named in
+honour of an Iowan benefactor). The principal newspapers of Austin are
+the _Statesman_ (Democratic, established in 1871), a morning paper, and
+the _Tribune_ (Democratic, established in 1891), an evening paper. The
+_Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society_ is published here.
+Austin is the principal trade and jobbing centre for central and western
+Texas, is an important market for livestock, cotton, grain and wool, and
+has extensive manufactories of flour, cotton-seed oil, leather goods,
+lumber and wooden ware; the value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$1,569,353, being 105.2% more than in 1900. The city owns and operates
+its water-supply system. In 1890-1893 one of the largest dams in the
+world, an immense structure of granite masonry, 1200 ft. long. 60-70 ft.
+high, and 18 to 66 ft. thick, was constructed across the Colorado river
+2 m. above the city for the purpose of supplying water and power,
+creating a reservoir (Lake M'Donald) about 30 m. long. Freshets in the
+spring of 1900, however, undermined the wall, and on the 7th of April
+the dam broke with a resulting loss of several lives and about
+$1,000,000 worth of property. The rebuilding of the dam was projected in
+1907. Austin was first settled in 1838 and was named Waterloo, but in
+1839, when it was chosen as the site of the capital of the Republic of
+Texas, it was renamed in honour of Stephen F. Austin, one of its
+founders. Under the influence of General Sam Houston the capital was for
+a time in 1842-1845 removed from Austin to Houston, but in 1845 an
+ordinance was passed making Austin the capital, and it remained the
+state capital after Texas entered the Union, although Huntsville and
+Tehuacana Springs in 1850 and Houston in 1872 attempted in popular
+elections to be chosen in its place. The first Anglo-American settlement
+in Texas, established on the Brazos river in 1823 by members of the
+Austin colony, was San Felipe de Austin now San Felipe. In 1909 Austin
+adopted a commission form of government.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTRALASIA, a term used by English geographers in a sense nearly
+synonymous with the Oceania of continental writers. It thus comprises
+all the insular groups which extend almost continuously from the
+south-eastern extremity of Asia to more than half-way across the
+Pacific. Its chief divisions are Malaysia with the Philippines;
+Australia with Tasmania and New Zealand; Melanesia, that is, New Guinea,
+New Britain, New Ireland, Admiralty, the Solomons, New Hebrides, Santa
+Cruz, Fiji, Loyalties and New Caledonia; Micronesia, that is, the
+Ladrones, Pelew and Carolines, with the Marshall and Gilbert groups;
+lastly, Polynesia, that is, Samoa, Tonga, Cook, Tahiti, the Marquesas,
+Ellice, Hawaii and all intervening clusters. The term is so far
+justified in that it harmonizes better than Oceania did with the names
+of the other continents, and also embodies the two essential facts that
+it is a south-eastern extension of Asia, and that its central and most
+important division is the great island-continent of Australia. In a more
+restricted sense the term Australasia corresponds to the large division
+including Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.
+
+  See _Australasia_, 2 vols. Stanford Compendium Series, new issue
+  (London, 1907-1908).
+
+
+
+
+AUSTRALIA, the only continent entirely in the southern hemisphere. It
+lies between 10° 39' and 39° 11½' S., and between 113° 5' and 153° 16'
+E. Its greatest length is 2400 m. from east to west, and the greatest
+breadth 1971 m. from north to south. The area is, approximately,
+2,946,691 sq. m., with a coast line measuring about 8850 m. This is
+equal to 1 m. to each 333 sq. m. of land, the smallest proportion of
+coast shown by any of the continents.
+
+
+PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
+
+  General character.
+
+_Physiography._--The salient features of the Australian continent are
+its compact outline, the absence of navigable rivers communicating with
+the interior, the absence of active volcanoes or snow-capped mountains,
+its isolation from other lands, and its antiquity. Some of the most
+profound changes that have taken place on this globe occurred in
+Mesozoic times, and a great portion of Australia was already dry land
+when vast tracts of Europe and Asia were submerged; in this sense,
+therefore, Australia has been rightly referred to as one of the oldest
+existing land surfaces. It has been described as at once the largest
+island and the smallest continent on the globe. The general contours
+exemplify the law of geographers in regard to continents, viz. as to
+their having a high border around a depressed interior, and the highest
+mountains on the side of the greatest ocean. On the N. Australia is
+bounded by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait; on the E.
+by the Pacific Ocean; on the S. by Bass Strait and the Southern Ocean;
+and on the W. by the Indian Ocean. It stands up from the ocean depths in
+three fairly well-marked terraces. The basal plain of these terraces is
+the bed of the ocean, which on the Pacific side has an average depth of
+15,000 ft. From this profound foundation rise Australia, New Guinea and
+Melanesia, in varying slopes. The first ledge rising from the ocean
+floor has a depth averaging 8000 ft. below sea-level. The outer edge of
+this ledge is roughly parallel to the coast of Western Australia, and
+more than 150 m. from the land. Round the Australian Bight it continues
+parallel to the coast, until south of Spencer Gulf (the basal ledge
+still averaging 8000 ft. in depth) it sweeps southwards to lat. 55°, and
+forms a submarine promontory 1000 m. long. The edge of the abysmal area
+comes close to the eastern coasts of Tasmania and New South Wales,
+approaching to within 60 m. of Cape Howe. The terrace closest to the
+land, known as the continental shelf, has an average depth of 600 ft.,
+and connects Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania in one unbroken sweep.
+Compared with other continents, the Australian continental shelf is
+extremely narrow, and there are points on the eastern coast where the
+land plunges down to oceanic depths with an abruptness rarely
+paralleled. Off the Queensland coast the shelf broadens, its outer edge
+being lined by the seaward face of the Great Barrier Reef. From Torres
+Strait to Dampier Land the shelf spreads out, and connects Australia
+with New Guinea and the Malay Archipelago. An elongation of the shelf to
+the south joins Tasmania with the mainland. The vertical relief of the
+land above the ocean is a very important factor in determining the
+climate as well as the distribution of the fauna and flora of a
+continent.
+
+  The land mass of Australia rises to a mean height much less than that
+  of any other continent; and the chief mountain systems are parallel
+  to, and not far from, the coast-line. Thus, taking the continent as a
+  whole, it may be described as a plateau, fringed by a low-lying
+  well-watered coast, with a depressed, and for the most part arid,
+  interior. A great plain, covering quite 500,000 sq. m., occupies a
+  position a little to the east of a meridional line bisecting the
+  continent, and south of the 22nd degree, but portions of it stretch
+  upwards to the low-lying country south of the Gulf of Carpentaria. The
+  contour of the continent in latitude 30° 5' is as follows:--a short
+  strip of coastal plain; then a sharp incline rising to a mountain
+  range 4000 ft. above sea-level, at a distance of 40 m. from the coast.
+  From this a gently-sloping plateau extends to almost due north of
+  Spencer Gulf, at which point its height has fallen almost to
+  sea-level. Then there is a gentle rise to the low steppes, 500 to 1000
+  ft. above sea-level. A further gentle rise in the high steppes leads
+  to the mountains of the West Australian coast, and another strip of
+  low-lying coastal land to the sea.
+
+  With a circumference of 8000 m. Australia presents a contour
+  wonderfully devoid of inlets from the sea except on its northern
+  shores, where the coast-line is largely indented. The Gulf of
+  Carpentaria, situated in the north, is enclosed on the east by the
+  projection of Cape York, and on the west by Arnheim Land, and forms
+  the principal bay on the whole coast, measuring about 6° of long. by
+  6° of lat. Farther to the west, Van Diemen's Gulf, though much
+  smaller, forms a better-protected bay, having Melville Island between
+  it and the ocean; while beyond this, Queen's Channel and Cambridge
+  Gulf form inlets about 14° 50' S. On the north-west of the continent
+  the coast-line is much broken, the chief indentations being Admiralty
+  Gulf, Collier Bay and King Sound, on the shores of Tasman Land.
+  Western Australia, again, is not favoured with many inlets, Exmouth
+  Gulf and Shark's Bay being the only bays of any size. The same remark
+  may be made of the rest of the sea-board; for, with the exception of
+  Spencer Gulf, the Gulf of St Vincent and Port Phillip on the south,
+  and Moreton Bay, Hervey Bay and Broad Sound on the east, the
+  coast-line is singularly uniform. There are, however, numerous
+  spacious harbours, especially on the eastern coast, which are referred
+  to in the detailed articles dealing with the different states. The
+  Great Barrier Reef forms the prominent feature off the north-east
+  coast of Australia; its extent from north to south is 1200 m., and it
+  is therefore the greatest of all coral reefs. The channel between the
+  reef and the coast is in places 70 m. wide and 400 ft. deep. There are
+  a few clear openings in the outer rampart which the reef presents to
+  the ocean. These are opposite to the large estuaries of the Queensland
+  rivers, and might be thought to have been caused by fresh water from
+  the land. The breaks are, however, some 30 to 90 m. away from land and
+  more probably were caused by subsidence; the old river-channels known
+  to exist below sea-level, as well as the former land connexion with
+  New Guinea, seem to point to the conditions assumed in Darwin's
+  well-known subsidence theory, and any facts that appear to be
+  inconsistent with the theory of a steady and prolonged subsidence are
+  explainable by the assumption of a slight upheaval.
+
+  With the exception of Tasmania there are no important islands
+  belonging geographically to Australia, for New Guinea, Timor and other
+  islands of the East Indian archipelago, though not removed any great
+  distance from the continent, do not belong to its system. On the east
+  coast there are a few small and unimportant islands. In Bass Strait
+  are Flinders Island, about 800 sq. m. in area, Clarke Island, and a
+  few other small islands. Kangaroo Island, at the entrance of St
+  Vincent Gulf, is one of the largest islands on the Australian coast,
+  measuring 80 m. from east to west with an average width of 20 m.
+  Numerous small islands lie off the western coast, but none has any
+  commercial importance. On the north coast are Melville and Bathurst
+  Islands; the former, which is 75 m. long and 38 m. broad, is fertile
+  and well watered. These islands are opposite Port Darwin, and to the
+  westward of the large inlet known as Van Diemen's Gulf. In the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria are numerous islands, the largest bearing the Dutch name
+  of Groote Eylandt.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  Along the full length of the eastern coast extends a succession of
+  mountain chains. The vast Cordillera of the Great Dividing Range
+  originates in the south-eastern corner of the continent, and runs
+  parallel with and close to the eastern shore, through the states of
+  Victoria and New South Wales, right up to the far-distant York
+  Peninsula in Queensland. In Victoria the greatest elevation is reached
+  in the peaks of Mount Bogong (6508 ft.) and Mount Feathertop (6303
+  ft.), both of which lie north of the Dividing Range; in the main range
+  Mount Hotham (6100 ft.) and Mount Cobberas (6025 ft.) are the highest
+  summits. In New South Wales, but close to the Victorian border, are
+  found the loftiest peaks of Australia, Mount Kosciusco and Mount
+  Townsend, rising to heights of 7328 and 7260 ft. respectively. The
+  range is here called the Muniong, but farther north it receives the
+  name of Monaro Range; the latter has a much reduced altitude, its
+  average being only about 2000 ft. As the tableland runs northward it
+  decreases both in height and width, until it narrows to a few miles
+  only, with an elevation of scarcely 1500 ft.; under the name of the
+  Blue Mountains the plateau widens again and increases in altitude, the
+  chief peaks being Mount Clarence (4000 ft.), Mount Victoria (3525
+  ft.), and Mount Hay (3270 ft.). The Dividing Range decreases north of
+  the Blue Mountains, until as a mere ridge it divides the waters of the
+  coastal rivers from those flowing to the Darling. The mass widens out
+  once more in the Liverpool Range, where the highest peak, Mount Oxley,
+  reaches 4500 ft., and farther north, in the New England Range, Ben
+  Lomond reaches an elevation of 5000 ft. Near the Queensland border,
+  Mount Lindsay, in the Macpherson Range, rises to a height of 5500 ft.
+  In the latitude of Brisbane the chain swerves inland; no other peak
+  north of this reaches higher than Mount Bartle Frere in the Bellenden
+  Ker Range (5438 ft.). The Southern Ocean system of the Victorian
+  Dividing Range hardly attains to the dignity of high mountains. An
+  eastern system in South Australia touches at a few points a height of
+  3000 ft.; and the Stirling Range, belonging to the south-western
+  system of South Australia, reaches to 2340 ft. There are no mountains
+  behind the Great Australian Bight. On the west the Darling Range faces
+  the Indian Ocean, and extends from Point D'Entrecasteaux to the
+  Murchison river. North of the Murchison, Mount Augustus and Mount
+  Bruce, with their connecting highlands, cut off the coastal drainage
+  from the interior; but no point on the north-west coast reaches a
+  greater altitude than 4000 ft. Several minor ranges, the topography of
+  which is little known, extend from Cambridge Gulf, behind a very much
+  broken coast-line, to Limmen Bight on the Gulf of Carpentaria. Nothing
+  is more remarkable than the contrast between the aspect of the coastal
+  ranges on the north-east and on the south-east of the continent. The
+  higher Australian peaks in the south-east look just what they are, the
+  worn and denuded stumps of mountains, standing for untold ages above
+  the sea. Their shoulders are lifted high above the tree-line. Their
+  summits stand out gaunt and lonely in an unbroken solitude. Having
+  left the tree-line far behind him, nothing is visible to the traveller
+  for miles around but barren peaks and torn crags in indescribable
+  confusion. A verdure of herbage clothes the valleys that have been
+  scooped from the summits downwards. But there are no perpetual
+  snow-fields, no glaciers creep down these valleys, and no alpine
+  hamlets ever appear to break the monotony. The mountains of the
+  north-east, on the contrary, are clothed to their summits with a rich
+  and varied flora. Naked crags, when they do appear, lift themselves
+  from a sea of green, and a tropical vegetation, quite Malaysian in
+  character, covers everything.
+
+  The absence of active volcanoes in Australia is a state of things, in
+  a geological sense, quite new to the continent. Some of the volcanoes
+  of the western districts of Victoria have been in eruption probably
+  subsequent to the advent of the black-fellow. In some instances the
+  cones are quite intact, and the beds of ash and scoriae are as yet
+  almost unaffected by denuding agencies. Late in the Tertiary period
+  vast sheets of lava poured from many points of the Great Dividing
+  Range of eastern Australia. But it is notable that all recent volcanic
+  action was confined to a wide belt parallel to the coast. No evidences
+  of recent lava flows can be found in the interior over the great
+  alluvial plain, the Lower, or the Higher Steppes. Nor has the
+  continent, as a whole, in recent times been subjected to any violent
+  earth tremors; though in 1873, to the north of Lake Amadeus, in
+  central Australia, Ernest Giles records the occurrence of earthquake
+  shocks violent enough to dislodge considerable rock masses.
+
+  Australia possesses one mountain which, though not a volcano, is a
+  "burning mountain." This is Mount Wingen, situated in a spur of the
+  Liverpool Range and close to the town of Scone. Its fires are not
+  volcanic, but result from the combustion of coal some distance
+  underground, giving off much smoke and steam; geologists estimate that
+  the burning has been going on for at least 800 years.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  The coastal belt of Australia is everywhere well watered, with the
+  exception of the country around the Great Australian Bight and Spencer
+  Gulf. Flowing into the Pacific Ocean on the east coast there are some
+  fine rivers, but the majority have short and rapid courses. In
+  Queensland a succession of rivers falls into the Pacific from Cape
+  York to the southern boundary of the state. The Burdekin is the finest
+  of these, draining an area of 53,500 sq. m., and emptying into Upstart
+  Bay; it receives numerous tributaries in its course, and carries a
+  large body of fresh water even in the driest seasons. The Fitzroy
+  river is the second in point of size; it drains an area of 55,600 sq.
+  m., and receives several tributary streams during its course to Keppel
+  Bay. The Brisbane river, falling into Moreton Bay, is important
+  chiefly from the fact that the city of Brisbane is situated on its
+  banks. In New South Wales there are several important rivers, the
+  largest of which is the Hunter, draining 11,000 sq. m., and having a
+  course of 200 m. Taking them from north to south, the principal rivers
+  are the Richmond, Clarence, Macleay, Hastings, Manning, Hunter,
+  Hawkesbury and Shoalhaven. The Snowy river has the greater part of its
+  course in New South Wales, but its mouth and the last 120 m. are in
+  Victoria. The other rivers worth mentioning are the Yarra, entering
+  the sea at Port Phillip, Hopkins and Glenelg. The Murray (q.v.), the
+  greatest river of Australia, debouches into Lake Alexandrina, and
+  thence into the sea at Encounter Bay in South Australia. There are no
+  other rivers of importance in South Australia, but the Torrens and the
+  Gawler may be mentioned. Westward of South Australia, on the shores of
+  the Australian Bight, there is a stretch of country 300 m. in length
+  unpierced by any streams, large or small, but west of the bight,
+  towards Cape Leeuwin, some small rivers enter the sea. The south-west
+  coast is watered by a few streams, but none of any size; amongst these
+  is the Swan, upon which Perth, the capital of Western Australia, is
+  built. Between the Swan and North-West Cape the principal rivers are
+  the Greenough, Murchison and Gascoyne; on the north-west coast, the
+  Ashburton, Fortescue and De Grey; and in the Kimberley district, the
+  Fitzroy, Panton, Prince Regent and the Ord. In the Northern Territory
+  are several fine rivers. The Victoria river is navigable for large
+  vessels for a distance of about 43 m. from the sea, and small vessels
+  may ascend for another 80 m. The Fitzmaurice, discharging into the
+  estuary of the Victoria, is also a large stream. The Daly, which in
+  its upper course is called the Katherine, is navigable for a
+  considerable distance, and small vessels are able to ascend over 100
+  m. The Adelaide, discharging into Adam Bay, has been navigated by
+  large vessels for about 38 m., and small vessels ascend still farther.
+  The South Alligator river, flowing into Van Diemen's Gulf, is also a
+  fine stream, navigable for over 30 m. by large vessels; the East
+  Alligator river, falling into the same gulf, has been navigated for 40
+  m. Besides those mentioned, there are a number of smaller rivers
+  discharging on the north coast, and on the west shore of the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria the Roper river discharges itself into Limmen Bight. The
+  Roper is a magnificent stream, navigable for about 75 or 80 m. by
+  vessels of the largest tonnage, and light draught vessels can ascend
+  20 m. farther. Along the portion of the south shore of the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria which belongs to Queensland and the east coast, many large
+  rivers discharge their waters, amongst them the Norman, Flinders,
+  Leichhardt, Albert and Gregory on the southern shore, and the Batavia,
+  Archer, Coleman, Mitchell, Staaten and Gilbert on the eastern shore.
+  The rivers flowing into the Gulf of Carpentaria, as well as those in
+  the Northern Territory, drain country which is subject to regular
+  monsoonal rains, and have the general characteristics of sub-tropical
+  rivers.
+
+  The network of streams forming the tributaries of the Darling and
+  Murray system give an idea of a well-watered country. The so-called
+  rivers have a strong flow only after heavy rains, and some of them do
+  not ever reach the main drainage line. Flood waters disappear often
+  within a distance of a few miles, being absorbed by porous soil,
+  stretches of sand, and sometimes by the underlying bed-rocks. In many
+  cases the rivers as they approach the main stream break up into
+  numerous branches, or spread their waters over vast flats. This is
+  especially the case with the tributaries of the Darling on its left
+  bank, where in seasons of great rains these rivers overspread their
+  banks and flood the flat country for miles around and thus reach the
+  main stream. Lieutenant John Oxley went down the Lachlan (1817) during
+  one of these periods of flood, and the great plains appeared to him to
+  be the fringe of a vast inland sea. As a matter of fact, they are an
+  alluvial deposit spread out by the same flood waters. The great rivers
+  of Australia, draining inland, carve out valleys, dissolve limestone,
+  and spread out their deposit over the plains when the waters become
+  too sluggish to bear their burden farther. From a geological
+  standpoint, the Great Australian Plain and the fertile valley of the
+  Nile have had a similar origin. Taking the Lachlan as one type of
+  Australian river, we find it takes its rise amongst the precipitous
+  and almost unexplored valleys of the Great Dividing Range. With the
+  help of its tributaries it acts as a denuding agent for 14,000 sq. m.
+  of country, and carries its burden of sediment westwards. A point is
+  reached about 200 m. from the Dividing Range, where the river ceases
+  to act as a denuding agent, and the area of deposition begins, at a
+  level of 250 ft. above the sea, but before the waters can reach the
+  ocean they have still to travel about 1000 m.
+
+  The Darling is reckoned amongst the longest rivers in the world, for
+  it is navigable, part of the year, from Walgett to its confluence with
+  the Murray, 1758 m., and then to the sea, a further distance of 587
+  m.--making in all 2345 m. of navigable water. But this gives no
+  correct idea of the true character of the Darling, for it can hardly
+  be said to drain its own watershed. From the sources of its various
+  tributaries to the town of Bourke, the river may be described as
+  draining a watershed. But from Bourke to the sea, 550 m. in a direct
+  line, the river gives rather than receives water from the country it
+  flows through.
+
+  The annual rainfall and the area of the catchment afford no measure
+  whatever as to the size of a river in the interior of Australia. The
+  discharge of the Darling river at Bourke does not amount to more than
+  10% of the rainfall over the country which it drains. It was this
+  remarkable fact which first led to the idea that, as the rainfall
+  could not be accounted for either by evaporation or by the river
+  discharge, much of the 90% unaccounted for must sink into the ground,
+  and in part be absorbed by some underlying bed-rock. All Australian
+  rivers, except the Murray and the Murrumbidgee, depend entirely and
+  directly on the rainfall. They are flooded after rain, and in seasons
+  of drought many of them, especially the tributaries of the Darling,
+  become chains of ponds. Springs which would equalize the discharge of
+  rivers by continuing to pour water into their beds after the rainy
+  season has passed seem entirely absent in the interior. Nor are there
+  any snowfields to feed rivers, as in the other continents. More
+  remarkable still, over large tracts of country the water seems
+  disposed to flow away from, rather than to, the river-beds. As the
+  low-lying plains are altogether an alluvial deposit, the coarser
+  sediments accumulate in the regions where the river first overflows
+  its banks to spread out over the plains. The country nearest the river
+  receiving the heaviest deposit becomes in this way the highest ground,
+  and so continues until a "break-away" occurs, when a new river-bed is
+  formed, and the same process of deposition and accumulation is
+  repeated. As the general level of the country is raised by successive
+  alluvial deposits, the more ancient river-beds become buried, but
+  being still connected with the newer rivers at some point or other,
+  they continue to absorb water. This underground network of old
+  river-beds underlying the great alluvial plains must be filled to
+  repletion before flood waters will flow over the surface. It is not
+  surprising, therefore, that comparatively little of the rainfall over
+  the vast extent of the great central plain ever reaches the sea by way
+  of the river systems; indeed these systems as usually shown on the
+  maps leave a false impression as to the actual condition of things.
+
+
+    Steppes.
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  The great alluvial plain is one of Australia's most notable inland
+  features; its extent is upwards of 500,000 sq. m., lying east of 135°
+  W. and extending right across the continent from the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria to the Murray river. The interior of the continent west of
+  135° and north of the Musgrave ranges is usually termed by geographers
+  the Australian Steppes. It is entirely different in all essential
+  features from the great alluvial plains. Its prevailing aspect is
+  characterized by flat and terraced hills, capped by desert sandstone,
+  with stone-covered flats stretching over long distances. The country
+  round Lake Eyre, where some of the land is actually below sea-level,
+  comes under this heading. The higher steppes, as far as they are
+  known, consist of Ordovician and Cambrian rocks, with an average
+  elevation of 1500 to 3000 ft. above sea-level. Over this country
+  water-courses are shown on maps. These run in wet seasons, but in
+  every instance for a short distance only, and sooner or later they are
+  lost in sand-hills, where their waters disappear and a line of stunted
+  gum-trees (_Eucalyptus rostrata_) is all that is present to indicate
+  that there may be even a soakage to mark the abandoned course. The
+  steppes cover a surface of 400,000 sq. m., and from this vast expanse
+  not a drop of the scanty rainfall reaches the sea; there is no leading
+  drainage system and there are no rivers. Another notable feature of
+  the interior is the so-called lake area, a district stretching to the
+  north of Spencer Gulf. These lakes are expanses of brackish waters
+  that spread or contract as the season is one of drought or rain. In
+  seasons of drought they are hardly more than swamps and mud flats,
+  which for a time may become a grassy plain, or desolate coast
+  encrusted with salt. The country around is the dreariest imaginable,
+  the surface is a dead level, there is no heavy timber and practically
+  no settlement. Lake Torrens, the largest of these depressions,
+  sometimes forms a sheet of water 100 m. in length. To the north again
+  stretches Lake Eyre, and to the west Lake Gairdner. Some of these
+  lake-beds are at or slightly below sea-level, so that a very slight
+  depression of the land to the south of them would connect much of the
+  interior with the Southern Ocean.     (T. A. C.)
+
+  _Geology._--The states of Australia are divided by natural boundaries,
+  which separate geographical areas having different characters, owing,
+  mainly, to their different geological structures. Hence the general
+  stratigraphical geology can be most conveniently summarized for each
+  state separately, dealing here with the geological history of
+  Australia as a whole. Australia is essentially the fragment of a great
+  plateau land of Archean rocks. It consists in the main of an Archean
+  block or "coign," which still occupies nearly the whole of the western
+  half of the continent, outcrops in north-eastern Queensland, forms the
+  foundation of southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria, and is
+  exposed in western Victoria, in Tasmania, and in the western flank of
+  the Southern Alps of New Zealand. These areas of Archean rocks were
+  doubtless once continuous. But they have been separated by the
+  foundering of the Coral Sea and the Tasman Sea, which divided the
+  continent of Australia from the islands of the Australasian festoon;
+  and the foundering of the band across Australia, from the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria, through western Queensland and western New South Wales,
+  to the lower basin of the Murray, has separated the Archean areas of
+  eastern and western Australia. The breaking up of the old Archean
+  foundation block began in Cambrian and Ordovician times. A narrow
+  Cambrian sea must have extended across central Australia from the
+  Kimberley Goldfield in the north-west, through Tempe Downs and the
+  Macdonnell chain in central Australia, to the South Australian
+  highlands, central Victoria at Mansfield, and northern Tasmania.
+  Cambrian rocks occur in each of these districts, and they are best
+  developed in the South Australian highlands, where they include a long
+  belt of contemporary glacial deposits. Marine Ordovician rocks were
+  deposited along the same general course. They are best developed in
+  the Macdonnell chain in central Australia and in Victoria, where the
+  fullest sequence is known; while they also extended north-eastward
+  from Victoria into New South Wales, where, as yet, no Cambrian rocks
+  have been found. The Silurian system was marked by the retreat of the
+  sea from central Australia; but the sea still covered a band across
+  Victoria, from the coast to the Murray basin, passing to the east of
+  Melbourne. This Silurian sea was less extensive than the Ordovician in
+  Victoria; but it appears to have been wider in New South Wales and in
+  Queensland. The best Silurian sequence is in New South Wales. Silurian
+  rocks are well developed in western Tasmania, and the Silurian sea
+  must have washed the south-western corner of the continent, if the
+  rocks of the Stirling Range be rightly identified as of this age.
+
+  [Illustration: Geological map of Australia.]
+
+  The Devonian system includes a complex series of deposits, which are
+  of most interest in eastern Australia. This period was marked by
+  intense earth movements, which affected the whole of the east
+  Australian highlands. The Lower Devonian beds are in the main
+  terrestrial, or coarse littoral deposits, and volcanic rocks. The
+  Middle Devonian was marked by the same great transgression as in
+  Europe and America; it produced inland seas, extending into Victoria,
+  New South Wales and Queensland, in which were deposited limestones
+  with a rich coral fauna. The Upper Devonian was a period of marine
+  retreat; the crustal disturbances of the Lower Devonian were renewed
+  and great quartz-pebble beaches were formed on the rising shore lines,
+  producing the West Coast Range conglomerates of Tasmania, and the
+  similar rocks to the south-east of Mansfield in Victoria. Intrusions
+  of granitic _massifs_ in the Devonian period formed the primitive
+  mountain axis of Victoria, which extends east and west across the
+  state and forms the nucleus of the Victorian highlands. Similar
+  granitic intrusions occurred in New South Wales and Queensland, and
+  built up a mountain chain, which ran north and south across the
+  continent; its worn-down stumps now form the east Australian
+  highlands.
+
+  The Carboniferous period began with a marine transgression, enabling
+  limestones to form in Tasmania and New South Wales; and at the same
+  time the sea first got in along the western edge of the western
+  plateau, depositing the Carboniferous rocks of the Gascoyne basin and
+  the coastal plain of north-western Australia. The Upper Carboniferous
+  period was in the main terrestrial, and during it were laid down the
+  coal-seams of New South Wales; they are best developed in the basin of
+  the Hunter river, and they extend southward, covered by Mesozoic
+  deposits, beyond Sydney. The Coal Measures become narrower in the
+  south, until, owing to the eastward projection of the highlands, the
+  Lower Palaeozoic rocks reach the coast. The coal-seams must have been
+  formed in well-watered, lowland forests, at the foot of a high
+  mountain range, built up by the Devonian earth movements. The
+  mountains both in Victoria and New South Wales were snow-capped, and
+  glaciers flowed down their flanks and laid down Carboniferous glacial
+  deposits, which are still preserved in basins that flank the mountain
+  ranges, such as the famous conglomerates of Bacchus Marsh, Heathcote
+  and the Loddon valley in Victoria, and of Branxton and other
+  localities in New South Wales. The age of the glacial deposits is
+  later than the _Glossopteris_ flora and occurs early in the time of
+  the _Gangamopteris_ flora. Kitson's work in Tasmania shows that there
+  also the glacial beds may be correlated with the lower or Greta Coal
+  Measures of New South Wales.
+
+  The Permian deposits are best developed in New South Wales and
+  Tasmania, where their characters show the continuation of the
+  Carboniferous conditions. The Mesozoic begins with a Triassic land
+  period in the mainland of Australia; while the islands of the
+  Australasian festoon contain the Triassic marine limestones, which
+  fringe the whole of the Pacific. The Triassic beds are best known in
+  New South Wales, where round Sydney they include a series of
+  sandstones and shales. They also occur in northern Tasmania.
+
+  The Jurassic system is represented by two types. In Victoria,
+  Tasmania, northern New South Wales and Queensland, there are Jurassic
+  terrestrial deposits, containing the coal seams of Victoria, of the
+  Clarence basin of north-eastern New South Wales, and of the Ipswich
+  series in Queensland; the same beds range far inland on the western
+  slopes of the east Australian highlands in New South Wales and
+  Queensland and they occur, with coal-seams, at Leigh's Creek, at the
+  northern foot of the South Australian highlands. They are also
+  preserved in basins on the western plateau, as shown by brown coal
+  deposits passed through in the Lake Phillipson bore. The second and
+  marine type of the Jurassics occurs in Western Australia, on the
+  coastal plain skirting the western foot of the western plateau.
+
+  The Cretaceous period was initiated by the subsidence of a large area
+  to the south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, whereby a Lower Cretaceous
+  sea spread southward, across western Queensland, western New South
+  Wales and the north-eastern districts of South Australia. In this sea
+  were laid down the shales of the Rolling Downs formation. The sea does
+  not appear to have extended completely across Australia, breaking it
+  into halves, for a projection from the Archean plateau of Western
+  Australia extended as far east as the South Australian highlands, and
+  thence probably continued eastward, till it joined the Victorian
+  highlands. The Cretaceous sea gradually receded and the plains of the
+  Rolling Downs formation formed on its floor were covered by the
+  sub-aerial and lacustrine deposits of the Desert Sandstone.
+
+  The Kainozoic period opened with fresh earth movements, the most
+  striking evidence of which are the volcanic outbreaks all round the
+  Australian coasts. These movements in the south-east formed the Great
+  Valley of Victoria, which traverses nearly the whole of the state
+  between the Victorian highlands to the north, and the Jurassic
+  sandstones of the Otway Ranges and the hills of south Gippsland. In
+  this valley were laid down, either in Eocene or Oligocene times, a
+  great series of lake beds and thick accumulations of brown coal.
+  Similar deposits, of approximately the same age, occur in Tasmania and
+  New Zealand; and at about the same time there began the Kainozoic
+  volcanic period of Australasia. The first eruptions piled up huge
+  domes of lavas rich in soda, including the geburite-dacites and
+  sölvsbergites of Mount Macedon in Victoria, and the kenyte and
+  tephrite domes of Dunedin, in New Zealand. These rocks were followed
+  by the outpouring of the extensive older basalts in the Great Valley
+  of Victoria and on the highlands of eastern Victoria, and also in New
+  South Wales and Queensland. Then followed a marine transgression along
+  most of the southern coast of Australia. The sea encroached far on the
+  land from the Great Australian Bight and there formed the limestones
+  of the Nullarbor Plains. The sea extended up the Murray basin into the
+  western plains of New South Wales. Farther east the sea was
+  interrupted by the still existing land-connexion between Tasmania and
+  Victoria; but beyond it, the marine deposits are found again, fringing
+  the coasts of eastern Gippsland and Croajingolong. These marine
+  deposits are not found anywhere along the eastern coast of Australia;
+  but they occur, and reach about the same height above sea-level, in
+  New Guinea, and are widely developed in New Zealand. No doubt eastern
+  Australia then extended far out into the Tasman Sea. The great
+  monoclinal fold which formed the eastern face of the east Australian
+  highlands, west of Sydney, is of later age. After this marine period
+  was brought to a close the sea retreated. Tasmania and Victoria were
+  separated by the foundering of Bass Strait, and at the same time the
+  formation of the rift valley of Spencer Gulf, and Lake Torrens,
+  isolated the South Australian highlands from the Eyre Peninsula and
+  the Westralian plateau. Earth movements are still taking place both
+  along Bass Strait and the Great Valley of South Australia, and
+  apparently along the whole length of the southern coast of Australia.
+
+  _The Flowing Wells of Central Australia._--The clays of the Rolling
+  Downs formation overlie a series of sands and drifts, saturated with
+  water under high pressure, which discharges at the surface as a
+  flowing well, when a borehole pierces the impermeable cover. The first
+  of these wells was opened at Kallara in the west of New South Wales in
+  1880. In 1882, Dr W.L. Jack concluded that western Queensland might be
+  a deep artesian basin. The Blackhall bore, put down at his advice from
+  1885 to 1888, reached a water-bearing layer at the depth of 1645 ft.
+  and discharged 291,000 gallons a day. It was the first of the deep
+  artesian wells of the continent. As the plains on the Rolling Downs
+  formation are mostly waterless, the discovery of this deep reservoir
+  of water has been of great aid in the development of central
+  Australia. In Queensland to the 30th of June 1904, 973 wells had been
+  sunk, of which 596 were flowing wells, and the total flow was
+  62,635,722 cub. ft. a day. The deepest well is that at Whitewood, 5046
+  ft. deep. In New South Wales by the 30th of June 1903, the government
+  had put down 101 bores producing 66 flowing wells and 22 sub-artesian
+  wells, with a total discharge of 54,000,000 gallons a day; and there
+  were also 144 successful private wells. In South Australia there are
+  38 deep bores, from 20 of which there is a flow of 6,250,000 gallons a
+  day.
+
+  The wells were first called artesian in the belief that the ascent of
+  the water in them was due to the hydrostatic pressure of water at a
+  higher level in the Queensland hills. The well-water was supposed to
+  have percolated underground, through the Blythesdale Braystone, which
+  outcrops in patches on the eastern edge of the Rolling Downs
+  formation. But the Blythesdale Braystone is a small local formation,
+  unable to supply all the wells that have been sunk; and many of the
+  wells derive their water from the Jurassic shales and mudstones. The
+  difference in level between the outcrop of the assumed eastern intake
+  and of the wells is often so small, in comparison with their distance
+  apart, that the friction would completely sop up the whole of the
+  available hydrostatic head. Many of the well-waters contain gases;
+  thus the town of Roma is lighted by natural gas which escapes from its
+  well. The chemical characters of the well-waters, the irregular
+  distribution of the water-pressure, the distribution of the
+  underground thermal gradients, and the occurrence in some of the wells
+  of a tidal rise and fall of a varying period, are facts which are not
+  explained on the simple hydrostatic theory. J.W. Gregory has
+  maintained (_Dead Heart of Australia_, 1906, pp. 273-341) that the
+  ascent of water in these wells is due to the tension of the included
+  gases and the pressure of overlying sheets of rocks, and that some of
+  the water is of plutonic origin.[1]     (J. W. G.)
+
+_Climate._--The Australian continent, extending over 28° of latitude,
+might be expected to show a considerable diversity of climate. In
+reality, however, it experiences fewer climatic variations than the
+other great continents, owing to its distance (28°) from the Antarctic
+circle and (11°) from the equator. There is, besides, a powerful
+determining cause in the uniform character and undivided extent of its
+dry interior. The plains and steppes already described lie either within
+or close to the tropics. They present to the fierce play of the sun
+almost a level surface, so that during the day that surface becomes
+intensely heated and at night gives off its heat by radiation.
+Ordinarily the alternate expansion and contraction of the atmosphere
+which takes place under such circumstances would draw in a supply of
+moisture from the ocean, but the heated interior, covering some 900,000
+sq. m., is so immense, that the moist air from the ocean does not come
+in sufficient supply, nor are there mountain chains to intercept the
+clouds which from time to time are formed; so that two-fifths of
+Australia, comprising a region stretching from the Australian Bight to
+20° S. and from 117° to 142° E., receives less than an average of 10 in.
+of rain throughout the year, and a considerable portion of this region
+has less than 5 in. No part of Victoria and very little of Queensland
+and New South Wales lie within this area. The rest of the continent may
+be considered as well watered. The north-west coast, particularly the
+portions north of Cambridge Gulf and the shores of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria, are favoured with an annual visitation of the monsoon from
+December to March, penetrating as far as 500 m. into the continent, and
+sweeping sometimes across western and southern Queensland to the
+northern interior of New South Wales. It is this tropical downpour that
+fills and floods the rivers flowing into Lake Eyre and those falling
+into the Darling on its right bank. The whole of the east coast of the
+continent is well watered. From Cape York almost to the tropic of
+Capricorn the rainfall exceeds 50 in. and ranges to over 70 in. At
+Brisbane the fall is 50 in., and portions of the New South Wales coast
+receive a like quantity, but speaking generally the fall is from 30 in.
+to 40 in. The southern shores of the continent receive much less rain.
+From Cape Howe to Melbourne the fall may be taken at from 30 in. to 40
+in., Melbourne itself having an average of 25.6 in. West of Port Phillip
+the fall is less, averaging 20 in. to 30 in., diminishing greatly away
+from the coast. Along the shores of Encounter Bay and St Vincent and
+Spencer Gulfs, the precipitation ranges from 10 to 20 in., the yearly
+rainfall at Adelaide is a little less than 21 in., while the head of
+Spencer Gulf is within the 5 to 10 in. district. The rest of the
+southern coast west as far as 124° E., with the exception of the
+southern projection of Eyre Peninsula, which receives from 10 to 20 in.,
+belongs to the district with from 5 to 10 in. annual rainfall. The
+south-western angle of the continent, bounded by a line drawn diagonally
+from Jurien river to Cape Riche, has an average of from 30 to 40 in.
+annual rainfall, diminishing to about 20 to 30 in. in the country along
+the diagonal line. The remainder of the south and west coast from 124°
+E. to York Sound in the Kimberley district for a distance of some 150 m.
+inland has a fall ranging from 10 to 20 in. The 10 to 20 in. rainfall
+band circles across the continent through the middle of the Northern
+Territory, embraces the entire centre and south-west of Queensland, with
+the exception of the extreme south-western angle of the state, and
+includes the whole of the interior of New South Wales to a line about
+200 m. from the coast, as well as the western and northern portions of
+Victoria and South Australia south of the Murray.
+
+  The area of Australia subject to a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in. is
+  843,000 sq. m. On the seaward side of this area in the north and east
+  is the 20 to 30 in. annual rainfall area, and still nearer the sea are
+  the exceptionally well-watered districts. The following table shows
+  the area of the rainfall zones in square miles:--
+
+                           Rainfall Area
+       Rainfall.             in sq. m.
+
+     Under 10 inches         1,219,600
+     10 to 20   "              843,100
+     20 to 30   "              399,900
+     30 to 40   "              225,700
+     40 to 50   "              140,300
+     50 to 60   "               47,900
+     60 to 70   "               56,100
+     Over 70    "               14,100
+                             ---------
+                    Total    2,946,700
+
+  The tropic of Capricorn divides Australia into two parts. Of these the
+  northern or intertropical portion contains 1,145,000 sq. m.,
+  comprising half of Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the
+  north-western divisions of Western Australia. The whole of New South
+  Wales, Victoria and South Australia proper, half of Queensland, and
+  more than half of Western Australia, comprising 1,801,700 sq. m., are
+  without the tropics. In a region so extensive very great varieties of
+  climate are naturally to be expected, but it may be stated as a
+  general law that the climate of Australia is milder than that of
+  corresponding lands in the northern hemisphere. During July, which is
+  the coldest month in southern latitudes, one-half of Australia has a
+  mean temperature ranging from 45° to 61°, and the other half from 62°
+  to 80°. The following are the areas subject to the various average
+  temperatures during the month referred to:--
+
+    Temperature          Area
+       Fahr.           in sq. m.
+
+      45°-50°           18,800
+      50°-55°          506,300
+      55°-60°          681,800
+      60°-65°          834,400
+      65°-70°          515,000
+      70°-75°          275,900
+      75°-80°           24,500
+
+  The temperature in December ranges from 60° to above 95° Fahr., half
+  of Australia having a mean temperature below 84°. Dividing the land
+  into zones of average summer temperature, the following are the areas
+  which would fall to each:--
+
+    Temperature          Area
+       Fahr.           in sq. m.
+
+      60°-65°           67,800
+      65°-70°           63,700
+      70°-75°          352,300
+      75°-80°          439,200
+      80°-85°          733,600
+      85°-90°          570,600
+      90°-95°          584,100
+      95° and over     135,400
+
+  Judging from the figures just given, it must be conceded that a
+  considerable area of the continent is not adapted for colonization by
+  European races. The region with a mean summer temperature in excess of
+  95° Fahr. is the interior of the Northern Territory north of the 20th
+  parallel; and the whole of the country, excepting the seaboard, lying
+  between the meridians of 120° and 140°, and north of the 25th
+  parallel, has a mean temperature in excess of 90° Fahr.
+
+
+    Queensland.
+
+  The area of Australia is so large that the characteristics of its
+  climate will not be understood without reference to the individual
+  states. About one-half of the colony of Queensland lies in the
+  tropics, the remaining area lying between the tropic and 29° S. The
+  temperature, however, has a daily range less than that of other
+  countries under the same isothermal lines. This circumstance is due to
+  the sea-breezes, which blow with great regularity, and temper what
+  would otherwise be an excessive heat. The hot winds which prevail
+  during the summer in some of the other colonies are unknown in
+  Queensland. Of course, in a territory of such large extent there are
+  many varieties of climate, and the heat is greater along the coast
+  than on the elevated lands of the interior. In the northern parts of
+  the colony the high temperature is very trying to persons of European
+  descent. The mean temperature at Brisbane, during December, January
+  and February, is about 76°, while during the months of June, July and
+  August it averages about 60°. Brisbane, however, is situated near the
+  extreme southern end of the colony, and its average temperature is
+  considerably less than that of many of the towns farther north. Thus
+  the winter in Rockhampton averages nearly 65°, while the summer heat
+  rises almost to 85°; and at Townsville and Normanton the average
+  temperature is still higher. The average rainfall along the coast is
+  high, especially in the north, where it ranges from 60 to 70 in. per
+  annum, and along a strip of country south from Cape Melville to
+  Rockingham Bay the average rainfall exceeds 70 in. At Brisbane the
+  rainfall is about 50 in., taking an average of forty years. A large
+  area of the interior is watered to the extent of 20 to 30 in. per
+  annum, but in the west and south, more remote than from 250 to 300 m.,
+  there is a rainfall of less than 20 in.
+
+
+    New South Wales.
+
+  Climatically, New South Wales is divided into three marked divisions.
+  The coastal region has an average summer temperature ranging from 78°
+  in the north to 67° in the south, with a winter temperature of from
+  59° to 52°. Taking the district generally, the difference between the
+  mean summer and mean winter temperatures may be set down as averaging
+  not more than 20°, a range smaller than is found in most other parts
+  of the world. Sydney, situated in latitude 33° 51' S., has a mean
+  temperature of 62.9° Fahr., which corresponds with that of Barcelona
+  in Spain and of Toulon in France, the former of these being in
+  latitude 41° 22' N. and the latter in 43° 7' N. At Sydney the mean
+  summer temperature is 70.8° Fahr., and that of winter 53.9°. The range
+  is thus 16.9° Fahr. At Naples, where the mean temperature for the year
+  is about the same as at Sydney, the summer temperature reaches a mean
+  of 74.4°, and the mean of winter is 47.6°, with a range 26.8°. The
+  mean temperature of Sydney for a long series of years was spring 62°,
+  summer 71°, autumn 64°, winter 54°.
+
+  Passing from the coast to the tableland, a distinct climatic region is
+  entered. Cooma, with a mean summer temperature of 65.4°, and a mean
+  winter temperature of 41.4°, may be taken as illustrative of the
+  climate of the southern tableland, and Armidale of the northern. The
+  yearly average temperature of the latter is scarcely 65.5°, while the
+  summer only reaches 67.7°, and the winter falls to 44.4°.
+
+  The climatic conditions of the western districts of the state are
+  entirely different from those of the other two regions. The summer is
+  hot, but on the whole the climate is very healthy. The town of Bourke,
+  lying on the upper Darling, may be taken as an example of many of the
+  interior districts, and illustrates peculiarly well the defects as
+  well as the excellencies of the climate of the whole region. Bourke
+  has exactly the same latitude as Cairo, yet its mean summer
+  temperature is 1.3° less, and its mean annual temperature 4° less than
+  that of the Egyptian city. New Orleans, also on the same parallel, is
+  4° hotter in summer. As regards winter temperature Bourke leaves
+  little to be desired. The mean winter reading of the thermometer is
+  54.7, and accompanied as this is by clear skies and an absence of
+  snow, the season is both pleasant and invigorating. The rainfall of
+  New South Wales ranges from an annual average of 64 in. at various
+  points on the northern coast, and at Kiandra in the Monaro district,
+  to 9 in. at Milparinka in the trans-Darling district. The coastal
+  districts average about 42 in. per annum, the tablelands 32 in., and
+  the western interior has an average as low as 20 in. At Sydney, the
+  average rainfall, since observations were commenced, has been 50 in.
+
+
+    Victoria.
+
+  The climate of Victoria does not differ greatly from that of New South
+  Wales. The heat, however, is generally less intense in summer, and the
+  cold greater in winter. Melbourne, which stands in latitude 37° 50'
+  S., has a mean temperature of 57.3°, and therefore corresponds with
+  Washington in the United States, Madrid, Lisbon and Messina. The
+  difference between summer and winter is, however, less at Melbourne
+  than at any of the places mentioned, the result of a long series of
+  observations being spring 57°, summer 65.3°, autumn 58.7°, and winter
+  49.2°. The highest recorded temperature in the shade at Melbourne is
+  110.7°, and the lowest 27°, but it is rare for the summer heat to
+  exceed 85°, or for the winter temperature in the daytime to fall below
+  40°. Ballarat, the second city of Victoria, lies above 100 m. west
+  from Melbourne at a height of 1400 ft. above sea-level. It has a
+  minimum temperature of 29°, and a maximum of 104.5°, the average
+  yearly mean being 54.1°. The rainfall of Melbourne averages 25.58 in.,
+  the mean number of rainy days being 131.
+
+
+    South Australia.
+
+  South Australia proper extends over 26 degrees of latitude, and
+  naturally presents considerable variations of climate. The coldest
+  months are June, July and August, during which the temperature is very
+  agreeable, averaging 53.6°, 51.7°, and 54° in those months
+  respectively. On the plains slight frosts occur occasionally, and ice
+  is sometimes seen on the highlands. In summer the sun has great
+  power, and the temperature reaches 100° in the shade, with hot winds
+  blowing from the interior. The weather on the whole is remarkably dry.
+  At Adelaide there are on an average 120 rainy days per annum, with a
+  mean rainfall of 20-88 in. The country is naturally very healthful, as
+  evidence of which may be mentioned that no great epidemic has ever
+  visited the state.
+
+
+    Western Australia.
+
+  Western Australia has practically only two seasons, the winter or wet
+  season, which commences in April and ends in October, and the summer
+  or dry season, which comprises the remainder of the Year. During the
+  wet season frequent and heavy rains fall, and thunderstorms, with
+  sharp showers, occur in the summer, especially on the north-west
+  coast, which is sometimes visited by hurricanes of great violence. In
+  the southern and early-settled parts of the state the mean temperature
+  is about 64°, but in the more northern portions the heat is excessive,
+  though the dryness of the atmosphere makes it preferable to moist
+  tropical climates. The average rainfall at Perth is 33 in. per annum.
+
+  The climate of the Northern Territory is extremely not, except on the
+  elevated tablelands; altogether, the temperature of this part of the
+  continent is very similar to that of northern Queensland, and the
+  climate is not favourable to Europeans. The rainfall in the extreme
+  north, especially in January and February, is very heavy, and the
+  annual average along the coast is about 63 in. The whole of the
+  peninsula north of 15° S. has a rainfall considerably exceeding 40 in.
+  This region is backed by a belt of about 100 m. wide, in which the
+  rainfall is from 30 to 40 in., from which inwards the rainfall
+  gradually declines until between Central Mount Stuart and Macdonnell
+  ranges it falls to between 5 and 10 in.
+
+_Fauna and Flora._--The origin of the fauna and flora of Australia has
+attracted considerable attention. Much accumulated evidence, biological
+and geological, has pointed to a southern extension of India, an eastern
+extension of South Africa, and a western extension of Australia into the
+Indian Ocean. The comparative richness of proteaceous plants in Western
+Australia and South Africa first suggested a common source for these
+primitive types. Dr H.O. Forbes drew attention to a certain community
+amongst birds and other vertebrates, invertebrates, and amongst plants,
+on all the lands stretching towards the south pole. A theory was
+therefore propounded that these known types were all derived from a
+continent which has been named Antarctica. The supposed continent
+extended across the south pole, practically joining Australia and South
+America. Just as we have evidence of a former mild climate in the arctic
+regions, so a similar mild climate has been postulated for Antarctica.
+Modern naturalists consider that many of the problems of Australia's
+remarkable fauna and flora can be best explained by the following
+hypothesis:--The region now covered by the antarctic ice-cap was in
+early Tertiary times favoured by a mild climate; here lay an antarctic
+continent or archipelago. From an area corresponding to what is now
+South America there entered a fauna and flora, which, after undergoing
+modification, passed by way of Tasmania to Australia. These immigrants
+then developed, with some exceptions, into the present Australian flora
+and fauna. This theory has advanced from the position of a disparaged
+heresy to acceptance by leading thinkers. The discovery as fossil, in
+South America, of primitive or ancestral forms of marsupials has given
+it much support. One of these, _Prothylacinus_, is regarded as the
+forerunner of the marsupial wolf of Tasmania. An interesting link
+between divergent marsupial families, still living in Ecuador, the
+_Coenolestes_, is another discovery of recent years. On the Australian
+side the fact that Tasmania is richest in marsupial types indicates the
+gate by which they entered. It is not to be supposed that this antarctic
+element, to which Professor Tate has applied the name _Euronotian_,
+entered a desert barren of all life. Previous to its arrival Australia
+doubtless possessed considerable vegetation and a scanty fauna, chiefly
+invertebrate. At a comparatively recent date Australia received its
+third and newest constituent. The islands of Torres Strait have been
+shown to be the denuded remnant of a former extension of Cape York
+peninsula in North Queensland. Previous to the existence of the strait,
+and across its site, there poured into Australia a wealth of Papuan
+forms. Along the Pacific slope of the Queensland Cordillera these found
+in soil and climate a congenial home. Among the plants the wild banana,
+pepper, orange and mangosteen, rhododendron, epiphytic orchids and the
+palm; among mammals the bats and rats; among birds the cassowary and
+rifle birds; and among reptiles the crocodile and tree snakes,
+characterize this element. The numerous facts, geological, geographical
+and biological, which when linked together lend great support to this
+theory, have been well worked out in Australia by Mr Charles Hedley of
+the Australian Museum, Sydney.
+
+
+    Fauna.
+
+  The zoology of Australia and Tasmania presents a very conspicuous
+  point of difference from that of other regions of the globe, in the
+  prevalence of non-placental mammalia. The vast majority of the
+  mammalia are provided with an organ in the uterus, by which, before
+  the birth of their young, a vascular connexion is maintained between
+  the embryo and the parent animal. There are two orders, the
+  Marsupialia and the Monotremata, which do not possess this organ; both
+  these are found in Australia, to which region indeed they are not
+  absolutely confined.
+
+  The geographical limits of the marsupials are very interesting. The
+  opossums of America are marsupials, though not showing anomalies as
+  great as kangaroos and bandicoots (in their feet), and _Myrmecobius_
+  (in the number of teeth). Except the opossums, no single living
+  marsupial is known outside the Australian zoological region. The forms
+  of life characteristic of India and the Malay peninsula come down to
+  the island of Bali. Bali is separated from Lombok by a strait not more
+  than 15 m. wide. Yet this narrow belt of water is the boundary line
+  between the Australasian and the Indian regions. The zoological
+  boundary passing through the Bali Strait is called "Wallace's line,"
+  after the eminent naturalist who was its discoverer. He showed that
+  not only as regards beasts, but also as regards birds, these regions
+  are thus sharply limited. Australia, he pointed out, has no
+  woodpeckers and no pheasants, which are widely-spread Indian birds.
+  Instead of these it has mound-making turkeys, honey-suckers, cockatoos
+  and brush-tongued lories, all of which are found nowhere else in the
+  world.
+
+  The marsupials constitute two-thirds of all the Australian species of
+  mammals. It is the well-known peculiarity of this order that the
+  female has a pouch or fold of skin upon her abdomen, in which she can
+  place the young for suckling within reach of her teats. The opossum of
+  America is the only species out of Australasia which is thus provided.
+  Australia is inhabited by at least 110 different species of
+  marsupials, which is about two-thirds of the known species; these have
+  been arranged in five tribes, according to the food they eat, viz.,
+  the grass-eaters (kangaroos), the root-eaters (wombats), the
+  insect-eaters (bandicoots), the flesh-eaters (native cats and rats),
+  and the fruit-eaters (phalangers).
+
+  The kangaroo (_Macropus_) lives in droves in the open grassy plains.
+  Several smaller forms of the same general appearance are known as
+  wallabies, and are common everywhere. The kangaroo and most of its
+  congeners show an extraordinary disproportion of the hind limbs to the
+  fore part of the body. The rock wallabies again have short tarsi of
+  the hind legs, with a long pliable tail for climbing, like that of the
+  tree kangaroo of New Guinea, or that of the jerboa. Of the larger
+  kangaroos, which attain a weight of 200 lb. and more, eight species
+  are named, only one of which is found in Western Australia. Fossil
+  bones of extinct kangaroo species are met with; these kangaroos must
+  have been of enormous size, twice or thrice that of any species now
+  living.
+
+  There are some twenty smaller species in Australia and Tasmania,
+  besides the rock wallabies and the hare kangaroos; these last are
+  wonderfully swift, making clear jumps 8 or 10 ft. high. Other
+  terrestrial marsupials are the wombat (_Phascolomys_), a large,
+  clumsy, burrowing animal, not unlike a pig, which attains a weight of
+  from 60 to 100 lb.; the bandicoot (_Perameles_), a rat-like creature
+  whose depredations annoy the agriculturist; the native cat
+  (_Dasyurus_), noted robber of the poultry yard; the Tasmanian wolf
+  (_Thylacinus_), which preys on large game; and the recently discovered
+  _Notoryctes_, a small animal which burrows like a mole in the desert
+  of the interior. Arboreal species include the well-known opossums
+  (_Phalanger_); the extraordinary tree-kangaroo of the Queensland
+  tropics; the flying squirrel, which expands a membrane between the
+  legs and arms, and by its aid makes long sailing jumps from tree to
+  tree; and the native bear (_Phascolarctos_), an animal with no
+  affinities to the bear, and having a long soft fur and no tail.
+
+  The _Myrmecobius_ of Western Australia is a bushy-tailed ant-eater
+  about the size of a squirrel, and from its lineage and structure of
+  more than passing interest. It is, Mivart remarks, a survival of a
+  very ancient state of things. It had ancestors in a flourishing
+  condition during the Secondary epoch. Its congeners even then lived in
+  England, as is proved by the fact that their relics have been found in
+  the Stonesfield oolitic rocks, the deposition of which is separated
+  from that which gave rise to the Paris Tertiary strata by an abyss of
+  past time which we cannot venture to express even in thousands of
+  years.
+
+  We pass on to the other curious order of non-placental mammals, that
+  of the Monotremata, so called from the structure of their organs of
+  evacuation with a single orifice, as in birds. Their abdominal bones
+  are like those of the marsupials; and they are furnished with pouches
+  for their young, but have no teats, the milk being distilled into
+  their pouches from the mammary glands. Australia and Tasmania possess
+  two animals of this order--the echidna, or spiny ant-eater (hairy in
+  Tasmania), and the _Platypus anatinus_, the duckbilled water mole,
+  otherwise named the _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_. This odd animal is
+  provided with a bill or beak, which is not, like that of a bird,
+  affixed to the skeleton, but is merely attached to the skin and
+  muscles.
+
+  Australia has no apes, monkeys or baboons, and no ruminant beasts. The
+  comparatively few indigenous placental mammals, besides the dingo or
+  wild dog--which, however, may have come from the islands north of this
+  continent--are of the bat tribe and of the rodent or rat tribe. There
+  are four species of large fruit-eating bats, called flying foxes,
+  twenty of insect-eating bats, above twenty of land-rats, and five of
+  water-rats. The sea produces three different seals, which often ascend
+  rivers from the coast, and can live in lagoons of fresh water; many
+  cetaceans, besides the "right whale" and sperm whale; and the dugong,
+  found on the northern shores, which yields a valuable medicinal oil.
+
+  The birds of Australia in their number and variety of species may be
+  deemed some compensation for its poverty of mammals; yet it will not
+  stand comparison in this respect with regions of Africa and South
+  America in the same latitudes. The black swan was thought remarkable
+  when discovered, as belying an old Latin proverb. There is also a
+  white eagle. The vulture is wanting. Sixty species of parrots, some of
+  them very handsome, are found in Australia. The emu corresponds with
+  the African and Arabian ostrich, the rhea of South America, and the
+  cassowary of the Moluccas and New Guinea. In New Zealand this group is
+  represented by the apteryx, as it formerly was by the gigantic moa,
+  the remains of which have been found likewise in Queensland. The
+  graceful _Menura superba_, or lyre-bird, with its tail feathers spread
+  in the shape of a lyre, is a very characteristic form. The
+  mound-raising megapodes, the bower-building satin-birds, and several
+  others, display peculiar habits. The honey-eaters present a great
+  diversity of plumage. There are also many kinds of game birds,
+  pigeons, ducks, geese, plovers and quails. The ornithology of New
+  South Wales and Queensland is more varied and interesting than that of
+  the other provinces.
+
+  As for reptiles, Australia has a few tortoises, all of one family, and
+  not of great size. The "leathery turtle," which is herbivorous, and
+  yields abundance of oil, has been caught at sea off the Illawarra
+  coast so large as 9 ft. in length. The saurians or lizards are
+  numerous, chiefly on dry sandy or rocky ground in the tropical region.
+  The great crocodile of Queensland has been known to attain a length of
+  30 ft.; there is a smaller one about 6 ft. in length to be met with in
+  the shallow lagoons of the interior of the Northern Territory. Lizards
+  occur in great profusion and variety. The monitor, or fork-tongued
+  lizard, which burrows in the earth, climbs and swims, is said to grow
+  to a length of 8 to 9 ft. This species and many others do not extend
+  to Tasmania. The monitor is popularly known as the goanna, a name
+  derived from the iguana, an entirely different animal. There are about
+  twenty kinds of night-lizards, and many which hibernate. One species
+  can utter a cry when pained or alarmed, and the tall-standing frilled
+  lizard can lift its forelegs, and squat or hop like a kangaroo. There
+  is also the _Moloch horridus_ of South and Western Australia, covered
+  with tubercles bearing large spines, which give it a very strange
+  aspect. This and some other lizards have power to change their colour,
+  not only from light to dark, but over some portions of their bodies,
+  from yellow to grey or red. Frogs of many kinds are plentiful, the
+  brilliant green frogs being especially conspicuous and noisy.
+  Australia is rich in snakes, and has more than a hundred different
+  kinds. Most of these are venomous, but all are not equally dreaded.
+  Five rather common species are certainly deadly--the death adder, the
+  brown, the black, the superb and the tiger snakes. During the colder
+  months these reptiles remain in a torpid state. No certain cure has
+  been or is likely to be discovered for their poison, but in less
+  serious cases strychnine has been used with advantage. In tropical
+  waters a sea snake is found, which, though very poisonous, rarely
+  bites. Among the inoffensive species are counted the graceful green
+  "tree snake," which pursues frogs, birds and lizards to the topmost
+  branches of the forest; also several species of pythons, the commonest
+  of which is known as the carpet snake. These great reptiles may attain
+  a length of 10 ft.; they feed on small animals which they crush to
+  death in their folds.
+
+  The Australian seas are inhabited by many fishes of the same genera as
+  exist in the southern parts of Asia and Africa. Of those peculiar to
+  Australian waters may be mentioned the arripis, represented by what is
+  called among the colonists a salmon trout. A very fine freshwater fish
+  is the Murray cod, which sometimes weighs 100 lb.; and the golden
+  perch, found in the same river, has rare beauty of colour. Among the
+  sea fish, the schnapper is of great value as an article of food, and
+  its weight comes up to 50 lb. This is the _Pagrus unicolor_, of the
+  family of _Sparidae_, which includes also the bream. Its colours are
+  beautiful, pink and red with a silvery gloss; but the male as it grows
+  old takes on a singular deformity of the head, with a swelling in the
+  shape of a monstrous human-like nose. These fish frequent rocky shoals
+  off the eastern coast and are caught in numbers outside Port Jackson
+  for the Sydney market. Two species of mackerel, differing somewhat
+  from the European species, are also caught on the coasts. The
+  so-called red garnet, a pretty fish, with hues of carmine and blue
+  stripes on its head, is much esteemed for the table. The _Trigla
+  polyommata_, or flying garnet, is a greater beauty, with its body of
+  crimson and silver, and its large pectoral fins, spread like wings, of
+  a rich green, bordered with purple, and relieved by a black and white
+  spot. Whiting, mullet, gar-fish, rock cod and many others known by
+  local names, are in the lists of edible fishes belonging to New South
+  Wales and Victoria. Oysters abound on the eastern coast, and on the
+  shelving banks of a vast extent of the northern coast the pearl oyster
+  is the source of a considerable industry.
+
+  Two existing fishes may be mentioned as ranking in interest with the
+  _Myrmecobius_ (ant-eater) in the eyes of the naturalist. These are the
+  _Ceratodus Forsteri_ and the Port Jackson shark. The "mud-fish" of
+  Queensland (_Ceratodus Forsteri_) belongs to an ancient order of
+  fishes--the Dipnoi, only a few species of which have survived from
+  past geological periods. The Dipnoi show a distinct transition between
+  fishes and amphibia. So far the mud-fish has been found only in the
+  Mary and the Burnett rivers. Hardly of less scientific interest is the
+  Port Jackson shark (_Heterodontus_). It is a harmless helmeted
+  ground-shark, living on molluscs, and almost the sole survivor of a
+  genus abundant in the Secondary rocks of Europe.
+
+
+    Flora.
+
+  The eastern parts of Australia are very much richer both in their
+  botany and in their zoology than any of the other parts. This is due
+  in part to the different physical conditions there prevailing and in
+  part to the invasion of the north-eastern portion of the continent by
+  a number of plants characteristically Melanesian. This element was
+  introduced via Torres Strait, and spread down the Queensland coast to
+  portions of the New South Wales littoral, and also round the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria, but has never been able to obtain a hold in the more arid
+  interior. It has so completely obliterated the original flora, that a
+  Queensland coast jungle is almost an exact replication of what may be
+  seen on the opposite shores of the straits, in New Guinea. This wealth
+  of plant life is confined to the littoral and the coastal valleys, but
+  the central valleys and the plateaux have, if not a varied flora, a
+  considerable wealth of timber trees in every way superior to the flora
+  inland in the same latitudes. In the interior there is little change
+  in the general aspect of the vegetation, from the Australian Bight to
+  the region of Carpentaria, where the exotic element begins. Behind the
+  luxuriant jungles of the sub-tropical coast, once over the main range,
+  we find the purely Australian flora with its apparent sameness and
+  sombre dulness. Physical surroundings rather than latitude determine
+  the character of the flora. The contour lines showing the heights
+  above sea-level are the directions along which species spread to form
+  zones. Putting aside the exotic vegetation of the north and east
+  coast-line, the Australian bush gains its peculiar character from the
+  prevalence of the so-called gum-trees (_Eucalyptus_) and the acacias,
+  of which last there are 300 species, but the eucalypts above all are
+  everywhere. Dwarfed eucalypts fringe the tree-limit on Mount
+  Kosciusco, and the soakages in the parched interior are indicated by a
+  line of the same trees, stunted and straggling. Over the vast
+  continent from Wilson's Promontory to Cape York, north, south, east
+  and west--where anything can grow--there will be found a gum-tree. The
+  eucalypts are remarkable for the oil secreted in their leaves, and the
+  large quantity of astringent resin of their bark. This resinous
+  exudation (Kino) somewhat resembles gum, hence the name "gum" tree. It
+  will not dissolve in water as gums do, but it is soluble in alcohol,
+  as resin usually is. Many of the gum-trees throw off their bark, so
+  that it hangs in long dry strips from the trunk and branches, a
+  feature familiar in "bush" pictures. The bark, resin and "oils" of the
+  eucalyptus are well known as commercial products. As early as 1866,
+  tannic acid, gallic acid, wood spirit, acetic acid, essential oil and
+  eucalyptol were produced from various species of eucalyptus, and
+  researches made by Australian chemists, notably by Messrs. Baker and
+  Smith of the Sydney Technical College, have brought to light many
+  other valuable products likely to prove of commercial value. The genus
+  _Eucalyptus_ numbers more than 150 species, and provides some of the
+  most durable timbers known. The iron-bark of the eastern coast uplands
+  is well known (_Eucalyptus sideroxylon_), and is so called from the
+  hardness of the wood, the bark not being remarkable except for its
+  rugged and blackened aspect. Samples of this timber have been studied
+  after forty-three years' immersion in sea-water. Portions most liable
+  to destruction, those parts between the tide marks, were found
+  perfectly sound, and showed no signs of the ravages of marine
+  organisms. Other valuable timber trees of the eastern portion of the
+  continent are the blackbutt, tallow-wood, spotted gum, red gum,
+  mahogany, and blue gum, eucalyptus; and the turpentine (_Syncarpia
+  laurifolia_), which has proved to be more resistant to the attacks of
+  teredo than any other timber and is largely used in wharf construction
+  in infested waters. There are also several extremely valuable soft
+  timbers, the principal being red cedar (_Cedrela Toona_), silky oak
+  (_Grevillea robusta_), beech and a variety of teak, with several
+  important species of pine. The red gum forests of the Murray valley
+  and the pine forests bordering the Great Plains are important and
+  valuable. In Western Australia there are extensive forests of
+  hardwood, principally jarrah (_Eucalyptus marginata_), a very durable
+  timber; 14,000 sq. m. of country are covered with this species. Jarrah
+  timber is nearly impervious to the attacks of the teredo, and there is
+  good evidence to show that, exposed to wear and weather, or placed
+  under the soil, or used as submarine piles, the wood remained intact
+  after nearly fifty years' trial. The following figures show the high
+  density of Australian timber:--
+
+      Australian       Specific
+       timber.         gravity.
+
+    Jarrah              1.12
+    Grey iron-bark      1.18
+    Red iron-bark       1.22
+    Forest oak          1.21
+    Tallow wood         1.23
+    Mahogany            1.20
+    Grey gum             .917
+    Red gum              .995
+
+      European         Specific
+       timber.         gravity.
+    Ash                  .753
+    Beech                .690
+    Chestnut             .535
+    British oak          .99
+
+  The resistance to breaking or rupture of Australian timber is very
+  high; grey iron-bark with a specific gravity of 1.18 has a modulus of
+  rupture of 17,900 lb. per sq. in. compared with 11,800 lb. for British
+  oak with a specific gravity of .69 to .99. No Australian timber in the
+  foregoing list has a less modulus than 13,100 lb. per sq. in.
+
+  Various "scrubs" characterize the interior, differing very widely from
+  the coastal scrubs. "Mallee" scrub occupies large tracts of South
+  Australia and Victoria, covering probably an extent of 16,000 sq. m.
+  The mallee is a species of eucalyptus growing 12 to 14 ft. high. The
+  tree breaks into thin stems close to the ground, and these branch
+  again and again, the leaves being developed umbrella-fashion on the
+  outer branches. The mallee scrub appears like a forest of dried osier,
+  growing so close that it is not always easy to ride through it. Hardly
+  a leaf is visible to the height of one's head; but above, a crown of
+  thick leather-like leaves shuts out the sunlight. The ground below is
+  perfectly bare, and there is no water. Nothing could add to the
+  sterility and the monotony of these mallee scrubs. "Mulga" scrub is a
+  somewhat similar thicket, covering large areas. The tree in this
+  instance is one of the acacias, a genus distributed through all parts
+  of the continent. Some species have rather elegant blossoms, known to
+  the settlers as "wattle." They serve admirably to break the sombre and
+  monotonous aspect of the Australian vegetation. Two species of acacia
+  are remarkable for the delicate and violet-like perfume of their
+  wood--myall and yarran. The majority of the species of _Acacia_ are
+  edible and serve as reserve fodder for sheep and cattle. In the
+  alluvial portions of the interior salsolaceous plants--saltbush,
+  bluebush, cottonbush--are invaluable to the pastoralist, and to their
+  presence the pre-eminence of Australia as a wool-producing country is
+  largely due.
+
+  Grasses and herbage in great variety constitute the most valuable
+  element of Australian flora from the commercial point of view. The
+  herbage for the most part grows with marvellous rapidity after a
+  spring or autumn shower and forms a natural shelter for the more
+  stable growth of nutritious grasses.
+
+  Under the system of grazing practised throughout Australia it is
+  customary to allow sheep, cattle and horses to run at large all the
+  year round within enormous enclosures and to depend entirely upon the
+  natural growth of grass for their subsistence. Proteaceous plants,
+  although not exclusively Australian, are exceedingly characteristic of
+  Australian scenery, and are counted amongst the oldest flowering
+  plants of the world. The order is easily distinguished by the hard,
+  dry, woody texture of the leaves and the dehiscent fruits. They are
+  found in New Zealand and also in New Caledonia, their greatest
+  developments being on the south-west of the Australian continent.
+  Proteaceae are found also in Tierra del Fuego and Chile. They are also
+  abundant in South Africa, where the order forms the most conspicuous
+  feature of vegetation. The range in species is very limited, no one
+  being common to eastern and western Australia. The chief genera are
+  banksia (_honeysuckle_), and hakea (_needle bush_).
+
+  The Moreton Bay pine (_Araucaria Cunninghamii_) is reckoned amongst
+  the giants of the forest. The genus is associated with one long
+  extinct in Europe. Moreton Bay pine is chiefly known by the utility of
+  its wood. Another species, _A. Bidwillii_, or the bunya-bunya,
+  afforded food in its nut-like seeds to the aborigines. A most
+  remarkable form of vegetation in the north-west is the gouty-stemmed
+  tree (_Adansonia Gregorii_), one of the Malvaceae. It is related
+  closely to the famous baobab of tropical Africa. The "grass-tree"
+  (_Xanthorrhoea_), of the uplands and coast regions, is peculiarly
+  Australian in its aspect. It is seen as a clump of wire-like leaves, a
+  few feet in diameter, surrounding a stem, hardly thicker than a
+  walking-stick, rising to a height of 10 or 12 ft. This terminates in a
+  long spike thickly studded with white blossoms. The grass-tree gives
+  as distinct a character to an Australian picture as the agave and
+  cactus do to the Mexican landscape. With these might be associated the
+  gigantic lily of Queensland (_Nymphaea gigantea_), the leaves of which
+  float on water, and are quite 18 in. across. There is also a gigantic
+  lily (_Doryanthes excelsa_) which grows to a height of 15 feet. The
+  "flame tree" is a most conspicuous feature of an Illawarra landscape,
+  the largest racemes of crimson red suggesting the name. The waratah or
+  native tulip, the magnificent flowering head of which, with the
+  kangaroo, is symbolic of the country, is one of the Proteaceae. The
+  natives were accustomed to suck its tubular flowers for the honey they
+  contained. The "nardoo" seed, on which the aborigines sometimes
+  contrived to exist, is a creeping plant, growing plentifully in swamps
+  and shallow pools, and belongs to the natural order of Marsileaceae.
+  The spore-cases remain after the plant is dried up and withered. These
+  are collected by the natives, and are known over most of the continent
+  as nardoo.
+
+  No speculation of hypothesis has been propounded to account
+  satisfactorily for the origin of the Australian flora. As a step
+  towards such hypothesis it has been noted that the Antarctic, the
+  South African, and the Australian floras have many types in common.
+  There is also to a limited extent a European element present. One
+  thing is certain, that there is in Australia a flora that is a remnant
+  of a vegetation once widely distributed. Heer has described such
+  Australian genera as Banksia, Eucalyptus, _Grevillea_ and _Hakea_ from
+  the Miocene of Switzerland. Another point agreed upon is that the
+  Australian flora is one of vast antiquity. There are genera so far
+  removed from every living genus that many connecting links must have
+  become extinct. The region extending round the south-western extremity
+  of the continent has a peculiarly characteristic assemblage of typical
+  Australian forms, notably a great abundance of the Proteaceae. This
+  flora, isolated by arid country from the rest of the continent, has
+  evidently derived its plant life from an outside source, probably from
+  lands no longer existing.
+
+
+POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
+
+_Population._[2]--The Australian people are mainly of British origin,
+only 3¼% of the population of European descent being of non-British
+race. It is certain that the aborigines (see the section on Aborigines
+below) are very much less numerous than when the country was first
+colonized, but their present numbers can be given for only a few of the
+states. At the census of 1901, 48,248 aborigines were enumerated, of
+whom 7434 were in New South Wales, 652 in Victoria, 27,123 in South
+Australia, and 6212 in Western Australia. The assertion by the
+Queensland authorities that there are 50,000 aborigines in that state is
+a crude estimate, and may be far wide of the truth. In South Australia
+and the Northern Territory a large number are outside the bounds of
+settlement, and it is probable that they are as numerous there as in
+Queensland. The census of Western Australia included only those
+aborigines in the employment of the colonists; and as a large part of
+this, the greatest of the Australian states, is as yet unexplored, it
+may be presumed that the aborigines enumerated were very far short of
+the whole number of persons of that race in the state. Taking all things
+into consideration, the aboriginal population of the continent may be
+set down at something like 180,000. Chinese, numbering about 30,000, are
+chiefly found in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, and the Northern
+Territory. Of Japanese there were 3500, of Hindu and Sinhalese 4600,
+according to recent computation, but the policy of the Commonwealth is
+adverse to further immigration of other than whites. South Sea Islanders
+and other coloured races, numbering probably about 15,000, were in 1906
+to be found principally in Queensland, but further immigration of
+Pacific Islanders to Australia is now restricted, and the majority of
+those in the country in 1906 were deported by the middle of 1907.
+
+At the close of 1906 the population of Australia was approximately
+4,120,000, exclusive of aborigines. The increase of population since
+1871 was as follows: 1871, 1,668,377; 1881, 2,252,617; 1891, 3,183,237;
+1901, 3,773,248. The expansion has been due mainly to the natural
+increase; that is, by reason of excess of births over deaths.
+Immigration to Australia has been very slight since 1891, owing
+originally to the stoppage of progress consequent on the bank crisis of
+1893, and, subsequently, to the disinclination of several of the state
+governments towards immigration and their failure to provide for the
+welfare of immigrants on their arrival. During 1906 a more rational view
+of the value of immigration was adopted by the various state governments
+and by the federal government, and immigration to Australia is now
+systematically encouraged. Australia's gain of population by
+immigration,--i.e. the excess of the inward over the outward movement
+of a population--since the discovery of gold in 1851, arranged in ten
+years periods, was
+
+  1852-1861      520,713
+  1862-1871      188,158
+  1872-1881      223,326
+  1882-1891      374,097
+  1892-1901        2,377
+
+During the five years following the last year of the foregoing table,
+there was practically no increase in population by immigration.
+
+The birth rate averages 26.28 per thousand of the population and the
+death rate 12.28, showing a net increase of 14 per thousand by reason of
+the excess of births over deaths. The marriage rate varies as in other
+countries from year to year according to the degree of prosperity
+prevailing. In the five years 1881-1888 the rate was 8.08 marriages
+(16.1 persons) per thousand of the population, declining to 6.51 in
+1891-1895; in recent years there has been a considerable improvement,
+and the Australian marriage rate may be quoted as ranging between 6.75
+and 7.25. The death rate of Australia is much below that of European
+countries and is steadily declining. During the twenty years preceding
+the census of 1901 there was a fall in the death rate of 3.4 per
+thousand, of which, however, 1 per thousand is attributable to the
+decline in the birth rate, the balance being attributable to improved
+sanitary conditions.
+
+_Territorial Divisions._--Australia is politically divided into five
+states, which with the island of Tasmania form the Commonwealth of
+Australia. The area of the various states is as follows:
+
+                         Sq. m.
+  New South Wales       310,700
+  Victoria               87,884
+  Queensland            668,497
+  South Australia       903,690
+  Western Australia     975,920
+                      ---------
+                      2,946,691
+  Tasmania               26,215
+                      =========
+  Commonwealth        2,972,906
+
+To the area of the Commonwealth shown in the table might be added that
+of New Guinea, 90,000 sq. m.; this would bring the area of the territory
+controlled by the Commonwealth to 3,062,906 sq. m. The distribution of
+population at the close of 1906 (4,118,000) was New South Wales
+1,530,000, Victoria 1,223,000, Queensland 534,000, South Australia
+381,000, Western Australia 270,000, Tasmania 180,000. The rate of
+increase since the previous census was 1.5% per annum, varying from 0.31
+in Victoria to 2.06 in New South Wales and 6.9 in Western Australia.
+
+Australia contains four cities whose population exceeds 100,000, and
+fifteen with over 10,000. The principal cities and towns are Sydney
+(pop. 530,000), Newcastle, Broken Hill, Parramatta, Goulburn, Maitland,
+Bathurst, Orange, Lithgow, Tamworth, Grafton, Wagga and Albury, in New
+South Wales; Melbourne (pop. 511,900), Ballarat, Bendigo, Geelong,
+Eaglehawk, Warrnambool, Castlemaine, and Stawell in Victoria; Brisbane
+(pop. 128,000), Rockhampton, Maryborough, Townsville, Gympie, Ipswich,
+and Toowoomba in Queensland; Adelaide (pop. about 175,000), Port
+Adelaide and Port Pirie in South Australia; Perth (pop. 56,000),
+Fremantle, and Kalgoorlie in Western Australia; and Hobart (pop. 35,500)
+and Launceston in Tasmania.
+
+_Defence._--Up to the end of the 19th century, little was thought of any
+locally-raised or locally-provided defensive forces, the mother-country
+being relied upon. But the Transvaal War of 1899-1902, to which
+Australia sent 6310 volunteers (principally mounted rifles), and the
+gradual increase of military sentiment, brought the question more to the
+front, and more and more attention was given to making Australian
+defence a matter of local concern. Naval defence in any case remained
+primarily a question for the Imperial navy, and by agreement (1903, for
+ten years) between the British government and the governments of the
+Commonwealth (contributing an annual subsidy of £200,000) and of New
+Zealand (£40,000), an efficient fleet patrolled the Australasian waters,
+Sydney, its headquarters, being ranked as a first-class naval station.
+Under the agreement a royal naval reserve was maintained, three of the
+Imperial vessels provided being utilized as drill ships for crews
+recruited from the Australian states. At the end of 1908 the strength of
+the naval forces under the Commonwealth defence department was:
+permanent, 217, naval militia, 1016; the estimated expenditure for
+1908-1909 being £63,531. In 1908-1909 a movement began for the
+establishment by Australia of a local flotilla of torpedo-boat
+destroyers, to be controlled by the Commonwealth in peace time, but
+subject to the orders of the British admiralty in war time, though not
+to be removed from the Australian coast without the sanction of the
+Commonwealth; and by 1909 three such vessels had been ordered in England
+preparatory to building others in Australia. The military establishment
+at the beginning of 1909 was represented by a small permanent force of
+about 1400, a militia strength of about 17,000, and some 6000
+volunteers, besides 50,000 members of rifle clubs and 30,000 cadets; the
+expenditure being (estimate, 1908-1909) £623,946. But a reorganization
+of the military forces, on the basis of obligatory national training,
+was already contemplated, though the first Bill introduced for this
+purpose by Mr Deakin's government (Sept. 1908) was dropped, and in 1909
+the subject was still under discussion.
+
+_Religion._--There is no state church in Australia, nor is the teaching
+of religion in any way subsidized by the state. The Church of England
+claims as adherents 39% of the population, and the Roman Catholic Church
+22%; next in numerical strength are the Wesleyans and other Methodists,
+numbering 12%, the various branches of the Presbyterians 11%,
+Congregationalists 2%, and Baptists 2%. These proportions varied very
+little between 1881 and 1906, and may be taken as accurately
+representing the present strength of the various Christian
+denominations. Churches of all denominations are liberally supported
+throughout the states, and the residents of every settlement, however
+small, have their places of worship erected and maintained by their own
+contributions.
+
+_Instruction._--Education is very widely distributed, and in every state
+it is compulsory for children of school ages to attend school. The
+statutory ages differ in the various states; in New South Wales and
+Western Australia it is from 6 to 13 years inclusive, in Victoria 6 to
+12 years, in Queensland 6 to 11 years, and in South Australia 7 to 12
+years inclusive. Religious instruction is not imparted by the state-paid
+teachers in any state, though in certain states persons duly authorized
+by the religious organizations are allowed to give religious instruction
+to children of their own denomination where the parents' consent has
+been obtained. According to the returns for 1905 there were 7292 state
+schools, with 15,628 teachers and 648,927 pupils, and the average
+attendance of scholars was 446,000. Besides state schools there were
+2145 private schools, with 7825 teachers and 137,000 scholars, the
+average number of scholars in attendance being 120,000. The census of
+1901 showed that about 83% of the whole population and more than 91% of
+the population over five years of age could read and write. There was,
+therefore, a residue of 9% of illiterates, most of whom were not born in
+Australia. The marriage registers furnish another test of education. In
+1905 only ten persons in every thousand married were unable to sign
+their names, thus proving that the number of illiterate adults of
+Australian birth is very small.
+
+Instruction at state schools is either free or at merely nominal cost,
+and high schools, technical colleges and agricultural colleges are
+maintained by appropriations from the general revenues of the states.
+There are also numerous grammar schools and other private schools.
+Universities have been established at Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and
+Hobart, and are well equipped and numerously attended; they are in part
+supported by grants from the public funds and in part by private
+endowments and the fees paid by students. The number of students
+attending lectures is about 2500 and the annual income a little over
+£100,000. The cost of public instruction in Australia averages about
+11s. 4d. per inhabitant, and the cost per scholar in average attendance
+at state schools is £4:13:9.
+
+_Pastoral and Agricultural Industries._--The continent is essentially a
+pastoral one, and the products of the flocks and herds constitute the
+chief element in the wealth of Australia. Practically the whole of the
+territory between the 145° meridian and the Great Dividing Range, as
+well as extensive tracts in the south and west, are a natural sheep
+pasture with climatic conditions and indigenous vegetation pre-eminently
+adapted for the growth of wool of the highest quality. Numerically the
+flocks of Australia represent one-sixth of the world's sheep, and in
+just over half a century (1851-1905) the exports of Australian wool
+alone reached the value of £650,000,000. During the same period, owing
+to the efforts of pastoralists to improve their flocks, there was a
+gradual increase in the weight of wool produced per sheep from 3¼ lb. to
+an average of over 7 lb. The cattle and horse-breeding industries are of
+minor importance as compared with wool-growing, but nevertheless
+represent a great source of wealth, with vast possibilities of expansion
+in the over-sea trade. The perfection of refrigeration in over-sea
+carriage, which has done so much to extend the markets for Australian
+beef and mutton, has also furthered the expansion of dairying, there
+being an annual output of over 160 million lb. of butter, valued at
+£6,000,000; of this about 64 million lb., valued at £2,500,000, is
+exported annually to British markets.
+
+Next to the pastoral industry, agriculture is the principal source of
+Australian wealth. At the close of 1905 the area devoted to tillage was
+9,365,000 acres, the area utilized for the production of breadstuffs
+being 6,270,000 acres or over two-thirds of the whole extent of
+cultivation. At first wheat was cultivated solely in the coastal
+country, but experience has shown that the staple cereal can be most
+successfully grown over almost any portion of the arable lands within
+the 20 to 40 in. rainfall areas. The value of Australian wheat and flour
+exported in 1905 was £5,500,000.
+
+Other important crops grown are--maize, 324,000 acres; oats, 493,000
+acres; other grains, 160,000 acres; hay, 1,367,000 acres; potatoes,
+119,000 acres; sugar-cane, 141,000 acres; vines, 65,000 acres; and other
+crops, 422,000 acres. The chief wheat lands are in Victoria, South
+Australia and New South Wales; the yield averages about 9 bushels to the
+acre; this low average is due to the endeavour of settlers on new lands
+to cultivate larger areas than their resources can effectively deal
+with; the introduction of scientific farming should almost double the
+yield. Maize and sugar-cane are grown in New South Wales and Queensland.
+The vine is cultivated in all the states, but chiefly in South
+Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. Australia produces abundant
+quantities and nearly all varieties of fruits; but the kinds exported
+are chiefly oranges, pineapples, bananas and apples. Tobacco thrives
+well in New South Wales and Victoria, but kinds suitable for exportation
+are not largely grown. Compared with the principal countries of the
+world, Australia does not take a high position in regard to the gross
+value of the produce of its tillage, the standard of cultivation being
+for the most part low and without regard to maximum returns, but in
+value per inhabitant it compares fairly well; indeed, some of the states
+show averages which surpass those of many of the leading agricultural
+countries. For 1905 the total value of agricultural produce estimated at
+the place of production was £18,750,000 sterling, or about £4:13:4 per
+inhabitant.
+
+_Timber Industry._--Although the timbers of commercial value are
+confined practically to the eastern and a portion of the western coastal
+belt and a few inland tracts of Australia, they constitute an important
+national asset. The early settlement of heavily timbered country was
+characterized by wanton destruction of vast quantities of magnificent
+timber; but this waste is a thing of the past, and under the pressure of
+a demand for sound timber both for local use and for exportation, the
+various governments are doing much to conserve the state forests. In
+Western Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland there are
+many hundreds of well-equipped saw-mills affording employment to about
+5000 men. The export of timber is in ordinary years valued at a million
+sterling and the total production at £2,250,000.
+
+_Fisheries._--Excellent fish of many varieties abound in the Australian
+seas and in many of the rivers. In several of the states, fish have been
+introduced successfully from other countries. Trout may now be taken in
+many of the mountain streams. At one time whaling was an important
+industry on the coasts of New South Wales and Tasmania, and afterwards
+on the Western Australian coasts. The industry gravitated to New
+Zealand, and finally died out, chiefly through the wasteful practice of
+killing the calves to secure the capture of the mothers. Of late years
+whaling has again attracted attention, and a small number of vessels
+prosecute the industry during the season. The only source of maritime
+wealth that is now being sufficiently exploited to be regarded as an
+industry is the gathering of pearl-oysters from the beds off the
+northern and north-western coasts of the continent. In Queensland waters
+there are about 300 vessels, and on the Western Australian coast about
+450 licensed craft engaged in the industry, the annual value of
+pearl-shell and pearls raised being nearly half a million sterling.
+Owing to the depletion of some of the more accessible banks, and to
+difficulties in connexion with the employment of coloured crews, many of
+the vessels have now gone farther afield. As the pearl-oyster is
+remarkably prolific, it is considered by experts that within a few years
+of their abandonment by fishing fleets the denuded banks will become as
+abundantly stocked as ever.
+
+
+  Gold.
+
+_Mineral Production._--Australia is one of the great gold producers of
+the world, and its yield in 1905 was about £16,000,000 sterling, or
+one-fourth of the gold output of the world; and the total value of its
+mineral production was approximately £25,000,000. Gold is found
+throughout Australia, and the present prosperity of the states is
+largely due to the discoveries of this metal, the development of other
+industries being, in a country of varied resources, a natural sequence
+to the acquisition of mineral treasure. From the date of its first
+discovery, up to the close of 1905, gold to the value of £460,000,000
+sterling has been obtained in Australia. Victoria, in a period of
+fifty-four years, contributed about £273,000,000 to this total, and is
+still a large producer, its annual yield being about 800,000 oz., 29,000
+men being engaged in the search for the precious metal. Queensland's
+annual output is between 750,000 and 800,000 oz.; the number of men
+engaged in gold-mining is 10,000. In New South Wales the greatest
+production was in 1852, soon after the first discovery of the precious
+metal, when the output was valued at £2,660,946; the production in 1905
+was about 270,000 oz., valued at £1,150,000. For many years Western
+Australia was considered to be destitute of mineral deposits of any
+value, but it is now known that a rich belt of mineral country extends
+from north to south. The first important discovery was made in 1882,
+when gold was found in the Kimberley district; but it was not until a
+few years later that this rich and extensive area was developed. In 1887
+gold was found in Yilgarn, about 200 m. east of Perth. This was the
+first of the many rich discoveries in the same district which have made
+Western Australia the chief gold-producer of the Australian group. In
+1907 there were eighteen goldfields in the state, and it was estimated
+that over 30,000 miners were actively engaged in the search for gold. In
+1905 the production amounted to 1,983,000 oz., valued at £8,300,000.
+Tasmania is a gold producer to the extent of about 70,000 or 80,000 oz.
+a year, valued at £300,000; South Australia produces about 30,000 oz.
+
+Gold is obtained chiefly from quartz reefs, but there are still some
+important alluvial deposits being worked. The greatest development of
+quartz reefing is found in Victoria, some of the mines being of great
+depth. There are eight mines in the Bendigo district over 3000 ft. deep,
+and fourteen over 2500 ft. deep. In the Victoria mine a depth of 3750
+ft. has been reached, and in Lazarus mine 3424 ft. In the Ballarat
+district a depth of 2520 ft. has been reached in the South Star mine. In
+Queensland there is one mine 3156 ft. deep, and several others exceed
+2000 ft. in depth. A considerable number of men are engaged in the
+various states on alluvial fields, in hydraulic sluicing, and dredging
+is now adopted for the winning of gold in river deposits. So far this
+form of winning is chiefly carried on in New South Wales, where there
+are about fifty gold-dredging plants in successful operation. Over
+70,000 men are employed in the gold-mining industry, more than
+two-thirds of them being engaged in quartz mining.
+
+
+    Silver.
+
+  Silver has been discovered in all the states, either alone or in the
+  form of sulphides, antimonial and arsenical ores, chloride, bromide,
+  iodide and chloro-bromide of silver, and argentiferous lead ores, the
+  largest deposits of the metal being found in the last-mentioned form.
+  The leading silver mines are in New South Wales, the returns from the
+  other states being comparatively insignificant. The fields of New
+  South Wales have proved to be of immense value, the yield of silver
+  and lead during 1905 being £2,500,000, and the total output to the end
+  of the year named over £40,000,000. The Broken Hill field, which was
+  discovered in 1883, extends over 2500 sq. m. of country, and has
+  developed into one of the principal mining centres of the world. It is
+  situated beyond the river Darling, and close to the boundary between
+  New South Wales and South Australia. The lodes occur in Silurian
+  metamorphic micaceous schists, intruded by granite, porphyry and
+  diorite, and traversed by numerous quartz reefs, some of which are
+  gold-bearing. The Broken Hill lode is the largest yet discovered. It
+  varies in width from 10 ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several
+  miles. Although indications of silver abound in all the other states,
+  no fields of great importance have yet been discovered. Up to the end
+  of 1904 Australia had produced silver to the value of £45,000,000. At
+  Broken Hill mines about 11,000 miners are employed.
+
+
+    Copper.
+
+  Copper is known to exist in all the states, and has been mined
+  extensively in South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and
+  Tasmania. The low quotations which ruled for a number of years had a
+  depressing effect upon the industry, and many mines once profitably
+  worked were temporarily closed, but in 1906 there was a general
+  revival. The discovery of copper had a marked effect on the fortunes
+  of South Australia at a time when the young colony was surrounded by
+  difficulties. The first important mine, the Kapunda, was opened up in
+  1842. It is estimated that at one time 2000 tons were produced
+  annually, but the mine was closed in 1879. In 1845 the celebrated
+  Burra Burra mine was discovered. This mine proved to be very rich, and
+  paid £800,000 in dividends to the original owners. For a number of
+  years, however, the mine has been suffered to remain untouched, as the
+  deposits originally worked were found to be depicted. For many years
+  the average output was from 10,000 to 13,000 tons of ore, yielding
+  from 22 to 23% of copper. For the period of thirty years during which
+  the mine was worked the production of ore amounted to 234,648 tons,
+  equal to 51,622 tons of copper, valued at £4,749,924. The Wallaroo and
+  Moonta mines, discovered in 1860 and 1861, proved to be even more
+  valuable than the Burra Burra, the Moonta mines employing at one time
+  upwards of 1600 hands. The dividends paid by these mines amounted to
+  about £1,750,000 sterling. The satisfactory price obtained during
+  recent years has enabled renewed attention to be paid to copper mining
+  in South Australia, and the production of the metal in 1905 was valued
+  at £470,324. The principal deposits of copper in New South Wales are
+  found in the central part of the state between the Macquarie, Darling
+  and Bogan rivers. Deposits have also been found in the New England and
+  southern districts, as well as at Broken Hill, showing that the
+  mineral is widely distributed throughout the state. The more important
+  mines are those of Cobar, where the Great Cobar mine produces annually
+  nearly 4000 tons of refined copper. In northern Queensland copper is
+  found throughout the Cloncurry district, in the upper basin of the
+  Star river, and the Herberton district. The returns from the copper
+  fields in the state are at present a little over half a million
+  sterling per annum, and would be still greater if it were not for the
+  lack of suitable fuel for smelting purposes, which renders the
+  economical treatment of the ore difficult; the development of the
+  mines is also retarded by the want of easy and cheaper communication
+  with the coast. In Western Australia copper deposits have been worked
+  for some years. Very rich lodes of the metal have been found in the
+  Northampton, Murchison and Champion Bay districts, and also in the
+  country to the south of these districts on the Irwin river. Tasmania
+  is now the largest copper-producing state of the Commonwealth; in 1905
+  the output was over £672,010 and in earlier years even larger. The
+  chief mines belong to the Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co., and are
+  situated on the west side of the island with an outlet by rail to
+  Strahan on the west coast. The total value of copper produced in
+  Australia up to the end of 1905 was £42,500,000 sterling, £24,500,000
+  having been obtained in South Australia, £7,500,000 in New South
+  Wales, £6,400,000 in Tasmania and over £3,500,000 in Queensland.
+
+
+    Tin.
+
+  Tin was known to exist in Australia from the first years of
+  colonization. The wealth of Queensland and the Northern Territory in
+  this mineral, according to the reports of Dr Jack, late Government
+  geologist of the former state, and the late Rev. J.E. Tenison-Woods,
+  appears to be very great. The most important tin-mines in Queensland
+  are in the Herberton district, south-west of Cairns; at Cooktown, on
+  the Annan and Bloomfield rivers; and at Stanthorpe, on the border of
+  New South Wales. Herberton and Stanthorpe have produced more than
+  three-fourths of the total production of the state. Towards the close
+  of the 19th century the production greatly decreased in consequence of
+  the low price of the metal, but in 1899 a stimulus was given to the
+  industry, and since then the production has increased very
+  considerably, the output for 1905 being valued at £989,627. In New
+  South Wales lode tin occurs principally in the granite and stream tin
+  under the basaltic country in the extreme north of the state, at
+  Tenterfield, Emmaville, Tingha, and in other districts of New England.
+  The metal has also been discovered in the Barrier ranges, and many
+  other places. The value of the output in 1905 was £226,110. The yield
+  of tin in Victoria is very small, and until lately no fields of
+  importance have been discovered; but towards the latter end of 1899
+  extensive deposits were reported to exist in the Gippsland
+  district--at Omeo and Tarwin. In South Australia tin-mining is
+  unimportant. In Western Australia the production from the tin-fields
+  at Greenbushes and elsewhere was valued at £87,000. Tasmania during
+  the last few years has attained the foremost position in the
+  production of tin, the annual output now being about £363,000. The
+  total value of tin produced in Australia is nearly a million sterling
+  per annum, and the total production to the end of 1905 was
+  £22,500,000, of which Tasmania produced about 40%, New South Wales
+  one-third, Queensland a little more than a fourth.
+
+
+    Iron.
+
+  Iron is distributed throughput Australia, but for want of capital for
+  developing the fields this industry has not progressed. In New South
+  Wales there are, together with coal and limestone in unlimited supply,
+  important deposits of rich iron ores suitable for smelting purposes;
+  and for the manufacture of steel of certain descriptions abundance of
+  manganese, chrome and tungsten ores are available. The most extensive
+  fields are in the Mittagong, Wallerawang and Rylstone districts, which
+  are roughly estimated to contain in the aggregate 12,944,000 tons of
+  ore, containing 5,853,000 tons of metallic iron. Extensive deposits,
+  which are being developed successfully, occur in Tasmania, it being
+  estimated that there are, within easy shipping facilities, 17,000,000
+  tons of ore. Magnetite, or magnetic iron, the richest of all iron
+  ores, is found in abundance near Wallerawang in New South Wales. The
+  proximity of coal-beds now being worked should accelerate the
+  development of the iron deposits, which, on an average, contain 41% of
+  metal. Magnetite occurs in great abundance in Western Australia,
+  together with haematite, which would be of enormous value if cheap
+  labour were available. Goethite, limonite and haematite are found in
+  New South Wales, at the junction of the Hawkesbury sandstone formation
+  and the Wianamatta shale, near Nattai, and are enhanced in their value
+  by their proximity to coal-beds. Near Lithgow extensive deposits of
+  limonite, or clay-band ore, are interbedded with coal. Some samples of
+  ore, coal and limestone, obtained in the Mittagong district, with
+  pig-iron and castings manufactured therefrom, were exhibited at the
+  Mining Exhibition in London and obtained a first award.
+
+
+    Other Minerals.
+
+  Antimony is widely diffused throughout Australia, and is sometimes
+  found associated with gold. In New South Wales the principal centre of
+  this industry is Hillgrove, near Armidale, where the Eleanora Mine,
+  one of the richest in the state, is situated. The ore is also worked
+  for gold. In Victoria the production of antimony gave employment in
+  1890 to 238 miners, but owing to the low price of the metal,
+  production has almost ceased. In Queensland the fields were all
+  showing development in 1891, when the output exhibited a very large
+  increase compared with that of former years; but, as in the case of
+  Victoria, the production of the metal seems to have ceased. Good lodes
+  of stibnite (sulphide of antimony) have been found near Roebourne in
+  Western Australia, but no attempt has yet been made to work them.
+
+  Bismuth is known to exist in all the Australian states, but up to the
+  present time it has been mined for only in three states, viz. New
+  South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania. It is usually
+  found in association with tin and other minerals. The principal mine
+  in New South Wales is situated at Kingsgate, in the New England
+  district, where the mineral is generally associated with molybdenum
+  and gold.
+
+  Manganese probably exists in all the states, deposits having been
+  found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia,
+  the richest specimens being found in New South Wales. Little, however,
+  has been done to utilize the deposits, the demands of the colonial
+  markets being extremely limited. The ore generally occurs in the form
+  of oxides, manganite and pyrolusite, and contains a high percentage of
+  sesquioxide of manganese.
+
+  Platinum and the allied compound metal iridosmine have been found in
+  New South Wales, but so far in inconsiderable quantities. Iridosmine
+  occurs commonly with gold or tin in alluvial drifts.
+
+  The rare element tellurium has been discovered in New South Wales at
+  Bingara and other parts of the northern districts, as well as at
+  Tarana, on the western line, though at present in such minute
+  quantities as would not repay the cost of working. At many of the
+  mines at Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, large quantities of ores of
+  telluride of gold have been found in the lode formations.
+
+  Lead is found in all the Australian states, but is worked only when
+  associated with silver. In Western Australia the lead occurs in the
+  form of sulphides and carbonates of great richness, but the quantity
+  of silver mixed with it is very small. The lodes are most frequently
+  of great size, containing huge masses of galena, and so little gangue
+  that the ore can very easily be dressed to 83 or 84%. The association
+  of this metal with silver in the Broken Hill mines of New South Wales
+  adds very greatly to the value of the product.
+
+  Mercury is found in New South Wales and Queensland. In New South
+  Wales, in the form of cinnabar, it has been discovered on the
+  Cudgegong river, near Rylstone, and it also occurs at Bingara,
+  Solferino, Yulgilbar and Cooma. In the last-named place the assays of
+  ore yielded 22% of mercury.
+
+  Titanium, in the minerals known as octahedrite and brookite, is found
+  in alluvial deposits in New South Wales, in conjunction with diamonds.
+
+  Wolfram (tungstate of iron and manganese) occurs in some of the
+  states, notably in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland.
+  Scheelite, another mineral of tungsten, is also found in Queensland.
+  Molybdenum, in the form of molybdenite (sulphide of molybdenum), is
+  found in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, associated in the
+  parent state with tin and bismuth in quartz reefs.
+
+  Zinc ores, in the several varieties of carbonates, silicates, oxide,
+  sulphide and sulphate of zinc, have been found in several of the
+  Australian states but have attracted little attention except in New
+  South Wales, where special efforts are being made successfully to
+  produce a high-grade zinc concentrate from the sulphide ores. Several
+  companies are devoting all their energies to zinc extraction, and the
+  output is now equal to about 5% of the world's production.
+
+  Nickel, so abundant in the island of New Caledonia, has up to the
+  present been found in none of the Australian states except Queensland
+  and Tasmania. Few attempts, however, have been made to prospect
+  systematically for this valuable mineral.
+
+  Cobalt occurs in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, and
+  efforts have been made in the former state to treat the ore, the metal
+  having a high commercial value; but the market is small, and no
+  attempt has been made up to 1907 to produce it on any large scale. The
+  manganese ores of the Bathurst district of New South Wales often
+  contain a small percentage of cobalt--sufficient, indeed, to warrant
+  further attempts to work them. In New South Wales chromium is found in
+  the northern portion of the state, in the Clarence and Tamworth
+  districts and also near Gundagai. It is usually associated with
+  serpentine. In the Gundagai district the industry was rapidly becoming
+  a valuable one, but the low price of chrome has greatly restricted the
+  output. Chromium has been discovered in Tasmania also.
+
+  Arsenic, in its well-known and beautiful forms, orpiment and realgar,
+  is found in New South Wales and Victoria. It usually occurs in
+  association with other minerals in veins.
+
+
+    Fuel.
+
+  The Australian states have been bountifully supplied with mineral
+  fuel. Five distinct varieties of black coal, of well-characterized
+  types, may be distinguished, and these, with the two extremes of brown
+  coal or lignite and anthracite, form a perfectly continuous series.
+  Brown coal, or lignite, occurs principally in Victoria. Attempts have
+  frequently been made to use the mineral for ordinary fuel purposes,
+  but its inferior quality has prevented its general use. Black coal
+  forms one of the principal resources of New South Wales; and in the
+  other states the deposits of this valuable mineral are being rapidly
+  developed. Coal of a very fair description was discovered in the basin
+  of the Irwin river, in Western Australia, as far back as the year
+  1846. It has been ascertained from recent explorations that the area
+  of carboniferous formation in that state extends from the Irwin
+  northwards to the Gascoyne river, about 300 m., and probably all the
+  way to the Kimberley district. The most important discovery of coal in
+  the state, so far, is that made in the bed of the Collie river, near
+  Bunbury, to the south of Perth. The coal has been treated and found to
+  be of good quality, and there are grounds for supposing that there are
+  250,000,000 tons in the field. Dr Jack, late government geologist of
+  Queensland, considers the extent of the coal-fields of that state to
+  be practically unlimited, and is of opinion that the carboniferous
+  formations extend to a considerable distance under the Great Western
+  Plains. It is roughly estimated that the Coal Measures at present
+  practically explored extend over an area of about 24,000 sq. m.
+  Coal-mining is an established industry in Queensland, and is
+  progressing satisfactorily. The mines, however, are situated too far
+  from the coast to permit of serious competition with Newcastle in an
+  export trade, and the output is practically restricted to supplying
+  local requirements. The coal-fields of New South Wales are situated in
+  three distinct regions--the northern, southern and western districts.
+  The first of these comprises chiefly the mines of the Hunter river
+  districts; the second includes the Illawarra district, and, generally,
+  the coastal regions to the south of Sydney, together with Berrima, on
+  the tableland; and the third consists of the mountainous regions on
+  the Great Western railway and extends as far as Dubbo. The total area
+  of the Carboniferous strata of New South Wales is estimated at 23,950
+  sq. m. The seams vary in thickness. One of the richest has been found
+  at Greta in the Hunter river district; it contains an average
+  thickness of 41 ft. of clean coal, and the quantity underlying each
+  acre of ground has been computed to be 63,700 tons. The coal mines of
+  New South Wales give employment to 14,000 persons, and the annual
+  production is over 6,600,000 tons. Black coal has been discovered in
+  Victoria, and about 250,000 tons are now being raised. The principal
+  collieries in the state are the Outtrim Howitt, the Coal Creek
+  Proprietary and the Jumbunna. In South Australia, at Leigh's Creek,
+  north of Port Augusta, coal-beds have been discovered. The quantity of
+  coal extracted annually in Australia had in 1906 reached 7,497,000
+  tons.
+
+  Kerosene shale (torbanite) is found in several parts of New South
+  Wales. It is a species of cannel coal, somewhat similar to the Boghead
+  mineral of Scotland, but yielding a much larger percentage of volatile
+  hydro-carbon than the Scottish mineral. The richest quality yields
+  about 100 to 130 gallons of crude oil per ton, or 17,000 to 18,000
+  cub. ft. of gas, with an illuminating power of 35 to 40 sperm candles,
+  when gas only is extracted from the shale.
+
+  Large deposits of alum occur close to the village of Bulladelah, 30 m.
+  from Port Stephens, New South Wales. It is said to yield well, and a
+  quantity of the manufactured alum is sent to Sydney for local
+  consumption. Marble is found in many parts of New South Wales and
+  South Australia. Kaolin, fire-clays and brick-clays are common to all
+  the states. Except in the vicinity of cities and townships, however,
+  little use has been made of the abundant deposits of clay. Kaolin, or
+  porcelain clay, although capable of application to commercial
+  purposes, has not as yet been utilized to any extent, although found
+  in several places in New South Wales and in Western Australia.
+
+  Asbestos has been found in New South Wales in the Gundagai Bathurst
+  and Broken Hill districts--in the last-mentioned district in
+  considerable quantities. Several specimens of very fair quality have
+  also been met with in Western Australia.
+
+
+    Gems.
+
+  Many descriptions of gems and gem stones have been discovered in
+  various parts of the Australian states, but systematic search has been
+  made principally for the diamond and the noble opal. Diamonds are
+  found in all the states; but only in New South Wales have any attempts
+  been made to work the diamond drifts. The best of the New South Wales
+  diamonds are harder and much whiter than the South African diamonds,
+  and are classified as on a par with the best Brazilian gems, but no
+  large specimens have yet been found. The finest opal known is obtained
+  in the Upper Cretaceous formation at White Cliffs, near Wilcannia, New
+  South Wales, and at these mines about 700 men find constant
+  employment. Other precious stones, including the sapphire, emerald,
+  oriental emerald, ruby, opal, amethyst, garnet, chrysolite, topaz,
+  cairngorm, onyx, zircon, &c., have been found in the gold and tin
+  bearing drifts and river gravels in numerous localities throughout the
+  states. The sapphire is found in all the states, principally in the
+  neighbourhood of Beechworth, Victoria. The oriental topaz has been
+  found in New South Wales. Oriental amethysts also have been found in
+  that state, and the ruby has been found in Queensland, as well as in
+  New South Wales. Turquoises have been found near Wangaratta, in
+  Victoria, and mining operations are being carried on in that state.
+  Chrysoberyls have been found in New South Wales; spinel rubies in New
+  South Wales and Victoria; and white topaz in all the states.
+  Chalcedony, carnelian, onyx and cat's eyes are found in New South
+  Wales; and it is probable that they are also to be met with in the
+  other states, particularly in Queensland. Zircon, tourmaline, garnet
+  and other precious stones of little commercial value are found
+  throughout Australia.
+
+_Commerce._--The number of vessels engaged in the over-sea trade of
+Australia in 1905 was 2112, viz. 1050 steamers, with a tonnage of
+2,629,000, and 1062 sailers, tonnage 1,090,000; the total of both
+classes was 3,719,000 tons. The nationality of the tonnage was, British
+2,771,000, including Australian 288,000, and foreign 948,000. The
+destination of the shipping was, to British ports 2,360,000 tons, and to
+foreign ports 1,350,000 tons. The value of the external trade was
+£95,188,000, viz. £38,347,000 imports, and £56,841,000 exports. The
+imports represent £9:11:6 per inhabitant and the exports £14:4:2, with a
+total trade of £23:15:8. The import trade is divided between the United
+Kingdom and possessions and foreign countries as follows:--United
+Kingdom £23,074,000, British possessions £5,384,000, and foreign states
+£9,889,000, while the destination of the exports is, United Kingdom
+£26,703,000, British possessions £12,519,000, and foreign countries
+£17,619,000. The United Kingdom in 1905 sent 60% of the imports taken by
+Australia, compared with 26% from foreign countries, and 14% from
+British possessions; of Australian imports the United Kingdom takes 47%,
+foreign countries 31% and British possessions 22%. In normal years (that
+is to say, when there is no large movement of capital) the exports of
+Australia exceed the imports by some £15,300,000. This sum represents
+the interest payable on government loans placed outside Australia,
+mainly in England, and the income from British and other capital
+invested in the country; the former may be estimated at £7,300,000 and
+the latter £8,000,000 per annum. The principal items of export are wool,
+skins, tallow, frozen mutton, chilled beef, preserved meats, butter and
+other articles of pastoral produce, timber, wheat, flour and fruits,
+gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and other metals. In 1905 the value of
+the wool export regained the £20,000,000 level, and with the rapid
+recovery of the numerical strength of the flocks, great improvements in
+the quality and weight of fleeces, this item is likely to show permanent
+advancement. The exports of breadstuffs--chiefly to the United
+Kingdom--exceed six millions per annum, butter two and a half millions,
+and minerals of all kinds, except gold, six millions. Gold is exported
+in large quantities from Australia. The total gold production of the
+country is from £14,500,000 to £16,000,000, and as not more than
+three-quarters of a million are required to strengthen existing local
+stocks, the balance is usually available for export, and the average
+export of the precious metal during the ten years, 1896-1905, was
+£12,500,000 per annum. The chief articles of import are apparel and
+textiles, machinery and hardware, stimulants, narcotics, explosives,
+bags and sacks, books and paper, oils and tea.
+
+Lines of steamers connect Australia with London and other British ports,
+with Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Japan, China, India, San
+Francisco, Vancouver, New York and Montevideo, several important lines
+being subsidized by the countries to which they belong, notably Germany,
+France and Japan.
+
+_Railways._--Almost the whole of the railway lines in Australia are the
+property of the state governments, and have been constructed and
+equipped wholly by borrowed capital. There were on the 30th of June
+1905, 15,000 m. open for traffic, upon which nearly £135,000,000 had
+been expended.
+
+  The railways are of different gauges, the standard narrow gauge of 4
+  ft. 8½ in. prevailing only in New South Wales; in Victoria the gauge
+  is 5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia 5 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. 6 in., and in
+  the other states 3 ft. 6 in. Taking the year 1905, the gross earnings
+  amounted to £11,892,262; the working expenses, exclusive of interest,
+  £7,443,546; and the net earnings £4,448,716; the latter figure
+  represents 3.31% upon the capital expended upon construction and
+  equipment; in the subsequent year still better results were obtained.
+  In several of the states, New South Wales and South Australia proper,
+  the railways yield more than the interest paid by the government on
+  the money borrowed for their construction. The earnings per train-mile
+  vary greatly; but for all the lines the average is 7s. 1d., and the
+  working expenses about 4s. 5d., making the net earnings 2s. 8d. per
+  train-mile. The ratio of receipts from coaching traffic to total
+  receipts is about 41%, which is somewhat less than in the United
+  Kingdom; but the proportion varies greatly amongst the states
+  themselves, the more densely populated states approaching most nearly
+  to the British standard. The tonnage of goods carried amounts to about
+  16,000,000 tons, or 4 tons per inhabitant, which must be considered
+  fairly large, especially as no great proportion of the tonnage
+  consists of minerals on which there is usually a low freightage.
+  Excluding coal lines and other lines not open to general traffic, the
+  length of railways in private hands is only 382 m. or about 2½% of the
+  total mileage open. Of this length, 277 m. are in Western Australia.
+  The divergence of policy of that state from that pursued by the other
+  states was caused by the inability of the government to construct
+  lines, when the extension of the railway system was urgently needed in
+  the interests of settlement. Private enterprise was, therefore,
+  encouraged by liberal grants of land to undertake the work of
+  construction; but the changed conditions of the state have now altered
+  the state policy, and the government have already acquired one of the
+  two trunk lines constructed by private enterprise, and it is not
+  likely that any further concessions in regard to railway construction
+  will be granted to private persons.
+
+  _Posts and Telegraphs._--The postal and telegraphic facilities offered
+  by the various states are very considerable. There are some 6686
+  post-offices throughout the Commonwealth, or about one office to every
+  600 persons. The letters carried amount to about 80 per head, the
+  newspapers to 32 per head and the packets to 15 per head. The length
+  of telegraph lines in use is 46,300 m., and the length of wire nearly
+  three times that distance. In 1905 there were about 11,000,000
+  telegraphic messages sent, which gives an average of 2.7 messages per
+  inhabitant. The postal services and the telegraphs are administered by
+  the federal government.
+
+  _Banking._--Depositors in savings banks represent about twenty-nine in
+  every hundred persons, and in 1906 the sum deposited amounted to
+  £37,205,000 in the names of 1,152,000 persons. In ordinary banks the
+  deposits amounted to £106,625,000, so that the total deposits stood at
+  £143,830,000, equivalent to the very large sum of £34, 18s. per
+  inhabitant. The coin and bullion held by the banks varies between 20
+  and 24 millions sterling and the note circulation is almost stationary
+  at about 3¼ millions.
+
+  _Public Finance._--Australian public finance requires to be treated
+  under the separate headings of Commonwealth and states finance. Under
+  the Constitution Act the Commonwealth is given the control of the
+  postal and telegraph departments, public defence and several other
+  services, as well as the power of levying customs and excise duties;
+  its powers of taxation are unrestricted, but so far no taxes have been
+  imposed other than those just mentioned. The Commonwealth is empowered
+  to retain one-fourth of the net revenue from customs and excise, the
+  balance must be handed back to the states. This arrangement was to
+  last until 1910. Including the total receipts derived from the
+  customs, the Commonwealth revenue, during the year 1906, was made up
+  as follows:--
+
+    Customs and excise        £8,999,485
+    Posts, telegraphs, &c.     2,824,182
+    Other revenue                 55,676
+                             -----------
+                             £11,879,343
+
+  The return made to the states was £7,385,731, so that the actual
+  revenue disposed of by the Commonwealth was less by that amount, or
+  £4,493,612. The expenditure was distributed as follows:--
+
+    Customs collection          £261,864
+    Posts, telegraphs, &c.     2,774,804
+    Defence                      949,286
+    Other expenditure            508,887
+                               ---------
+                   Total      £4,494,841
+
+  The states have the same powers of taxation as the Commonwealth except
+  in regard to customs and excise, over which the Commonwealth has
+  exclusive power, but the states are the owners of the crown lands, and
+  the revenues derived from this source form an important part of their
+  income. The states have a total revenue, from sources apart from the
+  Commonwealth, of £23,820,439, and if to this be added the return of
+  customs duties made by the federal government, the total revenue is
+  £31,206,170. Although the financial operations of the Commonwealth and
+  the states are quite distinct, a statement of the total revenue of the
+  Australian Commonwealth and states is not without interest as showing
+  the weight of taxation and the different sources from which revenue is
+  obtained. For 1906 the respective revenues were:--
+
+    Commonwealth                          £11,879,343
+    States                                 23,820,439
+                                          -----------
+                                          £35,699,782
+                                          ===========
+    Direct taxation                        £3,200,000
+    Indirect taxation; customs and excise   8,999,485
+    Land revenue                            3,500,000
+    Post-office and telegraphs              2,824,182
+    Railways, &c.                          13,650,000
+    Other service                           3,526,115
+
+  The revenue from direct taxation is equal to 15s. 10d. per inhabitant,
+  from indirect taxation £2:4:6, and the total revenue from all sources
+  £35,699,782, equal to £8:16:2 per inhabitant. The federal government
+  has no public debt, but each of the six states has contracted debts
+  which aggregate £237,000,000, equal to about £58, 8s. per inhabitant.
+  The bulk of this indebtedness has been contracted for the purpose of
+  constructing railways, tramways, water-supplies, and other
+  revenue-producing works and services, and it is estimated that only 8%
+  of the total indebtedness can be set down for unproductive services.
+
+  Information regarding Australian state finance will be found under the
+  heading of each state.     (T. A. C.)
+
+
+ABORIGINES
+
+The origin of the natives of Australia presents a difficult problem. The
+chief difficulty in deciding their ethnical relations is their
+remarkable physical difference from the neighbouring peoples. And if one
+turns from physical criteria to their manners and customs it is only to
+find fresh evidence of their isolation. While their neighbours, the
+Malays, Papuans and Polynesians, all cultivate the soil, and build
+substantial huts and houses, the Australian natives do neither. Pottery,
+common to Malays and Papuans, the bows and arrows of the latter, and the
+elaborate canoes of all three races, are unknown to the Australians.
+They then must be considered as representing an extremely primitive type
+of mankind, and it is necessary to look far afield for their prehistoric
+home.
+
+
+  Origin.
+
+Wherever they came from, there is abundant evidence that their first
+occupation of the Australian continent must have been at a time so
+remote as to permit of no traditions. No record, no folk tales, as in
+the case of the Maoris of New Zealand, of their migration, are preserved
+by the Australians. True, there are legends and tales of tribal
+migrations and early tribal history, but nothing, as A.W. Howitt points
+out, which can be twisted into referring even indirectly to their first
+arrival. It is almost incredible there should be none, if the date of
+their arrival is to be reckoned as only dating back some centuries.
+Again, while they differ physically from neighbouring races, while there
+is practically nothing in common between them and the Malays, the
+Polynesians, or the Papuan Melanesians, they agree in type so closely
+among themselves that they must be regarded as forming one race. Yet it
+is noteworthy that the languages of their several tribes are different.
+The occurrence of a large number of common roots proves them to be
+derived from one source, but the great variety of dialects--sometimes
+unintelligible between tribes separated by only a few miles--cannot be
+explained except by supposing a vast period to have elapsed since their
+first settlement. There is evidence in the languages, too, which
+supports the physical separation from their New Zealand neighbours and,
+therefore, from the Polynesian family of races. The numerals in use were
+limited. In some tribes there were only three in use, in most four. For
+the number "five" a word meaning "many" was employed. This linguistic
+poverty proves that the Australian tongue has no affinity to the
+Polynesian group of languages, where denary enumeration prevails: the
+nearest Polynesians, the Maoris, counting in thousands. Further evidence
+of the antiquity of Australian man is to be found in the strict
+observance of tribal boundaries, which would seem to show that the
+tribes must have been settled a long time in one place.
+
+A further difficulty is created by a consideration of the Tasmanian
+people, extinct since 1876. For the Tasmanians in many ways closely
+approximated to the Papuan type. They had coarse, short, woolly hair and
+Papuan features. They clearly had no racial affinities with the
+Australians. They did not possess the boomerang or woomerah, and they
+had no boats. When they were discovered, a mere raft of reeds in which
+they could scarcely venture a mile from shore was their only means of
+navigation. Yet while the Tasmanians are so distinctly separated in
+physique and customs from the Australians, the fauna and flora of
+Tasmania and Australia prove that at one time the two formed one
+continent, and it would take an enormous time for the formation of Bass
+Strait. How did the Tasmanians with their Papuan affinities get so far
+south on a continent inhabited by a race so differing from Papuans? Did
+they get to Tasmania before or after its separation from the main
+continent? If before, why were they only found in the south? It would
+have been reasonable to expect to find them sporadically all over
+Australia. If after, how did they get there at all? For it is impossible
+to accept the theory of one writer that they sailed or rowed round the
+continent--a journey requiring enormous maritime skill, which, according
+to the theory, they must have promptly lost.
+
+Four points are clear: (1) the Australians represent a distinct race;
+(2) they have no kinsfolk among the neighbouring races; (3) they have
+occupied the continent for a very long period; (4) it would seem that
+the Tasmanians must represent a still earlier occupation of Australia,
+perhaps before the Bass Strait existed.
+
+Several theories have been propounded by ethnologists. An attempt has
+been made to show that the Australians have close affinities with the
+African negro peoples, and certain resemblances in language and in
+customs have been relied on. Sorcery, the scars raised on the body, the
+knocking out of teeth, circumcision and rules as to marriage have been
+quoted; but many such customs are found among savage peoples far distant
+from each other and entirely unrelated. The alleged language
+similarities have broken down on close examination. A.R. Wallace is of
+the opinion that the Australians "are really of Caucasian type and are
+more nearly allied to ourselves than to the civilized Japanese or the
+brave and intelligent Zulus." He finds near kinsmen for them in the
+Ainus of Japan, the Khmers and Chams of Cambodia and among some of the
+Micronesian islanders who, in spite of much crossing, still exhibit
+marked Caucasic types. He regards the Australians as representing the
+lowest and most primitive examples of this primitive Caucasic type, and
+he urges that they must have arrived in Australia at a time when their
+ancestors had no pottery, knew no agriculture, domesticated no animals,
+had no houses and used no bows and arrows. This theory has been
+supported by the investigations of Dr Klaatsch, of the university of
+Heidelberg, who would, however, date Australian ancestry still farther
+back, for his studies on the spot have convinced him that the
+Australians are "a generalized, not a specialized, type of
+humanity--that is to say, they are a very primitive people, with more of
+the common undeveloped characteristics of man, and less of the qualities
+of the specialized races of civilization." Dr Klaatsch's view is that
+they are survivals of a primitive race which inhabited a vast Antarctic
+continent of which South America, South Africa and Australia once formed
+a part, as evidenced by the identity of many species of birds and fish.
+He urges that the similarities of some of the primitive races of India
+and Africa to the aborigines of Australia are indications that they were
+peopled from one common stock. This theory, plausible and attractive as
+it is, and fitting in, as it does, with the acknowledged primitive
+character of the Australian blackfellow, overlooks, nevertheless, the
+Tasmanian difficulty. Why should a Papuan type be found in what was
+certainly once a portion of the Australian continent? The theory which
+meets this difficulty is that which has in its favour the greatest
+weight of evidence, viz. that the continent was first inhabited by a
+Papuan type of man who made his way thither from Flores and Timor, New
+Guinea and the Coral Sea. That in days so remote as to be undateable, a
+Dravidian people driven from their primitive home in the hills of the
+Indian Deccan made their way south via Ceylon (where they may to-day be
+regarded as represented by the Veddahs) and eventually sailed and
+drifted in their bark boats to the western and north-western shores of
+Australia. It is difficult to believe that they at first arrived in such
+numbers as at once to overwhelm the Papuan population. There were
+probably several migrations. What seems certain, if this theory is
+adopted, is that they did at last accumulate to an extent which
+permitted of their mastering the former occupiers of the soil, who were
+probably in very scattered and defenceless communities.
+
+In the slow process of time they drove them into the most southerly
+corner of Australia, just as the Saxons drove the Celts into Cornwall
+and the Welsh hills. Even if this Dravidian invasion is put subsequent
+to the Bass Strait forming, even if one allows the probability of much
+crossing between the two races at first, in time the hostilities would
+be renewed. With their earliest settlements on the north-north-west
+coasts, the Dravidians would probably tend to spread out north,
+north-east and east, and a southerly line of retreat would be the most
+natural one for the Papuans.[3] When at last they were driven to the
+Strait they would drift over on rafts or in clumsy shallops; being
+thereafter left in peace to concentrate their race, then possibly only
+in an approximately pure state, in the island to which the Dravidians
+would not take the trouble to follow them, and where they would have
+centuries in which once more to fix their racial type and emphasize over
+again those differences, perhaps temporarily marred by crossing, which
+were found to exist on the arrival of the Whites.
+
+This Indo-Aryan origin for the Australian blackfellows is borne out by
+their physique. In spite of their savagery they are admitted by those
+who have studied them to be far removed from the low or Simian type of
+man. Dr Charles Pickering (1805-1878), who studied the Australians on
+the spot, writes: "Strange as it may appear, I would refer to an
+Australian as the finest model of the human proportions I have ever met;
+in muscular development combining perfect symmetry, activity and
+strength, while his head might have compared with the antique bust of a
+philosopher." Huxley concluded, from descriptions, that "the Deccan
+tribes are indistinguishable from the Australian races." Sir W.W. Hunter
+states that the Dravidian tribes were driven southwards in Hindustan,
+and that the grammatical relations of their dialects are "expressed by
+suffixes," which is true as to the Australian languages. He states that
+Bishop Caldwell,[4] whom he calls "the great missionary scholar of the
+Dravidian tongue," showed that the south and western Australian tribes
+use almost the same words for "I, thou, he, we, you, as the Dravidian
+fishermen on the Madras coast." When in addition to all this it is found
+that physically the Dravidians resemble the Australians; that the
+boomerang is known among the wild tribes of the Deccan alone (with the
+doubtful exception of ancient Egypt) of all parts of the world except
+Australia, and that the Australian canoes are like those of the
+Dravidian coast tribes, it seems reasonable enough to assume that the
+Australian natives are Dravidians, exiled in remote times from
+Hindustan, though when their migration took place and how they traversed
+the Indian Ocean must remain questions to which, by their very nature,
+there can be no satisfactory answer.
+
+The low stage of culture of the Australians when they reached their new
+home is thus accounted for, but their stagnation is remarkable, because
+they must have been frequently in contact with more civilized peoples.
+In the north of Australia there are traces of Malay and Papuan blood.
+That a far more advanced race had at one time a settlement on the
+north-west coast is indicated by the cave-paintings and sculptures
+discovered by Sir George Grey. In caves of the valley of the Glenelg
+river, north-west Australia, about 60 m. inland and 20 m. south of
+Prince Regent's river, are representations of human heads and bodies,
+apparently of females clothed to the armpits, but all the faces are
+without any indication of mouths. The heads are surrounded with a kind
+of head-dress or halo and one wears a necklace. They are drawn in red,
+blue and yellow. The figures are almost life-size. Rough sculptures,
+too, were found, and two large square mounds formed of loose stones, and
+yet perfect parallelograms in outline, placed due east and west. In the
+same district Sir George Grey noticed among the blackfellows people he
+describes as "almost white." On the Gascoyne river, too, were seen
+natives of an olive colour, quite good-looking; and in the neighbourhood
+of Sydney rock-carvings have been also found. All this points to a
+temporary occupation by a race at a far higher stage of culture than any
+known Australians, who were certainly never capable of executing even
+the crude works of art described.
+
+
+  Physique.
+
+Physically the typical Australian is the equal of the average European
+in height, but is inferior in muscular development, the legs and arms
+being of a leanness which is often emphasized by an abnormal corpulence.
+The bones are delicately formed, and there is the lack of calf usual in
+black races. The skull is abnormally thick and the cerebral capacity
+small. The head is long and somewhat narrow, the forehead broad and
+receding, with overhanging brows, the eyes sunken, large and black, the
+nose thick and very broad at the nostrils. The mouth is large and the
+lips thick but not protuberant. The teeth are large, white and strong.
+In old age they appear much ground down; particularly is this the case
+with women, who chew the different kinds of fibres, of which they make
+nets and bags. The lower jaw is heavy; the cheekbones somewhat high, and
+the chin small and receding. The neck is thicker and shorter than that
+of most Europeans. The colour of the skin is a deep copper or chocolate,
+never sooty black. When born, the Australian baby is of a much lighter
+colour than its parents and remains so for about a week. The hair is
+long, black or very dark auburn, wavy and sometimes curly, but never
+woolly, and the men have luxuriant beards and whiskers, often of an
+auburn tint, while the whole body inclines to hairiness. On the Balonne
+river, Queensland, Baron Mikluho Maclay found a group of hairless
+natives. The head hair is usually matted with grease and dirt, but when
+clean is fine and glossy. The skin gives out an objectionable odour,
+owing to the habit of anointing the body with fish-oils, but the true
+fetor of the negro is lacking in the Australian. The voices of the
+blackfellows are musical. Their mental faculties, though inferior to
+those of the Polynesian race, are not contemptible. They have much
+acuteness of perception for the relations of individual objects, but
+little power of generalization. No word exists in their language for
+such general terms as tree, bird or fish; yet they have invented a name
+for every species of vegetable and animal they know. The grammatical
+structure of some north Australian languages has a considerable degree
+of refinement. The verb presents a variety of conjugations, expressing
+nearly all the moods and tenses of the Greek. There is a dual, as well
+as a plural form in the declension of verbs, nouns, pronouns and
+adjectives. The distinction of genders is not marked, except in proper
+names of men and women. All parts of speech, except adverbs, are
+declined by terminational inflections. There are words for the
+elementary numbers, one, two, three; but "four" is usually expressed by
+"two-two." They have no idea of decimals. The number and diversity of
+separate languages is bewildering.
+
+
+  Character.
+
+In disposition the Australians are a bright, laughter-loving folk, but
+they are treacherous, untruthful and hold human life cheaply. They have
+no great physical courage. They are mentally in the condition of
+children. None of them has an idea of what the West calls morality,
+except the simple one of right or wrong arising out of property. A wife
+will be beaten without mercy for unfaithfulness to her husband, but the
+same wife will have had to submit to the first-night promiscuity, a
+widespread revel which Roth shows is a regular custom in
+north-west-central Queensland. A husband claims his wife as his absolute
+property, but he has no scruple in handing her over for a time to
+another man. There is, however, no proof that anything like community of
+women or unlimited promiscuity exists anywhere. It would be wrong,
+however, to conclude that moral considerations have led up to this state
+of things. Of sexual morality, in the everyday sense of the word, there
+is none. In his treatment of women the aboriginal may be ranked lower
+than even the Fuegians. Yet the Australian is capable of strong
+affections, and the blind (of whom there have always been a great
+number) are cared for, and are often the best fed in a tribe.
+
+
+  Manners.
+
+The Australians when first discovered were found to be living in almost
+a prehistoric simplicity. Their food was the meat they killed in the
+chase, or seeds and roots, grubs or reptiles. They never, in any
+situation, cultivated the soil for any kind of food-crop. They never
+reared any kind of cattle, or kept any domesticated animal except the
+dog, which probably came over with them in their canoes. They nowhere
+built permanent dwellings, but contented themselves with mere hovels for
+temporary shelter. They neither manufactured nor possessed any chattels
+beyond such articles of clothing, weapons, ornaments and utensils as
+they might carry on their persons, or in the family store-bag for daily
+use. In most districts both sexes are entirely nude. Sometimes in the
+south during the cold season they wear a cloak of skin or matting,
+fastened with a skewer, but open on the right-hand side.
+
+When going through the bush they sometimes wear an apron of skins, for
+protection merely. No headgear is worn, except sometimes a net to
+confine the hair, a bunch of feathers, or the tails of small animals.
+The breast or back, of both sexes, is usually tattooed, or rather,
+scored with rows of hideous raised scars, produced by deep gashes made
+at puberty. Their dwellings for the most part are either bowers, formed
+of the branches of trees, or hovels of piled logs, loosely covered with
+grass or bark, which they can erect in an hour, wherever they encamp.
+But some huts of a more substantial form were seen by Captain Matthew
+Flinders on the south-east coast in 1799, and by Captain King and Sir T.
+Mitchell on the north-east, where they no longer appear. The ingenuity
+of the race is mostly exhibited in the manufacture of their weapons of
+warfare and the chase. While the use of the bow and arrow does not seem
+to have occurred to them, the spear and axe are in general use, commonly
+made of hard-wood; the hatchets of stone, and the javelins pointed with
+stone or bone. The characteristic weapon of the Australian is the
+boomerang (q.v.). Their nets, made by women, either of the tendons of
+animals or the fibres of plants, will catch and hold the kangaroo or the
+emu, or the very large fish of Australian rivers. Canoes of bent bark,
+for the inland waters, are hastily prepared at need; but the inlets and
+straits of the north-eastern sea-coast are navigated by larger canoes
+and rafts of a better construction. As to food, they are omnivorous. In
+central Queensland and elsewhere, snakes, both venomous and harmless,
+are eaten, the head being first carefully smashed to pulp with a stone.
+
+
+  Tribal organization.
+
+The tribal organization of the Australians was based on that of the
+family. There were no hereditary or formally elected chiefs, nor was
+there any vestige of monarchy. The affairs of a tribe were ruled by a
+council of men past middle age. Each tribe occupied a recognized
+territory, averaging perhaps a dozen square miles, and used a common
+dialect. This district was subdivided between the chief heads of
+families. Each family, or family group, had a dual organization which
+has been termed (1) the Social, (2) the Local. The first was
+matriarchal, inheritance being reckoned through the mother. No
+territorial association was needed. All belonged to the same totem or
+totemic class, and might be scattered throughout the tribe, though
+subject to the same marriage laws. The second was patriarchal and of a
+strictly territorial nature. A family or group of families had the same
+hunting-ground, which was seldom changed, and descended through the
+males. Thus, the sons inherited their fathers' hunting-ground, but bore
+their mothers' name and therewith the right to certain women for wives.
+The Social or matriarchal took precedence of the Local or patriarchal
+organization. In many cases it arranged the assemblies and ceremonial of
+the tribe; it regulated marriage, descent and relationship; it ordered
+blood feuds, it prescribed the rites of hospitality and so on.
+Nevertheless the Local side of tribal life in time tended to overwhelm
+the Social and to organize the tribe irrespective of matriarchy, and
+inclined towards hereditary chieftainship.
+
+The most intricate and stringent rules existed as to marriage within and
+without the totemic inter-marrying classes. There is said to be but one
+exception to the rule that marriage must be contracted outside the totem
+name. This exception was discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen among
+the Arunta of central Australia, some allied septs, and their nearest
+neighbours to the north, the Kaitish. This tribe may legally marry
+within the totem, but always avoids such unions. Even in casual amours
+these class laws were invariably observed, and the young man or woman
+who defied them was punished, he with death, she with spearing or
+beating. At the death of a man, his widows passed to his brother of the
+same totem class. Such a system gave to the elder men of a tribe a
+predominant position, and generally respect was shown to the aged. Laws
+and penalties in protection of property were enforced by the tribe.
+Thus, among some tribes of Western Australia the penalty for abducting
+another's wife was to stand with leg extended while each male of the
+tribe stuck his spear into it. Laws, however, did not protect the women,
+who were the mere chattels of their lords. Stringent rules, too,
+governed the food of women and the youth of both sexes, and it was only
+after initiation that boys were allowed to eat of all the game the
+forest provided. In every case of death from disease or unknown causes
+sorcery was suspected and an inquest held, at which the corpse was asked
+by each relative in succession the name of the murderer. This formality
+having been gone through, the flight of the first bird which passed over
+the body was watched, the direction being regarded as that in which the
+sorcerer must be sought. Sometimes the nearest relative sleeps with his
+head on the corpse, in the belief that he will dream of the murderer.
+The most sacred duty an Australian had to perform was the avenging of
+the death of a kinsman, and he was the object of constant taunts and
+insults till he had done so. Cannibalism was almost universal, either in
+the case of enemies killed in battle or when animal food was scarce. In
+the Luritcha tribe it was customary when a child was in weak health to
+kill a younger and healthy one and feed the weakling on its flesh.
+Cannibalism seems also to have sometimes been in the nature of a funeral
+observance, in honour of the deceased, of whom the relatives reverently
+ate portions.
+
+
+  Religion.
+
+They had no special forms of religious worship, and no idols. The
+evidence on the question of whether they believed in a Supreme Being is
+very contradictory. Messrs Spencer and Gillen appear to think that such
+rudimentary idea of an All-Father as has, it is thought, been detected
+among the blackfellows is an exotic growth fostered by contact with
+missionaries. A.W. Howitt and Dr Roth appear to have satisfied
+themselves of a belief, common to most tribes, in a mythic being (he has
+different names in different tribes) having some of the attributes of a
+Supreme Deity. But Mr Howitt finds in this being "no trace of a divine
+nature, though under favourable conditions the beliefs might have
+developed into an actual religion." Other authorities suggest that it is
+going much too far to deny the existence of religion altogether, and
+instance as proof of the divinity of the supra-normal anthropomorphic
+beings of the Baiame class, the fact that the Yuin and cognate tribes
+dance around the image of Daramulun (their equivalent of Baiame) and the
+medicine men "invocate his name." A good deal perhaps depends on each
+observer's view of what religion really is. The Australians believed in
+spirits, generally of an evil nature, and had vague notions of an
+after-life. The only idea of a god known to be entertained by them seems
+to be that of the Euahlayi and Kamilaori tribe, Baiame, a gigantic old
+man lying asleep for ages, with his head resting on his arm, which is
+deep in the sand. He is expected one day to awake and eat up the world.
+Researches go to show that Baiame has his counterpart in other tribes,
+the myth varying greatly in detail. But the Australians are
+distinguished by possessing elaborate initiatory ceremonies.
+Circumcision of one or two kinds was usual in the north and south, but
+not in Western Australia or on the Murray river. In South Australia boys
+had to undergo three stages of initiation in a place which women were
+forbidden to approach. At about ten they were covered with blood from
+head to foot, several elder men bleeding themselves for the purpose. At
+about twelve or fourteen circumcision took place and (or sometimes as an
+alternative on the east coast) a front tooth was knocked out, to the
+accompaniment of the booming of the bullroarer (q.v.). At the age of
+puberty the lad was tattooed or scarred with gashes cut in back,
+shoulders, arms and chest, and the septum of the nose was pierced. The
+gashes varied in patterns for the different tribes. Girls, too, were
+scarred at puberty and had teeth knocked out, &c. The ceremonies--known
+to the Whites under the native generic term for initiatory rites,
+_Bora_,--were much the same throughout Australia. Polygamy was rare, due
+possibly to the scarcity of women.[5] Infanticide was universally
+recognized. The mode of disposing of the dead varied. Among some tribes
+a circular grave was dug and the body placed in it with its face towards
+the east, and a high mound covered with bark or thatch raised over it.
+In New South Wales the body is often burned and the ashes buried. On the
+Lower Murray the body is placed on a platform of sticks and left to
+decay. Young children are often not buried for months, but are carried
+about by their mothers. At the funeral of men there is much mourning,
+the female relatives cutting or tearing their hair off and plastering
+their faces with clay, but for women no public ceremonies took place.
+
+The numbers of the native Australians are steadily diminishing. It was
+estimated that when first visited by Europeans the native population
+did not much exceed 200,000. A remnant of the race exists in each of the
+provinces, while a few tribes still wander over the interior.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Dr A.W. Howitt, _The Native Tribes of South-east
+  Australia_ (1904) and _On the Organization of Australian Tribes_
+  (1889); G.T. Bettany, _The Red, Brown and Black Men of Australia_
+  (1890); B. Spencer and F.J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
+  Australia_ (1899); _The Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London,
+  1904); E.M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (3 vols., 1886-1887); G.W.
+  Rusden, _History of Australia_ (1897); _Australasia_, British Empire
+  Series (Kegan Paul & Co., 1900); A.R. Wallace, _Australasia_ (1880,
+  new ed., 2 vols., 1893-1895); Rev. Lorimer Fison and Dr A.W. Howitt,
+  _Kamilaroi and Kurnai, Group Marriage and Relationship_ (Melbourne,
+  1880); H. Ling Roth, _Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane, 1897); Carl
+  Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_ (1889); Walter E. Roth, _Ethnological
+  Studies among the North-west-central Queensland Aborigines_ (London,
+  1897); Mrs K. Langloh Parker, _Euahlayi Tribes_ (1905); F.J. Gillen,
+  _Notes on Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Macdonnell
+  Ranges belonging to the Arunta Tribe_; J.E. Frazer, "The Beginnings of
+  Religion and Totemism among the Australian Aborigines," _Fortnightly
+  Review_, July 1905; N.W. Thomas, _Native Tribes of Australia_ (1907).
+       (C. Ar.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+1. _The Discovery of Australia_.
+
+It is impossible to say who were the first discoverers of Australia,
+although there is evidence that the Chinese had some knowledge of the
+continent so far back as the 13th century. The Malays, also, would seem
+to have been acquainted with the northern coast; while Marco Polo, who
+visited the East at the close of the 13th century, makes reference to
+the reputed existence of a great southern continent. There is in
+existence a map, dedicated to Henry VIII. of England, on which a large
+southern land is shown, and the tradition of a Terra Australis appears
+to have been current for a long period before it enters into authentic
+history.
+
+In 1503 a French navigator named Binot Paulmyer, sieur de Gonneville,
+was blown out of his course, and landed on a large island, which was
+claimed to be the great southern land of tradition, although Flinders
+and other authorities are inclined to think that it must have been
+Madagascar. Some French authorities confidently put forward a claim that
+Guillaume le Testu, of Provence, sighted the continent in 1531. The
+Portuguese also advance claims to be the first discoverers of Australia,
+but so far the evidence cannot be said to establish their pretensions.
+As early as 1597 the Dutch historian, Wytfliet, describes the Australis
+Terra as the most southern of all lands, and proceeds to give some
+circumstantial particulars respecting its geographical relation to New
+Guinea, venturing the opinion that, were it thoroughly explored, it
+would be regarded as a fifth part of the world.
+
+
+  De Torres.
+
+Early in the 17th century Philip III. of Spain sent out an expedition
+from Callao, in Peru, for the purpose of searching for a southern
+continent. The little fleet comprised three vessels, with the Portuguese
+pilot, De Quiros, as navigator, and De Torres as admiral or military
+commander. They left Callao on the 21st of December 1605, and in the
+following year discovered the island now known as Espiritu Santo, one of
+the New Hebrides group, which De Quiros, under the impression that it
+was indeed the land of which he was in search, named _La Austrialia del
+Espiritu Santo_. Sickness and discontent led to a mutiny on De Quiros'
+vessel, and the crew, overpowering their officers during the night,
+forced the captain to navigate his ship to Mexico. Thus, abandoned by
+his consort, De Torres, compelled to bear up for the Philippines to
+refit, discovered and sailed through the strait that bears his name, and
+may even have caught a glimpse of the northern coast of the Australian
+continent. His discovery was not, however, made known until 1792, when
+Dalrymple rescued his name from oblivion, bestowing it upon the passage
+which separates New Guinea from Australia. De Quiros returned to Spain
+to re-engage in the work of petitioning the king to despatch an
+expedition for the purpose of prosecuting the discovery of the Terra
+Australis. He was finally successful in his petitions, but died before
+accomplishing his work, and was buried in an unknown grave in Panama,
+never being privileged to set his foot upon the continent the discovery
+of which was the inspiration of his life.
+
+
+  Dutch discoverers.
+
+During the same year in which De Torres sailed through the strait
+destined to make him famous, a little Dutch vessel called the "Duyfken,"
+or "Dove," set sail from Bantam, in Java, on a voyage of discovery. This
+ship entered the Gulf of Carpentaria, and sailed south as far as Cape
+Keerweer, or Turn-again. Here some of the crew landed, but, being
+attacked by natives, made no attempt to explore the country. In 1616
+Dirk Hartog discovered the island bearing his name. In 1622 the
+"Leeuwin," or "Lioness," made some discoveries on the south-west coast;
+and during the following year the yachts "Pera" and "Arnheim" explored
+the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Arnheim Land, a portion of the
+Northern Territory, still appears on many maps as a memento of this
+voyage. Among other early Dutch discoverers were Edel; Pool, in 1629, in
+the Gulf of Carpentaria; Nuyts, in the "Guide Zeepaard," along the
+southern coast, which he called, after himself, Nuyts Land; De Witt; and
+Pelsaert, in the "Batavia." Pelsaert was wrecked on Houtman's Abrolhos;
+his crew mutinied, and he and his party suffered greatly from want of
+water. The record of his voyage is interesting from the fact that he was
+the first to carry back to Europe an authentic account of the western
+coast of Australia, which he described in any but favourable terms. It
+is to Dutch navigators in the early portion of the 17th century that we
+owe the first really authentic accounts of the western coast and
+adjacent islands, and in many instances the names given by these
+mariners to prominent physical features are still retained. By 1665 the
+Dutch possessed rough charts of almost the whole of the western
+littoral, while to the mainland itself they had given the name of New
+Holland. Of the Dutch discoverers, Pelsaert was the only one who made
+any detailed observations of the character of the country inland, and it
+may here be remarked that his journal contains the first notice and
+description of the kangaroo that has come down to us.
+
+In 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman sailed on a voyage of discovery from
+Batavia, the headquarters of the governor and council of the Dutch East
+Indies, under whose auspices the expedition was undertaken. He was
+furnished with a yacht, the "Heemskirk," and a fly-boat, the "Zeehaen"
+(or "Sea Hen"), under the command of Captain Jerrit Jansen. He left
+Batavia on what has been designated by Dutch historians the "Happy
+Voyage," on the 14th of August 1642. After a visit to the Mauritius,
+then a Dutch possession, Tasman bore away to the south-east, and on the
+24th of November sighted the western coast of the land which he named
+Van Diemen's Land, in honour of the governor under whose directions he
+was acting. The honour was later transferred to the discoverer himself,
+and the island is now known as Tasmania. Tasman doubled the southern
+extremity of Van Diemen's Land and explored the east coast for some
+distance. The ceremony of hoisting a flag and taking possession of the
+country in the name of the government of the Netherlands was actually
+performed, but the description of the wildness of the country, and of
+the fabulous giants by which Tasman's sailors believed it to be
+inhabited, deterred the Dutch from occupying the island, and by the
+international principle of "non-user" it passed from their hands.
+Resuming his voyage in an easterly direction, Tasman sighted the west
+coast of the South Island of New Zealand on the 13th of December of the
+same year, and describes the coast-line as consisting of "high
+mountainous country."
+
+
+  Dampier.
+
+The first English navigator to sight the Australian continent was
+William Dampier, who made a visit to these shores in 1688, as supercargo
+of the "Cygnet," a trader whose crew had turned buccaneers. On his
+return to England he published an account of his voyage, which resulted
+in his being sent out in the "Roebuck" in 1699 to prosecute his
+discoveries further. To him we owe the exploration of the coast for
+about 900 m.--from Shark's Bay to Dampier's Archipelago, and thence to
+Roebuck Bay. He appears to have landed in several places in search of
+water. His account of the country was quite as unfavourable as
+Pelsaert's. He described it as barren and sterile, and almost devoid of
+animals, the only one of any importance somewhat resembling a raccoon--a
+strange creature, which advanced by great bounds or leaps instead of
+walking, using only its hind legs, and covering 12 or 15 ft. at a time.
+The reference is, of course, to the kangaroo, which Pelsaert had also
+remarked and quaintly described some sixty years previously.
+
+During the interval elapsing between Dampier's two voyages, an accident
+led to the closer examination of the coasts of Western Australia by the
+Dutch. In 1684 a vessel had sailed from Holland for the Dutch
+possessions in the East Indies, and after rounding the Cape of Good
+Hope, she was never again heard of. Some twelve years afterwards the
+East India Company fitted out an expedition under the leadership of
+Commander William de Vlamingh, with the object of searching for any
+traces of the lost vessel on the western shores of New Holland. Towards
+the close of the year 1696 this expedition reached the island of
+Rottnest, which was thoroughly explored, and early the following year a
+landing party discovered and named the Swan river. The vessels then
+proceeded northward without finding any traces of the object of their
+search, but, at the same time, making fairly accurate charts of the
+coast-line.
+
+
+  Cook.
+
+The great voyage of Captain James Cook, in 1769-1770, was primarily
+undertaken for the purposes of observing the transit of Venus, but he
+was also expressly commissioned to ascertain "whether the unexplored
+part of the southern hemisphere be only an immense mass of water, or
+contain another continent." H.M.S. "Endeavour," the vessel fitted out
+for the voyage, was a small craft of 370 tons, carrying twenty-two guns,
+and built originally for a collier, with a view rather to strength than
+to speed. Chosen by Cook himself, she was renamed the "Endeavour," in
+allusion to the great work which her commander was setting out to
+achieve. Mr Charles Green was commissioned to conduct the astronomical
+observations, and Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander were appointed
+botanists to the expedition. After successfully observing the transit
+from the island of Tahiti, or Otaheite, as Cook wrote it, the
+"Endeavour's" head was turned south, and then north-west, beating about
+the Pacific in search of the eastern coast of the great continent whose
+western shores had been so long known to the Dutch. On the 6th of
+October 1769 the coast of New Zealand was sighted, and two days later
+Cook cast anchor in Poverty Bay, so named from the inhospitality and
+hostility of the natives.
+
+After voyaging westward for nearly three weeks, Cook, on the 19th of
+April 1770, sighted the eastern coast of Australia at a point which he
+named after his lieutenant, who discovered it, Point Hicks, and which
+modern geographers identify with Cape Everard.
+
+The "Endeavour" then coasted northward, and after passing and naming
+Mount Dromedary, the Pigeon House, Point Upright, Cape St George and Red
+Point, Botany Bay was discovered on the 28th of April 1770, and as it
+appeared to offer a suitable anchorage, the "Endeavour" entered the bay
+and dropped anchor. The ship brought-to opposite a group of natives, who
+were cooking over a fire. The great navigator and his crew, unacquainted
+with the character of the Australian aborigines, were not a little
+astonished that these natives took no notice of them or their
+proceedings. Even the splash of the anchor in the water, and the noise
+of the cable running out through the hawse-hole, in no way disturbed
+them at their occupation, or caused them to evince the slightest
+curiosity. But as the captain of the "Endeavour" ordered out the pinnace
+and prepared to land, the natives threw off their nonchalance; for on
+the boat approaching the shore, two men, each armed with a bundle of
+spears, presented themselves on a projecting rock and made threatening
+signs to the strangers. It is interesting to note that the ingenious
+_wommera_, or throw-stick, which is peculiar to Australia, was first
+observed on this occasion. As the men were evidently determined to
+oppose any attempt at landing, a musket was discharged between them, in
+the hope that they would be frightened by the noise, but it produced no
+effect beyond causing one of them to drop his bundle of spears, of
+which, however, he immediately repossessed himself, and with his comrade
+resumed the same menacing attitude. At last one cast a stone towards the
+boat, which earned him a charge of small shot in the leg. Nothing
+daunted, the two ran back into the bush, and presently returned
+furnished with shields made of bark, with which to protect themselves
+from the firearms of the crew. Such intrepidity is certainly worthy of
+passing notice. Unlike the American Indians, who supposed Columbus and
+his crew to be supernatural beings, and their ships in some way endowed
+with life, and were thrown into convulsions of terror by the first
+discharge of firearms which they witnessed, these Australians were
+neither excited to wonder by the ship nor overawed by the superior
+number and unknown weapons of the strangers. Cook examined the bay in
+the pinnace, and landed several times; but by no endeavour could he
+induce the natives to hold any friendly communication with him. The
+well-known circumstance of the great variety of new plants here
+obtained, from which Botany Bay derives its name, should not be passed
+over. Before quitting the bay the ceremony was performed of hoisting the
+Union Jack, first on the south shore, and then near the north head,
+formal possession of the territory being thus taken for the British
+crown. During the sojourn in Botany Bay the crew had to perform the
+painful duty of burying a comrade--a seaman named Forby Sutherland, who
+was in all probability the first British subject whose body was
+committed to Australian soil.
+
+After leaving Botany Bay, Cook sailed northward. He saw and named Port
+Jackson, but forbore to enter the finest natural harbour in Australia.
+Broken Bay and other inlets, and several headlands, were also seen and
+named, but the vessel did not come to an anchor till Moreton Bay was
+reached, although the wind prevented Cook from entering this harbour.
+Still sailing northward, taking notes as he proceeded for a rough chart
+of the coast, and landing at Bustard and Keppel Bays and the Bay of
+Inlets, Cook passed over 1300 m. without the occurrence of any event
+worthy of being chronicled, till suddenly one night at ten o'clock the
+water was found to shoal, without any sign of breakers or land. While
+Cook was speculating on the cause of this phenomenon, and was in the act
+of ordering out the boats to take soundings, the "Endeavour" struck
+heavily, and fell over so much that the guns, spare cables, and other
+heavy gear had at once to be thrown overboard to lighten the ship. As
+day broke, attempts were made to float the vessel off with the morning
+tide; but these were unsuccessful. The water was rising so rapidly in
+the hold that with four pumps constantly going the crew could hardly
+keep it in check. At length one of the midshipmen suggested the device
+of "fothering," which he had seen practised in the West Indies. This
+consists of passing a sail, attached to cords, and charged with oakum,
+wool, and other materials, under the vessel's keel, in such a manner
+that the suction of the leak may draw the canvas into the aperture, and
+thus partially stop the vent. This was performed with great success, and
+the vessel was floated off with the evening tide. The land was soon
+after made near the mouth of a small stream, which Cook called, after
+the ship, the Endeavour river. A headland close by he named Cape
+Tribulation. The ship was steered into the river, and there careened and
+thoroughly repaired. Cook having completed the survey of the east coast,
+to which he gave the name of New South Wales, sighted and named Cape
+York, the northernmost point of Australia, and took final possession of
+his discoveries northward from 38° S. to 10½° S., on a spot which he
+named Possession Island, thence returning to England by way of Torres
+Straits and the Indian Ocean.
+
+The great navigator's second voyage, undertaken in 1772, with the
+"Resolution" and the "Adventure," is of less importance. The vessels
+became separated, and both at different times visited New Zealand.
+Captain Tobias Furneaux, in the "Adventure," also found his way to Storm
+Bay in Tasmania. In 1777, while on his way to search for a north-east
+passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Cook again touched at
+the coast of Tasmania and New Zealand.
+
+On his first voyage, in 1770, Cook had some grounds for the belief that
+Van Diemen's Land, as Tasmania was then called, was a separate island.
+The observations of Captain Furneaux, however, did not strengthen this
+belief, and when making his final voyage, the great navigator appears to
+have definitely concluded that it was part of the mainland of Australia.
+This continued to be the opinion of geographers until 1798, when Bass
+discovered the strait which bears his name. The next recorded expedition
+is a memorable one in the annals of Australian history--the despatch of
+a British colony to the shores of Botany Bay. The fleet sailed in May
+1787, and arrived off the Australian coast early in the following
+January.
+
+
+2. _Inland Exploration._
+
+For a period of twenty-five years after the first establishment of a
+British settlement in Australia, the colonists were only acquainted with
+the country along the coast extending northwards about 70 m. from Sydney
+and about a like distance to the south and shut in to the west by the
+Blue Mountain range, forming a narrow strip not more than 50 m. wide at
+its broadest part.
+
+
+  Oxley.
+
+The Blue Mountains attain a height of between 3000 and 4000 ft. only,
+but they are intersected with precipitous ravines 1500 ft. deep, which
+baffled every effort to reach the interior until in 1813, when a summer
+of severe drought had made it of vital importance to find new pastures,
+three of the colonists, Messrs Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth, more
+fortunate than their predecessors in exploration, after crossing the
+Nepean river at Emu Plains and ascending the Dividing Range, were able
+to reach a position enabling them to obtain a view of the grassy valley
+of the Fish river, which lies on the farther side of the Dividing Range.
+The western descent of the mountains appeared to the explorers
+comparatively easy, and they returned to report their discovery. A line
+of road was constructed across the mountains as far as the Macquarie
+river by the surveyor, Mr Evans, and the town of Bathurst laid out. This
+marks the beginning of the occupation of the interior of the continent.
+Some small expeditions were made from Bathurst, resulting in the
+discovery of the Lachlan, and in 1816 the first of the great exploration
+expeditions of Australia was fitted out under Lieutenant Oxley, R.N.
+Oxley was accompanied by Mr Evans and Mr Allan Cunningham the botanist,
+and the object of his expedition was to trace the course of the Lachlan
+in a westerly direction. Oxley traced the river until it lost itself in
+the swamps east of 147° E., then crossing the river he traversed the
+country between the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee as far as 34° S. and 144°
+30' E. On his return journey Oxley again crossed the Lachlan about 160
+m., measured along the river, below the point where he left it on his
+journey south. Continuing in a north-easterly direction Oxley struck the
+Macquarie river at a place he called Wellington, and from this place in
+the following year he organized a second expedition in hopes of
+discovering an inland sea. He was, however, disappointed in this, as
+after descending the course of the Macquarie below Mount Harris, he
+found that the river ended in an immense swamp overgrown with reeds.
+Oxley now turned aside--led by Mr Evans's report of the country
+eastward--crossed the Arbuthnot range, and traversing the Liverpool
+Plains, and ascending the Peel and Cockburn rivers to the Blue
+Mountains, gained sight of the open sea, which he reached at Port
+Macquarie. A valuable extension of geographical knowledge had been
+gained by this circuitous journey of more than 800 m. Yet its result was
+a disappointment to those who had looked for means of inland navigation
+by the Macquarie river, and by its supposed issue in a mediterranean
+sea.
+
+During the next two or three years public attention was occupied with
+Captain King's maritime explorations of the north-west coast in three
+successive voyages, and by explorations of Western Australia in 1821.
+These steps were followed by the foundation of a settlement on Melville
+Island, in the extreme north, which, however, was soon abandoned. In
+1823 Lieutenant Oxley proceeded to Moreton Bay and Port Curtis, the
+first place 500 m., the other 690 m. north of Sydney, to choose the site
+of a new penal establishment. From a shipwrecked English sailor he met
+with, who had lived with the savages, he heard of the river Brisbane.
+About the same time, in the opposite direction, south-west of Sydney, a
+large extent of the interior was revealed. Messrs Hamilton Hume and
+Hovell set out from Lake George, crossed the Murrumbidgee, and, after
+following the river for a short distance, struck south, skirting the
+foothills of what are now known as the Australian Alps until they
+reached a fine river, which was called the Hume after the leader's
+father. Crossing the Murray at Albury, the explorers, bearing to the
+south-west, skirted the western shore of Port Philip and reached the
+sea-coast near where the town of Geelong now stands. In 1827 and the two
+following years, Cunningham prosecuted instructive explorations on both
+sides of the Liverpool range, between the upper waters of the Hunter and
+those of the Peel and other tributaries of the Brisbane north of New
+South Wales. Some of his discoveries, including those of Pandora's Pass
+and the Darling Downs, were of great practical utility.
+
+
+  Darling.
+
+By this time much had thus been done to obtain an acquaintance with the
+eastern parts of the Australian continent, although the problem of what
+could become of the large rivers flowing north-west and south-west into
+the interior was still unsolved. With a view to determine this question,
+Governor Sir Ralph Darling, in the year 1828, sent out the expedition
+under Captain Charles Sturt, who, proceeding first to the marshes at the
+end of the Macquarie river, found his progress checked by the dense mass
+of reeds in that quarter. He therefore turned westward, and struck a
+large river, with many affluents, to which he gave the name of the
+Darling. This river, flowing from north-east to south-west, drains the
+marshes in which the Macquarie and other streams from the south appeared
+to be lost. The course of the Murrumbidgee, a deep and rapid river, was
+followed by the same eminent explorer in his second expedition in 1831
+with a more satisfactory result. He travelled on this occasion nearly
+2000 m., and discovered that both the Murrumbidgee, carrying with it the
+waters of the Lachlan morass, and likewise the Darling, from a more
+northerly region, finally joined another and larger river. This stream,
+the Murray, in the upper part of its course runs in a north-westerly
+direction, but afterwards turning southwards, almost at a right angle,
+expands into Lake Alexandrina on the south coast, about 60 m. south-east
+of the town of Adelaide, and finally enters the sea at Encounter Bay in
+E. long. 139°.
+
+
+  Mitchell.
+
+After gaining a practical solution of the problem of the destination of
+the westward-flowing rivers, Sir Thomas Mitchell, in 1833, led an
+expedition northward to the upper branches of the Darling; the party met
+with a sad disaster in the death of Richard Cunningham, brother of the
+eminent botanist, who was murdered by the blacks near the Bogan river.
+The expedition reached the Darling on the 25th of May 1833, and after
+establishing a depot at Fort Bourke, Mitchell traced the Darling
+southwards for 300 m. until he was certain the river was identical with
+that reported by Sturt as joining the Murray about 142° E.
+
+
+  Eyre.
+
+Meantime, from the new colony of Adelaide, South Australia, on the
+shores of Gulf St Vincent, a series of adventurous journeys to the north
+and to the west was begun by Mr Eyre, who explored a country very
+difficult of access. In 1840 he performed a feat of extraordinary
+personal daring, travelling all the way along the barren sea-coast of
+the Great Australian Bight, from Spencer Gulf to King George Sound. Eyre
+also explored the interior north of the head of Spencer Gulf, where he
+was misled, however, by appearances to form an erroneous theory about
+the water-surfaces named Lake Torrens. It was left to the veteran
+explorer, Sturt, to achieve the arduous enterprise of penetrating from
+the Darling northward to the very centre of the continent. This was in
+1845, the route lying for the most part over a stony desert, where the
+heat (reaching 131° Fahr.), with scorching winds, caused much suffering
+to the party. The most northerly point reached by Sturt on this occasion
+was about S. lat. 24° 25'.
+
+[Illustration: Map: Australia]
+
+
+  Leichhardt.
+
+A military station having been fixed by the British government at Port
+Victoria, on the coast of Arnheim Land, for the protection of
+shipwrecked mariners on the north coast, it was thought desirable to
+find an overland route between this settlement and Moreton Bay, in what
+then was the northern portion of New South Wales, now called Queensland.
+This was the object of Dr Leichhardt's expedition in 1844, which
+proceeded first along the banks of the Dawson and the Mackenzie,
+tributaries of the Fitzroy river, in Queensland. It thence passed
+farther north to the Burdekin, ascending to the source of that river,
+and turned westward across a table-land, from which there was an easy
+descent to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Skirting the low shores of this
+gulf, all the way round its upper half to the Roper, Leichhardt crossed
+Arnheim Land to the Alligator river, which he descended to the western
+shore of the peninsula, and arrived at Port Victoria, otherwise Port
+Essington, after a journey of 3000 m., performed within a year and three
+months. In 1847 Leichhardt undertook a much more formidable task, that
+of crossing the entire continent from east to west. His starting-point
+was on the Fitzroy Downs, north of the river Condamine, in Queensland,
+between the 26th and 27th degrees of S. latitude. But this eminent
+explorer had not proceeded far into the interior before he met his
+death, his last despatch dating from the Cogoon, 3rd of April 1848. In
+the same region, from 1845 to 1847, Sir Thomas Mitchell and Mr E.B.
+Kennedy explored the northern tributaries of the Darling, and a river in
+S. lat. 24°, named the Barcoo or Victoria, which flows to the
+south-west. This river was more thoroughly examined by Mr A.C. Gregory
+in 1858. Mr Kennedy lost his life in 1848, being killed by the natives
+while attempting to explore the peninsula of Cape York, from Rockingham
+Bay to Weymouth Bay.
+
+Among the performances of less renown, but of much practical utility in
+surveying and opening new paths through the country, we may mention that
+of Captain Banister, showing the way across the southern part of Western
+Australia, from Swan river to King George Sound, and that of Messrs
+Robinson and G.H. Haydon in 1844, making good the route from Port
+Phillip to Gipps' Land with loaded drays, through a dense tangled scrub,
+which had been described by Strzelecki as his worst obstacle. Again, in
+Western Australia there were the explorations of the Arrowsmith, the
+Murchison, the Gascoyne, and the Ashburton rivers, by Captain Grey, Mr
+Roe, Governor Fitzgerald, Mr R. Austin, and the brothers Gregory, whose
+discoveries have great importance from a geographical point of view.
+
+
+  Stuart.
+
+These local researches, and the more comprehensive attempts of
+Leichhardt and Mitchell to solve the chief problems of Australian
+geography, must yield in importance to the grand achievement of Mr
+Stuart in 1862. The first of his tours independently performed, in 1858
+and 1859, were around the South Australian lakes, namely, Lake Torrens,
+Lake Eyre and Lake Gairdner. These waters had been erroneously taken for
+parts of one vast horse-shoe or sickle shaped lake, only some 20 m.
+broad, believed to encircle a large portion of the inland country, with
+drainage at one end by a marsh into Spencer Gulf. The mistake, shown in
+all the old maps of Australia, had originated in a curious optical
+illusion. When Mr Eyre viewed the country from Mount Deception in 1840,
+looking between Lake Torrens and the lake which now bears his own name,
+the refraction of light from the glittering crust of salt that covers a
+large space of stony or sandy ground produced an appearance of water.
+The error was discovered, after eighteen years, by the explorations of
+Mr Babbage and Major Warburton in 1858, while Mr Stuart, about the same
+time, gained a more complete knowledge of the same district.
+
+A reward of £10,000 having been offered by the legislature of South
+Australia to the first man who should traverse the whole continent from
+south to north, starting from the city of Adelaide, Mr Stuart resolved
+to make the attempt. He started in March 1860, passing Lake Torrens and
+Lake Eyre, beyond which he found a pleasant, fertile country till he
+crossed the Macdonnell range of mountains, just under the line of the
+tropic of Capricorn. On the 23rd of April he reached a mountain in S.
+lat. nearly 22°, and E. long. nearly 134°, which is the most central
+marked point of the Australian continent, and has been named Central
+Mount Stuart. Mr Stuart did not finish his task on this occasion, on
+account of indisposition and other causes. But the 18th degree of
+latitude had been reached, where the watershed divided the rivers of the
+Gulf of Carpentaria from the Victoria river, flowing towards the
+north-west coast. He had also proved that the interior of Australia was
+not a stony desert, like the region visited by Sturt in 1845. On the
+first day of the next year, 1861, Mr Stuart again started for a second
+attempt to cross the continent, which occupied him eight months. He
+failed, however, to advance farther than one geographical degree north
+of the point reached in 1860, his progress being arrested by dense
+scrubs and the want of water.
+
+
+  Burke and Wills.
+
+Meanwhile, in the province of Victoria, by means of a fund subscribed
+among the colonists and a grant by the legislature, the ill-fated
+expedition of Messrs Burke and Wills was started. It made for the Barcoo
+(Cooper's Creek), with a view to reach the Gulf of Carpentaria by a
+northerly course midway between Sturt's track to the west and
+Leichhardt's to the east. The leading men of the party were Mr Robert
+O'Hara Burke, an officer of police, and Mr William John Wills, of the
+Melbourne observatory. Leaving the main body of his party at Menindie on
+the Darling under a man named Wright, Burke, with seven men, five horses
+and sixteen camels, pushed on for Cooper's Creek, the understanding
+being that Wright should follow him in easy stages to the depot proposed
+to be there established. Wright frittered away his time in the district
+beyond the Darling and did not attempt to follow the party to Cooper's
+Creek, and Burke, tired of waiting, determined to push on. Accordingly,
+dividing his party, leaving at the depot four men and taking with him
+Wills and two men, King and Gray, with a horse and six camels, he left
+Cooper's Creek on the 16th of December and crossed the desert traversed
+by Sturt fifteen years before. They got on in spite of great
+difficulties, past the McKinlay range of mountains, S. lat. 21° and 22°,
+and then reached the Flinders river, which flows into the head of the
+Gulf of Carpentaria. Here, without actually standing on the sea-beach of
+the northern shore, they met the tidal waters of the sea. On the 23rd of
+February 1861 they commenced the return journey, having in effect
+accomplished the feat of crossing the Australian continent. Gray, who
+had fallen ill, died on the 16th of April. Five days later, Burke, Wills
+and King had repassed the desert to the place on Cooper's Creek (the
+Barcoo, S. lat. 27° 40', E. long. 140° 30'), where they had left the
+depot, with the rest of the expedition. Here they experienced a cruel
+disappointment. The depot was abandoned; the men in charge had quitted
+the place the same day, believing that Burke and those with him were
+lost. The men who had thus abandoned the depot rejoined the main body of
+the expedition under Wright, who at length moved to Cooper's Creek, and,
+incredible to relate, neglected to search for the missing explorers.
+Burke, Wills and King, when they found themselves so fearfully left
+alone and unprovided in the wilderness, wandered about in that district
+till near the end of June. They subsisted miserably on the bounty of
+some natives, and partly by feeding on the seeds of a plant called
+nardoo. At last both Wills and Burke died of starvation. King, the sole
+survivor, was saved by meeting the friendly blacks, and was found alive
+in September by Mr A.W. Howitt's party, sent on purpose to find and
+relieve that of Burke.
+
+Four other parties, besides Howitt's, were sent out that year from
+different Australian provinces. Three of them, respectively commanded by
+Mr Walker, Mr Landsborough, and Mr Norman, sailed to the north, where
+the latter two landed on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, while Mr
+Walker marched inland from Rockhampton. The fourth party, under Mr J.
+McKinlay, from Adelaide, made for the Barcoo by way of Lake Torrens. By
+these means, the unknown region of Mid Australia was simultaneously
+entered from the north, south, east and west, and important additions
+were made to geographical knowledge Landsborough crossed the entire
+continent from north to south. between February and June 1862; and
+McKinlay, from south to north, before the end of August in that year.
+The interior of New South Wales and Queensland, all that lies east of
+the 140th degree of longitude, was examined. The Barcoo or Cooper's
+Creek and its tributary streams were traced from the Queensland
+mountains, holding a south-westerly course to Lake Eyre in South
+Australia; the Flinders, the Gilbert, the Gregory, and other northern
+rivers watering the country towards the Gulf of Carpentaria were also
+explored. These valuable additions to Australian geography were gained
+through humane efforts to relieve the lost explorers. The bodies of
+Burke and Wills were recovered and brought to Melbourne for a solemn
+public funeral, and a noble monument has been erected to their honour.
+
+Mr Stuart, in 1862, made his third and final attempt to traverse the
+continent from Adelaide along a central line, which, inclining a little
+westward, reaches the north coast of Arnheim Land, opposite Melville
+Island. He started in January, and on the 7th of April reached the
+farthest northern point, near S. lat. 17°, where he had turned back in
+May of the preceding year. He then pushed on, through a very thick
+forest, with scarcely any water, till he came to the streams which
+supply the Roper, a river flowing into the western part of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria. Having crossed a table-land of sandstone which divides
+these streams from those running to the western shores of Arnheim Land,
+Mr Stuart, in the month of July, passed down what is called the Adelaide
+river of north Australia. Thus he came at length to stand on the verge
+of the Indian Ocean; "gazing upon it," a writer has said, "with as much
+delight as Balboa, when he crossed the Isthmus of Darien from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific." The line crossing Australia which was thus
+explored has since been occupied by the electric telegraph connecting
+Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and other Australian cities with London.
+
+
+  Gosse.
+
+  Warburton.
+
+A third part, at least, of the interior of the whole continent, between
+the central line of Stuart and the known parts of Western Australia,
+from about 120° to 134° E. long., an extent of half a million square
+miles, still remained a blank in the map. But the two expeditions of
+1873, conducted by William Christie Gosse (1842-1881), afterwards deputy
+surveyor-general for South Australia, and Colonel (then Major) Egerton
+Warburton, made a beginning in the exploration of this _terra incognita_
+west of the central telegraph route. That line of more than 1800 m.,
+having its southern extremity at the head of Spencer Gulf, its northern
+at Port Darwin, in Arnheim Land, passes Central Mount Stuart, in the
+middle of the continent, S. lat. 22°, E. long. 134°. Mr Gosse, with men
+and horses provided by the South Australian government, started on the
+21st of April from the telegraph station 50 m. south of Central Mount
+Stuart, to strike into Western Australia. He passed the Reynolds range
+and Lake Amadeus in that direction, but was compelled to turn south,
+where he found a tract of well-watered grassy land. A singular rock of
+conglomerate, 2 m. long, 1 m. wide, and 1100 ft. high, with a spring of
+water in its centre, struck his attention. The country was mostly poor
+and barren, sandy hillocks, with scanty growth of spinifex. Mr Gosse,
+having travelled above 600 m., and getting to 26° 32' S. and 127° E.,
+two degrees within the Western Australian boundary, was forced to
+return. Meantime a more successful attempt to reach the western coast
+from the centre of Australia was made by Major Warburton, with thirty
+camels, provided by Mr (afterwards Sir) T. Elder, of South Australia.
+Leaving the telegraph line at Alice Springs (23° 40' S., 133° 14' E.),
+1120 m. north of Adelaide city, Warburton succeeded in making his way to
+the De Grey river, Western Australia. Overland routes had now been found
+possible, though scarcely convenient for traffic, between all the widely
+separated Australian provinces. In northern Queensland, also, there were
+several explorations about this period, with results of some interest.
+That performed by Mr W. Hann, with Messrs Warner, Tate and Taylor, in
+1873, related to the country north of the Kirchner range, watered by the
+Lynd, the Mitchell, the Walsh and the Palmer rivers, on the east side of
+the Gulf of Carpentaria. The coasting expedition of Mr G. Elphinstone
+Dalrymple, with Messrs Hill and Johnstone, finishing in December 1873,
+effected a valuable survey of the inlets and navigable rivers in the
+Cape York Peninsula.
+
+
+  Forrest.
+
+  Giles.
+
+Of the several attempts to cross Western Australia, even Major
+Warburton's expedition, the most successful, had failed in the important
+particular of determining the nature of the country through which it
+passed. Major Warburton had virtually raced across from the Macdonnell
+range in South Australia to the headwaters of the Oakover river on the
+north-west coast, without allowing himself sufficient time to note the
+characteristics of the country. The next important expedition was
+differently conducted. John (afterwards Sir John) Forrest was despatched
+by the Perth government with general instructions to obtain information
+regarding the immense tract of country out of which flow the rivers
+falling into the sea on the northern and western shores of Western
+Australia. Leaving Yewin, a small settlement about lat. 28° S., long.
+116° E., Forrest travelled north-east to the Murchison river, and
+followed the course of that river to the Robinson ranges; thence his
+course lay generally eastward along the 26th parallel. Forrest and his
+party safely crossed the entire extent of Western Australia, and
+entering South Australia struck the overland telegraph line at Peake
+station, and, after resting, journeyed south to Adelaide. Forrest
+traversed seventeen degrees of desert in five months, a very wonderful
+achievement, more especially as he was able to give a full report of the
+country through which he passed. His report destroyed all hope that
+pastoral settlement would extend to the spinifex region; and the main
+object of subsequent explorers was to determine the extent of the desert
+in the direction of north and south. Ernest Giles made several attempts
+to cross the Central Australian Desert, but it was not until his third
+attempt that he was successful. His journey ranks almost with Forrest's
+in the importance of its results and the success with which the
+appalling difficulties of the journey were overcome. Through the
+generosity of Sir Thomas Elder, of Adelaide, Giles's expedition was
+equipped with camels. It started on the 23rd of May 1875 from Port
+Augusta. Working westerly along the line of the 30th parallel, Giles
+reached Perth in about five months. After resting in Perth for a short
+time, he commenced the return journey, which was made for the most part
+between the 24th and 25th parallels, and again successfully traversed
+the desert, reaching the overland telegraph line in about seven months.
+Giles's journeys added greatly to our knowledge of the characteristics
+of Western and South Australia, and he was able to bear out the common
+opinion that the interior of Australia west of 132° E. long, is a sandy
+and waterless waste, entirely unfit for settlement.
+
+
+  Recent explorers.
+
+The list of explorers since 1875 is a long one; but after Forrest's and
+Giles's expeditions the main object ceased to be the discovery of
+pastoral country: a new zest had been added to the cause of exploration,
+and most of the smaller expeditions concerned themselves with the search
+for gold. Amongst the more important explorations may be ranked those of
+Tietkins in 1889, of Lindsay in 1891, of Wells in 1896, of Hübbe in
+1896, and of the Hon. David Carnegie in 1896-97. Lindsay's expedition,
+which was fitted out by Sir Thomas Elder, the generous patron of
+Australian exploration, entered Western Australia about the 26th
+parallel south lat., on the line of route taken by Forrest in 1874. From
+this point the explorer worked in a south-westerly direction to Queen
+Victoria Springs, where he struck the track of Giles's expedition of
+1875. From the Springs the expedition went north-west and made a useful
+examination of the country lying between 119° and 115° meridians and
+between 26° and 28° S. lat. Wells's expedition started from a base about
+122° 20' E. and 25° 54' S., and worked northward to the Joanna Springs,
+situated on the tropic of Capricorn and near the 124th meridian. From
+the springs the journey was continued along the same meridian to the
+Fitzroy river. The country passed through was mostly of a forbidding
+character, except where the Kimberley district was entered, and the
+expedition suffered even more than the usual hardships. The
+establishment of the gold-fields, with their large population, caused
+great interest to be taken in the discovery of practicable stock routes,
+especially from South Australia in the east, and from Kimberley district
+in the north. Alive to the importance of the trade, the South Australian
+government despatched Hübbe from Oodnadatta to Coolgardie. He
+successfully accomplished his journey, but had to report that there was
+no practicable route for cattle between the two districts.
+
+One of the most successful expeditions which traversed Western Australia
+was that led and equipped by the Hon. David Carnegie, which started in
+July 1896, and travelled north-easterly until it reached Alexander
+Spring; then turning northward, it traversed the country between Wells's
+track of 1896 and the South Australian border. The expedition
+encountered very many hardships, but successfully reached Hall Creek in
+the Kimberley district. After a few months' rest it started on the
+return journey, following Sturt Creek until its termination in Gregory's
+Salt Sea, and then keeping parallel with the South Australian border as
+far as Lake Macdonald. Rounding that lake the expedition moved
+south-west and reached the settled districts in August 1897. The
+distance travelled was 5000 m., and the actual time employed was eight
+months. This expedition put an end to the hope, so long entertained,
+that it was possible to obtain a direct and practicable route for stock
+between Kimberley and Coolgardie gold-fields; and it also proved that,
+with the possible exception of small isolated patches, the desert
+traversed contained no auriferous country.
+
+It may be said that exploration on a large scale is now at an end; there
+remain only the spaces, nowhere very extensive, between the tracks of
+the old explorers yet to be examined, and these are chiefly in the
+Northern Territory and in Western Australia north of the tropic of
+Capricorn. The search for gold and the quest for unoccupied pasturage
+daily diminish the extent of these areas.
+
+
+3. _Political History._
+
+  Early colonization.
+
+Of the six Australian states, New South Wales is the oldest. It was in
+1788, eighteen years after Captain Cook explored the east coast, that
+Port Jackson was founded as a penal station for criminals from England;
+and the settlement retained that character, more or less, during the
+subsequent fifty years, transportation being virtually suspended in
+1839. The colony, however, from 1821 had made a fair start in free
+industrial progress. By this time, too, several of the other provinces
+had come into existence. Van Diemen's Land, now called Tasmania, had
+been occupied as early as 1803. It was an auxiliary penal station under
+New South Wales till in 1825 it became a separate government. From this
+island, ten years later, parties crossed Bass Strait to Port Phillip,
+where a new settlement was shortly established, forming till 1851 a part
+of New South Wales, but now the state of Victoria. In 1827 and 1829, an
+English company endeavoured to plant a settlement at the Swan river, and
+this, added to a small military station established in 1825 at King
+George Sound, constituted Western Australia. On the shores of the Gulf
+St Vincent, again, from 1835 to 1837, South Australia was created by
+another joint-stock company, as an experiment in the Wakefield scheme of
+colonization. Such were the political component parts of British
+Australia up to 1839. The early history, therefore, of New South Wales
+is peculiar to itself. Unlike the other mainland provinces, it was at
+first held and used chiefly for the reception of British convicts. When
+that system was abolished, the social conditions of New South Wales,
+Victoria, and South Australia became more equal. Previous to the gold
+discoveries of 1851 they may be included, from 1839, in a general
+summary view.
+
+
+  Rise of New South Wales.
+
+The first British governors at Sydney, from 1788, ruled with despotic
+power. They were naval or military officers in command of the garrison,
+the convicts and the few free settlers. The duty was performed by such
+men as Captain Arthur Phillip, Captain Hunter, and others. In the twelve
+years' rule of General Macquarie, closing with 1821, the colony made a
+substantial advance. By means of bond labour roads and bridges were
+constructed, and a route opened into the interior beyond the Blue
+Mountains. A population of 30,000, three-fourths of them convicts,
+formed the infant commonwealth, whose attention was soon directed to the
+profitable trade of rearing fine wool sheep, first commenced by Captain
+John McArthur in 1803. During the next ten years, 1821-1831, Sir Thomas
+Brisbane and Sir Ralph Darling, two generals of the army, being
+successively governors, the colony increased, and eventually succeeded
+in obtaining the advantages of a representative institution, by means of
+a legislative council. Then came General Sir Richard Bourke, whose wise
+and liberal administration proved most beneficial. New South Wales
+became prosperous and attractive to emigrants with capital. Its
+enterprising ambition was encouraged by taking fresh country north and
+south. In the latter direction, explored by Mitchell in 1834 and 1836,
+lay Australia Felix, now Victoria, including the well-watered,
+thickly-wooded country of Gipps' Land.
+
+
+  Growth of Victoria.
+
+This district, then called Port Phillip, in the time of Governor Sir
+George Gipps, 1838-1846, was growing fast into a position claiming
+independence. Melbourne, which began with a few huts on the banks of the
+Yarra-Yarra in 1835, was in 1840 a busy town of 6000 inhabitants, the
+population of the whole district, with the towns of Geelong and
+Portland, reaching 12,850; while its import trade amounted to £204,000,
+and its exports to £138,000. Such was the growth of infant Victoria in
+five years; that of Adelaide or South Australia, in the same period, was
+nearly equal to it. At Melbourne there was a deputy governor, Mr
+Latrobe, under Sir George-Gipps at Sydney. Adelaide had its own
+governors, first Captain Hindmarsh, next Colonel Gawler, and then
+Captain George Grey. Western Australia progressed but slowly, with less
+than 4000 inhabitants altogether, under Governors Stirling and Hutt.
+
+
+  Discovery of gold.
+
+The general advancement of Australia, to the era of the gold-mining, had
+been satisfactory, in spite of a severe commercial crisis, from 1841 to
+1843, caused by extravagant land speculations and inflated prices.
+Victoria produced already more wool than New South Wales, the aggregate
+produce of Australia in 1852 being 45,000,000 lb.; and South Australia,
+between 1842 and this date, had opened most valuable mines of copper.
+The population of New South Wales in 1851 was 190,000; that of Victoria,
+77,000; and that of South Australia about the same. At Summerhill Creek,
+20 m. north of Bathurst, in the Macquarie plains, gold was discovered,
+in February 1851, by Mr E. Hargraves, a gold-miner from California. The
+intelligence was made known in April or May; and then began a rush of
+thousands,--men leaving their former employments in the bush or in the
+towns to search for the ore so greatly coveted in all ages. In August it
+was found at Andersen's Creek, near Melbourne; a few weeks later the
+great Ballarat gold-field, 80 m. west of that city, was opened; and
+after that, Bendigo to the north. Not only in these lucky provinces, New
+South Wales and Victoria, where the auriferous deposits were revealed,
+but in every British colony of Australasia, all ordinary industry was
+left for the one exciting pursuit. The copper mines of South Australia
+were for the time deserted, while Tasmania and New Zealand lost many
+inhabitants, who emigrated to the more promising country. The
+disturbance of social, industrial and commercial affairs, during the
+first two or three years of the gold era, was very great. Immigrants
+from Europe, and to some extent from North America and China, poured
+into Melbourne, where the arrivals in 1852 averaged 2000 persons in a
+week. The population of Victoria was doubled in the first twelvemonth of
+the gold fever, and the value of imports and exports was multiplied
+tenfold between 1851 and 1853. The colony of Victoria was constituted a
+separate province in July 1851, Mr Latrobe being appointed governor,
+followed by Sir Charles Hotham and Sir Henry Barkly in succession.
+
+
+  Responsible government.
+
+The separation of the northern part of eastern Australia, under the
+name of Queensland, from the original province of New South Wales, took
+place in 1859. At that time the district contained about 25,000
+inhabitants; and in the first six years its population was quadrupled
+and its trade trebled. At the beginning of 1860, when the excitement of
+the gold discoveries was wearing off, five of the states had received
+from the home government the boon of responsible government, and were in
+a position to work out the problem of their position without external
+interference; it was not, however, until 1890 that Western Australia was
+placed in a similar position. After the establishment of responsible
+government the main questions at issue were the secular as opposed to
+the religious system of public instruction, protection as opposed to a
+revenue tariff, vote by ballot, adult suffrage, abolition of
+transportation and assignment of convicts, and free selection of lands
+before survey; these, and indeed all the great questions upon which the
+country was divided, were settled within twenty years of the granting of
+self-government.[6] With the disposal of these important problems,
+politics in Australia became a struggle for office between men whose
+political principles were very much alike, and the tenure of power
+enjoyed by the various governments did not depend upon the principles of
+administration so much as upon the personal fitness of the head of the
+ministry, and the acceptability of his ministry to the members of the
+more popular branch of the legislature.
+
+
+  General Australian problems.
+
+The two most striking political events in the modern history of
+Australia, as a whole, apart from the readiness it has shown to remain a
+part of the British empire (q.v.), and to develop along Imperial
+lines, are the advent of the Labour party and the establishment of
+federation. As regards the last mentioned it may be said that it was
+accomplished from within, there being no real external necessity for the
+union of the states. Leading politicians have in all the states felt the
+cramping effects of mere domestic legislation, albeit on the proper
+direction of such legislation depends the well-being of the people; and
+to this sense of the limitations of local politics was due, as much as
+to anything else, the movement towards federation.
+
+
+  Agrarian legislation.
+
+Before coming, however, to the history of federation, and the evolution
+of the Labour party, we must refer briefly to some other questions which
+have been of general interest in Australia. Taking the states as a
+whole, agrarian legislation has been the most important subject that has
+engrossed the attention of their parliaments, and every state has been
+more or less engaged in tinkering with its land laws. The main object of
+all such legislation is to secure the residence of the owners on the
+land. The object of settlers, however, in a great many, perhaps in the
+majority of instances, is to dispose of their holdings as soon as
+possible after the requirements of the law have been complied with, and
+to avoid permanent settlement. This has greatly facilitated the
+formation of large estates devoted chiefly to grazing purposes, contrary
+to the policy of the legislature, which has everywhere sought to
+encourage tillage, or tillage joined to stock-rearing, and to discourage
+large holdings. The importance of the land question is so great that it
+is hardly an exaggeration to say that it is usual for every parliament
+of Australia to have before it a proposal to alter or amend its land
+laws. Since 1870 there have been five radical changes made in New South
+Wales. In Victoria the law has been altered five times, and in
+Queensland and South Australia seven times.
+
+
+  Immigration question.
+
+The prevention or regulation of the immigration of coloured races has
+also claimed a great share of parliamentary attention. The agitation
+against the influx of Chinese commenced very soon after the gold
+discoveries, the European miners objecting strongly to the presence of
+these aliens upon the diggings. The allegations made concerning the
+Chinese really amounted to a charge of undue industry. The Chinese were
+hard-working and had the usual fortune attending those who work hard.
+They spent little on drink or with the storekeepers, and were,
+therefore, by no means popular. As early as 1860 there had been
+disturbances of a serious character, and the Chinese were chased off the
+goldfields of New South Wales, serious riots occurring at Lambing Flat,
+on the Burrangong goldfield. The Chinese difficulty, so far as the
+mining population was concerned, was solved by the exhaustion of the
+extensive alluvial deposits; the miners' prejudice against the race,
+however, still exists, though they are no longer serious competitors,
+and the laws of some of the states forbid any Chinese to engage in
+mining without the express authority in writing of the minister of
+mines. The nearness of China to Australia has always appeared to the
+Australian democracy as a menace to the integrity of the white
+settlements; and at the many conferences of representatives from the
+various states, called to discuss matters of general concern, the
+Chinese question has always held a prominent place, but the absence of
+any federal authority had made common action difficult. In 1888 the last
+important conference on the Chinese question was held in Sydney and
+attended by delegates from all the states. Previously to the meeting of
+the conference there had been a great deal of discussion in regard to
+the influx of Chinese, and such influx was on all sides agreed to be a
+growing danger. The conference, therefore, merely expressed the public
+sentiment when it resolved that, although it was not advisable to
+prohibit altogether this class of immigration, it was necessary in the
+public interests that the number of Chinese privileged to land should be
+so limited as to prevent the people of that race from ever becoming an
+important element in the community. In conformity with this
+determination the various state legislatures enacted new laws or amended
+the existing laws to cope with the difficulty; these remained until they
+were in effect superseded by Commonwealth legislation. The objection to
+admitting immigrants was not only to the Chinese, but extended to all
+Asiatics; but as a large proportion of the persons whose entrance into
+the colonies it was desired to stop were British subjects, and the
+Imperial government refused to sanction any measure directly prohibiting
+in plain terms the movement of British subjects from one part of the
+empire to another, resort was made to indirect legislation; this was the
+more advisable, as the rise of the Japanese power in the East and the
+alliance of that country with Great Britain rendered it necessary to pay
+attention to the susceptibilities of a powerful nation whose subjects
+might be affected by restrictive laws. Eventually the difficulty was
+overcome by the device of an educational test based on the provisions of
+an act in operation in Natal. It was provided that a person was to be
+prohibited from landing in Australia who failed to write in any
+prescribed language fifty words dictated to him by the commonwealth
+officer supervising immigration. The efficacy of this legislation is in
+its administration, the language in which coloured aliens are usually
+tested being European. The agitation against the Chinese covered a space
+of over fifty years, a long period in the history of a young country,
+and was promoted and kept alive almost entirely by the trades unions,
+and the restriction acts were the first legislative triumph of the
+Labour party, albeit that party was not at the time directly represented
+in parliament.
+
+
+  Bank crisis of 1893.
+
+One of the most notable events in the modern history of Australia
+occurred shortly after the great strike of 1890. This was what is
+ordinarily termed the bank crisis of 1893. Although this crisis followed
+on the great strike, the crisis of two things had no real connexion, the
+crisis being the natural result of events long anterior to 1890. The
+effects of the crisis were mainly felt in the three eastern states,
+Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia
+being affected chiefly by reason of the fact of their intimate financial
+connexion with the eastern states. The approach of the crisis was
+heralded by many signs. Deposits were shifted from bank to bank, there
+were small runs on several of the savings banks guaranteed by the
+government, mortgagees required additional security from their debtors,
+bankruptcies became frequent, and some of the banks began to accumulate
+gold against the evil day. The building societies and financial
+institutions in receipt of deposits, or so many of them as were on an
+unsound footing, failed at an early period of the depression, so also
+did the weaker banks. There was distrust in the minds of the depositors,
+especially those whose holdings were small, and most of the banks were,
+at a very early period, subjected to the strain of repaying a large
+proportion of their deposits as they fell due. For a time the money so
+withdrawn was hoarded, but after a while it found its way back again
+into the banks. The crisis was by no means a sudden crash, and even when
+the failures began to take place they were spread over a period of
+sixteen weeks.
+
+The first noticeable effect of the crisis was a great scarcity of
+employment. Much capital was locked up in the failed banks, and was
+therefore not available for distribution amongst wage-earners. Wages
+fell precipitately, as also did rents. There was an almost entire
+cessation of building, and a large number of houses in the chief cities
+remained untenanted, the occupants moving to lodgings and more than one
+family living in a single house. Credit became greatly restricted, and
+all descriptions of speculative enterprise came to an end. The consuming
+power of the population was greatly diminished, and in the year
+following the crisis the imports into Australia from abroad diminished
+by four and three-quarter millions. In fact, everywhere the demand for
+goods, especially of those for domestic consumption, fell away; and
+there was a reduction in the average number of persons employed in the
+manufacturing industries to the extent of more than 20%. The lack of
+employment in factories naturally affected the coal mining industry, and
+indeed every industry in the states, except those connected with the
+export trade, was severely affected. During the crisis banks having a
+paid-up capital and reserves of £5,000,000 and deposits of £53,000,000
+closed their doors. Most of these, however, reopened for business before
+many weeks. The crisis was felt in the large cities more keenly than in
+the country districts, and in Melbourne more severely than in any other
+capital. The change of fortune proved disastrous to many families,
+previously to all appearances in opulent circumstances, but by all
+classes alike their reverses were borne with the greatest bravery. In
+its ultimate effects the crisis was by no means evil. Its true meaning
+was not lost upon a business community that had had twenty years of
+almost unchecked prosperity. It required the chastening of adversity to
+teach it a salutary lesson, and a few years after, when the first
+effects of the crisis had passed away, business was on a much sounder
+footing than had been the case for very many years. One of the first
+results was to put trade on a sound basis and to abolish most of the
+abuses of the credit system, but the most striking effect of the crisis
+was the attention which was almost immediately directed to productive
+pursuits. Agriculture everywhere expanded, the mining industry revived,
+and, if it had not been for the low prices of staple products, the
+visible effects of the crisis would have passed away within a very few
+years.
+
+
+  Drought of 1902.
+
+Another matter which deserves attention was the great drought which
+culminated in the year 1902. For some years previously the pastoral
+industry had been declining and the number of sheep and cattle in
+Australia had greatly diminished, but the year 1902 was one of veritable
+drought. The failure of the crops was almost universal and large numbers
+of sheep and cattle perished for want of food. The truth is,
+pastoralists for the most part carried on their industry trusting very
+greatly to luck, not making any special provisions against the
+vicissitudes of the seasons. Enormous quantities of natural hay were
+allowed every year to rot or be destroyed by bush fires, and the
+bountiful provision made by nature to carry them over the seasons of dry
+weather absolutely neglected; so that when the destructive season of
+1902 fell upon them, over a large area of territory there was no food
+for the stock. The year 1903 proved most bountiful, and in a few years
+all trace of the disastrous drought of 1902 passed away. But beyond this
+the pastoralist learnt most effectually the lesson that, in a country
+like Australia, provision must be made for the occasional season when
+the rainfall is entirely inadequate to the wants of the farmer and the
+pastoralist.
+
+
+  Federation.
+
+The question of federation was not lost sight of by the framers of the
+original constitution which was bestowed upon New South Wales. In the
+report of the committee of the legislative council appointed in 1852 to
+prepare a constitution for that colony, the following passage
+occurs:--"One of the most prominent legislative measures required by the
+colony, and the colonies of the Australian group generally, is the
+establishment at once of a general assembly, to make laws in relation to
+those intercolonial questions that have arisen or may hereafter arise
+among them. The questions which would claim the exercise of such a
+jurisdiction appear to be (1) intercolonial tariffs and the coasting
+trade; (2) railways, roads, canals, and other such works running through
+any two of the colonies; (3) beacons and lighthouses on the coast; (4)
+intercolonial gold regulations; (5) postage between the said colonies;
+(6) a general court of appeal from the courts of such colonies; (7) a
+power to legislate on all other subjects which may be submitted to them
+by addresses from the legislative councils and assemblies of the
+colonies, and to appropriate to any of the above-mentioned objects the
+necessary sums of money, to be raised by a percentage on the revenues of
+all the colonies interested." This wise recommendation received very
+scant attention, and it was not until the necessities of the colonies
+forced them to it that an attempt was made to do what the framers of the
+original constitution suggested. Federation at no time actually dropped
+out of sight, but it was not until thirty-five years later that any
+practical steps were taken towards its accomplishment. Meanwhile a sort
+of makeshift was devised, and the Imperial parliament passed a measure
+permitting the formation of a federal council, to which any colony that
+felt inclined to join could send delegates. Of the seven colonies New
+South Wales and New Zealand stood aloof from the council, and from the
+beginning it was therefore shorn of a large share of the prestige that
+would have attached to a body speaking and acting on behalf of a united
+Australia. The council had also a fatal defect in its constitution. It
+was merely a deliberative body, having no executive functions and
+possessing no control of funds or other means to put its legislation in
+force. Its existence was well-nigh forgotten by the people of Australia
+until the occurrence of its biennial meetings, and even then but slight
+interest was taken in its proceedings. The council held eight meetings,
+at which many matters of intercolonial interest were discussed. The last
+occasion of its being called together was in 1899, when the council met
+in Melbourne. In 1889 an important step towards federation was taken by
+Sir Henry Parkes. The occasion was the report of Major-General Edwards
+on the defences of Australia, and Sir Henry addressed the other premiers
+on the desirability of a federal union for purposes of defence. The
+immediate result was a conference at Parliament House, Melbourne, of
+representatives from each of the seven colonies. This conference adopted
+an address to the queen expressing its loyalty and attachment, and
+submitting certain resolutions which affirmed the desirability of an
+early union, under the crown, of the Australasian colonies, on
+principles just to all, and provided that the remoter Australasian
+colonies should be entitled to admission upon terms to be afterwards
+agreed upon, and that steps should be taken for the appointment of
+delegates to a national Australasian convention, to consider and report
+upon an adequate scheme for a federal convention. In accordance with the
+understanding arrived at, the various Australasian parliaments appointed
+delegates to attend a national convention to be held in Sydney, and on
+the 2nd March 1891 the convention held its first meeting. Sir Henry
+Parkes was elected president, and he moved a series of resolutions
+embodying the principles necessary to establish, on an enduring
+foundation, the structure of a federal government. These resolutions
+were slightly altered by the conference, and were adopted in the
+following form:--
+
+  1. The powers and rights of existing colonies to remain intact, except
+  as regards such powers as it may be necessary to hand over to the
+  Federal government.
+
+  2. No alteration to be made in states without the consent of the
+  legislatures of such states, as well as of the federal parliament.
+
+  3. Trade between the federated colonies to be absolutely free.
+
+  4. Power to impose customs and excise duties to be in the Federal
+  government and parliament.
+
+  5. Military and naval defence forces to be under one command.
+
+  6. The federal constitution to make provision to enable each state to
+  make amendments in the constitution if necessary for the purposes of
+  federation.
+
+Other formal resolutions were also agreed to, and on the 31st of March
+Sir Samuel Griffith, as chairman of the committee on constitutional
+machinery, brought up a draft Constitution Bill, which was carefully
+considered by the convention in committee of the whole and adopted on
+the 9th of April, when the convention was formally dissolved. The bill,
+however, fell absolutely dead, not because it was not a good bill, but
+because the movement out of which it arose had not popular initiative,
+and therefore failed to reach the popular imagination.
+
+Although the bill drawn up by the convention of 1891 was not received by
+the people with any show of interest, the federation movement did not
+die out; on the contrary, it had many enthusiastic advocates, especially
+in the colony of Victoria. In 1894 an unofficial convention was held at
+Corowa, at which the cause of federation was strenuously advocated, but
+it was not until 1895 that the movement obtained new life, by reason of
+the proposals adopted at a meeting of premiers convened by Mr G.H. Reid
+of New South Wales. At this meeting all the colonies except New Zealand
+were represented, and it was agreed that the parliament of each colony
+should be asked to pass a bill enabling the people to choose ten persons
+to represent the colony on a federal convention; the work of such
+convention being the framing of a federal constitution to be submitted
+to the people for approval by means of the referendum. During the year
+1896 Enabling Acts were passed by New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania,
+South Australia and Western Australia, and delegates were elected by
+popular vote in all the colonies named except Western Australia, where
+the delegates were chosen by parliament. The convention met in Adelaide
+on the 22nd of March 1897, and, after drafting a bill for the
+consideration of the various parliaments, adjourned until the 2nd of
+September. On that date the delegates reassembled in Sydney, and debated
+the bill in the light of the suggestions made by the legislatures of the
+federating colonies. In the course of the proceedings it was announced
+that Queensland desired to come within the proposed union; and in view
+of this development, and in order to give further opportunity for the
+consideration of the bill, the convention again adjourned. The third and
+final session was opened in Melbourne on the 20th of January 1898, but
+Queensland was still unrepresented; and, after further consideration,
+the draft bill was finally adopted on the 16th of March and remitted to
+the various colonies for submission to the people.
+
+The constitution was accepted by Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania
+by popular acclamation, but in New South Wales very great opposition was
+shown, the main points of objection being the financial provisions,
+equal representation in the Senate, and the difficulty in the way of the
+larger states securing an amendment of the constitution in the event of
+a conflict with the smaller states. As far as the other colonies were
+concerned, it was evident that the bill was safe, and public attention
+throughout Australia was fixed on New South Wales, where a fierce
+political contest was raging, which it was recognized would decide the
+fate of the measure for the time being. The fear was as to whether the
+statutory number of 80,000 votes necessary for the acceptance of the
+bill would be reached. This fear proved to be well founded, for the
+result of the referendum in New South Wales showed 71,595 votes in
+favour of the bill and 66,228 against it, and it was accordingly lost.
+In Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, on the other hand, the bill
+was accepted by triumphant majorities. Western Australia did not put it
+to the vote, as the Enabling Act of that colony only provided for
+joining a federation of which New South Wales should form a part. The
+existence of such a strong opposition to the bill in the mother colony
+convinced even its most zealous advocates that some changes would have
+to be made in the constitution before it could be accepted by the
+people; consequently, although the general election in New South Wales,
+held six or seven weeks later, was fought on the federal issue, yet the
+opposing parties seemed to occupy somewhat the same ground, and the
+question narrowed itself down to one as to which party should be
+entrusted with the negotiations to be conducted on behalf of the colony,
+with a view to securing a modification of the objectionable features of
+the bill. The new parliament decided to adopt the procedure of again
+sending the premier, Mr Reid, into conference, armed with a series of
+resolutions affirming its desire to bring about the completion of
+federal union, but asking the other colonies to agree to the
+reconsideration of the provisions which were most generally objected to
+in New South Wales. The other colonies interested were anxious to bring
+the matter to a speedy termination, and readily agreed to this course of
+procedure. Accordingly a premiers' conference was held in Melbourne at
+the end of January 1899, at which Queensland was for the first time
+represented. At this conference a compromise was effected, something was
+conceded to the claims of New South Wales, but the main principles of
+the bill remained intact. The bill as amended was submitted to the
+electors of each colony and again triumphantly carried in Victoria,
+South Australia and Tasmania. In New South Wales and Queensland there
+were still a large number of persons opposed to the measure, which was
+nevertheless carried in both colonies. New South Wales having decided in
+favour of federation, the way was clear for a decision on the part of
+Western Australia. The Enabling Bill passed the various stages in the
+parliament of that colony, and the question was then adopted by
+referendum.
+
+In accordance with this general verdict of all the states, the colonial
+draft bill was submitted to the imperial government for legislation as
+an imperial act; and six delegates were sent to England to explain the
+measure and to pilot it through the cabinet and parliament. A bill was
+presented to the British parliament which embodied and established, with
+such variations as had been accepted on behalf of Australia by the
+delegates, the constitution agreed to at the premiers' conference of
+1899 and speedily became law. Under this act, which was dated the 9th of
+July 1900, a proclamation was issued on the 17th of September of the
+same year, declaring that, on and after the 1st of January 1901, the
+people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland,
+Tasmania and Western Australia should be united in a federal
+commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth of Australia.
+
+
+    Provisions of the Act of 1900.
+
+  The six colonies entering the Commonwealth were denominated original
+  states, and new states might be admitted, or might be formed by
+  separation from or union of two or more states or parts of states; and
+  territories (as distinguished from states) might be taken over and
+  governed under the legislative power of the Commonwealth. The
+  legislative power is vested in a federal parliament, consisting of the
+  sovereign, a senate, and a house of representatives, the sovereign
+  being represented by a governor-general. The Senate was to consist of
+  the same number of members (not less than six) for each state, the
+  term of service being six years, but subject to an arrangement that
+  half the number would retire every three years. The House of
+  Representatives was to consist of members chosen in the different
+  states in numbers proportioned to their population, but never fewer
+  than five. The first House of Representatives was to contain
+  seventy-five members. For elections to the Senate the governors of
+  states, and for general elections of the House of Representatives the
+  governor-general, would cause writs to be issued. The Senate would
+  choose its own president, and the House of Representatives its
+  speaker; each house would make its own rules of procedure; in each,
+  one-third of the number of members would form a quorum; the members of
+  each must take oath, or make affirmation of allegiance; and all alike
+  would receive an allowance of £400 a year. The legislative powers of
+  the parliament have a wide range, many matters being transferred to it
+  from the colonial parliaments. The more important subjects with which
+  it deals are trade, shipping and railways; taxation, bounties, the
+  borrowing of money on the credit of the Commonwealth; the postal and
+  telegraphic services; defence, census and statistics; currency,
+  coinage, banking, bankruptcy; weights and measures; copyright, patents
+  and trade marks; marriage and divorce; immigration and emigration;
+  conciliation and arbitration in industrial disputes. Bills imposing
+  taxation or appropriating revenue must not originate in the Senate,
+  and neither taxation bills nor bills appropriating revenue for the
+  annual service of the government may be amended in the Senate, but the
+  Senate may return such bills to the House of Representatives with a
+  request for their amendment. Appropriation laws must not deal with
+  other matters. Taxation laws must deal with only one subject of
+  taxation; but customs and excise duties may, respectively, be dealt
+  with together. Votes for the appropriation of the revenue shall not
+  pass unless recommended by the governor-general. The constitution
+  provides means for the settlement of disputes between the houses, and
+  requires the assent of the sovereign to all laws. The executive power
+  is vested in the governor-general, assisted by an executive council
+  appointed by himself. He has command of the army and navy, and
+  appoints federal ministers and judges. The ministers are members of
+  the executive council, and must be, or within three months of their
+  appointment must become, members of the parliament. The judicial
+  powers are vested in a high court and other federal courts, and the
+  federal judges hold office for life or during good behaviour. The High
+  Court has appellate jurisdiction in cases from other federal courts
+  and from the supreme courts of the states, and it has original
+  jurisdiction in matters arising under laws made by the federal
+  parliament, in disputes between states, or residents in different
+  states, and in matters affecting the representatives of foreign
+  powers. Special provisions were made respecting appeals from the High
+  Court to the sovereign in council. The constitution set forth
+  elaborate arrangements for the administration of finance and trade
+  during the transition period following the transference of departments
+  to the Commonwealth. Within two years uniform customs duties were to
+  be imposed; thereafter the parliament of the Commonwealth had
+  exclusive power to impose customs and excise duties, or to grant
+  bounties; and trade within the Commonwealth was to be absolutely free.
+  Exceptions were made permitting the states to grant bounties on mining
+  and (with the consent of the parliament) on exports of produce or
+  manufactures--Western Australia being for a time partially exempted
+  from the prohibition to impose import duties.
+
+  The constitution, parliament and laws of each state, subject to the
+  federal constitution, retained their authority; state rights were
+  carefully safeguarded, and an inter-state commission was given powers
+  of adjudication and of administration of the laws relating to trade,
+  transport and other matters. Provision was made for necessary
+  alteration of the constitution of the Commonwealth, but so that no
+  alteration could be effected unless the question had been directly
+  submitted to, and the change accepted by the electorate in the states.
+  The seat of government was to be within New South Wales, not less than
+  100 m. distant from Sydney, and of an area not less than 100 sq. m.
+  Until other provision was made, the governor-general was to have a
+  salary of £10,000, paid by the Commonwealth. Respecting the salaries
+  of the governors of states, the constitution made no provision.
+
+The choice of governor-general of the new Commonwealth fell upon Lord
+Hopetoun (afterwards Lord Linlithgow), who had won golden opinions as
+governor of Victoria a few years before; Mr (afterwards Sir Edmund)
+Barton, who had taken the lead among the Australian delegates, became
+first prime minister; and the Commonwealth was inaugurated at the
+opening of 1901. The first parliament under the constitution was elected
+on the 29th and 30th of March 1901, and was opened by the prince of
+Wales on the 9th of May following. In October 1908 the Yass-Canberra
+district, near the town of Yass, N.S.W., was at length selected by both
+federal houses to contain the future federal capital.
+
+
+  Labour movement.
+
+  The Great Strike of 1890.
+
+The Labour movement in Australia may be traced back to the early days
+when transportation was in vogue, and the free immigrant and the
+time-expired convict objected to the competition of the bond labourer.
+The great object of these early struggles being attained, Labour
+directed its attention mainly to securing shorter hours. It was aided
+very materially by the dearth of workers consequent on the gold
+discoveries, when every man could command his own price. When the
+excitement consequent on the gold finds had subsided, there was a
+considerable reaction against the claims of Labour, and this was greatly
+helped by the congested state of the labour market; but the principle of
+an eight-hours day made progress, and was conceded in several trades. In
+the early years of the 'seventies the colonies entered upon an era of
+well-being, and for about twelve years every man, willing to work and
+capable of exerting himself, readily found employment. The Labour unions
+were able to secure in these years many concessions both as to hours and
+wages. In 1873 there was an important rise in wages, in the following
+year there was a further advance, and another in 1876; but in 1877 wages
+fell back a little, though not below the rate of 1874. In 1882 there was
+a very important advance in wages; carpenters received 11s. a day,
+bricklayers 12s. 6d., stone-masons 11s. 6d., plasterers 12s., painters
+11s., blacksmiths 10s., and navvies and general labourers 8s., and work
+was very plentiful. For five years these high wages ruled; but in 1886
+there was a sharp fall, though wages still remained very good. In 1888
+there was an advance, and again in 1889. In 1890 matters were on the eve
+of a great change and wages fell, in most cases to a point 20% below the
+rates of 1885. During the whole period from 1873 onwards, prices, other
+than of labour, were steadily tending downwards, so that the cost of
+living in 1890 was much below that of 1873. Taking everything into
+consideration the reduction was, perhaps, not less than 20%, so that,
+though the nominal or money wages in 1873 and 1890 were the same, the
+actual wages were much higher in the latter year. Much of the
+improvement in the lot of the wage-earners has been due to the Labour
+organizations, yet so late as 1881 these organizations were of so little
+account, politically, that when the law relating to trades unions was
+passed in New South Wales, the English law was followed, and it was
+simply enacted that the purposes of any trades union shall not be deemed
+unlawful (so as to render a member liable to criminal prosecution for
+conspiracy or otherwise) merely by reason that they are in restraint of
+trade. After the year 1884 Labour troubles became very frequent, the New
+South Wales coal miners in particular being at war with the colliery
+owners during the greater part of the six years intervening between then
+and what is called the Great Strike. The strong downward tendency of
+prices made a reduction of wages imperative; but the labouring classes
+failed to recognize any such necessity, and strongly resented any
+reductions proposed by employers. It was hard indeed for a carter
+drawing coal to a gasworks to recognize the necessity which compelled a
+reduction in his wages because wool had fallen 20%. Nor were other
+labourers, more nearly connected with the producing interests, satisfied
+with a reduction of wages because produce had fallen in price all round.
+Up to 1889 wages held their ground, although work had become more
+difficult to obtain, and some industries were being carried on without
+any profit. It was at such an inopportune time that the most extensive
+combination of Labour yet brought into action against capital formulated
+its demands. It is possible that the London dockers' strike was not
+without its influence on the minds of the Australian Labour leaders.
+That strike had been liberally helped by the Australian unions, and it
+was confidently predicted that, as the Australian workers were more
+effectively organized than the English unions, a corresponding success
+would result from their course of action. A strike of the Newcastle
+miners, after lasting twenty-nine weeks, came to an end in January 1890,
+and throughout the rest of the year there was great unrest in Labour
+circles. On the 6th of September the silver mines closed down, and a
+week later a conference of employers issued a manifesto which was met
+next day by a counter-manifesto of the Intercolonial Labour Conference,
+and almost immediately afterwards by the calling out of 40,000 men. The
+time chosen for the strike was the height of the wool season, when a
+cessation of work would be attended with the maximum of inconvenience.
+Sydney was the centre of the disturbance, and the city was in a state of
+industrial siege, feeling running to dangerous extremes. Riotous scenes
+occurred both in Sydney and on the coal-fields, and a large number of
+special constables were sworn in by the government. Towards the end of
+October 20,000 shearers were called out, and many other trades,
+principally concerned with the handling or shipping of wool, joined the
+ranks of the strikers, with the result that the maritime and pastoral
+industries throughout the whole of Australia were most injuriously
+disturbed. The Great Strike terminated early in November 1890, the
+employers gaining a decisive victory. The colonies were, however, to
+have other and bitter experiences of strikes before Labour recognized
+that of all means for settling industrial disputes strikes are, on the
+whole, the most disastrous that it can adopt. The strikes of the years
+1890 and 1892 are just as important on account of their political
+consequences as from the direct gains or losses involved.
+
+
+  Political consequences.
+
+As one result of the strike of 1890 a movement was set afoot by a number
+of enthusiasts, more visionary than practical, that has resulted in a
+measure of more or less disaster. This was the planting of a colony of
+communistic Australians in South America. After much negotiation the
+leader, Mr William Lane, a Brisbane journalist, decided on Paraguay, and
+he tramped across the continent, preaching a new crusade, and gathering
+in funds and recruits in his progress. On the 16th of July 1893 the
+first little army of "New Australians" left Sydney in the "Royal Tar,"
+which arrived at Montevideo on the 31st of August. Other consignments of
+intending settlers in "New Australia" followed; but though the
+settlement is still in existence it has completely failed to realize the
+impracticable ideals of its original members. The Queensland government
+assisted some of the disillusioned to escape from the paradise which
+proved a prison; some managed to get away on their own account; and
+those that have remained have split into as many settlements almost as
+there are settlers. Another effect of the Great Strike was in a more
+practical direction. New South Wales was the first country which
+endeavoured to settle its labour grievances through the ballot-box and
+to send a great party to parliament as the direct representation of
+Labour, pledged to obtain through legislation what it was unable to
+obtain by strikes and physical force. The principle of one-man one-vote
+had been persistently advocated without arousing any special
+parliamentary or public enthusiasm until the meeting of the Federal
+Convention in 1891. The convention was attended by Sir George Grey, who
+was publicly welcomed to the colony by New Zealanders resident in
+Sydney, and by other admirers, and his reception was an absolute
+ovation. He eloquently and persistently advocated the principle of
+one-man one-vote as the bed-rock of all democratic reform. This
+subsequently formed the first plank of the Labour platform. Several
+attempts had been made by individuals belonging to the Labour party to
+enter the New South Wales parliament, but it was not until 1891 that the
+occurrence of a general election gave the party the looked-for
+opportunity for concerted action. The results of the election came as a
+complete surprise to the majority of the community. The Labour party
+captured 35 seats out of a House of 125 members; and as the old parties
+almost equally divided the remaining seats, and a fusion was impossible,
+the Labour representatives dominated the situation. It was not long,
+however, before the party itself became divided on the fiscal question;
+and a Protectionist government coming into power, about half the Labour
+members gave it consistent support and enabled it to maintain office for
+about three years, the party as a political unit being thus destroyed.
+The events of these three years taught the Labour leaders that a
+parliamentary party was of little practical influence unless it was able
+to cast on all important occasions a solid vote, and to meet the case a
+new method was devised. The party therefore determined that they would
+refuse to support any person standing in the Labour interests who
+refused to pledge himself to vote on all occasions in such way as the
+majority of the party might decide to be expedient. This was called the
+"solidarity pledge," and, united under its sanction, what was left of
+the Labour party contested the general election of 1894. The result was
+a defeat, their numbers being reduced from 35 to 19; but a signal
+triumph was won for solidarity. Very few of the members who refused to
+take the pledge were returned and the adherents of the united party were
+able to accomplish more with their reduced number than under the old
+conditions.
+
+  The two features of the Labour party in New South Wales are its
+  detachment from other parties and the control of the caucus. The
+  caucus, which is the natural corollary of the detachment, determines
+  by majority the vote of the whole of the members of the party,
+  independence of action being allowed on minor questions only. So far
+  the party has refrained from formal alliance with the other great
+  parties of the state. It supports the government as the power alone
+  capable of promoting legislation, but its support is given only so
+  long as the measures of the government are consistent with the Labour
+  policy. This position the Labour party has been able to maintain with
+  great success, owing to the circumstance that the other parties have
+  been almost equally balanced.
+
+
+  Parliamentary Labour party.
+
+The movement towards forming a parliamentary Labour party was not
+confined to New South Wales; on the contrary, it was common to all the
+states, having its origin in the failure of the Great Strike of 1890.
+The experience of the party was also much the same as in New South
+Wales, but its greatest triumphs were achieved in South Australia. The
+Labour party has been in power in Queensland, Western Australia and
+South Australia, and has, on many occasions, decided the fate of the
+government on a critical division in all the states except Tasmania and
+Victoria. Different ideals dominate the party in the different states.
+The one ideal which has just been described represents the Labour party
+from the New South Wales standpoint. The only qualification worth
+mentioning is the signing of the pledge of solidarity. The other ideal,
+typified by the South Australian party, differs from this in one
+important respect. To the Labour party in that state are admitted only
+persons who have worked for their living at manual labour, and this
+qualification of being an actual worker is one that was strongly
+insisted upon at the formation of the party and strictly adhered to,
+although the temptation to break away from it and accept as candidates
+persons of superior education and position has been very great. On the
+formation of the Commonwealth a Labour party was established in the
+federal houses. It comprises one-third of the representation in the
+House of Representatives, and perhaps a still larger proportion in the
+Senate. The party is, however, formed on a broader basis than the state
+parties, the solidarity pledge extends only to votes upon which the fate
+of a government depends. Naturally, however, as the ideals of the
+members of the party are the same, the members of the Labour party will
+be generally found voting together on all important divisions, the chief
+exception being with regard to free trade or protection. The Labour
+party held power in the Commonwealth for a short period, and has had the
+balance of power in its hands ever since the formation of the
+Commonwealth. (T. A. C.)
+
+
+  Recent legislation.
+
+Australian legislation in the closing years of the 19th century and the
+first decade of the 20th bore the most evident traces of the Labour
+party's influence. In all the colonies a complete departure from
+principles laid down by the leading political economists of the 19th
+century was made when acts were passed subjecting every branch of
+domestic industry to the control of specially constituted tribunals,
+which were empowered among other important functions to fix the minimum
+rate of wages to be paid to all grades of workmen. (See also the
+articles ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION; TRADE UNIONS; LABOUR
+LEGISLATION.)
+
+
+    Victoria.
+
+  Victoria was the pioneer in factory legislation, the first Victorian
+  act of that character dating from 1873. In 1884 a royal commission,
+  appointed two years earlier to inquire into the conditions of
+  employment in the colony and certain allegations of "sweating" that
+  had then recently been made, reported that:--"The most effective mode
+  of bringing about industrial co-operation and mutual sympathy between
+  employers and employed, and thus obviating labour conflicts in the
+  future, is by the establishment of courts of conciliation in Victoria,
+  whose procedure and awards shall have the sanction and authority of
+  law." This report led to the passing of a number of acts which,
+  proving ineffectual, were followed by the Factories and Shops Act of
+  1896, passed by the ministry of Mr (afterwards Sir Alexander) Peacock.
+  This measure, together with several subsequent amending acts, of which
+  the most important became law in 1903, 1905 and 1907, forms a complete
+  industrial code in which the principle of state regulation of wages is
+  recognized and established. Its central enactment was to bring into
+  existence (1) "Special Boards," consisting of an equal number of
+  representatives of employers and workmen respectively in any trade,
+  under the presidency of an independent chairman, and (2) a Court of
+  Industrial Appeals. A special board may be formed at the request of
+  any union of employers or of workmen, or on the initiative of the
+  Labour department. After hearing evidence, which may be given on oath,
+  the special board issues a "determination," fixing the minimum rate of
+  wages to be paid to various classes of workers of both sexes and
+  different ages in the trade covered by the determination, including
+  apprentices; and specifying the number of hours per week for which
+  such wages are payable, with the rates for overtime when those hours
+  are exceeded. The determination is then gazetted, and it becomes
+  operative over a specified area, which varies in different cases, on a
+  date fixed by the board. Either party, or the minister for Labour, may
+  refer a determination to the court of industrial appeals, and the
+  court, in the event of a special board failing to make a
+  determination, may itself be called upon to frame one. The general
+  administration of the Factories and Shops Acts, to which the special
+  boards owe their being, is vested in a chief inspector of factories,
+  subject to the control of the minister of Labour in matters of policy.
+  Before the end of 1906 fifty-two separate trades in Victoria had
+  obtained special boards, by whose determinations their operations were
+  controlled.
+
+
+    South Australia.
+
+  A similar system was introduced into South Australia by an act passed
+  in 1900 amending the Factory Act of 1894, which was the first
+  legislation of the sort passed in that state.
+
+
+    Queensland.
+
+  In Queensland, where the earliest factory legislation dates from 1896,
+  keen parliamentary conflict raged round the proposal in 1907 to
+  introduce the special boards system for fixing wages. More than one
+  change of government occurred before the bill became law in April
+  1908.
+
+
+    New South Wales.
+
+  In New South Wales, whose example was followed by Western Australia,
+  the machinery adopted for fixing the statutory rate of wages was of a
+  somewhat different type. The model followed in these two states was
+  not Victoria but New Zealand, where an Industrial Conciliation and
+  Arbitration Act was passed in 1894. A similar measure, under the
+  guidance of the attorney-general, the Hon. B.R. Wise, was carried
+  after much opposition in New South Wales in 1901, to remain in force
+  till the 30th of June 1908. By it an arbitration court was instituted,
+  consisting of a president and assessors representing the employers'
+  unions and the workers' unions respectively; in any trade in which a
+  dispute occurs, any union of workmen or employers registered under the
+  act was given the right to bring the matter before the arbitration
+  court, and if the court makes an award, an application may be made to
+  it to make the award a "common rule," which thereupon becomes binding
+  over the trade affected, wherever the act applies. The award of the
+  court is thus the equivalent of the determination of a special board
+  in Victoria, and deals with the same questions, the most important of
+  which are the minimum rates of wages and the number of working hours
+  per week. The act contained stringent provisions forbidding strikes;
+  but in this respect it failed to effect its purpose, several strikes
+  occurring in the years following its enactment, in which there were
+  direct refusals to obey awards.
+
+
+    Western Australia.
+
+  In the years 1900 and 1902 acts were passed in Western Australia still
+  more closely modelled on the New Zealand act than was the
+  above-mentioned statute in New South Wales. Unlike the latter, they
+  reproduced the institution of district conciliation boards in addition
+  to the arbitration court; but these boards were a failure here as they
+  were in New Zealand, and after 1903 they fell into disuse. In Western
+  Australia, too, the act failed to prevent strikes taking place. In
+  1907 a serious strike occurred in the timber trade, attended by all
+  the usual accompaniments, except actual disorder, of an industrial
+  conflict.
+
+
+    Federal Arbitration Act of 1904.
+
+  In all this legislation one of the most hotly contested points was
+  whether the arbitration court should be given power to lay it down
+  that workers who were members of a trade union should be employed in
+  preference to non-unionists. This power was given to the tribunal in
+  New South Wales, but was withheld in Western Australia. It was the
+  same question that formed the chief subject of debate over the Federal
+  Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which, after causing the defeat of
+  more than one ministry, passed through the Commonwealth parliament in
+  1904. It was eventually compromised by giving the power, but only with
+  safeguarding conditions, to the Federal arbitration court. This
+  tribunal differs from similar courts in the states inasmuch as it
+  consists of a single member, called the "president," an officer
+  appointed by the governor-general from among the justices of the High
+  Court of Australia. The president has the power to appoint assessors
+  to advise him on technical points; and considerable powers of
+  devolution of authority for the purpose of inquiry and report are
+  conferred upon the court, the main object of which is to secure
+  settlement by conciliatory methods. The distinctive object of the
+  Federal Act, as defined in the measure itself, is to provide machinery
+  for dealing with industrial disputes extending beyond any one state,
+  examples of which were furnished by the first two important cases
+  submitted to the court--the one concerning the merchant marine of
+  Australia, and the other the sheep shearers, both of which were heard
+  in 1907. An additional duty was thrown on the Federal arbitration
+  court by the Customs and Excise Tariff Acts of 1906, in which were
+  embodied the principles known as the "New Protection." By the Customs
+  Act the duty was raised on imported agricultural implements, while as
+  a safeguard to the consumer the maximum prices for the retail of the
+  goods were fixed. In order to provide a similar protection for the
+  artisans employed in the protected industries, an excise duty was
+  imposed on the home-produced articles, which was to be remitted in
+  favour of manufacturers who could show that they paid "fair and
+  reasonable" wages, and complied with certain other conditions for the
+  benefit of their workmen. The chief authority for determining whether
+  these conditions are satisfied or not is the Federal arbitration
+  court.
+
+
+    Old age pensions.
+
+  The same period that saw this legislation adopted was also marked by
+  the establishment of old age pensions in the three eastern states, and
+  also in the Commonwealth. By the Federal Act, passed in the session of
+  1908, a pension of ten shillings a week was granted to persons of
+  either sex over sixty-five years of age, or to persons over sixty who
+  are incapacitated from earning a living. The Commonwealth legislation
+  thus made provision for the aged poor in the three states which up to
+  1908 had not accepted the principle of old age pensions, and also for
+  those who, owing to their having resided in more than one state, were
+  debarred from receiving pension in any.
+
+
+  Tariff.
+
+An important work of the Commonwealth parliament was the passing of a
+uniform tariff to supersede the six separate tariffs in force at the
+establishment of the Commonwealth, but many other important measures
+were considered and some passed into law. During the first six years of
+federation there were five ministries; the tenure of office under the
+three-yearly system was naturally uncertain, and this uncertainty was
+reflected in the proposals of whatever ministry was in office. The great
+task of adjusting the financial business of the Commonwealth on a
+permanent basis was one of very great difficulty, as the apparent
+interests of the states and of the Commonwealth were opposed. Up till
+1908 it had been generally assumed that the constitution required the
+treasurer of the Commonwealth to hand over to the states month by month
+whatever surplus funds remained in his hands. But in July 1908 a Surplus
+Revenue Act was passed which was based on a different interpretation of
+the constitution. Under this act the appropriation of these surplus
+funds to certain trust purposes in the Federal treasury is held to be
+equivalent to payment to the states. The money thus obtained was
+appropriated in part to naval defence and harbours, and in part to the
+provision of old age pensions under the Federal Old Age Pension Act of
+1908. The act was strongly opposed by the government of Queensland, and
+the question was raised as to whether it was based on a true
+interpretation of the constitution. The chief external interest,
+however, of the new financial policy of the Commonwealth lay in its
+relation towards the empire as a whole. At the Imperial Conference in
+London in 1907 Mr Deakin, the Commonwealth premier, was the leading
+advocate of colonial preference with a view to imperial commercial
+union; and though no reciprocal arrangement was favoured by the Liberal
+cabinet, who temporarily spoke for the United Kingdom, the colonial
+representatives were all agreed in urging such a policy, and found the
+Opposition (the Unionist party) in England prepared to adopt it as part
+of Mr Chamberlain's tariff reform movement. In spite of the official
+rebuff received from the mother-country, the Australian ministry, in
+drawing up the new Federal tariff, gave a substantial preference to
+British imports, and thus showed their willingness to go farther. (See
+the article BRITISH EMPIRE.)     (R. J. M.)
+
+  GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For Physical Geography: Barton, _Australian
+  Physiography_ (Brisbane, 1895); Wall, _Physical Geography of
+  Australia_ (Melbourne, 1883); Taylor, _Geography of New South Wales_
+  (Sydney, 1898); Saville Kent, _The Great Barrier Reef of Australia_
+  (London, 1893); A. Agassiz, _Visit to the Barrier Reef_ (Cambridge,
+  Mass., 1899); J.P. Thomson, _The Physical Geography of Australia_
+  (Smithsonian Report, Washington, 1898); J.W. Gregory, _The Dead Heart
+  of Australia_. For Flora: Maiden, _Useful Native Plants of Australia_
+  (Sydney, 1889); Bentham and Mueller, _Flora Australiensis_ (London,
+  1863-1878); Fitzgerald, _Australian Orchids_ (Sydney, 1870-1890);
+  Mueller, _Census of Australian Plants_ (Melbourne, 1889). For Fauna:
+  Forbes, "The Chatham Islands; their Relation to a former Southern
+  Continent," _Geographical Journal_, vol. ii. (1893); Hedley,
+  "Surviving Refugees in Austral Lands of Ancient Antarctic Life,"
+  _Royal Society N.S. Wales_, 1895; "The Relation of the Fauna and Flora
+  of Australia to those of New Zealand," _Nat. Science_ (1893);
+  Tenison-Woods, _The Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales_ (Sydney,
+  1883); Ogilvy, _Catalogue of Australian Mammals_ (Sydney, 1892);
+  Aflalo, _Natural History of Australia_ (London, 1896); Flower and
+  Lydekker, _Mammals, Living and Extinct_ (London, 1891); J. Douglas
+  Ogilby, _Catalogue of the Fishes of New South Wales_, 4to (Sydney,
+  1886). For Statistics and Miscellanea: T.A. Coghlan, _A Statistical
+  Account of the Seven Colonies of Australasia_, 8vo (Sydney, 1904); G.
+  Collingridge, _The Discovery of Australia_ (Sydney, 1895); W. Epps,
+  _The Land Systems of Australia_, 8vo (London, 1894); Ernest Favenc,
+  _The History of Australasian Exploration_, royal 8vo (Sydney, 1885);
+  R.R. Garraa, _The Coming Commonwealth: a Handbook of Federal
+  Government_ (Sydney, 1897); George William Rusden, _History of
+  Australia_, 3 vols. 8vo (London, 1883); K. Schmeisser, _The Goldfields
+  of Australasia_, 2 vols. (London, 1899); G.F. Scott, _The Romance of
+  Australian Exploring_ (London, 1899); H. de R. Walker, _Australasian
+  Democracy_ (London, 1897); William Westgarth, _Half a Century of
+  Australian Progress_ (London, 1899); T.A. Coghlan and T.T. Ewing,
+  _Progress of Australia in the 19th Century_; G.P. Tregarthen,
+  _Commonwealth of Australia_; Ida Lee, _Early Days of Australia_; W.P.
+  Reeves, _State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand_; A. Metin,
+  _La Socialisme sans doctrine_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The literature of the geology of Australia is enumerated, to
+    1884, in the bibliography by Etheridge and Jack. A general summary of
+    the stratigraphical geology was given by R. Tate, _Rep. Austral.
+    Assoc. Adv. Sci._ vol. v. (1893), pp. 1-69. References to the chief
+    sources of information regarding the states is given under each of
+    them. A geological map of the whole continent, on the scale of 50 m.
+    to the inch, was compiled by A. Everett, and issued in 1887 in six
+    sheets, by the Geological Survey of Victoria.
+
+  [2] The statistical portion of this article includes Tasmania, which
+    is a member of the Australian Commonwealth.
+
+  [3] In his _Discoveries in Central Australia_, E.T. Eyre has
+    ingeniously attempted to reconstruct the routes taken by the
+    Australians in their advance across the continent. He has relied,
+    however, in his efforts to link the tribes together, too much on the
+    prevalence or absence of such customs as circumcision--always very
+    treacherous evidences--to allow of his hypothetical distribution
+    being regarded very seriously. The migrations must have always been
+    dependent upon physical difficulties, such as waterless tracts or
+    mountain barriers. They were probably not definite massed movements,
+    such as would permit of the survival of distinctive lines of custom
+    between tribe and tribe; but rather spasmodic movements, sometimes of
+    tribes or of groups, sometimes only of families or even couples, the
+    first caused by tribal wars, the second to escape punishment for some
+    offence against tribal law, such as the defiance of the rules as to
+    clan-marriages.
+
+  [4] _The Languages of India_ (1875).
+
+  [5] The existence of "Group Marriage" is a much-controverted point.
+    This custom, which has been defined as the invasion of actual
+    marriage by allotting permanent paramours, is confined to a special
+    set of tribes.
+
+  [6] Australia, it may be noted, has woman's suffrage in all the
+    states (Victoria, the last, adopting it in November 1908), and for
+    the federal assembly.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTRASIA. The word _Austria_ signifies the realm of the east (Ger. _Ost
+Reich_). In Gregory of Tours this word is still used vaguely, but the
+sense of it is gradually defined, and finally the name of _Austria_ or
+_Austrasia_ was given to the easternmost part of the Frankish kingdom.
+It usually had Metz for its capital, and the inhabitants of the kingdom
+were known as the _Austrasii_. Retrospectively, later historians have
+given this name to the kingdom of Theuderich I. (511-534), of his son
+Theudebert (534-548), and of his grandson Theudebald (548-555); then,
+after the death of Clotaire I., to the kingdom of Sigebert (561-575),
+and of his son Childebert (575-597). They have even tried to interpret
+the long struggle between Fredegond and Brunhilda as a rivalry between
+the two kings of Neustria and Austrasia. When these two words are at
+last found in the texts in their precise signification, Austrasia is
+applied to that part of the Frankish kingdom which Clotaire II.
+entrusted to his son Dagobert, subject to the guardianship of Pippin and
+Arnulf (623-629), and which Dagobert in his turn handed on to his son
+Sigebert (634-639), under the guardianship of Cunibert, bishop of
+Cologne, and Ansegisel, mayor of the palace. After the death of
+Dagobert, Austrasia and Neustria almost always had separate kings, with
+their own mayors of the palace, and then there arose a real rivalry
+between these two provinces, which ended in the triumph of Austrasia.
+The Austrasian mayors of the palace succeeded in enforcing their
+authority in the western as well as in the eastern part, and in
+re-establishing to their own advantage the unity of the Frankish
+kingdom. The mayor Pippin the Short was even powerful enough to take the
+title of king over the whole.
+
+At the time of Charlemagne, the word Austrasia underwent a change of
+meaning and became synonymous with _Francia orientalis_, and was applied
+to the Frankish dominions beyond the Rhine (Franconia). This Franconia
+was in 843 included in the kingdom of Louis the German, and was then
+increased by the addition of the territories of Mainz, Spires and Worms,
+on the right bank of the river.
+
+  See A. Huguenin, _Histoire du royaume mérovingien d'Austrasie_ (Paris,
+  1857); Aug. Digot, _Histoire du royaume d'Austrasie_, 4 vols. (Nancy,
+  1863); L. Drapeyron, _Essai sur l'origine, le développement et les
+  résultats de la lutte entre la Neustrie et l'Austrasie_ (Paris, 1867);
+  Auguste Longnon, _Atlas historique_, 1st and 2nd parts.     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+
+
+AUSTRIA. (Ger. _Österreich_), a country of central Europe, bounded E. by
+Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic Sea and Italy, W. by
+Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German empire (Bavaria), and N. by
+the German empire (Saxony and Prussia) and Russia. It has an area of
+115,533 sq. m., or about twice the size of England and Wales together.
+Austria is one of the states which constitute the Austro-Hungarian
+(Habsburg) monarchy (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_), and is also called
+Cisleithania, from the fact that it contains the portion of that
+monarchy which lies to the west of the river Leitha. Austria does not
+form a geographical unity, and the constituent parts of this empire
+belong to different geographical regions. Thus, Tirol, Styria and
+Carinthia belong, like Switzerland, to the system of the Alps, but these
+provinces together with those lying in the basin of the Danube form,
+nevertheless, a compact stretch of country. On the other hand Galicia,
+extending on the eastern side of the Carpathians, belongs to the great
+plain of Russia; Bohemia stretches far into the body of Germany; while
+Dalmatia, which is quite separated from the other provinces, belongs to
+the Balkan Peninsula.
+
+  _Coasts._--Austria has amongst all the great European countries the
+  most continental character, in so far as its frontiers are mostly
+  land-frontiers, only about one-tenth of them being coast-land. The
+  Adriatic coast, which stretches for a distance of about 1000 m., is
+  greatly indented. The Gulf of Trieste on the west, and the Gulf of
+  Fiume or Quarnero on the east, include between them the peninsula of
+  Istria, which has many sheltered bays. In the Gulf of Quarnero are the
+  Quarnero islands, of which the most important are Cherso, Veglia and
+  Lussin. The coast west of the mouth of the Isonzo is fringed by
+  lagoons, and has the same character as the Venetian coast, while the
+  Gulf of Trieste and the Istrian peninsula have a steep coast with many
+  bays and safe harbours. The principal ports are Trieste, Capodistria,
+  Pirano, Parenzo, Rovigno and Pola, the great naval harbour and arsenal
+  of Austria. The coast of Dalmatia also possesses many safe bays, the
+  principal being those of Zara, Cattaro and Ragusa, but in some places
+  it is very steep and inaccessible. On the other hand a string of
+  islands extends along this coast, which offer many safe and easily
+  accessible places of anchorage to ships during the fierce winter gales
+  which rage in the Adriatic. The principal are Pago, Pasman, Isola
+  Lunga and Isola Incoronata, Brazza, Lesina, Curzola and Meleda.
+
+  The political divisions of Austria correspond, for the most part, so
+  closely to natural physical divisions that the detailed account of the
+  physical features, natural resources and the movement of the
+  population has been given under those separate headings. In this
+  general article the geography of Austria--physical, economical and
+  political--has been treated in its broad aspects, and those points
+  insisted upon which give an adequate idea of the country as a whole.
+
+  _Mountains._--Austria is the most mountainous country of Europe after
+  Switzerland, and about four-fifths of its entire area is more than 600
+  ft. above the level of the sea. The mountains of Austria belong to
+  three different mountain systems, namely, the Alps (q.v.), the
+  Carpathians (q.v.), and the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains. The Danube,
+  which is the principal river of Austria, divides the Alpine region,
+  which occupies the whole country lying at its south, from the
+  Bohemian-Moravian Mountains and their offshoots lying at its north;
+  while the valleys of the March and the Oder separate the last-named
+  mountains from the Carpathians. Of the three principal divisions of
+  the Alps--the western, the central and the eastern Alps--Austria is
+  traversed by several groups of the central Alps, while the eastern
+  Alps lie entirely within its territory. The eastern Alps are continued
+  by the Karst mountains, which in their turn are continued by the
+  Dinaric Alps, which stretch through Croatia and Dalmatia. The second
+  great mountain-system of Austria, the Carpathians, occupy its eastern
+  and north-eastern portions, and stretch in the form of an arch through
+  Moravia, Silesia, Galicia and Bukovina, forming the frontier towards
+  Hungary, within which territory they principally extend. Finally, the
+  Bohemian-Moravian Mountains, which enclose Bohemia and Moravia, and
+  form the so-called quadrilateral of Bohemia, constitute the link of
+  the Austrian mountain-system with the hilly region (the
+  _Mittelgebirge_) of central Europe. Only a little over 25% of the area
+  of Austria is occupied by plains. The largest is the plain of Galicia,
+  which is part of the extensive Sarmatic plain; while in the south,
+  along the Isonzo, Austria comprises a small part of the
+  Lombardo-Venetian plain. Several smaller plains are found along the
+  Danube, as the Tulner Becken in Lower Austria, and the Wiener Becken,
+  the plain on which the capital is situated; to the north of the Danube
+  this plain is called the Marchfeld, and is continued under the name of
+  the Marchebene into Moravia as far north as Olmütz. Along the other
+  principal rivers there are also plains of more or less magnitude, some
+  of them possessing tracts of very fertile soil.
+
+  _Rivers._--Austria possesses a fairly great number of rivers, pretty
+  equally distributed amongst its crown lands, with the exception of
+  Istria and the Karst region, where there is a great scarcity of even
+  the smallest rivers. The principal rivers are: the Danube, the
+  Dniester, the Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine and the Adige or
+  Etsch. As the highlands of Austria form part of the great watershed of
+  Europe, which divides the waters flowing northward into the North Sea
+  or the Baltic from those flowing southward or eastward into the
+  Mediterranean or the Black Sea, its rivers flow in three different
+  directions--northward, southward and eastward. With the exception of
+  the small streams belonging to it which fall into the Adriatic, all
+  its rivers have their mouths in other countries, and its principal
+  river, the Danube, has also its source in another country. When it
+  enters Austria at the gorge of Passau, where it receives the Inn, a
+  river which has as large a body of water as itself, the Danube is
+  already navigable. Till it leaves the country at Hainburg, just before
+  Pressburg, its banks are pretty closely hemmed by the Alps, and the
+  river passes through a succession of narrow defiles. But the finest
+  part of its whole course, as regards the picturesqueness of the
+  scenery on its banks, is between Linz and Vienna. Where it enters
+  Austria the Danube is 898 ft. above the level of the sea, and where it
+  leaves it is only 400 ft.; it has thus a fall within the country of
+  498 ft., and is at first a very rapid stream, becoming latterly much
+  slower. The Danube has in Austria a course of 234 m., and it drains an
+  area of 50,377 sq. m. Its principal affluents in Austria, besides the
+  Inn, are the Traun, the Enns and the March. The Dniester, which, like
+  the Danube, flows into the Black Sea, has its source in the
+  Carpathians in Eastern Galicia, and pursues a very winding course
+  towards the south-east, passing into Russia. It has in Austria a
+  course of 370 m. of which 300 are navigable, and drains an area of
+  12,000 sq. m. The Vistula and the Oder both fall into the Baltic. The
+  former rises in Moravia, flows first north through Austrian Silesia,
+  then takes an easterly direction along the borders of Prussian
+  Silesia, and afterwards a north-easterly, separating Galicia from
+  Russian Poland, and leaving Austria not far from Sandomir. Its course
+  in Austria is 240 m., draining an area of 15,500 sq. m. It is
+  navigable for nearly 200 m., and its principal affluents are the
+  Dunajec, the San and the Bug. The Oder has also its source in Moravia,
+  flows first east and then north-east through Austrian Silesia into
+  Prussia. Its length within the Austrian territory is only about 55 m.,
+  no part of which is navigable. The only river of this country which
+  flows into the North Sea is the Elbe. It has its source in the
+  Riesengebirge, not far from the Schneekoppe, flows first south, then
+  west, and afterwards north-west through Bohemia, and then enters
+  Saxony. Its principal affluents are the Adler, Iser and Eger, and,
+  most important of all, the Moldau. The Elbe has a course within the
+  Austrian dominions of 185 m., for about 65 of which it is navigable.
+  It drains an area of upwards of 21,000 sq. m. The Rhine, though
+  scarcely to be reckoned a river of the country, flows for about 25 m.
+  of its course between it and Switzerland. The principal river of
+  Austria which falls into the Adriatic is the Adige or Etsch. It rises
+  in the mountains of Tirol, flows south, then east, and afterwards
+  south, into the plains of Lombardy. It has in Austria a course of 138
+  m., and drains an area of 4266 sq. m. Its principal affluent is the
+  Eisak. Of the streams which have their course entirely within the
+  country, and fall into the Adriatic, the principal is the Isonzo, 75
+  m. in length, but navigable only for a short distance from its mouth.
+
+  _Lakes._--Austria does not possess any great lakes; but has numerous
+  small mountain lakes situated in the Alpine region, the most renowned
+  for the beauty of their situation being found in Salzburg,
+  Salzkammergut, Tirol and Carinthia. There should also be mentioned the
+  periodical lakes situated in the Karst region, the largest of them
+  being the Lake of Zirknitz. The numerous and large marshes, found now
+  mostly in Galicia and Dalmatia, have been greatly reduced in the other
+  provinces through the canalization of the rivers, and other works of
+  sanitation.
+
+  _Mineral Springs._--No other European country equals Austria in the
+  number and value of its mineral springs. They are mostly to be found
+  in Bohemia, and are amongst the most frequented watering-places in the
+  world. The most important are, the alkaline springs of Carlsbad,
+  Marienbad, Franzensbad and Bilin; the alkaline acidulated waters of
+  Giesshubel, largely used as table waters; the iron springs of
+  Marienbad, Franzensbad and of Pyrawarth in Lower Austria; the bitter
+  waters of Pullna, Saidschitz and Sedlitz; the saline waters of Ischl
+  and of Aussee in Styria; the iodine waters of Hall in Upper Austria;
+  the different waters of Gastein; and lastly the thermal waters of
+  Teplitz-Schönau, Johannisbad, and of Römerbad in Styria. Altogether
+  there are reckoned to exist over 1500 mineral springs, of which many
+  are not used.     (O. Br.)
+
+  _Geology._--The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is traversed by the great
+  belt of folded beds which constitutes the Alps and the Carpathians; a
+  secondary branch proceeding from the main belt runs along the Adriatic
+  coast and forms the Julian and Dinaric Alps. In the space which is
+  thus enclosed, lies the Tertiary basin of the Hungarian plain; and
+  outside the belt, on the northern side, is a region which,
+  geologically, is composite, but has uniformly resisted the Carpathian
+  folding. In the neighbourhood of Vienna a gap in the folded belt--the
+  gap between the Alps and the Carpathians--has formed a connexion
+  between these two regions since the early part of the Miocene period.
+  On its outer or convex side the folded belt is clearly defined by a
+  depression which is generally filled by modern deposits. Beyond this,
+  in Russia and Galicia, lies an extensive plateau, much of which is
+  covered by flat-lying Miocene and Pliocene beds; but in the deep
+  valleys of the Dniester and its tributaries the ancient rocks which
+  form the foundation of the plateau are laid bare. Archaean granite is
+  thus exposed at Yampol and other places in Russia, and this is
+  followed towards the west by Silurian and Devonian beds in regular
+  succession--the Devonian being of the Old Red Sandstone type
+  characteristic of the British Isles and of Northern Russia.
+  Throughout, the dip is very low and the beds are unaffected by the
+  Carpathian folds, the strike being nearly from north to south. After
+  Devonian times the region seems to have been dry land until the
+  commencement of the Upper Cretaceous period, when it was overspread by
+  the Cenomanian sea, and the deposits of that sea lie flat upon the
+  older sediments.
+
+  Some 25 or 30 m. of undulating country separate the Dniester from the
+  margin of the Carpathian chain, and in this space the Palaeozoic floor
+  sinks far beneath the surface, so that not even the deep-cut valley of
+  the Pruth exposes any beds of older date than Miocene. Towards the
+  north-west, also, the Palaeozoic foundation falls beneath an
+  increasing thickness of Cretaceous beds and lies buried far below the
+  surface. At Lemberg a boring 1650 ft. in depth did not reach the base
+  of the Senonian. West of Cracow the Cretaceous beds are underlaid by
+  Jurassic and Triassic deposits, the general dip being eastward. It is
+  not till Silesia that the Palaeozoic formations again rise to the
+  surface. Here is the margin, often concealed by very modern deposits,
+  of the great mass of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks which forms nearly
+  the whole of Bohemia and Moravia. The Palaeozoic beds no longer lie
+  flat and undisturbed, as in the Polish plain. They are faulted and
+  folded. But the folds are altogether independent of those of the
+  Carpathians; they are of much earlier date, and are commonly different
+  in direction. The principal biding took place towards the close of the
+  Carboniferous period, and the _massif_ is a fragment of an ancient
+  mountain chain, the _Variscische Gebirge_ of E. Suess, which in
+  Permian and Triassic times stretched across the European area from
+  west to east.
+
+  In Bohemia and Moravia the whole of the beds from the Cambrian to the
+  Lower Carboniferous are of marine origin; but after the Carboniferous
+  period the area appears to have been dry land until the beginning of
+  the Upper Cretaceous period, when the sea again spread over it. The
+  deposits of this sea are now visible in the large basin of Upper
+  Cretaceous beds which stretches from Dresden southeastward through
+  Bohemia. Since the close of the Cretaceous period the Bohemian
+  _massif_ has remained above the sea; but the depression which lies
+  immediately outside the Carpathian chain has at times been covered by
+  an arm of the sea and at other times has been occupied by a chain of
+  salt lakes, to which the salt deposits of Wieliczka and numerous brine
+  springs owe their origin.
+
+  [Illustration: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.]
+
+  The large area which is enclosed within the curve of the Carpathians
+  is for the most part covered by loess, alluvium and other modern
+  deposits, but Miocene and Pliocene beds appear around its borders. In
+  the hilly region of western Transylvania a large mass of more ancient
+  rocks is exposed; the Carboniferous system and all the Mesozoic
+  systems have been recognized here, and granite and volcanic rocks
+  occur. In the middle of Hungary a line of hills rises above the plain,
+  striking from the Platten See towards the north-east, where it merges
+  into the inner girdle of the Carpathian chain. These hills are largely
+  formed of volcanic rocks of late Tertiary age; but near the Platten
+  See Triassic beds of Alpine type are well developed. The Tertiary
+  eruptions were not confined to this line of hills. They were most
+  extensive along the inner border of the Carpathians, and they occurred
+  also in the north of Bohemia. Most of the eruptions took place during
+  the Miocene and Pliocene periods.
+
+  The mineral wealth of Austria is very great. The older rocks are in
+  many places peculiarly rich in metalliferous ores of all kinds.
+  Amongst them may be mentioned the silver-bearing lead ores of
+  Erzgebirge and of Pribram in Bohemia; the iron ores of Styria and
+  Bukovina; and the iron, copper, cobalt and nickel of the districts of
+  Zips and Gomor. The famous cinnabar and mercury mines of Idria in
+  Carniola are in Triassic beds; and the gold and silver of northern
+  Hungary and of Transylvania are associated with the Tertiary volcanic
+  rocks. The Carboniferous coal-fields of Silesia and Bohemia are of the
+  greatest importance; while Jurassic coal is worked at Steyerdorf and
+  Funfkirchen in Hungary, and lignite at many places in the Tertiary
+  beds. The great salt mines of Galicia are in Miocene deposits; but
+  salt is also worked largely in the Trias of the Alps. (See also ALPS;
+  CARPATHIANS; HUNGARY and TIROL.)     (P. La.)
+
+  _Climate._--The climate of Austria, in consequence of its great
+  extent, and the great differences in the elevation of its surface, is
+  very various. It is usual to divide it into three distinct zones. The
+  most southern extends to 46° N. lat., and includes Dalmatia and the
+  country along the coast, together with the southern portions of Tirol
+  and Carinthia. Here the seasons are mild and equable, the winters are
+  short (snow seldom falling), and the summers last for five months. The
+  vine and maize are everywhere cultivated, as well as olives and other
+  southern products. In the south of Dalmatia tropical plants flourish
+  in the open air. The central zone lies between 46° and 49° N. lat.,
+  and includes Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia,
+  Carniola, Central and Northern Tirol, Southern Moravia and a part of
+  Bohemia. The seasons are more marked here than in the preceding. The
+  winters are longer and more severe, and the summers are hotter. The
+  vine and maize are cultivated in favourable situations, and wheat and
+  other kinds of grain are generally grown. The northern zone embraces
+  the territory lying north of 49° N. lat., comprising Bohemia, Northern
+  Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. The winters are here long and cold; the
+  vine and maize are no longer cultivated, the principal crops being
+  wheat, barley, oats, rye, hemp and flax. The mean annual temperature
+  ranges from about 59° in the south to 48° in the north. In some parts
+  of the country, however, it is as low as 46° 40' and even 36°. In
+  Vienna the average annual temperature is 50°, the highest temperature
+  being 94°, the lowest 2° Fahr. In general the eastern part of the
+  country receives less rain than the western. In the south the rains
+  prevail chiefly in spring and autumn, and in the north and central
+  parts during summer. Storms are frequent in the region of the south
+  Alps and along the coast. In some parts in the vicinity of the Alps
+  the rainfall is excessive, sometimes exceeding 60 in. It is less among
+  the Carpathians, where it usually varies from 30 to 40 in. In other
+  parts the rainfall usually averages from 20 to 24 in.
+
+  _Flora._--From the varied character of its climate and soil the
+  vegetable productions of Austria are very diverse. It has floras of
+  the plains, the hills and the mountains; an alpine flora, and an
+  arctic flora; a flora of marshes, and a flora of steppes; floras
+  peculiar to the clay, the chalk, the sandstone and the slate
+  formations. The number of different species is estimated at 12,000, of
+  which one-third are phanerogamous, or flowering plants, and two-thirds
+  cryptogamous, or flowerless. The crown land of Lower Austria far
+  surpasses in this respect the other divisions of the country, having
+  about four-ninths of the whole, and not less than 1700 species of
+  flowering plants. As stated above, Austria is a very mountainous
+  country and the mountains are frequently covered with vegetation to a
+  great elevation. At the base are found vines and maize; on the lower
+  slopes are green pastures, or wheat, barley and other kinds of corn;
+  above are often forests of oak, ash, elm, &c.; and still higher the
+  yew and the fir may be seen braving the climatic conditions. Corn
+  grows to between 3400 and 4500 ft. above the level of the sea, the
+  forests extend to 5600 or 6400 ft., and the line of perpetual snow is
+  from 7800 to 8200 ft.
+
+  _Fauna._--The animal kingdom embraces, besides the usual domestic
+  animals (as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, asses, &c.), wild
+  boars, deer, wild goats, hares, &c.; also bears, wolves, lynxes,
+  foxes, wild cats, jackals, otters, beavers, polecats, martens, weasels
+  and the like. Eagles and hawks are common, and many kinds of singing
+  birds. The rivers and lakes abound in different kinds of fish, which
+  are also plentiful on the sea-coast. Among the insects the bee and the
+  silkworm are the most useful. The leech forms an article of trade. In
+  all there are 90 different species of mammals, 248 species of birds,
+  377 of fishes and more than 13,000 of insects.
+
+  _Divisions._--Austria is composed of seventeen "lands," called also
+  "crown lands." Of these, three--namely, Bohemia, Galicia and
+  Lodomeria, and Dalmatia--are kingdoms; two--Lower and Upper
+  Austria--archduchies; six--Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola,
+  Silesia and Bukovina--duchies; two--Görz-Gradisca and
+  Tirol--countships of princely rank (_gefurstete Grafschaften_);
+  two--Moravia and Istria--margraviates (march counties). Vorarlberg
+  bears the title simply of "land." Trieste, with its district, is a
+  town treated as a special crown land. For administrative purposes
+  Trieste, with Görz-Gradisca and Istria, constituting the Küstenland
+  (the Coast land) and Tirol and Vorarlberg, are each comprehended as
+  one administrative territory. The remaining lands constitute each an
+  administrative territory by itself.
+
+_Population._--Austria had in 1900 a population of 26,107,304
+inhabitants,[1] which is equivalent to 226 inhabitants per sq. m. As
+seen from the table below, the density of the population is unequal in
+the various crown lands. The most thickly populated province is Lower
+Austria; the Alpine provinces are sparsely populated, while Salzburg is
+the most thinly populated crown land of Austria. As regards sex, for
+every 1000 men there were 1035 women, the female element being the most
+numerous in every crown land, except the Küstenland, Bukovina and
+Dalmatia. Compared with the census returns of 1890, the population shows
+an increase of 2,211,891, or 9.3% of the total population. The increase
+between the preceding census returns of 1880 and 1890 was of 1,750,093
+inhabitants, or 7.9% of the total population. A very important factor in
+the movement of the population is the large over-sea emigration, mostly
+to the United States of America, which has grown very much during the
+last quarter of the 19th century, and which shows a tendency to become
+still larger. Between 1891 and 1900 the number of over-sea emigrants was
+387,770 persons. The movement of the population shown in the other vital
+statistics--births, marriages, deaths--are mostly satisfactory, and show
+a steady and normal progress. The annual rate per thousand of population
+in 1900 was: births, 37.0; still-births, 1.1; deaths, 25.2; marriages,
+8.2. The only unsatisfactory points are the great number of illegitimate
+births, and the high infant mortality. Of the total population of
+Austria 14,009,233 were scattered in 26,321 rural communities with less
+than 2000 inhabitants; while the remainder was distributed in 1742
+communities with a population of 2000-5000; in 260 communities with a
+population of 5000-10,000; in 96 towns with a population of
+10,000-20,000; in 41 towns with a population of 20,000-50,000; in 6
+towns with a population of 50,000-100,000; and in 6 towns with a
+population of over 100,000 inhabitants. The principal towns of Austria
+are Vienna (1,662,269), Prague (460,849), Trieste (132,879), Lemberg
+(159,618), Graz (138,370), Brünn (108,944), Cracow (91,310), Czernowitz
+(67,622), Pilsen (68,292) and Linz (58,778).
+
+  +-----------------+----------+-------------------------+------------+
+  |                 |          |                         | Density of |
+  |  Administrative | Areas in |        Population.      | Population |
+  |   Territories.  |  Square  +------------+------------+ per sq. m. |
+  |                 |  Miles.  |    1890.   |    1900.   |  in 1900.  |
+  +-----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+  | AUSTRIA--       |
+  |   Lower Austria |   7,654  |  2,661,799 |  3,100,493 |    405     |
+  |   Upper Austria |   4,617  |    785,831 |    809,918 |    175     |
+  |   Salzburg      |   2,757  |    173,510 |    193,247 |     69     |
+  |   Styria        |   8,642  |  1,282,708 |  1,350,058 |    156     |
+  |   Carinthia     |   3,992  |    361,008 |    367,344 |     91     |
+  |   Carniola      |   3,844  |    498,958 |    508,348 |    132     |
+  |   Küstenland    |   3,074  |    695,384 |    755,183 |    245     |
+  |   Tirol and     |          |            |            |            |
+  |     Vorarlberg  |  11,287  |    928,769 |    979,878 |     86     |
+  |   Bohemia       |  19,997  |  5,843,094 |  6,318,280 |    315     |
+  |   Moravia       |   8,555  |  2,276,870 |  2,435,081 |    284     |
+  |   Silesia       |   1,981  |    605,649 |    680,529 |    342     |
+  |   Galicia       |  30,212  |  6,607,816 |  7,295,538 |    241     |
+  |   Bukovina      |   4,022  |    646,591 |    729,921 |    181     |
+  |   Dalmatia      |   4,923  |    527,426 |    591,597 |    120     |
+  |                 +----------+------------+------------+------------+
+  |       Total     | 115,533  | 23,895,413 | 26,107,304 |    226     |
+  +-----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+[Illustration: Austria-Hungary Distribution of Races.]
+
+_Races._--From an ethnographical point of view Austria contains a
+diversity of races; in fact no other European state contains within its
+borders so many nationalities as the Austrian empire. The three
+principal races of Europe--the Latin, the Teutonic and the Slavonic--are
+all represented in Austria. The Slavonic race, numbering 15,690,000, is
+numerically the principal race in Austria, but as it is divided into a
+number of peoples, differing from one another in language, religion,
+culture, customs and historical traditions, it does not possess a
+national unity. Besides, these various nationalities are geographically
+separated from one another by other races, and are divided into two
+groups. The northern group includes the Czechs, the Moravians, the
+Slovaks, the Ruthenians and the Poles; while the southern group contains
+the Slovenes, the Servians and the Croats. Just as their historical
+traditions are different, so are also the aspirations of these various
+peoples of the Slavonic race different, and the rivalries between them,
+as for instance between the Poles and the Ruthenians, have prevented
+them from enjoying the full political advantage due to their number. The
+Germans, numbering 9,171,614, constitute the most numerous nationality
+in Austria, and have played and still play the principal role in the
+political life of the country. The Germans are in a relative majority
+over the other peoples in the empire, their language is the vehicle of
+communication between all the other peoples both in official life and in
+the press; they are in a relatively more advanced state of culture, and
+they are spread over every part of the empire. Historically they have
+contributed most to the foundation and to the development of the
+Austrian monarchy, and think that for all the above-mentioned reasons
+they are entitled to the principal position amongst the various
+nationalities of Austria. The Latin race is represented by the Italians,
+Ladini and Rumanians.
+
+  The following table gives the numbers of different nationalities, as
+  determined by the languages spoken by them in 1900:--
+
+    Germans               9,171,614
+    Czechs and Slovaks    5,955,397
+    Poles                 4,252,483
+    Ruthenians            3,381,570
+    Slovenes              1,192,780
+    Italians and Ladini     727,102
+    Servians and Croats     711,380
+    Rumanians               230,963
+    Magyars                   9,516
+
+  The Germans occupy exclusively Upper Austria, Salzburg, Vorarlberg,
+  and, to a large extent, Lower Austria; then the north and central part
+  of Styria, the north and western part of Carinthia, and the north and
+  central part of Tirol. In Bohemia they are concentrated round the
+  borders, in the vicinity of the mountains, and they form nearly half
+  the population of Silesia; besides they are found in every part of the
+  monarchy. The Czechs occupy the central and eastern parts of Bohemia,
+  the greatest part of Moravia and a part of Silesia. The Poles are
+  concentrated in western Galicia, and in a part of Silesia; the
+  Ruthenians in eastern Galicia and a part of Bukovina; the Slovenes in
+  Carniola, Görz and Gradisca, Istria, the south of Styria, and the
+  Trieste territory. The Servians and Croats are found in Istria and
+  Dalmatia; the Italians and Ladini in southern Tirol, Görz and
+  Gradisca, Trieste, the coast of Istria, and in the towns of Dalmatia;
+  while the Rumanians live mostly in Bukovina.
+
+  _Agriculture._--Notwithstanding the great industrial progress made by
+  Austria during the last quarter of the 19th century, agriculture still
+  forms the most important source of revenue of its inhabitants. In 1900
+  over 50% of the total population of Austria derived their income from
+  agricultural pursuits. The soil is generally fertile, although there
+  is a great difference in the productivity of the various crown-lands
+  owing to their geographical situation. The productive land of Austria
+  covers 69,519,953 acres, or 93.8% of the total area, which is
+  74,102,001 acres; to this must be added 0.4 of lakes and fishponds,
+  making a total of 94.2% of productive area. The remainder is
+  unproductive, or used for other, not agricultural purposes. The area
+  of the productive land has been steadily increasing--it was estimated
+  to cover about 89% in 1875,--and great improvements in the
+  agricultural methods have also been introduced. Of the whole
+  productive area of Austria, 37.6% is laid out in arable land; 34.6% in
+  woods; 25.2% in pastures and meadows; 1.3% in gardens, 0.9% in
+  vineyards; and 0.4% in lakes, marshes and ponds. The provinces having
+  the largest proportion of arable land are Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia
+  and Lower Austria. The principal products are wheat, rye, barley,
+  oats, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, and cattle turnip. The produce of
+  the ploughed land does not, on the whole, suffice for the home
+  requirements. Large quantities in particular of wheat and maize are
+  imported from Hungary for home consumption. Only barley and oats are
+  usually reaped in quantity for export. The provinces which have the
+  lowest proportion of arable land are Tirol and Salzburg. Besides these
+  principal crops, other crops of considerable magnitude are: buckwheat
+  in Styria, Galicia, Carniola and Carinthia; rape and rape-seed in
+  Bohemia and Galicia, poppy in Moravia and Silesia; flax in Bohemia,
+  Moravia, Styria and Galicia; hemp in Galicia, chicory in Bohemia;
+  tobacco, which is a state monopoly, in Galicia, Bukovina, Dalmatia and
+  Tirol; fuller's thistle in Upper Austria and Styria; hops in Bohemia,
+  including the celebrated hops round Saaz, in Galicia and Moravia; rice
+  in the Küstenland; and cabbage in Bohemia, Galicia, Lower Austria and
+  Styria. The principal garden products are kitchen vegetables and
+  fruit, of which large quantities are exported. The best fruit
+  districts are in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Styria. Certain
+  districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tirol
+  for apples, Bohemia for plums, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates and
+  olives. The chestnut, olive and mulberry trees are common in the
+  south--chiefly in Dalmatia, the Küstenland and Tirol; while in the
+  south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit.
+
+  The vineyards of Austria covered in 1901 an area of 626,044 acres, the
+  provinces with the largest proportion of vineyards being Dalmatia, the
+  Küstenland, Lower Austria, Styria and Moravia. The wines of Dalmatia
+  are mostly sweet wines, and not suitable to be kept for long periods,
+  while those of the other provinces are not so sweet, but improve with
+  age.
+
+  _Forests._--The forests occupy just a little over one-third of the
+  whole productive area of Austria, and cover 24,157,709 acres. In the
+  forests tall timber predominates to the extent of 85%, and consists of
+  conifers much more than of green or leaved trees, in the proportion of
+  seventy against fifteen out of the 85% of the total forests laid out
+  in tall timber. Exceptions are the forest lands of the Karst region,
+  where medium-sized trees and underwood occupy 80%, and of Dalmatia,
+  where underwood occupies 92.6% of the whole forest land. The Alpine
+  region is well wooded, and amongst the other provinces Bukovina is the
+  most densely wooded, having 43.2% of its area under forests, while
+  Galicia with 25.9% is the most thinly-wooded crown-land of Austria.
+  The forests are chiefly composed of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and
+  the like, and constitute one of the great sources of wealth of the
+  country. Forestry is carried on in a thoroughly scientific manner.
+  Large works of afforestation have been undertaken in Carinthia,
+  Carniola and Tirol with a view of checking the periodical inundations,
+  while similar works have been successfully carried out in the Karst
+  region.
+
+  _Landed Property._--Of the whole territory of the state, 74,102,001
+  acres, about 29%, is appropriated to large landed estates; 71% is
+  disposed of in medium and smaller properties. Large landed property is
+  most strongly represented in Bukovina, where it absorbs 46% of the
+  whole territory, and in Salzburg, Galicia, Silesia and Bohemia. To the
+  state belongs 4½% of the total territory. The Church, the communities,
+  and the corporations are also in possession of large areas of land; 4%
+  (speaking roundly) of the territory of Austria is held on the tenure
+  of _fidei-commissum_. Of the entire property in large landed estates,
+  59% is laid out in woods; of the property in _fidei-commissum_, 66% is
+  woodland; of the entire forest land, about 10% is the property of the
+  state; 14.5% is communal property; and 3.8% is the property of the
+  Church. The whole of the territory in large landed estates includes
+  52% of the entire forest land. The forest land held under
+  _fidei-commissum_ amounts to over 9% of the entire forest land.
+
+  _Live Stock._--Although richly endowed by nature, Austria cannot be
+  said to be remarkable as a cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except in
+  certain districts of the Alpine region, where this branch of human
+  activity is carried on under excellent conditions, there is much room
+  for improvement. The amount of live stock is registered every ten
+  years along with the census of the population.
+
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                 |   1880.   |   1890.   |   1900.   |
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Horses          | 1,463,282 | 1,548,197 | 1,711,077 |
+    | Mules and asses |    49,618 |    57,952 |    66,638 |
+    | Cattle          | 8,584,077 | 8,643,936 | 9,506,626 |
+    | Goats           | 1,006,675 | 1,035,832 | 1,015,682 |
+    | Sheep           | 3,841,340 | 3,186,787 | 2,621,026 |
+    | Pigs            | 2,721,541 | 3,549,700 | 4,682,734 |
+    | Beehives        |   926,312 |   920,640 |   996,139 |
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  Austria is distinguished for the number and superiority of its horses,
+  for the improvements of which numerous studs exist all over the
+  country. All kinds of horses are represented from the heaviest to the
+  lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful horses
+  are found in Bukovina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg; those of
+  Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tirol and Upper Austria are also famous.
+  In Dalmatia, the Küstenland and Southern Tirol, horses are less
+  numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure take their place. The
+  finest cattle are to be found in the Alpine region; of the Austrian
+  provinces, Salzburg and Upper Austria contain the largest proportion
+  of cattle. The number of sheep has greatly diminished, but much has
+  been done in the way of improving the breeds, more particularly in
+  Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Upper and Lower Austria. The main object
+  has been the improvement of the wool, and with this object the merino
+  and other fine-woolled breeds have been introduced. Goats abound
+  mostly in Dalmatia, Bohemia and Tirol. The rearing of pigs is carried
+  on most largely in Styria, Bohemia, Galicia and Upper and Lower
+  Austria. Bees are extensively kept in Carinthia, Carniola, Lower
+  Austria and Galicia. The silk-worm is reared more particularly in
+  Southern Tirol and in the Küstenland, and the average annual yield is
+  5,000,000 lb. of cocoons. In the Alpine region dairy-farming has
+  attained a great degree of development, and large quantities of
+  butter and cheese are annually produced. Altogether, the rearing of
+  cattle, with all its actual shortcomings, constitutes a great source
+  of revenue, and yields a certain amount for export.
+
+  _Fisheries._--The fisheries of Austria are very extensive, and are
+  divided into river, lake and sea fisheries. The numerous rivers of
+  Austria swarm with a great variety of fishes. The lake fisheries are
+  mostly pursued in Bohemia, where pisciculture is an art of old
+  standing, and largely developed. The sea fisheries on the coast of
+  Dalmatia and of the Küstenland constitute an important source of
+  wealth to the inhabitants of these provinces. About 4000 vessels, with
+  a number of over 16,000 fishermen are employed, and the average annual
+  catch realizes £240,000.
+
+  In the mountainous regions of Austria game is plentiful, and
+  constitutes a large source of income.
+
+  _Minerals._--In the extent and variety of its mineral resources
+  Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. With the exception
+  of platinum, it possesses every useful metal; thus, besides the noble
+  metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less richness
+  in iron, copper, lead and tin. Rich deposits of coal, both pit coal
+  and brown coal are to be found, as well as extensive basins of
+  petroleum, and large deposits of salt. In smaller quantities are found
+  zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth, chromium,
+  uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite and asphalt. There are also
+  marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain-earth, potter's clay, and
+  precious stones. It is therefore natural that mining operations should
+  have been carried out in Austria from the earliest times, as, for
+  instance, the salt mines of Hallstatt in Upper Austria, which had
+  already been worked during the Celtic and Romanic period. Famous
+  through the middle ages were also the works, especially for the
+  extraction of gold and silver, carried out in Bohemia and Moravia,
+  whose early mining regulations, for instance those of Iglau, were
+  adopted in other countries. But the great industrial development of
+  the 19th century, with its growing necessity for fuel, has brought
+  about the exploitation of the rich coal-fields of the country, and
+  to-day the coal mines yield the heaviest output of any mineral
+  products. To instance the rapid growth in the extraction of coal, it
+  is worth mentioning that in 1825 its output was about 150,000 tons; in
+  1875, or only after half a century, the output has become 100 times
+  greater, namely, over 15,000,000 tons; while in 1900 it was 32,500,000
+  tons. Coal is found in nearly every province of Austria, with the
+  exception of Salzburg and Bukovina, but the richest coal-fields are in
+  Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Moravia and Carniola in the order named.
+  Iron ores are found more or less in all the crown-lands except Upper
+  Austria, the Küstenland and Dalmatia, but it is most plentiful in
+  Styria, Carinthia, Bohemia and Moravia. Gold and silver ores are found
+  in Bohemia, Salzburg and Tirol. Quicksilver is found at Idria in
+  Carniola, which after Almaden in Spain is the richest mine in Europe.
+  Lead is extracted in Carinthia and Bohemia, while the only mines for
+  tin in the whole of Austria are in Bohemia. Zinc is mostly found in
+  Galicia, Tirol and Bohemia, and copper is extracted in Tirol, Moravia
+  and Salzburg. Petroleum is found in Galicia, where ozocerite is also
+  raised. Rock-salt is extracted in Galicia, while brine-salt is
+  produced in Salzburg, Salzkammergut and Tirol. Graphite is extracted
+  in Bohemia, Moravia, Styria and Lower Austria. Uranium, bismuth and
+  antimony are dug out in Bohemia, while procelain earth is found in
+  Bohemia and Moravia. White, red, black and variously-coloured marbles
+  exist in the Alps, particularly in Tirol and Salzburg; quartz,
+  felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, and asbestos are found in various
+  parts; and among precious stones may be specially mentioned the
+  Bohemian garnets. The total value of the mines and foundry products
+  throughout Austria in 1875 was £5,000,000. The number of persons
+  employed in the mines and in the smelting and casting works in the
+  same year was 94,019. The total value of the mining products
+  throughout Austria in 1902 was £10,500,000, and the value of the
+  product of the foundries was £3,795,000. Of this amount £3,150,000
+  represents the value of the iron: raw steel and pig iron. The increase
+  in the value of the mining products during the period 1892-1902 was
+  40%; and the increase in the product of the furnaces in the same
+  period was 35%. The number of persons employed in 1902 in mining was
+  140,890; in smelting works 7148; and in the extraction of salt, 7963.
+  The value of the chief mining products of Austria in 1903 was: Brown
+  coal (21,808,583 tons), £4,182,516; coal (12,145,000 tons),
+  £4,059,807; iron ores (1,688,960 tons), £615,273; lead ores, £135,965;
+  silver ores, £119,637; quicksilver ores, £92,049; graphite, £78,437;
+  tin ores, £78,275; copper ores, £22,119; manganese ores, £5368; gold
+  ores, £4407; asphalt, £2250; alum and vitriol slate, £992. The
+  production of petroleum was 660,000 tons, and of salt 340,000 tons.
+  The value of the principal products of the smelting furnaces in 1903
+  was: Iron (955,543 tons), £2,970,866; coke, £862,137; zinc (metallic),
+  £174,344; silver, £141,594; copper, £57,542; sulphuric acid, £8488;
+  copper vitriol, £5710; mineral colours, £5565; lead, £5067; tin,
+  £4566; gold, £878; iron vitriol, £603; litharge, £384; quicksilver,
+  £218; coal briquettes, £92,000.
+
+  _Industry._--The manufactures of Austria were much developed during
+  the last quarter of the 19th century, although Austria as a whole
+  cannot be said to be an industrial country. Austria possesses many
+  favourable conditions for a great industrial activity. It possesses an
+  abundance of raw materials, of fuel--both mineral and wood,--of metals
+  and minerals, in fact all the necessaries for a great and nourishing
+  industry; and the rivers can easily be utilized as producers of motive
+  power. It is besides densely populated, and has an adequate supply of
+  cheap labour, while the undeveloped industries of the Balkan states
+  also offer a ready market for its products. The glass manufacture in
+  Bohemia is very old, and has kept up its leading position in the
+  markets of the world up to the present day. Industrial activity is
+  greatly developed in Bohemia, Lower Austria, Silesia, Moravia and
+  Vorarlberg, while in Dalmatia and Bukovina it is almost non-existent.
+  The principal branches of manufactures are, the textile industry, the
+  metallurgic industries; brewing and distilling; leather, paper and
+  sugar; glass, porcelain and earthenware; chemicals; and scientific and
+  musical instruments.
+
+  The textile industry in all its branches--cotton, woollen, linen,
+  silk, flax and hemp--is mostly concentrated in Bohemia, Moravia,
+  Silesia and Lower Austria. It is an old industry, and one which has
+  made great progress since 1875. Thus the number of mechanical looms
+  increased more than threefold during this period, and numbered in 1902
+  about 120,000. In the same year the number of spindles at work was
+  about 3,100,000. Austria had in 1902, 21,837 textile factories with
+  337,514 workmen. The principal seat of the manufacture of cotton goods
+  is in northern Bohemia, from the Eger to Reichenberg, which can be
+  considered as the Lancashire of Austria, Lower Austria between the
+  Wiener Wald and the Leitha, and in Vorarlberg. Woollen goods are
+  manufactured in the above places, and besides in Moravia, at Brünn and
+  at Iglau; in Silesia; and at Biala in Galicia. Vienna is also
+  distinguished for its manufacture of shawls. The coarser kind of
+  woollen goods are manufactured all over the country, principally in
+  the people's houses as a home industry. The most important places for
+  the linen industry are in Bohemia at Trautenau; in Moravia and
+  Silesia, while the commoner kinds of linen are mostly produced as a
+  home industry by the peasants in the above-mentioned crown-lands. The
+  manufacture of ribbons, embroidery and lace, the two latter being
+  carried on principally as a house industry in Vorarlberg and in the
+  Bohemian Erzgebirge, also thrives. The industry in stitched stuffs is
+  especially developed in northern Bohemia. Ready-made men's clothes and
+  oriental caps (fezes) are produced on a large scale in Bohemia and
+  Moravia. The manufacture of silk goods is mainly carried on in Vienna,
+  while the spinning of silk has its principal seat in southern Tirol,
+  and to a smaller extent in the Küstenland.
+
+  The metallurgic industry forms one of the most important branches of
+  industry, because iron ore of excellent quality is extracted annually
+  in great quantities. The principal seats of the iron and steel
+  manufactures are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower
+  Austria, Styria and Carinthia, which contain extensive iron-works. The
+  most important manufactured products are cutlery, firearms, files,
+  wire, nails, tin-plates, scythes, sickles, steel pens, needles, rails,
+  iron furniture, drains, and kitchen utensils. A famous place for its
+  iron manufacture is Steyr in Upper Austria. The manufacture of
+  machinery, for industrial and agricultural purposes, and of railway
+  engines is mainly concentrated in Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Prague,
+  Brünn and Trieste; while the production of rolling stock for railways
+  is carried on in Vienna, Prague and Graz. Ship-building yards for
+  sea-vessels are at Trieste and Pola; while for river-vessels the
+  largest yards are at Linz. Among other metal manufactures, the
+  principal are copper works at Brixlegg and other places in Tirol, and
+  in Galicia, tin and lead in Bohemia, and metallic alloys, especially
+  _Packfong_ or German silver, an alloy of nickel and copper, at
+  Berndorf in Lower Austria. The precious metals, gold and silver, are
+  principally worked in the larger towns, particularly at Vienna and
+  Prague. Vienna is also the principal seat for scientific and surgical
+  instruments. In the manufacture of musical instruments Austria takes a
+  leading part amongst European states, the principal places of
+  production being Vienna, Prague, Königgrätz, Graslitz and Schönbach.
+
+  The glass manufacture is one of the oldest industries in Austria, and
+  is mainly concentrated in Bohemia. Its products are of the best
+  quality, and rule the markets of the world. In the manufacture of
+  earthenwares Austria plays also a leading part, and the porcelain
+  industry round Carlsbad and in the Eger district in Bohemia has a
+  world-wide reputation. The leather industry is widely extended, and is
+  principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia and Moravia. Vienna
+  and Prague are great centres for the boot and shoe trade, and the
+  gloves manufactured in these towns enjoy a great reputation. The
+  manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country, and is
+  very varied. In Vienna and other large towns the production of
+  ornamental furniture has attained a great development. The industry in
+  paper has also assumed great proportions, its principal seats being in
+  Bohemia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria. Of food-stuffs, besides
+  milling, and other flour products, the principal industry is the
+  manufacture of sugar from beet-root. The sugar industry is almost
+  exclusively carried on in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. It
+  has attained such large proportions that large districts in those
+  provinces have been converted from wheat-growing districts into fields
+  for the cultivation of beet-root. Brewing is extensively carried on,
+  and the beer produced is of a good quality. The largest brewing
+  establishment is at Schwechat near Vienna, and large breweries are
+  also found at Pilsen and Budweiss in Bohemia, whose products enjoy a
+  great reputation abroad. There were in Austria 1341 breweries, which
+  produced 422,993,120 gallons of beer. in 1902-1903. Distilling is
+  carried on on a large scale in Galicia, Bukovina, Bohemia, Moravia and
+  Lower Austria; the number of distilleries being 1257, which produced
+  30,435,812 gallons of spirit. Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs
+  are made in Dalmatia and Moravia. The manufacture as well as the
+  growth of tobacco is a government monopoly, which has 30 tobacco
+  factories with over 40,000 work-people, the largest establishment
+  being at Hainburg in Lower Austria. Other important branches of
+  industry are the manufacture of chemicals, in Vienna and in Bohemia;
+  petroleum refineries in Galicia, and the extraction of various
+  petroleum products; the manufacture of buttons; printing,
+  lithographing, engraving, and map-making, especially in Vienna, &c.
+
+  In 1900 the various manufacturing industries employed in Austria
+  3,138,800 persons, of whom 2,264,871 were workmen and 103,854 were
+  labourers. Including families and domestic servants, a little over
+  7,000,000 were dependent on industry for their livelihood.
+
+  _Commerce._--Austria forms together with Hungary one customs and
+  commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade are
+  given under AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Owing to its situation, the bulk of the
+  Austrian trade is carried on the railways and on the inland navigable
+  rivers. Only a small portion is sea-borne trade, while the commercial
+  interchange between the provinces lying on the Adriatic coast is very
+  small.
+
+  _Commercial Navy._--The commercial sea navy of Austria, excluding
+  small coasting vessels and fishing-boats, consisted in 1900 of 154
+  vessels, with a tonnage of 198,322 tons, of which 123 vessels with a
+  tonnage of 183,949 were steamers. The greatest navigation company is
+  the Austrian Lloyd in Trieste, which in 1900 employed 70 steamers of
+  165,430 tons. During 1900 the total tonnage of vessels engaged in the
+  foreign trade, which entered all the Austrian ports, was 1,448,764
+  tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 888,707 under foreign flags;
+  the total tonnage of vessels cleared during the same period was
+  1,503,532 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 866,591 under
+  foreign flags.
+
+_Government._--Austria is a parliamentary or constitutional (limited)
+monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of emperor. The succession to
+the throne is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture, in the male
+line of the house of Habsburg-Lothringen; and failing this, in the
+female line. The monarch must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church.
+The emperor of Austria is also king of Hungary, but except for having
+the same monarch and a few common affairs (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY), the two
+states are quite independent of one another. The emperor has the supreme
+command over the armed forces of the country, has the right to confer
+degrees of nobility, and has the prerogatives of pardon for criminals.
+He is the head of the executive power, and shares the legislative power
+with the Reichsrat; and justice is administered in his name. The
+constitution of Austria is based upon the following statutes:--(1) the
+Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the
+19th of April 1713, which regulated the succession to the throne; (2)
+the Pragmatic Patent of the emperor Francis II. of the 1st of August
+1804, by which he took the title of Emperor of Austria; (3) the Diploma
+of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 20th of October 1860, by which
+the constitutional form of government was introduced; (4) the Diploma of
+the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 26th of February 1861, by which the
+provincial diets were created; (5) the six fundamental laws of the 21st
+of December 1867, which contain the exposition and guarantee of the
+civil and political rights of the citizen, the organization of justice,
+the organization and method of election for the Reichsrat, &c.
+
+The executive power is vested in the council of ministers, at whose head
+is the minister-president. There are eight ministries, namely, the
+ministry of the interior, of national defence, of worship and
+instruction, of finance, of commerce, of agriculture, of justice, and of
+railways. There are, further, two ministries, without portfolio, for
+Galicia and Bohemia. The civil administration in the different provinces
+is carried out by governors or stadtholders (_Statthalter_), to whom are
+subordinate the heads of the 347 districts in which Austria was divided
+in 1900, and of the 33 towns with special statute, i.e. of the towns
+which have also the management of the civil administration. Local
+self-government of the provinces, districts and communities is also
+granted, and is exercised by various elective bodies. Thus, the
+autonomous provincial administration is discharged by the provincial
+committees elected by the local diets; and the affairs of the
+communities are discharged by an elected communal council.
+
+The legislative power for all the kingdoms and lands which constitute
+Austria is vested in the Reichsrat. It consists of two Houses: an Upper
+House (the _Herrenhaus_), and a Lower House (the _Abgeordnetenhaus_).
+The Upper House is composed of (1) princes of the imperial house, who
+are of age (14 in 1907); (2) of the members of the large landed
+nobility, to which the emperor had conferred this right, and which is
+hereditary in their family (78 in 1907); (3) of 9 archbishops and 8
+prince-bishops; and (4) of life members nominated by the emperor for
+distinguished services (170 in 1907). The Lower House has undergone
+considerable changes since its creation in 1861, by the various
+modifications of the electoral laws passed in 1867, 1873, 1892, 1896 and
+1907. The general spirit of those modifications was to broaden the
+electoral basis, and to extend the franchise to a larger number of
+citizens. The law of the 26th of January 1907 granted universal
+franchise to Austrian male citizens over twenty-four years of age, who
+have resided for a year in the place of election. The Lower House
+consists of 516 members, elected for a period of six years. The members
+receive payment for their services, as well as an indemnity for
+travelling expenses. A bill to become law must pass through both Houses,
+and must receive the sanction of the emperor. The emperor is bound to
+summon the Reichsrat annually.
+
+According to the imperial Diploma of the 26th February 1861, local diets
+have been created for the legislation of matters of local interest.
+These provincial parliaments are 17 in number, and their membership
+varies from 22 members, which compose the diet of Görz and Gradisca to
+the 242 members which constitute that of Bohemia. They assemble annually
+and are composed of members elected for a period of six years, and of
+members _ex-officio_, namely, the archbishops and bishops of the
+respective provinces, and the rector of the local university.
+
+  _Religion._--Religious toleration was secured throughout the Habsburg
+  dominions by the patent of the 13th of October 1781, but Protestants
+  were not given full civil rights until the issue of the
+  _Protestantenpatent_ of the 8th of April 1861, after the promulgation
+  of the imperial constitution of the 26th of February. The principle
+  underlying this and all subsequent acts is the guarantee to all
+  religious bodies _recognized by law_ of freedom of worship, the
+  management of their own affairs, and the undisturbed possession and
+  disposal of their property. Though all the churches are, in a sense,
+  "established," the Roman Catholic Church, to which the sovereign must
+  belong, is the state religion. The reigning house, however, though
+  strongly attached to the Roman faith, has always resisted the extreme
+  claims of the papacy, an attitude which in Joseph II.'s time resulted,
+  under the influence of Febronianism (q.v.), in what was practically
+  a national schism. Thus the emperor retains the right to tax church
+  property, to nominate bishops, and to prohibit the circulation of
+  papal bulls without his permission. By the concordat of August 18,
+  1855, this traditional attitude was to some extent reversed; but this
+  agreement soon became a dead letter and was formally denounced by the
+  Austrian government after the promulgation of the dogma of papal
+  infallibility.
+
+  Of the population of Austria in 1900, 23,796,814 (91%) were Roman
+  Catholics, including 3,134,439 uniate Greeks and 2096 uniate
+  Armenians. There were 12,937 Old Catholics, in scattered communities,
+  606,764 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, mainly in Bukovina and
+  Dalmatia, and 698 Armenians, also mainly in Bukovina. The Protestants,
+  who in the 16th century comprised 90% of the population, are now only
+  1.9%. In 1900, 365,505 of them were returned as belonging to the
+  Augsburg Confession (Lutheran), 128,557 to the Helvetic (Reformed).
+  Other Christian Confessions in Austria are Herrnhuters (Moravian
+  Brethren) in Bohemia, Mennonites in Galicia, Lippovanians (akin to the
+  Russian Skoptsi) in Bukovina, and Anglicans. The Jews compose 4.7% of
+  the population, and are strongest in Galicia, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
+  Moravia and Bukovina. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into eight
+  provinces, seven of the Latin rite--Vienna, Prague, Lemberg, Salzburg,
+  Olmütz, Görz and Zara--with 23 bishoprics, and one of the Greek rite
+  (Lemberg), with two bishoprics. The Armenian bishopric of Lemberg and
+  the Austrian part of the archdiocese of Breslau are under the
+  immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. The Greek Orthodox Church has
+  one archbishopric (at Czernowitz) and two bishoprics. There are 559
+  communities of the Jewish religion (253 in Galicia, and 255 in
+  Bohemia). In 1900 there were, belonging to the Roman Catholic Church,
+  541 monasteries with 7775 monks, and 877 convents with 19,194 nuns;
+  while the Greek Orthodox Church had 14 monasteries with 85 members.
+  The Evangelical Church, according to the constitution granted by
+  imperial decree on the 9th of April 1861 (modified by those of January
+  6, 1866 and December 9, 1891) is organized on a territorial basis,
+  being administered by 10 superintendents, who are, in their turn,
+  subject to the Supreme Church Council (_K.K. Oberkirchenrat_) at
+  Vienna, the emperor as sovereign being technically head of the Church.
+  The small Anglican community at Trieste is under the jurisdiction of
+  the Evangelical superintendent of Vienna.
+
+  _Education._--The system of elementary schools dates from the time of
+  Maria Theresa; the present organization was introduced by the
+  education law of May 14, 1869 (amended in 1883). By this law the
+  control of the schools, hitherto in the hands of the Church, was
+  assumed by the state, every local community being bound to erect and
+  maintain public elementary schools. These are divided into
+  _Volksschulen_ (national or primary schools) and _Bürgerschulen_
+  (higher elementary schools). Attendance is obligatory on all from the
+  age of six to fourteen (in some provinces six to twelve). Religious
+  instruction is given by the parish priest, but in large schools a
+  special grant is made or a teacher _ad hoc_ appointed in the higher
+  classes (law of June 17, 1888). Private schools are also allowed
+  which, if fulfilling the legal requirements, may be accorded the
+  validity of public primary schools. The language of instruction is
+  that of the nationality prevalent in the district. In about 40% of the
+  schools the instruction is given in German; in 26% in Czech; in 28% in
+  other Slavonic languages, and in the remainder in Italian, Rumanian or
+  Magyar. In 1903 there were in Austria 20,268 elementary schools with
+  78,025 teachers, frequented by 3,618,837 pupils, which compares
+  favourably with the figures of the year 1875, when there were 14,257
+  elementary schools with 27,677 teachers, frequented by 2,050,808
+  pupils. About 88% of the children who are of school age actually
+  attend school, but in some provinces like Upper Austria and Salzburg
+  nearly the full 100 attend, while in the eastern parts of the monarchy
+  the percentage is much lower. In 1900 62% of the total population of
+  Austria could read and write, and 2.9% could only read. In the number
+  of illiterates are included children under seven years of age. For the
+  training of teachers of elementary schools there were in 1900 54
+  institutions for masters and 38 for mistresses. In these training
+  colleges, as also in the secondary or "middle" schools
+  (_Mittelschulen_), religious instruction is also in the hands of the
+  Roman Catholic Church; but, by the law of June 20, 1870, the state
+  must provide for such teaching in the event of the Protestant pupils
+  numbering 20 or upwards (the school authorities usually refuse to take
+  more than 19 Protestants in consequence).
+
+  Besides the elementary schools three other groups of educational
+  establishments exist in Austria: "middle" schools (_Mittelschulen_);
+  "high" schools (_Hochschulen_); professional and technical schools
+  (_Fachlehranstalten_ and _Gewerbeschulen_). The "middle" schools
+  include the classical schools (_Gymnasien_), "modern" schools with
+  some Latin teaching (_Realgymnasien_), and modern schools simply
+  (Realschulen)--In 1903 there were 202 _Gymnasien_, 19 _Realgymnasien_
+  and 117 _Realschulen_, with 7121 teachers and 111,012 scholars. The
+  "high" schools include the universities and the technical high schools
+  (_Technische Hochschulen_). Of state universities there are
+  eight:--Vienna, Gratz, Innsbruck, Prague (German), and Czernowitz, in
+  which German is the language of instruction; Prague (Bohemian) with
+  Czech; and Cracow and Lemberg with Polish as the language of
+  instruction. Each university has four faculties--theology, law and
+  political science, medicine, and philosophy. In Czernowitz, however,
+  the faculty of medicine is wanting. Since 1905 an Italian faculty of
+  law has been added to the university of Innsbruck. The theological
+  faculties are all Roman Catholic, except Czernowitz, where the
+  theological faculty is Orthodox Eastern. All the universities are
+  maintained by the state. The number of professors and lecturers was
+  about 1596 in 1903; while the number of students was 17,498.
+
+  _Justice._--The judicial authorities in Austria are:--(1) the county
+  courts, 963 in number; (2) the provincial and district courts, 74 in
+  number, to which are attached the jury courts,--both these courts are
+  courts of first instance; (3) the higher provincial courts, 9 in
+  number, namely, at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbruck, Zara, Prague,
+  Brünn Cracow and Lemberg; these are the cours of appeal from the lower
+  courts, and have the supervision of the criminal courts in their
+  jurisdiction; (4) the supreme court of justice and court of cassation
+  in Vienna. The judicial organization is independent of the executive
+  power. There are also special courts for commercial, industrial,
+  shipping, military and other matters. There is also the court of the
+  Empire at Vienna, which has the power to decide in case of conflict
+  between different authorities.
+
+  _Finance._--The growth of the Austrian budget, is shown by the
+  following figures:--
+
+    +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    |             |     1885    |     1895    |     1900    |     1905    |
+    +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    | Expenditure | £44,121,600 | £55,396,916 | £66,003,494 | £74,013,000 |
+    | Revenue     | £43,714,666 | £57,446,091 | £66,020,475 | £74,079,000 |
+    +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, indirect taxes, customs
+  duties, post and telegraph and post-office savings banks receipts,
+  railway receipts, and profits or royalties on forests, domains and
+  mining. The direct taxes are divided into two groups, real and
+  personal; the former include the land tax and house-rent tax, and the
+  latter the personal income tax, tax on salaries, tax on commercial and
+  industrial establishments, tax on all business with properly audited
+  accounts (like the limited liability companies), and tax on
+  investments. The principal indirect taxes are the tobacco monopoly,
+  stamps and fees, excise duties on sugar, alcohol and beer, the salt
+  monopoly, excise duty on mineral oil, and excise duty on meat and
+  cattle for slaughtering.
+
+  The national debt of Austria is divided into two groups, a general
+  national debt, incurred jointly by the two halves of the
+  Austro-Hungarian monarchy for common affairs, and is therefore jointly
+  borne by both parts, and a separate debt owed only by Austria alone.
+  The following table shows the growth of the Austrian debt in millions
+  sterling:--
+
+    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+    |  1885  |  1890  |  1895  |  1900  |  1905  |
+    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+    |   45.  |  88.23 | 119.60 | 140.68 | 167.91 |
+    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+  At the close of 1903 the debt of Austria was £156,724,000, an increase
+  since 1900 of £16,044,000. This large increase is due to the great
+  expenditure on public works, as railways, navigable canals, harbour
+  works, &c., started by the Austrian government since 1900.
+
+  _Railways._--As regards internal communications, Austria is provided
+  with an extensive network of railways, the industrial provinces being
+  specially favoured. This has been accomplished in spite of the
+  engineering difficulties owing to the mountainous nature of the
+  country and of the great financial expenses resulting therefrom. The
+  construction of the Semmering railway, opened in 1854, for instance,
+  was the first mountain railway built in the European continent, and
+  marked an epoch in railway engineering. The first railway laid down in
+  Austria was in 1824 between Budweis and Kerschbaum, over a distance of
+  40 m., and was at first used for horse tramway. The first steam
+  railway was opened in 1837 over a distance of about 10 m. between
+  Floridsdorf (near Vienna) and Wagram. From the first, the policy of
+  the Austrian government was to construct and to work the railways
+  itself; and in granting concessions to private companies it stipulated
+  among its conditions the reversionary right of the state, whereby the
+  line becomes the property of the state without compensation after the
+  lapse of the period of concession. With various modifications,
+  according to its financial means, it vigorously pursued its policy, by
+  both building railways itself, and encouraging private companies to
+  build. In 1905 the total length of railways in Austria was 13,590 m.,
+  of which 5017 m. belonged to and were worked by the state, and 3359 m.
+  belonged to private companies, but were worked by the state.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Umlauft, _Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns in Wort und
+  Bild_ (15 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), _Die österreichisch-ungarische
+  Monarchic_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1896), _Die österreichische Monarchic in
+  Wort und Bild_ (24 vols., Vienna, 1888-1902), and _Die Volker
+  Österreich-Ungarns_ (12 vols., Teschen, 1881-1885); A. Supan,
+  "Österreich-Ungarn" (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhoff's _Länderkunde von
+  Europa_, vol. ii.); Auerbach, _Les Races et les nationalitiés en
+  Autriche-Hongrie_ (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, _Österreich-ungarisches
+  Ortslexikon_ (Vienna, 1896). For geology see C. Diener, &c., _Ban und
+  Bild Österreichs_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903); F. von Hauer, _Die
+  Geologie_ (Vienna). The official statistical publications of the
+  central statistical department, of the ministry of agriculture, and of
+  the ministry of commerce, appearing annually.     (O. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The census returns of 1857, and of 1869, which were the first
+    systematic censuses taken, gave the population of Austria as
+    18,224,500 and 20,394,980 respectively. It must be noticed that
+    between these two dates Austria lost its Lombardo-Venetian
+    territories, with a population of about 5,000,000 inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8
+       "Atherstone" to "Austria"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2010 [EBook #34312]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOLUME 2 SL 8 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+One typographical error has been corrected. It
+appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME II SLICE VIII<br /><br />
+Atherstone to Austria</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">ATHERSTONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">AUDEFROI LE BATARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">ATHERTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">AUDIENCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">ATHETOSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDMÉ ARMAND GASTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">ATHIAS, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">AUDIT and AUDITOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">ATHLETE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">AUDLEY, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">ATHLETIC SPORTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">ATHLONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">ATHOL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">AUDRAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">AUDRAN, EDMOND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">ATHOLL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D&rsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">ATHOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ATHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">AUE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ATINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">AUERBACH, BERTHOLD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">ATITLÁN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ATKINSON, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">AUFIDENA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">AUGEAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ATLANTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">AUGER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ATLANTIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ATLANTIC CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">AUGHRIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">ATLANTIC OCEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">ATLANTIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">AUGITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">ATLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">AUGMENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">ATLAS MOUNTAINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">AUGMENTATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ATMOLYSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">AUGSBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ATMOSPHERE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">AUGURS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">ATOLL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">ATOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">AUGUSTA</a> (Georgia, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">ATONEMENT and DAY OF ATONEMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">AUGUSTA</a> (Maine, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">ATRATO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">AUGUSTA</a> (Sicily)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">ATREK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">ATREUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">AUGUSTAN HISTORY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">ATRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">ATRIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">ATROPHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">AUGUSTINE, SAINT</a> (354-430)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ATROPOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">AUGUSTINE, SAINT</a> (archbishop)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">AUGUSTINIAN CANONS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ATTACAPA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ATTACHMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">AUGUSTINIANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ATTAINDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">AUGUSTOWO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">ATTAINT, WRIT OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">AUGUSTUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ATTALIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">AUGUSTUS I</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ATTAR OF ROSES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">AUGUSTUS II</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">ATTEMPT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">AUGUSTUS III</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">ATTENTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">AUGUSTUSBAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">AUK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">ATTERBURY, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">ATTESTATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">AULIC COUNCIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">ATTHIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">AULIE-ATA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">ATTIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">AULIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">ATTICA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">AULNOY, MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">ATTIC BASE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">AULOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE PHILIPPE LOUIS D&rsquo;ORLÉANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">AUMALE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">ATTILA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">AUMONT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">ATTIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">AUNCEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">ATTLEBOROUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">AUNDH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">ATTOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">ATTORNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">AUNT SALLY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">ATTORNEY-GENERAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">AURA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">ATTORNMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">AURANGABAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">ATTRITION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">AURANGZEB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">ATTWOOD, THOMAS</a> (English composer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">AURAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">ATTWOOD, THOMAS</a> (English political reformer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">AURELIA, VIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">ATWOOD, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">AURELIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">AUBADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">AURELIANUS, CAELIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">AUBAGNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN BAPTISTE D&rsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">AUBE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">AUREOLA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">AUBENAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">AURICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">AUBER, DANIEL FRANÇOIS ESPRIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">AURICLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">AUBERGINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">AURICULA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">AUBERVILLIERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">AURIFABER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">AUBIGNAC, FRANÇOIS HÉDELIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">AURIGA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">AUBIGNÉ, CONSTANT D&rsquo;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">AURILLAC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">AUBIGNÉ, JEAN HENRI MERLE D&rsquo;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">AURISPA, GIOVANNI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">AUBIGNÉ, THÉODORE AGRIPPA D&rsquo;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">AUROCHS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">AUBIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">AURORA</a> (Roman goddess)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">AUBREY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">AURORA</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">AUBURN</a> (Maine, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">AURORA</a> (Missouri, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">AUBURN</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">AURORA</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">AUBURN</a> (colour)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">AURORA POLARIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">AUBUSSON, PIERRE D&rsquo;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">AURUNCI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">AUBUSSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">AUSCULTATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">AUCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">AUSSIG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">AUCHTERARDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">AUSTEN, JANE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">AUCHTERMUCHTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">AUSTERLITZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">AUSTIN, ALFRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">AUSTIN, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">AUCKLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">AUSTIN, SARAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">AUCKLAND ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">AUCTION PITCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">AUSTIN</a> (Minnesota, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">AUSTIN</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">AUCUBA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">AUSTRALASIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">AUDAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">AUSTRALIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">AUDE</a> (river of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">AUSTRASIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">AUDE</a> (department of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">AUSTRIA</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1813-1898), British
+geologist, one of the pioneers in South African geology, was
+born in 1813, in the district of Uitenhage, Cape Colony. Having
+qualified as M.D. he settled in early life as a medical practitioner
+at Grahamstown, subsequently becoming F.R.C.S. In 1839
+his interest was aroused in geology, and from that date he
+&ldquo;devoted the leisure of a long and successful medical practice&rdquo;
+to the pursuit of geological science. In 1857 he published an
+account of the rocks and fossils of Uitenhage (the latter described
+more fully by R. Tate, <i>Quart. Journal Geol. Soc.</i>, 1867). He also
+obtained many fossil reptilia from the Karroo beds, and presented
+specimens to the British Museum. These were described
+by Sir Richard Owen. Atherstone&rsquo;s identification in 1867 as a
+diamond of a crystal found at De Kalk near the junction of the
+Riet and Vaal rivers, led indirectly to the establishment of the
+great diamond industry of South Africa. He encouraged the
+workings at Jagersfontein, and he also called attention to the
+diamantiferous neck at Kimberley. He was one of the founders
+of the Geological Society of South Africa at Johannesburg in
+1895; and for some years previously he was a member of the
+Cape parliament. He died at Grahamstown, on the 26th of
+June 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the obituary by T. Rupert Jones, <i>Natural Science</i>, vol. xiv.
+(January 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHERSTONE,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a market-town in the Nuneaton parliamentary
+division of Warwickshire, England, 102½ m. N.W. from London
+by the London &amp; North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5248.
+It lies in the upper valley of the Anker, under well-wooded
+hills to the west, and is on the Roman Watling Street, and the
+Coventry canal. The once monastic church of St Mary is rebuilt,
+excepting the central tower and part of the chancel. The chief
+industry is hat-making. On the high ground to the west lie
+ruins of the Cistercian abbey of Merevale, founded in 1149;
+they include the gatehouse chapel, part of the refectory and
+other remains exhibiting beautiful details of the 14th century.
+Coal is worked at Baxterley, 3 m. west of Atherstone.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Atherstone (<i>Aderestone, Edridestone, Edrichestone</i>), though not
+mentioned in any pre-Conquest record, is of unquestionably ancient
+origin. A Saxon barrow was opened near the town in 1824. It is
+traversed by Watling Street, and portions of the ancient Roman
+road have been discovered in modern times. Atherstone is mentioned
+in Domesday among the possessions of Countess Godiva, the
+widow of Leofric. In the reign of Henry III. it passed to the monks
+of Bec in Normandy, who in 1246 obtained the grant of an annual
+fair at the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, and the next year of
+a market every Tuesday. This market became so much frequented
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span>
+that in 1319 a toll was levied upon all goods coming into the town,
+in order to defray the cost of the repair to the roads necessitated
+by the constant traffic, and in 1332 a similar toll was levied on all
+goods passing over the bridge called Feldenbrigge near Atherstone.
+The September fair and Tuesday markets are still continued. In
+the reign of Edward III. a house of Austin Friars was founded at
+Atherstone by Ralph Lord Basset of Drayton, which, however,
+never rose to much importance, and at its dissolution in 1536 was
+valued at 30 shillings and 3 pence only.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHERTON,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chowbent</span>, an urban district in the Leigh
+parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 13 m. W.N.W.
+of Manchester on the London &amp; North-Western and Lancashire
+&amp; Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 16,211. The cotton factories
+are the principal source of industry; there are also iron-works
+and collieries. The manor was held by the local family of
+Atherton from John&rsquo;s reign to 1738, when it passed by marriage
+to Robert Gwillym, who assumed that name. In 1797 his
+eldest daughter and co-heiress married Thomas Powys, afterwards
+the second Lord Lilford. Up to 1891 the lord of the manor
+held a court-leet and court-baron annually in November, but
+in that year Lord Lilford sold to the local board the market
+tolls, stallages and pickages, and since this sale the courts have
+lapsed. The earliest manufactures were iron and cotton. Silk-weaving,
+formerly an extensive industry, has now almost
+entirely decayed. The first chapel or church was built in 1645.
+James Wood, who became Nonconformist minister in the chapel
+at Atherton in 1691, earned fame and the familiar title of
+&ldquo;General&rdquo; by raising a force from his congregation, uncouthly
+armed, to fight against the troops of the Pretender (1715).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHETOSIS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hathetos">&#7940;&#952;&#949;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;without place&rdquo;), the medical term
+applied to certain slow, purposeless, deliberate movements of
+the hands and feet. The fingers are separately flexed and
+extended, abducted and adducted in an entirely irregular way.
+The hands as a whole are also moved, and the arms, toes and feet
+may be affected. The condition is usually due to some lesion of
+the brain which has caused hemiplegia, and is especially common
+in childhood. It is occasionally congenital (so called), and is
+then due to some injury of the brain during birth. It is more
+usually associated with hemiplegia, in which condition there is
+first of all complete voluntary immobility of the parts affected:
+but later, as there is a return of a certain amount of power over
+the limbs affected, the slow rhythmic movements of athetosis
+are first noticed. This never develops, however, where there is
+no recovery of voluntary power. Its distribution is thus nearly
+always hemiplegic, and it is often associated with more or less
+mental impairment. The movements may or may not continue
+during sleep. They cannot be arrested for more than a moment
+by will power, and are aggravated by voluntary movements.
+The prognosis is unsatisfactory, as the condition usually continues
+unchanged for years, though improvement occasionally
+occurs in slight cases, or even complete recovery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHIAS, JOSEPH<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (d. 1700), Jewish rabbi and printer, was
+born in Spain and settled in Amsterdam. His editions of the
+Hebrew Bible (1661, 1667) are noted for beauty of execution
+and the general correctness of the text. He also printed a
+Judaeo-German edition of the Bible in 1679, a year after the
+appearance of the edition by Uri Phoebus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHLETE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="athletes">&#7936;&#952;&#955;&#951;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>; Lat. <i>athleta</i>), in Greek and Roman
+antiquities, one who contended for a prize (<span class="grk" title="athlon">&#7936;&#952;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>) in the games;
+now a general term for any one excelling in physical strength.
+Originally denoting one who took part in musical, equestrian,
+gymnastic, or any other competitions, the name became restricted
+to the competitors in gymnastic contests, and, later,
+to the class of professional athletes. Whereas in earlier times
+competitors, who were often persons of good birth and position,
+entered the lists for glory, without any idea of material gain,
+the professional class, which arose as early as the 5th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was chiefly recruited from the lower orders, with whom the
+better classes were unwilling to associate, and took up athletics
+entirely as a means of livelihood. Ancient philosophers, moralists
+and physicians were almost unanimous in condemning the profession
+of athletics as injurious not only to the mind but also to
+the body. The attack made upon it by Euripides in the fragment
+of the <i>Autolycus</i> is well known. The training for the contests
+was very rigorous. The matter of diet was of great importance;
+this was prescribed by the <i>aleiptes</i>, whose duty it also was to
+anoint the athlete&rsquo;s body. At one time the principal food
+consisted of fresh cheese, dried figs and wheaten bread. Afterwards
+meat was introduced, generally beef, or pork; but the
+bread and meat were taken separately, the former at breakfast,
+the latter at dinner. Except in wine, the quantity was unlimited,
+and the capacity of some of the heavy-weights must have been,
+if such stories as those about Milo are true, enormous. In
+addition to the ordinary gymnastic exercises of the palaestra,
+the athletes were instructed in carrying heavy loads, lifting
+weights, bending iron rods, striking at a suspended leather sack
+filled with sand or flour, taming bulls, &amp;c. Boxers had to practise
+delving the ground, to strengthen their upper limbs. The competitions
+open to athletes were running, leaping, throwing the
+discus, wrestling, boxing and the pancratium, or combination
+of boxing and wrestling. Victory in this last was the highest
+achievement of an athlete, and was reserved only for men of
+extraordinary strength. The competitors were naked, having
+their bodies salved with oil. Boxers wore the <i>caestus</i>, a strap of
+leather round the wrists and forearms, with a piece of metal
+in the fist, which was sometimes employed with great barbarity.
+An athlete could begin his career as a boy in the contests set
+apart for boys. He could appear again as a youth against his
+equals, and though always unsuccessful, could go on competing
+till the age of thirty-five, when he was debarred, it being assumed
+that after this period of life he could not improve. The most
+celebrated of the Greek athletes whose names have been handed
+down are Milo of Crotona, Hipposthenes, Polydamas, Promachus
+and Glaucus. Cyrene, famous in the time of Pindar for its
+athletes, appears to have still maintained its reputation to at
+least the time of Alexander the Great; for in the British Museum
+are to be seen six prize vases carried off from the games at
+Athens by natives of that district. These vases, found in the
+tombs, probably, of the winners, are made of clay, and painted
+on one side with a representation of the contest in which they
+were won, and on the other side with a figure of Pallas Athena,
+with an inscription telling where they were gained, and in some
+cases adding the name of the eponymous magistrate of Athens,
+from which the exact year can be determined.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Romans athletic contests had no doubt taken
+place from the earliest times, but according to Livy (xxxix. 22)
+professional Greek athletes were first introduced at Rome by
+M. Fulvius Nobilior in 186 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After the institution of the
+Actian games by Augustus, their popularity increased, until
+they finally supplanted the gladiators. In the time of the
+empire, gilds or unions of athletes were formed, each with a
+temple, treasury and exercise-ground of its own. The profession,
+although it ranked above that of a gladiator or an actor, was
+looked upon as derogatory to the dignity of a Roman, and it is
+a rare thing to find a Roman name amongst the athletes on inscriptions.
+The system was entirely, and the athletes themselves
+nearly always, Greek. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Games, Classical</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Krause, <i>Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen</i> (1841); Friedländer,
+<i>Sittengeschichte Roms</i>, ii.; Reisch, in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyc</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHLETIC SPORTS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>. Various sports were cultivated many
+hundred years before the Christian era by the Egyptians and
+several Asiatic races, from whom the early Greeks undoubtedly
+adopted the elements of their athletic exercises (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athlete</a></span>),
+which reached their highest development in the Olympic games,
+and other periodical meetings of the kind (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Games, Classical</a></span>).
+The original Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain were an athletic
+race, and the earliest monuments of Teutonic literature abound
+in records of athletic prowess. After the Norman conquest of
+England the nobles devoted themselves to the chase and to the
+joust, while the people had their games of ball, running at the
+quintain, fencing with club and buckler, wrestling and other
+pastimes on green and river. The chroniclers of the succeeding
+centuries are for the most part silent concerning the sports of
+the folk, except such as were regarded as a training for war, as
+archery, while they love to record the prowess of the kings and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
+their courts. Thus it is told of Henry V. that he &ldquo;was so swift
+a runner that he and two of his lords, without bow or other engine,
+would take a wild buck in a large park.&rdquo; Several romances of
+the middle ages, quoted by Strutt (<i>Sports and Pastimes of the
+People of England</i>), chronicle the fact that young men of good
+family were taught to run, leap, wrestle and joust. In spite of
+the general silence of the historians concerning the sports of the
+people, it is evident that they were indulged in very largely,
+since several English sovereigns found it necessary to curtail,
+and even prohibit, certain popular pastimes, on the ground that
+they seduced the people from the practice of archery. Thus
+Edward III. prohibited weight-putting by statute. Nevertheless
+a variety of this exercise, &ldquo;casting of the barre,&rdquo; continued to
+be a popular pastime, and was afterwards one of the favourite
+sports of Henry VIII., who attained great proficiency at it.
+The prowess of the same monarch at throwing the hammer is a
+matter of history, and his reign seems to have been at a time of
+general athletic revival. We even find his secretary, Richard
+Pace, advising the sons of noblemen to practise their sports and
+&ldquo;leave study and learning to the children of meaner people,&rdquo;
+and Sir William Forest, in his <i>Poesye of Princeelye Practice</i>, thus
+admonishes his high-born readers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;In featis of maistries bestowe some diligence.</p>
+<p class="i05">Too ryde, runne, lepe, or caste by violence</p>
+<p class="i05">Stone, barre or plummett, or such other thinge,</p>
+<p class="i05">It not refuseth any prince or kynge.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Mr Montague Shearman, to whose volume on <i>Athletics</i> in the
+Badminton series the reader is referred, notes that Sir Thomas
+Elyot, who wrote at about the same period, deprecated too much
+study and flogging for schoolboys, saying: &ldquo;A discrete master
+may with as much or more ease both to himself and his scholler
+lead him to play at tennis or shoote.&rdquo; Elyot recommends the
+perusal of Galen&rsquo;s <i>De sanitate tuenda</i>, and suggests as suitable
+athletic exercises within doors &ldquo;deambulations, labouryng with
+poyses made of ledde, lifting and throwing the heavy stone or
+barre, playing at tennis,&rdquo; and dwells upon &ldquo;rennyng&rdquo; as a
+&ldquo;good exercise and laudable solace.&rdquo; It is probable that the
+disciples of the &ldquo;new learning,&rdquo; who had become prominent
+in Sir Thomas&rsquo;s time, endeavoured to combat the influence of
+athletic exercises, their point of view being exemplified by the
+dictum of Roger Ascham, who, in his <i>Toxophilus</i>, declares that
+&ldquo;running, leaping and quoiting be too vile for scholars.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the 16th century the great football match played annually
+at Chester was abolished in favour of a series of foot-races, which
+took place in the presence of the mayor. A list of the common
+sports of that time is contained in some verses by Randel Holme,
+a minstrel of the North country, and makes mention of throwing
+the sledge, jumping, &ldquo;wrastling,&rdquo; stool-ball (cricket), running,
+pitching the bar, shooting, playing loggets, &ldquo;nine holes or ten
+pins,&rdquo; &ldquo;football by the shinnes,&rdquo; leap-frog, morris, shove-groat,
+leaping the bonfire, stow-ball (golf), and many other outdoor
+and indoor sports, some of them now obsolete. Shakespeare and
+the other Elizabethan poets abound in allusions to sport, which
+formed an important feature in school life and at every fair.
+The Stuart kings were warm encouragers of sport, the <i>Basilikon
+Doron</i> of James I., written for his son, containing a
+recommendation to the young prince to practise &ldquo;running, leaping,
+wrestling, fencing, dancing, and playing at the caitch, or tennise,
+archerie, palle-malle, and such like other fair and pleasant field
+games.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>An extraordinary variety of sports has been popular in Great
+Britain with high and low for the past five centuries, no other
+country comparing with it in this respect. Nor have Ireland
+and Scotland lagged behind England in athletic prowess. Indeed,
+so far as history and legend record, Ireland boasts of by far the
+most ancient organized sports known, the Tailtin Games, or
+Lugnasad, traditionally established by Lugaid of the Long Arm,
+one of the gods of Dia and Ana, in honour of his foster-mother
+Tailti, some three thousand years ago. For many centuries these
+games, and others like them, were kept up in Ireland, and though
+the almost constant wars which harried the country finally
+destroyed their organization, yet the Irish have always been,
+and still are, a very important factor in British athletics, as well
+as in America and the colonies.</p>
+
+<p>The Scottish people have, like the Irish, ever delighted in feats
+of strength and skill, especially the Celtic highlanders, the
+character of whose country and mode of life have, however,
+prevented organized athletics from attaining the same prominence
+as in England. Nevertheless, the celebrated Highland games
+held at Braemar, Bridge of Allan, Luss, Aboyne and other places
+have served to bring into prominence many athletes of the first
+class, although the records, on account of the roughness of the
+grounds, have not generally vied with those made farther south.</p>
+
+<p>The Briton does not lose his love of sport upon leaving his
+native soil, and the development of athletics in the United
+States and the British colonies has kept step with that of the
+mother-land. Upon the continent of Europe sports have
+occupied a more or less prominent place in the life of the nations,
+but their development has been but an echo of that in Great
+Britain. A great advance, however, has been made since the
+institution of the modern Olympic games.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1812 the Royal Military College at Sandhurst
+inaugurated regular athletic sports, but the example was not
+followed until about 1840, when Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury
+and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich came to
+the front, the &ldquo;Crick Run&rdquo; at Rugby having been started in
+1837. At the two great English universities there were no
+organized sports of any kind until 1850, when Exeter College,
+Oxford, held a meeting; this example has been followed, one
+after the other, by the other colleges of both institutions. The
+first contest between Oxford and Cambridge occurred at Oxford
+in 1864, the programme consisting of eight events, of which four
+were won by each side. The same year saw the first contest of
+the Civil Servants, still an annual event.</p>
+
+<p>In 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club was formed in London for
+&ldquo;gentlemen amateurs,&rdquo; most of its members being old university
+men. Its first championship meeting, held in that year, was the
+beginning of a series afterwards continued to the present day by
+the Amateur Athletic Association, founded in 1880, which has
+jurisdiction over British athletic sports. The most important
+individual English athletic organization is the London Athletic
+Club, which antedated the Amateur Athletic Club, and whose
+meetings have always been the most important events except
+the championships.</p>
+
+<p>In America a revival of interest in athletic sports took place
+about the year 1870. Ten years later was formed the National
+Association of Amateur Athletes of America, which, in 1888,
+became the Amateur Athletic Union. This body controls
+athletics throughout the United States, and is allied with the
+Canadian Amateur Athletic Association. It is supreme in
+matters of amateur status, records and licensing of meetings,
+and has control over the following branches of sport: basket-ball,
+billiards, boxing, fencing (in connexion with the Amateur
+Fencers&rsquo; League of America), gymnastics, hand-ball (fives),
+running, jumping, walking, weight-putting (hammer, shot,
+discus, weights), hurdle-racing, lacrosse, pole-vaulting, swimming,
+tugs-of-war and wrestling. The Amateur Athletic Union has
+eight sectional groups, and is allied with the Intercollegiate
+Association of Amateur Athletes of America (founded 1876) and
+the Western Intercollegiate Association. The first American
+intercollegiate athletic meeting took place at Saratoga in 1873,
+only three universities competing, though the next year there
+were eight and in 1875 thirteen. Professional athletes in America
+are confined almost entirely to base-ball, boxing, bicycling,
+wrestling and physical training.</p>
+
+<p>The Canadian athletic championships are held independently
+of the American. Annual championship meetings are also held
+in South Africa, New Zealand and the different states of Australia.
+For the Australasian championships New Zealand joins with
+Australia.</p>
+
+<p>The organization of university sports in America differs from
+that at Oxford and Cambridge, where there is no official control
+on the part of the university authorities, and where a man is
+eligible to represent his college or university while in residence.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span>
+In nearly all American universities and colleges athletic and other
+sports are under the general control of faculty committees, to
+which the undergraduate athletic committees are subordinate,
+and which have the power to forbid the participation of any
+student who has not attained a certain standard of scholarship.
+For some years prior to 1906 no student of an American university
+was allowed to represent his university in any sport for longer
+than four years. Early in that year, however, many of the
+most important institutions, including Harvard, Yale, Princeton
+and Pennsylvania, entered upon a new agreement, that only
+students who have been in residence one year should play in
+&rsquo;varsity teams in any branch of athletics and that no student
+should play longer than three years. This, together with many
+other reformatory changes, was directly due to a widespread
+outcry against the growing roughness of play exhibited in
+American football, basket-ball, hockey and other sports, the too
+evident desire to win at all hazards, the extraordinary luxury of
+the training equipment, and the enormous gate-receipts of many
+of the large institutions&mdash;the Yale Athletic Association held a
+surplus of about $100,000 (£20,000) in December 1905, after
+deducting immense amounts for expenses. The new rule against
+the participation of freshmen in &rsquo;varsity sports was to discourage
+the practice of offering material advantages of different kinds to
+promising athletes, generally those at preparatory schools, to
+induce them to become students at certain universities.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day athletic sports are usually understood to
+consist of those events recognized in the championship programmes
+of the different countries. Those in the competitions
+between Oxford and Cambridge are the 100 yards, 440 yards,
+880 yards, 1-mile and 3-mile runs; 120 yards hurdle-race;
+high and long jumps; throwing the hammer; and putting the
+weight (shot). To the above list the English A.A.A. adds the
+4-mile and 10-mile runs; the 2-mile and 7-mile walking races;
+the 2-mile steeplechase; and the pole-vault. The American
+intercollegiate programme is identical with that of the Oxford-Cambridge
+meeting, except that a 2-mile run takes the place of
+the 3-mile, and the pole-vault is added. The American A.A.U.
+programme includes the 100 yards, 220 yards, 440 yards, 880
+yards, 1-mile and 5-mile runs; 120 yards high-hurdle race;
+220 yards low-hurdle race; high and broad (long) jumps; throwing
+the hammer; throwing 56-&#8468; weight; putting 16-&#8468; shot;
+throwing the discus; and pole-vault. Of these the running
+contests are called &ldquo;track athletics,&rdquo; and the rest &ldquo;field&rdquo;
+events.</p>
+
+<p>International athletic contests of any importance have, with
+the exception of the modern Olympic games, invariably taken
+place between Britons, Americans and Canadians, the continental
+European countries having as yet produced few track or
+field athletes of the first class, although the interest in sports
+in general has greatly increased in Europe during the last ten
+years. In 1844 George Seward, an American professional runner,
+visited England and competed with success against the best
+athletes there; and in 1863 Louis Bennett, called &ldquo;Deerfoot,&rdquo; a
+full-blooded Seneca Indian, repeated Seward&rsquo;s triumphs, establishing
+running records up to 12 miles. In 1878 the Canadian,
+C.C. McIvor, champion sprinter of America, went to England,
+but failed to beat his British professional rivals. In 1881
+L.E. Myers of New York and E.E. Merrill of Boston competed
+successfully in England, Myers winning every short-distance
+championship except the 100-yards, and Merrill all the walking
+championships save the 7-miles. The same year W.C. Davies
+of England won the 5-mile championship of America, but, like
+several other British runners who have had success in America,
+he competed under the colours of an American club. In 1882 the
+famous English runner, W.G. George, ran against Myers in
+America in races of 1 mile, ¾ mile and ½ mile, winning over the
+first two distances. In 1884 Myers again went to England and
+made new British records over 500, 600, 800 and 1000 yards,
+and world&rsquo;s records over ½ mile and 1200 yards. The next year
+he won both the British ¼-mile and ½-mile championships. The
+same year a team of Irish athletes, among them W.J.M. Barry,
+won several Canadian championships. In 1888 a team of the
+Manhattan Athletic Club, New York, competed in England with
+fair success, and during the same season an Irish team from
+the Gaelic Athletic Association visited America without much
+success. In 1890 a team from the Salford Harriers was invited to
+America by the Manhattan Athletic Club, but the evidently
+commercial character of the enterprise caused its failure. One
+of the Harriers, E.W. Parry, won the American steeplechase
+championship. The next year saw another visit to Europe
+of the Manhattan athletes, who had fair success in England and
+won every event at Paris. In 1895 the London Athletic Club
+team competed in New York against the New York Athletic
+Club, but lost every one of the eleven events, several new records
+being established. During the previous summer (1894) occurred
+the first of the international matches between British and
+American universities which still retain their place as the most
+interesting athletic event. In that contest, which took place at
+Queen&rsquo;s Club, London, Oxford beat Yale by 5½ to 3½ events.
+The next summer Cambridge, as the champion English university,
+visited America and was beaten by Yale (3 to 8). In 1899 both
+British universities competed at Queen&rsquo;s Club against the combined
+athletes of Harvard and Yale, who were beaten by the odd
+event. The return match took place between the same universities
+at New York in the summer of 1901, the Americans
+winning 6 to 3 events. In 1904 Harvard and Yale beat Oxford
+and Cambridge at Queen&rsquo;s Club by the same score.</p>
+
+<p>Outside Great Britain and America the most important
+athletic events are undoubtedly the revived Olympic games.
+They were instituted by delegates from the different nations who
+met in Paris on the 16th of June 1894, principally at the instigation
+of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the result being the formation
+of an International Olympic Games Committee with Baron de
+Coubertin at its head, which resolved that games should be held
+every fourth year in a different country. The first modern
+Olympiad took place at Athens, 6th to 12th April 1896, in the
+ancient stadium, which was rebuilt through the liberality of a
+Greek merchant and seated about 45,000 people. The programme
+of events included the usual field and track sports, gymnastics,
+wrestling, pole-climbing, lawn tennis, fencing, rifle and revolver
+shooting, weight-lifting, swimming, the Marathon race and
+bicycle racing. Among the contestants were representatives of
+nearly every European nation, besides Americans and Australians.
+Great Britain took little direct interest in the occasion and was
+inadequately represented, but the United States sent five men
+from Boston and four from Princeton University, who, though
+none of them held American championships, succeeded in
+winning every event for which they were entered. The Marathon
+race of 42 kilometres (26 miles), commemorative of the famous
+run of the Greek messenger to Athens with the news of the
+victory of Marathon, was won by a Greek peasant. The second
+Olympiad was held in Paris in June 1900. Again Great Britain
+was poorly represented, but American athletes won eighteen
+of the twenty-four championship events. The third Olympiad
+was held at St Louis in the summer of 1904 in connexion with
+the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, its success being due in
+great measure to James E. Sullivan, the physical director of the
+Exposition, and Caspar Whitney, the president of the American
+Olympic Games Committee. The games were much more
+numerous than at the previous Olympiads, including sports of
+all kinds, handicaps, inter-club competitions, and contests for
+aborigines. In the track and field competitions the American
+athletes won every championship except weight-throwing
+(56 &#8468;) and lifting the bar. The sports of the savages, among
+whom were American Indians, Africans of several tribes, Moros,
+Patagonians, Syrians, Ainus and Filipinos, were disappointing;
+their efforts in throwing the javelin, shooting with bow and
+arrow, weight-lifting, running and jumping, proving to be
+feeble compared with those of white races. The Americanized
+Indians made the best showing.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks, however, were not altogether satisfied with the
+cosmopolitan character of the revival of these celebrated games
+of their ancestors, and resolved to give the revival a more
+definitely Hellenic stamp by intercalating an additional series,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span>
+to take place at Athens, in the middle of the quadrennial period.
+Their action was justified by the success which attended the
+first of this additional series at Athens in 1906. This success
+may have been partly due to the personal interest taken in the
+games by the king and royal family of Greece, and to the presence
+of King Edward VII., Queen Alexandra, and the prince and
+princess of Wales; but to whatever cause it should be assigned
+it was generally acknowledged that neither in France nor in
+America had the games acquired the same prestige as those
+held on the classical soil of Greece. In 1906 the governments
+of Germany, France and the United States made considerable
+grants of money to defray the expenses of the competitors
+from those countries. These games aroused much more interest
+in England than the earlier ones in the series, but though upwards
+of fifty British competitors took part in the contests, they were
+by no means representative in all cases of the best British
+athletics. The American representatives were slightly less
+numerous, but they were more successful. It was noteworthy
+that no British or Americans took part in the rowing races in the
+Bay of Phalerum, nor in the tennis, football or shooting competitions.
+The Marathon race, by far the most important
+event in the games, was won in 1906 by a British athlete,
+M.D. Sherring, a Canadian by birth. The Americans won a total
+of 75 prizes, the British 39, and the Swedes and Greeks each 28.</p>
+
+<p>The games of the 4th Olympiad (1908) were held in London
+in connexion with the Franco-British Exhibition of that year.
+An immense sensation was caused by the finish for the Marathon
+race from Windsor Castle to the stadium in the Exhibition
+grounds in London. The first competitor to arrive was the
+Italian, Dorando Pietri, whose condition of physical collapse
+was such that, appearing to be on the point of death, he had to
+be assisted over the last few yards of the course. He was therefore
+disqualified, and J. Hayes, an American, was adjudged the
+winner; a special prize was presented to the Italian by Queen
+Alexandra. In the whole series of contests the United Kingdom
+made 38 wins, the Americans 22, and the Swedes 7. In the
+Olympic games proper, British athletes, including two wins by
+colonials from Canada and Africa, scored 25 successes, and the
+Americans 18. In the track events 8 wins fell to the British,
+including two Colonials, and 6 to American athletes; but the
+latter gained complete supremacy in the field events, of which
+they won 9, while British competitors secured only two of minor
+importance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For records, &amp;c., see the annual <i>Sporting and Athletic Register</i>; for
+the Olympic games see Theodore Andrea Cook&rsquo;s volume, published
+in connexion with the Olympiad of 1908.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHLONE,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a market-town of Co. Westmeath, Ireland, on
+both banks of the Shannon. Pop. of urban district (1901)
+6617. The urban district, under the Local Government (Ireland)
+Act 1900, is wholly in county Westmeath, but the same area is
+divided by the Shannon between the parliamentary divisions of
+South Westmeath and South Roscommon. Athlone is 78 m.
+W. from Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway, and
+is also served by a branch from Portarlington of the Great
+Southern &amp; Western line, providing an alternative and somewhat
+longer route from the capital. The main line of the
+former company continues W. to Galway, and a branch
+N.W. serves counties Roscommon and Mayo. The Shannon
+divides the town into two portions, known as the Leinster side
+(east), and the Connaught side (west), which are connected by a
+handsome bridge opened in 1844. There is a swivel railway
+bridge. The rapids of the Shannon at this point are obviated
+by means of a lock communication with a basin, which renders
+the navigation of the river practicable above the town. The
+steamers of the Shannon Development Company ply on the
+river, and some trade by water is carried on with Limerick,
+and with Dublin by the river and the Grand and Royal canals.
+Athlone is an important agricultural centre, and there are
+woollen factories. The salmon fishing both provides sport and
+is a source of commercial wealth. There are two parish churches,
+St Mary and St Peter, both erected early in the 19th century,
+of which the first has near it an isolated church tower of earlier
+date. There are three Roman Catholic chapels, a court-house
+and other public offices. Early remains include portions of the
+castle, of the town walls (1576), of the abbey of St Peter and of a
+Franciscan foundation. On several islands of the picturesque
+Lough Ree, to the north, are ecclesiastical and other remains.</p>
+
+<p>The military importance of Athlone dates from the erection
+of the castle and of a bridge over the river by John de Grey,
+bishop of Norwich and justiciar of Ireland, in 1210. It became
+the seat of the presidency of Connaught under Elizabeth, and
+withstood a siege by the insurgents in 1641. In the war of
+1688 the possession of Athlone was considered of the greatest
+importance, and it consequently sustained two sieges, the first
+by William III. in person, which failed, and the second by
+General Godart van Ginkel (<i>q.v.</i>), who, on the 30th of June
+1691, in the face of the Irish, forded the river and took possession
+of the town, with the loss of only fifty men. Ginkel was subsequently
+created earl of Athlone, and his descendants held the
+title till it became extinct in 1844. In 1797 the town was
+strongly fortified on the Roscommon side, the works covering
+15 acres and containing two magazines, an ordnance store, an
+armoury with 15,000 stands of arms and barracks for 1500 men.
+The works are now dismantled. Athlone was incorporated by
+James I., and returned two members to the Irish parliament,
+and one member to the imperial parliament till 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHOL,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a township of Worcester county, northern Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., having an area of 35 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 7061,
+of whom 986 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 8536.
+Its surface is irregular and hilly. The village of Athol is on
+Miller&rsquo;s river, and is served by the Boston &amp; Albany and the
+Boston &amp; Maine railways. The streams of the township furnish
+good water-power, and manufactures of varied character are
+its leading interests. Athol was first settled in 1735, and was
+incorporated as a township in 1762. It was named by its
+largest landowner Col. James Murray, after the ancestral home
+of the Murrays, dukes of Atholl.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L.B. Caswell, <i>Athol, Mass., Past and Present</i> (Athol, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF.<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> The Stewart line of the
+Scottish earls of Atholl, which ended with the 5th Stewart earl
+in 1595, the earldom reverting to the crown, had originated
+with Sir John Stewart of Balveny (d. 1512), who was created
+earl of Atholl about 1457 (new charter 1481). The 5th earl&rsquo;s
+daughter, Dorothea, married William Murray, earl of Tullibardine
+(cr. 1606), who in 1626 resigned his earldom in favour
+of Sir Patrick Murray, on condition of the revival of the earldom
+of Atholl in his wife and her descendants. The earldom thus
+passed to the Murray line, and John Murray, their only son
+(d. 1642), was accordingly acknowledged as earl of Atholl (the
+1st of the Murrays) in 1629.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Stewart</span>, 4th earl of Atholl, in the Stewart line (d. 1579),
+son of John, 3rd earl, and of Grizel, daughter of Sir John Rattray,
+succeeded his father in 1542. He supported the government
+of the queen dowager, and in 1560 was one of the three nobles
+who voted in parliament against the Reformation and the
+Confession of Faith, and declared their adherence to Roman
+Catholicism. Subsequently, however, he joined the league
+against Huntly, whom with Murray and Morton he defeated
+at Corrichie in October 1562, and he supported the projected
+marriage of Elizabeth with Arran. On the arrival of Mary from
+France in 1561 he was appointed one of the twelve privy councillors,
+and on account of his religion obtained a greater share
+of the queen&rsquo;s favour than either Murray or Maitland. He was
+one of the principal supporters of the marriage with Darnley,
+became the leader of the Roman Catholic nobles, and with
+Lennox obtained the chief power in the government, successfully
+protecting Mary and Darnley from Murray&rsquo;s attempts to regain
+his ascendancy by force of arms. According to Knox he openly
+attended mass in the queen&rsquo;s chapel, and was especially trusted
+by Mary in her project of reinstating Roman Catholicism. The
+fortress of Tantallon was placed in his keeping, and in 1565 he
+was made lieutenant of the north of Scotland. He is described
+the same year by the French ambassador as &ldquo;très grand catholique
+hardi et vaillant et remuant, comme l&rsquo;on dict, mais de nul
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span>
+jugement et expérience.&rdquo; He had no share in the murders of
+Rizzio or Darnley, and after the latter crime in 1567, he joined
+the Protestant lords against Mary, appeared as one of the leaders
+against her at Carberry Hill, and afterwards approved of her
+imprisonment at Lochleven Castle. In July he was present at the
+coronation of James, and was included in the council of regency
+on Mary&rsquo;s abdication. He, however, was not present at Langside
+in May 1568, and in July became once more a supporter of Mary,
+voting for her divorce from Bothwell (1569). In March 1570 he
+signed with other lords the joint letter to Elizabeth asking for
+the queen&rsquo;s intercession and supporting Mary&rsquo;s claims, and was
+present at the convention held at Linlithgow in April in opposition
+to the assembly of the king&rsquo;s party at Edinburgh. In 1574
+he was proceeded against as a Roman Catholic and threatened
+with excommunication, subsequently holding a conference with
+the ministers and being allowed till midsummer to overcome
+his scruples. He had failed in 1572 to prevent Morton&rsquo;s appointment
+to the regency, but in 1578 he succeeded with the earl of
+Argyll in driving him from office. On the 24th of March James
+took the government into his own hands and dissolved the
+regency, and Atholl and Argyll, to the exclusion of Morton,
+were made members of the council, while on the 29th Atholl
+was appointed lord chancellor. Subsequently, on the 24th of
+May, Morton succeeded in getting into Stirling Castle and in
+regaining his guardianship of James. Atholl and Argyll, who
+were now corresponding with Spain in hopes of assistance from
+that quarter, then advanced to Stirling with a force of 7000 men,
+when a compromise was arranged, the three earls being all
+included in the government. While on his way from a banquet
+held on the 20th of April 1579 on the occasion of the reconciliation,
+Atholl was seized with sudden illness, and died on the 25th,
+not without strong suspicions of poison. He was buried at St.
+Giles&rsquo;s cathedral in Edinburgh. He married (1) Elizabeth,
+daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly, by whom he had
+two daughters, and (2) Margaret, daughter of Malcolm Fleming,
+3rd Lord Fleming, by whom, besides three daughters, he had
+John, 5th earl of Atholl, at whose death in 1595 the earldom
+in default of male heirs reverted to the crown.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Murray</span>, 1st earl of Atholl in the Murray line (see above),
+died in 1642. On the outbreak of the civil war he called out the
+men of Atholl for the king, and was imprisoned by the marquess
+of Argyll in Stirling Castle in 1640.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Murray</span>, 2nd earl and 1st marquess of Atholl (1631-1703),
+son of the 1st earl and of Jean, daughter of Sir Duncan Campbell
+of Glenorchy, was born on the 2nd of May 1631. In 1650 he
+joined in the unsuccessful attempt to liberate Charles II. from
+the Covenanters, and in 1653 was the chief supporter of Glencairn&rsquo;s
+rising, but was obliged to surrender with his two regiments
+to Monk on the 2nd of September 1654. At the restoration
+Atholl was made a privy councillor for Scotland and sheriff of
+Fife, in 1661 lord justice-general of Scotland, in 1667 a commissioner
+for keeping the peace in the western Highlands, in 1670
+colonel of the king&rsquo;s horseguards, in 1671 a commissioner of the
+exchequer, and in 1672 keeper of the privy seal in Scotland and
+an extraordinary lord of session. In 1670 he became earl of
+Tullibardine by the death of his cousin James, 4th earl, and on
+the 7th of February 1676 he was created marquess of Atholl,
+earl of Tullibardine, viscount of Balquhidder, Lord Murray,
+Balvenie and Cask. He at first zealously supported Lauderdale&rsquo;s
+tyrannical policy, but after the raid of 1678, called the &ldquo;Highland
+Host,&rdquo; in which Atholl was one of the chief leaders, he joined
+in the remonstrance to the king concerning the severities inflicted
+upon the Covenanters, and was deprived of his office of justice-general
+and passed over for the chancellorship in 1681. In 1679,
+however, he was present at the battle of Bothwell Brig; in July
+1680 he was made vice-admiral of Scotland, and in 1681 president
+of parliament. In 1684 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of
+Argyll, and invaded the country, capturing the earl of Argyll
+after his return from abroad in June 1685 at Inchinnan. The
+excessive severities with which he was charged in this campaign
+were repudiated with some success by him after the Revolution.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+The same year he was reappointed lord privy seal, and in 1687
+was made a knight of the Thistle on the revival of the order.
+At the Revolution he wavered from one side to the other, showing
+no settled purpose but waiting upon the event, but finally in
+April 1689 wrote to William to declare his allegiance, and in May
+took part in the proclamation of William and Mary as king and
+queen at Edinburgh. But on the occasion of Dundee&rsquo;s insurrection
+he retired to Bath to drink the waters, while the bulk of his
+followers joined Dundee and brought about in great measure
+the defeat of the government troops at Killiecrankie. He was
+then summoned from Bath to London and imprisoned during
+August. In 1690 he was implicated in the Montgomery plot and
+subsequently in further Jacobite intrigues. In June 1691 he
+received a pardon, and acted later for the government in the
+pacification of the Highlands. He died on the 6th of May 1703.
+He married Amelia, daughter of James Stanley, 7th earl of Derby
+(through whom the later dukes of Atholl acquired the sovereignty
+of the Isle of Man), and had, besides one daughter, six
+sons, of whom John became 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl;
+Charles was made 1st earl of Dunmore, and William married
+Margaret, daughter of Sir Robert Nairne, 1st Lord Nairne,
+becoming in her right 2nd Lord Nairne.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Murray</span>, 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl (1660-1724),
+was born on the 24th of February 1660, and was styled during
+his father&rsquo;s lifetime Lord Murray, till 1696, when he was created
+earl of Tullibardine. He was a supporter of William and the
+Revolution in 1688, taking the oaths in September 1689, but was
+unable to prevent the majority of his clan, during his father&rsquo;s
+absence, from joining Dundee under the command of his brother
+James. In 1693 as one of the commissioners he showed great
+energy in the examination into the massacre of Glencoe and in
+bringing the crime home to its authors. In 1694 he obtained a
+regiment, in 1695 was made sheriff of Perth, in 1696 secretary
+of state, and from 1696 to 1698 was high commissioner. In the
+latter year, however, he threw up office and went into opposition.
+At the accession of Anne he was made a privy councillor, and in
+1703 lord privy seal for Scotland. The same year he succeeded
+his father as 2nd marquess of Atholl, and on the 30th of June he
+was created duke of Atholl, marquess of Tullibardine, earl of
+Strathtay and Strathardle, Viscount Balquhidder, Glenalmond
+and Glenlyon, and Lord Murray, Balvenie and Gask. In 1704
+he was made a knight of the Thistle. In 1703-1704 an unsuccessful
+attempt was made by Simon, Lord Lovat, who used the duke
+of Queensberry as a tool, to implicate him in a Jacobite plot
+against Queen Anne; but the intrigue was disclosed by Robert
+Ferguson, and Atholl sent a memorial to the queen on the
+subject, which resulted in Queensberry&rsquo;s downfall. But he fell
+nevertheless into suspicion, and was deprived of office in October
+1705, subsequently becoming a strong antagonist of the government,
+and of the Hanoverian succession. He vehemently opposed
+the Union during the years 1705-1707, and entered into a project
+for resisting by force and for holding Stirling Castle with the aid
+of the Cameronians, but nevertheless did not refuse a compensation
+of £1000. According to Lockhart, he could raise 6000 of
+the best men in the kingdom for the Jacobites. On the occasion,
+however, of the invasion of 1708 he took no part, on the score of
+illness, and was placed under arrest at Blair Castle. On the
+downfall of the Whigs and the advent of the Tories to power,
+Atholl returned to office, was chosen a representative peer in
+the Lords in 1710 and 1713, in 1712 was an extraordinary lord
+of session, from 1713 to 1714 was once more keeper of the privy
+seal, and from 1712 to 1714 was high commissioner. On the
+accession of George I. he was again dismissed from office, but at
+the rebellion of 1715, while three of his sons joined the Jacobites,
+he remained faithful to the government, whom he assisted in
+various ways, on the 4th of June 1717 apprehending Robert
+Macgregor (Rob Roy), who, however, succeeded in escaping.
+He died on the 14th of November 1724. He married (1)
+Catherine, daughter of William Douglas, 3rd duke of Hamilton,
+by whom, besides one daughter, he had six sons, of whom John
+was killed at Malplaquet in 1709, William was marquess of
+Tullibardine, and James succeeded his father as 2nd duke on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span>
+account of the share taken by his elder brother in the rebellion;
+and (2) Mary, daughter of William, Lord Ross, by whom he had
+three sons and several daughters.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Atholl Chronicles</i> have been privately printed by the 7th duke
+of Atholl (b. 1840). See also S. Cowan, <i>Three Celtic Earldoms</i> (1909).</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A. Lang, <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, iii. 407.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHOLL,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Athole</span>, a district in the north of Perthshire,
+Scotland, covering an area of about 450 sq. m. It is bounded
+on the N. by Badenoch, on the N.E. by Braemar, on the E. by
+Forfarshire, on the S. by Breadalbane, on the W. and N.W.
+by Lochaber. The Highland railway bisects it diagonally from
+Dunkeld to the borders of Inverness-shire. It is traversed by
+the Grampian mountains and watered by the Tay, Tummel,
+Garry, Tilt, Bruar and other streams. Glen Garry and Glen
+Tilt are the chief glens, and Loch Rannoch and Loch Tummel
+the principal lakes. The population mainly centres around
+Dunkeld, Pitlochry and Blair Atholl. The only cultivable soil
+occurs in the valleys of the large rivers, but the deer-forest and
+the shootings on moor and mountain are among the most
+extensive in Scotland. It is said to have been named Athfotla
+(Atholl) after Fotla, son of the Pictish king Cruithne, and was
+under the rule of a Celtic <i>mormaer</i> (thane or earl) until the
+union of the Picts and Scots under Kenneth Macalpine in 843.
+The duke of Atholl&rsquo;s seats are Blair Castle and Dunkeld House.
+What is called Atholl brose is a compound, in equal parts, of
+whisky and honey (or oatmeal), which was first commonly used
+in the district for hoarseness and sore throat.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHOS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Agion Oros">&#7948;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#8012;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>; Turk. <i>Aineros</i>; Ital. <i>Monte Santo</i>),
+the most eastern of the three peninsular promontories which
+extend, like the prongs of a trident, southwards from the
+coast of Macedonia (European Turkey) into the Aegean Sea.
+Before the 19th century the name Athos was usually confined
+to the terminal peak of the promontory, which was itself known
+by its ancient name, <i>Acte</i>. The peak rises like a pyramid, with
+a steep summit of white marble, to a height of 6350 ft., and can
+be seen at sunset from the plain of Troy on the east, and the
+slopes of Olympus on the west. On the isthmus are distinct
+traces of the canal cut by Xerxes before his invasion of Greece
+in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The peninsula is remarkable for the beauty of its
+scenery, and derives a peculiar interest from its unique group of
+monastic communities with their medieval customs and institutions,
+their treasures of Byzantine art and rich collections of
+documents. It is about 40 m. in length, with a breadth varying
+from 4 to 7 m.; its whole area belongs to the various monasteries.
+It was inhabited in the earliest times by a mixed Greek and
+Thracian population; of its five cities mentioned by Herodotus
+few traces remain; some inscriptions discovered on the sites
+were published by W.M. Leake (<i>Travels in N. Greece</i>, 1835,
+iii. 140) and Kinch. The legends of the monks attribute the
+first religious settlements to the age of Constantine (274-337),
+but the hermitages are first mentioned in historical documents
+of the 9th century. It is conjectured that the mountain was at
+an earlier period the abode of anchorites, whose numbers were
+increased by fugitives from the iconoclastic persecutions (726-842).
+The &ldquo;coenobian&rdquo; rule to which many of the monasteries
+still adhere was established by St Athanasius, the founder of the
+great monastery of Laura, in 969. Under a constitution approved
+by the emperor Constantine Monomachos in 1045, women and
+female animals were excluded from the holy mountain. In
+1060 the community was withdrawn from the authority of the
+patriarch of Constantinople, and a monastic republic was
+practically constituted. The taking of Constantinople by the
+Latins in 1204 brought persecution and pillage on the monks;
+this reminded them of earlier Saracenic invasions, and led them
+to appeal for protection to Pope Innocent III., who gave them
+a favourable reply. Under the Palaeologi (1260-1453) they
+recovered their prosperity, and were enriched by gifts from
+various sources. In the 14th century the peninsula became the
+chosen retreat of several of the emperors, and the monasteries
+were thrown into commotion by the famous dispute over the
+mystical Hesychasts.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks
+after the capture of Salonica (1430), their privileges were respected
+by successive sultans: a tribute is paid to the Turkish government,
+which is represented by a resident <i>kaimakam</i>, and the
+community is allowed to maintain a small police force. Under
+the present constitution, which dates from 1783, the general
+affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted to an assembly
+(<span class="grk" title="oynaxis">&#963;&#973;&#957;&#945;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span>) of twenty members, one from each monastery; a
+committee of four members, chosen in turn, styled <i>epistatae</i>
+(<span class="grk" title="epistatai">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>), forms the executive. The president of the committee
+(<span class="grk" title="ho protos">&#8001; &#960;&#961;&#8182;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>) is also the president of the assembly, which holds its
+sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of government since
+the 10th century. The twenty monasteries, which all belong
+to the order of St Basil, are: Laura (<span class="grk" title="ae Laura">&#7969; &#923;&#945;&#8166;&#961;&#945;</span>), founded in 963;
+Vatopédi (<span class="grk" title="Batopedios">&#914;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#960;&#941;&#948;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>), said to have been founded by the
+emperor Theodosius; Rossikon (<span class="grk" title="Rossikon">&#8172;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>), the Russian
+monastery of St Panteleïmon; Chiliándari (<span class="grk" title="Chiliantarion">&#935;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#940;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>:
+supposed to be derived from <span class="grk" title="chilioi andres">&#967;&#943;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#953; &#7940;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="chilia leontaria">&#967;&#943;&#955;&#953;&#945; &#955;&#949;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#940;&#961;&#953;&#945;</span>),
+founded by the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya (1159-1195);
+Iveron (<span class="grk" title="ae monae ton Ibaeron">&#7969; &#956;&#959;&#957;&#8052; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7992;&#946;&#942;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span>), founded by Iberians, or Georgians;
+Esphigmenu (<span class="grk" title="tou Esphigmenou">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7960;&#963;&#966;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#965;</span>: the name is derived from the confined
+situation of the monastery); Kutlumush (<span class="grk" title="Koutloumousae">&#922;&#959;&#965;&#964;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#951;</span>);
+Pandocratoros (<span class="grk" title="tou Pantokratoros">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#928;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>); Philotheu (<span class="grk" title="Philotheou">&#934;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#952;&#941;&#959;&#965;</span>);
+Caracallu (<span class="grk" title="tou Karakallou">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#922;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#940;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#965;</span>); St Paul (<span class="grk" title="tou agiou Paulou">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7937;&#947;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#928;&#945;&#973;&#955;&#959;&#965;</span>);
+St Denis (<span class="grk" title="tou agiou Dionusiou">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7937;&#947;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#916;&#953;&#959;&#957;&#965;&#963;&#943;&#959;&#965;</span>); St Gregory (<span class="grk" title="tou agiou
+Graegoriou">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7937;&#947;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#915;&#961;&#951;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#965;</span>); Simópetra (<span class="grk" title="Simopetra">&#931;&#953;&#956;&#972;&#960;&#949;&#964;&#961;&#945;</span>); Xeropotámu (<span class="grk" title="tou
+Xaeropotamou">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#926;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#964;&#940;&#956;&#959;&#965;</span>); St Xenophon (<span class="grk" title="tou agiou Xenophontos">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7937;&#947;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#926;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#966;&#8182;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>); Dochiaríu
+(<span class="grk" title="Docheiareiou">&#916;&#959;&#967;&#949;&#953;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#943;&#959;&#965;</span>); Constamonítu (<span class="grk" title="Konstamonitou">&#922;&#969;&#957;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#964;&#959;&#965;</span>); Zográphu
+(<span class="grk" title="tou Zographou">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#918;&#969;&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#959;&#965;</span>); and Stavronikítu (<span class="grk" title="tou Stavronikitou">&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#931;&#964;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#964;&#959;&#965;</span>, the last
+built, founded in 1545). The &ldquo;coenobian&rdquo; monasteries (<span class="grk" title="koinobia">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#946;&#953;&#945;</span>),
+each under the rule of an abbot (<span class="grk" title="aegoumenos">&#7969;&#947;&#959;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>), are subjected
+to severe discipline; the brethren are clothed alike, take their
+meals (usually limited to bread and vegetables) in the refectory,
+and possess no private property. In the &ldquo;idiorrhythmic&rdquo;
+monasteries (<span class="grk" title="idiorrythma">&#7984;&#948;&#953;&#972;&#961;&#961;&#965;&#952;&#956;&#945;</span>), which are governed by two or three
+annually elected wardens (<span class="grk" title="epitropoi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;</span>), a less stringent rule
+prevails, and the monks are allowed to supplement the fare of
+the monastery from their private incomes. Dependent on the
+several monasteries are twelve <i>sketae</i> (<span class="grk" title="skaetai">&#963;&#954;&#8134;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>) or monastic
+settlements, some of considerable size, in which a still more
+ascetic mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several
+farms (<span class="grk" title="metochia">&#956;&#949;&#964;&#959;&#967;&#943;&#945;</span>), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining
+habitations (<span class="grk" title="kellia">&#954;&#949;&#955;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span>) and hermitages (<span class="grk" title="askaetaeria">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#951;&#964;&#942;&#961;&#953;&#945;</span>). The
+monasteries, with the exception of Rossikón (St Panteleïmon) and the
+Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliándari and Zográphu, are occupied exclusively
+by Greek monks. The large <i>skete</i> of St Andrew and
+some others belong to the Russians; there are also Rumanian
+and Georgian <i>sketae</i>. The great monastery of Rossikón, which
+is said to number about 3000 inmates, has been under a Russian
+abbot since 1875; it is regarded as one of the principal centres
+of the Russian politico-religious propaganda in the Levant.
+The tasteless style of its modern buildings is out of harmony with
+the quaint beauty of the other monasteries. Furnished with
+ample means, the Russian monks neglect no opportunity of
+adding to their possessions on the holy mountain; their encroachments
+are resisted by the Greek monks, whose wealth, however,
+was much diminished by the secularization of their estates in
+Rumania (1864). The population of the holy mountain numbers
+from 6000 to 7000; about 3000 are monks (<span class="grk" title="kalogeroi">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#947;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>), the
+remainder being lay brothers (<span class="grk" title="kosmikoi">&#954;&#959;&#963;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>). The monasteries,
+which are all fortified, generally consist of large quadrangles
+enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present a
+wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed
+from the sea. Their inmates, when not engaged in religious
+services, occupy themselves with husbandry, fishing and
+various handicrafts; the standard of intellectual culture is not
+high. A large academy, founded by the monks of Vatopedi in
+1749, for a time attracted students from all parts of the East,
+but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The
+muniment rooms of the monasteries contain a marvellous series
+of documents, including chrysobulls of various emperors and
+princes, <i>sigilla</i> of the patriarchs, <i>typica</i>, iradés and other
+documents, the study of which will throw an important light
+on the political and ecclesiastical history and social life of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span>
+East from the middle of the 10th century. Up to comparatively
+recent times a priceless collection of classical manuscripts was
+preserved in the libraries; many of them were destroyed during
+the War of Greek Independence (1821-1829) by the Turks, who
+employed the parchments for the manufacture of cartridges;
+others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks, who,
+it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been
+sold to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed
+to Moscow and Paris. The library of Simopetra was destroyed
+by fire in 1891, and that of St Paul in 1905. There is now little
+hope of any important discovery of classical manuscripts. The
+codices remaining in the libraries are for the most part theological
+and ecclesiastical works. Of the Greek manuscripts, numbering
+about 11,000, 6618 have been catalogued by Professor Spyridion
+Lambros of Athens; his work, however, does not include the
+MSS. in some of the <i>sketae</i>, or those in the libraries of Laura and
+Vatopedi, of which catalogues (hitherto unpublished) have been
+prepared by resident monks. The canonic MSS. only of Vatopedi
+and Laura have been catalogued by Benessevich in the supplement
+to vol. ix. of the <i>Bizantiyskiy Vremennik</i> (St Petersburg,
+1904). The Slavonic and Georgian MSS. have not been catalogued.
+Apart from the illuminated MSS., the mural paintings,
+the mosaics, and the goldsmith&rsquo;s work of Mount Athos are of
+infinite interest to the student of Byzantine art. The frescoes
+in general date from the 15th or 16th century: some are attributed
+by the monks to Panselinos, &ldquo;the Raphael of Byzantine
+painting,&rdquo; who apparently flourished in the time of the Palaeologi.
+Most of them have been indifferently restored by local artists,
+who follow mechanically a kind of hieratic tradition, the principles
+of which are embodied in a work of iconography by the monk
+Dionysius, said to have been a pupil of Panselinos. The same
+spirit of conservatism is manifest in the architecture of the
+churches, which are all of the medieval Byzantine type. Some
+of the monasteries were seriously damaged by an earthquake
+in 1905.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;R.N.C. Curzon, <i>Visits to Monasteries in the Levant</i>
+(London, 1849); J.P. Fallmerayer, <i>Fragmenta aus dem Orient</i>
+(Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1845);
+V. Langlois, <i>Le Mont Athos et ses monastères</i>, with a complete bibliography
+(Paris, 1867);
+Duchesne and Bayet, <i>Mémoirs sur une mission en Macédoine et au Mont Athos</i>
+(Paris, 1876);
+Texier and Pullan, <i>Byzantine Architecture</i> (London, 1864);
+H. Brockhaus, <i>Die Kunst in den Athosklöstern</i> (Leipzig, 1891);
+A. Riley, <i>Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks</i> (London, 1887);
+S. Lambros, <i>Catalogue of the Greek Manuscripts on Mount Athos</i>
+(2 vols., Cambridge, 1895 and 1900);
+M.I. Gedeon, <span class="grk" title="o Athos">&#8001; &#7948;&#952;&#969;&#962;</span> (Constantinople, 1885);
+P. Meyer, &ldquo;Beiträge zur Kenntniss der neueren Geschichte und des gegenwärtigen
+Zustandes der Athosklöster,&rdquo; in <i>Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i>, 1890;
+<i>Die Haupturkunden für die Geschichte der Athosklöster</i> (Leipzig, 1894);
+G. Millet, J. Pargoire and L. Petit,
+<i>Recueil des inscriptions chrétiennes de l&rsquo;Athos</i> (Paris, 1904);
+H. Gelzer, <i>Vom Heiligen Berge und aus Makedonien</i> (Leipzig, 1904);
+K. Vlachu (Blachos), <span class="grk" title="Ae Chersonaesos tou Hagiou Orous">&#7977; &#935;&#949;&#961;&#963;&#972;&#957;&#951;&#963;&#959;&#962; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7945;&#947;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#8012;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span> (Athens, 1903);
+G. Smurnakes, <span class="grk" title="To Hagiou Archaiologia Orous Atho">&#932;&#8056; &#7949;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#8012;&#961;&#959;&#962; &#7944;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945; &#8004;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#7944;&#952;&#8182;</span>, (Athens, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (pronounced Athý), a market-town of Co. Kildare,
+Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, 45 m. S.W. of
+Dublin on a branch of the Great Southern &amp; Western railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901) 3599. It is intersected by the
+river Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge of five arches.
+The crossing of the river here was guarded and disputed from
+the earliest times, and the name of the town is derived from
+a king of Munster killed here in the 2nd century. There are
+picturesque remains of Woodstock Castle of the 12th or 13th
+century, and White Castle built in 1506, and rebuilt in 1575 by
+a member of the family whose name it bears, and still occupied.
+Both were erected to defend the ford of the Barrow. There are
+also an old town gate, and an ancient cemetery with slight
+monastic remains. Previous to the Union Athy returned two
+members to the Irish parliament. The trade, chiefly in grain,
+is aided by excellent water communication, by a branch of the
+Grand Canal to Dublin, and by the river Barrow, navigable
+from here to Waterford harbour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATINA,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the name of three ancient towns of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>1. A town (mod. <i>Àtena</i>) of Lucania, upon the Via Popillia,
+7 m. N. of Tegianum, towards which an ancient road leads, in
+the valley of the river now known as Diano. Its ancient importance
+is vouched for by its walls of rough cyclopean work, which
+may have had a total extent of some 2 m. (see G. Patroni in
+<i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1897, 112; 1901, 498). The date of these
+walls has not as yet been ascertained, recent excavations, which
+led to the discovery of a few tombs in which the earliest objects
+showing Greek influence may go back to the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+not having produced any decisive evidence on the point. To
+the Roman period belong the remains of an amphitheatre and
+numerous inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>2. A town (mod. <i>Atina</i>) of the Volsci, 12 m. N. of Casinum,
+and about 14 m. E. of Arpinum, on a hill 1607 ft. above sea-level.
+The walls, of carefully worked polygonal blocks of stone, are
+still preserved in parts, and the modern town does not fill the
+whole area which they enclose. Cicero speaks of it as a prosperous
+country town, which had not as yet fallen into the hands of large
+proprietors; and inscriptions show that under the empire it was
+still flourishing. One of these last is a boundary stone relating
+to the assignation of lands in the time of the Gracchi, of which
+six other examples have been found in Campania and Lucania.</p>
+
+<p>3. A town of the Veneti, mentioned by Pliny, <i>H.N.</i> iii. 131.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATITLÁN,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Santiago de Atitlán</span>, a town in the department
+of Sololá, Guatemala, on the southern shore of Lake Atitlán.
+Pop. (1905) about 9000, almost all Indians. Cotton-spinning
+is the chief industry. Lake Atitlán is 24 m. long and 10 m. broad,
+with 64 m. circumference. It occupies a crater more than
+1000 ft. deep and about 4700 ft. above sea-level. The peaks of
+the Guatemala Cordillera rise round it, culminating near its
+southern end in the volcanoes of San Pedro (7000 ft.) and Atitlán
+(11,719 ft.). Although the lake is fed by many small mountain
+torrents, it has no visible outlet, but probably communicates
+by an underground channel with one of the rivers which drain
+the Cordillera. Mineral springs abound in the neighbourhood.
+The town of Sololá (<i>q.v.</i>) is near the north shore of the lake.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATKINSON, EDWARD<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1827-1905), American economist,
+was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 10th of February
+1827. For many years he was engaged in managing various
+business enterprises, and became, in 1877, president of the
+Boston Manufacturers&rsquo; Mutual Fire Insurance Company, a post
+which he held till his death. He was a strong controversialist
+and a prolific writer on such economic subjects as banking,
+railways, cotton manufacture, the tariff and free trade, and the
+money question. He was appointed in 1887 a special commissioner
+to report upon the status of bimetallism in Europe. He also
+made a special study of mill construction and fire prevention,
+and invented an improved cooking apparatus, called the
+&ldquo;Aladdin oven.&rdquo; He was an active supporter of anti-imperialism.
+He died at Boston on the 11th of December 1905.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal works were
+<i>Right Methods of Preventing Fires in Mills</i> (1881);
+<i>Distribution of Products</i> (1885);
+<i>Industrial Progress of the Nation</i> (1889);
+<i>Taxation and Work</i> (1892);
+<i>Science of Nutrition</i> (10th ed., 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1831-1892), British
+colonial statesman, prime minister and speaker of the legislative
+council, New Zealand, was born at Chester in 1831, and in 1855
+emigrated to Taranaki, New Zealand, where he became a farmer.
+In 1860 the Waitara war broke out, and from its outset Atkinson,
+who had been selected as a captain of the New Plymouth Volunteers,
+distinguished himself by his contempt for appearances
+and tradition, and by the practical skill, energy and courage
+which he showed in leading his Forest Rangers in the tiresome
+and lingering bush warfare of the next five years. For this work
+he was made a major of militia, and thanked by the government.
+Elected to the house of representatives in 1863, he joined Sir
+Frederick Weld&rsquo;s ministry at the end of November 1864 as
+minister of defence, and, during eleven months of office, was
+identified with the well-known &ldquo;self-reliance&rdquo; policy, a proposal
+to dispense with imperial regulars, and meet the Maori with
+colonials only. Parliament accepted this principle, but turned
+out the Weld ministry for other reasons. For four years Atkinson
+was out of parliament; in October 1873 he re-entered it, and
+a year later became minister of lands under Sir Julius Vogel.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span>
+Ten months later he was treasurer, and such was his aptitude
+for finance that, except during six months in 1876, he thenceforth
+held that post whenever his party was in power. From
+October 1874 to January 1891 Atkinson was only out of office
+for about five years. Three times he was premier, and he was
+always the most formidable debater and fighter in the ranks
+of the Conservative opponents of the growing Radical party
+which Sir George Grey, Sir Robert Stout and John Ballance led
+in succession. It was he, who was mainly responsible for the
+abolition of the provinces into which the colony was divided
+from 1853 to 1876. He repealed the Ballance land-tax in 1879,
+and substituted a property-tax. He greatly reduced the cost
+of the public service in 1880, and again in 1888. In both these
+years he raised the customs duties, amongst other taxes, and
+gave them a quasi-protectionist character. In 1880 he struck
+10% off all public salaries and wages; in 1887 he reduced the
+salary of the governor by one-third, and the pay and number
+of ministers and members of parliament. By these resolute steps
+revenue was increased, expenditure checked, and the colony&rsquo;s
+finance reinstated. Atkinson was an advocate of compulsory
+national assurance, and the leasing as opposed to the selling of
+crown lands. Defeated in the general election of December 1890,
+he took the appointment of speaker of the legislative council.
+There, while leaving the council chamber after the sitting of the
+28th of June 1892, he was struck down by heart disease and
+died in a few minutes. Though brusque in manner and never
+popular, he was esteemed as a vigorous, upright and practical
+statesman. He was twice married, and had seven children, of
+whom three sons and a daughter survived him.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. P. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATLANTA,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the capital and the largest city of Georgia, U.S.A.,
+and the county-seat of Fulton county, situated at an altitude of
+1000-1175 ft., in the N.W. part of the state, near the
+Chattahoochee river. Pop. (1860) 9554; (1880) 37,409; (1890)
+65,533; (1900) 89,872, of whom 35,727 were negroes and
+2531 were foreign-born; (1910) 154,839. It is served by the
+Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Seaboard
+Air Line, the Nashville, Chattanooga &amp; St Louis (which enters
+the city over the Western &amp; Atlantic, one of its leased lines),
+the Louisville &amp; Nashville, the Atlanta, Birmingham &amp; Atlantic,
+and the Atlanta &amp; West Point railways. These railway
+communications, and the situation of the city (on the Piedmont
+Plateau) on the water-parting between the streams flowing into
+the Atlantic Ocean and those flowing into the Gulf of Mexico,
+have given Atlanta its popular name, the &ldquo;Gate City of the
+South.&rdquo; Atlanta was laid out in the form of a circle, the radius
+being 1¾ m. and the centre the old railway station, the Union
+Depot (the new station is called the Terminal); large additions
+have been made beyond this circle, including West End, Inman
+Park on the east, and North Atlanta. Among the best residence
+streets are Peachtree and West Peachtree streets to the north,
+and the older streets to the south of the business centre of the
+city&mdash;Washington Street, Whitehall, Pryor and Capitol Avenues.
+Among the principal office buildings are the Empire, the Equitable,
+the Prudential, the Fourth National, the Austell, the
+Peters, the Century, the English-American and the Candler
+buildings; and there are many fine residences, particularly in
+Peachtree and Washington streets, Inman Park and Ponce de
+Leon Circle. Among prominent public buildings are the State
+Capitol (completed 1889), containing a law library of about 65,000
+volumes and a collection of portraits of famous Georgians, the
+north-west front of the Capitol grounds containing an equestrian
+statue (unveiled in 1907) of John Brown Gordon (1832-1904),
+a distinguished Confederate general in the American Civil War
+and governor of Georgia in 1887-1890; the court house; the
+Carnegie library, in which the young men&rsquo;s library, organized
+in 1867, was merged in 1902; the post office building; and
+the Federal prison (about 4 m. south of the city). The principal
+parks are: the Piedmont (189 acres), the site of the Piedmont
+Exposition of 1887 and of the Cotton States and International
+Exposition of 1895; the Grant, given to the city by L.P. Grant,
+an Atlanta railroad builder, in 1882, and subsequently enlarged
+by the city (in its south-east corner is Fort Walker); the Lakewood,
+6 m. south of the city; and Ponce de Leon Park, owned
+by an electric railway company and having mineral springs and a
+fine baseball ground. Four miles south of the centre of Atlanta
+is Fort McPherson, an important United States military post,
+occupying a reservation of 40 acres and having barracks for the
+accommodation of 1000 men. In Oakland Cemetery is a large
+monument to Confederate soldiers; another monument in
+Oakland, &ldquo;To the unknown Confederate Dead,&rdquo; is a reproduction
+of the Lion of Lucerne; in West View Cemetery (4 m. west
+of the city) is a memorial erected by the United Confederate
+Veterans. The city obtains its water-supply from the
+Chattahoochee river (above the mouth of Peachtree Creek), whence
+the water is pumped by four pumps, which have a daily capacity
+of 55,000,000 gallons. Atlanta is widely known for its public
+spirit and enterprise, to which the expositions of 1881, 1887 and
+1895 bear witness. The air is bracing, largely because of the
+city&rsquo;s altitude; the mean annual temperature is 60.8° F. (winter
+44.1°, spring 60.5°, summer 77°, autumn 61.5°).</p>
+
+<p>Atlanta is an important educational centre. Its public-school
+system was organized in 1871. Here are the Georgia School of
+Technology, founded in 1885 (opened 1888) as a branch of the
+university of Georgia; the Atlanta College of Physicians and
+Surgeons (established in 1898 by the union of the Atlanta
+Medical College, organized in 1855, and the Southern Medical
+College, organized in 1878); the Atlanta School of Medicine
+(1905); the Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine; the Atlanta
+Theological Seminary (1901, Congregational), the only theological
+school of the denomination in the South in 1908; the
+Atlanta Dental College; the Southern College of Pharmacy
+(1903); Washington Seminary (1877) for girls; and the following
+institutions for negroes&mdash;Atlanta University, founded in 1869,
+which is one of the best institutions in the country for the higher
+education of negroes, standing particularly for &ldquo;culture&rdquo;
+education (as opposed to industrial training), which has done
+particularly good work in the department of sociology, under
+the direction of Prof. W.E.B. du Bois (b. 1868), one of the
+most prominent teachers of negro descent in the country, and
+which had in 1908 339 students; Clark University, founded in
+1870 by the Freedman&rsquo;s Aid and Southern Educational Society
+of the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Atlanta Baptist College,
+founded in 1867; Morris Brown College (African Methodist
+Episcopal, founded in 1882, and opened in 1885), which has
+college preparatory, scientific, academic, normal and missionary
+courses, correspondence courses in English and theology,
+an industrial department, and departments of law, theology
+(Turner Theological Seminary), nurse-training, music and art;
+the Gammon Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal,
+chartered in 1888), which has its buildings just outside the city
+limits; and the Spelman Seminary for women and girls (Baptist)
+opened in 1881 as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary&mdash;the
+present name being adopted in 1883 in honour of the parents
+of Mrs John D. Rockefeller&mdash;and incorporated in 1888. At
+Decatur (pop. 1418 in 1900), a residential suburb, 6 m. east-north-east
+of Atlanta, is the Agnes Scott College (1890) for white girls;
+connected with the college is a school of music, art and expression,
+and an academy.</p>
+
+<p>The city&rsquo;s principal charitable institutions are the Grady
+Memorial hospital (opened in 1892), supported by the city and
+named in honour of Henry W. Grady; the Presbyterian hospital;
+the Baptist Tabernacle Infirmary; the Wesley Memorial
+hospital; St Joseph&rsquo;s infirmary; the Municipal hospital for
+contagious diseases; the Florence Crittenden home. Three
+miles south-east of the city is a (state) soldiers&rsquo; home, for
+aged, infirm and disabled Confederate veterans. The Associated
+Charities of Atlanta was organized in 1905.</p>
+
+<p>The principal newspapers are the <i>Constitution</i> (morning),
+edited from 1880 until 1889 by Henry W. Grady (1851-1889),<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+one of the most eloquent of Southern orators, who did much to
+promote the reconciliation of the North and the South after the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span>
+Civil War, and whose statue stands opposite the post office;
+the <i>Journal</i> (evening), of which Hoke Smith (b. 1855), a prominent
+political leader, secretary of the interior in President
+Cleveland&rsquo;s cabinet in 1893-1896, and later governor of Georgia,
+was long the proprietor; and the <i>Georgian</i> (evening), founded
+in 1906 as a Prohibition organ.</p>
+
+<p>As regards commerce and manufactures, Atlanta ranks first
+among the cities of Georgia. In 1907 its whosesale and retail
+trade was estimated at $100,000,000. The city is said to receive
+two-fifths of the total freight delivered in the state of Georgia.
+From 1895 to 1907 the bank clearings increased from about
+$65,000,000 to about $260,000,000. In recognition of the city&rsquo;s
+financial strength, Atlanta has been designated by the secretary
+of the treasury as one of the cities whose bonds will be accepted
+as security for Federal deposits. Atlanta is the Southern headquarters
+for a number of fire and life insurance companies, and
+is the third city of the United States in the amount of insurance
+business written and reported to resident agents, the annual
+premium receipts averaging about $10,000,000. It is an important
+horse and mule market, and handles much tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>The development of manufactures has been especially notable.
+In 1880 the capital invested in manufacturing industries was
+approximately $2,468,000; in 1890 it was $9,508,962; in 1900
+it had increased to $16,045,156; and in 1905, when only establishments
+under the &ldquo;factory system&rdquo; were counted in the
+census, to $21,631,162. In 1900 the total product was valued
+at $16,707,027, and the factory product at $14,418,834; and in
+1905 the factory product was valued at $25,745,650, an increase
+of 78.6% in five years. Among the products are cotton goods
+(the product value of which in 1905 was 14% of the total value
+of the city&rsquo;s manufactures), foundry and machine-shop products,
+lumber, patent medicines, confectionery, men&rsquo;s clothing, mattresses,
+spring-beds and other furniture. Since 1904 part of the
+power utilized for manufacturing has been obtained from the
+Chattahoochee river, 15 m. from the city. There are many
+manufactories just outside the city limits.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;Atlanta owes its origin to the development of
+pioneer railroads of Georgia. In 1836 the Western &amp; Atlantic,
+the first road built into North Georgia, was chartered, and the
+present site of Atlanta was chosen as its southern terminal,
+which it reached in 1843, and which was named &ldquo;Terminus.&rdquo;
+The Georgia and the Central of Georgia then projected branches
+to Terminus in order to connect with the Western &amp; Atlantic,
+and completed them in 1845 and 1846. The town charter of
+1843 changed the name to Marthasville, in honour of the daughter
+of Governor Wilson Lumpkin; and the city charter of 1847
+changed this to Atlanta. The population in 1850 was 2572;
+in 1860, 9554. Manufacturing interests soon became important,
+and during the Civil War Atlanta was the seat of Confederate
+military factories and a depot of supplies. In 1864 it was
+the objective point of the first stage of General William T.
+Sherman&rsquo;s invasion of Georgia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>), which
+is therefore generally known as the &ldquo;Atlanta campaign.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After the battles around Marietta (<i>q.v.</i>), and the crossing of
+the Chattahoochee river on the 8th and 9th of July, Sherman
+continued his advance against Atlanta. His plan of operations
+was directed primarily to the seizure of the Decatur railway,
+by which the Confederate commander, General J.E. Johnston,
+might receive support from Virginia and the Carolinas. The
+three Union armies under Sherman&rsquo;s command, outnumbering
+the Confederates about 3 to 2, began their movement on the
+16th of July; the Army of the Cumberland (Gen. G.H. Thomas)
+on the right marching from Marietta by the fords of the Upper
+Chattahoochee on Atlanta, the Army of the Ohio (Gen. J.M.
+Schofield) in the centre direct on Decatur, and the Army of the
+Tennessee (Gen. J.B. McPherson) still farther east towards
+Stone Mountain. At the moment of marching out to meet the
+enemy, Johnston was relieved of his command and was replaced
+by Gen. J.B. Hood (July 17). Hood at once prepared to attack
+Thomas as soon as that general should have crossed Peachtree
+Creek (6 m. north of the city) and thus isolated himself from Schofield
+and McPherson. Sherman&rsquo;s confidence in Thomas and his
+troops was, however, justified. Hood&rsquo;s attack (battle of Peachtree
+Creek, July 20) was everywhere repulsed, and Schofield
+and McPherson closed up at the greatest speed. Hood had to
+retire to Atlanta, with a loss of more than 4000 men, and the
+three Union armies gradually converged on the north and east
+sides of the city. But Hood, who had been put in command as a
+fighting general, was soon ready to attack afresh. This time
+he placed Gen. W.J. Hardee&rsquo;s corps, the largest of his army,
+to the south of Atlanta, facing the left flank of McPherson&rsquo;s
+army. As Hardee&rsquo;s attack rolled up the Union army from left
+to right, the remainder of the Confederate army was to issue
+from the Atlanta fortifications and join in the battle. Hardee
+opened his attack at noon on the 22nd of July (battle of Atlanta).
+The troops of the Army of the Tennessee were swiftly driven
+back, and their commander, McPherson, killed; but presently
+the Federals re-formed and a severe struggle ensued, in which
+most of Hood&rsquo;s army joined. The veterans of the Army of the
+Tennessee, led by Gen. J.A. Logan, offered a stubborn resistance,
+however, and Schofield&rsquo;s army now intervened. After prolonged
+attacks lasting to nightfall, Hood had once more to draw off,
+with about 10,000 men killed and wounded. The Confederates
+now abandoned all idea of regaining the Decatur line, and based
+themselves on Jonesboro&rsquo; and the Macon railway. Sherman
+quickly realized this, and the Army of the Tennessee, now
+commanded by Gen. O.O. Howard, was counter-marched from
+left to right, until it formed up on the right of the Union line
+about Ezra Church (about 4 m. west of Atlanta). The railway
+from Chattanooga to Atlanta, destroyed by Johnston as he fell
+back in May and June, was now repaired and working up to
+Thomas&rsquo;s camps. Hood had meanwhile extended his entrenchments
+southwards to cover the Macon railway, and Howard&rsquo;s
+movement led to another engagement (battle of Ezra Church,
+July 28) in which the XV. corps under Logan again bore the
+brunt of Hood&rsquo;s attack. The Confederates were once more
+unsuccessful, and the losses were so heavy that the &ldquo;fighting&rdquo;
+policy ordered by the Confederate government was countermanded.
+Sherman&rsquo;s cavalry had hitherto failed to do serious
+damage to the railway, and the Federal general now proceeded
+to manoeuvre with his main body so as to cut off Hood from his
+Southern railway lines (August). Covered by Howard at Ezra
+Church, Schofield led this advance, but the new Confederate
+lines baffled him. A bombardment of the Atlanta fortifications
+was then begun, but it had no material result. Another cavalry
+raid effected but slight damage to the line, and Sherman now
+decided to take his whole force to the south side. This apparently
+dangerous movement (August 25) is a remarkable illustration
+of Sherman&rsquo;s genius for war, and in fact succeeded completely.
+Only a small force was left to guard the Chattanooga
+railway, and the Union forces, Howard on the right, Thomas in
+the centre, and Schofield on the left, reached the railway after
+some sharp fighting (action of Jonesboro&rsquo;, September 1). The
+defence of Atlanta was now hopeless; Hood&rsquo;s forces retreated
+southward the same evening, and on the 2nd of September the
+Union detachment left behind on the north side entered Atlanta
+unopposed.</p>
+
+<p>All citizens were now ordered to leave, the place was turned
+into a military camp, and when Sherman started on his &ldquo;March
+to the Sea,&rdquo; on the 15th of November, a large part of the city
+was burned. Consequently the present city is a product of the
+post-bellum development of Georgia. The military government
+of Georgia was established here in 1865. In 1868 Atlanta was
+made the capital of the state.</p>
+
+<p>In 1881 an International Cotton Exposition was held in
+Atlanta. This was American, even local, in character; its
+inception was due to a desire to improve the cultivation and
+manufacture of cotton; but it brought to the notice of the
+whole country the industrial transformation wrought in the
+Southern states during the last quarter of the 19th century.
+In 1887 the Piedmont Exposition was held in Atlanta. The
+Cotton States and International Exposition, also held at Atlanta,
+in 1895, attracted widespread attention, and had exhibits from
+thirty-seven states and thirteen foreign countries.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Grady was succeeded as managing editor by Clark Howell
+(b. 1863); and Joel Chandler Harris was long a member of the
+editorial staff.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">ATLANTIC,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Iowa,
+U.S.A., on East Nishnabatna river, about 80 m. W. by S. of
+Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 4351; (1900) 5046; (1905, state
+census) 5180 (625 foreign-born); (1910) 4560. It is served by
+the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific railway, and by an inter-urban
+electric line connecting with Elkhorn and Kimballton,
+and is the trade centre of a fine agricultural country; among
+its manufactures are machine-shop products, canned corn, flour,
+umbrellas, drugs and bricks. The municipality owns the water-works
+and electric-lighting plant. Atlantic was chartered as
+a city in 1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATLANTIC CITY,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey,
+U.S.A., on the Atlantic Ocean, 58 m. S.E. of Philadelphia and
+137 m. S. by W. of New York. Pop. (1890) 13,055; (1900)
+27,838, of whom 6513 were of negro descent and 3189 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 46,150. It is served by the
+Atlantic City (Philadelphia &amp; Reading) and the West Jersey &amp;
+Seashore (Pennsylvania system) railways. Atlantic City is the
+largest and most popular all-the-year-round resort in the United
+States, and has numerous fine hotels. The city extends for 3 m.
+along a low sandy island (Absecon Beach), 10 m. long by ¾ m.
+wide, separated from the mainland by a narrow strip of salt
+water and 4 or 5 m. of salt marshes, partly covered with water
+at highest storm tide. There are good bathing, boating, sailing,
+fishing and wild-fowl shooting. A &ldquo;Board Walk&rdquo; stretches
+along the beach for about 5 m.&mdash;the newest part of it is of
+concrete&mdash;and along or near this walk are the largest hotels,
+and numerous shops, and places of amusement; from the walk
+into the ocean extend several long piers. Other features of the
+place are the broad driveway (Atlantic Avenue) and an automobile
+boulevard. There are several seaside sanitoriums and
+hospitals, including the Atlantic City hospital, the Mercer
+Memorial home, and the Children&rsquo;s Seashore home. On the
+north end of the beach is Absecon Lighthouse, 160 ft. high.
+The municipality owns the water-works. Oysters are dredged
+here and are shipped hence in large quantities. There was a
+settlement of fishermen on the island in the latter part of the
+18th century. In 1852 a movement was made to develop it as
+a seaside resort for Philadelphia, and after the completion of
+the Camden &amp; Atlantic City railway in 1854 the growth of the
+place was rapid. A heavy loss occurred by fire on the 3rd of
+April 1902.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATLANTIC OCEAN,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span>
+a belt of water, roughly of an <img style="width:16px; height:21px" src="images/img855.jpg" alt="" />-shape,
+between the western coasts of Europe and Africa and the eastern
+coasts of North and South America. It extends
+northward to the Arctic Basin and southward to the
+<span class="sidenote">Extent.</span>
+Great Southern Ocean. For purposes of measurement the polar
+boundaries are taken to be the Arctic and Antarctic circles,
+although in discussing the configuration and circulation it is
+impossible to adhere strictly to these limits. The Atlantic
+Ocean consists of two characteristic divisions, the geographical
+equator forming a fairly satisfactory line of division into North
+and South Atlantic. The North Atlantic, by far the best-known
+of the main divisions of the hydrosphere, is remarkable for the
+immense length of its coast-line and for the large number of
+enclosed seas connected with it, including on the western side the
+Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St Lawrence and
+Hudson Bay, and on the eastern side the Mediterranean and
+Black Sea, the North Sea and the Baltic. The North Atlantic
+is connected with the Arctic Basin by four main channels: (1)
+Hudson Strait, about 60 m. wide, communicating with the gulfs
+and straits of the North American Arctic archipelago; (2)
+Davis Strait, about 200 m. wide, leading to Baffin Bay; (3)
+Denmark Strait, between Greenland and Iceland, 130 m. wide;
+and (4) the &ldquo;Norwegian Sea,&rdquo; about 400 m. wide, extending
+from Iceland to the Faeroe Islands, the Shetland Islands and
+the coast of Norway. The width of the North Atlantic in lat. 60°,
+approximately where it breaks up into the branches just named,
+is nearly 2000 m.; in about lat. 50° N. the coasts of Ireland
+and Newfoundland approach to 1750 m.; the breadth then
+increases rapidly to lat. 40° N., and attains its maximum of
+4500 m. in lat. 25° N.; farther south the minimum breadth is
+reached between Africa and South America, Cape Palmas being
+only 1600 m. distant from Cape St Roque. In marked contrast
+to this, the South Atlantic is distinguished by great simplicity
+of coast-line; inland seas there are none, and it attains its
+greatest breadth as it merges with the Southern Ocean; in lat.
+35° S. the width is 3700 m.</p>
+
+<p>The total area of the North Atlantic, not counting inland seas
+connected with it, is, according to G. Karstens, 36,438,000 sq.
+kilometres, or 10,588,000 sq. m.; including the inland seas the
+area is 45,641,000 sq. kilometres or 13,262,000 sq. m. The area
+of the South Atlantic is 43,455,000 sq. kilometres, or 12,627,000
+sq. m. Although not the most extensive of the great oceans,
+the Atlantic has by far the largest drainage area. The &ldquo;long
+slopes&rdquo; of the continents on both sides are directed towards the
+Atlantic, which accordingly receives the waters of a large proportion
+of the great rivers of the world, including the St Lawrence,
+the Mississippi, the Orinoco, the Amazon, the rivers of the La
+Plata, the Congo, the Niger, the Loire, the Rhine, the Elbe and
+the great rivers of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Sir J.
+Murray estimates the total area of land draining to the Atlantic
+to be 13,432,000 sq. m., or with the Arctic area nearly 20,000,000
+sq. m., nearly four times the area draining to the Pacific Ocean,
+and almost precisely four times the area draining to the Indian
+Ocean. Murray&rsquo;s calculations give the amount of precipitation
+received on this area at 15,800 cub. m. annually, and the river
+discharge from it at 3900 cub. m.</p>
+
+<p>The dominant feature of the relief of the Atlantic basin is a
+submarine ridge running from north to south from about lat.
+50° N. to lat. 40° S., almost exactly in the central
+line, and following the <img style="width:16px; height:21px" src="images/img855.jpg" alt="" />-shape of the coasts. Over
+<span class="sidenote">Relief of the bed.</span>
+this ridge the average depth is about 1700 fathoms.
+Towards its northern end the ridge widens and rises to the plateau
+of the Azores, and in about 50° N. lat. it merges with the &ldquo;Telegraph
+Plateau,&rdquo; which extends across nearly the whole ocean
+from Ireland to Newfoundland. North of the fiftieth parallel
+the depths diminish towards the north-east, two long submarine
+ridges of volcanic origin extend north-eastwards to the south-west
+of Iceland and to the Faeroe Islands, and these, with their
+intervening valleys, end in a transverse ridge connecting Greenland,
+through Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, with North-western
+Scotland and the continental mass of Europe. The
+mean depth over this ridge is about 250 fathoms, and the maximum
+depth nowhere reaches 500 fathoms. The main basin of the
+Atlantic is thus cut off from the Arctic basin, with which the
+area north of the ridge has complete deep-water communication.
+This intermediate region, which has Atlantic characteristics
+down to 300 fathoms, and at greater depths belongs more
+properly to the Arctic Sea, commonly receives the name of
+Norwegian Sea. On both sides of the central ridge deep troughs
+extend southwards from the Telegraph plateau to the Southern
+Ocean, the deep water coming close to the land all the way down
+on both sides. In these troughs the depth is seldom much less
+than 3000 fathoms, and this is exceeded in a series of patches
+to which Murray has given the name of &ldquo;Deeps.&rdquo; In the eastern
+trough the Peake Deep lies off the Bay of Biscay in 20° W. long.,
+Monaco Deep and Chun Deep off the north-west of Africa,
+Moseley Deep off the Cape Verde Islands, Krech Deep off the
+Liberian coast, and Buchanan Deep off the mouth of the Congo.
+The western trough extends northwards into Davis Strait,
+forming a depression in the Telegraph plateau; to the south of
+Newfoundland and Nova Scotia are Sigsbee Deep, Libbey Deep
+and Suhm Deep, each of small area; north-east of the Bahamas
+Nares Deep forms the largest and deepest depression in the
+Atlantic, in which a sounding of 4561 fathoms was obtained
+(70 m. north of Porto Rico) by the U.S. ship &ldquo;Blake&rdquo; in
+1883. Immediately to the south of Nares Deep lies the smaller
+Makarov Deep; and off the coast of South America are Tizard
+Deep and Havergal Deep.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Antarctic expeditions of 1903-1904 our knowledge
+of the form of the sea bottom south of 40° S. lat. was almost
+wholly derived from the soundings of the expedition of Sir J.C.
+Ross in the &ldquo;Erebus&rdquo; and &ldquo;Terror&rdquo; (1839-1843), and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span>
+bathymetrical maps published were largely the result of deductions
+based on one sounding taken by Ross in 68° 34&prime; S. lat.,
+12° 49&prime; W. long., in which he recorded a depth exceeding 4000
+fathoms. The Scottish Antarctic expedition has shown this
+sounding to be erroneous; the &ldquo;Scotia&rdquo; obtained samples of
+bottom, in almost the same spot, from a depth of 2660 fathoms.
+Combining the results of recent soundings, Dr W.S. Bruce, the
+leader of the Scottish expedition, finds that there is a ridge
+&ldquo;extending in a curve from Madagascar to Bouvet Island, and
+from Bouvet Island to the Sandwich group, whence there is a
+forked connexion through the South Orkneys to Graham&rsquo;s Land,
+and through South Georgia to the Falkland Islands and the
+South American continent.&rdquo; Again, the central ridge of the
+South Atlantic extends a thousand miles farther south than was
+supposed, joining the east and west ridge, just described, between
+the Bouvet Islands and the Sandwich group.</p>
+
+<p>The foundations of our knowledge of the relief of the Atlantic
+basin may be said to have been laid by the work of H.M.S.
+&ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; (1873-1876), and the German ship &ldquo;Gazelle&rdquo;
+(1874-1876), the French expedition in the &ldquo;Travailleur&rdquo; (1880),
+and the U.S. surveying vessel &ldquo;Blake&rdquo; (1877 and later). Large
+numbers of additional soundings have been made in recent years
+by cable ships, by the expeditions of H.S.H. the prince of Monaco,
+the German &ldquo;Valdivia&rdquo; expedition under Professor Chun (1898),
+and the combined Antarctic expeditions (1903-1904).</p>
+
+<p>The Atlantic Ocean contains a relatively small number of
+islands. The only continental groups, besides some islands in
+the Mediterranean, are Iceland, the British Isles,
+<span class="sidenote">Islands.</span>
+Newfoundland, the West Indies, and the Falklands,
+and the chief oceanic islands are the Azores, Madeira, the
+Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan
+da Cunha and Bouvet Island.</p>
+
+<p>The mean depth of the North Atlantic is, according to G.
+Karstens, 2047 fathoms. If we include the enclosed
+seas, the North Atlantic has a mean depth of 1800
+<span class="sidenote">Mean depth, and bottom deposits.</span>
+fathoms. The South Atlantic has a mean depth of
+2067 fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the bottom of the Atlantic is covered by
+a deposit of Globigerina ooze, roughly the area between 1000 and
+3000 fathoms, or about 60% of the whole. At a depth of about
+3000 fathoms, <i>i.e.</i> in the &ldquo;Deeps,&rdquo; the Globigerina ooze gradually
+gives place to red clay. In the shallower tropical waters,
+especially on the central ridge, considerable areas are covered by
+Pteropod ooze, a deposit consisting largely of the shells of pelagic
+molluscs. Diatom ooze is the characteristic deposit in high
+southern latitudes. The terrigenous deposits consist of blue
+muds, red muds (abundant along the coast of Brazil, where the
+amount of organic matter present is insufficient to reduce the iron
+in the matter brought down by the great rivers to produce blue
+muds), green muds and sands, and volcanic and coral detritus.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the origin of the Atlantic basin, like that of the
+other great divisions of the hydrosphere, is still unsettled. Most
+geologists include the Atlantic with the other oceans in the view
+they adopt as to its age; but E. Suess and M. Neumayr, while
+they regard the basin of the Pacific as of great antiquity, believe
+the Atlantic to date only from the Mesozoic age. Neumayr
+finds evidence of the existence of a continent between Africa
+and South America, which protruded into the central North
+Atlantic, in Jurassic times. F. Kossmat has shown that the
+Atlantic had substantially its present form during the Cretaceous
+period.</p>
+
+<p>In describing the mean distribution of temperature in the
+waters of the Atlantic it is necessary to treat the northern and
+southern divisions separately. The heat equator, or
+line of maximum mean surface temperature, starts
+<span class="sidenote">Distribution of temperature.</span>
+from the African coast in about 5° N. lat., and closely
+follows that parallel to 40° W. long., where it bends
+northwards to the Caribbean Sea. North of this line, near which
+the temperature is a little over 80° F., the gradient trends somewhat
+to the east of north, and the temperature is slightly higher
+on the western than on the eastern side until, in 45° N. lat., the
+isothermal of 60° F. runs nearly east and west. Beyond this
+parallel the gradient is directed towards the north-west, and
+temperatures are much higher on the European than on the
+American side. From the surface to 500 fathoms the general
+form of the isothermals remains the same, except that instead
+of an equatorial maximum belt there is a focus of maximum
+temperature off the eastern coast of the United States. This
+focus occupies a larger area and becomes of greater relative
+intensity as the depth increases until, at 500 fathoms, it becomes
+an elongated belt extending right across the ocean in about
+30° N. lat. Below 500 fathoms the western centres of maximum
+disappear, and higher temperatures occur in the eastern Atlantic
+off the Iberian peninsula and north-western Africa down to at
+least 1000 fathoms; at still greater depths temperature gradually
+becomes more and more uniform. The communication between
+the Atlantic and Arctic basins being cut off, as already described,
+at a depth of about 300 fathoms, the temperatures in the Norwegian
+Sea below that level are essentially Arctic, usually below
+the freezing-point of fresh water, except where the distribution
+is modified by the surface circulation. The isothermals of mean
+surface temperature in the South Atlantic are in the lower
+latitudes of an ~-shape, temperatures being higher on the
+American than on the African side. In latitudes south of 30° S.
+the curved form tends to disappear, the lines running more and
+more directly east and west. Below the surface a focus of maximum
+temperature appears off the coast of South America in
+about 30° S. lat., and of minimum temperature north and north-east
+of this maximum. This distribution is most marked at
+about 300 fathoms, and disappears at 500 fathoms, beyond
+which depth the lines tend to become parallel and to run east
+and west, the gradient slowly diminishing.</p>
+
+<p>The Atlantic is by far the saltest of the great oceans. Its
+saltest waters are found at the surface in two belts, one extending
+east and west in the North Atlantic between 20° and
+30° N. lat., and another of almost equal salinity
+<span class="sidenote">Salinity.</span>
+extending eastwards from the coast of South America in 10° to
+20° S. lat. In the equatorial region between these belts the
+salinity is markedly less, especially in the eastern part. North
+of the North Atlantic maximum the waters become steadily
+fresher as latitude increases until the channels opening into the
+Arctic basin are reached. In all of these water of relatively
+high salinity usually appears for a long distance towards the
+north on the eastern side of the channel, while on the western
+side the water is comparatively fresh; but great variations occur
+at different seasons and in different years. In the higher latitudes
+of the South Atlantic the salinity diminishes steadily and tends
+to be uniform from east to west, except near the southern
+extremity of South America, where the surface waters are very
+fresh. Our knowledge of the salinity of waters below the surface
+is as yet very defective, large areas being still unrepresented by
+a single observation. The chief facts already established are
+the greater saltness of the North Atlantic compared with the
+South Atlantic at all depths, and the low salinity at all depths
+in the eastern equatorial region, off the Gulf of Guinea.</p>
+
+<p>The wind circulation over the Atlantic is of a very definite
+character. In the South Atlantic the narrow land surfaces of
+Africa and South America produce comparatively little
+effect in disturbing the normal planetary circulation.
+<span class="sidenote">Meteorology.</span>
+The tropical belt of high atmospheric pressure is very
+marked in winter; it is weaker during the summer months, and
+at that season the greater relative fall of pressure over the land
+cuts it off into an oval-shaped anticyclone, the centre of which
+rests on the coolest part of the sea surface in that latitude, near
+the Gulf of Guinea. South of this anticyclone, from about the
+latitude of the Cape, we find the region where, on account of
+the uninterrupted sea surface right round the globe, the planetary
+circulation is developed to the greatest extent known; the
+pressure gradient is steep, and the region is swept continuously
+by strong westerly winds&mdash;the &ldquo;roaring forties.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the North Atlantic the distribution of pressure and resulting
+wind circulation are very largely modified by the enormous
+areas of land and frozen sea which surround the ocean on three
+sides. The tropical belt of high pressure persists all the year
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span>
+round, but the immense demand for air to supply the ascending
+currents over the heated land surfaces in summer causes the
+normal descending movement to be largely reinforced; hence the
+&ldquo;North Atlantic anticyclone&rdquo; is much larger, and its circulation
+more vigorous, in summer than in winter. Again, during the
+winter months pressure is relatively high over North America,
+Western Eurasia and the Arctic regions; hence vast quantities
+of air are brought down to the surface, and circulation must be
+kept up by ascending currents over the ocean. The Atlantic
+anticyclone is, therefore, at its weakest in winter, and on its polar
+side the polar eddy becomes a trough of low pressure, extending
+roughly from Labrador to Iceland and Jan Mayen, and traversed
+by a constant succession of cyclones. The net effect of the
+surrounding land is, in fact, to reverse the seasonal variations
+of the planetary circulation, but without destroying its type.
+In the intermediate belt between the two high-pressure areas
+the meteorological equator remains permanently north of the
+geographical equator, moving between it and about 11° N. lat.</p>
+
+<p>The part of this atmospheric circulation which is steadiest
+in its action is the trade winds, and this is, therefore, the most
+effective in producing drift movement of the surface waters.
+The trade winds give rise, in the region most exposed to their
+influence, to two westward-moving drifts&mdash;the equatorial
+currents, which are separated in parts of their course by currents
+moving in the opposite direction along the equatorial belt.
+These last may be of the nature of &ldquo;reaction&rdquo; currents; they
+are collectively known as the equatorial counter-current. On
+reaching the South American coast, the southern equatorial
+current splits into two parts at Cape St Roque: one branch,
+<span class="sidenote">Currents.</span>
+the Brazil current, is deflected southwards and follows
+the coast as a true stream current at least as far as
+the river Plate. The second branch proceeds north-westwards
+towards the West Indies, where it mingles with the waters of
+the northern equatorial; and the two drifts, blocked by the
+&lt;-shape of the land, raise the level of the surface in the Gulf
+of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the whole area outside the
+West Indies. This congestion is relieved by what is probably
+the most rapid and most voluminous stream current in the world,
+the Gulf Stream, which runs along the coast of North America,
+separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water, the &ldquo;cold
+wall,&rdquo; to a point off the south-east of Newfoundland. At this
+point the Gulf Stream water mixes with that from the Labrador
+current (see below), and a drift current eastwards is set up under
+the influence of the prevailing westerly winds: this is generally
+called the Gulf Stream drift. When the Gulf Stream drift
+approaches the eastern side of the Atlantic it splits into two
+parts, one going southwards along the north-west coast of Africa,
+the Canaries current, and another turning northwards and
+passing to the west of the British Isles. Most of the Canaries
+current re-enters the northern equatorial, but a certain proportion
+keeps to the African coast, unites with the equatorial return
+currents, and penetrates into the Gulf of Guinea. This last
+feature of the circulation is still somewhat obscure; it is probably
+to be accounted for by the fact that on this part of the coast the
+prevailing winds, although to a considerable extent monsoonal,
+are off-shore winds, blowing the surface waters out to sea, and
+the place of the water thus removed is filled up by the water derived
+either from lower levels or from &ldquo;reaction&rdquo; currents.</p>
+
+<p>The movements of the northern branch of the Gulf Stream
+drift have been the object of more careful and more extended
+study than all the other currents of the ocean put together,
+except, perhaps, the Gulf Stream itself. The cruises of the
+&ldquo;Porcupine&rdquo; and &ldquo;Lightning&rdquo; which led directly to the
+despatch of the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; expedition, were altogether
+within its &ldquo;sphere of influence&rdquo;; so also was the great Norwegian
+Atlantic expedition. More recently, the area has been
+further explored by the German expedition in the ss. &ldquo;National,&rdquo;
+the Danish &ldquo;Ingolf&rdquo; expedition, and the minor expeditions
+of the &ldquo;Michael Sars,&rdquo; &ldquo;Jackal,&rdquo; &ldquo;Research,&rdquo; &amp;c., and since
+1902 it has been periodically examined by the International
+Council for the Study of the Sea. Much has also been done by
+the discussion of observations made on board vessels belonging
+to the mercantile marine of various countries. It may now
+be taken as generally admitted that the current referred to
+breaks into three main branches. The first passes northwards,
+most of it between the Faeroe and Shetland Islands, to the coast
+of Norway, and so on to the Arctic basin, which, as Nansen has
+shown, it fills to a great depth. The second, the Irminger
+stream, passes up the west side of Iceland; and the third goes
+up to the Greenland side of Davis Strait to Baffin Bay. These
+branches are separated from one another at the surface by
+currents moving southwards: one passes east of Iceland; the
+second, the Greenland current, skirts the east coast of Greenland;
+and the third, the Labrador current already mentioned, follows
+the western side of Davis Strait.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the equatorial and the Brazil currents
+in the South Atlantic has already been described. On the polar
+side of the high-pressure area a west wind drift is under the
+control of the &ldquo;roaring forties,&rdquo; and on reaching South Africa
+part of this is deflected and sent northwards along the west
+coast as the cold Benguella current which rejoins the equatorial.
+In the central parts of the two high-pressure areas there is
+practically no surface circulation. In the North Atlantic this
+region is covered by enormous banks of gulf-weed (<i>Sargassum
+bucciferum</i>), hence the name Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea
+is bounded, roughly, by the lines of 20°-35° N. lat. and 40°-75°
+W. long.</p>
+
+<p>The sub-surface circulation in the Atlantic may be regarded
+as consisting of two parts. Where surface water is banked up
+against the land, as by the equatorial and Gulf Stream drift
+currents, it appears to penetrate to very considerable depths;
+the escaping stream currents are at first of great vertical thickness
+and part of the water at their sources has a downward movement.
+In the case of the Gulf Stream, which is not much impeded by
+the land, this descending motion is relatively slight, being
+perhaps largely due to the greater specific gravity of the water;
+it ceases to be perceptible beyond about 500 fathoms. On the
+European-African side the descending movement is more
+marked, partly because the coast-line is much more irregular
+and the northward current is deflected against it by the earth&rsquo;s
+rotation, and partly because of the outflow of salt water from
+the Mediterranean; here the movement is traceable to at least
+1000 fathoms. The northward movement of water across the
+Norwegian Sea extends down from the surface to the Iceland-Shetland
+ridge, where it is sharply cut off; the lower levels of
+the Norwegian Sea are filled with ice-cold Arctic water, close
+down to the ridge. The south-moving currents originating from
+melting ice are probably quite shallow. The second part of the
+circulation in the depth is the slow &ldquo;creep&rdquo; of water of very
+low temperature along the bottom. The North Atlantic being
+altogether cut off from the Arctic regions, and the vertical
+circulation being active, this movement is here practically
+non-existent; but in the South Atlantic, where communication
+with the Southern Ocean is perfectly open, Antarctic water can
+be traced to the equator and even beyond.</p>
+
+<p>The tides of the Atlantic Ocean are of great complexity. The
+tidal wave of the Southern Ocean, which sweeps uninterruptedly
+round the globe from the east to west, generates a secondary wave
+between Africa and South America, which travels north at a
+rate dependent only on the depth of the ocean. With this &ldquo;free&rdquo;
+wave is combined a &ldquo;forced&rdquo; wave, generated, by the direct
+action of the sun and moon, within the Atlantic area itself.
+Nothing is known about the relative importance of these two
+waves.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. N. D.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oceans and Oceanography</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATLANTIS,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> <span class="sc">Atlantis</span>, or <span class="sc">Atlantica</span>, a legendary island
+in the Atlantic Ocean, first mentioned by Plato in the <i>Timaeus</i>.
+Plato describes how certain Egyptian priests, in a conversation
+with Solon, represented the island as a country larger than
+Asia Minor and Libya united, and situated just beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar). Beyond it lay an
+archipelago of lesser islands. According to the priests, Atlantis
+had been a powerful kingdom nine thousand years before the
+birth of Solon, and its armies had overrun the lands which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span>
+bordered the Mediterranean. Athens alone had withstood
+them with success. Finally the sea had overwhelmed Atlantis,
+and had thenceforward become unnavigable owing to the
+shoals which marked the spot. In the <i>Critias</i> Plato adds a
+history of the ideal commonwealth of Atlantis. It is impossible
+to decide how far this legend is due to Plato&rsquo;s invention, and
+how far it is based on facts of which no record remains. Medieval
+writers, for whom the tale was preserved by the Arabian geographers,
+believed it true, and were fortified in their belief by
+numerous traditions of islands in the western sea, which offered
+various points of resemblance to Atlantis. Such in particular
+were the Greek Isles of the Blest, or Fortunate Islands, the
+Welsh Avalon, the Portuguese Antilia or Isle of Seven Cities,
+and St Brendan&rsquo;s island, the subject of many sagas in many
+languages. These, which are described in separate articles,
+helped to maintain the tradition of an earthly paradise which
+had become associated with the myth of Atlantis; and all
+except Avalon were marked in maps of the 14th and 15th
+centuries, and formed the object of voyages of discovery, in one
+case (St Brendan&rsquo;s island) until the 18th century. In early
+legends, of whatever nationality, they are almost invariably
+described in terms which closely resemble Homer&rsquo;s account of
+the island of the Phaeacians (<i>Od.</i> viii.)&mdash;a fact which may be
+an indication of their common origin in some folk-tale current
+among several races. Somewhat similar legends are those of
+the island of Brazil (<i>q.v.</i>), of Lyonnesse (<i>q.v.</i>), the sunken land
+off the Cornish coast, of the lost Breton city of Is, and of Mayda
+or Asmaide&mdash;the French <i>Isle Verte</i> and Portuguese <i>Ilha Verde</i>
+or &ldquo;Green Island&rdquo;&mdash;which appears in many folk-tales from
+Gibraltar to the Hebrides, and until 1853 was marked on English
+charts as a rock in 44° 48&prime; N. and 26° 10&prime; W. After the Renaissance,
+with its renewal of interest in Platonic studies, numerous
+attempts were made to rationalize the myth of Atlantis. The
+island was variously identified with America, Scandinavia, the
+Canaries and even Palestine; ethnologists saw in its inhabitants
+the ancestors of the Guanchos, the Basques or the ancient
+Italians; and even in the 17th and 18th centuries the credibility
+of the whole legend was seriously debated, and sometimes
+admitted, even by Montaigne, Buffon and Voltaire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the theory that Atlantis is to be identified with Crete in the
+Minoan period, see &ldquo;The Lost Continent&rdquo; in <i>The Times</i> (London)
+for the 19th of February 1909. See also &ldquo;Dissertation sur l&rsquo;Atlantide&rdquo;
+in T.H. Martin&rsquo;s <i>Études sur le Timée</i> (1841).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATLAS,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the &ldquo;endurer,&rdquo; a son of the
+Titan Iapetus and Clymene (or Asia), brother of Prometheus.
+Homer, in the <i>Odyssey</i> (i. 52) speaks of him as &ldquo;one who knows
+the depths of the whole sea, and keeps the tall pillars which
+hold heaven and earth asunder.&rdquo; In the first instance he seems
+to have been a marine creation. The pillars which he supported
+were thought to rest in the sea, immediately beyond the most
+western horizon. But as the Greeks&rsquo; knowledge of the west
+increased, the name of Atlas was transferred to a hill in the
+north-west of Africa. Later, he was represented as a king of that
+district, rich in flocks and herds, and owner of the garden of the
+Hesperides, who was turned into a rocky mountain when Perseus,
+to punish him for his inhospitality, showed him the Gorgon&rsquo;s
+head (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> iv. 627). Finally, Atlas was explained as
+the name of a primitive astronomer, who was said to have made
+the first celestial globe (Diodorus iii. 60). He was the father of
+the Pleiades and Hyades; according to Homer, of Calypso. In
+works of art he is represented as carrying the heavens or the
+terrestrial globe. The Farnese statue of Atlas in the Naples
+museum is well known.</p>
+
+<p>The plural form <span class="sc">Atlantes</span> is the classical term in architecture
+for the male sculptured figures supporting a superstructure as
+in the baths at Pompeii, and in the temple at Agrigentum in
+Sicily. In 18th-century architecture half-figures of men with
+strong muscular development were used to support balconies
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caryatides</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telamones</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>A figure of Atlas supporting the heavens is often found as a
+frontispiece in early collections of maps, and is said to have been
+first thus used by Mercator. The name is hence applied to a
+volume of maps (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Map</a></span>), and similarly to a volume which
+contains a tabular conspectus of a subject, such as an atlas of
+ethnographical, subjects or anatomical plates. It is also used
+of a large size of drawing paper.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;atlas,&rdquo; an Arabic word meaning &ldquo;smooth,&rdquo;
+applied to a smooth cloth, is sometimes found in English, and
+is the usual German word, for &ldquo;satin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATLAS MOUNTAINS,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> the general name for the mountain
+chains running more or less parallel to the coast of North-west
+Africa. They extend from Cape Nun on the west to the Gulf
+of Gabes on the east, a distance of some 1500 m., traversing
+Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. To their south lies the Saharan
+desert. The Atlas consist of many distinct ranges, but they can
+be roughly divided into two main chains: (1) the Maritime
+Atlas, <i>i.e.</i> the ranges overlooking the Mediterranean from Ceuta
+to Cape Bon; (2) the inner and more elevated ranges, which,
+starting from the Atlantic at Cape Ghir in Sús, run south of the
+coast ranges and are separated from them by high plateaus.
+This general disposition is seen most distinctly in eastern Morocco
+and Algeria. The western inner ranges are the most important
+of the whole system, and in the present article are described
+first as <i>the Moroccan Ranges</i>. The maritime Atlas and the inner
+ranges in Algeria and Tunisia are then treated under the heading
+<i>Eastern Ranges</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Moroccan Ranges.</i>&mdash;This section of the Atlas, known to
+the inhabitants of Morocco by its Berber name, Idráren Dráren
+or the &ldquo;Mountains of Mountains,&rdquo; consists of five distinct
+ranges, varying in length and height, but disposed more or less
+parallel to one another in a general direction from south-west
+to north-east, with a slight curvature towards the Sahara.</p>
+
+<p>1. The main range, that known as the Great Atlas, occupies
+a central position in the system, and is by far the longest and
+loftiest chain. It has an average height of over 11,000 ft.,
+whereas the loftiest peaks in Algeria do not exceed 8000 ft.,
+and the highest in Tunisia are under 6000 ft. Towards the Dahra
+district at the north-east end the fall is gradual and continuous,
+but at the opposite extremity facing the Atlantic between Agadir
+and Mogador it is precipitous. Although only one or two peaks
+reach the line of perpetual snow, several of the loftiest summits
+are snowclad during the greater part of the year. The northern
+sides and tops of the lower heights are often covered with dense
+forests of oak, cork, pine, cedar and other trees, with walnuts
+up to the limit of irrigation. Their slopes enclose well-watered
+valleys of great fertility, in which the Berber tribes cultivate
+tiny irrigated fields, their houses clinging to the hill-sides. The
+southern flanks, being exposed to the hot dry winds of the Sahara,
+are generally destitute of vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>At several points the crest of the range has been deeply eroded
+by old glaciers and running waters, and thus have been formed
+a number of devious passes. The central section, culminating in
+Tizi n &rsquo;Tagharat or Tinzár, a peak estimated at 15,000 ft. high,
+maintains a mean altitude of 11,600 ft., and from this great mass
+of schists and sandstones a number of secondary ridges radiate
+in all directions, forming divides between the rivers Dra&rsquo;a, Sús,
+Um-er-Rabí&#257;, Sebú, Mulwíya and Ghír, which flow respectively
+to the south-west, the west, north-west, north, north-east and
+south-east. All are swift and unnavigable, save perhaps for a
+few miles from their mouths. With the exception of the Dra&rsquo;a,
+the streams rising on the side of the range facing the Sahara do
+not reach the sea, but form marshes or lagoons at one season,
+and at another are lost in the dry soil of the desert.</p>
+
+<p>For a distance of 100 m. the central section nowhere presents
+any passes accessible to caravans, but south-westward two gaps
+in the range afford communication between the Tansíft and
+Sús basins, those respectively of Gindáfi and Bíbáwan. A few
+summits in the extreme south-west in the neighbourhood of Cape
+Ghir still exceed 11,000 ft., and although the steadily rising
+ground from the coast and the prominence of nearer summits
+detract from the apparent height, this is on an average greater
+than that of the European Alps. The most imposing view is
+to be obtained from the plain of Marrákesh, only some 1000 ft.
+above sea-level, immediately north of the highest peaks. Besides
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span>
+huge masses of old schists and sandstones, the range contains
+extensive limestone, marble, diorite, basalt and porphyry formations,
+while granite prevails on its southern slopes. The presence
+of enormous glaciers in the Ice Age is attested by the moraines
+at the Atlantic end, and by other indications farther east. The
+best-known passes are: (1) The Bíbáwan in the upper Wad Sús
+basin (4150 ft.); (2) the Gindáfi, giving access from Marrákesh
+to Tárudánt, rugged and difficult, but low; (3) the Tagharat,
+difficult and little used, leading to the Dra&rsquo;a valley (11,484 ft.);
+(4) the Gláwi (7600 ft.); (5) Tizi n &rsquo;Tilghemt (7250 ft.), leading
+to Tafilet (Tafílált) and the Wad Ghír.</p>
+
+<p>2. The lower portion of the Moroccan Atlas (sometimes called
+the Middle Atlas), extending north-east and east from an
+undefined point to the north of the Great Atlas to near the
+frontier of Algeria, is crossed by the pass from Fez to Tafílált.
+Both slopes are wooded, and its forests are the only parts of
+Morocco where the lion still survives. From the north this
+range, which is only partly explored, presents a somewhat
+regular series of snowy crests.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Anti-Atlas or Jebel Saghru, also known as the Lesser
+Atlas, running parallel to and south of the central range, is one
+of the least elevated chains in the system, having a mean altitude
+of not more than 5000 ft., although some peaks and even passes
+exceed 6000 ft. At one point it is pierced by a gap scarcely five
+paces wide with walls of variegated marbles polished by the
+transport of goods. As to the relation of the Anti-Atlas to the
+Atlas proper at its western end nothing certain is known.</p>
+
+<p>The two more or less parallel ranges which complete the
+western system are less important:&mdash;(4) the Jebel Bani, south of
+the Anti-Atlas, a low, narrow rocky ridge with a height of 3000 ft.
+in its central parts; and (5) the Mountains of Ghaiáta, north of
+the Middle Atlas, not a continuous range, but a series of broken
+mountain masses from 3000 to 3500 ft. high, to the south of Fez,
+Táza and Tlemçen.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Eastern Ranges.</i>&mdash;The eastern division of the Atlas, which
+forms the backbone of Algeria and Tunisia, is adequately known
+with the exception of the small portion in Morocco forming the
+province of Er-Ríf. The lesser range, nearer the sea, known to
+the French as the Maritime Atlas, calls for little detailed notice.
+From Ceuta, above which towers Jebel Músa&mdash;about 2800 ft.&mdash;to
+Melilla, a distance of some 150 m., the Ríf Mountains face
+the Mediterranean, and here, as along the whole coast eastward
+to Cape Bon, many rugged rocks rise boldly above the general
+level. In Algeria the Maritime Atlas has five chief ranges,
+several mountains rising over 5000 ft. The Jurjura range,
+extending through Kabylia from Algiers to Bougie, contains the
+peaks of Lalla Kedija (7542 ft.), the culminating point of the
+maritime chains, and Babor (6447 ft.). (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algeria</a></span>.)
+The Mejerda range, which extends into Tunisia, has no heights
+exceeding 3700 ft. It was in these coast mountains of Algeria
+that the Romans quarried the celebrated Numidian marbles.</p>
+
+<p>The southern or main range of the Eastern division is known
+by the French as the Saharan Atlas. On its western extremity
+it is linked by secondary ranges to the mountain system of
+Morocco. The Saharan Atlas is essentially one chain, though
+known under different names: Jebel K&rsquo;sur and Jebel Amur on
+the west, and Jebel Aures in the east. The central part, the
+Záb Mountains, is of lower elevation, the Saharan Atlas reaching
+its culminating point, Jebel Shellia (7611 ft. above the sea), in
+the Aures. This range sends a branch northward which joins the
+Mejerda range of the Maritime Atlas, and another branch runs
+south by Gafsa to the Gulf of Gabes. Here Mount Sidi Ali bu
+Musin reaches a height of 5700 ft., the highest point in Tunisia.
+In the Saharan Atlas the passes leading to or from the desert
+are numerous, and in most instances easy. Both in the east (at
+Batna) and the west (at Ain Sefra) the mountains are traversed
+by railways, which, starting from Mediterranean seaports, take
+the traveller into the Sahara.</p>
+
+<p><i>History and Exploration.</i>&mdash;The name Atlas given to these
+mountains by Europeans&mdash;but never used by the native races&mdash;is
+derived from that of the mythical Greek god represented as
+carrying the globe on his shoulders, and applied to the high and
+distant mountains of the west, where Atlas was supposed to
+dwell. From time immemorial the Atlas have been the home
+of Berber races, and those living in the least accessible regions
+have retained a measure of independence throughout their
+recorded history. Thus some of the mountain districts of
+Kabylia had never been visited by Europeans until the French
+military expedition of 1857. But in general the Maritime range
+was well known to the Romans. The Jebel Amur was traversed
+by the column which seized El Aghuat in 1852, and from that
+time dates the survey of the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient caravan route from Mauretania to the western
+Sudan crossed the lower Moroccan Atlas by the pass of Tilghemt
+and passed through the oasis of Tafílált, formerly known as
+Sajilmása [&rdquo;Sigilmassa&rdquo;], on the east side of the Anti-Atlas.
+The Moroccan system was visited, and in some instances crossed,
+by various European travellers carried into slavery by the
+Salli rovers, and was traversed by René Caillé in 1828 on his
+journey home from Timbuktu, but the first detailed exploration
+was made by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861-1862. Previous to that
+almost the only special report was the misleading one of Lieut.
+Washington, attached to the British embassy of 1837, who from
+insufficient data estimated the height of Mount Tagharat, to
+which he gave the indefinite name of Miltsin (<i>i.e.</i> <i>Mul et-Tizin</i>,
+&ldquo;Lord of the Peaks&rdquo;), as 11,400 ft. instead of about 15,000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>In 1871 the first scientific expedition, consisting of Dr (afterwards
+Sir) J.D. Hooker, Mr John Ball and Mr G. Maw, explored
+the central part of the Great Atlas with the special object of
+investigating its flora and determining its relation to that of the
+mountains of Europe. They ascended by the Ait Mízan valley
+to the Tagharat pass (11,484 ft.), and by the Amsmiz valley to
+the summit of Jebel Tezah (11,972 ft.). In the Tagharat pass
+Mr Maw was the only one of the party who reached the watershed;
+but from Jebel Tezah a good view was obtained southward
+across the great valley of the Sús to the Anti-Atlas, which
+appeared to be from 9000 to 10,000 ft. high. Dr Oskar Lenz
+in 1879-1880 surveyed a part of the Great Atlas north of Tárudant,
+determined a pass south of Iligh in the Anti-Atlas, and
+penetrated thence across the Sahara to Timbuktu. He was
+followed in 1883-1884 by Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, whose
+extensive itineraries include many districts that had never before
+been visited by any Europeans. Such were parts of the first and
+middle ranges, crossed once; three routes over the Great Atlas,
+which was, moreover, followed along both flanks for nearly its
+whole length; and six journeys across the Anti-Atlas, with
+a general survey of the foot of this range and several passages
+over the Jebel Bani. Then came Joseph Thomson, who explored
+some of the central parts, and made the highest ascent yet
+achieved, that of Mount Likimt, 13,150 ft., but broke little new
+ground, and failed to cross the main range (1888); and Walter
+B. Harris, who explored some of the southern slopes and crossed
+the Atlas at two points during his expedition to Tafílált in 1894.
+In 1901 and again in 1905 the marquis de Segonzac, a Frenchman,
+made extensive journeys in the Moroccan ranges. He crossed
+the Great Atlas in its central section, explored its southern
+border, and, in part, the Middle and Anti-Atlas ranges. A
+member of his expeditions, de Flotte Rocquevaire, made a
+triangulation of part of the western portion of the main Atlas,
+his labours affording a basis for the co-ordination of the work
+of previous explorers. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Morocco</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algeria</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tunisia</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sahara</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, <i>Reconnaissance au Maroc
+1883-1884</i> (Paris, 1888, almost the sole authority for the geography
+of the Atlas; his book gives the result of careful surveys, and is
+illustrated with a good collection of maps and sketches); Hooker,
+Ball and Maw, <i>Marocco and the Great Atlas</i> (London, 1879, a most
+valuable contribution, always scientific and trustworthy, especially
+as to botany and geology); Joseph Thomson, <i>Travels in the Atlas
+and Southern Morocco</i> (London, 1889, valuable geographical and
+geological data); Louis Gentil, <i>Mission de Segonzac, &amp;c.</i> (Paris,
+1906; the author was geologist to the 1905 expedition); Gerhard Rohlfs,
+<i>Adventures in Morocco</i> (London, 1874); Walter B. Harris,
+<i>Tafilet, a Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Mountains, &amp;c.</i>
+(London, 1895), full of valuable information; Budgett Meakin, <i>The Land
+of the Moors</i> (London, 1901), first and last chapters; Dr Oskar Lenz
+<i>Timbuktu: Reise durch Marokko</i>, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">ATMOLYSIS<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="atmos">&#7936;&#964;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>, vapour: <span class="grk" title="lyein">&#955;&#973;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to loosen), a term
+invented by Thomas Graham to denote the separation of a
+mixture of gases by taking advantage of their different rates of
+diffusion through a porous septum or diaphragm (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diffusion</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATMOSPHERE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="atmos">&#7936;&#964;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>, vapour; <span class="grk" title="sphaira">&#963;&#966;&#945;&#8150;&#961;&#945;</span>, a sphere), the
+aeriform envelope encircling the earth; also the envelope of a
+particular gas or gases about any solid or liquid. Meteorological
+phenomena seated more directly in the atmosphere obtained
+early recognition; thus Hesiod, in his <i>Works and Days</i>, speculated
+on the origin of winds, ascribing them to the heating effects of
+the sun on the air. Ctesibius of Alexandria, Hero and others,
+founded the science of pneumatics on observations on the
+physical properties of air. Anaximenes made air the primordial
+substance, and it was one of the Aristotelian elements. A direct
+proof of its material nature was given by Galileo, who weighed
+a copper ball containing compressed air.</p>
+
+<p>Before the development of pneumatic chemistry, air was
+regarded as a distinct chemical unit or element. The study of
+calcination and combustion during the 17th and 18th centuries
+culminated in the discovery that air consists chiefly of a mixture
+of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. Cavendish, Priestley,
+Lavoisier and others contributed to this result. Cavendish
+made many analyses: from more than 500 determinations of
+air in winter and summer, in wet and clear weather, and in town
+and country, he discerned the mean composition of the atmosphere
+to be, oxygen 20.833% and nitrogen 79.167% The
+same experimenter noticed the presence of an inert gas, in very
+minute amount; this gas, afterwards investigated by Rayleigh
+and Ramsay, is now named argon (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The constancy of composition shown by repeated analyses of
+atmospheric air led to the view that it was a chemical compound
+of nitrogen and oxygen; but there was no experimental confirmation
+of this idea, and all observations tended to the view
+that it is simply a mechanical mixture. Thus, the gases are not
+present in simple multiples of their combining weights; atmospheric
+air results when oxygen and nitrogen are mixed in the
+prescribed ratio, the mixing being unattended by any manifestation
+of energy, such as is invariably associated with a chemical
+action; the gases may be mechanically separated by atmolysis,
+<i>i.e.</i> by taking advantage of the different rates of diffusion of the
+two gases; the solubility of air in water corresponds with the
+&ldquo;law of partial pressures,&rdquo; each gas being absorbed in amount
+proportional to its pressure and coefficient of absorption, and
+oxygen being much more soluble than nitrogen (in the ratio of
+.04114 to .02035 at 0°); air expelled from water by boiling is
+always richer in oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>Various agencies are at work tending to modify the composition
+of the atmosphere, but these so neutralize each other as to leave
+it practically unaltered. Minute variations, however, do occur.
+Bunsen analysed fifteen examples of air collected at the same
+place at different times, and found the extreme range in the
+percentage of oxygen to be from 20.97 to 20.84. Regnault,
+from analyses of the air of Paris, obtained a variation of 20.999
+to 20.913; country air varied from 20.903 to 21.000; while air
+taken from over the sea showed an extreme variation of 20.940
+to 20.850. Angus Smith determined London air to vary in
+oxygen content from 20.857 to 20.95, the air in parks and open
+spaces showing the higher percentage; Glasgow air showed
+similar results, varying from 20.887 in the streets to 20.929 in
+open spaces.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, there are a number of
+other gases and vapours generally present in the atmosphere.
+Of these, argon and its allies were the last to be definitely isolated.
+Carbon dioxide is invariably present, as was inferred by Dr
+David Macbride (1726-1778) of Dublin in 1764, but in a proportion
+which is not absolutely constant; it tends to increase
+at night, and during dry winds and fogs, and it is greater in
+towns than in the country and on land than on the sea. Water
+vapour is always present; the amount is determined by instruments
+termed hygrometers (<i>q.v.</i>). Ozone (<i>q.v.</i>) occurs, in an
+amount supposed to be associated with the development of
+atmospheric electricity (lightning, &amp;c.); this amount varies
+with the seasons, being a maximum in spring, and decreasing
+through summer and autumn to a minimum in winter. Hydrogen
+dioxide occurs in a manner closely resembling ozone. Nitric
+acid and lower nitrogen oxides are present, being formed by
+electrical discharges, and by the oxidation of atmospheric
+ammonia by ozone. The amount of nitric acid varies from
+place to place; rain-water, collected in the country, has been
+found to contain an average of 0.5 parts in a million, but town
+rain-water contains more, the greater amounts being present
+in the more densely populated districts. Ammonia is also
+present, but in very varying amounts, ranging from 135 to 0.1
+parts (calculated as carbonate) in a million parts of air. Ammonia
+is carried back to the soil by means of rain, and there plays an
+important part in providing nitrogenous matter which is afterwards
+assimilated by vegetable life.</p>
+
+<p>The average volume composition of the gases of the atmosphere
+may be represented (in parts per 10,000) as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2065.94</td> <td class="tcl">Ozone</td> <td class="tcr">0.015</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb2">7711.60</td> <td class="tcl">Aqueous vapour</td> <td class="tcr">140.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Argon (about)</td> <td class="tcr rb2">79.00</td> <td class="tcl">Nitric acid</td> <td class="tcr">0.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcr rb2">3.36</td> <td class="tcl">Ammonia</td> <td class="tcr">0.005</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In addition to these gases, there are always present in the
+atmosphere many micro-organisms or bacteria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bacteriology</a></span>);
+another invariable constituent is dust (<i>q.v.</i>), which
+plays an important part in meteorological phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>Reference should be made to the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barometer</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Climate</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteorology</a></span> for the measurement and variation of the
+pressure of the atmosphere, and the discussion of other properties.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span>. 1. It was not until the
+middle of the 18th century that experiments due to Benjamin
+Franklin showed that the electric phenomena of the atmosphere
+are not fundamentally different from those produced in the
+laboratory. For the next century the rate of progress was slow,
+though the ideas of Volta in Italy and the instrumental devices of
+Sir Francis Ronalds in England merit recognition. The invention
+of the portable electrometer and the water-dropping electrograph
+by Lord Kelvin in the middle of the 19th century, and the
+greater definiteness thus introduced into observational results,
+were notable events. Towards the end of the 19th century came
+the discovery made by W. Linss (<b>6</b>)<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and by J. Elster and H.
+Geitel (<b>7</b>) that even the most perfectly insulated conductors lose
+their charge, and that this loss depends on atmospheric conditions.
+Hard on this came the recognition of the fact that freely
+charged positive and negative ions are always present in the
+atmosphere, and that a radioactive emanation can be collected.
+Whilst no small amount of observational work has been done in
+these new branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has
+still not developed to a considerable extent beyond preliminary
+stages. Observations have usually been limited to a portion of
+the year, or to a few hours of the day, whilst the results from
+different stations differ much in details. It is thus difficult to
+form a judgment as to what has most claim to acceptance as the
+general law, and what may be regarded as local or exceptional.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Potential Gradient</i>.&mdash;In dry weather the electric potential in
+the atmosphere is normally positive relative to the earth, and
+increases with the height. The existence of <i>earth currents</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)
+shows that the earth, strictly speaking, is not all at one potential,
+but the natural differences of potential between points on the
+earth&rsquo;s surface a mile apart are insignificant compared to the
+normal potential difference between the earth and a point one
+foot above it. What is aimed at in ordinary observations of
+atmospheric potential is the measurement of the difference of
+potential between the earth and a point a given distance above it,
+or of the difference of potential between two points in the same
+vertical line a given distance apart. Let a conductor, say a
+metallic sphere, be supported by a metal rod of negligible
+electric capacity whose other end is earthed. As the whole
+conductor must be at zero (<i>i.e.</i> the earth&rsquo;s) potential, there must
+be an induced charge on the sphere, producing at its centre a
+potential equal but of opposite sign to what would exist at the
+same spot in free air. This neglects any charge in the air
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page861" id="page861"></a>861</span>
+displaced by the sphere, and assumes a statical state of conditions
+and that the conductor itself exerts no disturbing influence.
+Suppose now that the sphere&rsquo;s earth connexion is broken and
+that it is carried without loss of charge inside a building at zero
+potential. If its potential as observed there is &minus;V (volts), then
+the potential of the air at the spot occupied by the sphere was
++V. This method in one shape or another has been often
+employed. Suppose next that a fixed insulated conductor is
+somehow kept at the potential of the air at a given point, then the
+measurement of its potential is equivalent to a measurement of
+that of the air. This is the basis of a variety of methods. In the
+earliest the conductor was represented by long metal wires,
+supported by silk or other insulating material, and left to pick
+up the air&rsquo;s potential. The addition of sharp points was a step in
+advance; but the method hardly became a quantitative one
+until the sharp points were replaced by a flame (fuse, gas, lamp),
+or by a liquid jet breaking into drops. The matter leaving the
+conductor, whether the products of combustion or the drops of
+a liquid, supplies the means of securing equality of potential
+between the conductor and the air at the spot where the matter
+quits electrical connexion with the conductor. Of late years
+the function of the collector is discharged in some forms of
+apparatus by a salt of radium. Of flame collectors the two best
+known are Lord Kelvin&rsquo;s portable electrometer with a fuse, or
+F. Exner&rsquo;s gold leaf electroscope in conjunction with an oil lamp
+or gas flame. Of liquid collectors the representative is Lord
+Kelvin&rsquo;s water-dropping electrograph; while Benndorf&rsquo;s is the
+form of radium collector that has been most used. It cannot be
+said that any one form of collector is superior all round. Flame
+collectors blow out in high winds, whilst water-droppers are apt
+to get frozen in winter. At first sight the balance of advantages
+seems to lie with radium. But while gaseous products and even
+falling water are capable of modifying electrical conditions in
+their immediate neighbourhood, the &ldquo;infection&rdquo; produced by
+radium is more insidious, and other drawbacks present themselves
+in practice. It requires a radium salt of high radioactivity
+to be at all comparable in effectiveness with a good water-dropper.
+Experiments by F. Linke (<b>8</b>) indicated that a water-dropper
+having a number of fine holes, or having a fine jet under a considerable
+pressure, picks up the potential in about a tenth of the
+time required by the ordinary radium preparation protected by a
+glass tube. These fine jet droppers with a mixture of alcohol and
+water have proved very effective for balloon observations.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> I.&mdash;<i>Annual Variation Potential Gradient.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Place and Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Feb.</td> <td class="tcc allb">March.</td> <td class="tcc allb">April.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June.</td> <td class="tcc allb">July.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sept.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok (<b>10</b>), 1903-1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">150</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sodankylä (<b>31</b>), 1882-1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potsdam (<b>9</b>), 1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">167</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kew (<b>12</b>), 1898-1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">141</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greenwich (<b>13</b>), 1893-1894, 1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Florence (<b>14</b>), 1883-1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">132</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perpignan (<b>15</b>), 1886-1888</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lisbon (<b>16</b>), 1884-1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tokyo (<b>17</b>), 1897-1898, 1900-1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">165</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcr rb">176</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Batavia (<b>18</b>)(2 m.), 1887-1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Batavia (7.8 m.) 1890-1895</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">112</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>3. Before considering observational data, it is expedient to
+mention various sources of uncertainty. Above the level plain of
+absolutely smooth surface, devoid of houses or vegetation, the
+equipotential surfaces under normal conditions would be strictly
+horizontal, and if we could determine the potential at one metre
+above the ground we should have a definite measure of the
+potential gradient at the earth&rsquo;s surface. The presence, however,
+of apparatus or observers upsets the conditions, while above
+uneven ground or near a tree or a building the equipotential
+surfaces cease to be horizontal. In an ordinary climate a building
+seems to be practically at the earth&rsquo;s potential; near its walls the
+equipotential surfaces are highly inclined, and near the ridges
+they may lie very close together. The height of the walls in the
+various observatories, the height of the collectors, and the
+distance they project from the wall vary largely, and sometimes
+there are external buildings or trees sufficiently near to influence
+the potential. It is thus futile to compare the absolute voltages
+met with at two stations, unless allowance can be made for the
+influence of the environment. With a view to this, it has become
+increasingly common of late years to publish not the voltages
+actually observed, but values deduced from them for the
+potential gradient in the open in volts per metre. Observations
+are made at a given height over level open ground near the
+observatory, and a comparison with the simultaneous results
+from the self-recording electrograph enables the records from the
+latter to be expressed as potential gradients in the open. In the
+case, however, of many observatories, especially as regards the
+older records, no data for reduction exist; further, the reduction
+to the open is at best only an approximation, the success attending
+which probably varies considerably at different stations.
+This is one of the reasons why in the figures for the annual and
+diurnal variations in Tables I., II. and III., the potential has been
+expressed as percentages of its mean value for the year or the day.
+In most cases the environment of a collector is not absolutely
+invariable. If the shape of the equipotential surfaces near it is
+influenced by trees, shrubs or grass, their influence will vary
+throughout the year. In winter the varying depth of snow may
+exert an appreciable effect. There are sources of uncertainty
+in the instrument itself. Unless the insulation is perfect, the
+potential recorded falls short of that at the spot where the radium
+is placed or the water jet breaks. The action of the collector is
+opposed by the leakage through imperfect insulation, or natural
+dissipation, and this may introduce a fictitious element into the
+apparent annual or diurnal variation. The potentials that have
+to be dealt with are often hundreds and sometimes thousands of
+volts, and insulation troubles are more serious than is generally
+appreciated. When a water jet serves as collector, the pressure
+under which it issues should be practically constant. If the
+pressure alters as the water tank empties, a discontinuity occurs
+in the trace when the tank is refilled, and a fictitious element may
+be introduced into the diurnal variation. When rain or snow is
+falling, the potential frequently changes rapidly. These changes
+are often too rapid to be satisfactorily dealt with by an ordinary
+electrometer, and they sometimes leave hardly a trace on the
+photographic paper. Again rain dripping from exposed parts
+of the apparatus may materially affect the record. It is thus
+customary in calculating diurnal inequalities either to take no
+account of days on which there is an appreciable rainfall, or else
+to form separate tables for &ldquo;dry&rdquo; or &ldquo;fine&rdquo; days and for &ldquo;all&rdquo;
+days. Speaking generally, the exclusion of days of rain and of
+negative potential comes pretty much to the same thing, and the
+presence or absence of negative potential is not infrequently
+the criterion by reference to which days are rejected or are
+accepted as normal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>4. The potential gradient near the ground varies with the season
+of the year and the hour of the day, and is largely dependent on the
+weather conditions. It is thus difficult to form even a rough estimate
+of the mean value at any place unless hourly readings exist, extending
+over the whole or the greater part of a year. It is even somewhat
+precipitate to assume that a mean value deduced from a single
+year is fairly representative of average conditions. At Potsdam,
+G. Lüdeling (<b>9</b>) found for the mean value for 1904 in volts per metre
+242. At Karasjok in the extreme north of Norway G.C. Simpson (<b>10</b>)
+in 1903-1904 obtained 139. At Kremsmünster for 1902 P.B. Zölss(<b>11</b>)
+gives 98. At Kew (<b>12</b>) the mean for individual years from 1898 to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page862" id="page862"></a>862</span>
+1904 varied from 141 in 1900 to 179 in 1899, the mean from the
+seven years combined being 159. The large difference between
+the means obtained at Potsdam and Kremsmünster, as compared
+to the comparative similarity between the results for Kew and
+Karasjok, suggests that the mean value of the potential gradient
+may be much more dependent on local conditions than on difference
+of latitude.</p>
+
+<p>At any single station potential gradient has a wide range of
+values. The largest positive and negative values recorded are met
+with during disturbed weather. During thunderstorms the record
+from an electrograph shows large sudden excursions, the trace usually
+going off the sheet with every flash of lightning when the thunder
+is near. Exactly what the potential changes amount to under such
+circumstances it is impossible to say; what the trace shows depends
+largely on the type of electrometer. Large rapid changes are also
+met with in the absence of thunder during heavy rain or snow fall.
+In England the largest values of a sufficiently steady character to
+be shown correctly by an ordinary electrograph occur during winter
+fogs. At such times gradients of +400 or +500 volts per metre are
+by no means unusual at Kew, and voltages of 700 or 800 are occasionally
+met with.</p>
+
+<p>5. Annual Variation.&mdash;Table I. gives the annual variation of the
+potential gradient at a number of stations arranged according to
+latitude, the mean value for the whole year being taken in each case
+as 100. Karasjok as already mentioned is in the extreme north of
+Norway (69° 17&prime; N.); Sodankylä was the Finnish station of the
+international polar year 1882-1883. At Batavia, which is near the
+equator (6° 11&prime; S.) the annual variation seems somewhat irregular.
+Further, the results obtained with the water-dropper at two heights&mdash;viz.
+2 and 7.8 metres&mdash;differ notably. At all the other stalions
+the difference between summer and winter months is conspicuous.
+From the European data one would be disposed to conclude that
+the variation throughout the year diminishes as one approaches the
+equator. It is decidedly less at Perpignan and Lisbon than at
+Potsdam, Kew and Greenwich, but nowhere is the seasonal difference
+more conspicuous than at Tokyo, which is south of Lisbon.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> II.&mdash;<i>Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Station.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Karasjok.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sodankylä.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Kew(<b>19</b>, <b>12</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Greenwich.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Florence.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Perpignan.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lisbon.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tokyo.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Batavia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cape<br />Horn(<b>20</b>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1903-4.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1882-83.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1862-<br />1864.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1898-<br />1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1893-96.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1883-85.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1886-88.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1884-86.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1897-98<br />1900-1.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1887-<br />1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890-<br />1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1882-83.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Days.</td> <td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Quiet.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fine.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dry.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dry.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pos.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb"><i>h</i><br /><i>l</i></td> <td class="tcrm allb">5.5</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.0<br />2.5</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.5<br />1.0</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.35<br />1.3&ensp;</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.0<br />1.8</td> <td class="tcrm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcrm allb">8.4<br />1.5</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.0<br />0.5</td> <td class="tcrm allb">1.7<br />2.0</td> <td class="tcrm allb">2</td> <td class="tcrm allb">7.8</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.5<br />2.0</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Hour.</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">147</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">141</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">63</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">154</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">167</td> <td class="tcr rb">158</td> <td class="tcr rb">147</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">149</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Noon.</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">132</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">146</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">147</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">151</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">147</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">98</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> III.&mdash;<i>Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Station.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Karasjok.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Sodankylä.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Kew.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Greenwich.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Bureau<br />Central (<b>21</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eiffel<br />Tower (<b>21</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Perpignan (<b>21</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Batavia.<br />(2 m.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1903-4.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1882-83.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">1898-1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1894 and &rsquo;96.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1894-99.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1896-98.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1885-95.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1887-90.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Equinox.</td><td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Hour.</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">149</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">132</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">166</td> <td class="tcr rb">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">64</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Noon.</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">147</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">149</td> <td class="tcr rb">152</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">146</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page863" id="page863"></a>863</span></p>
+
+<p>At the temperate stations the maximum occurs near midwinter;
+in the Arctic it seems deferred towards spring.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Diurnal Variation.</i>&mdash;Table II. gives the mean diurnal variation
+for the whole year at a number of stations arranged in order of
+latitude, the mean from the 24 hourly values being taken as 100.
+The data are some from &ldquo;all&rdquo; days, some from &ldquo;quiet,&rdquo; &ldquo;fine&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;dry&rdquo; days. The height, <i>h</i>, and the distance from the wall, <i>l</i>,
+were the potential is measured are given in metres when known.
+In most cases two distinct maxima and minima occur in the 24
+hours. The principal maximum is usually found in the evening
+between 8 and 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the principal minimum in the morning from
+3 to 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> At some stations the minimum in the afternoon is indistinctly
+shown, but at Tokyo and Batavia it is much more conspicuous
+than the morning minimum.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:334px; height:580px" src="images/img863.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>7. In Table III. the diurnal inequality is shown for &ldquo;winter&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;summer&rdquo; respectively. In all cases the mean value for the
+24 hours is taken as 100. By &ldquo;summer&rdquo; is meant April to September at
+Sodankylä, Greenwich and Batavia; May to August at Kew, Bureau Central
+(Paris), Eiffel Tower and Perpignan; and May to July at Karasjok.
+&ldquo;Winter&rdquo; includes October to March at Sodankylä, Greenwich and Batavia;
+November to February at Kew and Bureau Central; November to January at
+Karasjok, and December and January at Perpignan.  Mean results from March,
+April, September and October at Kew are assigned to &ldquo;Equinox.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At Batavia the difference between winter and summer is comparatively
+small.  Elsewhere there is a tendency for the double period, usually so
+prominent in summer, to become less pronounced in winter, the afternoon
+minimum tending to disappear.  Even in summer the double period is not
+prominent in the arctic climate of Karasjok or on the top of the Eiffel
+Tower. The diurnal variation in summer at the latter station is shown
+graphically in the top curve of fig. 1. It presents a remarkable
+resemblance to the adjacent curve, which gives the diurnal variation at
+mid-winter at the Bureau Central. The resemblance between these curves is
+much closer than that between the Bureau Central&rsquo;s own winter and
+summer curves. All three Paris curves show three peaks, the first
+and third representing the ordinary forenoon and afternoon maxima.
+In summer at the Bureau Central the intermediate peak nearly disappears
+in the profound afternoon depression, but it is still recognizable.
+This three-peaked curve is not wholly peculiar to Paris, being
+seen, for instance, at Lisbon in summer. The December and June
+curves for Kew are good examples of the ordinary nature of the
+difference between midwinter and midsummer. The afternoon minimum at
+Kew gradually deepens as midsummer approaches. Simultaneously the
+forenoon maximum occurs earlier and the afternoon maximum later
+in the day. The two last curves in the diagram contrast the diurnal
+variation at Kew in potential gradient and in barometric pressure
+for the year as a whole. The somewhat remarkable resemblance
+between the diurnal variation for the two elements, first remarked on
+by J.D. Everett (<b>19</b>), is of interest in connexion with recent theoretical
+conclusions by J.P. Elster and H.F.K. Geitel and by H. Ebert.</p>
+
+<p>In the potential curves of the diagram the ordinates represent the
+hourly values expressed&mdash;as in Tables II. and III.&mdash;as percentages
+of the mean value for the day. If this be overlooked, a wrong impression
+may be derived as to the absolute amplitudes of the changes.
+The Kew curves, for instance, might suggest that the range (maximum
+less minimum hourly value) was larger in June than in December.
+In reality the December range was 82, the June only 57 volts; but
+the mean value of the potential was 243 in December as against 111
+in June. So again, in the case of the Paris curves, the absolute value
+of the diurnal range in summer was much greater for the Eiffel
+Tower than for the Bureau Central, but the mean voltage was 2150
+at the former station and only 134 at the latter.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Fourier Coefficients.</i>&mdash;Diurnal inequalities such as those of
+Tables II. and III. and intended to eliminate irregular changes, but
+they also to some extent eliminate regular changes if the hours of
+maxima and minima or the character of the diurnal variation alter
+throughout the year. The alteration that takes place in the regular
+diurnal inequality throughout the year is best seen by analysing it
+into a Fourier series of the type</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="clear: both;">  c<span class="su">1</span> sin(t + a<span class="su">1</span>) + c<span class="su">2</span> sin(2t + a<span class="su">2</span>) + c<span class="su">3</span> sin(3t + a<span class="su">3</span>) + c<span class="su">4</span> sin(4t + a<span class="su">4</span>) + ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where t denotes time counted from (local) midnight, c<span class="su">1</span>, c<span class="su">2</span>, c<span class="su">3</span>, C<span class="su">4</span>, ...
+are the amplitudes of the component harmonic waves of periods
+24, 12, 8 and 6 hours; a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, a<span class="su">3</span>, a<span class="su">4</span>, are the corresponding phase
+angles. One hour of time t is counted as 15°, and a delay of one hour
+in the time of maximum answers to a diminution of 15° in a<span class="su">1</span>, of 30°
+in a<span class="su">2</span>, and so on. If a<span class="su">1</span>, say, varies much throughput the year, or
+if the ratios of c<span class="su">2</span>, c<span class="su">3</span>, c<span class="su">4</span>, ... to c<span class="su">1</span>, vary much, then a diurnal inequality
+derived from a whole year, or from a season composed of several
+months, represents a mean curve arising from the superposition of
+a number of curves, which differ in shape and in the positions of
+their maxima and minima. The result, if considered alone, inevitably
+leads to an underestimate of the average amplitude of the
+regular diurnal variation.</p>
+
+<p>It is also desirable to have an idea of the size of the irregular
+changes which vary from one day to the next. On stormy days, as
+already mentioned, the irregular changes hardly admit of
+satisfactory treatment. Even on the quietest days irregular changes
+are always numerous and often large.</p>
+
+<p>Table IV. aims at giving a summary of the several phenomena
+for a single station, Kew, on electrically quiet days. The first line
+gives the mean value of the potential gradient, the second the mean
+excess of the largest over the smallest hourly value on individual
+days. The hourly values are derived from smoothed curves, the
+object being to get the mean ordinate for a 60-minute period. If
+the actual crests of the excursions had been measured the figures
+in the second line would have been even larger. The third line gives
+the range of the <i>regular</i> diurnal inequality, the next four lines the
+amplitudes of the first four Fourier waves into which the regular
+diurnal inequality has been analysed. These mean values, ranges
+and amplitudes are all measured in volts per metre (in the open).
+The last four lines of Table IV. give the phase angles of the first
+four Fourier waves.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IV.&mdash;<i>Absolute Potential Data at Kew</i> (<b>12</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Feb.</td> <td class="tcc allb">March.</td> <td class="tcc allb">April.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June.</td> <td class="tcc allb">July.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sept.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Mean Potential Gradient</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">201</td> <td class="tcr rb">224</td> <td class="tcr rb">180</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">153</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td> <td class="tcr rb">243</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Mean of individual daily ranges</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">203</td> <td class="tcr rb">218</td> <td class="tcr rb">210</td> <td class="tcr rb">164</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">141</td> <td class="tcr rb">196</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">213</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Range in Diurnal inequality</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">63</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb cl" rowspan="4">Amplitudes of Fourier waves</td>
+<td class="tcc rb">c<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rb">c<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rb">c<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rb">c<span class="su">4</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb bb cl" rowspan="4">Phase angles of Fourier waves</td>
+<td class="tcc rb">a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">204</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcr rb">142</td> <td class="tcr rb">154</td> <td class="tcr rb">192</td> <td class="tcr rb">202</td> <td class="tcr rb">208</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rb">a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">170</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">193</td> <td class="tcr rb">188</td> <td class="tcr rb">183</td> <td class="tcr rb">185</td> <td class="tcr rb">182</td> <td class="tcr rb">199</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">212</td> <td class="tcr rb">175</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rb">a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb bb">235</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">225</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">307</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">314</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">314</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">277</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">293</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">313</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">330</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">288</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">238</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">249</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the difference between the greatest and
+least hourly values is, in all but three winter months, actually
+larger than the mean value of the potential gradient for the day;
+it bears to the range of the regular diurnal inequality a ratio varying
+from 2.0 in May to 3.6 in November.</p>
+
+<p>At midwinter the 24-hour term is the largest, but near midsummer
+it is small compared to the 12-hour term. The 24-hour term is very
+variable both as regards its amplitude and its phase angle (and so
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page864" id="page864"></a>864</span>
+its hour of maximum). The 12-hour term is much less variable,
+especially as regards its phase angle; its amplitude shows distinct
+maxima near the equinoxes. That the 8-hour and 6-hour waves,
+though small near midsummer, represent more than mere accidental
+irregularities, seems a safe inference from the regularity apparent
+in the annual variation of their phase angles.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> V.&mdash;<i>Fourier Series Amplitudes and Phase Angles.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Place.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Summer.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">c1.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c2.</td> <td class="tcc allb">a1.</td> <td class="tcc allb">a2.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c1.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c2.</td> <td class="tcc allb">a1.</td> <td class="tcc allb">a2.</td></tr>
+
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb">1862-64</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.283</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.160</td> <td class="tcr rb">184</td> <td class="tcr rb">193</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.127</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.229</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">179</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898-1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">.102</td> <td class="tcr rb">.103</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">180</td> <td class="tcr rb">.079</td> <td class="tcr rb">.213</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bureau Central</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894-98</td> <td class="tcr rb">.220</td> <td class="tcr rb">.104</td> <td class="tcr rb">223</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">.130</td> <td class="tcr rb">.200</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">197</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eiffel Tower</td> <td class="tcc rb">1896-98</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">.133</td> <td class="tcr rb">.085</td> <td class="tcr rb">216</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sonnblick (<b>22</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902-03</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">.208</td> <td class="tcr rb">.120</td> <td class="tcr rb">178</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903-04</td> <td class="tcr rb">.356</td> <td class="tcr rb">.144</td> <td class="tcr rb">189</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">.165</td> <td class="tcr rb">.093</td> <td class="tcr rb">141</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kremsmünster (<b>23</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">.280</td> <td class="tcr rb">.117</td> <td class="tcr rb">224</td> <td class="tcr rb">194</td> <td class="tcr rb">.166</td> <td class="tcr rb">.153</td> <td class="tcr rb">241</td> <td class="tcr rb">209</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Potsdam</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.269</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.101</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">194</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">185</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.096</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.152</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">343</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">185</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>9. Table V. gives some data for the 24-hour and 12-hour Fourier
+coefficients, which will serve to illustrate the diversity between
+different stations. In this table, unlike Table IV., amplitudes are
+all expressed as decimals of the mean value of the potential gradient
+for the corresponding season. &ldquo;Winter&rdquo; means generally the four
+midwinter, and &ldquo;summer&rdquo; the four midsummer, months; but at
+Karasjok three, and at Kremsmünster six, months are included in
+each season. The results for the Sonnblick are derived from a
+comparatively small number of days in August and September.
+At Potsdam the data represent the arithmetic means derived
+from the Fourier analysis for the individual months comprising
+the season. The 1862-1864 data from Kew&mdash;due to J.D.
+Everett (<b>19</b>)&mdash;are based on &ldquo;all&rdquo; days; the others, except Karasjok
+to some extent, represent electrically quiet days. The cause
+of the large difference between the two sets of data for c<span class="su">1</span> at
+Kew is uncertain. The potential gradient is in all cases lower in
+summer than winter, and thus the reduction in c<span class="su">1</span> in summer would
+appear even larger than in Table V. if the results were expressed in
+absolute measure. At Karasjok and Kremsmünster the seasonal
+variation in a<span class="su">1</span> seems comparatively small, but at Potsdam and the
+Bureau Central it is as large as at Kew. Also, whilst the winter
+values of a<span class="su">1</span> are fairly similar at the several stations the summer
+values are widely different. Except at Karasjok, where the diurnal
+changes seem somewhat irregular, the relative amplitude of the
+12-hour term is considerably greater in summer than in winter. The
+values of a<span class="su">2</span> at the various stations differ comparatively little, and
+show but little seasonal change. Thus the 12-hour term has a much
+greater uniformity than the 24-hour term. This possesses significance
+in connexion with the view, supported by A.B. Chauveau (<b>21</b>),
+F. Exner (<b>24</b>) and others, that the 12-hour term is largely if not
+entirely a local phenomenon, due to the action of the lower
+atmospheric strata, and tending to disappear even in summer at high
+altitudes. Exner attributes the double daily maximum, which is
+largely a consequence of the 12-hour wave, to a thin layer near the
+ground, which in the early afternoon absorbs the solar radiation of
+shortest wave length. This layer he believes specially characteristic
+of arid dusty regions, while comparatively non-existent in moist
+climates or where foliage is luxuriant. In support of his theory
+Exner states that he has found but little trace of the double maximum
+and minimum in Ceylon and elsewhere. C. Nordmann (<b>25</b>) describes
+some similar results which he obtained in Algeria during August and
+September 1905. His station, Philippeville, is close to the shores
+of the Mediterranean, and sea breezes persisted during the day.
+The diurnal variation showed only a single maximum and minimum,
+between 5 and 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 4 and 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> respectively. So again, a few
+days&rsquo; observations on the top of Mont Blanc (4810 metres) by
+le Cadet (<b>26</b>) in August and September 1902, showed only a single
+period, with maximum between 3 and 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, and minimum about
+3 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> Chauveau points to the reduction in the 12-hour term as
+compared to the 24-hour term on the Eiffel Tower, and infers the
+practical disappearance of the former at no great height. The close
+approach in the values for c<span class="su">1</span> in Table V. from the Bureau Central
+and the Eiffel Tower, and the reduction of c<span class="su">2</span> at the latter station, are
+unquestionably significant facts; but the summer value for c<span class="su">2</span> at
+Karasjok&mdash;a low level station&mdash;is nearly as small as that at the
+Eiffel Tower, and notably smaller than that at the Sonnblick (3100
+metres). Again, Kew is surrounded by a large park, not devoid of
+trees, and hardly the place where Exner&rsquo;s theory would suggest a
+large value for c<span class="su">2</span>, and yet the summer value of c<span class="su">2</span> at Kew is the
+largest in Table V.</p>
+
+<p>10. Observations on mountain tops generally show high potentials
+near the ground. This only means that the equipotential surfaces
+are crowded together, just as they are near the ridge of a house.
+To ascertain how the increase in the voltage varies as the height
+in the free atmosphere increases, it is necessary to employ kites
+or balloons. At small heights Exner (<b>27</b>) has employed captive
+balloons, provided with a burning fuse, and carrying a wire
+connected with an electroscope on the ground. He found the gradient
+nearly uniform for heights up to 30 to 40 metres above the ground.
+At great heights free balloons seem necessary. The balloon carries
+two collectors a given vertical distance apart. The potential difference
+between the two is recorded, and the potential gradient is thus
+found. Some of the earliest balloon observations made the gradient
+increase with the height, but such a result is now regarded as
+abnormal. A balloon may leave the earth with a charge, or become
+charged through discharge of ballast. These possibilities may not
+have been sufficiently realized at first. Among the most important
+balloon observations are those by le Cadet (<b>1</b>) F. Linke (<b>28</b>) and
+H. Gerdien (<b>29</b>). The following are samples from a number of days&rsquo;
+results, given in le Cadet&rsquo;s book. h is the height in metres, P the
+gradient in volts per metre.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan ="2">Aug. 9, 1893 <span style="font-size: 2em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">{</span></td> <td class="tcc"><i>h</i></td> <td class="tcr">824</td> <td class="tcr">830</td> <td class="tcr">1060</td> <td class="tcr">1255</td> <td class="tcr">1290</td> <td class="tcr">1745</td> <td class="tcr">1940</td> <td class="tcr">2080</td> <td class="tcr">2310</td> <td class="tcr">2520</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><i>P</i></td> <td class="tcr">37</td> <td class="tcr">43</td> <td class="tcr">43</td> <td class="tcr">41</td> <td class="tcr">42</td> <td class="tcr">34</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">16</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan ="2">Sep. 11, 1897 <span style="font-size: 2em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">{</span></td> <td class="tcc"><i>h</i></td> <td class="tcr">1140</td> <td class="tcr">1378</td> <td class="tcr">1630</td> <td class="tcr">1914</td> <td class="tcr">237</td> <td class="tcr">2786</td> <td class="tcr">3136</td> <td class="tcr">3364</td> <td class="tcr">3912</td> <td class="tcr">4085</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><i>P</i></td> <td class="tcr">43</td> <td class="tcr">38</td> <td class="tcr">33</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">13</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The ground value on the last occasion was 150. From observations
+during twelve balloon ascents, Linke concludes that below the
+1500-metre level there are numerous sources of disturbance, the
+gradient at any given height varying much
+from day to day and hour to hour; but at
+greater heights there is much more uniformity.
+At heights from 1500 to 6000
+metres his observations agreed well with
+the formula</p>
+
+<p class="center">dV/dh = 34 &minus; 0.006 h,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">V denoting the potential, h the height in
+metres. The formula makes the gradient
+diminish from 25 volts per metre at 1500
+metres height to 10 volts per metre at
+4000 metres. Linke&rsquo;s mean value for
+dV/dh at the ground was 125. Accepting
+Linke&rsquo;s formula, the potential at 4000
+metres is 43,750 volts higher than at 1500
+metres. If the mean of the gradients
+observed at the ground and at 1500 metres be taken as an approximation
+to the mean value of the gradient throughout the lowest 1500
+metres of the atmosphere, we find for the potential at 1500 metres
+level 112,500 volts. Thus at 4000 metres the potential seems of
+the order of 150,000 volts. Bearing this in mind, one can readily
+imagine how close together the equipotential surfaces must lie
+near the summit of a high sharp mountain peak.</p>
+
+<p>11. At most stations a negative potential gradient is exceptional,
+unless during rain or thunder. During rain the potential is usually
+but not always negative, and frequent alternations of sign are not
+uncommon. In some localities, however, negative potential gradient
+is by no means uncommon, at least at some seasons, in the absence
+of rain. At Madras, Michie Smith (<b>30</b>) often observed negative
+potential during bright August and September days. The phenomenon
+was quite common between 9.30 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and noon during
+westerly winds, which at Madras are usually very dry and dusty.
+At Sodankylä, in 1882-1883, K.S. Lemström and F.C. Biese (<b>31</b>)
+found that out of 255 observed occurrences of negative potential,
+106 took place in the absence of rain or snow. The proportion of
+occurrences of negative potential under a clear sky was much above
+its average in autumn. At Sodankylä rain or snowfall was often
+unaccompanied by change of sign in the potential. At the polar
+station Godthaab (<b>32</b>) in 1882-1883, negative potential seemed sometimes
+associated with aurora (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aurora Polaris</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Lenard, Elster and Geitel, and others have found the potential
+gradient negative near waterfalls, the influence sometimes extending
+to a considerable distance. Lenard (<b>33</b>) found that when pure water
+falls upon water the neighbouring air takes a negative charge.
+Kelvin, Maclean and Gait (<b>34</b>) found the effect greatest in the air
+near the level of impact. A sensible effect remained, however, after
+the influence of splashing was eliminated. Kelvin, Maclean and Galt
+regard this property of falling water as an objection to the use of a
+water-dropper indoors, though not of practical importance when it
+is used out of doors.</p>
+
+<p>12. Elster and Geitel (<b>35</b>) have measured the charge carried by
+raindrops falling into an insulated vessel. Owing to observational
+difficulties, the exact measure of success attained is a little difficult
+to gauge, but it seems fairly certain that raindrops usually carry a
+charge. Elster and Geitel found the sign of the charge often fluctuate
+repeatedly during a single rain storm, but it seemed more often than
+not opposite to that of the simultaneous potential gradient. Gerdien
+has more recently repeated the experiments, employing an apparatus
+devised by him for the purpose. It has been found by C.T.R.
+Wilson (<b>36</b>) that a vessel in which freshly fallen rain or snow has been
+evaporated to dryness shows radioactive properties lasting for a
+few hours. The results obtained from equal weights of rain and snow
+seem of the same order.</p>
+
+<p>13. W. Linss (<b>6</b>) found that an insulated conductor charged either
+positively or negatively lost its charge in the free atmosphere; the
+potential V after time t being connected with its initial value V<span class="su">0</span>
+by a formula of the type V = V<span class="su">0</span>e<span class="sp">&minus;at</span> where a is constant. This was
+confirmed by Elster and Geitel (<b>7</b>), whose form of dissipation apparatus
+has been employed in most recent work. The percentage of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page865" id="page865"></a>865</span>
+charge which is dissipated per minute is usually denoted by <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> or
+<i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> according to its sign. The mean of <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> is usually denoted
+by <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> or simply by <i>a</i>, while <i>q</i> is employed for the ratio <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>/<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>.
+Some observers when giving mean values take &Sigma;(<i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>/<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>) as the
+mean value of <i>q</i>, while others take &Sigma;(<i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>)/&Sigma;(<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>).
+The Elster and Geitel apparatus is furnished with a cover, serving to protect
+the dissipator from the direct action of rain, wind or sunlight. It is
+usual to observe with this cover on, but some observers, <i>e.g.</i>
+A. Gockel, have made long series of observations without it. The
+loss of charge is due to more than one cause, and it is difficult to
+attribute an absolutely definite meaning even to
+results obtained with the cover on. Gockel (<b>37</b>) says
+that the results he obtained without the cover when
+divided by 3 are fairly comparable with those obtained
+under the usual conditions; but the appropriate
+divisor must vary to some extent with the climatic
+conditions. Thus results obtained for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> or <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> without
+the cover are of doubtful value for purposes
+of comparison with those found elsewhere with it on.
+In the case of <i>q</i> the uncertainty is much less.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VI.&mdash;<i>Dissipation. Mean Values.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Place.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Season.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Observer or<br />Authority.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>q</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903-4</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Simpson (<b>10</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wolfenbüttel</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Elster and Geitel (<b>39</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potsdam</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lüdeling (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kremsmüster</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Zölss (<b>42</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Zölss (<b>41</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freiburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gockel (<b>43</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Innsbruck</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Czermak (<b>44</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.95</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">Jan. to June</td> <td class="tcl rb">Defant (<b>45</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mattsee (Salzburg)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">July to Sept.</td> <td class="tcl rb">von Schweidler (<b>46</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.99</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Seewalchen</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">July to Sept.</td> <td class="tcl rb">von Schweidler (<b>38</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trieste</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902-3</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mazelle (<b>47</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.09</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Misdroy</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lüdeling (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Swinemünde</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">Aug. and Sept.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lüdeling (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Heligoland (sands)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">Summer</td> <td class="tcl rb">Elster and Geitel (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.71</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Heligoland plateau</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Elster and Geitel (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Juist (Island)</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Elster and Geitel (<b>48</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Atlantic and German Ocean</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">August</td> <td class="tcl rb">Boltzmann (<b>49</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Arosa (1800 m.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">Feb. to April</td> <td class="tcl rb">Saake (<b>50</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rothhorn (2300 m.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">September</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gockel (<b>43</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sonnblick (3100 m.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">September</td> <td class="tcl rb">Conrad (<b>22</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mont Blanc (4810 m.)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">September</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">le Cadet (<b>43</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.3&ensp;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Table VI. gives the mean values of <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> and <i>q</i> found at various places. The
+observations were usually confined to a few hours of the day, very commonly
+between 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, and in absence of information as to the diurnal
+variation it is impossible to say how much this influences the results. The
+first eight stations lie inland; that at Seewalchen (<b>38</b>) was, however, adjacent
+to a large lake. The next five stations are on the coast or on islands. The
+final four are at high levels. In the cases where the observations were
+confined to a few months the representative nature of the results is more
+doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>On mountain summits <i>q</i> tends to be large, <i>i.e.</i> a negative charge is
+lost much faster than a positive charge. Apparently <i>q</i> has also a
+tendency to be large near the sea, but this phenomenon is not seen
+at Trieste. An exactly opposite phenomenon, it may be remarked,
+is seen near waterfalls, <i>q</i> becoming very small. Only Innsbruck
+and Mattsee give a mean value of <i>q</i> less than unity. Also, as later
+observations at Innsbruck give more normal values for <i>q</i>, some doubt
+may be felt as to the earlier observations there. The result for
+Mattsee seems less open to doubt, for the observer, von Schweidler,
+had obtained a normal value for <i>q</i> during the previous year at
+Seewalchen. Whilst the average <i>q</i> in at least the great majority of
+stations exceeds unity, individual observations making <i>q</i> less than
+unity are not rare. Thus in 1902 (<b>51</b>) the percentage of cases in which
+<i>q</i> fell short of 1 was 30 at Trieste, 33 at Vienna, and 35 at
+Kremsmünster; at Innsbruck <i>q</i> was less than 1 on 58 days out of 98.</p>
+
+<p>In a long series of observations, individual values of <i>q</i> show
+usually a wide range. Thus during observations extending over
+more than a year, <i>q</i> varied from 0.18 to 8.25 at Kremsmünster and
+from 0.11 to 3.00 at Trieste. The values of <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> also
+show large variations. Thus at Trieste <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> varied from 0.12 to 4.07,
+and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> from 0.11 to 3.87; at Vienna <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> varied from 0.32 to 7.10,
+and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> from 0.78 to 5.42; at Kremsmünster <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> varied from 0.14
+to 5.83.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Annual Variation.</i>&mdash;When observations are made at irregular
+hours, or at only one or two fixed hours, it is doubtful how representative
+they are. Results obtained at noon, for example, probably
+differ more from the mean value for the 24 hours at one season than
+at another. Most dissipation results are exposed to considerable
+uncertainty on these grounds. Also it requires a long series of
+years to give thoroughly representative results for any element,
+and few stations possess more than a year or two&rsquo;s dissipation data.
+Table VII. gives comparative results for winter (October to March)
+and summer at a few stations, the value for the season being the
+arithmetic mean from the individual months composing it. At
+Karasjok (<b>10</b>), Simpson observed thrice a day; the summer value
+there is nearly double the winter both for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>. The
+Kremsmünster (<b>42</b>) figures show a smaller but still distinct excess in the
+summer values. At Trieste (<b>47</b>), Mazelle&rsquo;s data from all days of the
+year show no decided seasonal change in <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> or <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>; but when
+days on which the wind was high are excluded the summer value is
+decidedly the higher. At Freiburg (<b>43</b>), <i>q</i> seems decidedly larger in
+winter than in summer; at Karasjok and Trieste the seasonal effect
+in <i>q</i> seems small and uncertain.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VII.&mdash;<i>Dissipation.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Place</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Winter</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Summer</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">±</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>q</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">±</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>q</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok 1903-1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kremsmüster 1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freiburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trieste 1902-1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.59</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.55</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.61</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Trieste calm days</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.35</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.48</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>15. <i>Diurnal Variation.</i>&mdash;P.B. Zölss (<b>41</b>, <b>42</b>) has published diurnal
+variation data for Kremsmünster for more than one year, and
+independently for midsummer (May to August) and midwinter
+(December to February). His figures show a double daily period in
+both <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>, the principal maximum occurring about 1 or
+2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> The two minima occur, the one from 5 to 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, the other
+from 7 to 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>; they are nearly equal. Taking the figures answering
+to the whole year, May 1903 to 1904, <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> varied throughout the
+day from 0.82 to 1.35, and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> from 0.85 to 1.47. At midsummer
+the extreme hourly values were 0.91 and 1.45 for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, 0.94 and 1.60
+for <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>. The corresponding figures at midwinter were 0.65 and
+1.19 for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, 0.61 and 1.43 for <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>. Zölss&rsquo; data for <i>q</i> show also a
+double daily period, but the apparent range is small, and the hourly
+variation is somewhat irregular. At Karasjok,
+Simpson found <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> both larger
+between noon and 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> than between
+either 8 and 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> or 6 and 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> The 6
+to 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> values were in general the smallest,
+especially in the case of <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>; the evening
+value for <i>q</i> on the average exceeded the
+values from the two earlier hours by
+some 7%.</p>
+
+<p>Summer observations on mountains have
+shown diurnal variations very large and
+fairly regular, but widely different from
+those observed at lower levels. On the
+Rothhorn, Gockel (<b>43</b>) found <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> particularly
+variable, the mean 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> value being
+4½ times that at 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> <i>q</i> (taken as
+&Sigma;(<i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>/<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>) varied from 2.25 at 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and
+2.52 at 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> to 7.82 at 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 8.35 at
+7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> On the Sonnblick, in early September,
+V. Conrad (<b>22</b>) found somewhat similar
+results for <i>q</i>, the principal maximum occurring
+at 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, with minima at 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and
+6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>; the largest hourly value was,
+however, scarcely double the least. Conrad
+found <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> largest at 4 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and least at 6
+<span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the largest value being double the
+least; <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> was largest at 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and least at
+2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the largest value being fully 2½ times
+the least. On Mont Blanc, le Cadet (<b>43</b>) found <i>q</i> largest from 1 to 3
+<span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the value at either of these hours being more than double that
+at 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> On the Patscherkofel, H. von Ficker and A. Defant (<b>52</b>),
+observing in December, found <i>q</i> largest from 1 to 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and least
+between 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and noon, but the largest value was only 1½ times
+the least. On mountains much seems to depend on whether there
+are rising or falling air currents, and results from a single season
+may not be fairly representative.</p>
+
+<p>16. Dissipation seems largely dependent on meteorological conditions,
+but the phenomena at different stations vary so much as to
+suggest that the connexion is largely indirect. At most stations <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>
+and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> both increase markedly as wind velocity rises. From the
+observations at Trieste in 1902-1903 E. Mazelle (<b>47</b>) deduced an
+increase of about 3% in <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> for a rise of 1 km. per hour in wind
+velocity. The following are some of his figures, the velocity <i>v</i> being
+in kilometres per hour:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb"><i>v</i></td> <td class="tcc allb">0 to 4.</td> <td class="tcc allb">20 to 24.</td> <td class="tcc allb">40 to 49.</td> <td class="tcc allb">60 to 69.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><i>a</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.03</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"><i>q</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.13</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.19</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.96</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">For velocities from 0 to 24 km. per hour <i>q</i> exceeded unity in 74 cases
+out of 100; but for velocities over 50 km. per hour <i>q</i> exceeded unity
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page866" id="page866"></a>866</span>
+in only 40 cases out of 100. Simpson got similar results at Karasjok;
+the rise in <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> with increased wind velocity seemed, however,
+larger in winter than in summer. Simpson observed a fall in <i>q</i> for
+wind velocities exceeding 2 on Beaufort&rsquo;s scale. On the top of the
+Sonnblick, Conrad observed a <i>slight</i> increase of <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> as the wind
+velocity increased up to 20 km. per hour, but for greater velocities
+up to 80 km. per hour no further decided rise was observed.</p>
+
+<p>At Karasjok, treating summer and winter independently,
+Simpson (<b>10</b>) found <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> both increase in a nearly linear
+relation with temperature, from below &minus;20° to +15° C. For example,
+when the temperature was below &minus;20° mean values were
+0.76 for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and 0.91 for <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>; for temperatures between -10°
+and -5° the corresponding means were 2.45 and 2.82; while for
+temperatures between +10° and +15° they were 4.68 and 5.23.
+Simpson found no certain temperature effect on the value of <i>q</i>. At
+Trieste, from 470 days when the wind velocity did not exceed 20 km.
+per hour, Mazelle (<b>47</b>) found somewhat analogous results for temperatures
+from 0° to 30° C.; <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span>, however, increased faster than
+<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, <i>i.e.</i> <i>q</i> increased with temperature. When he considered all
+days irrespective of wind velocity, Mazelle found the influence of
+temperature obliterated. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (<b>22</b>) found
+<i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> increase appreciably as temperature rose up to 4° or 5° C.; but
+at higher temperatures a decrease set in.</p>
+
+<p>Observations on the Sonnblick agree with those at low-level
+stations in showing a diminution of dissipation with increase of
+relative humidity. The decrease is most marked as saturation
+approaches. At Trieste, for example, for relative humidities between
+90 and 100 the mean <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> was less than half that for relative
+humidities under 40. With certain dry winds, notably Föhn winds
+in Austria and Switzerland, dissipation becomes very high. Thus at
+Innsbruck Defant (<b>45</b>) found the mean dissipation on days of Föhn
+fully thrice that on days without Föhn. The increase was largest
+for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, there being a fall of about 15% in <i>q</i>. In general, <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and
+<i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> both tend to be less on cloudy than on bright days. At Kiel (<b>53</b>)
+and Trieste the average value of <i>q</i> is considerably less for wholly
+overcast days than for bright days. At several stations enjoying
+a wide prospect the dissipation has been observed to be specially
+high on days of great visibility when distant mountains can be
+recognized. It tends on the contrary to be low on days of fog or
+rain.</p>
+
+<p>The results obtained as to the relation between dissipation and
+barometric pressure are conflicting. At Kremsmünster, Zölss (<b>42</b>)
+found dissipation vary with the absolute height of the barometer,
+<i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> having a mean value of 1.36 when pressure was below the normal,
+as against 1.20 on days when pressure was above the normal. He
+also found <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> on the average about 10% larger when pressure was
+falling than when it was rising. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (<b>22</b>)
+found dissipation increase decidedly as the absolute barometric
+pressure was larger, and he found no difference between days of
+rising and falling barometer. At Trieste, Mazelle (<b>47</b>) found no
+certain connexion with absolute barometric pressure. Dissipation
+was above the average when cyclonic conditions prevailed, but this
+seemed simply a consequence of the increased wind velocity. At
+Mattsee, E.R. von Schweidler (<b>46</b>) found no connexion between
+absolute barometric pressure and dissipation, also days of rising
+and falling pressure gave the same mean. At Kiel, K. Kaehler (<b>53</b>)
+found <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> both greater with rising than with falling
+barometer.</p>
+
+<p>V. Conrad and M. Topolansky (<b>54</b>) have found a marked connexion
+at Vienna between dissipation and ozone. Regular observations
+were made of both elements. Days were grouped according to the
+intensity of colouring of ozone papers, 0 representing no visible
+effect, and 14 the darkest colour reached. The mean values of <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>
+and <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> answering to 12 and 13 on the ozone scale were both about
+double the corresponding values answering to 0 and 1 on that scale.</p>
+
+<p>17. A charged body in air loses its charge in more than one way.
+The air, as is now known, has always present in it ions, some carrying
+a positive and others a negative charge, and those having the
+opposite sign to the charged body are attracted and tend to discharge
+it. The rate of loss of charge is thus largely dependent on the
+extent to which ions are present in the surrounding air. It depends,
+however, in addition on the natural mobility of the ions, and also on
+the opportunities for convection. Of late years many observations
+have been made of the ionic charges in air. The best-known apparatus
+for the purpose is that devised by Ebert. A cylinder condenser
+has its inner surface insulated and charged to a high positive or
+negative potential. Air is drawn by an aspirator between the surfaces,
+and the ions having the opposite sign to the inner cylinder
+are deposited on it. The charge given up to the inner cylinder is
+known from its loss of potential. The volume of air from which the
+ions have been extracted being known, a measure is obtained of the
+total charge on the ions, whether positive or negative. The conditions
+must, of course, be such as to secure that no ions shall escape,
+otherwise there is an underestimate. I+ is used to denote the charge
+on positive ions, I- that on negative ions. The unit to which they
+are ordinarily referred is 1 electrostatic unit of electricity per cubic
+metre of air. For the ratio of the mean value of I<span class="su">+</span> to the mean
+value of I<span class="su">&minus;</span>, the letter Q is employed by Gockel (<b>55</b>), who has made
+an unusually complete study of ionic charges at Freiburg. Numerous
+observations were also made by Simpson (<b>10</b>)&mdash;thrice a day&mdash;at
+Karasjok, and von Schweidler has made a good many observations
+about 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> at Mattsee (<b>46</b>) in 1905, and Seewalchen (<b>38</b>) in 1904.
+These will suffice to give a general idea of the mean values met with.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Station.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Authority.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">&minus;</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">Q</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freiburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gockel</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok</td> <td class="tcl rb">Simpson</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mattsee</td> <td class="tcl rb">von Schweidler</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Seewalchen</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">von Schweidler</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.45</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.38</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.17</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Gockel&rsquo;s mean values of I<span class="su">+</span> and Q would be reduced to 0.31 and
+1.38 respectively if his values for July&mdash;which appear
+abnormal&mdash;were omitted. I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">&minus;</span> both show a considerable range of values,
+even at the same place during the same season of the year. Thus
+at Seewalchen in the course of a month&rsquo;s observations at 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, I<span class="su">+</span>
+varied from 0.31 to 0.67, and I<span class="su">&minus;</span> from 0.17 to 0.67.</p>
+
+<p>There seems a fairly well marked annual variation in ionic contents,
+as the following figures will show. Summer and winter represent
+each six months and the results are arithmetic means of the monthly values.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Freiburg.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Karasjok.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">&minus;</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">Q</td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">&minus;</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">Q</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Winter</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Summer</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.34</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.44</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.13</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>If the exceptional July values at Freiburg were omitted, the
+summer values of I<span class="su">+</span> and Q would become 0.33 and 1.25 respectively.</p>
+
+<p>18. <i>Diurnal Variation.</i>&mdash;At Karasjok Simpson found the mean
+values of I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">&minus;</span> throughout the whole year much the same
+between noon and 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> as between 8 and 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> Observations
+between 6 and 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> gave means slightly lower than those from
+the earlier hours, but the difference was only about 5% in I<span class="su">+</span> and
+10% in I<span class="su">&minus;</span>. The evening values of Q were on the whole the largest.
+At Freiburg, Gockel found I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">&minus;</span> decidedly larger in the early
+afternoon than in either the morning or the late evening hours.
+His greatest and least mean hourly values and the hours of their
+occurrence are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Summer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">I<span class="su">&minus;</span></td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">I<span class="su">&minus;</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Max.</td><td class="tcc rb">Min.</td><td class="tcc rb">Max.</td><td class="tcc rb">Min.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Max.</td><td class="tcc rb">Min.</td><td class="tcc rb">Max.</td><td class="tcc rb">Min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0.333</td><td class="tcc rb">0.193</td><td class="tcc rb">0.242</td><td class="tcc rb">0.130</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.430</td><td class="tcc rb">0.244</td><td class="tcc rb">0.333</td><td class="tcc rb">0.192</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">7 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">2 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">8 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">4 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">9 to</td><td class="tcc rb">4 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">9 to</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tcc rb bb">10 PM</td><td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tcc rb bb">10 PM</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Gockel did not observe between 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>19. Ionization seems to increase notably as temperature rises.
+Thus at Karasjok Simpson found for mean values:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">Temp. less than &minus;20°</td> <td class="tcc">&minus;10° to &minus;5°</td> <td class="tcc">10° to 15°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">I<span class="su">+</span> = 0.18, I<span class="su">&minus;</span> = 0.36</td> <td class="tcc">I<span class="su">+</span> = 0.36, I<span class="su">&minus;</span> = 0.30</td> <td class="tcc">I<span class="su">+</span> = 0.45, I<span class="su">&minus;</span> = 0.43</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Simpson found no clear influence of temperature on Q. Gockel
+observed similar effects at Freiburg&mdash;though he seems doubtful
+whether the relationship is direct&mdash;but the influence of temperature
+on I+ seemed reduced when the ground was covered with snow.
+Gockel found a diminution of ionization with rise of relative
+humidity. Thus for relative humidities between 40 and 50 mean
+values were 0.306 for I<span class="su">+</span> and 0.219 for I<span class="su">&minus;</span>; whilst for relative
+humidities between 90 and 100 the corresponding means were
+respectively 0.222 and 0.134. At Karasjok, Simpson found a slight
+decrease in I<span class="su">&minus;</span> as relative humidity increased, but no certain change
+in I<span class="su">+</span>. Specially large values of I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">&minus;</span> have been observed
+at high levels in balloon ascents. Thus on the 1st of July 1901,
+at a height of 2400 metres, H. Gerdien (<b>29</b>) obtained 0.86 for I<span class="su">+</span> and
+1.09 for I<span class="su">&minus;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>20. In 1901 Elster and Geitel found that a radioactive emanation
+is present in the atmosphere. Their method of measuring the
+radioactivity is as follows (<b>48</b>): A wire not exceeding 1 mm. in diameter,
+charged to a negative potential of at least 2000 volts, is supported
+between insulators in the open, usually at a height of about 2 metres.
+After two hours&rsquo; exposure, it is wrapped round a frame supported
+in a given position relative to Elster and Geitel&rsquo;s dissipation apparatus,
+and the loss of charge is noted. This loss is proportional to
+the length of the wire. The radioactivity is denoted by A, and
+A=1 signifies that the potential of the dissipation apparatus fell
+1 volt in an hour per metre of wire introduced. The loss of the
+dissipation body due to the natural ionization of the air is first
+allowed for. Suppose, for instance, that in the absence of the wire
+the potential falls from 264 to 255 volts in 15 minutes, whilst when
+the wire (10 metres long) is introduced it falls from 264 to 201 volts
+in 10 minutes, then</p>
+
+<p class="center">10A = (254 &minus; 201) × 6 &minus; (264 &minus; 255) × 4 = 342; or A = 34.2.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The values obtained for A seem largely dependent on the station.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page867" id="page867"></a>867</span>
+At Wolfenbüttel, a year&rsquo;s observations by Elster and Geitel (<b>56</b>) made
+A vary from 4 to 64, the mean being 20. In the island of Juist, off
+the Friesland coast, from three weeks&rsquo; observations they obtained
+only 5.2 as the mean. On the other hand, at Altjoch, an Alpine
+station, from nine days&rsquo; observations in July 1903 they obtained a
+mean of 137, the maximum being 224, and the minimum 92. At
+Freiburg, from 150 days&rsquo; observations near noon in 1903-1904,
+Gockel (<b>57</b>) obtained a mean of 84, his extreme values being 10 and
+420. At Karasjok, observing several times throughout the day for
+a good many months, Simpson (<b>10</b>) obtained a mean of 93 and a
+maximum of 432. The same observer from four weeks&rsquo; observations
+at Hammerfest got the considerably lower mean value 58, with a
+maximum of 252. At this station much lower values were found
+for A with sea breezes than with land breezes. Observing on the
+pier at Swinemünde in August and September 1904, Lüdeling (<b>40</b>)
+obtained a mean value of 34.</p>
+
+<p>Elster and Geitel (<b>58</b>), having found air drawn from the soil highly
+radioactive, regard ground air as the source of the emanation in the
+atmosphere, and in this way account for the low values they obtained
+for A when observing on or near the sea. At Freiburg in winter
+Gockel (<b>55</b>) found A notably reduced when snow was on the ground,
+I<span class="su">+</span> being also reduced. When the ground was covered by snow
+the mean value of A was only 42, as compared with 81 when there
+was no snow.</p>
+
+<p>J.C. McLennan (<b>59</b>) observing near the foot of Niagara found A
+only about one-sixth as large as at Toronto. Similarly at Altjoch,
+Elster and Geitel (<b>56</b>) found A at the foot of a waterfall only about
+one-third of its normal value at a distance from the fall.</p>
+
+<p>21. <i>Annual and Diurnal Variations.</i>&mdash;At Wolfenbüttel, Elster
+and Geitel found A vary but little with the season. At Karasjok,
+on the contrary, Simpson found A much larger at
+midwinter&mdash;notwithstanding the presence of snow&mdash;than at midsummer.
+His mean value for November and December was 129, while his mean
+for May and June was only 47. He also found a marked diurnal
+variation, A being considerably greater between 3 and 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> or
+8.30 to 10.30 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> than between 10 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and noon, or between 3 and
+5 <span class="scs">P.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>At all seasons of the year Simpson found A rise notably with
+increase of relative humidity. Also, whilst the mere absolute
+height of the barometer seemed of little, if any, importance, he
+obtained larger values of A with a falling than with a rising
+barometer. This last result of course is favourable to Elster and
+Geitel&rsquo;s views as to the source of the emanation.</p>
+
+<p>22. For a wire exposed under the conditions observed by Elster
+and Geitel the emanation seems to be almost entirely derived from
+radium. Some part, however, seems to be derived from thorium,
+and H.A. Bumstead (<b>60</b>) finds that with longer exposure of the wire
+the relative importance of the thorium emanation increases. With
+three hours&rsquo; exposure he found the thorium emanation only from
+3 to 5% of the whole, but with 12 hours&rsquo; exposure the percentage
+of thorium emanation rose to about 15. These figures refer to the
+state of the wire immediately after the exposure; the rate of decay
+is much more rapid for the radium than for the thorium emanation.</p>
+
+<p>23. The different elements&mdash;potential gradient, dissipation,
+ionization and radioactivity&mdash;are clearly not independent of one
+another. The loss of a charge is naturally largely dependent on the
+richness of the surrounding air in ions. This is clearly shown by the
+following results obtained by Simpson (<b>10</b>) at Karasjok for the mean
+values of <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> corresponding to certain groups of values of I<span class="su">±</span>. To
+eliminate the disturbing influence of wind, different wind strengths
+are treated separately.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VIII.&mdash;<i>Mean Values of</i> <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span>.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Wind<br />Strength.</td> <td class="tccm allb">I<span class="su">±</span>0 to 0.1.</td> <td class="tccm allb">0.1 to 0.2</td> <td class="tccm allb">0.2 to 0.3</td> <td class="tccm allb">0.3 to 0.4</td> <td class="tccm allb">0.4 to 0.5</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0 to 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1 to 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">2 to 3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.70</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.88</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.33</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Simspon concluded that for a given wind velocity dissipation is
+practically a linear function of ionization.</p>
+
+<p>24. Table IX. will give a general idea of the relations of potential
+gradient to dissipation and ionization.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IX.&mdash;<i>Potential, Dissipation, Ionization.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Potential<br />gradients<br />volts per<br />metre.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3"><i>q</i></td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Karasjok (Simpson (<b>10</b>)).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Kremsmünster (<b>41</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Freiburg (<b>43</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Rothhorn (<b>43</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span></td> <td class="tccm allb">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tccm allb">I<span class="su">&minus;</span></td> <td class="tccm allb">Q</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0 to  50</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">50 to 100</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">100 to 150</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">150 to 200</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.84</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">200 to 300</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">300 to 400</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">400 to 500</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">500 to 700</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8.75</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>If we regard the potential gradient near the ground as representing
+a negative charge on the earth, then if the source of supply of
+that charge is unaffected the gradient will rise and become high when
+the operations by which discharge is promoted slacken their activity.
+A diminution in the number of positive ions would thus naturally
+be accompanied by a rise in potential gradient. Table IX. associates
+with rise in potential gradient a reduced number of both positive
+and negative ions and a diminished rate of dissipation whether of
+a negative or a positive charge. The rise in <i>q</i> and Q indicates that
+the diminished rate of dissipation is most marked for positive charges,
+and that negative ions are even more reduced then positive.</p>
+
+<p>At Kremsmünster Zölss (<b>41</b>) finds a considerable similarity between
+the diurnal variations in <i>q</i> and in the potential gradient, the hours of
+the forenoon and afternoon maxima being nearly the same in the
+two cases.</p>
+
+<p>No distinct relationship has yet been established between potential
+gradient and radioactivity. At Karasjok Simpson (<b>10</b>) found fairly
+similar mean values of A for two groups of observations, one confined
+to cases when the potential gradient exceeded +400 volts, the other
+confined to cases of negative gradient.</p>
+
+<p>At Freiburg Gockel (<b>55</b>, <b>57</b>) found that when observations were
+grouped according to the value of A there appeared a distinct rise
+in both <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> and I<span class="su">+</span> with increasing A. For instance, when A lay
+between 100 and 150 the mean value of a- was 1.27 times greater
+than when A lay between 0 and 50; while when A lay between 120
+and 150 the mean value of I+ was 1.53 times larger than when A
+lay between 0 and 30. These apparent relationships refer to mean
+values. In individual cases widely different values of <i>a</i><span class="su">&minus;</span> or I<span class="su">+</span> are
+associated with the same value of A.</p>
+
+<p>25. If V be the potential, &rho; the density of free electricity at a point
+in the atmosphere, at a distance r from the earth&rsquo;s centre, then
+assuming statical conditions and neglecting variation of V in horizontal
+directions, we have</p>
+
+<p class="center">r<span class="sp">&minus;2</span>(d/dr)(r² dV/dr) + 4&pi;&rho; = 0.</p>
+
+<p>For practical purposes we may treat r² as constant, and replace
+d/dr by d/dh, where h is height in centimetres above the ground.</p>
+
+<p>We thus find</p>
+
+<p class="center">&rho; = &minus;(1/4&pi;) d²V/dh².</p>
+
+<p>If we take a tube of force 1 sq. cm. in section, and suppose it cut
+by equipotential surfaces at heights h<span class="su">1</span> and h<span class="su">2</span> above the ground, we
+have for the total charge M included in the specified portion of the
+tube</p>
+
+<p class="center">4&pi;M = (dV/dh)h<span class="su">1</span> &minus; (dV/dh)h<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Taking Linke&rsquo;s (<b>28</b>) figures as given in § 10, and supposing
+h<span class="su">1</span> = 0, h<span class="su">2</span> = 15 × 10<span class="sp">4</span>, we find for the charge in the unit tube between
+the ground and 1500 metres level, remembering that the centimetre
+is now the unit of length, M = (1/4&pi;) (125 &minus; 25)/100. Taking 1 volt
+equal <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">300</span> of an electrostatic unit, we find M = 0.000265. Between
+1500 and 4000 metres the charge inside the unit tube is much less,
+only 0.000040. The charge on the earth itself has its surface density
+given by &sigma; = &minus;(1/4&pi;) × 125 volts per metre, = 0.000331 in e
+ectrostatic units. Thus, on the view now generally current, in the
+circumstances answering to Linke&rsquo;s experiments we have on the ground a
+charge of &minus;331 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;6</span> C.G.S. units per sq. cm. Of the corresponding
+positive charge, 265 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;6</span> lies below the 1500 metres level, 40 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;6</span>
+between this and the 4000 metres level, and only 26 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;6</span> above
+4000 metres.</p>
+
+<p>There is a difficulty in reconciling observed values of the ionization
+with the results obtained from balloon ascents as to the variation of
+the potential with altitude. According to H. Gerdien (<b>61</b>), near the
+ground a mean value for d²V/dh² is &minus;(<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span>) volt/(metre)². From this
+we deduce for the charge &rho; per cubic centimetre (1/4&pi;) × 10<span class="sp">&minus;5</span>
+(volt/cm²), or 2.7 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;9</span> electrostatic units. But taking, for example,
+Simpson&rsquo;s mean values at Karasjok, we have observed</p>
+
+<p class="center">&rho; &equiv; I<span class="su">+</span> &minus; I<span class="su">1</span> = 0.05 × (cm./metre)<span class="sp">3</span> = 5 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and thus (calculated &rho;)/(observed &rho;) = 0.05 approximately. Gerdien
+himself makes I<span class="su">+</span> &minus; I<span class="su">&minus;</span> considerably larger than Simpson, and concludes
+that the observed value of &rho; is from 30 to 50 times that calculated.
+The presumption is either that d²V/dh² near the ground is
+much larger numerically than Gerdien supposes, or else that the
+ordinary instruments for measuring ionization fail to catch some
+species of ion whose charge is preponderatingly negative.</p>
+
+<p>26. Gerdien (<b>61</b>) has made some calculations as to the probable
+average value of the vertical electric
+current in the atmosphere in
+fine weather. This will be composed
+of a conduction and a convection
+current, the latter due to
+rising or falling air currents carrying
+ions. He supposes the field
+near the earth to be 100 volts per
+metre, or <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">300</span> electrostatic units.
+For simplicity, he assumes I<span class="su">+</span> and
+I<span class="su">&minus;</span> each equal 0.25 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;6</span> electrostatic
+units. The specific velocities
+of the ions&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> the velocities in
+unit field&mdash;he takes to be 1.3 × 300
+for the positive, and 1.6 × 300 for
+the negative. The positive and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page868" id="page868"></a>868</span>
+negative ions travel in opposite directions, so the total current is
+(<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">300</span>)(0.25 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;6</span>)(1.3 × 300 + 1.6 × 300), or 73 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span> in electrostatic
+measure, otherwise 2.4 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;16</span> amperes per sq. cm. As to the convection
+current, Gerdien supposes&mdash;as in § 25&mdash;&rho; = 2.7 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;9</span> electrostatic
+units, and on fine days puts the average velocity of rising
+air currents at 10 cm. per second. This gives a convection current
+of 2.7 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span> electrostatic units, or about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">27</span> of the conduction
+current. For the total current we have approximately 2.5 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;16</span>
+amperes per sq. cm. This is insignificant compared to the size of
+the currents which several authorities have calculated from
+considerations as to terrestrial magnetism (<i>q.v.</i>). Gerdien&rsquo;s estimate
+of the convection current is for fine weather conditions. During
+rainfall, or near clouds or dust layers, the magnitude of this current
+might well be enormously increased; its direction would naturally
+vary with climatic conditions.</p>
+
+<p>27. H. Mache (<b>62</b>) thinks that the ionization observed in the
+atmosphere may be wholly accounted for by the radioactive emanation.
+If this is true we should have q = &alpha;n², where q is the number of ions
+of one sign made in 1 cc. of air per second by the emanation, &alpha; the
+constant of recombination, and n the number of ions found simultaneously
+by, say, Ebert&rsquo;s apparatus. Mache and R. Holfmann,
+from observations on the amplitude of saturation currents, deduce
+q = 4 as a mean value. Taking for &alpha; Townsend&rsquo;s value 1.2 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;6</span>,
+Mache finds n = 1800. The charge on an ion being 3.4 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;10</span> Mache
+deduces for the ionic charge, I<span class="su">+</span> or I<span class="su">&minus;</span>, per cubic metre
+1800 × 3.4 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;10</span> × 10<span class="sp">6</span>, or 0.6. This is at least of the order
+observed, which is all that can be expected from a calculation which
+assumes I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">&minus;</span> equal. If, however, Mache&rsquo;s views were correct, we
+should expect a much closer connexion between I and A than has actually
+been observed.</p>
+
+<p>28. C.T.R. Wilson (<b>63</b>) seems disposed to regard the action of
+rainfall as the most probable source of the negative charge on the
+earth&rsquo;s surface. That great separation of positive and negative
+electricity sometimes takes place during rainfall is undoubted, and
+the charge brought to the ground seems preponderatingly negative.
+The difficulty is in accounting for the continuance in extensive fine
+weather districts of large positive charges in the atmosphere in face
+of the processes of recombination always in progress. Wilson
+considers that convection currents in the upper atmosphere would
+be quite inadequate, but conduction may, he thinks, be sufficient
+alone. At barometric pressures such as exist between 18 and
+36 kilometres above the ground the mobility of the ions varies inversely
+as the pressure, whilst the coefficient of recombination &alpha;
+varies approximately as the pressure. If the atmosphere at different
+heights is exposed to ionizing radiation of uniform intensity the rate
+of production of ions per cc., q, will vary as the pressure. In the
+steady state the number, n, of ions of either sign per cc. is given by
+n = &radic;(q/&alpha;), and so is independent of the pressure or the height. The
+conductivity, which varies as the product of n into the mobility,
+will thus vary inversely as the pressure, and so at 36 kilometres will be
+one hundred times as large as close to the ground. Dust particles
+interfere with conduction near the ground, so the relative conductivity
+in the upper layers may be much greater than that calculated.
+Wilson supposes that by the fall to the ground of a preponderance of
+negatively charged rain the air above the shower has a higher positive
+potential than elsewhere at the same level, thus leading to large
+conduction currents laterally in the highly conducting upper layers.</p>
+
+<p>29. <i>Thunder.</i>&mdash;Trustworthy frequency statistics for an individual
+station are obtainable only from a long series of observations, while
+if means are taken from a large area places may be included which
+differ largely amongst themselves. There is the further complication
+that in some countries thunder seems to be on the increase. In
+temperate latitudes, speaking generally, the higher the latitude the
+fewer the thunderstorms. For instance, for Edinburgh (<b>64</b>) (1771 to
+1900) and London (<b>65</b>) (1763 to 1896) R.C. Mossman found the
+average annual number of thunderstorm days to be respectively
+6.4 and 10.7; while at Paris (1873-1893) E. Renou (<b>66</b>) found 27.3
+such days. In some tropical stations, at certain seasons of the year,
+thunder is almost a daily occurrence. At Batavia (<b>18</b>) during the
+epoch 1867-1895, there were on the average 120 days of thunder in
+the year.</p>
+
+<p>As an example of a large area throughout which thunder frequency
+appears fairly uniform, we may take Hungary (<b>67</b>). According to
+the statistics for 1903, based on several hundred stations, the average
+number of days of thunder throughout six subdivisions of the
+country, some wholly plain, others mainly mountainous, varied
+only from 21.1 to 26.5, the mean for the whole of Hungary being
+23.5. The antithesis of this exists in the United States of America.
+According to A.J. Henry (<b>68</b>) there are three regions of maximum
+frequency: one in the south-east, with its centre in Florida, has an
+average of 45 days of thunder in the year; a second including the
+middle Mississippi valley has an average of 35 days; and a third
+in the middle Missouri valley has 30. With the exception of a narrow
+strip along the Canadian frontier, thunderstorm frequency is fairly
+high over the whole of the United States to the east of the 100th
+meridian. But to the west of this, except in the Rocky Mountain
+region where storms are numerous, the frequency steadily diminishes,
+and along the Pacific coast there are large areas where thunder occurs
+only once or twice a year.</p>
+
+<p>30. The number of thunderstorm days is probably a less exact measure
+of the relative <i>intensity</i> of thunderstorms than statistics
+as to the number of persons killed annually by lightning per million
+of the population. Table X. gives a number of statistics of this kind.
+The letter M stands for &ldquo;Midland.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> X.&mdash;<i>Deaths by Lightning, per annum, per million Inhabitants.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb2">7.7</td> <td class="tcl">Upper Missouri and Plains</td> <td class="tcr">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2.8</td> <td class="tcl">Rocky Mountains and Plateau</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">England, N. M.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.8</td> <td class="tcl">South Atlantic</td> <td class="tcr">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; E.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.3</td> <td class="tcl">Central Mississippi</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; S. M.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.2</td> <td class="tcl">Upper  &emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; York and W. M.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.1</td> <td class="tcl">Ohio Valley</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; N.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.0</td> <td class="tcl">Middle Atlantic</td> <td class="tcr">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Wales</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.9</td> <td class="tcl">Gulf States</td> <td class="tcr">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">England, S. E.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.8</td> <td class="tcl">New England</td> <td class="tcr">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; N. W.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.7</td> <td class="tcl">Pacific Coast</td> <td class="tcr">&lt;1*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; S. W.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.6</td> <td class="tcl">North and South Dakota</td> <td class="tcr">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">London</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.1</td> <td class="tcl">California</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="4">* Note in case of Pacific coast, Table X., &ldquo;&lt;1&rdquo; means &ldquo;less than 1.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The figure for Hungary is based on the seven years 1897-1903;
+that for the Netherlands, from data by A.J. Monné (<b>69</b>) on the nine
+years 1882-1890. The English data, due to R. Lawson (<b>70</b>), are from
+twenty-four years, 1857-1880; those for the United States, due to
+Henry (<b>68</b>), are for five years, 1896-1900. In comparing these data
+allowance must be made for the fact that danger from lightning is
+much greater out of doors than in. Thus in Hungary, in 1902 and
+1903, out of 229 persons killed, at least 171 were killed out of doors.
+Of the 229 only 67 were women, the only assignable explanation
+being their rarer employment in the fields. Thus, <i>ceteris paribtis</i>,
+deaths from lightning are much more numerous in a country than
+in an industrial population. This is well brought out by the low
+figure for London. It is also shown conspicuously in figures given
+by Henry. In New York State, where the population is largely
+industrial, the annual deaths per million are only three, but of the
+agricultural population eleven. In states such as Wyoming and
+the Dakotas the population is largely rural, and the deaths by lightning
+rise in consequence. The frequency and intensity of thunderstorms
+are unquestionably greater in the Rocky Mountain than in
+the New England states, but the difference is not so great as the
+statistics at first sight suggest.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> XI.&mdash;<i>Annual Variation of Thunderstorms.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Feb.</td> <td class="tcc allb">March.</td> <td class="tcc allb">April.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June.</td> <td class="tcc allb">July.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sept.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ediburgh</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paris</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (<i>a</i>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (<i>b</i>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hong-Kong</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trevandrum</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Batavia</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.9</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>31. Even at the same place thunderstorms vary greatly in intensity
+and duration. Also the times of beginning and ending are difficult
+to define exactly, so that several elements of uncertainty exist in
+data as to the seasonal or diurnal variation. The monthly data in
+Table XI. are percentages of the total for the year. In most cases
+the figures are based on the number of days of thunder at a particular
+station, or at the average station of a country; but the second set
+for Hungary relates to the number of lightning strokes causing fire,
+and the figures for the United States relate to deaths by lightning.
+The data for Edinburgh, due to R.C. Mossman (<b>64</b>), refer to 130 years,
+1771 to 1900. The data for London (1763-1896) are also due to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page869" id="page869"></a>869</span>
+Mossman (<b>65</b>); for Paris (1873-1893) to Renou (<b>66</b>); for the
+Netherlands (1882-1900) to A.J. Monné (<b>69</b>); for France(<b>71</b>) (1886-1899)
+to Frou and Hann; for Switzerland to K. Hess (<b>72</b>); for Hungary (<b>67</b>)
+(1896-1903) to L. von Szalay and others; for the United States
+(1890-1900) to A.J. Henry (<b>68</b>); for Hong-Kong (<b>73</b>) (1894-1903)
+to W. Doberck. The Trevandrum (<b>74</b>) data (1853-1864) were due
+originally to A. Broun; the Batavia data (1867-1895) are from the
+Batavia <i>Observations</i>, vol. xviii.</p>
+
+<p>Most stations in the northern hemisphere have a conspicuous
+maximum at midsummer with little thunder in winter. Trevandrum
+(8° 31&prime; N.) and Batavia (6° 11&prime; S.), especially the former, show
+a double maximum and minimum.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> XII.&mdash;<i>Diurnal Variation of Thunderstorms.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Hour.</td> <td class="tcc allb">0-2.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2-4.</td> <td class="tcc allb">4-6.</td> <td class="tcc allb">6-8.</td> <td class="tcc allb">8-10.</td> <td class="tcc allb">10-12.</td> <td class="tcc allb">0&prime;-2&prime;.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2&prime;-4&prime;.</td> <td class="tcc allb">4&prime;-6&prime;.</td> <td class="tcc allb">6&prime;-8&prime;.</td> <td class="tcc allb">8&prime;-10&prime;.</td> <td class="tcc allb">10&prime;-12&prime;.</td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Finland (<b>76</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Edinburgh (<b>64</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium (<b>77</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brocken (<b>78</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland (<b>72</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy (<b>77</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (i.) (<b>67</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.8</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (ii.) (<b>67</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.0</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (iii.) (<b>75</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (iv.) (<b>75</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.3</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trevandrum (<b>74</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Agustia (<b>74</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">15.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">36.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>32. <i>Daily Variation.</i>&mdash;The figures in Table XII. are again
+percentages. They are mostly based on data as to the hour of commencement
+of thunderstorms. Data as to the hour when storms are
+most severe would throw the maximum later in the day. This is
+illustrated by the first two sets of figures for Hungary (<b>67</b>). The first
+set relate as usual to the hour of commencement, the second to the
+hours of occurrence of lightning causing fires. Of the two other sets
+of figures for Hungary (<b>75</b>), (iii.) relates to the central plain, (iv.) to
+the mountainous regions to north and south of this. The hour of
+maximum is earlier for the mountains, thunder being more frequent
+there than in the plains between 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, but less frequent
+between 2 and 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> Trevandrum (8° 31&prime; N., 76° 59&prime; E., 195 ft.
+above sea-level) and Agustia (8° 37&prime; N., 77° 20&prime; E., 6200 ft. above
+sea-level) afford a contrast between low ground and high ground in
+India. In this instance there seems little difference in the hour of
+maximum, the distinguishing feature being the great concentration
+of thunderstorm occurrence at Agustia between noon and 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> XIII.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Nether-<br />lands.</td> <td class="tccm allb">France.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hungary.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb2">U.S.A.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Nether-<br />lands.</td> <td class="tccm allb">France.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hungary.</td> <td class="tccm allb">U.S.A.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;98</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">141</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb">288</td> <td class="tcc rb">233</td> <td class="tcc rb">209</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">117</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">195</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">111</td> <td class="tcc rb">300</td> <td class="tcc rb">333</td> <td class="tcc rb">336</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;95</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">229</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">309</td> <td class="tcc rb">280</td> <td class="tcc rb">426</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;93</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">192</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">109</td> <td class="tcc rb">266</td> <td class="tcc rb">299</td> <td class="tcc rb">341</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb">251</td> <td class="tcc rb">319</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">297</td> <td class="tcc rb">350</td> <td class="tcc rb">362</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;78</td> <td class="tcc rb">292</td> <td class="tcc rb">236</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;95</td> <td class="tcc rb">299</td> <td class="tcc rb">386</td> <td class="tcc rb">367</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;94</td> <td class="tcc rb">286</td> <td class="tcc rb">232</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">112</td> <td class="tcc rb">299</td> <td class="tcc rb">368</td> <td class="tcc rb">563</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">126</td> <td class="tcc rb">294</td> <td class="tcc rb">258</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">108</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">401</td> <td class="tcc rb">713</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;93</td> <td class="tcc rb">299</td> <td class="tcc rb">265</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">502</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;98</td> <td class="tcc rb">317</td> <td class="tcc rb">302</td> <td class="tcc rb2">204</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">322</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;86</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">324</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">350</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">251</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">256</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>33. Table XIII. gives some data as to the variability of thunder
+from year to year. The figures for the Netherlands (<b>69</b>) and France (<b>71</b>)
+are the number of days when thunder occurred somewhere
+in the country. Its larger area and more varied climate give a
+much larger number of days of thunder to France. Notwithstanding
+the proximity of the two countries, there is not much
+parallelism between the data. The figures
+for Hungary (<b>67</b>) give the number of lightning
+strokes causing fire; those for the
+United States (<b>68</b>) give the number of persons
+killed by lightning. The conspicuous
+maximum in 1901 and great drop in 1902
+in Hungary are also shown by the statistics
+as to the number of days of thunder.
+This number at the average station of the
+country fell from 38.4 in 1901 to 23.1 in
+1902. On the whole, however, the
+number of destructive lightning strokes
+and of days of thunder do not show a
+close parallelism.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> XIV.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Decade ending</td> <td class="tcc allb">1810.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1820.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1830.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1840.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1850.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1860.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1870.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Edinburgh</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tilsit</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany, South</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">175</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; West</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">187</td> <td class="tcr rb">244</td> <td class="tcr rb">331</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; North</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td> <td class="tcr rb">245</td> <td class="tcr rb">288</td> <td class="tcr rb">352</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; East</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">210</td> <td class="tcr rb">273</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; Whole</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">189</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">254</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">318</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>34. Table XIV. deals with the variation of thunder over longer
+periods. The data for Edinburgh (<b>64</b>) and London (<b>65</b>) due to
+Mossman, and those for Tilsit, due to C. Kassner (<b>79</b>), represent
+the average number of days of thunder per annum. The data
+for Germany, due to O. Steffens (<b>80</b>), represent the average number
+of houses struck by lightning in a year per million houses; in
+the first decade only seven years (1854-1860) are really included.
+Mossman thinks that the apparent increase at Edinburgh and
+London in the later decades is to some extent at least real. The
+two sets of figures show some corroborative features, notably the
+low frequency from 1860 to 1870. The figures for Germany&mdash;representing
+four out of six divisions of that country&mdash;are remarkable.
+In Germany as a whole, out of a million houses the number struck
+per annum was three and a half times as great in the decade 1890
+to 1900 as between 1854 and 1860. Von Bezold (<b>81</b>) in an earlier
+memoir presented data analogous to Steffens&rsquo;, seemingly accepting
+them as representing a true increase in thunderstorm destructiveness.
+Doubts have, however, been expressed by others&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> A. Gockel,
+<i>Das Gewitter</i>, p. 106&mdash;as to the real significance of the figures.
+Changes in the height or construction of buildings, and a greater
+readiness to make claims on insurance offices, may be contributory
+causes.</p>
+
+<p>35. The fact that a considerable number of people sheltering
+under trees are killed by lightning is generally accepted as a convincing
+proof of the unwisdom of the proceeding. When there is
+an option between a tree and an adjacent house, the latter is doubtless
+the safer choice. But when the option is between sheltering
+under a tree and remaining in the open it is not so clear. In
+Hungary (<b>67</b>), during
+the three years 1901
+to 1903, 15% of the
+total deaths by lightning
+occurred under
+trees, as against 57%
+wholly in the open.
+In the United States (<b>68</b>)
+in 1900, only 10%
+of the deaths where the
+precise conditions were
+ascertained occurred
+under trees, as against
+52% in the open. If
+then the risk under
+trees exceeds that in
+the open in Hungary
+and the United States,
+at least five or six times as many people must remain in the open as seek
+shelter under trees. An isolated tree occupying an exposed position
+is, it should be remembered, much more likely to be struck than the
+average tree in the midst of a wood. A good deal also depends on
+the species of tree. A good many years&rsquo; data for Lippe (<b>82</b>) in Germany
+make the liability to lightning stroke as follows&mdash;the number
+of each species being supposed the same:&mdash;Oak 57, Fir 39, Pine 5,
+Beech 1. In Styria, according to K. Prohaska (<b>83</b>), the species most
+liable to be struck are oaks, poplars and pear trees; beech trees
+again are exceptionally safe. It should, however, be borne in mind
+that the apparent differences between different species may be partly
+a question of height, exposure or proximity to water. A good deal
+may also depend on the soil. According to Hellmann, as quoted by
+Henry (<b>82</b>), the liability to lightning stroke in Germany may be put
+at chalk 1, clay 7, sand 9, loam 22.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page870" id="page870"></a>870</span></p>
+
+<p>36. Numerous attempts have been made to find periodic variations
+in thunderstorm frequency. Among the periods suggested are
+the 11-year sun-spot period, or half this (cf. v. Szalay (<b>67</b>)). Ekholm
+and Arrhenius (<b>84</b>) claim to have established the existence of a
+tropical lunar period, and a 25.929-day period; while P. Polis (<b>85</b>)
+considers a synodic lunar period probable. A.B. MacDowall (<b>86</b>)
+and others have advanced evidence in favour of the view that
+thunderstorms are most frequent near new moon and fewest near
+full moon. Much more evidence would be required to produce a
+general acceptance of any of the above periods.</p>
+
+<p>37. <i>St Elmo&rsquo;s Fire.</i>&mdash;Luminous discharges from masts, lightning
+conductors, and other pointed objects are not very infrequent,
+especially during thunderstorms. On the Sonnblick, where the
+phenomenon is common, Elster and Geitel (<b>87</b>) have found St Elmo&rsquo;s
+fire to answer to a discharge sometimes of positive sometimes of
+negative electricity. The colour and appearance differ in the two
+cases, red predominating in a positive, blue in a negative discharge.
+The differences characteristic of the two forms of discharge are described
+and illustrated in Gockel&rsquo;s <i>Das Gewitter</i>. Gockel states
+(l.c. p. 74) that during snowfall the sign is positive or negative according
+as the flakes are large or are small and powdery. The discharge
+is not infrequently accompanied by a sizzling sound.</p>
+
+<p>38. Of late years many experiments have been made on the
+influence of electric fields or currents on plant growth. S. Lemström
+(<b>88</b>), who was a pioneer in this department, found an electric
+field highly beneficial in some but not in all cases. Attempts have
+been made to apply electricity to agriculture on a commercial scale,
+but the exact measure of success attained remains somewhat doubtful.
+Lemström believed atmospheric electricity to play an important
+part in the natural growth of vegetation, and he assigned
+a special rôle to the needles of fir and pine trees.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The following abbreviations are here used:&mdash;M.Z.,
+<i>Meteorologische Zeitschrift</i>;
+P.Z., <i>Physikalische Zeitschrift</i>;
+S., <i>Sitzungsberichte k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. Naturw. Klasse</i>,
+    Theil ii. 2;
+P.T., &ldquo;Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London&rdquo;;
+T.M., <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, edited by Dr L.A.  Bauer.</p>
+
+<p>Text-books:&mdash;(<b>1</b>)
+G. le Cadet, <i>Étude du champ électrique de l&rsquo;atmosphère</i> (Paris, 1898);
+(<b>2</b>) Svante A. Arrhenius, <i>Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik</i> (Leipzig, 1903);
+(<b>3</b>) A. Gockel, <i>Das Gewitter</i> (Cologne, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>Lists of original authorities:&mdash;(<b>4</b>)
+F. Exner, <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 17, 1900, p. 529 (especially pp. 542-3);
+(<b>5</b>) G.C. Simpson, <i>Q.J.R. Met. Soc.</i>, vol. 31, 1905, p. 295
+    (especially pp. 305-6).
+References in the text:&mdash;(<b>6</b>)
+<i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 4, 1887, p. 352;
+(<b>7</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 4, 1899, p. 213;
+(<b>8</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 661;
+(<b>9</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 114;
+(<b>10</b>) <i>P.T.</i>, vol. 205 A, 1906, p. 61;
+(<b>11</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 260;
+(<b>12</b>) C. Chree, <i>P.T.</i>, vol. 206 A, p. 299;
+(<b>13</b>) Annual volumes, <i>Greenwich Magnetical and Meteorological Observations</i>;
+(<b>14</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 8, 1891, p. 357;
+(<b>15</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 7, 1890, p. 319 and vol. 8, 1891, p. 113;
+(<b>16</b>) Annual volumes, <i>Annaes do Obs. do Infante D. Luiz</i>;
+(<b>17</b>) <i>Annual Reports</i>, Central Meteorological Observatory of Japan;
+(<b>18</b>) <i>Observations made at the Mag. and Met. Obs. at Batavia</i>, vol. 18, 1895;
+(<b>19</b>) J.D. Everett, <i>P.T.</i>, vol. 158, 1868, p. 347;
+(<b>20</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 6, 1889, p. 95;
+(<b>21</b>) A.B. Chauveau, <i>Ann. bureau central météorologique, Paris, année 1900</i>,
+     &ldquo;Mémoires,&rdquo; p. C1;
+(<b>22</b>) V. Conrad, S., 113, p. 1143;
+(<b>23</b>) P.B. Zölss, <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 260;
+(<b>24</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 7, 1902, p. 89;
+(<b>25</b>) <i>Revue générale des sciences</i>, 1906, p. 442;
+(<b>26</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 8, 1903, p. 86. and vol. 9, 1904, p. 147;
+(<b>27</b>) <i>S.</i>, 93, p. 222;
+(<b>28</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 22, 1905, p. 237;
+(<b>29</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 632;
+(<b>30</b>) <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, vol. 20, 1885, p. 456;
+(<b>31</b>) <i>Expédition polaire finlandaise</i>, vol. 3 (Helsingfors, 1898);
+(<b>32</b>) A. Paulsen, <i>Bull. de l&rsquo;Acad. ... de Danemarke</i>, 1894, p. 148;
+(<b>33</b>) <i>Wied. Ann.</i>, vol. 46, 1892, p. 584;
+(<b>34</b>) <i>P.T.</i>, vol. 191 A, p. 187;
+(<b>35</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 5, 1888, p. 95;
+     <i>S.</i>, 99, p. 421; <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 4, 1899, p. 15;
+(<b>36</b>) <i>Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc.</i>, vol. 11, p. 428, and vol. 12, pp. 17 and 85;
+(<b>37</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, pp. 267 and 873;
+(<b>38</b>) E.R. v. Schweidler, <i>S.</i>, 113, p. 1433;
+(<b>39</b>) <i>S.</i>, 111, July 1902;
+(<b>40</b>) <i>Veröffentl. des Kg. Preuss. Met. Inst.</i>, 1904;
+(<b>41</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 106;
+(<b>42</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 198;
+(<b>43</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 871;
+(<b>44</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 93;
+(<b>45</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 229;
+(<b>46</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 1705;
+(<b>47</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 399;
+(<b>48</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 522;
+(<b>49</b>) <i>S.</i>, 113, p. 1455;
+(<b>50</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 627;
+(<b>51</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 90;
+(<b>52</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 151;
+(<b>53</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 253;
+(<b>54</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 749;
+(<b>55</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, pp. 53 and 339;
+(<b>56</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 11;
+(<b>57</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 591;
+(<b>58</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 9, 1904, p. 49;
+(<b>59</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 295;
+(<b>60</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 504;
+(<b>61</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 10, 1905, p. 65;
+(<b>62</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 1377;
+(<b>63</b>) <i>Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc.</i>, vol. 13, p. 363;
+(<b>64</b>) <i>Trans. R.S. Edin.</i>, vol. 39, p. 63, and vol. 40, p. 484;
+(<b>65</b>) <i>Q.J.R. Met. Soc.</i>, vol. 24, 1898, p. 31;
+(<b>66</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 11, 1894, p. 277;
+(<b>67</b>) <i>Jahrbücher der Konigl. Ung. Reichsanstalt für Met. und Erdmag.</i>,
+     vol. 33, 1903, III. Theil with appendix by L. von Szalay;
+(<b>68</b>) U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, <i>Weather Bureau Bulletin</i>, No. 30, 1901;
+(<b>69</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 19, 1902, p. 297;
+(<b>70</b>) <i>Q.J.R. Met. Soc.</i>, vol. 15, 1889, p. 140;
+(<b>71</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 20, 1903, p. 227;
+(<b>72</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 20, 1903, p. 522;
+(<b>73</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 367;
+(<b>74</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 22, 1905, p. 175;
+(<b>75</b>) J. Hegyfoky, <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 20, 1903, p. 218;
+(<b>76</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 22, 1905, p. 575;
+(<b>77</b>) S. Arrhenius, <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 5, 1888, p. 348;
+(<b>78</b>) G. Hellmann, <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 22, 1905, p. 223;
+(<b>79</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 11, 1894, p. 239;
+(<b>80</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 468;
+(<b>81</b>) <i>Berlin Sitz.</i>, 1889, No. 16;
+(<b>82</b>) A.J. Henry, <i>U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Bull.</i>, No. 26, 1899;
+(<b>83</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 16, 1899, p. 128;
+(<b>84</b>) <i>K. Sven. Vet. Akad. Hand.</i>, Bd. 19, No. 8, Bd. 20, No. 6,
+     Bd. 31, Nos. 2 and 3;
+(<b>85</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 11, 1894, p. 230;
+(<b>86</b>) <i>Nature</i>, vol. 65, 1902, p. 367;
+(<b>87</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 8, 1891, p. 321;
+(<b>88</b>) <i>Brit. Assoc. Report</i> for 1898, p. 808, also <i>Electricity
+     in Agriculture and Horticulture</i> (London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Ch.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> see <i>Authorities</i> below.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>. About 1840-1845 great interest
+was excited by a method of propelling railway trains through
+the agency of atmospheric pressure. Various inventors worked
+at the realization of this idea. On the system worked out in
+England by Jacob Samuda and S. Clegg, a continuous pipe or
+main was laid between the rails, and in it a partial vacuum was
+maintained by means of air pumps. A piston fitting closely in
+it was connected to the leading vehicle of the train by an iron
+plate which passed through a longitudinal groove or aperture
+running the whole length of the pipe. This aperture was covered
+by a valve consisting of a continuous strip of leather, strengthened
+on each side with iron plates; one edge was fastened, while the
+other was free to rise, and was closed against a composition of
+beeswax and tallow placed in the groove, the surface of which
+was slightly melted by a heater, carried on each train, in order
+to secure an air-tight joint. Connected behind the piston was
+a frame carrying four wheels which lifted and sustained the
+continuous valve for a distance of about 15 ft. Thus the piston
+having atmospheric pressure on one side of it and a vacuum equal
+to 15 or 16 in. of mercury on the other, was forced along the tube,
+taking the train with it. Various advantages were claimed by
+the advocates of the system, including cheapness of operation
+as compared with steam locomotives, and safety from collision,
+because the main was divided into sections by separating valves
+and only one train could be in each section at a given time. It
+was installed on about 2 m. of line between Kingstown and
+Dalkey (Ireland) in 1843 and worked till 1855; it was also tried
+on the London and Croydon and on the South Devon lines, but
+was soon abandoned. The same principle is applied in the
+system of pneumatic despatch (<i>q.v.</i>) to the transmission of small
+parcels in connexion with postal and telegraph work.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further particulars see three papers by J. Samuda, P.W.
+Barlow and G. Berkeley, with reports of the discussions upon them,
+in <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i>, 1844 and 1845.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATOLL<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (native name <i>atollon</i> in the Maldive Islands), a horse-shoe
+or ring shaped coral reef enclosing a lagoon. The usual
+shape is that of a partly submerged dish with a broken edge,
+forming the ring of islands, standing upon a conical pedestal.
+The dish is formed of coral rock and the shells of various
+reef-dwelling mollusca, covered, especially at the seaward edges, with
+a film of living coral polyps that continually extend the fringe,
+and enlarge the diameter of the atoll. The lagoon tends to deepen
+when the land is stationary by the death of the coral animals in
+the still water, and the patchy disintegration of the &ldquo;hard&rdquo;
+coral, while waves and storms tear off blocks of rock and pile
+them up at the margin, increasing the height of the islands,
+which become covered by vegetation. The lagoon entrance in
+the open part of the horse-shoe is always to leeward of prevailing
+winds, since the coral growth is there slower than where the waves
+constantly renew the polyps&rsquo; food supply. The conical pedestal
+rising from the depths is frequently a submarine volcanic cone
+or island, though any submerged peak may be crowned by an
+atoll. For the theory of atoll formation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coral-reefs</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATOM<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span>
+(Gr. <span class="grk" title="atomos">&#7940;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, indivisible, from <span class="grk" title="a-">&#7936;-</span> privative,
+and <span class="grk" title="temnein">&#964;&#941;&#956;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to cut), the term given in physical science to the
+ultimate indivisible particle of matter, and so by analogy to something
+minutely small in size. If we examine such a substance as sugar
+we find that it can be broken up into fine grains, and these again
+into finer, the finest particles still appearing to be of the same
+nature as sugar. The same is true in the case of a liquid such as
+water; it can be divided into drops and these again into smaller
+drops, or into the finest spray the particles of which are too small
+to be detected by our unaided vision. In fact, so far as the direct
+evidence of our senses tells us, matter appears to be indefinitely
+divisible. Moreover, small particles do not seem to exist in the
+water until it is broken up; so far as we can see, the material
+of the water is continuous not granular. This conception of
+matter, <i>as infinitely divisible and continuous</i>, was taught by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span>
+Anaxagoras more than four centuries before the Christian era,
+and in the philosophy of Aristotle the same ideas are found.
+<span class="sidenote">Theories of matter.</span>
+But some phenomena are difficult to reconcile with
+this view; for example, a cubic foot of air can be compressed
+into less than one five-hundredth of a cubic
+foot, or, if allowed to expand, the air originally occupying
+the cubic foot can be made to fill, apparently uniformly, a space
+of a million cubic feet or more. This enormous capacity for
+expansion and contraction is astonishing if we believe matter
+to be continuous, but if we imagine air to be made up of little
+particles separated by relatively large empty spaces the changes
+in volume are more easily conceivable. Moreover, if we attribute
+such a structure to gases, we are led to attribute it to liquids
+and to solids also, since gases can be liquefied without any abrupt
+change, and many substances usually solid can be converted
+into gases by heating them. This conception of the <i>grained</i>
+structure of matter is very ancient; traces of it are to be found
+in Indian philosophy, perhaps twelve centuries before the
+Christian era, and the Greek philosophers Democritus and
+Epicurus, in the 3rd and 4th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, taught it very
+definitely. Their view was that &ldquo;matter is not indefinitely
+divisible, but that all substances are formed of indivisible particles
+or atoms which are eternal and unchangeable, that the atoms
+are separated from one another by void, and that these atoms,
+by their combinations, form the matter we are conscious of.&rdquo;
+The Roman poet Lucretius (<i>De Rerum Natura</i>) was an eloquent
+exponent of this theory, but throughout the middle ages, indeed
+until the 17th century, it was eclipsed by the prestige of Aristotle.
+In the time, however, of Boyle<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and Newton, we again find an
+atomic theory of matter; Newton<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> regarded a gas as consisting
+of small separate particles which repelled one another, the
+tendency of a gas to expand being attributed to the supposed
+repulsion between the particles.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider some common phenomena in the light of these
+rival theories as to the nature of matter. When a few lumps of
+sugar are added to a glass of water and stirred, the sugar soon
+disappears and we are left with a uniform liquid resembling
+water, except that it is sweet. What has become of the sugar?
+Does it still exist? The atomist would say, &ldquo;Yes, it is broken
+up into its atoms, and these are distributed throughout the spaces
+between the particles of water.&rdquo; The rival philosopher, who
+believes water to be continuous and without spaces between its
+particles, has a greater difficulty in accounting for the
+disappearance of the sugar; he would probably say that the sugar,
+and the water also, had ceased to exist, and that a new
+continuous substance had been formed from them, but he could
+offer no picture of how this change had taken place. Or consider
+a well-marked case of what we are in the habit of calling <i>chemical
+combination</i>. If 127 parts of iodine, which is an almost black
+solid, and 100 parts of mercury, which is a white liquid metal,
+be intimately mixed by rubbing them together in a mortar, the
+two substances wholly disappear, and we obtain instead a
+brilliant red powder quite unlike the iodine or the mercury;
+almost the only property that is unchanged is the weight. The
+question again arises, what has become of the original
+substances? The atomist has an easy answer; he says that the
+new body is made up by the juxtaposition of the atoms of
+iodine and mercury, which still exist in the red powder. His
+opponent would be disposed to say that the iodine and the
+mercury ceased to exist when the red powder was formed, that
+they were <i>components</i> but not <i>constituents</i> of it. The fact that
+the two components can be recovered from the compound by
+destroying it does not decide the question. It is remarkable
+that pure chemistry, even to-day, has no very conclusive
+arguments for the settlement of this controversy; but the sister
+science of physics is steadily accumulating evidence in favour of
+the atomic conception.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:517px; height:191px" src="images/img871.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="3">From Dalton&rsquo;s <i>New System of Chemical Philosophy</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Hydrogen Gas.</td>
+<td class="caption">Nitrous Gas.</td>
+<td class="caption">Carbonic Acid Gas.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 256px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:206px; height:213px" src="images/img871a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Until the time of John Dalton, the atomic conception remained
+purely qualitative, and until then it does not appear to have
+advanced chemistry or to have found further confirmation in
+the facts of chemistry. Dalton (1803) gave the atomic theory a
+<span class="sidenote">Dalton.</span>
+quantitative form, and showed that, by means of it,
+a vast number of the facts of chemistry could be
+predicted or explained. In fact, he did so much to make the
+atomic theory of matter probable that he is popularly regarded
+as its originator. Dalton lived in a period marked by great advances
+in experimental chemistry. Rather before the commencement
+of the 19th century the work of Lavoisier had rendered
+it very probable that chemical changes are not accompanied
+by any change in weight, and this principle of the conservation of
+matter was becoming universally accepted; chemists were also
+acquiring considerable skill in chemical analysis, that is, in the
+determination of the nature and relative amounts of the elements
+contained in compounds. But Sir H.E. Roscoe and A. Harden,
+<i>New View of the Atomic Theory</i> (1896), have shown, from a study
+of Dalton&rsquo;s manuscript notes, that we do not owe his atomic
+theory to such experiments. If their view is correct, the theory
+appears to be a remarkable example of deductive reasoning.
+Dalton, who was a mathematical physicist even more than a
+chemist, had given much thought to the study of gases. Following
+Newton, he believed a gas to be made up of particles or atoms,
+separated from one another by considerable spaces. Certain
+difficulties that he met with in his speculations led him to the
+conclusion that the particles of any one kind of gas, though all
+of them alike, must differ from those of another gas both in <i>size</i>
+and <i>weight</i>. He thus arrived at the conception of a definite
+atomic weight peculiar to the particles of each gas, and he
+thought that he could determine these atomic weights, in terms
+of one of them, by means of the quantitative analysis of
+compounds.  The conclusion that each element had a definite atomic
+weight, peculiar to it, was the new idea that made his speculations
+fruitful, because it allowed of quantitative deduction and
+verification. He drew simple diagrams, three of which, taken
+from Dalton&rsquo;s <i>New System of Chemical Philosophy</i>, part ii.
+(1810), are reproduced here, in which gases are represented as
+composed of atoms. Knowing that the gas which he called
+&ldquo;nitrous gas&rdquo; was composed of oxygen and nitrogen, and believing
+it to be the simplest compound of these two elements, he
+naturally represented its atom as formed of an atom of oxygen
+and an atom of nitrogen in juxtaposition. When two elements
+form more than one compound, as is the case with oxygen and
+carbon, he assigned to the compound which he thought the more
+complex an atom made up of two atoms of the one element and
+one atom of the other; the diagram
+for carbonic acid illustrates this, and
+an extension of the same plan enabled
+him to represent any compound, however
+complex its structure. The table
+here given contains some of Dalton&rsquo;s
+diagrams of atoms. They are not all
+considered to be correct at the present
+time; for example, we now think that
+the ultimate particle of water is made
+up of two atoms of hydrogen and one
+of oxygen, and that that of ammonia
+contains three atoms of hydrogen to one of nitrogen. But
+these differences between Dalton&rsquo;s views and our present ones
+do not impair the accuracy of the arguments which follow.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span>
+The diagrams show that Dalton formed a very definite conception
+of the nature of chemical combination; it was the union of a
+small number of atoms of one kind with a small number of
+another kind to form a compound atom, or as we now say a
+&ldquo;molecule,&rdquo; this identical process being repeated millions of
+times to form a perceptible amount of a compound. The conceptions
+of &ldquo;element,&rdquo; &ldquo;compound&rdquo; and &ldquo;mixture&rdquo; became
+more precise than they had been hitherto; in an element all the
+atoms are alike, in a compound all the molecules are alike, in a
+mixture there are different kinds of molecules. If we accept the
+hypothesis that each kind of atom has a specific and invariable
+weight, we can, with the aid of the above theory, make most
+important inferences concerning the proportions by weight in
+which substances combine to form compounds. These inferences
+are often summarized as the laws of <i>constant, multiple and
+reciprocal proportions</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The law of <i>constant proportions</i> asserts that <i>when two elements
+unite to form a compound the weights that combine are in an
+invariable ratio, a ratio that is characteristic of that
+compound.</i> Thus if Dalton&rsquo;s diagram for the molecule,
+<span class="sidenote">Law of constant proportions.</span>
+or compound atom, of water be correct, it follows that
+in all samples of water the total number of the hydrogen
+atoms is equal to that of the oxygen atoms; consequently, the
+ratio of the weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen in water is the
+same as the ratio of the weights of an oxygen and a hydrogen
+atom, and <i>this is invariable</i>. Different samples of water cannot
+therefore differ ever so little in percentage composition, and the
+same must be true for every compound as distinguished from a
+mixture. Apart from the atomic theory there is no obvious
+reason why this should be so. We give the name bread to a
+substance containing variable proportions of flour and water.
+Similarly the substance we call wine is undeniably variable in
+composition. Why should not the substance we call water also
+vary more or less? The Aristotelian would find no difficulty
+in such a variability; it is only the disciple of Dalton to whom
+it seems impossible. It is evident that we have in this law a
+definite prediction that can be tested by experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The law of <i>multiple proportions</i> asserts that <i>if two elements
+form more than one compound, then the weights of the one element
+which are found combined with unit weight of the other
+in the different compounds, must be in the ratio of two
+or more whole numbers.</i> If we compare Dalton&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Law of multiple proportions.</span>
+diagrams of the two oxides of carbon or of the three
+oxides of nitrogen that are given in the preceding table, we at
+once see the necessity of this law; for the more complex molecule
+has to be formed from the simpler one by the addition of one or
+more whole atoms. In the oxides of carbon the same weight
+of carbon must be combined with weights of oxygen that are as
+1 : 2, and in the oxides of nitrogen a fixed weight of nitrogen
+must be in union with weights of oxygen that are as 1 : 2 : ½,
+which are the same ratios as 2 : 4 : 1. This law has been
+abundantly verified by experiment; for example, five oxides of
+nitrogen are known, and independent analyses show that, if we
+consider the same weight of nitrogen in every case, the weights
+of oxygen combined with it are to one another as 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5.
+The discovery of this law is due to Dalton; it is a direct deduction
+from his atomic theory. Here again, apart from this theory,
+there is no obvious reason why the composition of different
+substances should be related in so simple a way. As Dalton
+said, &ldquo;The doctrine of definite proportions appears mysterious
+unless we adopt the atomic hypothesis.&rdquo; &ldquo;It appears like the
+mystical ratios of Kepler which Newton so happily elucidated.&rdquo;
+The chemists of Dalton&rsquo;s time were not unanimous in accepting
+these laws; indeed C.L. Berthollet (<i>Essai de statique
+chimique</i>, 1803) expressly controverted them. He maintained that,
+under varying conditions, two substances could combine in an
+indefinitely large number of different ratios, that there could in
+fact be a continuous variation in the combining ratio. This
+view is clearly inconsistent with the atomic theory, which requires
+that when the combining ratio of two substances changes it
+should do so, <i>per saltum</i>, to quite another value.</p>
+
+<p>The law of <i>reciprocal proportions</i>, or, as it might well be named,
+the law of <i>equivalence</i>, cannot be adequately enunciated in a few
+words. The following gives a partial statement of it.
+<span class="sidenote">Law of reciprocal proportions.</span>
+<i>If we know the weights a and b of two elements that are
+found in union with unit weight of a third element, then
+we can predict the composition of the compounds which
+the first two elements can form with each other; either the weights
+a and b will combine exactly, or if not, these weights must be multiplied
+by integers to obtain the composition of a compound.</i> To see
+how this law follows from Dalton&rsquo;s theory let us consider his
+diagrams for the molecules of water, ethylene and the oxides of
+carbon. In water and in ethylene experiment shows that 8
+parts by weight of oxygen and 6 parts of carbon, respectively,
+are in union with one part of hydrogen; also, if the diagrams
+are correct, these numbers must be in the ratio of the atomic
+weights of oxygen and carbon. We can therefore predict that
+all oxides of carbon will have compositions represented by the
+ratio of 8m parts of oxygen to 6n parts of carbon, where m and n
+are whole numbers. This prediction is verified by the result of
+analysis. Similarly, if we know by experiment the composition
+of water and of ammonia, we can predict the probable composition
+of the oxides of nitrogen. Experiment shows that, in water
+and ammonia, we have, respectively, 8 parts of oxygen and 4.67
+parts of nitrogen in union with one part of hydrogen; we can
+therefore infer that the oxides of nitrogen will all have the
+composition of 8m parts of oxygen to 4.67n parts of nitrogen.
+Experiment alone can tell us the values of m and n; all that
+the theory tells us is that they are whole numbers. In this
+particular case, n turns out to be 3, and m has in succession the
+values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that these laws all follow from the idea that a
+compound molecule can only alter through the addition or
+subtraction of one or more complete atoms, together with the
+idea that all the molecules in a pure substance are alike.
+Fortunately, the compounds at first examined by the chemists
+engaged in verifying these laws were comparatively simple, so
+that the whole numbers referred to above were small. The
+astonishing variety of ratios in which carbon and hydrogen
+combine was not at first realized. Otherwise Berthollet&rsquo;s
+position would have been a much stronger one, and the atomic
+theory might have had to wait a long while for acceptance.
+Even at the present time, it would be too much to say that all
+the complex organic substances have been proved by analysis
+to obey these laws; all we can assert is that their composition
+and properties can be satisfactorily explained on the assumption
+that they do so.</p>
+
+<p>The above statement does not by any means exhaust the
+possible predictions that can be made from the atomic theory,
+but it shows how to test the theory. If chemical compounds
+can be proved by experiment to obey these laws, then the
+atomic theory acquires a high degree of probability; if they are
+contradicted by experiment then the atomic theory must be
+abandoned, or very much modified. Dalton himself made many
+analyses with the purpose of establishing his views, but his
+skill as an analyst was not very great. It is in the work of the
+great Swedish chemist J.J. Berzelius, and somewhat later, in
+the experiments of the Belgian chemist J.S. Stas, that we find
+the most brilliant and vigorous verification of these laws, and
+therefore of the atomic theory.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now give an outline of the experimental evidence for
+the truth of these laws.</p>
+
+<p>The law of the conservation of matter, an important element
+in the atomic theory, has been roughly verified by innumerable
+analyses, in which, a given weight of a substance
+having been taken, each ingredient in it is isolated
+<span class="sidenote">Experimental evidence.</span>
+and its weight separately determined; the total weight
+of the ingredients is always found to be very nearly
+equal to the weight of the original substance. But on account
+of experimental errors in weighing and measuring, and through
+loss of material in the transfer of substances from one vessel to
+another, such analyses are rarely trustworthy to more than one
+part in about 500; so that small changes in weight consequent
+on the chemical change could not with certainty be proved or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span>
+disproved. A few experimenters have carried the verification
+much further. Stas, in his syntheses of silver iodide, weighed
+the silver and the iodine separately, and after converting them
+into the compound he weighed this also. In each of a number
+of experiments he found that the weight of the silver iodide
+did not differ by one twenty-thousandth of the whole from the
+sum of the weights of the silver and the iodine used. His analyses
+of another compound, silver iodate, confirm the law to one part
+in 78,000. In E.W. Morley&rsquo;s experiments on the synthesis of
+water the hydrogen, the oxygen and the water that had been
+formed were separately determined; taking the mean of his
+results, the sum of the weights of the ingredients is not found to
+differ from the weight of the product by one part in 10,000. It
+is evident that if our experiments are solely directed to the
+verification of this law, they should, if possible, be carried out
+in a hermetically closed vessel, the vessel and its contents being
+weighed before and after the chemical change. The extremely
+careful experiments of this kind, by H. Landolt and others,
+made it at first appear that the change in weight, if there is any,
+consequent on a chemical change can rarely exceed one-millionth
+of the weight of the reacting substances, and that it must often
+be much less. The small discrepancies found are so easily
+accounted for by attributing them to experimental errors that,
+until recently, every chemist would have regarded the law
+as sufficiently verified. Landolt&rsquo;s subsequent experiments
+showed, what was already noticed in the earlier ones, that these
+minute changes in weight are nearly always losses, the products
+weigh less than the components, while if they had been purely
+experimental errors, due to weighing, they might have been expected
+to be as frequently gains as losses. Landolt was disposed
+to attribute these losses in weight to the containing
+vessel, which was of glass or quartz, not being absolutely impervious,
+but in 1908 he showed that, by making allowance for
+the moisture adsorbed on the vessel, the errors were both positive
+and negative, and were less than one in ten million. He concluded
+that <i>no change of weight can be detected.</i> Modern researches (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radioactivity</a></span>) on the complex nature of the atom have a
+little shaken the belief in the absolute permanence of matter.
+But it seems pretty clear that if there is any change in weight
+consequent on chemical change, it is <i>too minute to be of importance
+to the chemist</i>, though the methods of modern physics
+may settle the question. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Element</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The law of constant proportions is easily verified to a moderate
+degree of accuracy by such experiments as the following. We
+can prepare, in the laboratory, a white powder that proves to be
+calcium carbonate, that is, it appears to be wholly composed of
+carbon dioxide and lime. We find in nature two other unlike
+substances, marble and Iceland spar, each of which is wholly
+composed of carbon dioxide and lime. Thus these three substances,
+unlike in appearance and origin, are composed of the
+same ingredients: if small variations in the combining ratio of
+the components were possible, we might expect to find them
+in such a case as this. But analysis has failed to find such
+differences; the ratio of the weights of lime and carbon
+dioxide is found to be the same in all three substances.
+Such analyses, which do not always admit of great accuracy,
+have been confirmed by a few carefully planned experiments
+in which two components were brought together under
+very varied conditions, and the resulting compound analysed.
+Stas carried out such experiments on the composition of
+silver chloride and of ammonium chloride, but he never found a
+variation of one part in 10,000 in the composition of the
+substances.</p>
+
+<p>The two laws discussed above were more or less accepted before
+the promulgation of the atomic theory, but the law of multiple
+proportions is the legitimate offspring of this theory. Berzelius
+saw at once that it afforded an admirable test for the correctness
+of Dalton&rsquo;s views, and he made numerous experiments expressly
+designed to test the law. One of these experiments may be
+described. Two chlorides of copper are known, one a highly
+coloured substance, the other quite white. Berzelius took 8
+grams of copper, converted it into the coloured chloride, and
+sealed up the whole of this in solution, together with a weighed
+strip of copper. After some time the colour entirely disappeared;
+the strip of copper was then taken out and reweighed,
+and it was found to have lost 8.03 grams. Thus the chlorine,
+which in the coloured compound was in union with 8 grams of
+copper, appears, in the colourless chloride, to be combined with
+16.03 grams, or almost exactly double the amount. It is easy
+to verify this result. In a series of repetitions of the experiment,
+by different observers, the following numbers were obtained for
+the ratio of the copper in the two chlorides: 1.98, 1.97, 2.03,
+2.003, the mean value being 1.996. It will be noticed that the
+ratio found is sometimes above and sometimes below the number
+2, which is required by the atomic theory, and therefore the
+deviations may not unreasonably be attributed to experimental
+errors. Such experiments&mdash;and numerous ones of about this
+degree of accuracy have been made on a variety of substances&mdash;give
+a high degree of probability to the law, but leave it an open
+question whether it has the exactitude of the law of the conservation
+of matter, or whether it is only approximately true. The
+question is, however, vital to the atomic theory. It is, therefore,
+worth while to quote a verification of great exactitude from the
+work of Stas and J.B.A. Dumas<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> on the composition of the
+two oxides of carbon. From their work it follows that the ratio
+of the weights of oxygen combined with unit weight of carbon
+in the two oxides is 1.99995, or with somewhat different data,
+1.9996.</p>
+
+<p>The law of reciprocal proportion, of which some examples have
+been already given, is part of a larger law of equivalence that
+underlies most of our chemical methods and calculations. One
+section of the law expresses the fact that the weights of two
+substances, not necessarily elements, that are equivalent in one
+reaction, are often found to be equivalent in a number of other
+reactions. The neutralization of acids by bases affords many
+illustrations, known even before the atomic theory, of the truth
+of the statement. It is universally found that the weights of two
+bases which neutralize the same weight of one acid are equivalent
+in their power of neutralizing other acids. Thus 5 parts by
+weight of soda, 7 of potash and 3.5 of quicklime will each
+neutralize 4.56 parts of hydrochloric acid or 7.875 of nitric or
+6.125 parts of sulphuric acid; these weights, in fact, are mutually
+equivalent to one another. The Daltonian would say that each
+of these weights represents a certain group of atoms, and that
+these groups can replace, or combine with, each other, to form
+new molecules. The change from a binary compound, that is,
+one containing two elements, to a ternary compound in which
+these two elements are associated with a third, sometimes affords
+a very good test for the theory. The atomic theory can picture
+the change from the binary to the ternary compound simply as
+the addition of one or more atoms of the third element to the
+previously existing molecule; in such a case the combining
+ratio of the first two elements should be absolutely the same in
+both compounds. Berzelius tested this prediction. He showed
+that lead sulphide, a black substance containing only lead and
+sulphur, could be <i>converted</i> by oxidation into lead sulphate, a
+white compound containing oxygen as well as lead and sulphur.
+The whole of the lead and sulphur of the sulphide was found to
+be present in the sulphate; in other words, the combining ratio
+of the lead and sulphur was not altered by the addition of the
+oxygen. This is found to be a general rule. It was verified very
+exactly by Stas&rsquo;s experiments, in which he removed the oxygen
+from the ternary compound silver iodate and found that the
+whole of the silver and the iodine remained in combination with
+each other as silver iodide; his results prove, to one part in ten
+millions, that the combining ratio of the silver and the iodine
+is unaltered by the removal of the oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>The above gives some idea of the evidence that has been
+accumulated in favour of the laws of chemical combination, laws
+which can be deduced from the atomic theory. Whenever any
+of these laws, or indeed any prediction from the theory, can be
+tested it has so far proved to be in harmony with experiment.
+The existence of the periodic law (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Element</a></span>), and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span>
+researches of physicists on the constitution of matter (<i>q.v.</i>), also
+furnish very strong support to the theory.</p>
+
+<p>Dalton was of the opinion that it was possible to determine
+the weights of the elementary atoms in terms of any one by the
+analysis of compounds. It is evident that this is
+practicable if the number and kind of atoms contained
+<span class="sidenote">Atomic weight.</span>
+in the molecule of a compound can be determined.
+To take the simplest possible case, if Dalton had been correct
+in assuming that the molecule of water was made up of one atom
+of oxygen and one of hydrogen, then the experimental fact that
+water contains eight parts by weight of oxygen to one part of
+hydrogen, would at once show that the atom of oxygen is eight
+times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen, or that, taking the
+atomic weight of hydrogen as the unit, the atomic weight of
+oxygen is 8. Similarly, Dalton&rsquo;s diagram for ammonia, together
+with the fact that ammonia contains 4.67 parts of nitrogen to
+one of hydrogen, at once leads to the conclusion that the atomic
+weight of nitrogen is 4.67. But, unfortunately, the assumption
+as to the number of atoms in the molecules of these two compounds
+was an arbitrary one, based on no valid evidence. It is
+now agreed that the molecule of water contains two atoms of
+hydrogen and one of oxygen, so that the atomic weight of oxygen
+becomes 16, and similarly that the molecule of ammonia contains
+three atoms of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, and that consequently
+the atomic weight of nitrogen is 14. On account of
+this difficulty, the atomic weights published by Dalton, and the
+more accurate ones of Berzelius, were not always identical with
+the values now accepted, but were often simple multiples or
+submultiples of these.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;symbols&rdquo; for the elements used by Dalton, apparently
+suggested by those of the alchemists, have been rejected in favour
+of those which were introduced by Berzelius. The
+latter employed the first letter, or the first two letters,
+<span class="sidenote">Formulae.</span>
+of the name of an element as its symbol. The symbol, like that
+of Dalton, always stands for the atomic weight of the element,
+that is, while H stands for one part by weight of hydrogen,
+O stands for 16 parts of oxygen, and so on. The symbols
+of compounds become very concise, as the number of atoms
+of one kind in a molecule can be expressed by a sub-index.
+Thus the symbol or formula H<span class="su">2</span>O for water expresses the view
+that the molecule of water consists of one  atom of oxygen
+and two of hydrogen; and if we know the atomic weights
+of oxygen and hydrogen, it also tells us the composition of
+water by weight. Similarly, the modern formula for ammonia
+is NH<span class="su">3</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The superiority of this notation over that of Dalton is not so
+obvious when we consider such simple cases as the above, but
+chemists are now acquainted with very complex molecules
+containing numerous atoms; cane sugar, for example, has the
+formula C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">22</span>O<span class="su">11</span>. It would be a serious business to draw
+a Daltonian diagram for such a molecule.</p>
+
+<p>Dalton believed that the molecules of the elementary gases
+consisted each of one atom; his diagram for hydrogen gas makes
+the point clear. We now believe that the molecule of an element
+is frequently made up of two or more atoms; thus the formulae
+for the gases hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are H<span class="su">2</span>, O<span class="su">2</span>, N<span class="su">2</span>, while
+gaseous phosphorus and sulphur are probably P<span class="su">4</span> and S<span class="su">6</span>, and
+gaseous mercury is Hg<span class="su">1</span>,&mdash;that is, the molecule of this element
+is monatomic. This view, as to the frequently complex nature
+of the elementary molecule, is logically and historically connected
+with the striking hypothesis of Amadeo Avogadro and A.M.
+Ampère. These natural philosophers suggested that equal
+volumes of all gaseous substances must contain, at the same
+temperature and pressure, the same number of molecules. Their
+hypothesis explains so many facts that it is now considered to be
+as well established as the parts of the theory due to Dalton.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+This principle at once enables the weights of molecules to be
+compared even when their composition is unknown; it is only
+necessary to determine the specific gravities of the various gases
+referred to some one of them, say hydrogen; the numbers so
+obtained giving the weights of the molecules referred to that of
+the hydrogen molecule.</p>
+
+<p>The atomic theory has been of priceless value to chemists, but
+it has more than once happened in the history of science that a
+hypothesis, after having been useful in the discovery
+and the co-ordination of knowledge, has been abandoned
+<span class="sidenote">Present position of the atomic theory.</span>
+and replaced by one more in harmony with later
+discoveries. Some distinguished chemists have thought
+that this fate may be awaiting the atomic theory, and
+that in future chemists may be able to obtain all the guidance
+they need from the science of the transformations of energy.
+But modern discoveries in radioactivity<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> are in favour of the
+existence of the atom, although they lead to the belief that the
+atom is not so eternal and unchangeable a thing as Dalton and
+his predecessors imagined, and in fact, that the atom itself may
+be subject to that eternal law of growth and decay of which
+Lucretius speaks.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. H. Ne.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Robert Boyle, <i>The Sceptical Chymist</i> (1661);
+<i>The Usefulness of Natural Philosophy</i> (1663).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sir Isaac Newton, <i>Principia</i>, bk. ii. prop. 23.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Freund, <i>The Study of Chemical Composition</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It will be seen that in the three gas diagrams of Dalton that are
+reproduced above, equal numbers of molecules are contained in
+equal volumes, but if Dalton held this view at one time he certainly
+afterwards abandoned it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Rutherford, <i>Radioactivity</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATONEMENT<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> and <b>DAY OF ATONEMENT.</b>
+&ldquo;Atone&rdquo; (originally&mdash;see below&mdash;&ldquo;at one&rdquo;) and &ldquo;atonement&rdquo;
+terms ordinarily used as practically synonymous with
+satisfaction, reparation, compensation, with a view
+to reconciliation. As the English technical terms
+<span class="sidenote">The religious doctrine.</span>
+representing a theological doctrine which plays an
+important part not only in Christianity but in most religions,
+the underlying ideas require more detailed analysis. A doctrine
+of atonement makes the following presuppositions. (<i>a</i>) There
+is a natural relation between God and man in which God looks
+favourably upon man. (<i>b</i>) This relation has been disturbed so
+that God regards man&rsquo;s character and conduct with disapproval,
+and inflicts suffering upon him by way of punishment. In the
+higher religions the disturbance is due, as just implied, to
+unsatisfactory conduct on man&rsquo;s part, <i>i.e.</i> sin. (<i>c</i>) The normal
+relation may be restored, <i>i.e.</i> sin may be forgiven; and this
+restoration is the atonement.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of the atonement is the means or condition of
+the restoration of man to God&rsquo;s favour; this has been variously
+found (<i>a</i>) in the endurance of punishment; (<i>b</i>) in the payment
+of compensation for the wrong done, the compensation consisting
+of sacrifices and other offerings; (<i>c</i>) in the performance of
+magical or other ritual, the efficacy of the ritual consisting in its
+being pleasing to or appointed by God, or even in its having a
+coercive power over the deity; (<i>d</i>) in repentance and amendment
+of life. Most theories of atonement would combine two or more
+of these, and would include repentance and amendment. Some
+or all of the conditions of atonement may be fulfilled, according
+to various views, either by the sinner or vicariously on his behalf
+by some kinsman; or by his family, clan or nation; or by
+some one else.</p>
+
+<p>In the Old Testament, &ldquo;atonement,&rdquo; &ldquo;make an atonement&rdquo;
+represent the Hebrew <i>kippur</i> and its derivatives. It is doubtful
+whether this root meant originally to &ldquo;cover&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;wipe out&rdquo;; but probably it is used as a technical
+<span class="sidenote">Old Testament.</span>
+term without any consciousness of its etymology.
+The Old Testament presents very varied teaching on
+this subject without attempting to co-ordinate its doctrines in
+a harmonious system. In some cases there is no suggestion of
+any forgiveness; sinners are &ldquo;cut off&rdquo; from the chosen people;
+individuals and nations perish in their iniquity.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Some passages
+refer exclusively to the endurance of punishment as a condition
+of pardon;<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> others to the penitence and amendment of the
+sinner.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In Ezekiel xxxvi. 25-31, repentance is called forth by
+the divine forgiveness.</p>
+
+<p>Sacrifice and other rites are also spoken of as conditions of the
+restoration of man to happy relations with God. The Priestly
+Code (Leviticus and allied passages) seems to confine the efficacy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span>
+of sacrifice to ritual, venial and involuntary sins,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and requires
+that the sacrifices should be offered at Jerusalem by the Aaronic
+priests; but these limitations did not belong to the older religion;
+and even in later times popular faith ascribed a larger efficacy to
+sacrifice. On the other hand, other passages protest against the
+ascription of great importance to sacrifice; or regard the rite
+as a consequence rather than a cause of forgiveness.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The Old
+Testament has no theory of sacrifice; in connexion with sin the
+sacrifice was popularly regarded as payment of penalty or compensation.
+Lev. xvii. 11 suggests a mystic or symbolic explanation
+by its statement &ldquo;the life of the flesh is in the blood; and
+I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for
+your lives:<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> for it is the blood that maketh atonement by reason
+of the life.&rdquo; The Old Testament nowhere explains why this
+importance is attached to the blood, but the passage is often held
+to mean that the life of the victim represented the forfeited life
+of the offerer.</p>
+
+<p>The atoning ritual reached its climax on the Day of Atonement
+&#1497;&#1493;&#1501; &#1492;&#1499;&#1508;&#1493;&#1512;&#1497;&#1501; <span class="grk" title="aemera exilasmon">&#7969;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#945; &#7952;&#958;&#953;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#8166;</span>, in the Mishna simply &ldquo;the
+Day,&rdquo; (<i>Y&#333;m&#257;</i>), observed annually on the 10th day of
+the 7th month (Tisri), in the autumn, about October,
+<span class="sidenote">Jewish day of atonement.</span>
+shortly before the Feast of Tabernacles or vintage
+festival. At one time the year began in Tisri. The
+laws of the Day of Atonement belong to the Priestly Code.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a>
+There is no trace of this function before the exile; the earliest
+reference to any such special time of atonement being the
+proposal of Ezek. xlv. 18-20 to establish two days of atonement,
+in the first and seventh months.<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> No doubt, however, both the
+principles and ritual are partly derived from earlier times. The
+object of the observances was to cleanse the sanctuary, the
+priesthood and the people from all their sins, and to renew
+and maintain favourable relations between Yahweh and Israel.
+The ritual includes features found on other holy days, sacrifices,
+abstinence from work, &amp;c.; and also certain unique acts. The
+Day of Atonement is the only fast provided in the Law; it is
+only on this occasion that (<i>a</i>) the Jews are required to &ldquo;afflict
+their souls,&rdquo; (<i>b</i>) the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies, (<i>c</i>) the
+High Priest offers incense before the mercy seat and sprinkles
+it with blood, and (<i>d</i>) the scapegoat or Azazel is sent away into
+the wilderness, bearing upon him all the iniquities of the people.
+In later Judaism, especially from about 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, great stress
+was laid on the Day of Atonement, and it is now the most
+important religious function of the Jews. On that day many
+attend the synagogues who are seldom or never seen in them
+at other times.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of vicarious atonement appears in the Old Testament
+in different forms. The nation suffers for the sin of the individual;<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+and the individual for the sin of his kinsfolk<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> or of
+the nation.<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Above all the Servant of Yahweh<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> appears as
+atoning for sinners by his sufferings and death. Again, the
+Old Testament speaks of the restoration of heathen nations,
+and of the salvation of the heathen;<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> but does not formulate
+any theory of atonement in this connexion. The Old Testament,
+however, only prepares the way for the Christian doctrine of the
+atonement; this is clear, inasmuch as its teaching is largely
+concerned with the nation, and hardly touches on the future
+life. Moreover, it could not define the relation of Christ to the
+atonement. Later Judaism emphasized the idea of vicarious
+atonement for Israel through the sufferings of the righteous,
+especially the martyrs; but it is very doubtful whether the
+idea of the atonement through the death of the Messiah is a
+pre-Christian Jewish doctrine.<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In the New Testament, the English version uses &ldquo;atonement&rdquo;
+once, Rom. v. 11, for <span class="grk" title="katallagae">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#947;&#942;</span> (R.V. here and elsewhere
+&ldquo;reconciliation&rdquo;). This Greek word corresponds to
+the idea suggested by the etymology of at-one-ment,
+<span class="sidenote">New Testament.</span>
+the re-uniting in amity of those at variance, a sense
+which the word had in the 17th century but has since
+lost. But the idea which is now usually expressed by &ldquo;atonement&rdquo;
+is rather represented in the New Testament by <span class="grk" title="ilasmos">&#7985;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>
+and its cognates, <i>e.g.</i> 1 John ii. 2 R.V., &ldquo;He (Jesus) is the
+propitiation (<span class="grk" title="ilasmos">&#7985;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>) for our sins.&rdquo; But these words are rare,
+and we read more often of &ldquo;salvation&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="sotaeria">&#963;&#969;&#964;&#951;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>) and &ldquo;being
+saved,&rdquo; which includes or involves that restoration to divine
+favour which is called atonement. The leading varieties of
+teaching, the Sayings of Jesus, Paul, the Johannine writings,
+the Epistle to the Hebrews, connect the atonement with Christ
+especially with His death, and associate it with faith in Him and
+with repentance and amendment of life.<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p>
+
+<p>These ideas are also common to Christian teaching generally.
+The New Testament, however, does not indicate that its writers
+were agreed as to any formal dogma of the atonement, as regards
+the relation of the death of Christ to the sinner&rsquo;s restoration to
+God&rsquo;s favour; but various suggestions are made as to the
+solution of the problem. St Paul&rsquo;s teaching connects with the
+Jewish doctrine of vicarious suffering, represented in the Old
+Testament by Is. liii., and probably, though not expressly, with
+the ritual sacrifices. Christ suffering on behalf of sinners satisfies
+the divine righteousness, which was outraged by their sin.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a>
+His work is an expression of God&rsquo;s love to man;<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a> the redeeming
+power of Christ&rsquo;s death is also explained by his solidarity with
+humanity as the second Adam,<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a>&mdash;the redeemed sinner has
+&ldquo;died with Christ.&rdquo;<a name="fa19e" id="fa19e" href="#ft19e"><span class="sp">19</span></a> Some atoning virtue seems also attributed
+to the Resurrection;<a name="fa20e" id="fa20e" href="#ft20e"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Christ&rsquo;s sayings connect admission to the
+kingdom of God with susceptibility to the influence of His
+personality, faith in Himself and His mission, and the loyalty
+that springs from faith.<a name="fa21e" id="fa21e" href="#ft21e"><span class="sp">21</span></a> In John, Christ is a &ldquo;propitiation&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="ilasmos">&#7985;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>) provided by the love of God that man may be cleansed
+from sin; He is also their advocate (<span class="grk" title="Paraklaetos">&#928;&#945;&#961;&#940;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>) with God that
+they may be forgiven, for His name&rsquo;s sake.<a name="fa22e" id="fa22e" href="#ft22e"><span class="sp">22</span></a> <i>Hebrews</i> speaks of
+Christ as transcending the rites and officials of the law; He
+accomplishes the realities which they could only foreshadow;
+in relation to the perfect, heavenly sacrifice which atones for sin,
+He is both priest and victim.<a name="fa23e" id="fa23e" href="#ft23e"><span class="sp">23</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The subsequent development of the Christian doctrine has
+chiefly shaped itself according to the Pauline formula of vicarious
+atonement; the sufferings of Christ were accepted as a
+substitute for the punishment which men deserved,
+<span class="sidenote">Later interpretation.</span>
+and so the divine righteousness was satisfied&mdash;a
+formula, however, which left much room for controversy.
+The creeds and confessions are usually vague. Thus the
+Apostles&rsquo; Creed, &ldquo;I believe in the forgiveness of sins&rdquo;; the
+Nicene Creed, &ldquo;I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ ... who for
+us men and for our salvation came down from heaven ... I
+acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins&rdquo;; the
+Athanasian Creed, &ldquo;Who (Christ) suffered for our salvation.&rdquo;
+In the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England we have
+(ii.) &ldquo;Christ suffered ... to reconcile his Father to us, and to
+be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for all actual
+sins of men&rdquo;; and (xxxi.) &ldquo;The offering of Christ once made
+is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction, for
+all the sins of the whole world.&rdquo; The council of Trent declared
+that &ldquo;<i>Christus ... nobis sua sanctissima passione ligno crucis
+justificationem meruit et pro nobis deo patri satisfecit</i>,&rdquo; &ldquo;Christ
+earned our justification by His most holy passion and satisfied
+God the Father for us.&rdquo; The Confession of Augsburg uses words
+equivalent to the Articles quoted above which were based upon
+it. The Westminster Confession declares: &ldquo;The Lord Jesus
+Christ, by His perfect obedience and sacrifice of Himself, which
+He through the Eternal Spirit once offered up to God, hath
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span>
+fully satisfied the justice of His Father, and purchased not only
+reconciliation, but an everlasting inheritance in the kingdom
+of heaven, for all those whom the Father hath given unto Him.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Individual theologians have sought to define more exactly
+the points on which the standards are vague. For instance,
+how was justice satisfied by Christ? The early Fathers, from
+Irenaeus (d. <i>c.</i> 200) to Anselm (d. 1109),<a name="fa24e" id="fa24e" href="#ft24e"><span class="sp">24</span></a> held, <i>inter alia</i>, that
+Christ paid a ransom to Satan to induce him to release men from
+his power. Anselm and the scholastics regarded the atonement
+as an offering to God of such infinite value as to outweigh men&rsquo;s
+sins, a view sometimes styled the &ldquo;Commerical Theory.&rdquo;<a name="fa25e" id="fa25e" href="#ft25e"><span class="sp">25</span></a> The
+leading reformers emphasized the idea that Christ bore the punishment
+of sin, sufferings equivalent to the punishments deserved
+by men, a view maintained later on by Jonathan Edwards
+junior. But the intellectual activity of the Reformation also
+developed other views; the Socinians, with their humanitarian
+theory of the Person of Christ, taught that He died only to
+assure men of God&rsquo;s forgiving love and to afford them an example
+of obedience&mdash;&ldquo;Forgiveness is granted upon the ground of
+repentance and obedience.&rdquo;<a name="fa26e" id="fa26e" href="#ft26e"><span class="sp">26</span></a> Grotius put forward what has been
+called the <i>Governmental</i> Theory, viz. that the atonement took
+place not to satisfy the wrath of God, but in the practical
+interests of the divine government of the world, &ldquo;The sufferings
+and death of the Son of God are an exemplary exhibition of
+God&rsquo;s hatred of moral evil, in connexion with which it is safe and
+prudent to remit that penalty, which so far as God and the divine
+attributes are concerned, might have been remitted without it.&rdquo;<a name="fa27e" id="fa27e" href="#ft27e"><span class="sp">27</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The formal legal view continued to be widely held, though
+it was modified in many ways by various theologians. For
+instance, it has been held that Christ atoned for mankind
+not by enduring the penalty of sin, but by identifying
+<span class="sidenote">Modern views.</span>
+Himself with the sinner in perfect sympathy, and
+feeling for him an &ldquo;equivalent repentance&rdquo; for his sin. Thus
+McLeod Campbell (<i>q.v.</i>) held that Christ atoned by offering up
+to God a perfect confession of the sins of mankind and an
+adequate repentance for them, with which divine justice is
+satisfied, and a full expiation is made for human guilt. A similar
+view was held by F.D. Maurice.<a name="fa28e" id="fa28e" href="#ft28e"><span class="sp">28</span></a> Others hold that the effect of
+the atoning death of Christ is not to propitiate God, but to
+reconcile man to God; it manifests righteousness, and thus
+reveals the heinousness of sin; it also reveals the love of God,
+and conveys the assurance of His willingness to forgive or receive
+the sinner; thus it moves men to repentance and faith, and
+effects their salvation; so substantially Ritschl.<a name="fa29e" id="fa29e" href="#ft29e"><span class="sp">29</span></a> In England
+much influence has been exerted by Dr R.W. Dale&rsquo;s <i>Atonement</i>
+(1875), the special point of which is that the death of Christ is
+not required by the personal demand of God to be propitiated,
+but by the necessity of honouring an ideal law of righteousness;
+thus, &ldquo;the death of Christ is the objective ground on which the
+sins of men are remitted, because it was an act of submission to
+the righteous authority of the law by which the human race was
+condemned ... and because in consequence of the relation
+between Him and us&mdash;His life being our own&mdash;His submission
+is the expression of ours, and carries ours with it ... (and)
+because in His submission to the awful penalty of sin ... there
+was a revelation of the righteousness of God, which must otherwise
+have been revealed in the infliction of the penalties of sin
+on the human race.&rdquo;<a name="fa30e" id="fa30e" href="#ft30e"><span class="sp">30</span></a> This view, however, leads to a dilemma;
+if the law of righteousness is simply an expression of the divine
+will, satisfaction to law is equivalent to propitiation offered to
+God; if the law has an independent position, the view is inconsistent
+with pure monotheism.</p>
+
+<p>The present position may be illustrated from a work representing
+the more liberal Anglican theology. Bishop Lyttelton
+in <i>Lux Mundi</i><a name="fa31e" id="fa31e" href="#ft31e"><span class="sp">31</span></a> stated that the death of Christ is propitiatory
+towards God because it expressed His perfect obedience, it
+manifested God&rsquo;s righteous wrath against sin, and in virtue
+of Christ&rsquo;s human nature involved man&rsquo;s recognition of the
+righteousness of God&rsquo;s condemnation of sin; also because in
+some mysterious way death has a propitiatory value; and
+finally because Christ is the representative of the human race.
+Towards man, the death of Christ has atoning efficacy because
+it delivers from sin, bestows the divine gift of life and conveys
+the assurance of pardon. The benefits of the atonement are
+appropriated by &ldquo;the acceptance of God&rsquo;s forgiveness in Christ,
+our self-identification with Christ&rsquo;s atoning attitude, and then
+working out, by the power of the life bestowed upon us, all the
+(moral and spiritual) consequence of forgiveness.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At present the belief in an objective atonement is still widely
+held; whether in the form of penal theories&mdash;the old forensic
+view that the death of Christ atones by paying the penalty of
+man&rsquo;s sin&mdash;or in the form of governmental theories; that the
+Passion fulfilled a necessity of divine government by expressing
+and vindicating God&rsquo;s righteousness. But there is also a widespread
+inclination to minimize, ignore or deny the objective
+aspect of the atonement, the effect of the death of Christ on
+God&rsquo;s attitude towards men; and to follow the moral theories
+in emphasizing the subjective aspect of the atonement, the
+influence of the Passion on man. There is a tendency to eclectic
+views embracing the more attractive features of the various
+theories; and attempts are made to adapt, interpret and
+qualify the imagery and language of older formulae, in order
+so to speak, to issue them afresh in new editions, compatible
+with modern natural science, psychology and historical criticism.
+Such attempts are necessary in a time of transition, but they
+involve a measure of obscurity and ambiguity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Atonement: H. Bushnell, <i>Vicarious Sacrifice</i>
+(1871); J. McLeod Campbell, <i>Nature of the Atonement</i> (1869);
+T.J. Crawford, <i>Doctrine of the Holy Spirit respecting the Atonement</i>
+(1871); R.W. Dale, <i>Atonement</i> (1875); J. Denney, <i>Death of Christ</i>,
+<i>Atonement and the Modern Mind</i> (1903); A. Lyttelton, <i>Lux Mundi</i>,
+pp. 201 ff. (Atonement), (1889); R. Moberly, <i>Atonement and Personality</i>;
+A. Ritschl, <i>Die christliche Lehre van der Rechtfertigung
+und Versohnung</i> (1870-1874); G.B. Stevens, <i>Christian Doctrine
+of Salvation</i> (1905).</p>
+
+<p>Day of Atonement: articles in Hastings&rsquo; <i>Bible Dictionary</i>, and
+in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. H. Be.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. Exodus xii. 15, &amp;c.; Josh. vii. 24 (Achan); Jer. li. 62
+(Babylon).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> 2 Sam. xii. 13, 14 (David); Isaiah xl. 2 (Jerusalem): in such
+cases, however, the context implies repentance.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ezek. xviii., Micah vi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Lev. iv. 2, &ldquo;sin unwittingly,&rdquo; <i>bishegag&#257;</i>, <i>c.</i> 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Psalm l. 10, li. 16-19; Isaiah i. 11; Micah vi. 6-8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Heb. <i>nephesh</i>, also translated &ldquo;soul.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Lev. xvi., xxiii. 27-32; Numb. xxix. 7-11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> So Davidson, &amp;c. with LXX. The A.V. with Hebrew text has
+&ldquo;seventh day of the month.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> Achan, Josh. vii. 10-15.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> 2 Sam. xxi. 1-9; Deut. v. 9, 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ezek. xxi. 3, 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Isaiah liii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Isaiah xix. 25, xlix. 6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Köberle, <i>Sunde und Gnade</i>, pp. 592 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Mark x. 45; Matt. xxvi. 28; 1 Cor. xv. 3; John xi. 48-52;
+Heb. ii. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Rom. iii. 25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Rom. v. 8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Rom. v. 15-19.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19e" id="ft19e" href="#fa19e"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Rom. vi. 8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20e" id="ft20e" href="#fa20e"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Rom. iv. 25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21e" id="ft21e" href="#fa21e"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Matt. xxv. 34 f.; Mark viii. 34 ff., ix. 36 f., x. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22e" id="ft22e" href="#fa22e"><span class="fn">22</span></a> 1 John ii. 1, 2, 12, iii. 5, 8, iv. 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23e" id="ft23e" href="#fa23e"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Heb. ii. 17, ix. 14.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24e" id="ft24e" href="#fa24e"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Stevens, <i>Christian Doctrine of Salvation</i>, p. 138.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25e" id="ft25e" href="#fa25e"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 151.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26e" id="ft26e" href="#fa26e"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Shedd, <i>Hist. of Christ. Doctr.</i> ii. 385 ff.; cf. van Oosterzee, <i>Christ.
+Dogmatics</i>, 611.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27e" id="ft27e" href="#fa27e"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Shedd ii. 358 f.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28e" id="ft28e" href="#fa28e"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Crawford, <i>Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement</i>, pp. 327 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29e" id="ft29e" href="#fa29e"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Orr, <i>Ritschlian Theology</i>, pp. 149 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30e" id="ft30e" href="#fa30e"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Dale, <i>Atonement</i>, pp. 430 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31e" id="ft31e" href="#fa31e"><span class="fn">31</span></a> Pp. 209, 212, 214, 216, 219, 221, 225.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATRATO,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a river of western Colombia, South America, rising
+on the slopes of the Western Cordilleras, in 5° 36&prime; N. lat., and
+flowing almost due north to the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, where
+it forms a large delta. Its length is about 400 m., but owing to
+the heavy rainfall of this region it discharges no less than 175,000
+cub. ft. of water per second, together with a very large quantity
+of sediment, which is rapidly filling the gulf. The river is navigable
+to Quibdo (250 m.), and for the greater part of its course
+for large vessels, but the bars at its mouth prevent the entrance
+of sea-going steamers. Flowing through the narrow valley
+between the Cordillera and coast range, it has only short tributaries,
+the principal ones being the Truando, Sucio and Murri.
+The gold and platinum mines of Choco were on some of its
+affluents, and the river sands are auriferous. The Atrato at one
+time attracted considerable attention as a feasible route for a
+trans-isthmian canal, which, it was estimated, could be excavated
+at a cost of £11,000,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATREK,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a river which rises in 37° 10&prime; N. lat. and 59° E., in the
+mountains of the north-east of the Persian province of Khorasan,
+and flows west along the borders of Persia and the Russian
+Transcaspian province, till it falls, after a course of 350 m.,
+into the south-eastern corner of the Caspian, a short distance
+north-north-west of Astarabad.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATREUS,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodameia,
+and elder brother of Thyestes. Having murdered his stepbrother
+Chrysippus, Atreus fled with Thyestes to Mycenae,
+where he succeeded Eurystheus in the sovereignty. His wife
+Aërope was seduced by Thyestes, who was driven from Mycenae.
+To avenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthenes (Atreus&rsquo; son whom
+Thyestes had brought up as his own) to kill Atreus, but Pleisthenes
+was himself slain by his own father. After this Atreus,
+apparently reconciled to his brother, recalled him to Mycenae
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span>
+and invited him to a banquet to eat of his son, whom Atreus had
+slain. Thyestes fled in horror. Subsequently Atreus married
+the daughter of Thyestes, Pelopia, who had by her own father
+a son, Aegisthus, who was adopted by Atreus. Thyestes was
+found by Agamemnon and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus, and
+imprisoned at Mycenae. Aegisthus being sent to murder
+Thyestes, mutual recognition took place, and Atreus was slain
+by the father and son, who seized the throne, and drove Agamemnon
+and Menelaus out of the country (Thucydides i. 9;
+Hyginus, <i>Fabulae</i>; Apollodorus). Homer does not speak of the
+horrors of the story, which are first found in the tragedians;
+he merely states (<i>Iliad</i>, ii. 105) that Atreus at his death left the
+kingdom to Thyestes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Voigt in <i>Dissert. philol. Halenses.</i> vi. (1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATRI,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Teramo,
+6 m. W. of the station of that name on the railway from Ancona
+to Foggia, and 18 m. due E.S.E. of Teramo, on the site of the
+ancient <i>Hadria</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1901) 13,448. Its Gothic cathedral
+(1285-1305) is remarkably fine; and the interior, though spoilt
+by restoration in 1657, contains some important frescoes of the
+end of the 15th century by Andrea di Lecce and his pupils. The
+crypt was originally a cistern of the Roman period. The palace
+of the Acquaviva family, who were dukes of Atri from 1398 to
+1775, is a massive building situated in the principal square.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATRIUM<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (either from <i>ater</i>, black, referring to the blackening
+of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek
+<span class="grk" title="aethrion">&#945;&#7988;&#952;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria,
+where the style of building is supposed to have originated), the
+principal entrance hall or court of a Roman dwelling, giving
+access and light to the rooms round it. The centre of the roof
+over the atrium was open to the sky and called the <i>compluvium</i>;
+the rain-water from the roof collected in the gutters was
+discharged into a marble tank underneath, which was known as
+the <i>impluvium</i>. In the early periods of Roman civilization the
+atrium was the common public apartment, and was used for
+the reception of visitors and clients, and for ordinary domestic
+purposes, as cooking and dining. In it were placed the ancestral
+pictures, the marriage-couch, the hearth and generally a small
+altar. At a somewhat later period, and among the wealthy,
+separate apartments were built for kitchens and dining-rooms,
+and the atrium was kept as a general reception-room for clients
+and visitors. There were many varieties of the atrium, depending
+on the way in which the roof was carried. These are described
+by Vitruvius under the title of <i>cavaedium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Other buildings, both consecrated and unconsecrated, were
+called by the term (corresponding to the English &ldquo;hall&rdquo;), such
+as the Atrium Vestae, where the vestal virgins lived, and the
+Atrium Libertatis, the residence of the censor, where Asinius
+Pollio established the first public library at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The word <i>atrium</i> in Rome had a second signification, being
+given to an open court with porticos round, sometimes placed
+in front of a temple. A similar arrangement was adopted by
+the early Christians with relation to the Basilica, in front of
+which there was an open court surrounded by colonnades or
+arcades. The church of San Clemente at Rome, that of Sant&rsquo;
+Ambrogio at Milan and the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria still
+retain their atria.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATROPHY<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="a-">&#7936;-</span> priv., <span class="grk" title="trophae">&#964;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#7968;</span>, nourishment), a term in
+medicine used to describe a state of wasting due to some interference
+with the function of healthy nutrition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pathology</a></span>).
+In the living organism there are always at work changes involving
+the waste of its component tissues, which render necessary, in
+order to maintain and preserve life, the supply and proper assimilation
+of nutritive material. It is also essential for the maintenance
+of health that a due relation exist between these processes
+of waste and repair, so that the one may not be in excess of the
+other. When the appropriation of nutriment exceeds the waste,
+hypertrophy (<i>q.v.</i>) or increase in bulk of the tissues takes place.
+When, on the other hand, the supply of nutritive matter is
+suspended or diminished, or when the power of assimilation is
+impaired, atrophy or wasting is the result. Thus the whole
+body becomes atrophied in many diseases; and in old age every
+part of the frame, with the single exception of the heart, undergoes
+atrophic change. Atrophy may, however, affect single
+organs or parts of the body, irrespective of the general state of
+nutrition, and this may be brought about in a variety of ways.
+One of the most frequently observed of such instances is atrophy
+from disuse, or cessation of function. Thus, when a limb is
+deprived of the natural power of motion, either by paralysis
+or by painful joint disease, the condition of exercise essential
+to its nutrition being no longer fulfilled, atrophy of all its textures
+sooner or later takes place. The brain in imbeciles is frequently
+observed to be shrivelled, and in many cases of blindness there
+is atrophy of the optic nerve and optic tract. This form of
+atrophy is likewise well exemplified in the case of those organs
+and structures of the body which subserve important ends
+during foetal life, but which, ceasing to be necessary after birth,
+undergo a sort of natural atrophy, such as the thymus gland,
+and certain vessels specially concerned in the foetal circulation.
+The uterus after parturition undergoes a certain amount of
+atrophy, and the ovaries, after the child-bearing period, become
+shrunken. Atrophy of a part may also be caused by interruption
+to its normal blood-supply, as in the case of the ligature
+or obstruction of an artery. Again, long-standing disease, by
+affecting the nutrition of an organ and by inducing the deposit
+of morbid products, may result in atrophy, as frequently happens
+in affections of the liver and kidneys. Parts that are subjected
+to continuous pressure are liable to become atrophied, as is
+sometimes seen in internal organs which have been pressed upon
+by tumours or other morbid growths, and is well illustrated in
+the Chinese practice of foot-binding. Atrophy may manifest
+itself simply by loss of substance; but, on the other hand, it is
+often found to co-exist with degenerative changes in the textures
+affected and the formation of adventitious growth, so that the
+part may not be reduced in bulk although atrophied as regards
+its proper structure. Thus, in the case of the heart, when
+affected with fatty degeneration, there is atrophy of the proper
+muscular texture, but as this is largely replaced by fatty matter,
+the organ may undergo no diminution in volume, but may, on
+the contrary, be increased in size. Atrophy is usually a gradual
+and slow process, but sometimes it proceeds rapidly. In the
+disease known by the name of <i>acute yellow atrophy of the liver</i>,
+that organ undergoes such rapidly destructive change as results
+in its shrinking to half, or one-third, of its normal size in the
+course of a few days. The term <i>progressive muscular atrophy</i>
+(synonyms, <i>wasting</i> or <i>creeping palsy</i>) is applied to an affection
+of the muscular system, which is characterized by the atrophy
+and subsequent paralysis of certain muscles, or groups of muscles,
+and is associated with morbid changes in the anterior roots of
+the nerves of the spinal cord. This disease begins insidiously,
+and is often first observed to affect the muscles of one hand,
+generally the right. The attention of the sufferer is first attracted
+by the power of the hand becoming weakened, and then there is
+found to be a wasting of certain of its muscles, particularly those
+of the ball of the thumb. Gradually other muscles in the arms
+and legs become affected in a similar manner, their atrophy
+being attended with a corresponding diminution in power.
+Although sometimes arrested, this disease tends to progress,
+until in course of time the greater part of the muscular system
+is implicated and a fatal result ensues.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATROPOS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the eldest of the three Fates
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fate</a></span>). Her name, the &ldquo;Unalterable&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="a-">&#7936;-</span> privative, and
+<span class="grk" title="trepein">&#964;&#961;&#941;&#960;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to turn), indicates her function, that of rendering the
+decisions of her sisters irreversible or immutable. Atropos is
+most frequently represented with scales, a sun-dial or a cutting
+instrument, the &ldquo;abhorred shears,&rdquo; with which she slits the
+thin-spun thread of life that has been placed on the spindle by
+Clotho and drawn off by Lachesis.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Quinticius</span> (d. 77 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman
+comedy writer, was, like Titinius and Afranius, distinguished
+as a writer of <i>fabulae togatae</i>, national comedies. He had the
+reputation of being a vivid delineator of character, especially
+female. He also seems to have published a collection of epigrams.
+The scanty fragments contain many archaisms, but are lively in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span>
+style. According to Horace (<i>Epistles</i>, ii 1. 79) the plays of
+Atta were still put on the stage in his time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Aulus Gellius vii. 9; fragments in Neukirch, <i>De fabula togata
+Romanorum</i> (1833); Ribbeck, <i>Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae</i> (1855).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTACAPA<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Choctaw for &ldquo;cannibal&rdquo;), a tribe of North-American
+Indians, whose home was in south-west Louisiana;
+they are now practically extinct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTACHMENT,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span><a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in law, a process from a court of record,
+awarded by the justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion,
+or on their own knowledge, and properly grantable in cases of
+contempt. It differs from arrest (<i>q.v.</i>), in that he who arrests
+a man carries him to a person of higher power to be forthwith
+disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the party attached,
+and presents him in court at the day assigned, as appears by the
+words of the writ. Another difference is, that arrest is only upon
+the body of a man, whereas an attachment is often upon his
+goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to
+lands, as the latter does; nor does a distress touch the body,
+as an attachment does. Every court of record has power to fine
+and imprison for contempt of its authority. Attachment being
+merely a process to bring the defendant before the court, is not
+necessary in cases of contempt in the presence of the court itself.
+Attachment will be granted in England against peers and
+members of parliament only for such gross contempts as rescues,
+disobedience to the sovereign&rsquo;s writs and the like. Attachment
+will not lie against a corporation. The county courts in this
+respect are regulated by acts of 1846 and 1849. They can only
+punish for contempts committed in presence of the court (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contempt of Court</a></span>). Attachments are granted on a rule in
+the first instance to show cause, which must be personally served
+before it can be made absolute, except for non-payment of costs
+on a master&rsquo;s allocatur, and against a sheriff for not obeying a
+rule to return a writ or to bring in the body. The offender is
+then arrested, and when committed will be compelled to answer
+interrogatories, exhibited against him by the party at whose
+instance the proceedings have been had; and the examination
+when taken is referred to the master, who reports thereon, and
+on the contempt being reported, the court gives judgment according
+to its discretion, in the same manner as upon a conviction
+for a misdemeanour at common law. Sir W. Blackstone observes
+that &ldquo;this method of making the defendant answer upon oath
+to a criminal charge is not agreeable to the genius of the common
+law in any other instance&rdquo;; and the elasticity of the legal definitions
+of contempt of court, especially with respect to comments
+on judicial proceedings, is the subject of much complaint.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attachment of Debts.</i>&mdash;It was suggested by the common law
+commissioners in 1853 that a remedy analogous to that of
+Foreign Attachment (see below) might be made available to
+creditors, after judgment, against debts due to their debtors.
+Accordingly, the Common Law Procedure Act 1854 enacted
+that any creditor, having obtained judgment in the superior
+courts, should have an order that the judgment debtor might
+be examined as to any debts due and owing to him before a master
+of the court. The rules and regulations under the Judicature
+Act 1873 retained the process for attachment of debts as established
+by the Procedure Act of 1854. On affidavit that the judgment
+was still unsatisfied, and that any other person within the
+jurisdiction was indebted to the judgment debtor, the judge
+was empowered to attach all debts due from such third person
+(called the <i>garnishee</i>) to the judgment debtor, to answer the
+judgment debt. This order binds the debts in the hands of the
+garnishee, and if he does not dispute his liability execution
+issues against him at once. If he disputes his liability the question
+must be tried. Payment by the garnishee or execution
+against him is a complete discharge as against the judgment
+debtor. These provisions were, by an order in council of the
+18th of November 1867, extended to the county courts. By
+the Wages Attachment Abolition Act 1870 it is enacted that
+no order for the attachment of the wages of any servant, labourer
+or workman shall be made by the judge of any court of record or
+inferior court, and by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894 it is
+enacted that the wages of a seaman or apprentice are not subject
+to attachment.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States attachment of debts is a statutory remedy
+accorded in most of the states in certain circumstances for the
+security of creditors, by the seizure by the sheriff of the debtor&rsquo;s
+goods or the imposition of a lien upon his land, before judgment,
+and sometimes at the very commencement of the action. In
+some states it is only allowed in special cases, as when the
+debtor has absconded, or is a non-resident or guilty of fraud;
+in a few it may be had, as of right, at the commencement of
+ordinary actions. The common-law courts of the United States
+(by act of Congress) follow the practice in this regard of the state
+in which they sit. Such attachments (on mesne process) can
+generally be dissolved by the substitution of a bond with surety.
+The body can also be attached in most states on civil actions
+of tort (for a wrongful or negligent act to the damage of another),
+but not in actions on contract.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foreign Attachment</i> is an important custom prevailing in the
+city of London, whereby a creditor may attach money owing to
+his debtor, or property belonging to him in the possession of third
+parties. The person holding the property or owing the money
+must be within the city at the time of being served with the
+process, but all persons are entitled to the benefit of the custom.
+The plaintiff having commenced his action, and made a satisfactory
+affidavit of his debt, is entitled to issue attachment,
+which thereupon affects all the money or property of the
+defendant in the hands of the third party, the garnishee. The
+garnishee, of course, has as against the attachment all the
+defences which would be available to him against the defendant,
+his alleged creditor. The garnishee may plead payment under
+the attachment, if there has been no fraud or collusion, in bar
+to an action by the defendant for his debt or property. The
+court to which this process belongs is the mayor&rsquo;s court of
+London, the procedure in which is regulated by the Mayor&rsquo;s
+Court of London Procedure Act 1857. This custom, and all
+proceedings relating thereto, are expressly exempted from the
+operation of the Debtor&rsquo;s Act 1869. Similar customs exist in
+Bristol and a few other towns in England and also in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Writ of Attachment</i> enforces answers and obedience to decrees
+and orders of the High Court of Justice, and is made out without
+order upon an affidavit of the due service of the process, &amp;c.,
+with whose requirements compliance is sought. A corporation,
+however, is proceeded against by distringas and not by
+attachment.  It was formerly competent to the plaintiff to compel
+the appearance of a defendant in chancery by attachment, but
+the usual course was to enter appearance for him in case of
+default. It is one of the modes of execution allowed for the
+recovery of property other than land or money.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attachment of the Forest</i> was the proceeding in the courts of
+attachments, Woodmote, or Forty Days&rsquo; courts. These courts
+have fallen into desuetude. They were held before the verderers
+of the royal forests in different parts of the kingdom once in
+every forty days, for the purpose of inquiring into all offences
+against &ldquo;vert (greensward) and venison.&rdquo; The attachment was
+by the bodies of the offenders, if taken in the very act of killing
+venison, or stealing wood, or preparing so to do, or by fresh
+and immediate pursuit after the act was done; else they must
+be attached by their goods. These attachments were received
+by the verderers and enrolled, and certified under their seals to
+the Swainmote, or Court of Justice-seat, which was the superior
+of the forest courts.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;To attach&rdquo; is first used in English in the legal sense of arrest
+or seizure, and the sense of &ldquo;fasten to&rdquo; is comparatively late. The
+Old French <i>atachier</i>, modern <i>attacher</i>, from which the English
+&ldquo;attach&rdquo; is derived, is from a word for a peg or nail, in English
+&ldquo;tack,&rdquo; which is found in many forms in Scandinavian and Celtic
+languages, and is ultimately connected with the root seen in Latin
+<i>tangere</i>, to touch. The Italian <i>attacare</i>, especially in the phrase
+<i>attacare battaglia</i>, to join battle, gave the French <i>attaquer</i>,
+whence the English &ldquo;attack,&rdquo; which is therefore by origin a doublet of
+&ldquo;attach.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTAINDER<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>ataindre, ateindre</i>, to attain,
+<i>i.e.</i> to strike, accuse, condemn; Lat. <i>attingere, tangere</i>, to touch;
+the meaning has been greatly affected by the confusion with Fr. <i>taindre,
+teindre</i>, to taint, stain, Lat. <i>tingere</i>, to dye), in English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span>
+law, was the immediate and inseparable consequence from the
+common law upon the sentence of death. When it was clear
+beyond all dispute that the criminal was no longer fit to live
+he was called <i>attaint</i>, and could not, before the Evidence Act
+1843, be a witness in any court. This attainder took place after
+judgment of death, or upon such circumstances as were equivalent
+to judgment of death, such as judgment of outlawry on a capital
+crime, pronounced for absconding from justice. Conviction
+without judgment was not followed by attainder. The consequences
+of attainder were (1) forfeiture, (2) corruption of blood.
+On attainder for treason, the criminal forfeited to the crown
+his lands, rights of entry on lands, and any interest he might
+have in lands for his own life or a term of years. For murder,
+the offender forfeited to the crown the profit of his freeholds
+during life, and in the case of lands held in fee-simple, the lands
+themselves for a year and a day; subject to this, the lands
+escheated to the lord of the fee. These forfeitures related back
+to the time of the offence committed. Forfeitures of goods
+and chattels ensued not only on attainder, but on conviction
+for a felony of any kind, or on flight from justice, and had
+no relation backwards to the time of the offence committed.
+By <i>corruption of blood</i>, &ldquo;both upwards and downwards,&rdquo; the
+attainted person could neither inherit nor transmit lands. The
+lands escheated to the lord of the fee, subject to the crown&rsquo;s
+right of forfeiture. The doctrine of attainder has, however,
+ceased to be of much importance. The Forfeiture Act 1870
+enacted that henceforth no confession, verdict, inquest, conviction
+or judgment of or for any treason or felony, or <i>felo de se</i>,
+should cause any attainder or corruption of blood, or any
+forfeiture or escheat. Sentence of death, penal servitude or
+imprisonment with hard labour for more than twelve months,
+after conviction for treason or felony, disqualifies from holding
+or retaining a seat in parliament, public offices under the crown
+or otherwise, right to vote at elections, &amp;c., and such disability
+is to remain until the punishment has been suffered or a pardon
+obtained. Provision was made for the due administration of
+convicts&rsquo; estates, in the interests of themselves and their families.
+Forfeiture consequent on outlawry was exempted from the provisions
+of the act. The United States constitution (Art. III.
+s. 3) says: &ldquo;The Congress shall have power to declare the
+punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work
+corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the
+person attainted.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Bills of Attainder</i>, in English legal procedure, were formerly
+a parliamentary method of exercising judicial authority. They
+were ordinarily initiated in the House of Lords and the proceedings
+were the same as on other bills, but the parties against
+whom they were brought might appear by counsel and produce
+witnesses in both Houses. In the case of an impeachment (<i>q.v.</i>),
+the House of Commons was prosecutor and the House of Lords
+judge; but such bills being <i>legislative</i> in form, the consent of
+crown, lords and commons was necessary to pass them. Bishops,
+who do not exercise but who claim the right to vote in cases of
+impeachment (<i>q.v.</i>), have a right to vote upon bills of attainder,
+but their vote is not conclusive in passing judgment upon
+the accused. First passed in 1459, such bills were employed,
+more particularly during the reigns of the Tudor kings, as a
+species of extrajudicial procedure, for the direct punishment of
+political offences. Dispensing with the ordinary judicial forms
+and precedents, they took away from the accused whatever
+advantages he might have gained in the courts of law; such
+evidence only was admitted as might be necessary to secure
+conviction; indeed, in many cases bills of attainder were passed
+without any evidence being produced at all. In the reign of
+Henry VIII. they were much used, through a subservient
+parliament, to punish those who had incurred the king&rsquo;s
+displeasure; many distinguished victims who could not have been
+charged with any offence under the existing laws being by this
+means disposed of. In the 17th century, during the disputes
+with Charles I., the Long Parliament made effective use of the
+same procedure, forcing the sovereign to give his consent.
+After the Restoration it became less frequent, though the Jacobite
+movement in Scotland produced several instances of attainder,
+without, however, the infliction of the extreme penalty of death.
+The last bill of attainder passed in England was in the case of
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders of 1798.</p>
+
+<p>A bill for reversing attainder took a form contrary to the
+usual rule. It was first signed by the sovereign and presented
+by a peer to the House of Lords by command of the crown, then
+passed through the ordinary stages and on to the commons, to
+whom the sovereign&rsquo;s assent was communicated before the first
+reading was taken, otherwise the whole proceedings were null
+and void.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>Bill of Pains and Penalties</i> resembles a bill of attainder
+in object and procedure, but imposes a lesser punishment than
+death. The most notable instances of the passing of a bill of
+pains and penalties are those of Bishop Atterbury in 1722, and
+of Queen Caroline, wife of George IV., in 1820.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution of the United States declares that &ldquo;no bill
+of attainder or <i>ex post facto</i> law shall be passed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTAINT, WRIT OF,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> an obsolete method of procedure in
+English law, for inquiring by a jury of twenty-four whether
+a false verdict had been given in a trial before an ordinary jury
+of twelve. If it were found that an erroneous judgment had been
+given, the wrong was redressed and the original jury incurred
+infamy, with imprisonment and forfeiture of their goods,
+which punishments were, however, commuted later for a
+pecuniary penalty. In criminal cases a writ of attaint was
+issued at suit of the king, and in civil cases at the suit of either
+party. In criminal cases it appears to have become obsolete
+by the end of the 15th century. Procedure by attaint in civil
+cases had also been gradually giving place to the practice of
+granting new trials, and after the decision in Bushell&rsquo;s case in
+1670 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jury</a></span>) it became obsolete, and was finally abolished
+by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurors guilty of
+embracery (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTALIA,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its
+name from Attalus II., king of Pergamum; the modern Adalia
+(<i>q.v.</i>). It was important as the nearest seaport to the rich
+districts of south-west Phrygia. A much-frequented &ldquo;half-sea&rdquo;
+route led through it to the Lycus and Maeander valleys,
+and so to Ephesus and Smyrna. This was the natural way
+from any part of central Asia Minor to Syria and Egypt, and
+accordingly we hear of Paul and Barnabas taking ship at Attalia
+for Antioch. Originally the port of Perga, Attalia eclipsed the
+old Pamphylian capital in early Christian times and became
+the metropolis. There are extensive remains of the ancient
+walls, including some portions which go back to the foundation
+of the Pergamenian city. The most conspicuous monument
+is the triple Gate of Hadrian, flanked by a tower built by the
+empress Julia. This lies about half-way round the <i>enceinte</i>
+and formerly admitted the road from Perga.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTAR<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> [or <span class="sc">Otto</span>] <b>OF ROSES</b> (Pers. <i>&rsquo;a&#7789;ar</i>, essence), a perfume
+consisting of essential oil of roses, prepared by distilling, or,
+in some districts, by macerating the flowers. The manufacture
+is chiefly carried out in India, Persia and the Balkans; the last
+named supplying the bulk of the European demand. It is used
+by perfumery manufacturers as an ingredient. The genuine
+attar of roses is costly and it is frequently adulterated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTEMPT<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (Lat. <i>adtemptare, attentare</i>, to try), in law, an act
+done with intent to commit a crime, and forming one of a series
+of acts which would constitute its actual commission if it were
+not interrupted. An attempt must proceed beyond mere preparation,
+but at the same time it must fall short of the ultimate
+purpose in any part of it. The actual point, however, at which
+an act ceases to be an attempt, and becomes criminal, depends
+upon the circumstances of each particular case. A person may
+be guilty of an attempt to commit a crime, even if its commission
+in the manner proposed was impossible. Every attempt to
+commit a treason, felony or indictable misdemeanour is in itself
+an indictable misdemeanour, punishable by fine or imprisonment,
+unless the attempt to commit is specifically punishable by statute
+as a felony, or in a defined manner as a misdemeanour; and a
+person who has been indicted for a felony or misdemeanour may,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span>
+if the evidence so warrants, be found guilty only of the attempt,
+provided that it too is a misdemeanour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTENTION<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>ad-tendo</i>, await, expect; the condition
+of being &ldquo;stretched&rdquo; or &ldquo;tense&rdquo;), in psychology, the concentration
+of consciousness upon a definite object or objects.
+The result is brought about, not by effecting any change in the
+perceptions themselves, but simply by isolating them from other
+objects. Since all consciousness involves this isolation, attention
+may be defined generally as the necessary condition of consciousness.
+Such a definition, however, throws no light upon the nature
+of the psychological process, which is partly explained by the
+general law that the greater the number of objects on which
+attention is concentrated the less will each receive (&ldquo;pluribus
+intentus, minor est ad singula sensus&rdquo;), and conversely. There
+are also special circumstances which determine the amount of
+attention, <i>e.g.</i> influences not subject to the will, such as the
+vividness of the impression (<i>e.g.</i> in the case of a shock), strong
+change in pleasurable or painful sensations. Secondly, an exercise
+of volition is employed in fixing the mind upon a definite
+object. This is a purely voluntary act, which can be strengthened
+by habit and is variable in different individuals; to it the name
+&ldquo;attention&rdquo; is sometimes restricted. The distinction is expressed
+by the words &ldquo;reflex&rdquo; or &ldquo;passive,&rdquo; and &ldquo;volitional&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;active.&rdquo; It is important to notice that in every case of
+attention to an object, there must be in consciousness an implicit
+apprehension of surrounding objects from which the particular
+object is isolated. These objects are known as the &ldquo;psychic fringe,&rdquo;
+and are essential to the systematic unity of the attention-process.
+Attempts have been made to examine the attention-process
+from the physiological standpoint by investigating the
+muscular and neural changes which accompany it, and even to
+assign to it a specific local centre. It has, for example, been
+remarked that uniformity of environment, resulting in practically
+automatic activity, produces mental equilibrium and the
+comparative disappearance of attention-processes; whereas the
+necessity of adapting activity to abnormal conditions produces
+a comparatively high degree of attention. In other words,
+attention is absent where there is uniformity of activity in
+accordance with uniform, or uniformly changing, environment.
+In spite of the progress made in this branch of study, it has to
+be remembered that all psycho-physical experiments are to some
+extent vitiated by the fact that the phenomena can scarcely
+remain normal under inspection.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G.F. Stout, <i>Analytic Psychology</i> (London, 1896), especially
+part ii. chap. 2; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brain</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1790-1855), Swedish
+poet, son of a country parson, was born in the province of
+Östergötland on the 19th of January 1790. He studied in the
+university of Upsala from 1805 to 1815, and became professor
+of philosophy there in 1828. He was the first great poet of the
+romantic movement which, inaugurated by the critical work of
+Lorenzo Hammersköld, was to revolutionize Swedish literature.
+In 1807, when in his seventeenth year, he founded at Upsala
+an artistic society, called the Aurora League, the members of
+which included V.F. Palmblad, A.A. Grafström (d. 1870), Samuel
+Hedborn (d. 1849), and other youths whose names were destined
+to take a foremost rank in the literature of their generation.
+Their first newspaper, <i>Polyfem</i>, was a crude effort, soon
+abandoned, but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, <i>Fosforos</i>,
+edited by Atterbom, which lasted for three years and finds a
+place in classic Swedish literature. It consisted entirely of
+poetry and aesthetico-polemical essays; it introduced the study
+of the newly arisen Romantic school of Germany, and formed
+a vehicle for the early works, not of Atterbom only, but of
+Hammersköld, Dahlgren, Palmblad and others. Later, the
+members of the Aurora League established the <i>Poetisk Kalender</i>
+(1812-1822), in which their poems appeared, and a new critical
+organ, <i>Svensk Litteraturtidning</i> (1813-1824). Among Atterbom&rsquo;s
+independent works the most celebrated is <i>Lycksalighetens Ö</i>
+(<i>The Fortunate Island</i>), a romantic drama of extraordinary
+beauty, published in 1823. Before this he had published a
+somewhat in the manner of Novalis. Of a dramatized fairy tale,
+<i>Fågel blå</i> (<i>The Blue Bird</i>), only a fragment, which is among the
+most exquisite of his writings, is preserved. As a purely lyrical
+poet he has not been excelled in Sweden, but his more ambitious
+works are injured by his weakness for allegory and symbolism,
+and his consistent adoption of the mannerisms of Tieck and
+Novalis. In his later years he became less violent in literary
+controversy. He became in 1835 professor of aesthetics and
+literature at Upsala, and four years later he was admitted to the
+Swedish Academy. He died on the 21st of July 1855. His
+<i>Svenska Siare och Skalder</i> (6 vols., 1841-1855, supplement,
+1864) consists of a series of biographies of Swedish poets and men
+of letters, which forms a valuable history of Swedish letters down
+to the end of the &ldquo;classical&rdquo; period. Atterbom&rsquo;s works were
+collected (13 vols., Örebro) in 1854-1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTERBURY, FRANCIS<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1662-1732), English man of letters,
+politician and bishop, was born in the year 1662, at Milton or
+Middleton Keynes in Buckinghamshire, a parish of which his
+father was rector. He was educated at Westminster school and
+at Christ Church, Oxford, where he became a tutor. In 1682
+he published a translation of <i>Absalom and Ahithophel</i> into Latin
+verse; but neither the style nor the versification was that of the
+Augustan age. In English composition he succeeded much
+better. In 1687 he published <i>An Answer to some Considerations
+on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original of the Reformation</i>,
+a reply to Obadiah Walker, who, elected master of University
+College in 1676, had printed in a press set up by him there an
+attack on the Reformation, written by Abraham Woodhead.
+Atterbury&rsquo;s treatise, though highly praised by Bishop Burnet,
+is perhaps more distinguished for the vigour of his rhetoric than
+for the soundness of his arguments, and the Papists were so much
+galled by his sarcasms and invectives that they accused him of
+treason, and of having, by implication, called King James a Judas.</p>
+
+<p>After the Revolution, Atterbury, though bred in the doctrines
+of non-resistance and passive obedience, readily swore fealty
+to the new government. He had taken holy orders in 1687,
+preached occasionally in London with an eloquence which raised
+his reputation, and was soon appointed one of the royal chaplains.
+But he ordinarily resided at Oxford, where he was the chief
+adviser and assistant of Dean Aldrich, under whom Christ Church
+was a stronghold of Toryism. Thus he became the inspirer of
+his pupil, Charles Boyle, in the attack (1698) on the Whig scholar,
+Richard Bentley (<i>q.v.</i>), arising out of Bentley&rsquo;s impugnment
+of the genuineness of the <i>Epistles of Phalaris</i>. He was figured
+by Swift in the <i>Battle of the Books</i> as the Apollo who directed
+the fight, and was, no doubt, largely the author of Boyle&rsquo;s essay.
+Bentley spent two years in preparing his famous reply, which
+proved not only that the letters ascribed to Phalaris were
+spurious, but that all Atterbury&rsquo;s wit, eloquence and skill in
+controversial fence was only a cloak for an audacious pretence
+of scholarship.</p>
+
+<p>Atterbury was soon occupied, however, in a dispute about
+matters still more important and exciting. The rage of religious
+factions was extreme. High Church and Low Church divided
+the nation. The great majority of the clergy were on the High
+Church side; the majority of King William&rsquo;s bishops were
+inclined to latitudinarianism. In 1700 Convocation, of which
+the lower house was overwhelmingly Tory, had not been suffered
+to meet for ten years. This produced a lively controversy, into
+which Atterbury threw himself with characteristic energy,
+publishing a series of treatises written with much wit, audacity
+and acrimony. By the mass of the clergy he was regarded as
+the most intrepid champion that had ever defended their rights
+against the oligarchy of Erastian prelates. In 1701 he was
+rewarded with the archdeaconry of Totnes and a prebend in
+Exeter cathedral. The lower house of Convocation voted him
+thanks for his services; the university of Oxford created him a
+doctor of divinity; and in 1704, soon after the accession of Anne,
+while the Tories still had the chief weight in the government,
+he was promoted to the deanery of Carlisle.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after he had obtained this preferment the Whig party
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span>
+came into power. From that party he could expect no favour.
+Six years elapsed before a change of fortune took place. At
+length, in the year 1710, the prosecution of Sacheverell produced
+a formidable explosion of High Church fanaticism. At such a
+moment Atterbury could not fail to be conspicuous. His inordinate
+zeal for the body to which he belonged, his turbulent
+and aspiring temper, his rare talents for agitation and for
+controversy, were again signally displayed. He bore a chief part
+in framing that artful and eloquent speech which the accused
+divine pronounced at the bar of the Lords, and which presents
+a singular contrast to the absurd and scurrilous sermon which
+had very unwisely been honoured with impeachment. During
+the troubled and anxious months which followed the trial,
+Atterbury was among the most active of those pamphleteers
+who inflamed the nation against the Whig ministry and the Whig
+parliament. When the ministry had been changed and the
+parliament dissolved, rewards were showered upon him. The
+lower house of Convocation elected him prolocutor, in which
+capacity he drew up, in 1711, the often-cited <i>Representation of
+the State of Religion</i>; and, in August 1711, the queen, who had
+selected him as her chief adviser in ecclesiastical matters,
+appointed him dean of Christ Church on the death of his old
+friend and patron Aldrich.</p>
+
+<p>At Oxford he was as conspicuous a failure as he had been at
+Carlisle, and it was said by his enemies that he was made a bishop
+because he was so bad a dean. Under his administration Christ
+Church was in confusion, scandalous altercations took place,
+and there was reason to fear that the great Tory college would
+be ruined by the tyranny of the great Tory doctor. In 1713 he
+was removed to the bishopric of Rochester, which was then
+always united with the deanery of Westminster. Still higher
+dignities seemed to be before him. For, though there were many
+able men on the episcopal bench, there was none who equalled
+or approached him in parliamentary talents. Had his party
+continued in power it is not improbable that he would have been
+raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The more splendid
+his prospects the more reason he had to dread the accession
+of a family which was well known to be partial to the Whigs,
+and there is every reason to believe that he was one of those
+politicians who hoped that they might be able, during the life
+of Anne, to prepare matters in such a way that at her decease
+there might be little difficulty in setting aside the Act of
+Settlement and placing the Pretender on the throne. Her sudden
+death confounded the projects of these conspirators, and,
+whatever Atterbury&rsquo;s previous views may have been, he acquiesced
+in what he could not prevent, took the oaths to the house of
+Hanover, and did his best to ingratiate himself with the royal
+family. But his servility was requited with cold contempt;
+and he became the most factious and pertinacious of all the
+opponents of the government. In the House of Lords his oratory,
+lucid, pointed, lively and set off with every grace of pronunciation
+and of gesture, extorted the attention and admiration even of
+a hostile majority. Some of the most remarkable protests which
+appear in the journals of the peers were drawn up by him; and,
+in some of the bitterest of those pamphlets which called on the
+English to stand up for their country against the aliens who had
+come from beyond the seas to oppress and plunder her, critics
+easily detected his style. When the rebellion of 1715 broke out,
+he refused to sign the paper in which the bishops of the province
+of Canterbury declared their attachment to the Protestant
+succession, and in 1717, after having been long in indirect
+communication with the exiled family, he began to correspond
+directly with the Pretender.</p>
+
+<p>In 1721, on the discovery of the plot for the capture of the
+royal family and the proclamation of King James, Atterbury
+was arrested with the other chief malcontents, and in 1722
+committed to the Tower, where he remained in close confinement
+during some months. He had carried on his correspondence
+with the exiled family so cautiously that the circumstantial
+proofs of his guilt, though sufficient to produce entire moral
+conviction, were not sufficient to justify legal conviction. He
+could be reached only by a bill of pains and penalties. Such a bill
+the Whig party, then decidedly predominant in both Houses,
+was quite prepared to support, and in due course a bill passed
+the Commons depriving him of his spiritual dignities, banishing
+him for life, and forbidding any British subject to hold
+intercourse with him except by the royal permission. In the Lords
+the contest was sharp, but the bill finally passed by eighty-three
+votes to forty-three.</p>
+
+<p>Atterbury took leave of those whom he loved with a dignity
+and tenderness worthy of a better man, to the last protesting
+his innocence with a singular disingenuousness. After a short
+stay at Brussels he went to Paris, and became the leading man
+among the Jacobite refugees there. He was invited to Rome
+by the Pretender, but Atterbury felt that a bishop of the Church
+of England would be out of place at the Vatican, and declined
+the invitation. During some months, however, he seemed to
+stand high in the good graces of James. The correspondence
+between the master and the servant was constant. Atterbury&rsquo;s
+merits were warmly acknowledged, his advice was respectfully
+received, and he was, as Bolingbroke had been before him, the
+prime minister of a king without a kingdom. He soon, however,
+perceived that his counsels were disregarded, if not distrusted.
+His proud spirit was deeply wounded. In 1728 he quitted Paris,
+fixed his residence at Montpelier, gave up politics, and devoted
+himself entirely to letters. In the sixth year of his exile he had
+so severe an illness that his daughter, Mrs Morice, herself very ill,
+determined to run all risks that she might see him once more.
+She met him at Toulouse, received the communion from his
+hand, and died that night.</p>
+
+<p>Atterbury survived the severe shock of his daughter&rsquo;s death
+two years. He even returned to Paris and to the service of the
+Pretender, who had found out that he had not acted wisely in
+parting with one who, though a heretic, was the most able man
+of the Jacobite party. In the ninth year of his banishment he
+published a luminous, temperate and dignified vindication of
+himself against John Oldmixon, who had accused him of having,
+in concert with other Christ Church men, garbled the new edition
+of Clarendon&rsquo;s <i>History of the Rebellion</i>. The charge, as respected
+Atterbury, had not the slightest foundation; for he was not one
+of the editors of the <i>History</i>, and never saw it till it was printed.
+A copy of this little work he sent to the Pretender, with a letter
+singularly eloquent and graceful. It was impossible, the old
+man said, that he should write anything on such a subject without
+being reminded of the resemblance between his own fate and
+that of Clarendon. They were the only two English subjects
+who had ever been banished from their country and debarred
+from all communication with their friends by act of parliament.
+But here the resemblance ended. One of the exiles had been so
+happy as to bear a chief part in the restoration of the royal house.
+All that the other could now do was to die asserting the rights
+of that house to the last. A few weeks after this letter was
+written Atterbury died, on the 22nd of February 1732. His body
+was brought to England, and laid, with great privacy, under the
+nave of Westminster Abbey. No inscription marks his grave.</p>
+
+<p>It is agreeable to turn from Atterbury&rsquo;s public to his private
+life. His turbulent spirit, wearied with faction and treason, now
+and then required repose, and found it in domestic endearments,
+and in the society of the most illustrious literary men of his
+time. Of his wife, Katherine Osborn, whom he married while at
+Oxford, little is known; but between him and his daughter
+there was an affection singularly close and tender. The gentleness
+of his manners when he was in the company of a few friends
+was such as seemed hardly credible to those who knew him only
+by his writings and speeches. Though Atterbury&rsquo;s classical
+attainments were not great, his taste in English literature was
+excellent; and his admiration of genius was so strong that it
+overpowered even his political and religious antipathies. His
+fondness for Milton, the mortal enemy of the Stuarts and of the
+Church, was such as to many Tories seemed a crime; and he
+was the close friend of Addison. His favourite companions,
+however, were, as might have been expected, men whose politics
+had at least a tinge of Toryism. He lived on friendly terms with
+Swift, Arbuthnot and Gay. With Prior he had a close intimacy,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span>
+which some misunderstanding about public affairs at last dissolved.
+Pope found in Atterbury not only a warm admirer, but
+a most faithful, fearless and judicious adviser.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Williams, <i>Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury with
+Notes</i>, &amp;c. (1869); <i>Stuart Papers</i>, vol. i.: <i>Letters of Atterbury to the
+Chevalier St George</i>, &amp;c. (1847); J. Nichols, <i>Epistolary Correspondence</i>,
+&amp;c. (1783-1796); and H.C. Beeching, <i>Francis Atterbury</i>, (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTESTATION<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Lat. <i>adtestare, attestare</i>, to bear witness, <i>testis</i>,
+a witness), the verification of a deed, will or other instrument
+by the signature to it of a witness or witnesses, who endorse or
+subscribe their names under a memorandum, to the effect that
+it was signed or executed in their presence. The essence of
+attestation is to show that at the execution of the document
+there was present some disinterested person capable of giving
+evidence as to what took place. The clause at the end of the
+instrument, immediately preceding the signatures of the witnesses
+to the execution, and stating that they have witnessed
+it, is known as the attestation clause. In Scots law, the corresponding
+clause is called the testing-clause (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deed</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will
+or Testament</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Witness</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTHIS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (an adjective meaning &ldquo;Attic&rdquo;), the name given to
+a monograph or special treatise on the religious and political
+history, antiquities and topography of Attica and Athens.
+During the 4th and 3rd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a class of writers arose,
+who, making these subjects their particular study, were called
+atthidographi, or compilers of atthides. The first of these
+was Clidemus or Clitodemus (about 378 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); the last, Ister
+of Cyrene (died 212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); the most important was Philochorus
+(first half of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), of whose work considerable
+fragments have been preserved. The names of the other atthidographi
+known to us are Phanodemus, Demon, Androtion,
+Andron, Melanthius. They laid no claim to literary skill; their
+style was monotonous and soon became wearisome. They were in
+fact chroniclers or annalists&mdash;not historians. Their only object
+was to set down, in plain and simple language, all that seemed
+worthy of note in reference to the legends, history, constitution,
+religion and civilization of Attica. They followed the order
+of the olympiads and archons, and their work was supported
+by the authority of original documents, monuments and inscriptions.
+Their writings were much used by historians, as well
+as by the scholiasts and grammarians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in Müller, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTIC<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;in the Attic style&rdquo;), an architectural term given
+to the masonry rising above the main cornice of a building,
+the earliest example known being that of the monument of Thrasyllus
+at Athens. It was largely employed by the Romans, who
+in their arches of triumph utilized it for inscriptions or for bas-relief
+sculpture. It was used also to increase the height of
+enclosure walls such as those of the Forum of Nerva. By the
+Italian revivalists it was utilized as a complete storey, pierced
+with windows, as found in Palladio&rsquo;s work at Vicenza and in
+Greenwich hospital. The largest attic in existence is that
+which surmounts the entablature of St Peter&rsquo;s at Rome,
+which measures 39 ft. in height. The term is also employed
+in modern terminology to designate an upper storey in a
+roof, and the feature is sometimes introduced to hide a roof
+behind.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTICA,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a district of ancient Greece, triangular in shape,
+projecting in a south-easterly direction into the Aegean Sea,
+the base line being formed by the continuous chain of Mounts
+Cithaeron and Parnes, the apex by the promontory of Sunium.
+It was washed on two sides by the sea, and the coast is broken
+up into numerous small bays and harbours, which, however,
+are with few exceptions exposed to the south wind. The surface
+of Attica, as of the rest of Greece, is very mountainous, and
+between the mountain chains lie several plains of no great size,
+open on one side to the sea. On the west its natural boundary
+is the Corinthian Gulf, so that it would include Megaris; indeed,
+before the Dorian invasion, which resulted in the foundation of
+Megara, the whole country was politically one, in the hands of
+the Ionian race. This is proved by the column which, as we
+learn from Strabo, once stood on the Isthmus of Corinth, bearing
+on one side in Greek the inscription, &ldquo;This land is Peloponnesus,
+not Ionia,&rdquo; and on the other, &ldquo;This land is not Peloponnesus,
+but Ionia.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The position of Attica was one main cause of its historical
+importance. Hence in part arose the maritime character of
+its inhabitants; and when they had once taken to the sea,
+the string of neighbouring islands, Ceos, Cythnos and others,
+some of which lay within sight of their coasts, and from one to
+another of which it was possible to sail without losing sight of
+land, served to tempt them on to further enterprises. Similarly
+on land, the post it occupied between northern Greece and the
+Peloponnese materially influenced its relation to other states,
+both in respect of its alliances, such as that with Thessaly, towards
+which it was drawn by mutual hostility to Boeotia, which lay
+between them; and also in respect of offensive combinations
+of other powers, as that between Thebes and Sparta, which
+throughout an important part of Greek history were closely
+associated in their politics, through mutual dread of their
+powerful neighbour.</p>
+
+<p>The mountains of Attica, which form its most characteristic
+feature, are a continuation of that chain which, starting from
+Tymphrestus at the southern extremity of Pindus,
+passes through Phocis and Boeotia under the names
+<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
+of Parnassus and Helicon; from this proceeds the range
+which, as Cithaeron in its western and Parnes in its eastern
+portion, separates Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs
+southward towards the Saronic Gulf in Aegaleos and Hymettus,
+which bound the plain of Athens. Again, the eastern extremity
+of Parnes is joined by another line of hills, which, separating
+from Mount Oeta, skirts the Euboic Gulf, and, after entering
+Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus, overlooking
+the plain of Marathon, and then sinks towards the sea at Sunium
+to rise once more in the outlying islands. Finally, at the extreme
+west of the whole district, Cithaeron is bent round at right
+angles in the direction of the isthmus, at the northern approach
+to which it abuts against the mighty mass of Mount Geraneia,
+which is interposed between the Corinthian and the Saronic
+Gulf. Both Cithaeron and Parnes are about 4600 ft. high,
+Pentelicus 3635, and Hymettus 3370, while Aegaleos does not
+rise higher than 1534 ft. At the present day they are extremely
+bare, and in this respect almost repellent; but the lack of colour
+is compensated by the delicacy of the outlines, the minute
+articulation of the minor ridges and valleys, and the symmetrical
+grouping of the several mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The soil is light and thin, and requires very careful agriculture
+not only on the rocky mountain sides but to some extent
+also in the maritime plains. This fact had considerable
+influence on the inhabitants, both by enforcing
+<span class="sidenote">Soil.</span>
+industrious habits and by leading them at an early period to
+take to the sea. Still, the level ground was sufficiently fertile to
+form a marked contrast to the rest of the district. Thucydides
+attributes to the nature of the soil (i. 2 <span class="grk" title="to leptogeon">&#964;&#8056; &#955;&#949;&#960;&#964;&#972;&#947;&#949;&#969;&#957;</span>), which
+presented no attraction to invaders, the permanence of the same
+inhabitants in the country, whence arose the claim to indigenousness
+on which the Athenians so greatly prided themselves;
+while at the same time the richer ground fostered that fondness
+for country life, which is proved by the enthusiastic terms in
+which it is always spoken of by Aristophanes. That we are not
+justified in judging of the ancient condition of the soil by,
+the aridity which prevails at the present day, is shown by
+the fact that out of the 182 demes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>) into
+which Attica was divided, one-tenth were named from trees or
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Attica has always been celebrated. In approaching
+Attica from Boeotia a change of temperature is felt
+as soon as a person descends from Cithaeron or Parnes,
+and the sea breeze, which in modern times is called
+<span class="sidenote">Climate.</span>
+<span class="grk" title="ho embates">&#8001; &#7952;&#956;&#946;&#940;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, or that which sets towards shore, moderates the
+heat in summer. The Attic comedians and Plato speak with
+enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the
+Athenian intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attic
+atmosphere. It was in the neighbourhood of Athens itself that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span>
+the air was thought to be purest. So Euripides describes the
+inhabitants as &ldquo;ever walking gracefully through the most
+luminous ether&rdquo; (<i>Med.</i> 829); and Milton&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Where, on the Aegean shore, a city stands,</p>
+<p class="i05">Built nobly, pure the air, and light the soil&mdash;</p>
+<p class="i05">Athens, the eye of Greece.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Or again Xenophon says &ldquo;one would not err in thinking that
+this city is placed near the centre of Greece&mdash;nay, of the civilized
+world&mdash;because, the farther removed persons are from it, the
+severer is the cold or heat they meet with&rdquo; (<i>Vectigal.</i> i. 6).
+The air is so clear that one can see from the Acropolis the lines
+of white marble that streak the sides of Pentelicus. The brilliant
+colouring which is so conspicuous in an Athenian sunset is
+due to the same cause. The epithet &ldquo;violet-crowned,&rdquo; used
+of Athens by Pindar, is due either to the blue haze on the
+surrounding hills, or to the use of violets (or irises) for festal
+wreaths. This otherwise perfect climate is slightly marred by
+the prevalence of the north wind. This is expressed on the
+Horologium of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or
+Tower of the Winds, at Athens, where Boreas is represented
+as a bearded man of stern aspect, thickly clad, and wearing
+strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell, which he holds
+in his hand as a sign of his tempestuous character.</p>
+
+<p>Of the flora of Attica, the olive is the most important. This
+tree, we learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one
+time to have been found in that country only; and
+the enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (<i>Oed. Col.</i> 700)
+<span class="sidenote">Vegetation.</span>
+teach us that it was the land in which it flourished
+best. So great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the
+early legend of the struggle between the gods of sea and land,
+Poseidon and Athena, for the patronage of the country, the
+sea-god is represented as having to retire vanquished before the
+giver of the olive; and at a later period the evidences of this
+contention were found in an ancient olive tree in the Acropolis,
+together with three holes in the rock, said to have been made by
+the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well
+hard by. The fig also found its favourite home in this country,
+for Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian
+Phytalus, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the gardener.&rdquo; Both Cithaeron and
+Parnes must have been wooded in former times; for on the
+former are laid the picturesque silvan scenes in the <i>Bacchae</i> of
+Euripides, and it was from the latter that the wood came which
+caused the neighbouring deme of Acharnae to be famous for
+its charcoal&mdash;the <span class="grk" title="anthrakes Parnesioi">&#7940;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#962; &#928;&#945;&#961;&#957;&#942;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#953;</span> of the <i>Acharnians</i> of
+Aristophanes (348). From the thymy slopes of Hymettus
+<span class="sidenote">Minerals.</span>
+came the famous Hymettian honey. Among the
+other products we must notice the marble&mdash;both that
+of Pentelicus, which afforded a material of unrivalled purity and
+whiteness for building the Athenian temples, and the blue
+marble of Hymettus&mdash;the <i>trabes Hymettiae</i> of Horace&mdash;which
+used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces.
+But the richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the
+silver mines of Laurium, the yield of which was so considerable
+as to render silver the principal medium of exchange in Greece,
+so that &ldquo;a silver piece&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="argurion">&#7936;&#961;&#947;&#973;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>) was the Greek equivalent
+term for money. Hence Aeschylus speaks of the Athenians as
+possessing a &ldquo;fountain of silver&rdquo; (<i>Pers.</i> 235), and Aristophanes
+makes his chorus of birds promise the audience that, if they
+show him favour, owls from Laurium (<i>i.e.</i> silver pieces with the
+emblem of Athens) shall never fail them (<i>Birds</i>, 1106). The
+reputation of these coins for purity of metal and accuracy of
+weight was so great that they had a very wide circulation, and
+in consequence it was thought undesirable to make any alteration
+in the types lest their genuineness should be doubted. This
+accounts for the somewhat inartistic character which the
+Athenian coins maintained to the last (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>:
+<i>Greek</i>, § Athens). In Strabo&rsquo;s time, though the mines had
+almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in considerable
+quantities from the scoriae; and at the present day a large
+amount of lead is got in the same way, the work being chiefly
+carried on by two companies, one of which is French and the
+ether Greek. In the ancient workings, many of which are in the
+same condition as they were left 1800 years ago, there are in all
+2000 shafts and galleries.</p>
+
+<p>It has been already mentioned that the base line of Attica
+is formed by the chain of Cithaeron and Parnes, running from
+west to east; and that from this transverse chains run
+southward, dividing Attica into a succession of plains.
+<span class="sidenote">Plain of Megara.</span>
+The westernmost of these, which is separated from the
+innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Alcyonium,
+by an offshoot of Cithaeron, and is bounded on the east by a
+ridge which ends towards the Saronic Gulf in a striking two-horned
+peak called Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for
+geographical purposes that we include this district under Attica,
+for both the Dorian race of the inhabitants, and its dangerous
+proximity to Athens, caused it to be at perpetual feud with
+that city; but its position as an outpost for the Peloponnesians,
+together with the fact of its having once been Ionian soil, sufficiently
+explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians towards
+the Megarians. The great importance of Megara arose from its
+commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were
+three in number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf,
+which, owing to the nature of the ground, makes a long detour;
+the other two starting from Megara, and passing, the one by a
+lofty though gradual route over the ridge of Geraneia, the other
+along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous precipices of the
+Scironian rocks.</p>
+
+<p>To the east of the plain of Megara lies that of Eleusis, bounded
+on the one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that
+of Aegaleos, through a depression in which was the
+line of the sacred way, where the torchlight processions
+<span class="sidenote">Plain of Eleusis.</span>
+from Athens used to descend to the coast, the &ldquo;brightly
+gleaming shores&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="lampades aktai">&#955;&#945;&#956;&#960;&#940;&#948;&#949;&#962; &#7936;&#954;&#964;&#945;&#943;</span>) of Sophocles (<i>Oed. Col.</i>
+1049). The deep bay which here runs into the land is bounded
+on its southern side by the rocky island of Salamis, which was at
+all times an important possession to the Athenians on account
+of its proximity to their city; and the winding channel which
+separates that island from the mainland in the direction of the
+Peiraeus was the scene of the battle of Salamis, while on the last
+declivities of Mt. Aegaleos, which here descends to the sea, was
+the spot where, as Byron wrote&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;A king sate on the rocky brow</p>
+<p class="i05">Which looks o&rsquo;er sea-born Salamis.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The eastern portion of the plain of Eleusis was called the Thriasian
+plain, and the city itself was situated in the recesses of the bay
+just mentioned.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came that of Athens,
+which is the most extensive of all, reaching from the foot of
+Parnes to the sea, and bounded on the west by
+Aegaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most
+<span class="sidenote">Plain of Athens.</span>
+conspicuous feature is the broad line of dark green
+along its western side, formed by the olive-groves of Colonus
+and the gardens of the Academy, which owe their fertility
+to the waters of the Cephisus. This river is fed by copious
+sources on the side of Mt. Parnes, and thus, unlike the
+other rivers of Attica, has a constant supply of water,
+which was diverted in classical times, as it still is, into the
+neighbouring plantations (cf. Sophocles, <i>Oed. Col.</i> 685). The
+position of Colonus itself is marked by two bare knolls of light-coloured
+earth, which caused the poet in the same chorus to
+apply the epithet &ldquo;white&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="argeta">&#7936;&#961;&#947;&#8134;&#964;&#945;</span>) to that place. On the
+opposite side of the plain runs the other river, the Ilissus, which
+rises from two sources on the side of Mt. Hymettus, and skirts
+the eastern extremity of the city of Athens; but this, notwithstanding
+its celebrity, is a mere brook, which stands in pools a
+great part of the year, and in summer is completely dry. The
+situation of Athens relatively to the surrounding objects is
+singularly harmonious; for, while it forms a central point, so
+as to be the eye of the plain, and while the altar-rock of the
+Acropolis and the hills by which it is surrounded are conspicuous
+from every point of view, there is no such exactness in its position
+as to give formality, since it is nearer to the sea than to Parnes,
+and nearer to Hymettus than to Aegaleos. The most striking
+summit in the neighbourhood of the city is that of Lycabettus,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span>
+on the north-eastern side; and the variety is still further increased
+by the continuation of the ridge which it forms for some
+distance northwards through the plain. Three roads lead to
+Athens from the Boeotian frontier over the intervening mountain
+barrier&mdash;the easternmost over Parnes, from Delium and Oropus
+by Decelea, which was the usual route of the invading Lacedaemonians
+during the Peloponnesian War; the westernmost over
+Cithaeron, by the pass of Dryoscephalae, or the &ldquo;Oakheads,&rdquo;
+leading from Thebes by Plataea to Eleusis, and so to Athens,
+which we hear of in connexion with the battle of Plataea, and
+with the escape of the Plataeans at the time of the siege of that
+city in the Peloponnesian War; the third, midway between the
+two, by the pass of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged
+height overlooking the Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by
+Thrasybulus in the days of the Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast
+to the south-west of Athens rises the hill of Munychia, a
+mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the town of
+Peiraeus. It was probably at one time an island; this was
+Strabo&rsquo;s opinion, and at the present day the ground which joins
+it to the mainland is low and swampy, and seems to have been
+formed by alluvial soil brought down by the Cephisus. On one
+side of this, towards Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of
+Phalerum, on the other the harbour of Peiraeus, a completely
+land-locked inlet, safe, deep and spacious, the approach to which
+was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern side of the
+hill was further indented by two small but commodious havens,
+which were respectively called Zea and Munychia.</p>
+
+<p>The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Athens is formed
+by the graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, which received its name
+from the deme of Pentele at its foot, but was far more
+commonly known as Brilessus in ancient times. This
+<span class="sidenote">Eastern Attica.</span>
+mountain did not form a continous chain with Hymettus,
+for between them intervenes a level space of ground
+2 m. in width, which formed the entrance to the Mesogaea, an
+elevated undulating plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching
+nearly to Sunium. At the extremity of Hymettus, where it
+projects into the Saronic Gulf, was the promontory of Zoster
+(&ldquo;the Girdle&rdquo;), which was so called because it girdles and
+protects the neighbouring harbour; but in consequence of the
+name, a legend was attached to it, to the effect that Latona had
+loosed her girdle there. From this promontory to Sunium there
+runs a lower line of mountains, and between these and the sea
+a fertile strip of land intervenes, which was called the Paralia.
+Beyond Sunium, on the eastern coast, were two safe ports,
+that of Thoricus, which is defended by the island of Helene,
+forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that of Prasiac,
+now called Porto Raphti (&ldquo;the Tailor&rdquo;), from a statue at the
+entrance to which the natives have given that name. In the
+north-east corner is the little plain of Marathon (<i>q.v.</i>), the scene
+of the battle against the Persians (490 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). It lies between
+Parnes, Pentelicus and the sea. The bay in front is sheltered by
+Euboea, and on the north by a projecting tongue of land, called
+Cynosura. The mountains in the neighbourhood were the home
+of the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being poor mountaineers,
+and having nothing to lose, were the principal advocates of
+political reform; while, on the other hand, the Pedieis, or inhabitants
+of the plains, being wealthy landholders, formed the
+strong conservative element, and the Parali, or occupants of the
+sea-coast, representing the mercantile interest, held an intermediate
+position between the two (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>). Finally,
+there was one district of Attica, the territory of Oropus, which
+properly belonged to Boeotia, as it was situated to the north of
+Parnes; but on this the Athenians always endeavoured to retain
+a firm hold, because it facilitated their communications with
+Euboea. The command of that island was of the utmost importance
+to them; for, if Aegina could rightly be called &ldquo;the
+eyesore of the Peiraeus,&rdquo; Euboea was quite as truly a thorn
+in the side of Attica; for we learn from Demosthenes (<i>De Cor.</i>
+p. 307) that at one period the pirates that made it their
+headquarters so infested the neighbouring sea as to prevent all
+navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The place in Attica which has been the chief scene of excavations
+(independently of Athens and its <span class="correction" title="amended from vicinty">vicinity</span>) is Eleusis (<i>q.v.</i>),
+where the remains of the sanctuary of Demeter, the
+home of the Eleusinian Mysteries, together with other
+<span class="sidenote">Excavations.</span>
+buildings in its neighbourhood, were cleared by the
+Greek Archaeological Society in 1882-1887 and 1895-1896. Of
+the other classical ruins in Attica the best-known is the temple
+of Athena at Sunium, which forms a conspicuous object on the
+headland, to which it gave the name of Cape Colonnae, still used
+by the peasants. It is in the Doric style, of white marble, and
+eleven columns of the peristyle and one of the pronaos are now
+standing. At Thoricus there is a theatre, which was cleared
+of earth by the archaeologists of the American School in 1886.
+In the neighbourhood of Rhamnus are the remains of two temples
+that stood side by side, the larger of which was dedicated to
+Nemesis, the smaller probably to Themis, of which goddess a fine
+statue was discovered in its ruins in the course of the excavations
+of the Greek Archaeological Society in 1890. The same Society,
+in 1884,1886 and 1887, excavated the sanctuary of Amphiaraus,
+4 m. from Oropus; in ancient times this was the resort of
+numerous invalids, who came thither to consult the healing
+divinity. Within it were found a temple of Amphiaraus, a large
+altar, and a long colonnade, which may have been the dormitory
+where the patients slept in hope of obtaining counsel in dreams.
+There were also baths and a small theatre, and numerous inscriptions
+relating to the arrangement and observances of the
+sanctuary and oracle. The walls and towers also of the city
+of Eleutherae and the fortress of Phyle are fine specimens of
+Hellenic fortifications.</p>
+
+<p>Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern times
+little need be said, for it has followed for the most part the fortunes
+of Athens. The population, however, has undergone a great
+change, independently of the large admixture of Slavonic blood
+that has affected the Greeks of the mainland generally, by the
+immigration of Albanian colonists, who now occupy a great
+part of the country. The district formed part of the <i>nome</i>
+(administrative division) of Boeotia and Attica until 1899,
+when it became a separate <i>nome</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;J.G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias&rsquo;s Description of Greece</i>,
+vols. ii. and v. (London, 1898); W.M. Leake, <i>The Demi of Attica</i>
+(2nd ed., London, 1841); Chr. Wordsworth, <i>Athens and Attica</i>
+(4th ed., London, 1869); C. Bursian, <i>Geographic von Griechenland</i>,
+vol. i. (Leipzig, 1862); Baedeker&rsquo;s <i>Greece</i> (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig,
+1908); <i>Karten von Attica</i>, published by the German Archaeological
+Institute of Athens, with explanatory text, chiefly by Professor
+Milchhofer (1875-1903); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eleusis</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>:
+<i>Topography</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. F. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTIC BASE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>, the term given in architecture to the base of
+the Roman Ionic order, consisting of an upper and lower torus,
+separated by a scotia (<i>q.v.</i>) and fillets. It was the favourite
+base of the Romans, and was employed by them for columns
+of the Corinthian and Composite orders, and in Byzantine and
+Romanesque work would seem to have been generally adopted
+as a model.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (109-32 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman patron
+of letters, was born at Rome three years before Cicero, with
+whom he and the younger Marius were educated. His name was
+Titus Pomponius, that of Atticus, by which he is known, being
+given him afterwards from his long residence in Athens (86-65)
+and his intimate acquaintance with the Greek literature and
+language. His family is said to have been of noble and ancient
+descent; his father belonged to the equestrian order, and was
+very wealthy. When Pomponius was still a young man his
+father died, and he at once took the prudent resolution of
+transferring himself and his fortune to Athens, in order to
+escape the dangers of the civil war, in which he might have been
+involved through his connexion with the murdered tribune,
+Sulpicius Rufus. Here he lived in retirement, devoting himself
+entirely to study. On his return to Rome, he took possession
+of an inheritance left him by his uncle and assumed the name
+of Quintus Caecilius Pomponianus. From this time he kept aloof
+from political strife, attaching himself to no particular party,
+and continuing on intimate terms with men so opposed as Caesar
+and Pompey, Antony and Octavian. His most intimate friend,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span>
+however, was Cicero, whose correspondence with him extended
+over many years, and who seems to have found his prudent
+counsel and sympathy a remedy for all his many troubles.
+His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry
+till he was fifty-three years of age, and his only child became
+the wife of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister
+of Augustus. In 32, being seized with an illness believed to be
+incurable, he starved himself to death. Of his writings none
+is extant, but mention is made of two: a Greek history of
+Cicero&rsquo;s consulship, and some annals, in Latin, an epitome of
+the events of Roman history down to the year 54. His most
+important work was his edition of the letters addressed to him
+by Cicero. He also formed a large library at Athens, and
+engaged a staff of slaves to make copies of valuable works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Berwick, <i>Lives of Messalla Corvinus
+and T.P.A.</i> (1813); Fialon, <i>Thesis in T.P.A.</i> (1861); Boissier,
+<i>Cicéron et ses amis</i> (1888: Eng. trans. A.D. Jones, 1897); Peter,
+<i>Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 101-177),
+Greek rhetorician, was born at Marathon in Attica. He belonged
+to a wealthy and distinguished family, and received a careful
+education under the most distinguished masters of the time,
+especially in rhetoric and philosophy. His talents gained him
+the favourable notice of Hadrian, who appointed him praefect
+of the free towns in the province of Asia (125). On his return
+to Athens, he attained great celebrity as an orator and teacher
+of rhetoric, and was elected to the office of archon. In 140 he
+was summoned by Antoninus Pius to undertake the education
+of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and received many marks
+of favour, amongst them the consulship (143). He is principally
+celebrated, however, for the vast sums he expended on public
+purposes. He built at Athens a great race-course of Pentelic
+marble, and a splendid musical theatre, called the Odeum in
+memory of his wife Regilla, which still exists. At Corinth he
+built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium, at Thermopylae hot baths,
+at Canusium in Italy an aqueduct. He even contemplated
+cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, but was afraid
+to carry out his plan because the same thing had been unsuccessfully
+attempted before by the emperor Nero. Many of the
+partially ruined cities of Greece were restored by Atticus, and
+numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude to their benefactor.
+His latter years were embittered by family misfortune, and
+having incurred the enmity of the Athenians, he withdrew from
+Athens to his villa near Marathon, where he died. He enjoyed
+a very high reputation amongst his contemporaries, and wrote
+numerous works, of which the only one to come down to us is
+a rhetorical exercise <i>On the Constitution</i> (ed. Hass, 1880), advocating
+an alliance of the Thebans and Peloponnesians against
+Archelaus, king of Macedonia. The genuineness of this speech,
+which is of little merit, has been disputed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Philostratus, <i>Vit. Soph.</i> ii. 1; Fiorillo, <i>Herodis Attici quae supersunt</i>
+(1801); <i>A Biographical Notice of A.H.</i> (London, 1832), privately
+printed; Fuelles, <i>De Herodis Attici Vita</i> (1864); Vidal-Lablache,
+<i>Hérode Atticus</i> (1871).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTILA<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (d. 453), king of the Huns, became king in 433, along
+with his brother Bleda, on the death of his uncle Roua. We hear
+but little as to Bleda, who died about 445, possibly slain by his
+brother&rsquo;s orders. In the first eight years of his reign Attila was
+chiefly occupied in the wars with other barbarian tribes, by which
+he made himself virtually supreme in central Europe. His own
+special kingdom comprised the countries which are now called
+Hungary and Transylvania, his capital being possibly not far from
+the modern city of Buda-Pest; but having made the Ostrogoths,
+the Gepidae and many other Teutonic tribes his subject-allies,
+and having also sent his invading armies into Media, he
+seems for nearly twenty years to have ruled practically without
+a rival from the Caspian to the Rhine. Very early in his reign,
+Honoria, grand-daughter of the emperor Theodosius II., being
+subjected to severe restraint on account of an amorous intrigue
+with one of the chamberlains of the palace, sent her ring to the
+king of the Huns and called on him to be her husband and her
+deliverer. Nothing came of the proposed engagement, but the
+wrongs of Honoria, his affianced wife, served as a convenient
+pretext for some of the constantly recurring embassies with which
+Attila, fond of trampling on the fallen majesty of Rome, worried
+and bullied the two courts of Constantinople and Ravenna.
+Another frequent subject of complaint was found in certain
+sacred vessels which the bishop of Sirmium had sent as a bribe
+to the secretary of Attila, and which had been by him, fraudulently,
+as his master contended, pawned to a silversmith at Rome.
+There were also frequent and imperious demands for the surrender
+of fugitives who had sought shelter from the wrath of Attila
+within the limits of the empire. One of the return embassies
+from Constantinople, that sent in 448, had the great advantage
+of being accompanied by a rhetorician named Priscus, whose
+minute journalistic account of the negotiations, including as it
+does a vivid picture of the great Hun in his banquet-hall, is by
+far the most valuable source of information as to the court and
+camp of Attila. What lends additional interest to the story is
+the fact that in the ambassador&rsquo;s suite there was an interpreter
+named Vigilas, who for fifty pounds of gold had promised to
+assassinate Attila. This base design was discovered by the
+Hunnish king, but had never been revealed to the head of the
+embassy or to his secretary. The situations created by this
+strange combination of honest diplomacy and secret villainy are
+described by Priscus with real dramatic power.</p>
+
+<p>In 450 Theodosius II., the incapable emperor of the East,
+died, and his throne was occupied by a veteran soldier named
+Marcian, who answered the insulting message of Attila in a
+manlier tone than his predecessor. Accordingly the Hun, who
+had something of the bully in his nature, now turned upon
+Valentinian III., the trembling emperor of the West, and
+demanded redress for the wrongs of Honoria, and one-half of
+Valentinian&rsquo;s dominions as her dowry. Allying himself with
+the Franks and Vandals, he led his vast many-nationed army
+to the Rhine in the spring of 451, crossed that river, and sacked,
+apparently, most of the cities in Belgic Gaul. Most fortunately
+for Europe, the Teutonic races already settled in Gaul rallied
+to the defence of the empire against invaders infinitely more
+barbarous than themselves. Prominent in this new coalition
+was Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, whose capital city was
+Toulouse. His firm fighting alliance with the Roman general
+Aëtius, with whom he had had many a conflict in previous years,
+was one of the best auguries for the new Europe that was to
+arise out of the ruins of the Roman empire. Meanwhile Attila
+had reached the Loire and was besieging the strong city of
+Orléans. The citizens, under the leadership of their bishop
+Anianus, made a heroic defence, but the place was on the point
+of being taken when, on the 24th of June, the allied Romano-Gothic
+army was seen on the horizon. Attila, who knew the
+difficulty that he should have in feeding his immense army if
+his march was further delayed, turned again to the north-east,
+was persuaded by the venerable bishop Lupus to spare the city
+of Troyes, but halted near that place in the Catalaunian plains
+and offered battle to his pursuers Aëtius and Theodoric. The
+battle which followed&mdash;certainly one of the decisive battles of
+the world&mdash;has been well described by the Gothic historian
+Jordanes as &ldquo;ruthless, manifold, immense, obstinate.&rdquo; It
+lasted for the whole day, and the number of the slain is variously
+stated at 175,000 and 300,000. All such estimates are, of course,
+untrustworthy, but there is no doubt that the carnage was
+terrible. The Visigothic king was slain, but the victory, though
+hardly earned, remained with his people and his allies. Attila
+did not venture to renew the engagement on the morrow, but
+retreated, apparently in good order, on the Rhine, recrossed
+that river and returned to his Pannonian home. From thence
+in the spring of 452 he again set forth to ravage or to conquer
+Italy. Her great champion Aëtius showed less energy in her
+cause than he had shown in his defence of Gaul. After a
+stubborn contest, Attila took and utterly destroyed Aquileia,
+the chief city of Venetia, and then proceeded on his destructive
+course, capturing and burning the cities at the head of the
+Adriatic, Concordia, Altinum and Patavium (Padua). The
+fugitives from these cities, but especially from the last, seeking
+shelter in the lagoons of the Adriatic, laid the foundations of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span>
+that which was one day to become the glorious city of Venice.
+Upon Milan and the cities of western Lombardy the hand of
+Attila seems to have weighed more lightly, plundering rather
+than utterly destroying; and at last when Pope Leo I., at the
+head of a deputation of Roman senators, appeared in his camp
+on the banks of the Mincio, entreating him not to pursue his
+victorious career to the gates of Rome, he yielded to their
+entreaties and consented to cross the Alps, with a menace,
+however, of future return, should the wrongs of Honoria remain
+unredressed. As he himself jokingly said: he knew how to
+conquer men, but the Lion and the Wolf (Leo and Lupus) were
+too strong for him. No further expeditions to Italy were
+undertaken by Attila, who died suddenly in 453, in the night
+following a great banquet which celebrated his marriage with
+a damsel named Ildico. Notwithstanding some rumours of
+violence it is probable that his death was natural and due to
+his own intemperate habits.</p>
+
+<p>Under his name of Etzel, Attila plays a great part in Teutonic
+legend (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nibelungenlied</a></span>) and under that of Atli in
+Scandinavian Saga, but his historic lineaments are greatly
+obscured in both. He was short of stature, swarthy and broad-chested,
+with a large head which early turned grey, snub nose
+and deep-set eyes. He walked with proud step, darting a
+haughty glance this way and that as if he felt himself lord
+of all.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authorities for the life of Attila are Priscus, Jordanes,
+the <i>Historia Miscella</i>, Apollonius Sidonius and Gregory of
+Tours.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTIS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Atys</span>, a deity worshipped in Phrygia, and later
+throughout the Roman empire, in conjunction with the Great
+Mother of the Gods. Like Aphrodite and Adonis in Syria,
+Baal and Astarte at Sidon, and Isis and Osiris in Egypt, the
+Great Mother and Attis formed a duality which symbolized the
+relations between Mother Earth and her fruitage. Their worship
+included the celebration of mysteries annually on the return of
+the spring season. Attis was also known as Papas, and the
+Bithynians and Phrygians, according to evidence of the time
+of the late Empire, called him Zeus. He was never worshipped
+independently, however, though the worship of the Great
+Mother was not always accompanied by his. He was confused
+with Pan, Sabazios, Men and Adonis, and there were resemblances
+between the orgiastic features of his worship and that
+of Dionysus. His resemblance to Adonis has led to the theory
+that the names of the two are identical, and that Attis is only
+the Semitic companion of Syrian Aphrodite grafted on to the
+Phrygian Great Mother worship (Haakh, <i>Stuttgarter-Philolog.-Vers.</i>, 1857, 176 ff.). It is likely, however, that Attis, like the
+Great Mother, was indigenous to Asia Minor, adopted by the
+invading Phrygians, and blended by them with a deity of their
+own.</p>
+
+<p><i>Legends.</i>&mdash;According to Pausanias (vii. 17), Attis was a
+beautiful youth born of the daughter of the river Sangarius,
+who was descended from the hermaphroditic Agdistis, a monster
+sprung from the earth by the seed of Zeus. Having become
+enamoured of Attis, Agdistis struck him with frenzy as he was
+about to wed the king&rsquo;s daughter, with the result that he deprived
+himself of manhood and died. Agdistis in repentance prevailed
+upon Zeus to grant that the body of the youth should never
+decay or waste. In Arnobius (v. 5-8) Attis emasculates himself
+under a pine tree, which the Great Mother bears into her cave
+as she and Agdistis together wildly lament the death of the youth.
+Zeus grants the petition as in the version of Pausanias, but
+permits the hair of Attis to grow, and his little finger to move.
+The little finger, <i>digitus</i>, <span class="grk" title="daktylos">&#948;&#940;&#954;&#964;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, is interpreted as the phallus
+by Georg Kaibel (<i>Gottinger Nachrichten</i>, 1901, p. 513). In
+Diodorus (in. 58, 59) the Mother is the carnal lover of Attis,
+and, when her father the king discovers her fault and kills her
+lover, roams the earth in wild grief. In Ovid (<i>Fasti</i>, iv. 223 ff.)
+she is inspired with chaste love for him, which he pledges himself
+to reciprocate. On his proving unfaithful, the Great Mother
+slays the nymph with whom he has sinned, whereupon in madness
+he mutilates himself as a penalty. Another form of the legend
+(Paus. vii. 17), showing the influence of the Aphrodite-Adonis
+myth, relates that Attis, the impotent son of the Phrygian
+Caläust Lydia to institute the worship of the Great
+Mother, and was there slain by a boar sent by Zeus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Mother of the Gods</a></span>; J.G. Frazer, <i>Adonis, Attis,
+Osiris</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. Sn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTLEBOROUGH,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a township of Bristol county, in south-east
+Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 7577; (1900) 11,335, of
+whom 3237 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,215 It is
+traversed by the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railway, and
+by inter-urban electric lines. It has an area of 28 sq. m. The
+population is largely concentrated in and about the village
+which bears the name of the township. In Attleborough are
+the Attleborough Home Sanitarium, and a public library (1885).
+The principal manufactures of the township are jewelry, silverware,
+cotton goods, cotton machinery, coffin trimmings, and
+leather. In 1905 the total value of the township&rsquo;s factory
+products was $10,050,384, of which $5,544,285 was the value of
+jewelry, Attleborough ranking fourth among the cities of the
+country in this industry, and producing 10.4% of the total
+jewelry product of the United States. Attleborough was incorporated
+in 1694, though settled soon after 1661 (records since
+1672) as part of Rehoboth. In 1887 the township was divided in
+population, wealth and area by the creation of the township
+of <span class="sc">North Attleborough</span>&mdash;pop. (1890) 6727; (1900) 7253, of
+whom 1786 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 7878. This
+township produced manufactured goods in 1900 to the value
+of $3,990,731, jewelry valued at $2,785,567; it maintains the
+Richards memorial library.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Daggett, <i>A Sketch of the History of Attleborough to 1887</i>
+(Boston, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTOCK,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a town and fort of British India, in the Rawalpindi
+district of the Punjab, 47 m. by rail from Peshawar, and situated
+on the eastern bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901) 2822. The place
+is of both political and commercial importance, as the Indus is
+here crossed by the military and trade route through the Khyber
+Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the Great, Tamerlane and
+Nadir Shah are believed to have successively crossed the Indus
+at or about this spot in their respective invasions of India. The
+river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yds.
+broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen.
+The rocky gorges through which it flows, with a distant view of
+the Hindu Kush, form some of the finest scenery in the world.
+In 1883 an iron girder bridge of five spans was opened, which
+carries the North-Western railway to Peshawar, and has also a
+subway for wheeled traffic and foot passengers. The fort of
+Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in 1581, on a low hillock
+beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and the whole
+structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is of
+little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is
+divided only by a ravine. On the opposite side of the river is
+the village of Khairabad, with a fort, also erected by Akbar
+according to some, or by Nadir Shah according to others. The
+military importance of Attock has diminished, but it still has a
+small detachment of British troops.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTORNEY<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>atorné</i>, a person appointed to act
+for another, from <i>atourner</i>, legal Lat. <i>attornare</i>, attorn, literally
+to turn over to another or commit business to another), in English
+law, in its widest sense, any substitute or agent appointed to
+act in &ldquo;the turn, stead or place of another.&rdquo; Attorneys are of
+two kinds, attorneys-in-fact and attorneys-at-law. An attorney-in-fact
+is simply an agent, the extent of whose capacity to act
+is bounded only by the powers embodied in his authority, his
+<i>power of attorney</i>. An attorney-at-law was a public officer,
+conducting legal proceedings on behalf of others, known as his
+clients, and attached to the supreme courts of common law at
+Westminster. Attorneys-at-law corresponded to the solicitors
+of the courts of chancery and the proctors of the admiralty,
+ecclesiastical, probate and divorce courts. Since the passing of
+the Judicature Act of 1873, however, the designation &ldquo;attorney&rdquo;
+has become obsolete in England, all persons admitted as solicitors,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span>
+attorneys or proctors of an English court being henceforth called
+&ldquo;solicitors of the supreme court&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solicitor</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the United States an attorney-at-law exercises all the
+functions distributed in England between barristers, attorneys
+and solicitors, and his full title is &ldquo;attorney and counsellor-at-law.&rdquo;
+When acting in a court of admiralty he is styled &ldquo;proctor&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;advocate.&rdquo; Formerly, in some states, there existed a
+grade among lawyers of attorneys-at-law, which was inferior
+to that of counsellors-at-law, and in colonial times New Jersey
+established a higher rank still&mdash;that of serjeant-at-law. Now
+the term attorney-at-law is precisely equivalent to that of lawyer.
+Attorneys are admitted by some court to which the legislature
+confides the power, and on examination prescribed by the court,
+or by a board of state examiners, as the case may be. The term
+of study required is generally two or three years, but in some
+states less. In one no examination is required. College graduates
+are often admitted to examination after a shorter term of study
+than that required from those not so educated. In the courts
+of the United States, admission is regulated by rules of court
+and based upon a previous admission to the state bar. In
+almost all states aliens are not admitted as attorneys, and in
+many states women are ineligible, but during recent years several
+states have passed statutes permitting them to practise. Since
+1879 women have been eligible to practise before the U.S.
+Supreme Court, if already admitted to practise in some state
+court, under the same conditions as men. A <i>state attorney</i> or
+<i>district attorney</i> is the local public prosecutor. He is either
+elected by popular vote at the state elections for the district in
+which he resides and goes out of office with the political party
+for which he was elected, or he is appointed by the governor of
+the state for that district and for the same term. He represents
+the state in criminal prosecutions and also in civil actions within
+his district. There is a <i>United States district attorney</i> in each
+federal district, similarly representing the federal government
+before the courts.</p>
+
+<p>An attorney is an officer of the court which admits him to
+practise, and he is subject to its discipline. He is liable to his
+client in damages for failure to exercise ordinary care and skill,
+and he can bring action for the value of his services. He has a
+lien on his client&rsquo;s papers, and usually on any judgment in favour
+of his client to secure the payment of his fees. (See also under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bar, The</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTORNEY-GENERAL,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> in England, the chief law officer
+appointed to manage all the legal affairs and suits in which the
+crown is interested. He is appointed by letters-patent authorizing
+him to hold office during the sovereign&rsquo;s pleasure. He is
+<i>ex officio</i> the leader of the bar, and only counsel of the highest
+eminence are appointed to the office. The origin of the office
+is uncertain, but as far back as 1277 we find an <i>attornatus regis</i>
+appointed to look after the interests of the crown, in proceedings
+affecting it before the courts. He has precedence in all the
+courts, and in the House of Lords he has precedence of the lord
+advocate, even in Scottish appeals, but unlike the lord advocate
+and the Irish attorney-general he is not necessarily made a privy
+councillor. He is a necessary party to all proceedings affecting
+the crown, and has extensive powers of control in matters relating
+to charities, lunatics&rsquo; estates, criminal prosecutions, &amp;c. The
+attorney-general and the solicitor-general are always members
+of the House of Commons (except for temporary difficulties in
+obtaining a seat) and of the ministry, being selected from the
+party in power, and their advice is at the disposal of the government
+and of each department of the government, while in the
+House of Commons they defend the legality of ministerial action
+if called in question. Previously to 1895 there was no restriction
+placed on the law officers as to their acceptance of private
+practice, but since that date this privilege has been withdrawn,
+and the salary of the attorney-general is fixed at £7000 a year and
+in addition such fees according to the ordinary professional
+scales as he may receive for any litigious business he may conduct
+on behalf of the crown. The crown has also as a legal adviser
+an attorney-general in Ireland. In Scotland he is called lord
+advocate (<i>q.v.</i>). There is also an attorney-general in almost all
+the British colonies, and his duties are very similar to those of
+the same officer in England. In the self-governing colonies he
+is appointed by the administration of the colony, and in the
+crown colonies by royal warrant under the signet and sign-manual.
+There is an attorney-general for the duchy of Cornwall
+and also one for the duchy of Lancaster, each of whom sues in
+matters relating to that duchy.</p>
+
+<p>The United States has an officer of this name, who has a seat
+in the cabinet. His duties are in general to represent the federal
+government before the United States Supreme Court, to advise
+the president on questions of law, and to advise similarly the
+heads of the state departments with reference to matters affecting
+their department. His opinions are published by the government
+periodically for the use of its officials and they are frequently
+cited by the courts. Every state but one or two has a similar
+officer. He represents the state in important legal matters, and
+is often required to assist the local prosecutor in trials for capital
+offences. He appears for the public interest in suits affecting
+public charities. He is generally elected by the people for the
+same term as the governor and on the same ticket.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTORNMENT<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>tourner</i>, to turn), in English real
+property law, the acknowledgment of a new lord by the tenant
+on the alienation of land. Under the feudal system, the relations
+of landlord and tenant were to a certain extent reciprocal.
+So it was considered unreasonable to the tenant to subject him
+to a new lord without his own approval, and it thus came about
+that alienation could not take place without the consent of the
+tenant. Attornment was also extended to all cases of lessees
+for life or for years. The necessity for attornment was abolished
+by an act of 1705. The term is now used to indicate an acknowledgment
+of the existence of the relationship of landlord
+and tenant. An attornment-clause, in mortgages, is a clause
+whereby the mortgagor attorns tenant to the mortgagee, thus
+giving the mortgagee the right to distrain, as an additional
+security.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTRITION<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (Lat. <i>attritio</i>, formed from <i>atterere</i>, to rub away),
+a rubbing away; a term used in pathology and geology. Theologians
+have also distinguished &ldquo;attrition&rdquo; from &ldquo;contrition&rdquo;
+in the matter of sin, as an imperfect stage in the process of repentance;
+attrition being due to servile fear of the consequences
+of sin, contrition to filial fear of God and hatred of sin for His
+sake. It has been held among the Roman Catholics that in the
+sacrament of penance attrition becomes contrition.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTWOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1765-1838), English composer, the
+son of a coal merchant who had musical tastes, was born in
+London on the 23rd of November 1765. At the age of nine he
+became a chorister in the Chapel Royal, where he remained for
+five years. In 1783 he was sent to study abroad at the expense
+of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), who had been
+favourably impressed by his skill at the harpsichord. After
+spending two years at Naples, Attwood proceeded to Vienna,
+where he became a favourite pupil of Mozart. On his return
+to London in 1787 he held for a short time an appointment
+as one of the chamber musicians to the prince of Wales. In 1796
+he was chosen organist of St Paul&rsquo;s, and in the same year he was
+made composer to the Chapel Royal. His court connexion
+was further confirmed by his appointment as musical instructor
+to the duchess of York, and afterwards to the princess of Wales.
+For the coronation of George IV. he composed the anthem,
+&ldquo;The King shall rejoice,&rdquo; a work of high merit. The king,
+who had neglected him for some years on account of his connexion
+with the princess of Wales, now restored him to favour,
+and in 1821 appointed him organist to his private chapel at
+Brighton. Soon after the institution of the Royal Academy
+of Music in 1823, Attwood was chosen one of the professors.
+He was also one of the original members of the Philharmonic
+Society, founded in 1813. He wrote the anthem, &ldquo;O Lord,
+grant the King a Long Life,&rdquo; which was performed at the coronation
+of William IV., and he was composing a similar work for
+the coronation of Queen Victoria when he died at his house in
+Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, on the 24th of March 1838. He was buried
+under the organ in St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral. His services and anthems
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span>
+were published in a collected form after his death by his pupil
+Walmisley. Of his secular compositions several songs and glees
+are well known and popular. The numerous operas which he
+composed in early life are now practically forgotten. Of his
+songs the most popular was &ldquo;The Soldier&rsquo;s Dream,&rdquo; and the best
+of his glees were &ldquo;In peace Love tunes the shepherd&rsquo;s reed,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;To all that breathe the air of Heaven.&rdquo; Attwood was a
+friend of Mendelssohn, for whom he professed an admiration
+at a time when the young German&rsquo;s talent was little appreciated
+by the majority of English musicians.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATTWOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1783-1856), English political reformer,
+was born at Halesowen, Worcestershire, on the 6th of
+October 1783. In 1800 he entered his father&rsquo;s banking business
+in Birmingham, where he was elected high bailiff in 1811. He
+took a leading part in the public life of the city, and became very
+popular with the artisan class. He is now remembered for his
+share in the movement which led to the carrying of the Reform
+Act of 1832. He was one of the founders, in January 1830, of
+the Political Union, branches of which were soon formed throughout
+England. Under his leadership vast crowds of working-men
+met periodically in the neighbourhood of Birmingham to
+demonstrate in favour of reform of the franchise, and Attwood
+used his power over the multitude to repress any action on their
+part which might savour of illegality. His successful exertions
+in favour of reform made him a popular hero all over the country,
+and he was presented with the freedom of the city of London.
+After the passing of the Reform Act in 1832 he was elected one
+of the members for the new borough of Birmingham, for which
+he sat till 1839. He failed in the House of Commons to maintain
+the reputation which he had made outside it, for in addition
+to an eager partisanship in favour of every ultra-democratic
+movement, he was wearisomely persistent in advocating his
+peculiar monetary theory. This theory, which became with
+him a monomania, was that the existing currency should be
+rectified in favour of state-regulated and inconvertible paper-money,
+and the adoption of a system for altering the standard
+of value as prices fluctuated. His waning influence with his
+constituents led him to retire from parliament in 1837, and,
+though invited to re-enter political life in 1843, he had by that
+time become a thoroughly spent force. He died at Great Malvern
+on the 6th of March 1856.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His grandson, C.M. Wakefield, wrote his life &ldquo;for private
+circulation&rdquo; (there is a copy in the British Museum), and his
+economic theories are set forth in a little book, <i>Gemini</i>,
+by T.B. Wright and J. Harlow, published in 1844.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATWOOD, GEORGE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1746-1807), English mathematician,
+was born in the early part of the year 1746. He entered
+Westminster school, and in 1759 was elected to a scholarship at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1769, with the
+rank of third wrangler and first Smith&rsquo;s prizeman. Subsequently
+he became a fellow and a tutor of the college, and in 1776 was
+elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In the year
+1784 he left Cambridge, and soon afterwards received from
+William Pitt the office of a patent searcher of the customs,
+which required but little attendance, and enabled him to devote
+a considerable portion of his time to his special studies. He
+died in July 1807. Atwood&rsquo;s published works, exclusive of papers
+contributed to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, for one of
+which he obtained the Copley medal, are as follows:&mdash;<i>Analysis
+of a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophy</i>
+(Cambridge, 1784); <i>Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and
+Rotation of Bodies</i> (Cambridge, 1784), which gives some
+interesting experiments, by means of which mechanical truths can
+be ocularly exhibited and demonstrated, and describes the machine,
+since called by Atwood&rsquo;s name, for verifying experimentally the
+laws of simple acceleration of motion; <i>Review of the Statutes
+and Ordinances of Assize which have been established in England from
+the 4th year of King John, 1202, to the 37th of his present Majesty</i>
+(London, 1801), a work of some historical research; <i>Dissertation
+on the Construction and Properties of Arches</i> (London, 1801),
+with supplement, pt. i., 1801, pt. ii., 1804, an elaborate work,
+now completely superseded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBADE<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (a French word from <i>aube</i>, the dawn), the dawn-song
+of the troubadours of Provence, developed by the Minnesingers
+(<i>q.v.</i>) of Germany into the <i>Tagelied</i>, the song of
+the parting at dawn of lovers at the warning of the watchman.
+In France in modern times the term is applied to the performance
+of a military band in the early morning in honour of some
+distinguished person.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBAGNE,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department
+of Bouches-du-Rhône on the Huveaune, 11 m. E. of Marseilles
+by rail. Pop. (1906) 6039. The town carries on the manufacture
+of earthenware and pottery, leather, &amp;c. and the cultivation of
+fruit and wine. There is a fountain to the memory of the
+statesman, F. Barthélemy (d. 1830), born at Aubagne.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a department of north-eastern France, bounded N. by
+the department of Marne, N.W. by Seine-et-Marne, W. by
+Yonne, S. by Yonne and Cote-d&rsquo;Or, and E. by Haute-Marne;
+it was formed in 1790 from Basse-Champagne, and a small
+portion of Burgundy. Area, 2326 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 243,670.
+The department belongs to the Seine basin, and is watered
+chiefly by the Seine and the Aube. These rivers follow the
+general slope of the department, which is from south-east,
+where the Bois du Mont (1200 ft.), the highest point, is situated,
+to north-west. The southern and eastern districts are fertile
+and well wooded. The remainder of the department, with the
+exception of a more broken and picturesque district in the
+extreme north-west, forms part of the sterile and monotonous
+plain known as Champagne Pouilleuse. The climate is mild
+but damp. The annual rainfall over the greater part varies
+from 24 to 28 in.; but in the extreme south-east it at times
+reaches a height of 36 in. Aube is an agricultural department;
+more than one third of its surface consists of arable land of
+which the chief products are wheat and oats, and next to them rye,
+barley and potatoes; vegetables are extensively cultivated in
+the valleys of the Seine and the Aube. The vine flourishes
+chiefly on the hills of the south-east; the wines of Les Riceys,
+Bar-sur-Aube, Bouilly and Laines-aux-Bois are most esteemed.
+The river valleys abound in natural pasture, and sainfoin,
+lucerne and other forage crops are largely grown; cattle-raising
+is an important source of wealth, and the cheeses of Troyes are
+well known. There are excellent nurseries and orchards in the
+neighbourhood of Troyes, Bar-sur-Seine, Méry-sur-Seine and
+Brienne. Chalk, from which <i>blanc de Troyes</i> is manufactured,
+and clay are abundant; and there are peat workings and quarries
+of building-stone and limestone. The spinning and weaving of
+cotton and the manufacture of hosiery, of both of which Troyes
+is the centre, are the main industries of the department;
+there are also a large number of distilleries, tanneries,
+oil works, tile and brick works, flour-mills, saw-mills and
+dye-works. The Eastern railway has works at Romilly, and there
+are iron works at Clairvaux and wire-drawing works at Plaines;
+but owing to the absence of coal and iron mines, metal working
+is of small importance. The exports of Aube consist of timber,
+cereals, agricultural products, hosiery, wine, dressed pork, &amp;c.;
+its imports include wool and raw cotton, coal and machinery,
+especially looms. The department is served by the Eastern
+railway, of which the main line to Belfort crosses it. The river
+Aube is navigable for 28 m. (from Arcis-sur-Aube to its confluence
+with the Seine); the Canal de la Haute-Seine extends beside the
+Seine from Bar-sur-Seine to Marcilly (just outside the department)
+a distance of 46 m.; below Marcilly the Seine is canalized.</p>
+
+<p>Aube is divided into 5 arrondissements with 26 cantons and
+446 communes. It falls within the educational circumscription
+(<i>académie</i>) of Dijon and the military circumscription of
+the XX. army corps; its court of appeal is in Paris. It
+constitutes the diocese of Troyes and part of the archiepiscopal
+province of Sens. The capital of the department is Troyes; of the
+arrondissements the capitals are Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, Arcis-sur-Aube,
+Bar-sur-Seine and Nogent-sur-Seine. The architecture of the department
+is chiefly displayed in its churches, many of which possess stained
+glass of the 16th century. Besides the cathedral and other
+churches of Troyes, those of Mussy-sur-Seine (13th century),
+Chaource (16th century) and Nogent-sur-Seine (15th and 16th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span>
+centuries), are of note. The abbey buildings of Clairvaux are
+the type of the Cistercian abbey.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBENAS,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department
+of Ardèche, 19 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 3976
+(town), 7064 (commune). Aubenas is beautifully situated on the
+slope of a hill, on the right bank of the Ardèche, but its streets
+generally are crooked and narrow. It has a castle of the 13th
+and 16th centuries, now occupied by several of the public
+institutions of the town. These include a tribunal and chamber of
+commerce, and a conditioning-house for silk. Iron and coal
+mines are worked in the vicinity. As the centre of the silk trade
+of southern France Aubenas is a place of considerable traffic.
+It has also a large silk spinning and weaving industry, and
+carries on tanning and various minor industries together with
+trade in silk. The district is rich in plantations of mulberries
+and olives.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBER, DANIEL FRANÇOIS ESPRIT<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1782-1871), French
+musical composer, the son of a Paris printseller, was born at
+Caen in Normandy on the 29th of January 1782. Destined by
+his father to the pursuits of trade, he was allowed, nevertheless,
+to indulge his fondness for music, and learnt to play at an early
+age on several instruments, his first teacher being the Tirolean
+composer, I.A. Ladurner. Sent at the age of twenty to London
+to complete his business training, he was obliged to leave England
+in consequence of the breach of the treaty of Amiens (1804).
+He had already attempted musical composition, and at this
+period produced several <i>concertos pour basse</i>, in the manner of
+the violoncellist, Lamarre, in whose name they were published.
+The praise given to his concerto for the violin, which was played
+at the Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him to undertake
+the resetting of the old comic opera, <i>Julie</i> (1811). Conscious by
+this time of the need of regular study of his chosen art, he placed
+himself under the severe training of Cherubini, by which the
+special qualities of the young composer were admirably developed.
+In 1813 he made his <i>début</i> in an opera in one act, the <i>Séjour
+militaire</i>, the unfavourable reception of which put an end for
+some years to his attempts as composer. But the failure in
+business and death of his father, in 1819, compelled him once
+more to turn to music, and to make that which had been his
+pastime the serious employment of his life. He produced another
+opera, the <i>Testament et les billets-deux</i> (1819), which was no
+better received than the former. But he persevered, and the
+next year was rewarded by the complete success of his <i>Bergère
+châtelaine</i>, an opera in three acts. This was the first in a long
+series of brilliant successes. In 1822 began his long association
+with A.E. Scribe, who shared with him, as librettist, the success
+and growing popularity of his compositions. The opera of
+<i>Leicester</i>, in which they first worked together (1823), is
+remarkable also as showing evidences of the influence of Rossini. But
+his own style was an individual one, marked by lightness and
+facility, sparkling vivacity, grace and elegance, clear and piquant
+melody&mdash;characteristically French. In <i>La Muette de Portici</i>,
+familiarly known as <i>Masaniello</i>, Auber achieved his greatest
+musical triumph. Produced at Paris in 1828, it rapidly became a
+European favourite, and its overture, songs and choruses were
+everywhere heard. The duet, &ldquo;Amour sacré de la patrie,&rdquo; was
+welcomed like a new <i>Marseillaise</i>; sung by Nourrit at Brussels
+in 1830, it became the signal for the revolution which broke
+out there. Of Auber&rsquo;s remaining operas (about 50 in all) the
+more important are: <i>Le Maçon</i> (1825), <i>La Fiancée</i> (1829), <i>Fra
+Diavolo</i> (1830), <i>Lestocq</i> (1834), <i>Le Cheval de bronze</i> (1835),
+<i>L&rsquo;Ambassadrice</i> (1836), <i>Le Domino noir</i> (1837), <i>Le Lac des
+fées</i> (1839), <i>Les Diamants de la couronne</i> (1841), <i>Haydée</i> (1847),
+<i>Marco Spada</i> (1853), <i>Manon Lescaut</i> (1856), and <i>La Fiancée du
+roi des Garbes</i> (1864). Official and other dignities testified the
+public appreciation of Auber&rsquo;s works. In 1829 he was elected
+member of the Institute, in 1830 he was named director of the
+court concerts, and in 1842, at the wish of Louis Philippe, he
+succeeded Cherubini as director of the Conservatoire. He was
+also a member of the Legion of Honour from 1825, and attained
+the rank of commander in 1847. Napoleon III. made Auber his
+Imperial Maître de Chapelle in 1857.</p>
+
+<p>One of Auber&rsquo;s latest compositions was a march, written for
+the opening of the International Exhibition in London in 1862.
+His fascinating manners, his witty sayings, and his ever-ready
+kindness and beneficence won for him a secure place in the respect
+and love of his fellow-citizens. He remained in his old home
+during the German siege of Paris, 1870-71, but the miseries
+of the Communist war which followed sickened his heart, and
+he died in Paris on the 13th of May 1871.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Adolph Kohut, &ldquo;Auber,&rdquo; vol. xvii. of <i>Musiker Biographien</i>
+(Leipzig, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBERGINE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (diminutive of Fr. <i>auberge</i>, a variant of <i>alberge</i>,
+a kind of peach), or <span class="sc">Egg Plant</span> (<i>Solanum melongena</i>, var.
+<i>ovigerum</i>), a tender annual widely cultivated in the warmer parts
+of the earth, and in France and Italy, for the sake of its fruits,
+which are eaten as a vegetable. The seed should be sown early
+in February in a warm pit, where the plants are grown till shifted
+into 8-in. or 10-in. pots, in well-manured soil. Liquid manure
+should be given occasionally while the fruit is swelling; about
+four fruits are sufficient for one plant. The French growers
+sow them in a brisk heat in December, or early in January,
+and in March plant them out four or eight in a hot-bed with a
+bottom heat of from 60° to 68°, the sashes being gradually more
+widely opened as the season advances, until at about the end of
+May they may be taken off. The two main branches which are
+allowed are pinched to induce laterals, but when the fruits are
+set all young shoots are taken off in order to increase their size.
+The best variety is the large purple, which produces oblong
+fruit, sometimes reaching 6 or 7 in. in length and 10 or 12 in. in
+circumference. The fruit of the ordinary form almost exactly
+resembles the egg of the domestic fowl. It is also grown as
+an ornamental plant, for covering walls or trellises; especially
+the black-fruited kind.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBERVILLIERS,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aubervilliers-les-Vertus</span>, a town
+of northern France, in the department of Seine, on the canal
+St Denis, 2 m. from the right bank of the Seine and 1 m. N. of
+the fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 33,358. Its manufactures
+include cardboard, glue, oils, colours, fertilizers, chemical
+products, perfumery, &amp;c. During the middle ages and till
+modern times Aubervilliers was the resort of numerous pilgrims,
+who came to pay honour to Notre Dame des Vertus. In 1814
+the locality was the scene of a stubborn combat between the
+French and the Allies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBIGNAC, FRANÇOIS HÉDELIN,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Abbé d&rsquo;</span> (1604-1676),
+French author, was born at Paris on the 4th of August 1604.
+His father practised at the Paris bar, and his mother was a
+daughter of the great surgeon Ambroise Paré. François Hédelin
+was educated for his father&rsquo;s profession, but, after practising
+for some time at Nemours he abandoned law, took holy orders,
+and was appointed tutor to one of Richelieu&rsquo;s nephews, the
+duc de Fronsac. This patronage secured for him the abbey
+of Aubignac and of Mainac. The death of the duc de Fronsac
+in 1646 put an end to hopes of further preferment, and the
+Abbé d&rsquo;Aubignac retired to Nemours, occupying himself with
+literature till his death on the 25th of July 1676. He took an
+energetic share in the literary controversies of his time. Against
+Gilles Ménage he wrote a <i>Térence justifié</i> (1656); he laid claim
+to having originated the idea of the &ldquo;<i>Carte de tendre</i>&rdquo; of Mlle de
+Scudéry&rsquo;s <i>Clélie</i>; and after being a professed admirer of Corneille
+he turned against him because he had neglected to mention the
+abbé in his <i>Discours sur le poème dramatique</i>. He was the author
+of four tragedies: <i>La Cyminde</i> (1642), <i>La Pucelle d&rsquo;Orléans</i> (1642),
+<i>Zénobie</i> (1647) and <i>Le Martyre de Sainte Catherine</i> (1650).
+<i>Zénobie</i> was written with the intention of affording a model in which
+the strict rules of the drama, as understood by the theorists, were
+observed. In the choice of subjects for his plays, he seems to
+have been guided by a desire to illustrate the various kinds of
+tragedy&mdash;patriotic, antique and religious. The dramatic authors
+whom he was in the habit of criticizing were not slow to take
+advantage of the opportunity for retaliation offered by the
+production of these mediocre plays. It is as a theorist that
+D&rsquo;Aubignac still arrests attention. It has been proved that to
+Jean Chapelain belongs the credit of having been the first to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span>
+establish as a practical law the convention of the unities that
+plays so large a part in the history of the French stage; but
+the laws of dramatic method and construction generally were
+codified by d&rsquo;Aubignac in his <i>Pratique du théâtre.</i> The book
+was only published in 1657, but had been begun at the desire
+of Richelieu as early as 1640. His <i>Conjectures académiques sur
+l&rsquo;Iliade d&rsquo;Homère</i>, which was not published until nearly forty
+years after his death, threw doubts on the existence of Homer,
+and anticipated in some sense the conclusions of Friedrich August
+Wolf in his <i>Prolegomena ad Homerum</i> (1795).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The contents of the <i>Pratique du théâtre</i> are summarized by F.
+Brunetière in his notice of Aubignac in the <i>Grande Encydopédie.</i>
+See also G. Saintsbury, <i>Hist. of Criticism</i>, bk. v., and
+H. Rigault, <i>Hist. de la querelle des anciens et modernes.</i> (1859).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBIGNÉ, CONSTANT D&rsquo;<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Baron de Surineau</span>] (<i>c.</i> 1584-1647),
+French adventurer, was the son of Théodore Agrippa
+d&rsquo;Aubigné, and the father of Madame de Maintenon. Born
+a Protestant, he became by turns Catholic or Protestant as it
+suited his interests. He betrayed the Protestants in 1626,
+revealing to the court, after a voyage to England, the projects
+of the English upon La Rochelle. He was renounced by his
+father; then imprisoned by Richelieu&rsquo;s orders at Niort, where
+he was detained ten years. After having tried his fortunes in
+the Antilles, he died in Provence, leaving in destitution his wife,
+Jeanne de Cardillac, whom he had married in 1627. He had two
+children, Charles, father of the duchess of Noailles, and Françoise,
+known in history as Madame de Maintenon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Lavallée, <i>La Famille d&rsquo;Aubigné et l&rsquo;enfance de Madame de
+Maintenon</i> (Paris, 1863).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBIGNÉ, JEAN HENRI MERLE D&rsquo;<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1794-1872), Swiss
+Protestant divine and historian, was born on the 16th of August
+1794, at Eaux Vives, near Geneva. The ancestors of his father,
+Aimé Robert Merle d&rsquo;Aubigné (1755-1799), were French Protestant
+refugees. Jean Henri was destined by his parents to a
+commercial life; but at college he decided to be ordained. He
+was profoundly influenced by Robert Haldane, the Scottish
+missionary and preacher who visited Geneva. When in 1817 he
+went abroad to further his education, Germany was about to
+celebrate the tercentenary of the Reformation; and thus early
+he conceived the ambition to write the history of that great
+epoch. At Berlin he received stimulus from teachers so unlike
+as J.A.W. Neander and W.M.L. de Wette. After presiding for
+five years over the French Protestant church at Hamburg, he
+was, in 1823, called to become pastor of a congregation in
+Brussels and preacher to the court. He became also president of
+the consistory of the French and German Protestant churches.
+At the Belgian revolution of 1830 he thought it advisable to
+undertake pastoral work at home rather than to accept an
+educational post in the family of the Dutch king. The Evangelical
+Society had been founded with the idea of promoting
+evangelical Christianity in Geneva and elsewhere, but it was found
+that there was also needed a theological school for the training
+of pastors. On his return to Switzerland, d&rsquo;Aubigné was invited
+to become professor of church history in an institution of the
+kind, and continued to labour in the cause of evangelical
+Protestantism. In him the Evangelical Alliance found a hearty
+promoter. He frequently visited England, was made a D.C.L.
+by Oxford University, and received civic honours from the city
+of Edinburgh. He died suddenly in 1872.</p>
+
+<p>His principal works are&mdash;<i>Discours sur l&rsquo;étude de l&rsquo;histoire de
+Christianisme</i> (Geneva, 1832); <i>Le Luthéranisme et la Réforme</i>
+(Paris, 1844); <i>Germany, England and Scotland, or Recollections
+of a Swiss Pastor</i> (London, 1848); <i>Trois siècles de lutte
+en Écosse, ou deux rois et deux royaumes; Le Protecteur ou la
+république d&rsquo;Angleterre aux jours de Cromwell</i> (Paris, 1848);
+<i>Le Concile et l&rsquo;infaillibililé</i> (1870); <i>Histoire de la Réformation
+au XVI<span class="sp">ième</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1835-1853; new ed:, 1861-1862,
+in 5 vols.); and <i>Histoire de la Réformation en Europe au temps
+de Calvin</i> (8 vols., 1862-1877).</p>
+
+<p>The first portion of his <i>Histoire de la Réformation</i>, which
+was devoted to the earlier period of the movement in Germany,
+gave him at once a foremost place amongst modern French
+ecclesiastical historians, and was translated into most European
+tongues. The second portion, dealing with reform in the time
+of Calvin, was not less thorough, and had a subject hitherto less
+exhaustively treated, but it did not meet with the same success.
+This part of the subject, with which he was most competent to
+deal, was all but completed at the time of his death. Among
+his minor treatises, the most important are the vindication of
+the character and aims of Oliver Cromwell, and the sketch of the
+contendings of the Church of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>Indefatigable in sifting original documents, Aubigné had
+amassed a wealth of authentic information; but his desire to
+give in all cases a full and graphic picture, assisted by a vivid
+imagination, betrayed him into excess of detail concerning minor
+events, and in a few cases into filling up a narrative by
+inference from later conditions. Moreover, in his profound sympathy
+with the Reformers, he too frequently becomes their apologist.
+But his work is a monument of painstaking sincerity, and brings
+us into direct contact with the spirit of the period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBIGNÉ, THÉODORE AGRIPPA D&rsquo;<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1552-1630), French
+poet and historian, was born at St Maury, near Pons, in Saintonge,
+on the 8th of February 1552. His name Agrippa (<i>aegre partus</i>)
+was given him through his mother dying in childbirth. In his
+childhood he showed a great aptitude for languages; according
+to his own account he knew Latin, Greek and Hebrew at six years
+of age; and he had translated the <i>Crito</i> of Plato before he
+was eleven. His father, a Huguenot who had been one of the
+conspirators of Amboise, strengthened his Protestant sympathies
+by showing him, while they were passing through that town on
+their way to Paris, the heads of the conspirators exposed upon
+the scaffold, and adjuring him not to spare his own head in order
+to avenge their death. After a brief residence he was obliged
+to flee from Paris to avoid persecution, but was captured and
+threatened with death. Escaping through the intervention of
+a friend, he went to Montargis. In his fourteenth year he was
+present at the siege of Orléans, at which his father was killed.
+His guardian sent him to Geneva, where he studied for a
+considerable time under the direction of Beza. In 1567 he made
+his escape from tutelage, and attached himself to the Huguenot
+army under the prince of Condé. Subsequently he joined Henry
+of Navarre, whom he succeeded in withdrawing from the corrupting
+influence of the house of Valois (1576), and to whom he
+rendered valuable service, both as a soldier and as a counsellor,
+in the wars that issued in his elevation to the throne as Henry IV.
+After a furious battle at Casteljaloux, and suffering from fever
+from his wounds, he wrote his <i>Tragiques</i> (1571). He was in the
+battle of Coutras (1587), and at the siege of Paris (1590). His
+career at camp and court, however, was a somewhat chequered
+one, owing to the roughness of his manner and the keenness of
+his criticisms, which made him many enemies and severely tried
+the king&rsquo;s patience. In his <i>tragédie-ballet Circe</i> (1576) he did not
+hesitate to indulge in the most outspoken sarcasm against the
+king and other members of the royal family. Though he more
+than once found it expedient to retire into private life he never
+entirely lost the favour of Henry, who made him governor of
+Maillezais. After the conversion of the king to Roman Catholicism,
+d&rsquo;Aubigné remained true to the Huguenot cause, and
+a fearless advocate of the Huguenot interests. The first two
+volumes of the work by which he is best known, his <i>Histoire
+universelle depuis 1550 jusqu&rsquo;à l&rsquo;an 1601</i>, appeared in 1616
+and 1618 respectively. The third volume was published in 1619, but,
+being still more free and personal in its satire than those which
+had preceded it, it was immediately ordered to be burned by the
+common hangman. The work is a lively chronicle of the incidents
+of camp and court life, and forms a very valuable source for the
+history of France during the period it embraces. In September
+1620 its author was compelled to take refuge in Geneva, where
+he found a secure retreat for the last ten years of his life, though
+the hatred of the French court showed itself in procuring a
+sentence of death to be recorded against him more than once.
+He devoted the period of his exile to study, and the
+superintendence of works for the fortifications of Bern and Basel which were
+designed as a material defence of the cause of Protestantism.
+He died at Geneva on the 29th of April 1630.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of his works according to the original MSS.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span>
+was begun by E. Réaume and F. de Caussade (1879). It contains
+all the literary works, the <i>Aventures du baron de Faeneste</i> (1617),
+and the <i>Mémoires</i> (6 vols., 1873-1892). The best edition of the
+<i>Histoire universelle</i> is by A. de Ruble. The <i>Mémoires</i> were edited
+by L. Lalanne (1854).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBIN,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of southern France, in the department of
+Aveyron on the Enne, 30 m. N.W. of Rodez. In 1906 the urban
+population was 2229, the communal population 9986. Aubin is
+the centre of important coal-mines worked in the middle ages,
+and also has iron-mines, the product of which supplies iron works
+close to the town. Sheep-breeding is important in the vicinity.
+The church dates from the 12th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBREY, JOHN<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1626-1697), English antiquary, was born at
+Easton Pierse or Percy, near Malmesbury, Wiltshire, on the 12th
+of March 1626, his father being a country gentleman of
+considerable fortune. He was educated at the Malmesbury grammar
+school under Robert Latimer, who had numbered Thomas
+Hobbes among his earlier pupils, and at his schoolmaster&rsquo;s house
+Aubrey first met the philosopher about whom he was to leave
+so many curious and interesting details. He entered Trinity
+College, Oxford, in 1642, but his studies were interrupted by the
+Civil War. In 1646 he became a student of the Middle Temple,
+but was never called to the bar. He spent much of his time in
+the country, and in 1649 he brought into notice the megalithic
+remains at Avebury. His father died in 1652, leaving to Aubrey
+large estates, and with them, unfortunately, complicated lawsuits.
+Aubrey, however, lived gaily, and used his means to
+gratify his passion for the company of celebrities and for every
+sort of knowledge to be gleaned about them. Anthony à Wood
+prophesied that he would one day break his neck while running
+downstairs after a retreating guest, in the hope of extracting a
+story from him. He took no active share in the political troubles
+of the time, but from his description of a meeting of the Rota
+Club, founded by James Harrington, the author of <i>Oceana</i>, he
+appears to have been a theorizing republican. His reminiscences
+on this subject date from the Restoration, and are probably
+softened by considerations of expediency. In 1663 he became
+a member of the Royal Society, and in the next year he met
+Joan Somner, &ldquo;in an ill hour,&rdquo; he tells us. This connexion did
+not end in marriage, and a lawsuit with the lady complicated
+his already embarrassed affairs. He lost estate after estate,
+until in 1670 he parted with his last piece of property, Easton
+Pierse. From this time he was dependent on the hospitality of
+his numerous friends. In 1667 he had made the acquaintance of
+Anthony à Wood at Oxford, and when Wood began to gather
+materials for his invaluable <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>, Aubrey offered
+to collect information for him. From time to time he forwarded
+memoranda to him, and in 1680 he began to promise the
+&ldquo;Minutes for Lives,&rdquo; which Wood was to use at his discretion.
+He left the task of verification largely to Wood. As a hanger-on
+in great houses he had little time for systematic work, and he
+wrote the &ldquo;Lives&rdquo; in the early morning while his hosts were
+sleeping off the effects of the dissipation of the night before.
+He constantly leaves blanks for dates and facts, and many
+queries. He made no attempt at a fair copy, and, when fresh
+information occurred to him, inserted it at random. He made some
+distinction between hearsay and authentic information, but had
+no pretence to accuracy, his retentive memory being the chief
+authority. The principal charm of his &ldquo;Minutes&rdquo; lies in the
+amusing details he has to recount about his personages, and in
+the plainness and truthfulness that he permits himself in face of
+established reputations. In 1592 he complained bitterly that
+Wood had destroyed forty pages of his MS., probably because of
+the dangerous freedom of Aubrey&rsquo;s pen. Wood Was prosecuted
+eventually for insinuations against the judicial integrity of the
+earl of Clarendon. One of the two statements called in question
+was certainly founded on information provided by Aubrey.
+This perhaps explains the estrangement between the two antiquaries
+and the ungrateful account that Wood gives of the elder
+man&rsquo;s character. &ldquo;He was a shiftless person, roving and
+magotic-headed, and sometimes little better than crased. And
+being exceedingly credulous, would stuff his many letters sent
+to A.W. with follies and misinformations, which sometimes
+would guide him into the paths of error.&rdquo;<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In 1673 Aubrey
+began his &ldquo;Perambulation&rdquo; or &ldquo;Survey&rdquo; of the county of
+Surrey, which was the result of many years&rsquo; labour in collecting
+inscriptions and traditions in the country. He began a &ldquo;History
+of his Native District of Northern Wiltshire,&rdquo; but, feeling that
+he was too old to finish it as he would wish, he made over his
+material, about 1695, to Thomas Tanner, afterwards bishop of
+St Asaph. In the next year he published his only completed,
+though certainly not his most valuable work, the <i>Miscellanies</i>, a
+collection of stories on ghosts and dreams. He died at Oxford
+in June 1697, and was buried in the church of St Mary Magdalene.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Beside the works already mentioned, his papers included:
+&ldquo;Architectonica Sacra,&rdquo; notes on ecclesiastical antiquities; and
+&ldquo;Life of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury,&rdquo; which served as the basis
+of Dr Blackburn&rsquo;s Latin life, and also of Wood&rsquo;s account. His
+survey of Surrey was incorporated in R. Rawlinson&rsquo;s <i>Natural
+History and Antiquities of Surrey</i> (1719); his antiquarian notes on
+Wiltshire were printed in <i>Wiltshire; the Topographical Collections
+of John Aubrey</i>, corrected and enlarged by J.E. Jackson (Devizes,
+1862); part of another MS. on &ldquo;The Natural History of Wiltshire&rdquo;
+was printed by John Britton in 1847 for the Wiltshire Topographical
+Society; the <i>Miscellanies</i> were edited in 1890 for the <i>Library of Old
+Authors</i>; the &ldquo;Minutes for Lives&rdquo; were partially edited in 1813.
+A complete transcript, <i>Brief Lives chiefly of Contemporaries set down
+by John Aubrey between the Years 1669 and 1696</i>, was edited for the
+Clarendon Press in 1898 by the Rev. Andrew Clark from the MSS.
+in the Bodleian, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>See also John Britton, <i>Memoir of John Aubrey</i> (1845); David
+Masson, in the <i>British Quarterly Review</i>, July 1856; Émile Montégut,
+<i>Heures de lecture d&rsquo;un critique</i> (1891); and a catalogue of Aubrey&rsquo;s
+collections in <i>The Life and Times of Anthony Wood</i> ..., by Andrew
+Clark (Oxford, 1891-1900, vol. iv. pp. 191-193), which contains
+many other references to Aubrey.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;Life of Anthony à Wood written by Himself&rdquo; (<i>Athen. Oxon.</i>,
+ed. Bliss).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBURN,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Androscoggin county,
+Maine, U.S.A., on the Androscoggin river, opposite Lewiston
+(with which it practically forms an industrial unit), in the S.W.
+part of the state. Pop. (1890) 11,250; (1900) 12,951, of whom
+2076 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 15,064. It is served
+by the Grand Trunk and the Maine Central railways. The river
+furnishes abundant water-power, and the city ranked fourth in
+the state as a manufacturing centre in 1905. Boots and shoes
+are the principal products; in 1905 seven-tenths of the city&rsquo;s
+wage-earners were engaged in their manufacture, and Auburn&rsquo;s
+output ($4,263,162 = 66.5% of the total factory product of the
+city) was one-third of that of the whole state. Other manufactures
+are butter, bread and other bakery products, cotton
+goods, furniture and leather. The municipality owns and
+operates its waterworks. Auburn was first settled in 1786,
+and was incorporated in 1842, but the present charter dates
+only from 1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBURN,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cayuga county,
+New York, U.S.A., 25 m. S.W. of Syracuse, on an outlet of
+Owasco Lake. Pop. (1890) 25,858; (1900) 30,345, of whom
+5436 were foreign-born, 2084 being from Ireland and 1023 from
+England; (1910) 34,668. It is served by the Lehigh Valley
+and the New York Central &amp; Hudson River railways, and by
+inter-urban electric lines. The city is attractively situated
+amidst a group of low hills in the heart of the lake country of
+western New York; the streets are wide, with a profusion of
+shade trees. Auburn has a city hall, the large Burtis
+Auditorium, the Auburn hospital, two orphan asylums, and the
+Seymour library in the Case Memorial building. There is a
+fine bronze statue of William H. Seward, who made his home
+here after 1823, and was buried in Fort Hill Cemetery. In
+Auburn are the Auburn (State) prison (1816), in connexion
+with which there is a women&rsquo;s prison; the Auburn Theological
+Seminary (Presbyterian), founded in 1819, chartered in 1820,
+and opened for students in 1821; the Robinson school for girls;
+and the Women&rsquo;s Educational and Industrial Union, for the
+education of working girls, with a building erected in 1907.
+The city owns its water-supply system, the water being pumped
+from Owasco Lake, about 2½ m. S.S.E. of the city. There is a
+good water-power, and the city has important manufacturing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span>
+interests. The principal manufactures are cordage and twine,
+agricultural implements, engines, pianos, boots and shoes,
+cotton and woollen goods, carpets and rugs, rubber goods,
+flour and machinery. The total factory product in 1905 was
+valued at $13,420,863; of this $2,890,301 was the value of
+agricultural implements, in the manufacture of which Auburn
+ranked fifth among the cities of the United States. There are
+a number of grey and blue limestone quarries, one of which is
+owned and operated by the municipality.</p>
+
+<p>Settled soon after the close of the War of Independence,
+Auburn was laid out in 1793 by Captain John L. Hardenburgh,
+a veteran of the war, and for some years was known as Hardenburgh&rsquo;s
+Corners. In 1805, when it was made the county-seat,
+it was renamed Auburn. It was incorporated in 1814, and was
+chartered as a city in 1848.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Hawley, <i>Early Chapters of Cayuga History</i> (Auburn, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBURN<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (from the Low Lat. <i>alburnus</i>, whitish, light-coloured),
+ruddy-brown; the meaning has changed from the original one
+of brownish-white or light yellow (<i>citrinus</i>, in <i>Promptorium
+Parvulorum</i>), probably through the intensification of the idea
+of brown caused by the early spelling &ldquo;abron&rdquo; or &ldquo;abrown.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBUSSON, PIERRE D&rsquo;<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1423-1503), grand-master of the
+order of St John of Jerusalem, and a zealous opponent of the
+Turks, was born in 1423. He belonged to a noble French family,
+and early devoted himself to the career of a soldier in the service
+of the emperor Sigismund. Under the archduke Albert of
+Austria he took part in a campaign against the Turks, and on his
+return to France sided with the Armagnacs against the Swiss,
+greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of St Jacob in 1444.
+He then joined the order of the knights of Rhodes, and successfully
+conducted an expedition against the pirates of the Levant
+and an embassy to Charles VII. He soon rose to the most
+important offices in the order, and in 1476 was elected grand-master.
+It was the period of the conquests of Mahommed II.,
+who, supreme in the East, now began to threaten Europe. In
+December 1479 a large Turkish fleet appeared in sight of Rhodes;
+a landing was effected, and a vigorous attack made upon the city.
+But in July of the next year, being reinforced from Spain, the
+knights forced the Mussulmans to retire, leaving behind them
+9000 dead. The siege, in which d&rsquo;Aubusson was seriously
+wounded, enhanced his renown throughout Europe. Mahommed
+was furious, and would have attacked the island again but for
+his death in 1481. His succession was disputed between his
+sons Bayezid and Jem. The latter, after his defeat by Bayezid,
+sought refuge at Rhodes under a safe-conduct from the grand-master
+and the council of the knights. What followed remains
+a stain on d&rsquo;Aubusson&rsquo;s memory. Rhodes not being considered
+secure, Jem with his own consent was sent to France. Meanwhile,
+in spite of the safe-conduct, d&rsquo;Aubusson accepted an
+annuity of 45,000 ducats from the sultan; in return for which he
+undertook to guard Jem in such a way as to prevent his design
+of appealing to the Christian powers to aid him against his
+brother. For six years Jem, in spite of frequent efforts to
+escape, was kept a close prisoner in various castles of the Rhodian
+order in France, until in 1489 he was handed over to Pope
+Innocent VIII., who had been vying with the kings of Hungary
+and Naples for the possession of so valuable a political weapon.
+D&rsquo;Aubusson&rsquo;s reward was a cardinal&rsquo;s hat (1489), and the
+power to confer all benefices connected with the order without
+the sanction of the papacy; the order of St John received the
+wealth of the suppressed orders of the Holy Sepulchre and St
+Lazarus. The remaining years of his life d&rsquo;Aubusson spent in
+the attempt to restore discipline and zeal in his order, and to
+organize a grand international crusade against the Turks. The
+age of the Renaissance, with Alexander Borgia on the throne of
+St Peter, was, however, not favourable to such an enterprise;
+the death of Jem in 1495 had removed the most formidable
+weapon available against the sultan; and when in 1501 d&rsquo;Aubusson
+led an expedition against Mytilene, dissensions among his
+motley host rendered it wholly abortive. The old man&rsquo;s last
+years were embittered by chagrin at his failure, which was
+hardly compensated by his success in extirpating Judaism in
+Rhodes, by expelling all adult Jews and forcibly baptizing their
+children. In the summer of 1503 he died.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See P. Bouhours, <i>Hist, de Pierre d&rsquo;Aubusson</i> (Paris, 1676; Hague,
+1793; abridged ed. Bruges, 1887); G.E. Streck, <i>Pierre d&rsquo;Aubusson,
+Grossmeister</i>, &amp;c. (Chemnitz, 1873); J.B. Bury in <i>Cambridge Mod.
+Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 85, &amp;c. (for relations with Jem).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUBUSSON,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a town of France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Creuse, picturesquely situated on the river
+Creuse 24 m. S.E. of Guéret by rail. Pop. (1906) 6475. It has
+celebrated manufactories of carpets, &amp;c., employing about 2000
+workmen, the artistic standard of which is maintained by a
+national school of decorative arts, founded in 1869. Nothing
+certain is known as to the foundation of this industry, but it
+was in full activity at least as far back as 1531. From the 10th
+to the 13th century Aubusson was the centre of a viscounty,
+and the viscountess Marguerite, wife of Rainaud VI., was sung
+by many a troubadour. After the death of the viscount Guy II.
+(a little later than 1262) Aubusson was incorporated in the
+countship of La Marche by Hugh XII. of Lusignan, and shared
+in its fortunes. Louis XIV. revived the title of viscount of
+Aubusson in favour of François, first marshall de la Feuillade
+(1686). From the family of the old viscounts was descended
+Pierre d&rsquo;Aubusson (<i>q.v.</i>). Admiral Sallandrouze de Lamornaix
+(1840-1902) belonged to a family of tapestry manufacturers
+established at Aubusson since the beginning of the 19th century.
+Aubusson was also the native place of the novelists Leonard
+Sylvain, Julien Sandeau and Alfred Assollant (1827-1886).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Le Père Anselme, <i>Hist. généalogique de la maison de
+France</i>, vol. v. pp. 318 et seq.; P. Mignaton, <i>Hist. de la maison
+d&rsquo;Aubusson</i> (Paris, 1886); Cyprien Pérathon, <i>Hist. d&rsquo;Aubusson</i>
+(Limoges, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCH,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a city of south-western France, capital of the department
+of Gers, 55 m. W. of Toulouse on the Southern railway.
+Pop. (1906) 9294. Auch is built on the summit and sides of
+a hill at the foot of which flow the yellow waters of the Gers.
+It consists of a lower and upper quarter united in several places
+by flights of steps. The streets are in general steep and narrow,
+but there is a handsome promenade in the upper town, laid out
+in the 18th century by the <i>intendant</i> Antoine Mégret d&rsquo;Etigny.
+Three bridges lead from the left to the right bank of the Gers,
+on which the suburb of Patte d&rsquo;Oie is situated. The most interesting
+part of the town lies in the old quarter around the
+Place Salinis, a spacious terrace which commands an extensive
+view over the surrounding country. On its eastern side it
+communicates with the left bank of the river by a handsome
+series of steps; on its north side rises the cathedral of Sainte-Marie.
+This church, built from 1489 to 1662, belongs chiefly to
+the Gothic style, of which it is one of the finest examples in
+southern France. The façade, however, with its two square and
+somewhat heavy flanking towers dates from the 17th century,
+and is Greco-Roman in architecture. Sainte-Marie contains
+many artistic treasures, the chief of which are the magnificent
+stained-glass windows of the Renaissance which light the apsidal
+chapels, and the 113 choir-stalls of carved oak, also of Renaissance
+workmanship. The archbishop&rsquo;s palace adjoins the cathedral;
+it is a building of the 18th century with a Romanesque hall and
+a tower of the 14th century. Opposite the south side of the
+cathedral stands the lycée on the site of a former Jesuit college.
+Only scanty remains are left of the once celebrated abbey of
+St Orens. The ecclesiastical seminary contains an important
+library with a collection of manuscripts, and there is a public
+library in the Carmelite chapel, a building of the 17th century.
+The former palace of the <i>intendants</i> of Gascony is now used as
+the <i>préfecture</i>. Auch is the seat of an archbishopric, a prefect
+and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and
+of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycée, training-colleges,
+a school of design, a branch of the Bank of France and an important
+lunatic asylum. The manufactures include agricultural
+implements, leather, vinegar and plaited sandals, and there is
+a trade in brandy, wine, cattle, poultry and wool; there are
+quarries of building-stone in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>Auch (Elimberris) was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe, the
+Ausci, and under the Roman domination was one of the most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span>
+important cities in Gaul. In the 4th century this importance
+was increased by the foundation of its bishopric, and after the
+destruction of Eauze in the 9th century it became the metropolis
+of Novempopulana. Till 732, Auch stood on the right bank of the
+Gers, but in that year the ravages of the Saracens drove the
+inhabitants to take refuge on the left bank of the river, where
+a new city was formed. In the 10th century Count Bernard of
+Armagnac founded the Benedictine abbey of St Orens, the monks
+of which, till 1308, shared the jurisdiction over Auch with the
+archbishops&mdash;an arrangement which gave rise to constant strife.
+The counts of Armagnac possessed a castle in the city, which was
+the capital of Armagnac in the middle ages. During the Religious
+Wars of the 16th century Auch remained Catholic, except for a
+short occupation in 1569 by the Huguenots under Gabriel, count
+of Montgomery. In the 18th century it was capital of Gascony,
+and seat of a generality. Antoine Mégret d&rsquo;Etigny, intendant
+from 1751 to 1767, did much to improve the city and its
+commerce.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1756-1822), British general,
+was born at New York in 1756, and served as a loyalist in the
+American War of Independence, being given an ensigncy in the
+royal army in 1777, and in 1778 a lieutenancy in the 45th Foot,
+without purchase. When his regiment returned to England
+after the war, having neither private means nor influence, he
+exchanged into the 52nd, in order to proceed to India. He took
+part in the last war against Hyder Ali; he was given a staff
+appointment by Lord Cornwallis in 1790, served in the operations
+against Tippoo Sahib, and continued in various staff appointments
+up to 1797, when he returned to England a brevet lieut.-colonel.
+In 1800 he was made lieut.-colonel and brevet colonel;
+and in the following year, as adjutant-general to Sir David
+Baird in Egypt, took a distinguished share in the march across
+the desert and the capture of Alexandria. On his return to
+England in 1803 he was knighted, and three years later he went
+out to the River Plate as a brigadier-general. Auchmuty was
+one of the few officers who came out of the disastrous Buenos
+Aires expedition of 1806-7 with enhanced reputation. While
+General Whitelocke, the commander, was cashiered, Auchmuty
+was at once re-employed and promoted major-general, and was
+sent out in 1810 to command at Madras. In the following year
+he commanded the expedition organized for the conquest of
+Java, which the governor-general, Lord Minto, himself accompanied.
+The storming of the strongly fortified position of
+Meester Cornelis (28th August 1811), stubbornly defended by
+the Dutch garrison under General Janssens, practically achieved
+the conquest of the island, and after the action of Samarang
+(September 8th) Janssens surrendered. Auchmuty received the
+thanks of parliament and the order of K.C.B. (G.C.B. in 1815),
+and in 1813, on his return home, was promoted to the rank of
+lieut.-general. In 1821 he became commander-in-chief in Ireland,
+and a member of the Irish privy council. He died suddenly on
+the 11th of August 1822.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCHTERARDER<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (Gaelic, &ldquo;upper high land&rdquo;), a police
+burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 13¾ m. S.W. of Perth by the
+Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2276. It is situated on
+Ruthven Water, a right-hand tributary of the Earn. The chief
+manufactures are those of tartans and other woollens, and of
+agricultural implements. At the beginning of the 13th century
+it obtained a charter from the earl of Strathearn, afterwards
+became a royal burgh for a period, and was represented in the
+Scottish parliament. Its castle, now ruinous, was built as a
+hunting-lodge for Malcolm Canmore, but of the abbey which it
+possessed as early as the reign of Alexander II. (1198-1249) no
+remains exist. The ancient church of St Mungo, now in ruins,
+was a building in the Norman or Early Pointed style. The town
+was almost entirely burned down by the earl of Mar in 1716
+during the abortive Jacobite rising. It was in connexion with
+this parish that the ecclesiastical dispute arose which led to the
+disruption in the Church of Scotland in 1843. The estate of
+Kincardine, 1 m. south, gives the title of earl of Kincardine to the
+duke of Montrose. The old castle, now in ruins, was dismantled
+in 1645 by the marquis of Argyll in retaliation for the destruction
+of Castle Campbell in Dollar Glen on the south side of the Ochils.
+The old ruined castle of Tullibardine, 2 m west of the burgh, once
+belonged to the Murrays of Tullibardine, ancestors of the duke
+of Atholl, who derives the title of marquis of Tullibardine from
+the estate. The ancient chapel adjoining, also ruinous, was a
+burial-place of the Murrays.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCHTERMUCHTY<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Gaelic, &ldquo;the high ground of the wild
+sow&rdquo;), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, built
+on an elevation about 9 m. W. by S. of Cupar, with a station on a
+branch of the North British railway from Ladybank to Mawcarse
+Junction. Pop. 1387. The rapid Loverspool Burn divides
+the town. The principal industries include the weaving of
+linen and damasks, bleaching, distilling and malting. John
+Glas, founder of the sect known as Glassites or Sandemanians,
+was a native of the town. A mile and a half to the south-west
+is the village of Strathmiglo (pop. 966), on the river Eden, with
+a linen factory and bleaching works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1784-1849), English
+statesman, was the second son of the 1st Baron Auckland. He
+completed his education at Oxford, and was admitted to the bar
+in 1809. His elder brother was drowned in the Thames in the
+following year; and in 1814, on the death of his father, he took
+his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland. He supported
+the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made
+president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In
+1834 he held office for a few months as first lord of the admiralty,
+and in 1835 he was appointed governor-general of India. He
+proved himself to be a painstaking and laborious legislator, and
+devoted himself specially to the improvement of native schools,
+and the expansion of the commercial industry of the nation
+committed to his care. These useful labours were interrupted
+in 1838 by complications in Afghanistan, which excited the fears
+not only of the Anglo-Indian government but of the home
+authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war, and
+on the 1st of October 1838 published at Simla his famous
+manifesto dethroning Dost Mahommed. The early operations
+were crowned with success, and the governor-general received
+the title of earl of Auckland. But reverses followed quickly,
+and in the ensuing campaigns the British troops suffered the
+most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double mortification
+of seeing his policy a complete failure and of being superseded
+before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of
+1841 he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and
+returned to England in the following year. In 1846 he was made
+first lord of the admiralty, which office he held until his death,
+on the 1st of January 1849. He died unmarried, and the earldom
+became extinct, the barony (see below) passing to his brother
+Robert.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S.J. Trotter, <i>The Earl of Auckland</i> (&ldquo;Rulers of India&rdquo; series),
+1893.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1745-1814),
+English statesman, son of Sir Robert Eden, 3rd Bart., of Windlestone
+Hall, Durham, and of Mary, daughter of William Davison,
+was born in 1745, educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
+and called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1768. In 1771
+he published <i>Principles of Penal Law</i>, and was early recognized
+as an authority on commercial and economic questions, and
+in 1772 he was appointed an under secretary of state. He represented
+New Woodstock in the parliaments of 1774 and 1780,
+and Heytesbury in those of 1784 and 1790. In 1776 he was
+appointed a commissioner on the board of trade and plantations.
+In 1778 he carried an act for the improvement of the treatment
+of prisoners, and accompanied the earl of Carlisle as a commissioner
+to North America on an unsuccessful mission to settle
+the disputes with the colonists. On his return in 1779 he
+published his widely read <i>Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle</i>,
+and in 1780 became chief secretary for Ireland. He was elected
+to the Irish House of Commons as member for Dungannon in
+1781 and sworn of the Irish privy council, and while in Ireland
+established the National Bank. He advised the increase of the
+secret service fund, and was reputed, according to Lord Charlemont
+(a political opponent), as especially skilful in the arts of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span>
+corruption and in overcoming political prejudices. He resigned
+in 1782, but in the following year he took office again as
+vice-treasurer of Ireland under the coalition ministry, which he had
+been instrumental in arranging, and was included in the privy
+council, resigning with the government in December. He
+opposed strongly Pitt&rsquo;s propositions for free trade between England
+and Ireland in 1785, but took office with Pitt as a member
+of the committee on trade and plantations, and negotiated in
+1786 and 1787 Pitt&rsquo;s important commercial treaty with France,
+and agreements concerning the East India Companies and
+Holland. In 1787 he published his <i>History of New Holland</i>.
+Next year he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and after his
+return was created (September 1789) Baron Auckland in the
+Irish peerage. The same year he was sent on a mission to
+Holland, and represented English interests there with great
+zeal and prudence during the critical years of 1790 to 1793,
+obtaining the assistance of the Dutch fleet in 1790 on the menace
+of a war with Spain, signing the convention relating to the
+Netherlands the same year, and in 1793 attending the congress
+at Antwerp. He retired from the public service in the latter
+year, received a pension of £2300, and was created Baron Auckland
+of West Auckland, Durham, in the English peerage. During
+his retirement in the country at Beckenham, he continued his
+intimacy with Pitt, his nearest neighbour at Holwood, who at
+one time had thoughts of marrying his daughter; and with Pitt&rsquo;s
+sanction he published his <i>Remarks on the Apparent Cicumstances
+of the War</i> in 1795, to prepare public opinion for a peace. In 1798
+he was included in Pitt&rsquo;s government as joint postmaster-general,
+and supported strongly the income tax and the Irish Union,
+assisting in drawing up the act embodying the latter. In 1799 he
+brought in a bill to check adultery by preventing the marriage
+of the guilty parties, and the same year took a mischievous
+part in the cabal against Sir Ralph Abercromby. He severely
+criticized Pitt&rsquo;s resignation in 1801, from which he had
+endeavoured to dissuade him, and retained office under Addington.
+This terminated his friendship with Pitt, who excluded him
+from his administration in 1804 though he increased his pension.
+Auckland was included in Granville&rsquo;s ministry of &ldquo;All the
+Talents&rdquo; as president of the board of trade in 1806. He held
+the appointments of auditor and director of Greenwich hospital,
+recorder of Grantham, and chancellor of the Marischal College
+in Aberdeen. He died on the 28th of May 1814.</p>
+
+<p>He had married in 1776 Eleanor, sister of the first Lord Minto,
+and had a large family. Emily Eden (1797-1869), the novelist,
+was one of his daughters. On the death of his son George,
+2nd baron and earl of Auckland (<i>q.v.</i>), the barony passed to the
+1st baron&rsquo;s younger son Robert John (1790-1870), bishop of
+Bath and Wells, from whom the later barons were descended,
+and who was also the father of Sir Ashley Eden (1831-1887),
+lieutenant-governor of Bengal. The 1st baron had two distinguished
+brothers&mdash;Morton Eden (1752-1830), a diplomatist,
+who married Lady Elizabeth Henley, and in 1799 was created
+1st Baron Henley (his family, from 1831, taking the name of
+Henley instead of Eden); and Sir Robert Eden, governor of
+Maryland, whose son, Sir Frederic Morton Eden (1766-1809),
+was a well-known economist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Lord Auckland&rsquo;s <i>Journal and Correspondence</i>, published in
+1861-1862, throws much light on the political history of the time.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCKLAND,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city and seaport on the east coast of North
+Island, New Zealand, in Eden county; capital of the province
+of its name, and the seat of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 37,736;
+including suburbs, 82,101. It is situated at the mouth of an arm
+of Hauraki Gulf, and is only 6 m. distant from the head of
+Manukau harbour on the western coast. The situation is
+extremely beautiful. The Hauraki Gulf, a great square inlet
+opening northward, is studded with islands of considerable
+elevation; Rangitoto, which protects the harbour, is a volcanic
+cone reaching nearly 1000 ft. The isthmus on which the town
+stands (which position has caused it to be likened to Corinth)
+can be crossed without surmounting any great elevation, and
+offers a feasible canal route. A number of small extinct volcanoes,
+however, appear in all directions. To the west the Titirangi hills
+exceed 1400 ft. Some of the volcanic soil is barren, but much
+of the district is clothed in luxuriant vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Auckland harbour, one of the best in New Zealand, is approachable
+by the largest vessels at the lowest tide. There are two
+graving docks. Queen Street, the principal thoroughfare,
+leads inland from the main dock, and contains the majority
+of the public buildings. There is a small government house,
+standing in beautiful grounds, adjoining Albert Park, with plantations
+of oaks and pines. The government offices, art gallery
+and exchange, with St Mary&rsquo;s cathedral (Anglican), a building
+in a combination of native timbers, St Paul&rsquo;s and St Patrick&rsquo;s
+cathedral (Roman Catholic), are noteworthy buildings. The
+art gallery and free library contain excellent pictures, and
+valuable books and MSS. presented by Sir G. Grey. The museum
+contains one of the best existing collections of Maori art. There
+are an opera-house and an academy of music. The Auckland
+University College and the grammar school are the principal
+educational establishments. The parks are the Domain, with
+a botanical garden, the Albert Park near the harbour, with a
+bronze statue of Queen Victoria, the extensive grounds at One
+Tree Hill on the outskirts, and Victoria Park on Freeman&rsquo;s
+Bay. The principal thoroughfares are served by electric tramway.
+Of the suburbs, Newton, Parnell and Newmarket are in reality
+outlying parts of the town itself. Devonport, Birkenhead and
+Northcote are beautifully situated on the north shore of the
+inlet, and are served by steam-ferries. Several other residential
+suburbs lie among the hills on the mainland, such as Mount
+Albert, Mount Eden and Epsom. Onehunga is a small port on
+Manukau harbour, served by rail. In Parnell is the former
+residence of Bishop Selwyn, who, arriving in the colony in 1842,
+assisted to draw up the constitution of the Anglican church.
+There are many associations with his name in the neighbourhood.
+The prospect over the town and its environs from
+Mount Eden is justly famous. The hill is terraced with former
+native fortifications.</p>
+
+<p>Auckland has industries of sugar-refining, ship-building and
+paper-, rope- and brick-making, and timber is worked. The
+town was founded as capital of the colony in 1840 by Governor
+Hobson. There is communication both south and north by
+rail, and regular steamers serve the ports of the colony, the
+principal Pacific Islands, Australia, &amp;c. From 1853 to 1876
+Auckland was the seat of the provincial government, and until
+1865 that of the central government, which was then transferred
+to Wellington. The first session of the general assembly took
+place here in 1854. Auckland is under municipal government.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCKLAND ISLANDS,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered
+in 1806 by Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler
+&ldquo;Ocean,&rdquo; in 50° 24&prime; S., 166° 7&prime; E. The islands, of volcanic origin,
+are very fertile, and are covered with forest. They were granted
+to the Messrs Enderby by the British government as a whaling
+station, but the establishment was abandoned in 1852. The
+islands belong politically to New Zealand.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCTION PITCH,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a card game which is a popular variation
+of All Fours (<i>q.v.</i>). The name is derived from the rule that
+the first card played, or <i>pitched</i>, is the trump suit, and that the
+eldest hand has the privilege of pitching it or of selling out
+to the highest bidder. A full pack is used, and the cards rank
+as in All Fours, namely from ace down to 2, ace being highest
+in cutting also. From four to seven may play, each player being
+provided with seven white counters, and also with red counters
+in case stakes are played for. Each player receives six cards
+in every deal, three at a time, no trump being turned. The object
+is to get rid of the white counters, one of which may be put into
+the pool either (1) for holding the highest trump played; (2)
+for having the lowest trump dealt to one; (3) for taking the
+Jack (knave) of trumps; or (4) for winning the <i>game</i>, namely
+the greatest number of pips that count. In case of a tie of pips
+no game is scored. If the eldest hand decides to pitch and not to
+sell out, he may do so, but is obliged to make four points or be
+set back that number. If he decides to sell, he says &ldquo;I pass,&rdquo;
+and the player at his left bids for the privilege of pitching the
+trump or passes, &amp;c. When a bid has been made the rest must
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span>
+pass or bid higher, and the eldest hand must either accept a bid
+or undertake to make as many points as the bidder. If no bid
+is made he pitches the trump himself, without the obligation
+of making anything. The first card played is the trump suit,
+the winner of the trick leading again. In trumps a player must
+follow suit if he can, and the same rule applies in plain suits,
+excepting that a trump may be played at any time (&ldquo;follow
+suit or trump&rdquo;). In play the highest card wins the trick unless
+trumped. When the hand is played out each player puts a white
+counter into the pool for every point won, and the first player
+to get rid of all his seven white counters wins the pool and takes
+from it all the red counters, which represent cash. This ends the
+game. In case two players count out during the same deal, the
+bidder has the first right to the pool, the rule being &ldquo;bidder
+counts out first.&rdquo; If the two players who count out are neither
+of them bidder, then they go out in regular order, <i>i.e.</i> high first,
+then low, Jack and game. If a bidder fails to make his points
+he is set back that number. A revoke is punished by the offender
+being set back the number of points bid and forfeiting a red
+counter to the pool.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCTIONS<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> and <b>AUCTIONEERS.</b> An auction (Lat. <i>auctio</i>,
+increase) is a proceeding at which people are invited to compete
+for the purchase of property by successive offers of advancing
+sums. The advantages of conducting a sale in this way are obvious,
+and we naturally find that auctions are of great antiquity.
+Herodotus describes a custom which prevailed in Babylonian
+villages of disposing of the maidens in marriage by delivering
+them to the highest bidders in an assembly annually held for
+the purpose (Book i. 196). So also among the Romans the
+quaestor sold military booty and captives in war by auction&mdash;<i>sub
+hasta</i>&mdash;the spear being the symbol of quiritarian ownership.
+The familiarity of such proceedings is forcibly suggested by the
+conduct of the Praetorian Guard when Sulpicianus was treating
+for the imperial dignity after the murder of Pertinax. Apprehending
+that they would not obtain a sufficient price by private
+contract, the Praetorians proclaimed from their ramparts that
+the Roman world was to be disposed of by public auction to the
+best bidder. Thereupon Julian proceeded to the foot of the
+ramparts and outbid his competitor (Gibbon, vol. i. ch. v.).
+Though, however, auctions were undoubtedly common among
+the Romans both in public and private transactions, the rules
+whereby they were governed are by no means clearly enunciated
+in the <i>Corpus Juris Civilis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In England the method of conducting auctions has varied.
+In some places it has been usual to set up an inch of lighted
+candle, the person making the last bid before the fall of the wick
+becoming the purchaser. By an act of William III. (1698),
+this method of sale was prescribed for goods and merchandise
+imported from the East Indies. Lord Eldon speaks of &ldquo;candlestick
+biddings,&rdquo; where the several bidders did not know what
+the others had offered. A &ldquo;dumb bidding&rdquo; was the name
+given to a proceeding at which a price was put by the owner
+under a candlestick with a stipulation that no bidding should
+avail if not equal to it. In a &ldquo;Dutch auction&rdquo; property is
+offered at a certain price and then successively at lower prices
+until one is accepted.</p>
+
+<p>According to the practice now usual in England, a proposed
+auction is duly advertised, and a printed catalogue in the case
+of chattels, or particulars of sale in the case of land, together
+with conditions of sale, are circulated. Sometimes, in sales of
+goods, the conditions are merely suspended in the auction room.
+At the appointed time and place, the auctioneer, standing in a
+desk or rostrum, &ldquo;puts up&rdquo; the several lots in turn by inviting
+biddings from the company present. He announces the acceptance
+of the last bid by a tap with his hammer and so &ldquo;knocks
+down&rdquo; the lot to the person who has made it. Sometimes
+property is offered on lease to the highest bidder. &ldquo;Roup&rdquo; is
+the Scottish term for an auction. A bid in itself is only an
+offer, and may accordingly be retracted at any time before its
+acceptance by the fall of the hammer or otherwise. Puffing is
+unlawful. Unless a right to bid is expressly reserved on behalf
+of the vendor, he must neither bid himself nor employ any one
+else to bid. When a right to bid has been expressly reserved,
+the seller or any one person (but no more) on his behalf may bid
+at the auction. If it is simply announced that the sale is to be
+subject to a reserved or upset price, no bidding by or on behalf
+of the seller is permissible: it is only lawful to declare by some
+appropriate terms that the property is withdrawn. Where a
+sale is expressed to be without reserve, or where an upset price
+has been reached, the auctioneer must, after the lapse of a
+reasonable interval, accept the bid of the highest <i>bona fide</i>
+bidder. By not doing so he would render the vendor liable in
+damages. The auctioneer must not make a pretence of receiving
+bids which are not in fact made, as it would be fraudulent to
+run up the price by such an artifice. A &ldquo;knock-out&rdquo; is a
+combination of persons to prevent competition between themselves
+at an auction by an arrangement that only one of their
+number shall bid, and that anything obtained by him shall be
+afterwards disposed of privately among themselves. Such a
+combination is not illegal. A &ldquo;mock auction&rdquo; is a proceeding
+at which persons conspire by artifice to make it appear, contrary
+to the fact, that a <i>bona fide</i> sale is being conducted, and so
+attempt to induce the public to purchase articles at prices far
+above their value. Those who invite the public to enter the
+room where the supposed auction is proceeding, or otherwise
+endeavour to attract bidders, are called &ldquo;barkers.&rdquo; A conspiracy
+to defraud in this way is an indictable offence.</p>
+
+<p>American law is in general the same as the English law with
+regard to auctions. As to bidding by the vendor, however,
+it is less stringent. For, though puffing or by-bidding, as it is
+often called, will, under both systems alike, render an auction
+sale voidable at the option of a purchaser when it amounts to
+fraud, the weight of authority in the United States is in favour
+of the view that an owner may, without notice, employ a person
+to bid for him, if he does so with no other purpose than to
+prevent a sacrifice of the property under a given price.</p>
+
+<p>By a charter of Henry VII., confirmed by Charles I., the
+business of selling by auction was confined to an officer called
+an <i>outroper</i>, and all other persons were prohibited from selling
+goods or merchandise by public claim or outcry (see Henry
+Blackstone&rsquo;s <i>Reports</i>, vol. ii. p. 557). The only qualification
+now required by an auctioneer is a licence on which a duty of
+£10 has to be paid, and which must be renewed before the 5th
+of July in each year. A liability to a penalty of £100 is incurred
+by acting as an auctioneer without being duly licensed. The
+duty formerly imposed upon the purchase-money payable by
+virtue of a sale at auction was abolished by an act of 1845.
+An auctioneer is bound under a penalty of £20 to see that his
+full name and address are displayed before the commencement
+of an auction and during its continuance in the place where he
+conducts it. He is the agent of the vendor only, except in so
+far that, after he has knocked down a lot to the highest bidder,
+he has authority to affix the name of the latter to a memorandum
+of the transaction, so as to render the contract of sale enforceable
+where written evidence is necessary. An auctioneer does not,
+by merely announcing that a sale of certain articles will take
+place, render himself liable to those who, in consequence, attend
+at the time and place advertised, if the sale is not in fact proceeded
+with, provided he acts in good faith. One of the chief
+risks run by an auctioneer is that of being held liable for the
+conversion of goods which he has sold upon the instructions of a
+person whom he believed to be the owner, but who in fact had
+no right to dispose of them.</p>
+
+<p>The number of auctioneers&rsquo; licences issued during the year
+ended the 31st of March 1908 was in England 6639, in Scotland
+760, and in Ireland 839. A central organization having its
+headquarters in London, the Auctioneers&rsquo; Institute of the
+United Kingdom, was founded in 1886, in order to elevate the
+status and further the interests of auctioneers, estate agents
+and valuers. It has nearly 2000 members.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUCUBA,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> the Japanese name for a small genus of the Dogwood
+order (Cornaceae). The familiar Japanese laurel of gardens and
+shrubberies is <i>Aucuba japonica</i>. It bears male and female
+flowers on distinct plants; the red berries often last till the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span>
+next season&rsquo;s flowers appear. There are numerous varieties
+in cultivation, differing in the variegation of their leaves.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDAEUS,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Audius</span>, a church reformer of the 4th century,
+by birth a Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from
+the Syrian clergy for his fearless censure of their irregular lives,
+and was expelled from the church, thereupon establishing an
+episcopal monastic community. He was afterwards banished
+into Scythia, where he worked successfully among the Goths,
+not living to see the destruction of his labours by Athanaric.
+The Audaeans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as
+the Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing
+to the Deity a human shape, an opinion which they appear to
+have founded on Genesis i. 26. Theodoret groundlessly accuses
+them of Manichean tendencies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The main source of information is Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i> 70).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDE,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a river of south-western France, rising in the eastern
+Pyrenees and flowing into the Golfe du Lion. Rising in a small
+lake a short distance east of the Puy de Carlitte, it soon takes
+a northerly direction and flows for many miles through deep
+gorges of great beauty as far as the plain of Axat. Beyond Axat
+its course again lies through defiles which become less profound
+as the river nears Carcassonne. Below that town it receives the
+waters of the Fresquel and turns abruptly east. From this
+point to its junction with the Cesse its course is parallel with
+that of the Canal du Midi. The river skirts the northern spurs
+of the Corbières, some distance below which it is joined by the
+Orbieu and the Cesse. It then divides into two branches, the
+northernmost of which, the Aude proper, runs east and empties
+into the Mediterranean some 12 m. east-north-east of Narbonne,
+while the other branch, the Canal de la Robine, turning south,
+traverses that town, below which its course to the sea lies between
+two extensive lagoons, the Étang de Bages et de Sigean and the
+Étang de Gruissan. The Aude has a length of 140 m. and a
+basin 2061 sq. m. in extent. There is practically no traffic
+upon it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDE,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a maritime department of southern France, formed
+in 1790 from part of the old province of Languedoc. Area,
+2448 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 308,327. It is bounded E. by the
+Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Hérault and Tarn,
+N.W. by Haute-Garonne, W. by Ariège, and S. by Pyrénées-Orientales.
+The department is traversed on its western boundary
+from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which
+unites the Pyrenees with the southern Cévennes; and its
+northern frontier is occupied by the Montagne Noire, the most
+westerly portion of the Cévennes. The Corbières, a branch
+of the Pyrenees, run in a south-west and north-east direction
+along the southern district. The Aude (<i>q.v.</i>), its principal river,
+has almost its entire length in the department, and its lower
+course, together with its tributary the Fresquel, forms the
+dividing line between the Montagne Noire and the Pyrenean system.</p>
+
+<p>The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagoons, the
+chief of which are those of Bages et Sigean, Gruissan, Lapalme
+and Leucate. The climate is warm and dry, but often sudden
+in its alterations. The wind from the north-west, known as the
+<i>cers</i>, blows with great violence, and the sea-breeze is often laden
+with pestilential effluvia from the lagoons. The agriculture of
+the department is in a flourishing condition. The meadows are
+extensive and well watered, and are pastured by numerous
+flocks and herds. The grain produce, consisting mainly of wheat,
+oats, rye and Indian corn, exceeds the consumption, and the
+vineyards yield an abundant supply of both white and red wines,
+those of Limoux and the Narbonnais being most highly esteemed.
+Truffles are abundant. The olive and chestnut are the chief
+fruits. Mines of iron, manganese, and especially of mispickel,
+are worked, and there are stone-quarries and productive salt-marshes.
+Brewing, distilling, cooperage, iron-founding, hat-making
+and machine construction are carried on, and there
+are flour-mills, brick-works, saw-mills, sulphur refineries and
+leather and paper works. The formerly flourishing textile
+industries are now of small importance. The department
+imports coal, lime, stone, salt, raw sulphur, skins and timber
+and exports agricultural and mineral products, bricks and tiles,
+and other manufactured goods. It is served by the Southern
+railway. The Canal du Midi, following the courses of the
+Fresquel and the Aude, traverses it for 76 m.; and a branch,
+the Canal de la Robine, which passes through Narbonne to the
+sea, has a length of 24 m. The capital is Carcassonne, and the
+department is divided into the four arrondissements of
+Carcassonne, Limoux, Narbonne and Castelnaudary, with 31 cantons
+and 439 communes. It belongs to the 16th military region,
+and to the académie (educational division) of Montpellier,
+where also is its court of appeal. It forms the diocese of
+Carcassonne, and part of the province of the archbishop of Toulouse.
+Carcassonne, Narbonne and Castelnaudary are the principal
+towns. At Alet, which has hot springs of some note, there
+are ruins of a fine Romanesque cathedral destroyed in the
+religious wars of the 16th century. The extensive buildings
+of the Cistercian abbey of Fontfroide, near Bizanet, include a
+Romanesque church, a cloister, dormitories and a refectory
+of the 12th century. A curious polygonal church of the 11th
+century at Rieux-Minervois, the abbey-church at St Papoul,
+with its graceful cloister of the 14th century, and the remains
+of the important abbey of St Hilaire, founded in the 6th
+century and rebuilt from the 12th to the 15th century, are also
+of antiquarian interest. Rennes-les-Bains has mineral springs
+of repute.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1759-1800), French artist
+and naturalist, was born at Rochefort in 1759. He studied
+painting and drawing at Paris, and gained considerable reputation
+as a miniature-painter. Employed in preparing plates for the
+<i>Histoire des coléoptères</i> of G.A. Olivier (1756-1814), he acquired
+a taste for natural history. In 1800 appeared his first original
+work, <i>L&rsquo;Histoire naturelle des singes, des makis et des galéopithèques</i>,
+illustrated by sixty-two folio plates, drawn and engraved by
+himself. The colouring in these plates was unusually beautiful,
+and was applied by a method devised by himself. Audebert
+died in Paris in 1800, leaving complete materials for another
+great work, <i>Histoire des colibris, des oiseaux-mouches, des jacamars
+et des promérops</i>, which was published in 1802. Two hundred
+copies were printed in folio, one hundred in large quarto, and
+fifteen were printed with the whole text in letters of gold.
+Another work, left unfinished, was also published after the
+author&rsquo;s death, <i>L&rsquo;Histoire des grimpereaux et des oiseaux de
+paradis</i>. The last two works also appeared together in two
+volumes, <i>Oiseaux dorés ou à reflets métalliques</i> (1802).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDEFROI LE BATARD,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> French <i>trouvère</i>, flourished at the
+end of the 12th century and was born at Arras. Of his life nothing
+is known. The seigneur de Nesles, to whom some of his songs
+are addressed, is probably the châtelain of Bruges who joined
+the crusade of 1200. Audefroi was the author of at least five
+lyric romances: <i>Argentine, Belle Idoine, Belle Isabeau, Belle
+Emmelos</i> and <i>Béatrix</i>. These romances follow older <i>chansons</i>
+in subject, but the smoothness of the verse and beauty of detail
+hardly compensate for the spontaneity of the shorter form.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Jeanroy, <i>Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen
+âge</i> (Paris, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDIENCE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>audire</i>, to hear), the act or state of
+hearing, the term being therefore transferred to those who hear
+or listen, as in a theatre, at a concert or meeting. In a more
+technical sense, the term is applied to the right of access to the
+sovereign enjoyed by the peers of the realm individually and by
+the House of Commons collectively. More particularly it means
+the ceremony of the admission of ambassadors, envoys or others
+to an interview with a sovereign or an important official for the
+purpose of presenting their credentials. In France, <i>audience</i>
+is the term applied to the sitting of a law court for hearing
+actions. In Spain, <i>audiencia</i> is the name given to certain
+tribunals which try appeals from minor courts. The Spanish
+judges were originally known as <i>oidores</i>, hearers, from the
+Spanish <i>oir</i>, to hear; but they are now called <i>ministros</i>, or
+<i>magistrados togados</i>, robed judges, as the gown of the Spanish judge
+is called a <i>toga</i>. The <i>audiencia pretorial</i>, <i>i.e.</i> of the praetor,
+was a court in Spanish America from which there was no appeal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span>
+to the viceroy, but only to the council of the Indies in Spain.
+It is not the custom in Spain to speak of <i>audiencias reales</i>, royal
+courts, but of the <i>audiencias del Reino</i>, courts of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>In England the <i>Audience-court</i> was an ecclesiastical court,
+held by the archbishops of Canterbury and York, in which they
+once exercised a considerable part of their jurisdiction, dealing
+with such matters as they thought fit to reserve for their own
+hearing. It has been long disused and is now merged in the
+court of arches.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDMÉ ARMAND GASTON,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc d&rsquo;</span>
+(1823-1905), French statesman, was the grand-nephew and
+adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis Pasquier. He was created
+duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council of state in 1846.
+After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private life. Under the
+empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the legislature,
+but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly,
+and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the
+fall of Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different
+royalist parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused
+to give up the tricolour for the flag of the old <i>régime</i>, the project
+failed. Yet he retained the confidence of the chamber, and was
+its president in 1875 when the constitutional laws were being
+drawn up. Nominated senator under the new constitution, he
+likewise was president of the senate from March 1876 to 1879
+when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was less
+prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation
+and uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon
+from taking violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the
+French Academy, but never published anything.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDIT<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> and <b>AUDITOR.</b> An audit is the examination of the
+accounts kept by the financial officers of a state, public corporations
+and bodies, or private persons, and the certifying of their
+accuracy. In the United Kingdom the public accounts were
+audited from very early times, though, until the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to 1559 this duty
+was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially appointed,
+at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the
+auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314.
+But in 1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing
+of the public accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the
+imprests. These officers were paid by fee and did their work
+by deputy, but as the results were thoroughly unsatisfactory
+the offices were abolished in 1785. An audit board, consisting
+of five commissioners, was appointed in their place, but in order
+to concentrate under one authority the auditing of the accounts
+of the various departments, some of which had been audited
+separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit
+Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length
+the duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint
+a &ldquo;comptroller and auditor-general,&rdquo; with the requisite staff to
+examine and verify the accounts prepared by the different
+departments of the public service. In examining accounts of
+the appropriation of the several supply grants, the comptroller
+and auditor-general &ldquo;ascertains first whether the payments
+which the account department has charged to the grant are
+supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second,
+whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose
+or purposes for which such grant was intended to provide.&rdquo;
+The treasury may also submit certain other accounts to the
+audit of the comptroller-general. All public moneys payable
+to the exchequer (<i>q.v.</i>) are paid to the &ldquo;account of His Majesty&rsquo;s
+exchequer&rdquo; at the Bank of England, and daily returns of such
+payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly accounts
+of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared
+and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the
+consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is
+in the charge of the treasury department, under the supervision
+of the comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors,
+(1) for the treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the
+interior, (4) for the navy, (5) for the state, &amp;c., (6) for the post
+office, as well as a register and assistant register, who keep all
+general receipt and expenditure ledgers; there are official auditors
+in most of the states and in many cities. In practically all
+European countries there is a department of the administration,
+charged with the auditing of the public accounts, as the <i>cour
+des comptes</i> in France, the <i>Rechnungshof des deutschen Reiches</i>
+in Germany, &amp;c. All local boards, large cities, corporations,
+and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of examining
+and checking their accounts and looking after their expenditure.
+So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in
+connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building
+societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies,
+savings banks, &amp;c., the word auditor is now almost synonymous
+with &ldquo;skilled accountant,&rdquo; and his duties are discussed in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accountants</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland there is an &ldquo;auditor&rdquo; who is an official of the
+court of session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who
+corresponds to the English taxing-master. In France there
+are legal officers, called auditors, attached to the <i>Conseil d&rsquo;État</i>,
+whose duties consist in drawing up briefs and preparing documents.
+On the continent of Europe, lawyers skilled in military
+law are called &ldquo;auditors&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Military Law</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman
+curia. The <i>auditores Rotae</i> are the judges of the court of the
+Rota (so called, according to Hinschius, probably from the form
+of the panelling in the room where they originally met). These
+were originally ecclesiastics appointed to <i>hear</i> particular questions
+in dispute and report to the pope, who retained the decision
+in his own hands. In the <i>Speculum juris</i> of Durandus (published
+in 1272 and re-edited in 1287 and 1291) the <i>auditores palatii
+domini papae</i> are cited as permanent officials appointed to
+instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The court of the
+Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull
+<i>Romani Pontificis</i> of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by
+this time had developed into a permanent tribunal to which
+the definitive decision of certain disputes, hitherto relegated
+to a commission of cardinals or to the pope himself, was assigned.
+From this time the powers of the auditores increased until the
+reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the creation of the
+congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended gradually
+to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It
+still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal
+curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges.
+They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have
+others conceded by successive popes, <i>e.g.</i> that of holding benefices
+in plurality, of non-residence, &amp;c. When the pope says mass
+pontifically the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores
+must be in priest&rsquo;s or deacon&rsquo;s orders, and have always been
+selected&mdash;nominally at least&mdash;after severe tests as to their moral
+and intellectual qualifications. They are twelve in number, and,
+by the constitution of Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners;
+one French, one Spanish, one German and one Venetian; while
+the nomination of others was the privilege of certain, cities.
+No bishop, unless <i>in partibus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bishop</a></span>), may be an auditor.
+On the other hand, from the auditores, as the intellectual <i>élite</i>
+of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature and the cardinalate
+are largely recruited. The <i>auditor camerae</i> (<i>uditore generale
+della reverenda camera apostolica</i>) is an official formerly charged
+with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull of
+Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all
+civil and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it
+from the papal territories. In addition he received the function
+of watching over the execution of all sentences passed by the
+curia. This was extended later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive
+function in respect of all papal bulls and briefs, wherever
+no special executor was named. This right was confirmed by
+Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still in principle
+issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function was
+at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to
+a prelate <i>locum tenens</i>, who also took over the auditor&rsquo;s jurisdiction
+in the papal states (Hinschius, <i>Kathol. Kirchenrecht</i>, i. 409, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Auditores</i> (listeners), in the early Church, was another name.
+for catechumens (<i>q.v</i>.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDLEY,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Audeley</span>, <b>SIR JAMES</b> (<i>c.</i> 1316-1386), one of the
+original knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the
+eldest son of Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire.
+When the order of the Garter was founded, he was
+instituted as one of the first founders, and his stall in St George&rsquo;s
+chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the side of Edward, the
+Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in 1346,
+and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When
+hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354
+Sir James was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince,
+and earned a great reputation for valour. At the battle of
+Poitiers on the 19th of September 1356 he took his stand in
+front of the English army, and after fighting for a long time was
+severely wounded and carried from the fight. After the victory,
+the prince inquired for Sir James, who was brought to the royal
+tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest knight
+on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks.
+Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had
+attended him during the battle, and received from the prince
+a further pension of six hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of
+the leaders of an expedition into France, in 1360 he took the
+fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was present at Calais when
+peace was made between England and France in October 1360.
+He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great seneschal
+of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La Roche-sur-Yon
+by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at
+Fontenay-le-Comte, where he had gone to reside, and was buried
+at Poitiers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jean Froissart, <i>Chronigues</i>, translated by T. Johnes (Hafod,
+1810); G.F. Beltz, <i>Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter</i>
+(London, 1841).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (<i>c.</i> 1488-1544), lord
+chancellor of England, whose parentage is unknown, is believed
+to have studied at Buckingham College, Cambridge. He was
+educated for the law, entered the Middle Temple (becoming
+autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester, and was
+on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he
+was returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this constituency
+in subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom
+of the chamber, and became a member of Wolsey&rsquo;s household.
+On the fall of the latter in 1529, he was made chancellor of the
+duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker of the House of
+Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the Black
+or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the
+papal jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of
+the Commons to the king to complain of Bishop Fisher&rsquo;s speech
+against their proceedings. He interpreted the king&rsquo;s &ldquo;moral&rdquo;
+scruples to parliament concerning his marriage with Catherine,
+and made himself the instrument of the king in the attack upon
+the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy. In
+1531 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king&rsquo;s serjeant;
+and on the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded
+Sir Thomas More as lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed
+lord chancellor on the 26th of January 1533. He supported the
+king&rsquo;s divorce from Catherine and the marriage with Anne
+Boleyn; and presided at the trial of Fisher and More in 1535,
+at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a conviction
+has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn
+and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate
+queen&rsquo;s execution, and recommended to parliament the new act
+of succession. In 1537 he condemned to death as traitors the
+Lincolnshire and the Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November
+1538 he was created Baron Audley of Walden; and soon afterwards
+presided as lord steward at the trials of Henry Pole,
+Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of Exeter.
+In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made
+himself the king&rsquo;s instrument in enforcing religious conformity,
+and in the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of
+April 1540 he was made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently
+managed the attainder of Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and
+the dissolution of Henry&rsquo;s marriage with Anne of Cleves. In
+1542 he warmly supported the privileges of the Commons in the
+case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested and
+imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as usual
+by subservience to the court, which desired to secure a subsidy,
+and his opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has been
+questioned by good authority. He resigned the great seal on
+the 21st of April 1544, and died on the 30th, being buried at
+Saffron Walden, where he had prepared for himself a splendid
+tomb. He received several grants of monastic estates, including
+the priory of Christ Church in London and the abbey of Walden
+in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk,
+built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 he
+re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambridge,
+under the new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in the
+statutes that his heirs, &ldquo;the possessors of the late monastery of
+Walden,&rdquo; should be visitors of the college <i>in perpetuum</i>. <i>A Book
+of Orders for the Warre both by Sea and Land</i> (Harleian MS. 297,
+f. 144) is attributed to his authorship. He married (1) Christina,
+daughter of Sir Thomas Barnardiston, and (2) Elizabeth,
+daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of Dorset, by whom he
+had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his death.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1797-1841), French naturalist,
+was born at Paris on the 27th of April 1797. He began the study
+of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predilection for
+natural history, and entered the medical profession. In 1824
+he was appointed assistant to P.A. Latreille (1762-1833) in
+the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural history,
+and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of the
+Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November
+1841. His principal work, <i>Histoire des insectes nuisibles à la
+vigne</i> (1842), was completed after his death by Henry
+Milne-Edwards and Émile Blanchard. His papers mostly appeared in
+the <i>Annales des sciences naturelles</i>, which, with A.T. Brongniart
+and J.B.A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in the proceedings
+of the Société Entomologique de France, of which he was one of
+the founders in 1832.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDRAN,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> the name of a family of French artists and engravers.
+The first who devoted himself to the art of engraving
+was Claude Audran, born 1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude&rsquo;s
+great-grandson, who died in 1772. The two most distinguished
+members of the family are Gérard and Jean.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gérard</span>, or <span class="sc">Girard, Audran</span>, the most celebrated French
+engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at
+Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of design
+and engraving by his father; and, following the example of his
+brother, went to Paris to perfect himself in his art. He there,
+in 1666, engraved for Le Brun &ldquo;Constantine&rsquo;s Battle with
+Maxentius,&rdquo; his &ldquo;Triumph,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Stoning of Stephen,&rdquo;
+which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran
+in the very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set
+out for Rome, where he resided three years, and engraved
+several fine plates. That great patron of the arts, J.B. Colbert,
+was so struck with the beauty of Audran&rsquo;s works, that he persuaded
+Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On his return he
+applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was appointed
+engraver to the king, from whom he received great encouragement.
+In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the
+Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings
+of Le Brun&rsquo;s &ldquo;Battles of Alexander&rdquo; are regarded as the best
+of his numerous works. &ldquo;He was,&rdquo; says the Abbé Fontenay,
+&ldquo;the most celebrated engraver that ever existed in the historical
+line. We have several subjects, which he engraved from his
+own designs, that manifested as much taste as character and
+facility. But in the &lsquo;Battles of Alexander&rsquo; he surpassed even
+the expectations of Le Brun himself.&rdquo; Gérard published in
+1683 a work entitled <i>Les Proportions du corps humain mesurées
+sur les plus belles figures de l&rsquo;antiquité</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Jean Audran</span>, nephew of Gérard, was born at Lyons in 1667.
+After having received instructions from his father, he went to
+Paris to perfect himself in the art of engraving under his uncle,
+next to whom he was the most distinguished member of his family.
+At the age of twenty his genius began to display itself in a
+surprising manner; and his subsequent success was such, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span>
+in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the king, Louis XIV.,
+who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the Gobelins;
+and the following year he was made a member of the Royal
+Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the
+graver, and nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of
+this artist are those which appear not so pleasing to the eye at
+first sight. In these the etching constitutes a great part; and
+he has finished them in a bold, rough style. The &ldquo;Rape of the
+Sabines,&rdquo; after Poussin, is considered his masterpiece.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDRAN, EDMOND<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1842-1901), French musical composer,
+was born at Lyons on the 11th of April 1842. He studied music
+at the École Niedermeyer, where he won the prize for composition
+in 1859. Two years later he accepted the post of organist of
+the church of St Joseph at Marseilles. He made his first appearance
+as a dramatic composer at Marseilles with <i>L&rsquo;Ours et le Pacha</i>
+(1862), a musical version of one of Scribe&rsquo;s vaudevilles. This
+was followed by <i>La Chercheuse d&rsquo;Esprit</i> (1864), a comic opera,
+also produced at Marseilles. Audran wrote a funeral march
+on the death of Meyerbeer, which was performed with some
+success, and made various attempts to win fame as a writer of
+sacred music. He produced a mass (Marseilles, 1873), an
+oratorio, <i>La Sulamite</i> (Marseilles, 1876), and numerous minor
+works, but he is known almost entirely as a composer of the
+lighter forms of opera. His first Parisian success was made
+with <i>Les Noces d&rsquo;Olivette</i> (1879), a work which speedily found
+its way to London and (as <i>Olivette</i>) ran for more than a year
+at the Strand theatre (1880-1881). Audran&rsquo;s music has, in fact,
+met with as much favour in England as in France, and all save
+a few of his works have been given in a more or less adapted
+form in London theatres. Besides those already mentioned,
+the following have been the most undeniably successful of
+Audran&rsquo;s many comic operas: <i>Le Grand Mogol</i> (Marseilles,
+1876; Paris, 1884; London, as <i>The Grand Mogul</i>, 1884), <i>La
+Mascotte</i> (Paris, 1880; London, as <i>The Mascotte</i>, 1881),
+<i>Gillette de Narbonne</i> (Paris, 1882; London, as <i>Gillette</i>, 1883), <i>La Cigale
+et la Fourmi</i> (Paris, 1886; London, as <i>La Cigale</i>, 1890), <i>Miss
+Hélyett</i> (Paris, 1890; London, as <i>Miss Decima</i> 1891), <i>La Poupée</i>
+(Paris, 1896; London, 1897). Audran was one of the best
+of the successors of Offenbach. He had little of Offenbach&rsquo;s
+humour, but his music is distinguished by an elegance and a refinement of manner which lift it above the level of opéra bouffe
+to the confines of genuine opéra comique. He was a fertile if not
+a very original melodist, and his orchestration is full of variety,
+without being obtrusive or vulgar. Many of his operas, <i>La
+Mascotte</i> in particular, reveal a degree of musicianship which
+is rarely associated with the ephemeral productions of the lighter
+stage. He died in Paris on the 16th of August 1901.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D&rsquo;<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1305-1370), French soldier, was
+born at Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de Calais,
+near St Omer. Nothing is known of his career before 1332, when
+he is heard of at the court of the king of France. Between
+1335 and 1342 he went three times to Scotland to aid King
+David Bruce in his wars. In 1342 he became captain for the
+king of France in Brittany; then he seems to have served in the
+household of the duke of Normandy, and in 1346, as one of the
+main defenders of Calais, was taken as a prisoner to England
+by Edward III. From 1349 he holds an important place in the
+military history of France, first as captain in Angoulême, and
+from June 1351, in succession to the lord of Beaujeu, as marshal
+of France. In March 1352 he was appointed lieutenant for the
+king in the territory between the Loire and the Dordogne, in
+June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy and the
+Boulonnais. It was Audrehem who arrested Charles the Bad,
+king of Navarre, and his partisans, at the banquet given by the
+dauphin at Rouen in 1356. At Poitiers he was one of those who
+advised King John to attack the English, and, charging in the
+front line of the French army, was slightly wounded and taken
+prisoner. From England he was several times given safe-conducts
+to France, and he took an active part in the negotiations for
+the treaty of Bretigny, recovering his liberty the same time as
+King John. In 1361, as the king&rsquo;s lieutenant in Languedoc, he
+prevented the free companies from seizing the castles, and
+negotiated the treaty with their chiefs under which they followed
+Henry, count of Trastamara (later Henry II. of Castile), into
+Spain. In 1365 he himself joined du Guesclin in the expedition
+to Spain, was taken prisoner with him by the Black Prince at
+the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable to pay his ransom
+until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was relieved of
+the office of marshal, being appointed bearer of the oriflamme,
+with a pension of 2000 livres. He was sent to Spain in 1370 by
+Charles V., to urge his friend du Guesclin to return to France,
+and in spite of his age he took part in the battle of Pontvallain
+(December 1370), but fell ill and died, probably at Saumur,
+in the latter part of December 1370.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Émile Molinier, &ldquo;Étude sur la vie d&rsquo;Arnoul d&rsquo;Audrehem,
+maréchal de France,&rdquo; in <i>Mémoires présentés par divers savants à
+l&rsquo;académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres</i>, 2<span class="sp">e</span> série, iv. (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1780-1851), American naturalist,
+is said to have been born on the 5th of May 1780 in Louisiana,
+his father being a French naval officer and his mother a Spanish
+Creole. He was educated in Paris, where he had lessons from
+the painter, J.L. David. Returning to America in 1798 he
+settled on a farm near Philadelphia, and gave himself up to the
+study of natural history, and especially to drawing birds. In
+1826 he went to England in the hope of getting his drawings
+published, and by the following year he had obtained sufficient
+subscribers to enable him to begin the publication of his <i>Birds
+of America</i>, which on its completion in 1838 consisted of 435
+coloured plates, containing 1055 figures of birds the size of life.
+Cuvier called it &ldquo;le plus magnifique monument que l&rsquo;art ait encore
+élevé à la nature.&rdquo; The descriptive matter to accompany the
+plates appeared at Edinburgh in 5 vols. from 1831 to 1839 under
+the title of <i>American Ornithological Biography.</i> During the
+publication of these works Audubon divided his time between
+Great Britain and America, devoting his leisure to expeditions
+to various parts of the United States and Canada for the purpose
+of collecting new material. In 1842 he bought an estate on the
+Hudson, now Audubon Park in New York City. In 1844 he published
+in America a popular octavo edition of his <i>Birds of America.</i>
+He also took up the preparation of a new work, <i>The Quadrupeds
+of America</i>, with the collaboration of John Bachman, the
+publication of which was begun in New York in 1846 and finished in
+1853-1854. He died at New York on the 27th of January 1851.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ornithology</a></span>; also <i>Audubon and his Journals</i> (1897), by his
+grand-daughter Maria R. Audubon, with notes by Elliot Coues.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, at the
+confluence of the Mulde and Schwarzwasser, 21 m. S.W. from
+Chemnitz on the railway to Adorf. It has a school of lace-making,
+foundries, and manufactures of machinery, tin-plate
+and cotton goods. Pop. (1905) 17,102.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUERBACH, BERTHOLD<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1812-1882), German novelist, was
+born on the 28th of February 1812 at Nordstetten in the
+Württemberg Black Forest. His parents were Jews, and he
+was intended for the ministry; but after studying philosophy
+at Tübingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming estranged
+from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted
+himself to literature. He made a fortunate beginning in a
+romance on the life of Spinoza (1837), so interesting in itself,
+and so close in its adherence to fact, that it may be read with
+equal advantage as a novel or as a biography. <i>Dichter und
+Kaufmann</i> followed in 1839, and a translation of Spinoza&rsquo;s
+works in 1841, when Auerbach turned to the class of fiction
+which has made him famous, the <i>Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten</i>
+(1843), stories of peasant life in the Black Forest. In these,
+as well as in <i>Barfüssele</i> (1856), <i>Edelweiss</i> (1861), and other
+novels of greater compass, he depicts the life of the south German
+peasant as &ldquo;Jeremias Gotthelf&rdquo; (Albrecht Bitzius) had painted
+the peasantry of Switzerland, but in a less realistic spirit. When
+this vein was exhausted Auerbach returned to his first phase
+as a philosophical novelist, producing <i>Auf der Höhe</i> (1865),
+<i>Das Landhaus am Rhein</i> (1869), and other romances of profound
+speculative tendencies, turning on plots invented by himself.
+With the exception of <i>Auf der Höhe</i>, these works did not enjoy
+much popularity, and suffer from lack of form and concentration.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span>
+Auerbach&rsquo;s fame continues to rest upon his <i>Dorfgeschichten</i>,
+although the celebrity of even these has been impaired by the
+growing demand for a more uncompromising realism. Auerbach
+died at Cannes on the 8th of February 1882.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first collected edition of Auerbach&rsquo;s <i>Schriften</i> appeared
+in 22 vols. in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895).
+Auerbach&rsquo;s <i>Briefe an seinen Freund J. Auerbach</i> (with a preface by
+F. Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel,
+<i>B. Auerbach</i> (1882); and E. Lasker, <i>B. Auerbach, ein Gedenkblatt</i>
+(1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> <span class="sc">Graf von</span> (1806-1876),
+Austrian poet, who wrote under the pseudonym of <span class="sc">Anastasius
+Grün</span>, was born on the 11th of April 1806, at Laibach, the capital
+of the Austrian duchy of Carniola, and was head of the Thurn-am-Hart
+branch of the Carniolan cadet line of the house of Auersperg.
+He received his university education first at Graz and then at
+Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he succeeded
+to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member
+of the estates of Carniola on the <i>Herrenbank</i> of the diet at
+Laibach. Here he distinguished himself by his outspoken
+criticism of the Austrian government, leading the opposition
+of the duchy to the exactions of the central power. In 1832
+the title of &ldquo;imperial chamberlain&rdquo; was conferred upon him,
+and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After
+the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of
+Laibach at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main,
+to which he tried in vain to persuade his Slovene compatriots
+to send representatives. After a few months, however,
+disgusted with the violent development of the revolution, he
+resigned his seat, and again retired into private life. In 1860
+he was summoned to the remodelled <i>Reichsrat</i> by the emperor,
+who next year nominated him a life member of the Austrian
+upper house (<i>Herrenhaus</i>), where, while remaining a keen upholder
+of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism
+of Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one
+of the most intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of
+liberalism, in both political and religious matters, until his death
+at Graz on the 12th of September 1876.</p>
+
+<p>Count Auersperg&rsquo;s first publication, a collection of lyrics,
+<i>Blätter der Liebe</i> (1830), showed little originality; but his second
+production, <i>Der letzte Ritter</i> (1830), brought his genius to light.
+It celebrates the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maximilian I.
+(1493-1519) in a cycle of poems written in the strophic
+form of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>. But Auersperg&rsquo;s fame rests almost
+exclusively on his political poetry; two collections entitled
+<i>Spaziergänge eines Wiener Poeten</i> (1831) and <i>Schutt</i> (1835)
+created a sensation in Germany by their originality and bold
+liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely
+for their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification
+and powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German
+political poetry of 1840-1848. His <i>Gedichte</i> (1837), if anything,
+increased his reputation; his epics, <i>Die Nibelungen im Frack</i>
+(1843) and <i>Der Pfaff vom Kahlenberg</i> (1850), are characterized
+by a fine ironic humour. He also produced masterly translations
+of the popular Slovenic songs current in Carniola (<i>Volkslieder
+aus Krain</i>, 1850), and of the English poems relating to &ldquo;Robin
+Hood&rdquo; (1864).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Anastasius Grün&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> were published by L.A.
+Frankl in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1877); his <i>Briefwechsel mit L.A. Frankl</i>
+(Berlin, 1897). A selection of his <i>Politische Reden und Schriften</i>
+has been published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics,
+<i>Anastasius Grün</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUFIDENA,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site
+of which is just north of the modern Alfedena,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Italy, a station
+on the railway between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the
+latter. Its remains are fully and accurately described by
+L. Mariani in <i>Monumenti dei Lincei</i> (1901), 225 seq.: cf. <i>Notizie
+degli scavi</i>, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516 seq. The ancient city
+occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above sea-level (in the valley
+between were found the supposed remains of the later forum),
+and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile in
+length. A fortified outpost lay on a still higher hill to the north.
+Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one
+public building of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was excavated in 1901,
+and a small sanctuary in 1902), attention having been chiefly
+devoted to the necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs had
+already been examined in 1908, though this number is conjectured
+to be only a sixteenth of the whole. They are all
+inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and date from the
+7th to the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, falling into three classes&mdash;those
+without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone slabs, and
+those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered are
+preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we
+find Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road between
+Sulmo and Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangro,
+crossing the river by an ancient bridge some 5 m. to the north-east.
+Castel di Sangro has remains of ancient walls, but these
+are attributed to a road by Mariani, and in any case the fortified
+area there was quite small, only one-sixteenth the size of Aufidena.
+The attempted identification of Castel di Sangro with Aufidena
+must therefore be rejected, though we must allow that it was
+probably the Roman post station; the ancient city, since its
+capture by the Romans in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, having lost
+something of its importance.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Two churches here contain paintings
+of interest in the history of Abruzzese art, and one of them,
+the Madonna del Campo, contained fragments of a temple of
+considerable size.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGEAS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Augeias</span>, in Greek legend, a son of Helios, the
+sun-god, and king of the Epeians in Elis. He possessed an immense
+wealth of herds, including twelve bulls sacred to Helios,
+and white as swans. Eurystheus imposed upon Heracles the
+task of clearing out all his stalls unaided in one day. This he
+did by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through them.
+Augeas had promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this,
+alleging that Heracles had acted only in the service of Eurystheus.
+Heracles thereupon sent an army against him, and,
+though at first defeated, finally slew Augeas and his sons.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Apollodorus ii. 5, 7; Pindar, <i>Olympia</i>, xi, 24; Diodorus iv. 13;
+Theocritus, <i>Idyll</i> 25.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGER<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>nafu-gár</i>, nave-borer; the original
+initial <i>n</i> having been lost, as in &ldquo;adder,&rdquo; through a confusion
+in the case of a preceding indefinite article), a tool for boring
+(<i>q.v.</i>) or drilling.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> duke of
+Castiglione (1757-1816), marshal of France, was born in Paris
+in a humble station of life. At the age of seventeen he enlisted in
+the carabineers and thereafter came into note as a duellist.
+Having drawn his sword upon an officer who insulted him, he fled
+from France and roamed about in the Levant. He served in the
+Russian army against the Turks; but afterwards escaped into
+Prussia and enlisted in the guards. Tiring of this, he deserted
+with several others and reached the Saxon frontier. Service in
+the Neapolitan army and a sojourn in Portugal filled up the years
+1788-1791; but the events of the French Revolution brought
+him back to his native land. He served with credit against the
+Vendeans and then joined the troops opposing the Spaniards in
+the south. There he rose rapidly, becoming general of division
+on the 23rd of December 1793. His division distinguished itself
+even more when transferred to the army of Italy; and under
+Bonaparte he was largely instrumental in gaining the battle of
+Millesimo and in taking the castle of Cosseria and the camp of
+Ceva. At the battle of Lodi (May 10, 1796), the turning movement
+of Augereau and his division helped to decide the day.
+But it was at Castiglione that he rendered the most signal
+services. Marbot describes him as encouraging even Bonaparte
+himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle,
+and, though this is exaggerated, there is no doubt that Augereau
+largely decided the fortunes of those critical days. Bonaparte
+thus summed up his military qualities: &ldquo;Has plenty of character,
+courage, firmness, activity; is inured to war; is well liked
+by the soldiery; is fortunate in his operations.&rdquo; In 1797 Bonaparte
+sent him to Paris to encourage the Jacobinical Directors,
+and it was Augereau and the troops led by him that coerced
+the &ldquo;moderates&rdquo; in the councils and carried through the <i>coup
+d&rsquo;état</i> of 18 Fructidor (4th of September) 1797. He was then
+sent to lead the united French forces in Germany; but peace
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span>
+speedily ensued; and he bore a grudge against the Directors and
+Bonaparte for their treatment of him at that time. He took
+no part in the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of Brumaire 1799, and did not
+distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign which ensued.
+Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte&rsquo;s fortunes, he
+received a marshal&rsquo;s baton at the beginning of the Empire
+(May 19, 1804). In the campaign of 1805 he did good service
+around Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena (October 14, 1806)
+his corps distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell ill of a fever,
+and at the battle of Eylau he had to be supported on his horse,
+but directed the movements of his corps with his wonted bravery.
+His corps was almost annihilated and the marshal himself
+received a wound from which he never quite recovered. When
+transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes but tarnished
+his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 1812 in Russia and in
+the Saxon campaign of 1813 his conduct was little more than
+mediocre. Before the battle of Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19, 1813),
+Napoleon reproached him with not being the Augereau of
+Castiglione; to which he replied, &ldquo;Give me back the old soldiers
+of Italy, and I will show you that I am.&rdquo; In 1814 he had command
+of the army of Lyons, and his slackness exposed him to
+the charge of having come to an understanding with the Austrian
+invaders. Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but, after reviling
+Napoleon, went over to him during the Hundred Days. The
+emperor repulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to
+France in 1814. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne,
+deprived him of his military title and pension. He died at his
+estate of La Houssaye on the 12th of June 1816. In person he
+was tall and commanding, but his loud and vulgar behaviour
+frequently betrayed the soldier of fortune.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>As authorities consult: Kock&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires de Masséna</i>;
+Bouvier, <i>Bonaparte en Italie</i>;
+Count A.F. Andréossi, <i>La Campagne sur le Mein, 1800-1801</i>;
+Baron A. Ducasse, <i>Précis de la campagne de l&rsquo;armée de Lyon en 1814</i>;
+and the <i>Memoirs</i> of Marbot.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGHRIM,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aghrim</span>, a small village in Co. Galway,
+Ireland, 4 m. W. by S. of Ballinasloe. It is rendered memorable
+by the decisive victory gained here on the 12th of July 1691 by
+the forces of William III. under General Ginkel, over those of
+James II. under the French general St Ruth, who fell in the fight.
+The Irish numbering 25,000, and strongly posted behind marshy
+ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance; but Ginkel
+having penetrated their line of defence, and their general being
+struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they were at
+length overcome and routed with terrible slaughter. The loss of
+the English did not exceed 700 killed and 1000 wounded; while
+the Irish, in their disastrous flight, lost about 7000 men, besides
+the whole material of the army. This defeat rendered the adherents
+of James in Ireland incapable of further efforts, and was
+speedily followed by the complete submission of the country.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1820-1889), French
+dramatist, was born at Valence, Drôme, on the 17th of September
+1820. He was the grandson of Pigault Lebrun, and belonged
+to the well-to-do <i>bourgeoisie</i> in principles and in thought as
+well as by actual birth. He received a good education and studied
+for the bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts and in verse,
+<i>La Ciguë</i>, refused at the Théâtre Français, but produced with
+considerable success at the Odéon. This settled his career.
+Thenceforward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in
+collaboration with other writers&mdash;Jules Sandeau, Eugène-Marie
+Labiche, Éd. Foussier&mdash;he produced plays which were in their way
+eventful. <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i> (1862)&mdash;which was regarded
+as an attack on the clerical party in France, and was only
+brought out by the direct intervention of the emperor&mdash;caused
+some political excitement. His last comedy, <i>Les Fourchambault</i>,
+belongs to the year 1879. After that date he wrote
+no more, restrained by an honourable fear of producing inferior
+work. The Academy had long before, on the 31st of March
+1857, elected him to be one of its members. He died in his
+house at Croissy on the 25th of October 1889. Such, in briefest
+outline, is the story of a life which Augier himself describes as
+&ldquo;without incident&rdquo;&mdash;a life in all senses honourable. Augier,
+with Dumas <i>fils</i> and Sardou, may be said to have held the
+French stage during the Second Empire. The man respected
+himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side&mdash;for he did not
+disdain to be a teacher&mdash;has high qualities of rectitude and
+self-restraint. Uprightness of mind and of heart, generous honesty,
+as Jules Lemaitre well said, constituted the very soul of all
+his dramatic work. <i>L&rsquo;Aventurière</i> (1848), the first of Augier&rsquo;s
+important works, already shows a deviation from romantic
+models; and in the <i>Mariage d&rsquo;Olympe</i> (1855) the courtesan is
+shown as she is, not glorified as in Dumas&rsquo;s <i>Dame aux Camélias</i>.
+In <i>Gabrielle</i> (1849) the husband, not the lover, is the sympathetic,
+poetic character. In the <i>Lionnes pauvres</i> (1858) the wife who
+sells her favours comes under the lash. Greed of gold, social
+demoralization, ultramontanism, lust of power, these are satirized
+in <i>Les Effrontés</i> (1861), <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i> (1862), <i>Contagion</i>,
+first announced under the title of <i>Le Baron d&rsquo;Estrigaud</i> (1866),
+<i>Lions et renards</i> (1869)&mdash;which, with <i>Le Gendre de M.  Poirier</i>
+(1854), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, reach the
+high-water mark of Augier&rsquo;s art; in <i>Philiberte</i> (1853) he
+produced a graceful and delicate drawing-room comedy; and in
+<i>Jean de Thommeray</i>, acted in 1873 after the great reverses of
+1870, the regenerating note of patriotism rings high and clear.
+His last two dramas, <i>Madame Caverlet</i> (1876) and <i>Les
+Fourchambault</i> (1879), are problem plays. But it would be unfair
+to suggest that Émile Augier was a preacher only. He was a
+moralist in the great sense, the sense in which the term can be
+applied to Molière and the great dramatists&mdash;a moralist because
+of his large and sane outlook on life. Nor does the interest of
+his dramas depend on elaborate plot. It springs from character
+and its evolution. His men and women move as personality,
+that mysterious factor, dictates. They are real, several of them
+typical. Augier&rsquo;s first drama, <i>La Ciguë</i>, belongs to a time
+(1844) when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost
+exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric
+outbursts of pure poetry. But his verse, if not that of a great
+poet, has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose
+dramas is admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large
+and effective wit. Perhaps it wanted these qualities to enlist
+laughter on his side in such a war as he waged against false
+passion and false sentiment.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. T. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGITE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> an important member of the pyroxene (<i>q.v.</i>) group
+of rock-forming minerals. The name (from <span class="grk" title="augae">&#945;&#8016;&#947;&#942;</span>, lustre) has
+at various times been used in different senses; it is now applied
+to aluminous pyroxenes of the monoclinic series which are
+dark-greenish, brownish or black in colour. Like the other pyroxenes
+it is characterized crystallographically by its distinct cleavages
+parallel to the prism-faces (M), the angle between which is 87°.
+A typical crystal is represented in fig. 1, whilst fig. 2 shows a
+crystal twinned on
+the orthopinacoid (r&prime;).
+Such crystals, of short
+prismatic habit and
+black in colour, are
+common as phenocrysts
+in many basalts,
+and are hence known
+as &ldquo;basaltic augite&rdquo;;
+when the containing
+rock weathers to a
+clayey material the
+augite is left as black
+isolated crystals, and
+such specimens, usually from Bohemia, are represented in all
+mineral collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks, augite is also
+an important constituent of many other kinds of igneous rocks, and
+a rock composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite.
+It also occurs in metamorphic rocks; for example, in the
+crystalline limestones of the Fassathal in Tirol, where the
+variety known as fassaite is found as pistachio-green crystals
+resembling epidote in appearance.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:329px; height:228px" src="images/img901.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly
+of CaMgSi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, but it contains in addition alumina and ferric
+iron as (Mg, Fe&Prime;) (Al, Fe&Prime;&prime;)<span class="su">2</span> SiO<span class="su">6</span>; the acmite (NaFe&Prime;&prime;Si<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>,)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span>
+and jadeite (NaAlSi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>) molecules are also sometimes present.
+Variations in the amount of iron in mixtures of these isomorphous
+molecules are accompanied by variations in the optical characters
+of the augite.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGMENT<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (Lat. <i>augere</i>, to increase), in Sanskrit and Greek
+grammar the vowel prefixed to indicate the past tenses of a verb;
+in Greek grammar it is called <i>syllabic</i>, when only the &epsilon; is prefixed;
+<i>temporal</i>, when it causes an initial vowel in the verb to
+become a diphthong or long vowel.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGMENTATION,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> or enlargement, a term in heraldry for
+an addition to a coat of arms; in music, for the imitation in
+longer notes of an original theme; in biology, an addition to the
+normal number of parts; in Scots law, an increase of a minister&rsquo;s
+stipend by an action called &ldquo;Process of Augmentation.&rdquo; The
+&ldquo;Court of Augmentation&rdquo; in Henry VIII.&rsquo;s time was established
+to try cases affecting the suppression of monasteries, and was
+dissolved in Mary&rsquo;s reign.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGSBURG,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the
+kingdom of Bavaria, chief town of the district of Swabia. Pop.
+(1885) 65,905; (1900) 89,109; (1905) 93,882. It lies on a high
+plateau, 1500 ft. above the sea, between the rivers Wertach and
+Lech, which unite below the city, 39 m. W.N.W. from Munich,
+with which, as with Regensburg, Ingolstadt and Ulm, it is
+connected by main lines of railway. It consists of an upper and a
+lower town, the old Jakob suburb and various modern suburbs.
+Its fortifications were dismantled in 1703 and have since been
+converted into public promenades. Maximilian Street is remarkable
+for its breadth and architectural beauty. One of its
+most interesting edifices is the Fugger Haus, of which the entire
+front is painted in fresco. Among the public buildings of Augsburg
+most worthy of notice is the town-hall in Renaissance style,
+one of the finest in Germany, built by Elias Holl in 1616-1620.
+One of its rooms, called the &ldquo;Golden Hall,&rdquo; from the profusion
+of its gilding, is 113 ft. long, 59 broad and 53 high. The palace
+of the bishops, where the memorable Confession of Faith was
+presented to Charles V., is now used for government offices.
+Among the seventeen Reman Catholic churches and chapels, the
+cathedral, a basilica with two Romanesque towers, dates in its
+oldest portions from the 10th century. The church of St Ulrich
+and St Afra, built 1474-1500, is a Late Gothic edifice, with a
+nave of magnificent proportions and a tower 300 ft. high. The
+church stands on the spot where the first Christians of the district
+suffered martyrdom, and where a chapel was erected in the 6th
+century over the grave of St Afra. There are also a Protestant
+church, St Anne&rsquo;s, a school of arts, a polytechnic institution, a
+picture gallery in the former monastery of St Catherine, a museum,
+observatory, botanical gardens, an exchange, gymnasium, deaf-mute
+institution, orphan asylum, several remarkable fountains
+dating from the 16th century, &amp;c. Augsburg is particularly well
+provided with special and technical schools. The newer buildings,
+all in the modern west quarter of the city, include law courts, a
+theatre, and a municipal library with 200,000 volumes. The
+&ldquo;Fuggerei,&rdquo; built in 1519 by the brothers Fugger, is a miniature
+town, with six streets or alleys, three gates and a church, and
+consists of a hundred and six small houses let to indigent Roman
+Catholic citizens at a nominal rent. The manufactures of Augsburg
+are of great importance. It is the chief seat of the textile
+industry in south Germany, and its cloth, cotton goods and linen
+manufactories employ about 10,000 hands. It is also noted for
+its bleach and dye works, its engine works, foundries, paper
+factories, and production of silk goods, watches, jewelry,
+mathematical instruments, leather, chemicals, &amp;c. Augsburg is also
+the centre of the acetylene gas industry of Germany. Copper-engraving,
+for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried
+on; but printing, lithography and publishing have acquired a
+considerable development, one of the best-known Continental
+newspapers being the <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i> or <i>Augsburg Gazette</i>.
+On the opposite side of the river, which is here crossed by a
+bridge, lies the township of Lechhausen.</p>
+
+<p>Augsburg (the <i>Augusta Vindelicorum</i> of the Romans) derives
+its name from the Roman emperor Augustus, who, on the
+conquest of Rhaetia by Drusus, established here a Roman colony
+about 14 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In the 5th century it was sacked by the Huns, and
+afterwards came under the power of the Frankish kings. It was
+almost entirely destroyed in the war of Charlemagne against
+Tassilo III., duke of Bavaria; and after the dissolution and
+division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the dukes of
+Swabia. After this it rose rapidly into importance as a
+manufacturing and commercial town, becoming, after Nuremberg,
+the centre of the trade between Italy and the north of Europe;
+its merchant princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the
+Medici of Florence; but the alterations produced in the currents
+of trade by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned
+a great decline. In 1276 it was raised to the rank of a free
+imperial city, which it retained, with many changes in its internal
+constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to the kingdom of
+Bavaria. Meanwhile, it was the scene of numerous events of
+historical importance. It was besieged and taken by Gustavus
+Adolphus in 1632, and in 1635 it surrendered to the imperial
+forces; in 1703 it was bombarded by the electoral prince of
+Bavaria, and forced to pay a contribution of 400,000 dollars;
+and in the war of 1803 it suffered severely. Of its conventions
+the most memorable are those which gave birth to the Augsburg
+confession (1530) and to the Augsburg alliance (1686).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wagenseil, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg</i> (Augs., 1820-1822);
+Werner, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg</i> (1899); Roth, <i>Augsburg&rsquo;s
+Reformationsgeschichte</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the most important Protestant
+statement of belief drawn up at the Reformation. In summoning
+a diet for April 1530, Charles V. offered a fair hearing to all
+religious parties in the Empire. Luther, Justus Jonas, Melanchthon
+and Johann Bugenhagen were appointed to draw up a
+statement of the Saxon position. These &ldquo;Torgau Articles&rdquo;
+(March 1530) tell merely why Saxony had abolished certain
+ecclesiastical abuses. Melanchthon, however, soon found that,
+owing to attacks by Johann Eck of Ingolstadt (&ldquo;404 Articles&rdquo;),
+Saxony must state its position in doctrinal matters as well.
+Taking the Articles of Marburg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marburg, Colloquy of</a></span>)
+and of Schwabach as the point of departure, he repudiated all
+connexion with heretics condemned by the ancient church.
+On the 11th of May he sent the draft to Luther, who approved it,
+adding that he himself &ldquo;could not tread so softly and gently.&rdquo;
+On the 23rd of June the Confession, originally intended as the
+statement of Electoral Saxony alone, was discussed and signed
+by a number of other Protestant princes and cities, and read
+before the diet on the 25th of June. Articles 1-21 attempt
+to show that the Evangelicals had deviated from current doctrine
+only in order to restore the pure and original teaching of the
+church. In spite of significant omissions (the sole authority
+of scripture; rejection of transubstantiation), the Confession
+contains nothing contradictory to Luther&rsquo;s position, and in its
+emphasis on justification by faith alone enunciates a cardinal
+concept of the Evangelical churches. Articles 22-28 describe
+and defend the reformation of various &ldquo;abuses.&rdquo; On the 3rd
+of August, shorn of much of its original bitterness, the so-called
+<i>Confutatio pontificia</i> was read; it well expresses the views
+approved in substance by the emperor and all the Catholic
+party. In answer, Melanchthon was ordered to prepare an
+Apology of the Confession, which the emperor refused to receive;
+so Melanchthon enlarged it and published the <i>editio princeps</i>
+of both Confession and Apology in 1531.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>As he felt free to make slight changes, the first edition does not
+represent the exact text of 1530; the edition of 1533 was further
+improved, while that of 1540, rearranged and in part rewritten, is
+known as the <i>Variata</i>. Dogmatic changes in this seem to have drawn
+forth no protest from Luther or Brenz, so Melanchthon made fresh
+alterations in 1542. Later, the <i>Variata</i> of 1540 became the creed
+of the Melanchthonians and even of the Crypto-calvinists; so the
+framers of the Formula of Concord, promulgated in 1580, returned
+to the text handed in at the Diet. By mistake they printed from a
+poor copy and not from the original, from which their German text
+varies at over 450 places. Their Latin text, that of Melanchthon&rsquo;s
+<i>editio princeps</i>, is more nearly accurate. The <i>textus receptus</i> is that
+of the Formula of Concord, the divergent Latin and German forms
+being equally binding.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Acceptance of the Confession and Apology was made a
+condition of membership in the Schmalkalden League. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span>
+Wittenberg Concord (1536) and the Articles of Schmalkalden
+(1537) reaffirmed them. The Confession was the ultimate
+source of much of the Thirty-nine Articles. The Religious
+Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognized no Protestants save adherents
+of the Confession; this was modified in 1648. To-day
+the <i>Invariata</i> is of symbolical authority among Lutherans
+generally, while the <i>Variata</i> is accepted by the Reformed
+churches of certain parts of Germany (see Löber, pp. 79-83.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions of the received text: J.T. Müller, <i>Die symbolischen
+Bücher der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche</i> (10th ed., Gütersloh,
+1907), with a valuable historical introduction by Th. Kolde;
+Theodor Kolde, <i>Die Augsburgische Konfession</i> (Gotha, 1896), (contains
+also the Marburg, Schwabach and Torgau Articles, the <i>Confutatio</i>
+and the <i>Variata</i> of 1540). For translations of these, as well as
+of Zwingli&rsquo;s Reckoning of his Faith, and of the Tetrapolitan
+Confession, see H.E. Jacobs, <i>The Book of Concord</i> (Philadelphia,
+1882-83). The texts submitted to the emperor, lost before 1570,
+are reconstructed and compared with the <i>textus receptus</i> by P.
+Tschackert, <i>Die unveranderte Augsburgische Konfession</i> (Leipzig,
+1901). For the genesis of the Confession, see Th. Kolde, <i>Die alteste
+Redaktion der Augsburger Konfession</i> (Gütersloh, 1906), also Kolde&rsquo;s
+article, &ldquo;Augsburger Bekenntnis,&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(3rd ed., vol. ii., Leipzig, 1897). The standard commentary is
+still G.L. Plitt, <i>Einleitung in die Augustana</i> (Erlangen, 1867 ff.);
+compare also J. Ficker, <i>Die Konfutation des Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses
+in ihrer ersten Gestalt</i> (Leipzig, 1891); also A. Petzold,
+<i>Die Konfutation des Vierstädtebekenntnisses</i> (Leipzig, 1900). On
+its present use see G. Löber, <i>Die im evangelischen Deutschland
+geltenden Ordinationsverpflichtungen geschichtlich geordnet</i> (Leipzig,
+1905), 79 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, the name applied
+to the European war of 1688-1697. The league of Augsburg
+was concluded on the 9th of July 1686 by the emperor, the
+elector of Brandenburg and other princes, against the French.
+Spain, Sweden, England and other non-German states joined
+the league, and formed the Grand Alliance by the treaty of
+Vienna (July 12, 1689). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grand Alliance, War of the</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGURS<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span>, in ancient Rome, members of a religious college
+whose duty it was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices)
+of approval or disapproval sent by the gods in reference to
+any proposed undertaking. The <i>augures</i> were originally called
+<i>auspices</i>, but, while <i>auspex</i><a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> fell into disuse and was replaced
+by <i>augur</i>, <i>auspicium</i> was retained as the scientific term for the
+observation of signs.</p>
+
+<p>The early history of the college is obscure. Its institution
+has been attributed to Romulus or Numa. It probably consisted
+originally of three members, of whom the king himself was one.
+This number was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus, but in 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+it was only four, two places, according to Livy (x. 6), being
+vacant. The Ogulnian law in the same year increased the
+number to nine, five plebeian being added to the four patrician
+members. In the time of Sulla the number was fifteen, which
+was increased to sixteen by Julius Caesar. This number continued
+in imperial times; the college itself was certainly in
+existence as late as the 4th century. The office of augur, which
+was bestowed only upon persons of distinguished merit and was
+much sought after by reason of its political importance, was
+held for life. Vacancies were originally filled by co-optation,
+but by the Domitian law (104) the selection was made, by
+seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes chosen by lot, from
+candidates previously nominated by the college. The insignia
+of office were the <i>lituus</i>, a staff free from knots and bent at the
+top, and the <i>trabea</i>, a kind of toga with bright scarlet stripes
+and a purple border. The science of augury was contained in
+various written works, which were consulted as occasion arose:
+such were the <i>libri augurum</i>, a manual of augural ritual, and
+the <i>commentarii augurum</i>, a collection of decrees or answers
+given by the college to the senate in certain definite cases.</p>
+
+<p>The natural region to look to for signs of the will of Jupiter was
+the sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed
+by him as counsel to men. The latter, however, was the more
+difficult of interpretation, and upon it, therefore, mainly hinged
+the system of divination with which the augurs were occupied.
+It was the duty of the augur, before the auspices properly so
+called (those from the sky and from birds) were taken, to mark
+out with his staff the templum or consecrated space within
+which his observations were intended to be made. The method
+of procedure was as follows. At midnight, when the sky was
+clear and there was an absence of wind, the augur, in the presence
+of a magistrate, took up his position on a hill which afforded
+a wide view. After prayer and sacrifice, he marked out the
+templum both in the sky and on the ground and dedicated it.
+Within its limits he then pitched a tent, in which he sat down
+with covered head, asked the gods for a sign, and waited for an
+answer. As the augur looked south he had the east, the lucky
+quarter, on his left, and therefore signs on the left side were
+considered favourable, those on the right unfavourable. The
+practice was the reverse in Greece; the observers of signs looked
+towards the north, so that signs on the right were regarded as
+the favourable ones, and this is frequently adopted in the Roman
+poets. The augur afterwards announced the result of his observations
+in a set form of words, by which the magistrate was bound.
+Signs of the will of the gods were of two kinds, either in answer to
+a request (<i>auspicia impetrativa</i>), or incidental (<i>auspicia oblativa</i>).
+Of such signs there were five classes: (1) Signs in the sky
+(<i>caelestia auspicia</i>), consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning,
+but not excluding falling stars and other phenomena. Lightning
+from left to right was favourable, from right to left unfavourable;
+but on its mere appearance, in either direction, all business in the
+public assemblies was suspended for the day. Since the person
+charged to take the auspices for a certain day was constitutionally
+subject to no other authority who could test the truth or falsehood
+of his statement that he had observed lightning, this became
+a favourite device for putting off meetings of the public assembly.
+Restrictions were, however, imposed in later republican times.
+When a new consul, praetor or quaestor entered on his first day of
+office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of
+custom to report to him that lightning from the left had been
+seen. (2) Signs from birds (<i>signa ex avibus</i>), with reference to the
+direction of their flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other
+sounds. To the first class, called <i>alites</i>, belonged the eagle and
+the vulture; to the second, called <i>oscines</i>, the owl, the crow and
+the raven. The mere appearance of certain birds indicated good
+or ill luck, while others had a reference only to definite persons or
+events. In matters of ordinary life on which divine counsel was
+prayed for, it was usual to have recourse to this form of divination.
+For public affairs it was, by the time of Cicero, superseded by the
+fictitious observation of lightning. (3) Feeding of birds (<i>auspicia
+ex tripudiis</i>), which consisted in observing whether a bird&mdash;usually
+a fowl&mdash;on grain being thrown before it, let fall a particle
+from its mouth (<i>tripudium sollistimum</i>). If it did so, the will of
+the gods was in favour of the enterprise in question. The
+simplicity of this ceremony recommended it for very general use,
+particularly in the army when on service. The fowls were kept in
+cages by a servant, styled <i>pullarius</i>. In imperial times <i>decuriales
+pullarii</i> are mentioned. (4) Signs from animals (<i>pedestria
+auspicia</i>, or <i>ex quadrupedibus</i>), <i>i.e</i>. observation of the course of,
+or sounds uttered by, quadrupeds and reptiles within a fixed
+space, corresponding to the observations of the flight of birds,
+but much less frequently employed. It had gone out of use by
+the time of Cicero. (5) Warnings (<i>signa ex diris</i>), consisting of
+all unusual phenomena, but chiefly such as boded ill. Being
+accidental in their occurrence, they belonged to the <i>auguria
+oblativa</i>, and their interpretation was not a matter for the augurs,
+unless occurring in the course of some public transaction, in
+which case they formed a divine veto against it. Otherwise,
+reference was made for an interpretation to the pontifices in olden
+times, afterwards frequently to the Sibylline books, or the Etruscan
+haruspices, when the incident was not already provided for by a
+rule, as, for example, that it was unlucky for a person leaving his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span>
+house to meet a raven, that the sudden death of a person from
+epilepsy at a public meeting was a sign to break up the assembly.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other means of discovering the will of the gods were
+the casting of lots, oracles of Apollo (in the hands of the college
+<i>sacris faciundis</i>), but chiefly the examination of the entrails of
+animals slain for sacrifice (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Omen</a></span>). Anything abnormal
+found there was brought under the notice of the augurs, but
+usually the Etruscan haruspices were employed for this. The
+persons entitled to ask for an expression of the divine will on
+a public affair were the magistrates. To the highest offices,
+including all persons of consular and praetorian rank, belonged
+the right of taking <i>auspicia maxima</i>; to the inferior offices of
+aedile and quaestor, the <i>auspicia minora</i>; the differences between
+these, however, must have been small. The subjects for which
+<i>auspicia publica</i> were always taken were the election of magistrates,
+their entering on office, the holding of a public assembly
+to pass decrees, the setting out of an army for war. They could
+only be taken in Rome itself; and in case of a commander
+having to renew his <i>auspicia</i>, he must either return to Rome or
+select a spot in the foreign country to represent the hearth of that
+city. The time for observing auspices was, as a rule, between
+midnight and dawn of the day fixed for any proposed undertaking.
+In military affairs this course was not always possible, as in the
+case of taking auspices before crossing a river. The founding of
+colonies, the beginning of a battle, the calling together an army,
+the sittings of the senate, decisions of peace or war, were occasions,
+not always but frequently, for taking auspices. The place where
+the ceremony was performed was not fixed, but selected with a
+view to the matter in hand. A spot being selected, the official
+charged to make the observation pitched his tent there some
+days before. A matter postponed through adverse signs from
+the gods could on the following or some future day be again
+brought forward for the auspices. If an error (<i>vitium</i>) occurred
+in the auspices, the augurs could, of their own accord or at the
+request of the senate, inform themselves of the circumstances,
+and decree upon it. A consul could refuse to accept their decree
+while he remained in office, but on retiring he could be prosecuted.
+<i>Auspicia oblativa</i> referred mostly to the comitia. A magistrate
+was not bound to take notice of signs reported merely by a
+private person, but he could not overlook such a report from a
+brother magistrate. For example, if a quaestor on his entry to
+office observed lightning and announced it to the consul, the
+latter must delay the public assembly for the day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On the subject generally, see A. Bouché-Leclercq, <i>Histoire de la
+divination dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i> (1879), and his articles, with bibliography,
+in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, also articles
+&ldquo;Augures,&rdquo; &ldquo;Auspicium,&rdquo; by Wissowa in Pauly&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>
+(II. pt. ii., 1896), and by L.C. Purser (and others) in Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary
+of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890). (See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divination</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Omen</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astrology</a></span>, &amp;c.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There is no doubt that <i>auspex</i> = <i>avi-spex</i> (&ldquo;observer of birds&rdquo;),
+but the derivation of <i>augur</i> is still unsettled. The following have
+been suggested: (1) <i>augur</i> (or <i>augus</i>) is a substantive originally
+meaning &ldquo;increase&rdquo; (related to <i>augustus</i> as <i>robur</i> to <i>robustus</i>),
+then transferred to the priest as the giver of increase or blessing;
+(2) = <i>avi-gur</i>, the second part of the word pointing to (<i>a</i>) <i>garrire</i>,
+&ldquo;chatter,&rdquo; or (<i>b</i>) <i>gerere</i>, the augur being conceived as &ldquo;carrying&rdquo;
+or guiding the flight of the birds; (3) from a lost verb <i>augo</i> = &ldquo;tell,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;declare.&rdquo; It is now generally agreed that the science of augury is
+of Italian, not Etruscan, origin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUST<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (originally <i>Sextilis</i>), the sixth month in the pre-Julian
+Roman year, which received its present name from the
+emperor Augustus. The preceding month, <i>Quintilis</i>, had been
+called &ldquo;July&rdquo; after Julius Caesar, and the emperor chose August
+to be rechristened in his own honour because his greatest good
+fortune had then happened. In that month he had been admitted
+to the consulate, had thrice celebrated a triumph, had received the
+allegiance of the soldiers stationed on the Janiculum, had concluded
+the civil wars, and had subdued Egypt. As July contained
+thirty-one days, and August only thirty, it was thought necessary to
+add another day to the latter month, in order that the month of
+Augustus might not be in any respect inferior to that of Julius.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Richmond county,
+Georgia, U.S.A., at the head of steamboat navigation on the
+Savannah river, 132 m. N.W. of Savannah by rail and 240 m.
+by river course. Pop. (1890) 33,300; (1900) 39,441, of whom
+18,487 were negroes and only 995 were foreign-born; (1910
+census) 41,040. Augusta is served by the Southern, the
+Augusta Southern (controlled by the Southern), the Atlantic
+Coast Line, the Charleston &amp; Western Carolina (controlled by
+the Atlantic Coast Line), the Georgia and the Central of Georgia
+railways, by an electric line to Aiken, South Carolina, and by a
+line of steamers to Savannah. The city extends along the river
+bank for a distance of more than 3 m., and is connected by a bridge
+with Hamburg, and with North Augusta, South Carolina, two
+residential suburbs. Augusta is well known as a winter resort
+(mean winter temperature, 47° F.), and there are many fine winter
+homes here of wealthy Northerners. There are good roads,
+stretching from Augusta for miles in almost every direction.
+In North Augusta there is a large hotel, and there is another
+in Summerville (pop. in 1910, 4361), 2½ m. N.W., an attractive
+residential suburb and winter resort, in which there are a country
+club and a large United States arsenal, established in 1831.
+Broad Street is the principal thoroughfare of Augusta, and Greene
+Street, with a park in the centre and flanking rows of oaks and
+elms, is the finest residential street. Of historical interest is
+St Paul&rsquo;s church (Protestant Episcopal); the present building
+was erected in 1819 and is the third St Paul&rsquo;s church on the
+same site. The first church was &ldquo;built by the gentlemen of
+Augusta&rdquo; in 1750. In the crypt of the church General Leonidas
+Polk is buried; and in the churchyard are the graves of George
+Steptoe Washington, a nephew of George Washington, and of
+William Longstreet, the inventor. Among the city&rsquo;s principal
+buildings are the Federal building, the Richmond county court
+house, the Augusta orphan asylum, the city hospital, the
+Lamar hospital for negroes, and the buildings of Richmond
+Academy (incorporated in 1783), of the Academy of the Sacred
+Heart (for girls), of Paine&rsquo;s Institute (for negroes), of Houghton
+Institute, endowed in 1852 to be &ldquo;free to all the children of
+Augusta,&rdquo; and of the medical school of the university of Georgia,
+founded in 1829, and a part of the university since 1873. A
+granite obelisk 50 ft. high was erected in 1861 as a memorial
+to the signers for Georgia of the Declaration of Independence;
+beneath it are buried Lyman Hall (1726-1790) and George Walton
+(1740-1804). There are two Italian marble monuments in honour
+of Confederate soldiers, and monuments to the Southern poets,
+Paul Hamilton Hayne and Richard Henry Wilde (1789-1847).</p>
+
+<p>In commerce and manufacturing, Augusta ranks second
+among the cities of Georgia. As a centre of trade for the &ldquo;Cotton
+Belt,&rdquo; it has a large wholesale and retail business; and it is an
+important cotton market. The principal manufacture is cotton
+goods; among the other products are lumber, flour, cotton
+waste, cotton-seed oil and cake, ice, silk, boilers and engines,
+and general merchandise staples. Water-power for factories is
+secured by a system of &ldquo;water-power canals&rdquo; from a large dam
+across the Savannah, built in 1847 and enlarged in 1871; the
+principal canal, owned by the city, is so valuable as nearly to
+pay the interest on the municipal debt. In 1905 the value
+of the city&rsquo;s total factory product was $8,829,305, of which
+$3,832,009, or 43.4%, was the value of the cotton goods. The
+principal newspaper is the <i>Augusta Chronicle</i>, founded in 1785.</p>
+
+<p>Augusta was established in 1735-1736 by James Edward
+Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, and was named in honour
+of the princess of Wales. The Carolina colonists had a trading
+post in its vicinity before the settlement by Oglethorpe. The
+fort, built in 1736, was first named Fort Augusta, and in 1780,
+at the time of the British occupation, was enlarged and renamed
+Fort Cornwallis; its site is now marked by a Memorial Cross,
+erected by the Colonial Dames of Georgia in the churchyard
+of St Paul&rsquo;s. Tobacco was the principal agricultural product
+during the 18th century, and for its culture negro slaves were
+introduced from Carolina, before the restrictions of the Georgia
+Trustees on slavery were removed. During the colonial period
+several treaties with Indians were made at Augusta; by the most
+important, that of 1763, the Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws,
+Cherokees and Catawbas agreed (in a meeting with the governors
+of North and South Carolina, Virginia and Georgia) to the terms
+of the treaty of Paris. At the opening of the American War of
+Independence, the majority of the people of Augusta were
+Loyalists. The town was taken by the British under Lieut.-Col.
+Archibald Campbell (1739-1791) in January 1779, but was evacuated
+a month later; it was the seat of government of Georgia
+for almost the entire period from the capture of Savannah in
+December 1778 until May 1780, and was then abandoned by the
+Patriots and was occupied chiefly by Loyalists under Lieut.-Col.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span>
+Thomas Brown. In September 1780 a force of less than 500
+patriots under Col. Elijah Clarke marched against the town
+in three divisions, and while one division, attacking a neighbouring
+Indian camp, drew off most of the garrison, the other two
+divisions entered the town; but British reinforcements arrived
+before Brown could be dislodged from a building in which he had
+taken refuge, and Clarke was forced to withdraw. A stronger
+American force, under Lieut.-Col. Henry Lee, renewed the siege
+in May 1781 and gained possession on the 5th of June. From
+1783 until 1795 Augusta was again the seat of the state government.
+It was the meeting-place of the Land Court which confiscated
+the property of the Loyalists of Georgia, and of the
+convention which ratified for Georgia the Constitution of the
+United States. In 1798 it was incorporated as a town, and in
+1817 it was chartered as a city. Augusta was the home of the
+inventor, William Longstreet (1759-1814), who as early as 1788
+received a patent from the state of Georgia for a steamboat,
+but met with no practical success until 1808; as early as 1801
+he had made experiments in the application of steam to cotton
+gins and saw-mills at Augusta. Near Augusta, on the site now
+occupied by the Eli Whitney Country Club, Eli Whitney is said
+to have first set up and operated his cotton gin; he is commemorated
+by a mural tablet in the court house. The establishment
+of a steamboat line to Savannah in 1817 aided Augusta&rsquo;s
+rapid commercial development. There was a disastrous fire
+in 1829, an epidemic of yellow fever in 1839, and a flood in 1840,
+but the growth of the city was not seriously checked; the
+cotton receipts of 1846 were 212,019 bales, and in 1847 a cotton
+factory was built. During the Civil War Augusta was the seat
+of extensive military factories, the tall chimney of the Confederate
+powder mills still standing as a memorial. The economic development
+has, since the Civil War, been steady and continuous. An
+exposition was held in Augusta in 1888, and another in 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> the capital of Maine, U.S.A., and the county-seat
+of Kennebec county, on the Kennebec river<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (at the head
+of navigation), 44 m. from its mouth, 62 m. by rail N.E. of Portland,
+and 74 m. S.W. of Bangor. Pop. (1890) 10,527; (1900)
+11,683, of whom 2131 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
+13,211. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by several
+electric lines, and by steamboat lines to Portland, Boston and
+several other ports. It is built on a series of terraces, mostly on
+the west bank of the river, which is spanned here by a bridge
+1100 ft. long. The state house, built of granite quarried in the
+vicinity, occupies a commanding site along the south border of
+the city, and in it is the state library. The Lithgow library
+is a city public library. Near the state house is the former
+residence of James G. Blaine. On the other side of the river,
+nearly opposite, is the Maine insane hospital. Among other
+prominent buildings are the court house, the post office and
+the city hall. In one of the parks is a soldiers&rsquo; and sailors&rsquo;
+monument. By means of a dam across the river, 17 ft. high
+and nearly 600 ft. long, good water-power is provided, and the
+city manufactures cotton goods, boots and shoes, paper, pulp
+and lumber. A leading industry is the printing and publishing
+of newspapers and periodicals, several of the periodicals published
+here having an enormous circulation. The total value of the
+factory products in 1905 was $3,886,833. Augusta occupies
+the site of the Indian village, Koussinoc, at which the Plymouth
+Colony established a trading post about 1628. In 1661 Plymouth
+sold its interests, and soon afterward the four purchasers abandoned
+the post. In 1754, however, their heirs brought about
+the erection here of Fort Western, the main building of which
+is still standing at the east end of the bridge, opposite the city
+hall. Augusta was originally a part of the township of Hallowell
+(incorporated in 1771); in 1797 the north part of Hallowell was
+incorporated as a separate town and named Harrington; and
+later in the same year the name was changed to Augusta. It
+became the county-seat in 1799; was chosen by the Maine
+legislature as the capital of the state in 1827, but was not occupied
+as such until the completion of the state house in 1831; and
+was chartered as a city in 1849.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Kennebec was first explored to this point in 1607.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a seaport of the province of Syracuse, Sicily,
+19 m. N. of it by rail. Pop. (1901) 16,402. It occupies a part
+of the former peninsula of Xiphonia, now a small island, connected
+with the mainland by a bridge. It was founded by the emperor
+Frederick II. in 1232, and almost entirely destroyed by an
+earthquake in 1693, after which it was rebuilt. The castle is
+now a large prison. The fortified port, though unfrequented
+except as a naval harbour of refuge, is a very fine one. There
+are considerable saltworks at Augusta. To the south, on the
+left bank of the Molinello. 1½ m. from its mouth, Sicel tombs
+and Christian catacombs, and farther up the river a cave village
+of the early middle ages, have been explored (<i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>,
+1902, 411, 631; <i>Römische Quartalschrift</i>, 1902, 205). Whether
+there was ever a town bearing the name Xiphonia is doubted
+by E.A. Freeman (<i>Hist. of Sic.</i> i. 583); cf., however, E. Pais,
+<i>Atakta</i> (Pisa, 1891), 55, who attributes its foundation, under the
+name of Tauromenion (which it soon lost), to the Zancleans
+of Hybla (afterwards Megara Hyblaea).</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the chief town of the Ligurian
+tribe of the Bagienni, probably identical with the modern Bene
+Vagienna, on the upper course of the Tanaro, about 35 m. due
+south of Turin. The town retained its position as a tribal centre
+in the reorganization of Augustus, whose name it bears, and was
+erected on a systematic plan. Considerable remains of public
+buildings, constructed in concrete faced with small stones with
+bands of brick at intervals, an amphitheatre with a major axis
+of 390 ft. and a minor axis of 305 ft., a theatre with a stage
+133 ft. in length, and near it the foundations of what was probably
+a basilica, an open space (no doubt the forum), an aqueduct,
+baths, &amp;c., have been discovered by recent excavations, and
+also one of the city gates, flanked by two towers 22 ft. sq.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Assandria and G. Vacchetta in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i> (1894), 155;
+(1896), 215; (1897), 441; (1898), 299; (1900), 389; (1901), 413.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTAN HISTORY,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> the name given to a collection of the
+biographies of the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 117-284). The work professes to have been written during
+the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, and is to be regarded
+as the composition of six authors,&mdash;Aelius Spartianus, Julius
+Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius, Vulcacius Gallicanus, Trebellius
+Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus&mdash;known as Scriptores Historiae
+Augustae, writers of Augustan history. It is generally agreed,
+however, that there is a large number of interpolations in the work,
+which are referred to the reign of Theodosius; and that the
+documents inserted in the lives are almost all forgeries. The more
+advanced school of critics holds that the names of the supposed
+authors are purely fictitious, as those of some of the authorities
+which they profess to quote certainly are. The lives, which
+(with few exceptions) are arranged in chronological order, are
+distributed as follows:&mdash;To Spartianus: the biographies of
+Hadrian, Aelius Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus,
+Pescennius Niger, Caracallus, Geta (?); to Vulcacius Gallicanus:
+Avidius Cassius; to Capitolinus: Antoninus Pius, Marcus
+Aurelius Antoninus, Verus, Pertinax, Clodius Albinus, the two
+Maximins, the three Gordians, Maximus and Balbinus, Opilius
+Macrinus (?); to Lampridius: Commodus, Diadumenus, Elagabalus,
+Alexander Severus; to Pollio: the two Valerians, the
+Gallieni, the so-called Thirty Tyrants or Usurpers, Claudius (his
+lives of Philip, Decius, and Gallus being lost); to Vopiscus:
+Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, Probus, the four tyrants (Firmus,
+Saturninus, Proculus, Bonosus), Carus, Numerian, Carinus.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of the Augustan history as a repertory of
+information is very considerable, but its literary pretensions
+are of the humblest order. The writers&rsquo; standard was confessedly
+low. &ldquo;My purpose,&rdquo; says Vopiscus, &ldquo;has been to
+provide materials for persons more eloquent than I.&rdquo; Considering
+the perverted taste of the age, it is perhaps fortunate that the
+task fell into the hands of no showy declaimer who measured
+his success by his skill in making surface do duty for substance,
+but of homely, matter-of-fact scribes, whose sole concern was to
+record what they knew. Their narrative is unmethodical and
+inartificial; their style is tame and plebeian; their conception
+of biography is that of a collection of anecdotes; they have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span>
+no notion of arrangement, no measure of proportion, and no
+criterion of discrimination between the important and the trivial;
+they are equally destitute of critical and of historical insight,
+unable to sift the authorities on which they rely, and unsuspicious
+of the stupendous social revolution comprised within the period
+which they undertake to describe. Their value, consequently,
+depends very much on that of the sources to which they happen to
+have recourse for any given period of history, and on the fidelity
+of their adherence to these when valuable. Marius Maximus and
+Aelius Junius Cordus, to whose qualifications they themselves
+bear no favourable testimony, were their chief authorities for
+the earlier lives of the series. Marius Maximus, who lived about
+165-230, wrote biographies of the emperors, in continuation of
+those of Suetonius, from Nerva to Elagabalus; Junius Cordus
+dealt with the less-known emperors, perhaps down to Maximus
+and Balbinus. The earlier lives, however, contain a substratum
+of authentic historical fact, which recent critics have supposed to
+be derived from a lost work by a contemporary writer, described
+by one of these scholars as &ldquo;the last great Roman historian.&rdquo;
+For the later lives the Scriptores were obliged to resort more
+largely to public records, and thus preserved matter of the highest
+importance, rescuing from oblivion many imperial rescripts and
+senatorial decrees, reports of official proceedings and speeches
+on public occasions, and a number of interesting and characteristic
+letters from various emperors. Their incidental allusions
+sometimes cast vivid though undesigned light on the circumstances
+of the age, and they have made large contributions to our
+knowledge of imperial jurisprudence in particular. Even their
+trivialities have their use; their endless anecdotes respecting the
+personal habits of the subjects of their biographies, if valueless to
+the historian, are most acceptable to the archaeologist, and not
+unimportant to the economist and moralist. Their errors and
+deficiencies may in part be ascribed to the contemporary neglect
+of history as a branch of instruction. Education was in the hands
+of rhetoricians and grammarians; historians were read for their
+style, not for their matter, and since the days of Tacitus, none had
+arisen worth a schoolmaster&rsquo;s notice. We thus find Vopiscus
+acknowledging that when he began to write the life of Aurelian,
+he was entirely misinformed respecting the latter&rsquo;s competitor
+Firmus, and implying that he would not have ventured on
+Aurelian himself if he had not had access to the MS. of the
+emperor&rsquo;s own diary in the Ulpian library. The writers&rsquo; historical
+estimates are superficial and conventional, but report the verdict
+of public opinion with substantial accuracy. The only imputation
+on the integrity of any of them lies against Trebellius Pollio, who,
+addressing his work to a descendant of Claudius, the successor
+and probably the assassin of Gallienus, has dwelt upon the latter
+versatile sovereign&rsquo;s carelessness and extravagance without acknowledgment
+of the elastic though fitful energy he so frequently
+displayed in defence of the empire. The caution of Vopiscus&rsquo;s
+references to Diocletian cannot be made a reproach to him.</p>
+
+<p>No biographical particulars are recorded respecting any of
+these writers. From their acquaintance with Latin and Greek
+literature they must have been men of letters by profession, and
+very probably secretaries or librarians to persons of distinction.
+There seems no reason to accept Gibbon&rsquo;s contemptuous estimate
+of their social position. They appear particularly versed in law.
+Spartianus&rsquo;s reference to himself as &ldquo;Diocletian&rsquo;s own&rdquo; seems to
+indicate that he was a domestic in the imperial household. They
+address their patrons with deference, acknowledging their own
+deficiencies, and seem painfully conscious of the profession of
+literature having fallen upon evil days.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editio princeps (Milan, 1475); Casaubon (1603) showed great
+critical ability in his notes, but for want of a good MS. left the
+restoration of the text to Salmasius (1620), whose notes are a most
+remarkable monument of erudition, combined with acuteness in verbal
+criticism and general vigour of intellect. Of recent years considerable
+attention has been devoted by German scholars to the <i>History</i>,
+especially by Peter, whose edition of the text in the Teubner series
+(2nd ed., 1884) contains (praef. xxxv.-xxxvii.) a bibliography of
+works on the subject preceding the publication of his own special
+treatise. The edition by Jordan-Eyssenhardt (1863) should also be
+mentioned. Amongst the most recent treatises on the subject are:
+A. Gemoll, <i>Die Scriptores Historiae Augustae</i> (1886); H. Peter, <i>Die
+Scriptores Historiae Augustae</i> (1892); G. Tropea, <i>Studi sugli
+Scriptores Historiae Augustae</i> (1899-1903); J.M. Heer, <i>Der historische
+Wert der Vita Commodi in der Sammlung der Scriptores Historiae
+Augustae</i> (1901); C. Lécrivain, <i>Études sur l&rsquo;histoire Auguste</i> (1904);
+E. Kornemann, <i>Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von
+Rom</i> (1905), according to whom &ldquo;the last great historian of Rome&rdquo;
+is Lollius Urbicus; O. Schulz, <i>Das Kaiserhaus der Antonine und der
+letzte Historiker Roms</i> (1907). On their style, see C. Paucker, <i>De
+Latinitate Scriptorum Historiae Augustae</i> (1870); special lexicon by
+C. Lessing (1901-1906). An English translation is included in <i>The
+Lives of the Roman Emperors</i>, by John Bernard (1698). See further
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i> (anc. <i>ad fin.</i>), section &ldquo;Authorities&rdquo;; M. Schanz,
+<i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i>, iii. p. 69 (for Marius Maximus
+and Junius Cordus), iv. p. 47; Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman
+Literature</i> (Eng. tr.), § 392; H. Peter, bibliography from 1893 to
+1905 in Bursian&rsquo;s <i>Jahresbericht</i>, cxxix. (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (mod. <i>Aosta</i>, <i>q.v.</i>),
+an ancient town of Italy in the district of the Salassi, founded
+by Augustus about 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> on the site of the camp of Varro
+Murena, who subdued this tribe in 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and settled with
+3000 praetorians. Pliny calls it the last town of Italy on the
+north-west, and its position at the confluence of two rivers, at
+the end of the Great and Little St Bernard, gave it considerable
+military importance, which is vouched for by considerable
+remains of Roman buildings. The ancient town walls, enclosing
+a rectangle 793 by 624 yds., are still preserved almost in their
+entire extent. The walls are 21 ft. high. They are built of
+concrete faced with small blocks of stone, and at the bottom
+are nearly 9 ft. thick, and at the top 6 ft. There are towers at
+the angles of the <i>enceinte</i>, and others at intervals, and two at
+each of the four gates, making a total of twenty towers altogether.
+They are roughly 32 ft. square, and project 14 ft. from the wall.
+The Torre del Pailleron on the south and the Torre del Leproso
+in the west are especially well preserved. The east and south
+gates exist (the latter, a double gate with three arches flanked
+by two towers, is the Porta Praetoria, and is especially fine),
+while the rectangular arrangement of the streets perpetuates
+the Roman plan, dividing the town into 16 blocks (<i>insulae</i>).
+The main road, 32 ft. wide, divides the city into two equal
+halves, running from east to west, an arrangement which makes
+it clear that the guarding of the road was the main <i>raison d&rsquo;être</i>
+of the city. Some arcades of the amphitheatre (the diameters
+of which are 282 ft. and 239 ft.), and the south wall of the
+theatre are also preserved, the latter to a height of over 70 ft.,
+and a market-place some 300 ft. square, surrounded by storehouses
+on three sides with a temple in the centre, and two on
+the open (south) side, and the <i>thermae</i>, have been discovered.
+Outside the town is a handsome triumphal arch in honour of
+Augustus. About 5 m. to the west is a single-arched Roman
+bridge, the Pondel, which has a closed passage lighted by windows
+for foot passengers in winter, and above it an open footpath,
+both being about 3½ ft. in width. There are considerable
+remains of the ancient road from Eporedia (mod. <i>Ivrea</i>) to
+Augusta Praetoria, up the Valle d&rsquo; Aosta, which the modern
+railway follows, notably the Pont St Martin, with a single arch
+with a span of 116 ft. and a roadway 15 ft. wide, the cutting of
+Donnaz, and the Roman bridges of Châtillon (Pont St Vincent)
+and Aosta (Pont de Pierre), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Promis, <i>Le antichità di Aosta</i> (Turin, 1862); E. Bérard in
+<i>Atti della Società di Archeologia di Torino</i>, iii. 119 seq.; <i>Notizie
+degli Scavi</i>, passim; A. d&rsquo;Andrade, <i>Relazione dell&rsquo; Ufficio Regionale
+per la consenazione dei Monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria</i> (Turin,
+1899), 46 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1772-1841),
+German theologian, born at Eschenberga, near Gotha, was of
+Jewish descent, his grandfather having been a converted rabbi.
+He was educated at the gymnasium at Gotha and the university
+of Jena. At Jena he studied oriental languages, of which he
+became professor there in 1803. Subsequently he became
+ordinary professor of theology (1812), and for a time rector, at
+Breslau. In 1819 he was transferred to the university of Bonn,
+where he was made professor primarius. In 1828 he was appointed
+chief member of the consistorial council at Coblenz.
+Here he was afterwards made director of the consistory. He
+died at Coblenz in 1841. Augusti had little sympathy with the
+modern philosophical interpretations of dogma, and although
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span>
+he took up a position of free criticism with regard to the Biblical
+narratives, he held fast to the traditional faith. His works on
+theology (<i>Dogmengeschichte</i>, 1805; 4th ed., 1835) are simple
+statements of fact; they do not attempt a speculative treatment
+of their subjects. In 1809 he published in conjunction with
+W.M.L. de Wette a new translation of the Old Testament. Mention
+should also be made of his <i>Grundriss einer historischkritischen
+Einleitung ins Alte Testament</i> (1806), his <i>Exegetisches
+Handbuch des Alten Testaments</i> (1797-1800), and his edition of
+<i>Die Apokryphen des A. T.</i> (1804). In addition to these, his
+most important writings are the <i>Denkwürdigkeiten aus der
+Christlichen Archäologie</i>, 12 vols. (1817-1831), a partially digested
+mass of materials, and the <i>Handbuch der Christ. Archäologie</i>,
+3 vols. (1836-1837), which gives the substance of the larger
+work in a more compact and systematic form.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINE, SAINT<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (354-430), one of the four great fathers
+of the Latin Church. Augustinus&mdash;the <i>praenomen</i> Aurelius is
+used indeed by his disciples Orosius and Prosper, and is found
+in the oldest Augustine MSS., but is not used by himself, nor in
+the letters addressed to him&mdash;was born at Tagaste, a town of
+Numidia, now Suk Ahras in Constantine, on the 13th of November
+354. His father, Patricius, was a burgess of Tagaste and still a
+pagan at the time of his son&rsquo;s birth. His mother, Monica, was
+not only a Christian, but a woman of the most tender and devoted
+piety, whose beautiful faith and enthusiasm and patient prayer for
+both her husband and son (at length crowned with success in both
+cases) have made her a type of womanly saintliness for all ages.
+She early instructed her son in the faith and love of Jesus Christ,
+and for a time he seems to have been impressed by her teaching.
+Falling ill, he wished to be baptized; but when the danger was
+past, the rite was deferred and, in spite of his mother&rsquo;s
+admonitions and prayers, Augustine grew up without any profession
+of Christian piety or any devotion to Christian principles.</p>
+
+<p>Inheriting from his father a passionate nature, he formed
+while still a mere youth an irregular union with a girl, by whom
+he became the father of a son, whom in a fit of pious emotion he
+named Adeodatus (&ldquo;by God given&rdquo;), and to whom he was passionately
+attached. In his <i>Confessions</i> he afterwards described
+this period of his life in the blackest colours; for in the
+light of his conversion he saw behind him only shadows. Yet,
+whatever his youthful aberrations, Augustine was from the first
+an earnest student. His father, noticing his early promise,
+destined him for the brilliant and lucrative career of a rhetorician,
+for which he spared no expense in training him. Augustine
+studied at his native town and afterwards at Madaura and
+Carthage, especially devoting himself to the works of the Latin
+poets, many traces of his love for which are to be found in his
+writings. His acquaintance with Greek literature was much
+more limited, and, indeed, it has been doubted, though without
+sufficient reason, whether he could use the Greek scriptures in
+the original. Cicero&rsquo;s <i>Hortensius</i>, which he read in his nineteenth
+year, first awakened in his mind the spirit of speculation and the
+impulse towards the knowledge of the truth. But he passed
+from one phase of thought to another, unable to find satisfaction
+in any. Manichaeism, that mixed product of Zoroastrian and
+Christian-gnostic elements, first enthralled him. He became
+a fervent member of the sect, and was admitted into the class of
+<i>auditors</i> or &ldquo;hearers.&rdquo; Manichaeism seemed to him to solve
+the mysteries of the world, and of his own experiences by which
+he was perplexed. His insatiable imagination drew congenial
+food from the fanciful religious world of the Manichaeans,
+decked out as this was with the luxuriant wealth of Oriental
+myth. His strongly developed sense of a need of salvation
+sought satisfaction in the contest of the two principles of Good
+and Evil, and found peace, at least for the moment, in the
+conviction that the portions of light present in him would be
+freed from the darkness in which they were immersed. The
+ideal of chastity and self-restraint, which promised a foretaste
+of union with God, amazed him, bound as he was in the fetters
+of sensuality and for ever shaking at these fetters. But while
+his moral force was not sufficient for the attainment of this
+ideal, gradually everything else which Manichaeism seemed to
+offer him dissolved before his criticism. Increasingly occupied
+with the exact sciences, he learnt the incompatibility of the
+Manichaean astrology with the facts. More and more absorbed
+in the problems of psychology, he realized the insufficiency of
+dualism, which did not solve the ultimate questions but merely
+set them back. The Manichaean propaganda seemed to him
+invertebrate and lacking in force, and a discussion which he had
+with Faustus, a distinguished Manichaean bishop and controversialist,
+left him greatly disappointed.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile nine years had passed. Augustine, after finishing
+his studies, had returned to Tagaste, where he became a teacher
+of grammar. He must have been an excellent master, who
+knew how to influence the whole personality of his pupils. It
+was then that Alypius, who in the later stages of Augustine&rsquo;s life
+proved a true friend and companion, attached himself to him.
+He remained in his native town little more than a year, during
+which time he lived with his mother, who was comforted by the
+bishop for the estrangement of her son from the Catholic faith
+(&ldquo;a son of so many tears cannot be lost&rdquo;: <i>Confess.</i> III. xii. § 21),
+comforted also, and above all, by the famous vision, which
+Augustine thus describes: &ldquo;She saw herself standing on a
+certain wooden rule, and a shining youth coming towards her,
+cheerful and smiling upon her the while she grieved, and was
+consumed with grief: and when he had inquired of her the
+causes of her grief and daily tears (for the sake, as is their wont,
+of teaching, not of learning) and she had made answer that she
+was bewailing my perdition, he bade her be at ease, and advised
+her to look and observe, &lsquo;That where she was, there was I also.&rsquo;
+And when she looked there, she saw me standing by her on the
+same rule&rdquo; (<i>Confess.</i> III. xi.). Augustine now returned for a
+second time to Carthage, where he devoted himself zealously
+to work. Thence, probably in the spring of 383, he migrated
+to Rome. His Manichaean friends urged him to take this
+step, which was rendered easier by the licentious lives of the
+students at Carthage. His stay at Rome may have lasted about
+a year, no agreeable time for Augustine, since his patrons and
+friends belonged to just those Manichaean circles with which
+he had in the meantime entirely lost all intellectual touch. He,
+therefore, accepted an invitation from Milan, where the people
+were in search of a teacher of rhetoric.</p>
+
+<p>At Milan the conflict within his mind in search of truth still
+continued. It was now that he separated himself openly from
+the Manichaean sect. As a thinker he came entirely under the
+influence of the New Academy; he professed the Sceptic
+philosophy, without being able to find in it the final conclusion
+of wisdom. He was, however, not far from the decision. Two
+things determined his further development. He became acquainted
+with the Neo-Platonic philosophy; its monism replaced
+the dualism, its intellectualized world of ideas the materialism
+of Manichaeism. Here he found the admonition to seek for
+truth outside the material world, and from created things he
+learnt to recognize the invisible God; he attained the certainty
+that this God is, and is eternal, always the same, subject to
+change neither in his parts nor in his motions. And while
+thus Augustine&rsquo;s metaphysical convictions were being slowly
+remodelled, he met, in Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a man in whom
+complete worldly culture and the nobility of a ripe Christian
+personality were wonderfully united. He heard him preach;
+but at first it was the orator and not the contents of the sermons
+that enchained him. He sought an opportunity of conversation
+with him, but this was not easily found. Ambrose had no leisure
+for philosophic discussion. He was accessible to all who sought
+him, but never for a moment free from study or the cares of
+duty. Augustine, as he himself tells us, used to enter without
+being announced, as all persons might; but after staying for
+a while, afraid of interrupting him, he would depart again.
+He continued, however, to hear Ambrose preach, and gradually
+the gospel of divine truth and grace was received into his heart.
+He was busy with his friend Alypius in studying the Pauline
+epistles; certain words were driven home with irresistible force
+to his conscience. His struggle of mind became more and more
+intolerable, the thought of divine purity fighting in his heart
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span>
+with the love of the world and the flesh. That sensuality was
+his worst enemy he had long known. The mother of his child
+had accompanied him to Milan. When he became betrothed
+he dismissed her; but neither the pain of this parting nor
+consideration for his not yet marriageable bride prevented him
+from forming a fresh connexion of the same kind. Meanwhile,
+the determination to renounce the old life with its pleasures
+of sense, was ever being forced upon him with more and more
+distinctness. He then received a visit from a Christian compatriot
+named Pontitian, who told him about St Anthony and
+the monachism in Egypt, and also of a monastery near Milan.
+He was shaken to the depths when he learnt from Pontitian
+that two young officials, like himself betrothed, had suddenly
+formed a determination to turn their backs upon the life of the
+world. He could no longer bear to be inside the house; in
+terrible excitement he rushed into the garden; and now followed
+that scene which he himself in the <i>Confessions</i> has described
+to us with such graphic realism. He flung himself under a fig
+tree, burst into a passion of weeping, and poured out his heart
+to God. Suddenly he seemed to hear a voice bidding him consult
+the divine oracle: &ldquo;Take up and read, take up and read.&rdquo;
+He left off weeping, rose up, sought the volume where Alypius
+was sitting, and opening it read in silence the following passage
+from the Epistle to the Romans (xiii. 13, 14): &ldquo;Not in rioting
+and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife
+and envying. But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not
+provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof.&rdquo; He adds: &ldquo;I
+had neither desire nor need to read further. As I finished the
+sentence, as though the light of peace had been poured into the
+heart, all the shadows of doubt dispersed. Thus hast Thou converted
+me to Thee, so as no longer to seek either for wife or other
+hope of the world, standing fast in that rule of faith in which
+Thou so many years before hadst revealed me to my mother&rdquo;
+(<i>in qua me ante lot annos ei revelaveras: Confess</i>. VIII. xii. § 30).<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The conversion of Augustine, as we have been accustomed
+to call this event, took place in the late summer of 386, a few
+weeks before the beginning of the vacation. The determination
+to give up his post was rendered easier by a chest-trouble which
+was not without danger, and which for months made him incapable
+of work. He withdrew with several companions to
+the country estate of Cassisiacum near Milan, which had been
+lent him by a friend, and announced himself to the bishop as
+a candidate for baptism. His religious opinions were still to
+some extent unformed, and even his habits by no means altogether
+such as his great change demanded. He mentions, for example,
+that during this time he broke himself of a habit of profane
+swearing, and in other ways sought to discipline his character
+and conduct for the reception of the sacred rite. He received
+baptism the Easter following, in his thirty-third year, and along
+with him his son Adeodatus and his friend Alypius were admitted
+to the Church. Monica, his mother, had rejoined him, and at
+length rejoiced in the fulfilment of her prayers. She died at Ostia,
+just as they were about to embark for Africa, her last hours being
+gladdened by his Christian sympathy. In the account of the conversation
+which he had with his mother before her end, in the
+narrative of her death and burial (<i>Confess</i>. IX. x.-xi., §§ 23-28),
+Augustine&rsquo;s literary power is displayed at its highest.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of returning home, remained for the present unaccomplished.
+Augustine stayed for a year in Rome, occupied
+in literary work, particularly in controversy with Manichaeism.
+It was not until the autumn of 388 that he returned to Tagaste,
+probably still accompanied by his son, who, however, must have
+died shortly afterwards. With some friends, who joined him in
+devotion, he formed a small religious community, which looked
+to him as its head. Their mode of life was not formally monastic
+according to any special rule, but the experience of this time of
+seclusion was, no doubt, the basis of that monastic system which
+Augustine afterwards sketched and which derived its name from
+him (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustinians</a></span>). As may be imagined, the fame of such
+a convert in such a position soon spread, and invitations to a more
+active ecclesiastical life came to him from many quarters. He
+shrank from the responsibility, but his destiny was not to be
+avoided. After two and a half years spent in retirement he went
+to Hippo, to see a Christian friend, who desired to converse with
+him as to his design of quitting the world and devoting himself
+to a religious life. The Christian community there being in want
+of a presbyter and Augustine being present at the meeting, the
+people unanimously chose him and he was ordained to the
+presbyterate. A few years afterwards, 395 or 396, he was made
+coadjutor to the bishop, and finally became bishop of the see.</p>
+
+<p>Henceforth Augustine&rsquo;s life is filled up with his ecclesiastical
+labours, and is more marked by the series of his numerous
+writings and the great controversies in which they engaged him
+than by anything else. His life was spent in a perpetual strife.
+During the first half this had been against himself; but even
+when others stepped into his place, it always seems as though a
+part of Augustine himself were incarnate in them. Augustine had
+early distinguished himself as an author. He had written several
+philosophical treatises, and, as teacher of rhetoric at Carthage, he
+had composed a work <i>De pulchro et apto</i>, which is no longer extant.
+Whenat Cassisiacum he had combated the scepticism of the New
+Academy (<i>Contra Academicos</i>), had treated of the &ldquo;blessed life&rdquo;
+(<i>De Vita beata</i>), of the significance of evil in the order of the world
+(<i>De ordine</i>), of the means for the elucidation of spiritual truths
+(<i>Soliloquia</i>). Shortly before the time of his baptism, he was occupied
+with the question of the immortality of the soul (<i>De immortalitate
+animae</i>), and in Rome and at Tagaste he was still engaged
+with philosophical problems, as is evidenced by the writings <i>De
+quantitate animae</i> and <i>De magistro</i>. In all these treatises is
+apparent the influence of the Neo-Platonic method of thought,
+which for him, as for so many others, had become the bridge to the
+Christian. While still in Rome, he began to come to a reckoning
+with the Manichaeans, and wrote two books on the morals of the
+Catholic Church and of the Manichaeans (<i>De moribus ecclesiae
+Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum libri duo</i>). For many years
+he pursued this controversy in a long series of writings, of which
+the most conspicuous is the elaborate reply to his old associate
+and disputant, Faustus of Mileve (<i>Contra Faustum Manichaeum</i>,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400). It was natural that the Manichaean heresy, which had
+so long enslaved his own mind, should have first exercised
+Augustine&rsquo;s great powers as a theological thinker and controversialist.
+He was able from his own experience to give force to his
+arguments for the unity of creation and of the spiritual life, and
+to strengthen the mind of the Christian Church in its last struggle
+with that dualistic spirit which had animated and moulded in
+succession so many forms of thought at variance with Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>But the time was one of almost universal ecclesiastical and
+intellectual excitement; and so powerful a mental activity as
+his was naturally drawn forth in all directions. Following his
+writings against the Manichaeans came those against the Donatists.
+The controversy was one which strongly interested him,
+involving as it did the whole question of the constitution of the
+Church and the idea of catholic order, to which the circumstances
+of the age gave special prominence. The Donatist controversy
+sprang out of the Diocletian persecution in the beginning of the
+century. A party in the Church of Carthage, fired with fanatic
+zeal on behalf of those who had courted martyrdom by resistance
+to the imperial mandates, resented deeply the appointment of
+a bishop of moderate opinions, whose consecration had been
+performed, they alleged, by a <i>traditor</i>, viz. a bishop who had
+&ldquo;delivered&rdquo; the holy scriptures to the magistrates. They set up,
+in consequence, a bishop of their own, of the name of Majorinus,
+succeeded in 315 by Donatus. The party made great pretensions
+to purity of discipline, and rapidly rose in popular favour, notwithstanding
+a decision given against them both by the bishop
+of Rome and by the emperor Cons tan tine. Augustine was
+strongly moved by the lawlessness of the party and launched
+forth a series of writings against them, the most important of
+which survive. Amongst these are &ldquo;Seven Books on Baptism&rdquo;
+(<i>De baptismo contra Donatistas</i>, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400) and a lengthy
+answer, in three books, to Petilian, bishop of Cirta, who was the
+most eminent theologian amongst the Donatist divines. At a
+later period, about 417, Augustine wrote a treatise concerning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span>
+the correction of the Donatists (<i>De correctione Donatistarum</i>)
+&ldquo;for the sake of those,&rdquo; he says in his <i>Retractations</i>, &ldquo;who were not
+willing that the Donatists should be subjected to the correction
+of the imperial laws.&rdquo; In these writings, while vigorously
+maintaining the validity of the Church as it then stood in the
+Roman world, and the necessity for moderation in the exercise
+of church discipline, Augustine yet gave currency, in his zeal
+against the Donatists, to certain maxims as to the duty of
+the civil power to control schism, which were of evil omen,
+and have been productive of much disaster in the history of
+Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>The third controversy in which Augustine engaged was the
+most important, and the most intimately associated with his
+distinctive greatness as a theologian. As may be supposed,
+owing to the conflicts through which he had passed, the bishop
+of Hippo was intensely interested in what may be called the
+anthropological aspect of the great Christian idea of redemption.
+He had himself been brought out of darkness into &ldquo;marvellous
+light,&rdquo; only by entering into the depths of his own soul, and
+finding, after many struggles, that there was no power but divine
+grace, as revealed in the life and death of the Son of God, which
+could bring rest to human weariness, or pardon and peace for
+human guilt. He had found human nature in his own case too
+weak and sinful to find any good for itself. In God alone he
+had found good. This deep sense of human sinfulness coloured
+all his theology, and gave to it at once its depth&mdash;its profound
+and sympathetic adaptation to all who feel the reality of sin&mdash;and
+that tinge of darkness and exaggeration which has as surely
+repelled others. When the expression &ldquo;Augustinism&rdquo; is used,
+it points especially to those opinions of the great teacher which
+were evoked in the Pelagian controversy, to which he devoted
+the most mature and powerful period of his life. His opponents
+in this controversy were Pelagius, from whom it derives its name,
+and Coelestius and Julianus, pupils of the former. Nothing is
+certainly known as to the home of Pelagius. Augustine calls
+him Brito, and so do Marius Mercator and Orosius. Jerome
+points to his Scottish descent, in such terms, however, as to
+leave it uncertain whether he was a native of Scotland or of
+Ireland. He was a man of blameless character, devoted to the
+reformation of society, full of that confidence in the natural
+impulses of humanity which often accompanies philanthropic
+enthusiasm. About the year 400 he came, no longer a young
+man, to Rome, where he lived for more than a decade, and soon
+made himself conspicuous by his activity and by his opinions.
+His pupil Coelestius, a lawyer of unknown origin, developed
+the views of his master with a more outspoken logic, and, while
+travelling with Pelagius in Africa, in the year 411, was at length
+arraigned before the bishop of Carthage for the following, amongst
+other heretical opinions:&mdash;(1) that Adam&rsquo;s sin was purely
+personal, and affected none but himself; (2) that each man,
+consequently, is born with powers as incorrupt as those of Adam,
+and only falls into sin under the force of temptation and evil
+example; (3) that children who die in infancy, being untainted
+by sin, are saved without baptism. Views such as these were
+obviously in conflict with the whole course of Augustine&rsquo;s
+experience, as well as with his interpretation of the catholic
+doctrine of the Church. And when his attention was drawn
+to them by the trial and excommunication of Coelestius, he
+undertook their refutation, first of all in three books on the
+punishment and forgiveness of sins and the baptism of infants
+(<i>De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum</i>),
+addressed to his friend Marcellinus, in which he vindicated the
+necessity of baptism of infants because of original sin and the
+grace of God by which we are justified (<i>Retract.</i> ii. 23). This
+was in 412. In the same year he addressed a further treatise
+to the same Marcellinus on <i>The Spirit and the Letter</i> (<i>De spiritu
+et littera</i>). Three years later he composed the treatises on <i>Nature
+and Grace</i> (<i>De natura et gratia</i>) and the relation of the human
+to the divine righteousness (<i>De perfectione iustitiae hominis</i>).
+The controversy was continued during many years in no fewer
+than fifteen treatises. Upon no subject did Augustine bestow
+more of his intellectual strength, and in relation to no other have
+his views so deeply and permanently affected the course of
+Christian thought. Even those who most usually agree with
+his theological standpoint will hardly deny that, while he did
+much in these writings to vindicate divine truth and to expound
+the true relations of the divine and human, he also, here as elsewhere,
+was hurried into extreme expressions as to the absoluteness
+of divine grace and the extent of human corruption. Like
+his great disciple in a later age&mdash;Luther&mdash;Augustine was prone
+to emphasize the side of truth which he had most realized
+in his own experience, and, in contradistinction to the Pelagian
+exaltation of human nature, to depreciate its capabilities beyond
+measure.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these controversial writings, which mark the
+great epochs of Augustine&rsquo;s life and ecclesiastical activity after
+his settlement as a bishop at Hippo, he was the author of other
+works, some of them better known and even more important.
+His great work, the most elaborate, and in some respects the
+most significant, that came from his pen, is <i>The City of God</i>
+(<i>De civitate Dei</i>). It is designed as a great apologetic treatise
+in vindication of Christianity and the Christian Church,&mdash;the
+latter conceived as rising in the form of a new civic order on
+the crumbling ruins of the Roman empire,&mdash;but it is also,
+perhaps, the earliest contribution to the philosophy of history,
+as it is a repertory throughout of his cherished theological
+opinions. This work and his <i>Confessions</i> are, probably, those
+by which he is best known, the one as the highest expression of
+his thought, and the other as the best monument of his living
+piety and Christian experience. <i>The City of God</i> was begun in
+413, and continued to be issued in its several portions for a
+period of thirteen years, or till 426. The <i>Confessions</i> were
+written shortly after he became a bishop, about 397, and give
+a vivid sketch of his early career. To the devout utterances
+and aspirations of a great soul they add the charm of personal
+disclosure, and have never ceased to excite admiration in all
+spirits of kindred piety. Something of this charm also belongs
+to the <i>Retractations</i>, that remarkable work in which Augustine,
+in 427, towards the end of his life, held as it were a review of his
+literary activity, in order to improve what was erroneous and
+to make clear what was doubtful in it. His systematic treatise
+on <i>The Trinity</i> (<i>De Trinitate</i>) which extends to fifteen books
+and occupied him for nearly thirty years, must not be passed
+over. This important work, unlike most of his dogmatic writings,
+was not provoked by any special controversial emergency, but
+grew up silently during this long period in the author&rsquo;s mind.
+This has given it something more of completeness and organic
+arrangement than is usual with Augustine, if it has also led him
+into the prolonged discussion of various analogies, more curious
+than apt in their bearing on the doctrine which he expounds.
+Brief and concise is the presentation of the Catholic doctrine
+in the compendium, which, about 421, he wrote at the request
+of a Roman layman named Laurentius (<i>Encheiridion, sive de fide
+spe et caritate</i>). In spite of its title, the compendious work on
+Christian doctrine (<i>De doctrina Christiana</i>), begun as early as
+393, but only finished in 426, does not belong to the dogmatic
+writings. It is a sort of Biblical hermeneutic, in which homiletic
+questions are also dealt with. His catechetical principles Augustine
+developed in the charming writing <i>De catechizandis rudibus</i>
+(<i>c.</i> 400). A large number of tractates are devoted to moral
+and theological problems (<i>Contra mendacium</i>, <i>c.</i> 420; <i>De bono
+conjugali</i>, 401, &amp;c.). A widespread influence was exercised
+by the treatise <i>De opere monachorum</i> (<i>c.</i> 400), in which, on the
+ground of Holy Scripture, manual work was demanded of monks.
+Of less importance than the remaining works are the numerous
+exegetical writings, among which the commentary on the Gospel
+of St John deserves a special mention. These have a value
+owing to Augustine&rsquo;s appreciation of the deeper spiritual meaning
+of scripture, but hardly for their exegetical qualities. His
+<i>Letters</i> are full of interest owing to the light they throw on many
+questions in the ecclesiastical history of the time, and owing to
+his relations with such contemporary theologians as Jerome.
+They have, however, neither the liveliness nor the varied interest
+of the letters of Jerome himself. As a preacher Augustine was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span>
+of great importance. We still possess almost four hundred
+sermons which may be ascribed to him with certainty. Many
+others only pass under his celebrated name.</p>
+
+<p>The closing years of the great bishop were full of sorrow. The
+Vandals, who had been gradually enclosing the Roman empire,
+appeared before the gates of Hippo, and laid siege to it. Augustine
+was ill with his last illness, and could only pray for his
+fellow-citizens. He passed away during the siege, on the 28th
+of August 430, at the age of seventy-five, and thus was spared
+the indignity of seeing the city in the hands of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Augustine, both as a man and as a theologian,
+has been briefly indicated in the course of our sketch. None can
+deny the greatness of Augustine&rsquo;s soul&mdash;his enthusiasm, his
+unceasing search after truth, his affectionate disposition, his
+ardour, his self-devotion. And even those who may doubt the
+soundness of his dogmatic conclusions, cannot but acknowledge
+the depth of his spiritual convictions, and the logical force and
+penetration with which he handled the most difficult questions,
+thus weaving all the elements of his experience and of his profound
+scriptural knowledge into a great system of Christian thought.
+Of the four great Fathers of the Church he was admittedly the
+greatest&mdash;more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual father, more
+original and systematic than Jerome, his correspondent, and
+intellectually far more distinguished than Gregory the Great,
+his pupil on the papal throne. The theological position and
+influence of Augustine may be said to be unrivalled. No single
+name has ever exercised such power over the Christian Church,
+and no one mind ever made so deep an impression upon Christian
+thought. In him scholastics and mystics, popes and the
+opponents of the papal supremacy, have seen their champion.
+He was the fulcrum on which Luther rested the thoughts by
+which he sought to lift the past of the Church out of the
+rut; yet the judgment of Catholics still proclaims the ideas of
+Augustine as the only sound basis of philosophy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best complete edition of Augustine&rsquo;s works is that of the
+Maurines, in 11 vols. fol. published at Paris, 1679-1700, and reprinted
+in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologie</i> (Paris, 1841-1842). Of the new critical
+edition in the <i>Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum</i>, issued
+by the Vienna Academy, thirteen volumes had been published in
+1908, including the <i>Confessions</i>, the <i>Retractations</i>, <i>De civitate Dei</i>,
+and a number of exegetical and of dogmatic polemical works,
+together with a portion of the <i>Letters</i>. An English translation of
+nearly the whole of Augustine&rsquo;s writings will be found in the <i>Select
+Library of the Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church</i>
+(series 1, Buffalo, 1886, &amp;c.). Tillemont, in his <i>Mémoires pour servir
+à l&rsquo;histoire ecclésiastique des VI premiers siècles</i>, has devoted a quarto
+volume (vol. xiii.) to Augustine&rsquo;s life and writings. The most complete
+monographs are those on the Catholic side by Kloth (Aix-la-Chapelle,
+1839-1840, 3 vols.) and J.J.F. Poujoulat (7th ed., Paris,
+1886, 2 vols.), and on the Protestant side by Bindemann (Berlin,
+Leipzig, Greifswald, 1844-1869, 3 vols,). There are interesting
+sketches, from quite different points of view, by von Hertling,
+<i>Augustinus</i> (2nd ed., Mainz, 1904), and Joseph McCabe, <i>St Augustine
+and His Age</i> (London, 1902). See also Nourrisson, <i>La Philosophie
+de St Augustin</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1866, 2 vols.); H.A. Naville, <i>St
+Augustin, étude sur la développement de sa pensée jusqu&rsquo;à l&rsquo;époque de son
+ordination</i> (Geneva, 1872); Dorner, <i>Augustinus</i> (Berlin, 1873);
+Reuter, <i>Augustinische Studien</i> (Gotha, 1886); F. Scheel, <i>Die
+Anschauung Augustins über Christi Person und Werk</i> (Tübingen,
+1901); A. Hatzfeld, <i>Saint Augustin</i> (6th ed., Paris, 1902); G. von
+Hertling, <i>Augustin</i> (Mainz, 1902); A. Egger, <i>Der heilige Augustinus</i>
+(Kempten, 1904); J.N. Espenberger, <i>Die Elemente der Erbsunde
+nach Augustin und der Fruhscholastik</i> (Mainz, 1905); S. Angus,
+<i>The Sources of the First Ten Books of Augustine&rsquo;s De Civitate Dei</i>
+(Princeton, 1906); and the more modern text-books of the history
+of dogma, especially Harnack.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. K.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The reference is to the vision described above.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINE, SAINT<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 613), first archbishop of Canterbury,
+occupied a position of authority in the monastery of St Andrew
+at Rome, when Gregory I. summoned him to lead a mission to
+England in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 596. The apprehensions of Augustine&rsquo;s followers
+caused him to return to Rome, but the pope furnished him with
+letters of commendation and encouraged him to proceed. He
+landed in Thanet in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 597, and was favourably received by
+Æthelberht, king of Kent, who granted a dwelling-place for
+the monks in Canterbury, and allowed them liberty to preach.
+Augustine first made use of the ancient church of St Martin at
+Canterbury, which before his arrival had been the oratory of the
+Queen Berhta and her confessor Liudhard. Æthelberht upon
+his conversion employed all his influence in support of the
+mission. In 601 Augustine received the pallium from Gregory
+and was given authority over the Celtic churches in Britain, as
+well as all future bishops consecrated in English territory,
+including York. Authority over the see of York was not,
+however, to descend to Augustine&rsquo;s successors. In 603 he
+consecrated Christ Church, Canterbury, and built the monastery
+of SS. Peter and Paul, afterwards known as St Augustine&rsquo;s.
+At the conference of Augustine&rsquo;s Oak he endeavoured in
+vain to bring over the Celtic church to the observance of the
+Roman Easter. He afterwards consecrated Mellitus and Justus
+to the sees of London and Rochester respectively. The
+date of his death is not recorded by Bede, but MS. F of the
+Saxon Chronicle puts it in 614, and the <i>Annales Monasterienses</i>
+in 612.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bede, <i>Eccl. Hist.</i> (ed. by Plummer), i. 23-ii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINIAN CANONS,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a religious order in the Roman
+Catholic Church, called also Austin Canons, Canons Regular,
+and in England Black Canons, because their cassock and mantle
+were black, though they wore a white surplice: elsewhere the
+colour of the habit varied considerably.</p>
+
+<p>The canons regular (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>) grew out of the earlier institute
+of canonical life, in consequence of the urgent exhortations of
+the Lateran Synod of 1059. The clergy of some cathedrals
+(in England, Carlisle), and of a great number of collegiate
+churches all over western Europe, responded to the appeal; and
+the need of a rule of life suited to the new regime produced,
+towards the end of the 11th century, the so-called Rule of St
+Augustine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustinians</a></span>). This Rule was widely adopted
+by the canons regular, who also began to bind themselves by
+the vows of poverty, obedience and chastity. In the 12th
+century this discipline became universal among them; and so
+arose the order of Augustinian canons as a religious order in the
+strict sense of the word. They resembled the monks in so far
+as they lived in community and took religious vows; but their
+state of life remained essentially clerical, and as clerics their
+duty was to undertake the pastoral care and serve the parish
+churches in their patronage. They were bound to the choral
+celebration of the divine office, and in its general tenor their
+manner of life differed little from that of monks.</p>
+
+<p>Their houses, at first without bonds between them, soon
+tended to draw together and coalesce into congregations with
+corporate organization and codes of constitutions supplementary to
+the Rule. The popes encouraged these centralizing tendencies;
+and in 1339 Benedict XII. organized the Augustinian canons on
+the same general lines as those laid down for the Benedictines,
+by a system of provincial chapters and visitations.</p>
+
+<p>Some thirty congregations of canons regular of St Augustine
+are numbered. The most important were: (1) the Lateran
+canons, formed soon after the synod of 1059, by the clergy of
+the Lateran Basilica; (2) Congregation of St Victor in Paris,
+c. 1100, remarkable for the theological and mystical school of
+Hugh, Richard and Adam of St Victor; (3) Gilbertines (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilbert of Sempringham, St</a></span>); (4) Windesheim Congregation,
+<i>c.</i> 1400, in the Netherlands and over north and central Germany
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groot, Gerhard</a></span>), to which belonged Thomas à Kempis;
+(5) Congregation of Ste Geneviève in Paris, a reform <i>c.</i> 1630.
+During the later middle ages the houses of these various congregations
+of canons regular spread all over Europe and became
+extraordinarily numerous. They underwent the natural and
+inevitable vicissitudes of all orders, having their periods of
+depression and degeneracy, and again of revival and reform.
+The book of Johann Busch, himself a canon of Windesheim, <i>De
+Reformatione monasteriorum</i>, shows that in the 15th century
+grave relaxation had crept into many monasteries of Augustinian
+canons in north Germany, and the efforts at reform were only
+partially successful. The Reformation, the religious wars and
+the Revolution have swept away nearly all the canons regular,
+but some of their houses in Austria still exist in their medieval
+splendour. In England there were as many as 200 houses of
+Augustinian canons, and 60 of them were among the &ldquo;greater
+monasteries&rdquo; suppressed in 1538-1540 (for list see Tables in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span>
+F.A. Gasquet&rsquo;s <i>English Monastic Life</i>). The first foundation
+was Holy Trinity, Aldgate, by Queen Maud, in 1108; Carlisle
+was an English cathedral of Augustinian canons. In Ireland
+the order was even more numerous, Christ Church, Dublin,
+being one of their houses. Three houses of the Lateran canons
+were established in England towards the close of the 19th
+century. Most of the congregations of Augustinian canons had
+convents of nuns, called canonesses; many such exist to this day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the works of Amort and Du Molinet, mentioned under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>.
+Vol. ii. of Helyot&rsquo;s <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792) is devoted to
+canons regular of all kinds. The information is epitomized by
+Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i>, i. (1896), §§ 54-60,
+where copious references to the literature of the subject are supplied.
+See also Otto Zöckler, <i>Askese und Mönchtum</i>, ii. (1897), p. 422;
+and Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (2nd ed.), art. &ldquo;Canonici
+Regulares&rdquo; and &ldquo;Canonissae.&rdquo; For England see J.W. Clark,
+<i>Observances in use at the Augustinian Priory at Barnwell</i> (1897);
+and an article in <i>Journal of Theological Studies</i> (v.) by Scott
+Holmes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Friars</span>, a religious order in
+the Roman Catholic Church, sometimes called (but improperly)
+Black Friars (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Friars</a></span>). In the first half of the 13th century
+there were in central Italy various small congregations of hermits
+living according to different rules. The need of co-ordinating
+and organizing these hermits induced the popes towards 1250
+to unite into one body a number of these congregations, so as to
+form a single religious order, living according to the Rule of St
+Augustine, and called the Order of Augustinian Hermits, or
+simply the Augustinian Order. Special constitutions were drawn
+up for its government, on the same lines as the Dominicans and
+other mendicants&mdash;a general elected by chapter, provincials to
+rule in the different countries, with assistants, definitors and
+visitors. For this reason, and because almost from the beginning
+the term &ldquo;hermits&rdquo; became a misnomer (for they abandoned
+the deserts and lived conventually in towns), they ranked
+among the friars, and became the fourth of the mendicant orders.
+The observance and manner of life was, relatively to those times,
+mild, meat being allowed four days in the week. The habit is
+black. The institute spread rapidly all over western Europe,
+so that it eventually came to have forty provinces and 2000
+friaries with some 30,000 members. In England there were
+not more than about 30 houses (see Tables in F.A. Gasquet&rsquo;s
+<i>English Monastic Life</i>). The reaction against the inevitable
+tendencies towards mitigation and relaxation led to a number
+of reforms that produced upwards of twenty different congregations
+within the order, each governed by a vicar-general, who was
+subject to the general of the order. Some of these congregations
+went in the matter of austerity beyond the original idea of the
+institute; and so in the 16th century there arose in Spain,
+Italy and France, Discalced or Barefooted Hermits of St Augustine,
+who provided in each province one house wherein a strictly
+eremitical life might be led by such as desired it.</p>
+
+<p>About 1500 a great attempt at a reform of this kind was set
+on foot among the Augustinian Hermits of northern Germany,
+and they were formed into a separate congregation independent
+of the general. It was from this congregation that Luther went
+forth, and great numbers of the German Augustinian Hermits,
+among them Wenceslaus Link the provincial, followed him
+and embraced the Reformation, so that the congregation was
+dissolved in 1526.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation and later revolutions have destroyed most
+of the houses of Augustinian Hermits, so that now only about a
+hundred exist in various parts of Europe and America; in Ireland
+they are relatively numerous, having survived the penal times.
+The Augustinian school of theology (Noris, Berti) was formed
+among the Hermits. There have been many convents of Augustinian
+Hermitesses, chiefly in the Barefooted congregations;
+such convents exist still in Europe and North America, devoted
+to education and hospital work. There have also been numerous
+congregations of Augustinian Tertiaries, both men and women,
+connected with the order and engaged on charitable works of
+every kind (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tertiaries</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792), iii.; Max Heimbucher,
+<i>Orden und Kongregationen</i>, i. (1896), § 61-65; Wetzer und Welte,
+<i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (2nd ed.), art. &ldquo;Augustiner&rdquo;;
+Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), art. &ldquo;Augustiner.&rdquo;
+The chief book on the subject is Th. Kolde, <i>Die deutschen
+Augustiner-Kongregationen</i> (1879).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINIANS,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> in the Roman Catholic Church, a generic
+name for religious orders that follow the so-called &ldquo;Rule of
+St Augustine.&rdquo; The chief of these orders are:&mdash;Augustinian
+Canons (<i>q.v.</i>), Augustinian Hermits (<i>q.v.</i>) or Friars, Premonstratensians
+(<i>q.v.</i>), Trinitarians (<i>q.v.</i>), Gilbertines (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilbert
+of Sempringham, St</a></span>). The following orders, though not called
+Augustinians, also have St Augustine&rsquo;s Rule as the basis of their
+life: Dominicans, Servites, Our Lady of Ransom, Hieronymites,
+Assumptionsts and many others; also orders of women:
+Brigittines, Ursulines, Visitation nuns and a vast number of
+congregations of women, spread over the Old and New Worlds,
+devoted to education and charitable works of all kinds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Helyot, <i>Ordres religieux</i> (1792), vols. ii., iii., iv.;
+Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i>, i. (1896), § 66-85;
+Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i>, i., 1665-1667.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>St Augustine never wrote a Rule, properly so called; but
+<i>Ep.</i> 211 (<i>al.</i> 109) is a long letter of practical advice to a
+community of nuns, on their daily life; and <i>Serm.</i> 355, 356 describe
+the common life he led along with his clerics in Hippo. When in
+the second half of the 11th century the clergy of a great number
+of collegiate churches were undertaking to live a substantially
+monastic form of life (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>), it was natural that they
+should look back to this classical model for clerics living in
+community. And so attention was directed to St Augustine&rsquo;s
+writings on community life; and out of them, and spurious
+writings attributed to him, were compiled towards the close of
+the 11th century three Rules, the &ldquo;First&rdquo; and &ldquo;Second&rdquo;
+being mere fragments, but the &ldquo;Third&rdquo; a substantive rule of
+life in 45 sections, often grouped in twelve chapters. This Third
+Rule is the one known as &ldquo;the Rule of St Augustine.&rdquo; Being
+confined to fundamental principles without entering into details,
+it has proved itself admirably suited to form the foundation of
+the religious life of the most varied orders and congregations,
+and since the 12th century it has proved more prolific than the
+Benedictine Rule. In an uncritical age it was attributed to St
+Augustine himself, and Augustinians, especially the canons, put
+forward fantastic claims to antiquity, asserting unbroken continuity,
+not merely from St Augustine, but from Christ and the Apostles.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The three Rules are printed in Dugdale, <i>Monasticon</i>
+(ed. 1846), vi. 42; and in Holsten-Brockie, <i>Codex
+Regularum</i>, ii. 121. For the literature see Otto Zöckler,
+<i>Askese und Mönchtum</i> (1897), pp. 347, 354.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTOWO,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a city of Russian Poland, in the government
+of Suwalki, 20 m. S. of the town of that name, on a canal
+(65 m.) connecting the Vistula with the Niemen. It was founded
+in 1557 by Sigismund II. (Augustus), and is laid out in a very
+regular manner, with a spacious market-place. It carries on a
+large trade in cattle and horses, and manufactures linen and
+huckaback. Pop. (1897) 12,746.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUS<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (a name<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> derived from Lat. <i>augeo</i>, increase,
+<i>i.e.</i> venerable, majestic, Gr. <span class="grk" title="Sebastos">&#931;&#949;&#946;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>), the title given by the
+Roman senate, on the 17th of January 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, to Gaius Julius
+Caesar Octavianus (63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14), or as he was originally
+designated, Gaius Octavius, in recognition of his eminent services
+to the state (<i>Mon. Anc.</i> 34), and borne by him as the first of the
+Roman emperors. The title was adopted by all the succeeding
+Caesars or emperors of Rome long after they had ceased to be
+connected by blood with the first Augustus.</p>
+
+<p>Gaius Octavius was born in Rome on the 23rd of September
+63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the year of Cicero&rsquo;s consulship and of Catiline&rsquo;s conspiracy.
+He came of a family of good standing, long settled at Velitrae
+(Velletri), but his father was the first of the family to obtain a
+curule magistracy at Rome and senatorial dignity. His mother,
+however, was Atia, daughter of Julia, the wife of M. Atius
+Balbus, and sister of Julius Caesar, and it was this connexion with
+the great dictator which determined his career. In his fifth
+year (58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) his father died; about a year later his mother
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span>
+remarried, and the young Octavius passed under her care to that
+of his stepfather, L. Marcius Philippus. At the age of twelve (51
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) he delivered the customary funeral panegyric on his grandmother
+Julia, his first public appearance. On the 18th of October
+48 (or ? 47) <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he assumed the &ldquo;toga virilis&rdquo; and was elected
+into the pontifical college, an exceptional honour which he no
+doubt owed to his great-uncle, now dictator and master of Rome.
+In 46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he shared in the glory of Caesar&rsquo;s African triumph,
+and in 45 he was made a patrician by the senate, and designated
+as one of Caesar&rsquo;s &ldquo;masters of the horse&rdquo; for the next year.
+In the autumn of 45, Caesar, who was planning his Parthian
+campaign, sent his nephew to study quietly at the Greek colony of
+Apollonia, in Illyria. Here the news of Caesar&rsquo;s murder reached
+him and he crossed to Italy. On landing he learnt that Caesar
+had made him his heir and adopted him into the Julian gens,
+whereby he acquired the designation of Gaius Julius Caesar
+Octavianus. The inheritance was a perilous one; his mother
+and others would have dissuaded him from accepting it, but he,
+confident in his abilities, declared at once that he would undertake
+its obligations, and discharge the sums bequeathed by the
+dictator to the Roman people. Mark Antony had possessed
+himself of Caesar&rsquo;s papers and effects, and made light of his
+young nephew&rsquo;s pretensions. Brutus and Cassius paid him little
+regard, and dispersed to their respective provinces. Cicero,
+much charmed at the attitude of Antonius, hoped to make use of
+him, and flattered him to the utmost, with the expectation,
+however, of getting rid of him as soon as he had served his purpose.
+Octavianus conducted himself with consummate adroitness,
+making use of all competitors for power, but assisting none.
+Considerable forces attached themselves to him. The senate,
+when it armed the consuls against Antonius, called upon him for
+assistance; and he took part in the campaign in which Antonius
+was defeated at Mutina (43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The soldiers of Octavianus
+demanded the consulship for him, and the senate, though now
+much alarmed, could not prevent his election. He now effected
+a coalition with Antonius and Lepidus, and on the 27th of November
+43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the three were formally appointed a triumvirate
+for the reconstitution of the commonwealth for five years.
+They divided the western provinces among them, the east being
+held for the republic by Brutus and Cassius. They drew up a
+list of proscribed citizens, and caused the assassination of three
+hundred senators and two thousand knights. They further
+confiscated the territories of many cities throughout Italy, and
+divided them among their soldiers. Cicero was murdered at
+the demand of Antonius. The remnant of the republican party
+took refuge either with Brutus and Cassius in the East, or with
+Sextus Pompeius, who had made himself master of the seas.</p>
+
+<p>Octavianus and Antonius crossed the Adriatic in 42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to
+reduce the last defenders of the republic. Brutus and Cassius
+were defeated, and fell at the battle of Philippi. War soon broke
+out between the victors, the chief incident of which was the
+siege and capture by famine of Perusia, and the alleged sacrifice
+of three hundred of its defenders by the young Caesar at the
+altar of his uncle. But peace was again made between them
+(40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Antonius married Octavia, his rival&rsquo;s sister, and took
+for himself the eastern half of the empire, leaving the west to
+Caesar. Lepidus was reduced to the single province of Africa.
+Meanwhile Sextus Pompeius made himself formidable by cutting
+off the supplies of grain from Rome. The triumvirs were obliged
+to concede to him the islands in the western Mediterranean.
+But Octavianus could not allow the capital to be kept in alarm
+for its daily sustenance. He picked a quarrel with Sextus, and
+when his colleagues failed to support him, undertook to attack
+him alone. Antonius, indeed, came at last to his aid, in return
+for military assistance in the campaign he meditated in the East.
+But Octavianus was well served by the commander of his fleet,
+M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Sextus was completely routed, and
+driven into Asia, where he perished soon afterwards (36 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+Lepidus was an object of contempt to all parties, and Octavianus
+and Antonius remained to fight for supreme power.</p>
+
+<p>The five years (36-31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) which preceded the decisive encounter
+between the two rivals were wasted by Antony in fruitless
+campaigns, and in a dalliance with Cleopatra which shocked
+Roman sentiment. By Octavian they were employed in strengthening
+his hold on the West, and his claim to be regarded as the
+one possible saviour of Rome and Roman civilization. His
+marriage with Livia (38 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) placed by his side a sagacious
+counsellor and a loyal ally, whose services were probably as
+great as even those of his trusted friend Marcus Agrippa. With
+their help he set himself to win the confidence of a public still
+inclined to distrust the author of the proscriptions of 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Brigandage was suppressed in Italy, and the safety of the Italian
+frontiers secured against the raids of Alpine tribes on the north-west
+and of Illyrians on the east, while Rome was purified and
+beautified, largely with the help of Agrippa (aedile in 33 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+Meanwhile, indignation at Antony&rsquo;s un-Roman excesses, and
+alarm at Cleopatra&rsquo;s rumoured schemes of founding a Greco-Oriental
+empire, were rapidly increasing. In 32 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Antony&rsquo;s
+repudiation of his wife Octavia, sister of Octavian, and the discovery
+of his will, with its clear proofs of Cleopatra&rsquo;s dangerous
+ascendancy, brought matters to a climax, and war was declared,
+not indeed against Antony, but against Cleopatra.</p>
+
+<p>The decisive battle was fought on the 2nd of September 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+at Actium on the Epirot coast, and resulted in the almost total
+destruction of Antony&rsquo;s fleet and the surrender of his land forces.
+Not quite a year later (Aug. 1, 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) followed the capture
+of Alexandria and the deaths by their own hands of Antony and
+Cleopatra. On the 11th of January 29 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the restoration of
+peace was marked by the closing of the temple of Janus for the
+first time for 200 years. In the summer Octavian returned to
+Italy, and in August celebrated a three days&rsquo; triumph. He was
+welcomed, not as a successful combatant in a civil war, but as the
+man who had vindicated the sovereignty of Rome against its
+assailants, as the saviour of the republic and of his fellow-citizens,
+above all as the restorer of peace.</p>
+
+<p>He was now, to quote his own words, &ldquo;master of all things,&rdquo;
+and the Roman world looked to him for some permanent settlement
+of the distracted empire. His first task was the re-establishment
+of a regular and constitutional government, such as had
+not existed since Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon twenty
+years before. To this task he devoted the next eighteen months
+(Aug. 29-Jan. 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i> (<i>q.v.</i>),
+his achievements are described in detail, and only a brief
+summary need be given here. The &ldquo;principate,&rdquo; to give the
+new form of government its most appropriate name, was a
+compromise thoroughly characteristic of the combination of
+tenacity of purpose with cautious respect for forms and conventions
+which distinguished its author. The republic was restored;
+senate, magistrates and assembly resumed their ancient functions;
+and the public life of Rome began to run once more in
+the familiar grooves. The triumvirate with its irregularities
+and excesses was at an end. The controlling authority, which
+Octavian himself wielded, could not indeed be safely dispensed
+with. But henceforward he was to exercise it under constitutional
+forms and limitations, and with the express sanction of
+the senate and people. Octavian was legally invested for a
+period of ten years with the government of the important
+frontier provinces, with the sole command of the military and
+naval forces of the state, and the exclusive control of its foreign
+relations. At home it was understood that he would year by
+year be elected consul, and enjoy the powers and pre-eminence
+attached to the chief magistracy of the Roman state. Thus
+the republic was restored under the presidency and patronage
+of its &ldquo;first citizen&rdquo; (<i>princeps civitatis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In acknowledgment of this happy settlement and of his
+other services further honours were conferred upon Octavian.
+On the 13th of January 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the birthday of the restored
+republic, he was awarded the civic crown to be placed over the
+door of his house, in token that he had saved his fellow-citizens
+and restored the Republic. Four days later (Jan. 17) the senate
+conferred upon him the cognomen of Augustus.</p>
+
+<p>But it was not only the machinery of government in Rome
+that needed repair. Twenty years of civil war and confusion
+had disorganized the empire, and the strong hand of Augustus,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span>
+as he must now be called, could alone restore confidence and
+order. Towards the end of 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he left Rome for Gaul, and
+from that date until October 19 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was mainly occupied
+with the reorganization of the provinces and of the provincial
+administration, first of all in the West and then in the East.
+It was during his stay in Asia (20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that the Parthian king
+Phraates voluntarily restored the Roman prisoners and standards
+taken at Carrhae (53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a welcome tribute to the respect
+inspired by Augustus, and a happy augury for the future. In
+October 19 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he returned to Rome, and the senate ordered
+that the day of his return (Oct. 12) should thenceforward be
+observed as a public holiday. The period of ten years for which
+his <i>imperium</i> had been granted him was nearly ended, and
+though much remained to be done, very much had been accomplished.
+The pacification of northern Spain by the subjugation
+of the Astures and Cantabri, the settlement of the wide territories
+added to the empire by Julius Caesar in Gaul&mdash;the &ldquo;New Gaul,&rdquo;
+or the &ldquo;long-haired Gaul&rdquo; (Gallia Comata) as it was called by
+way of distinction from the old province of Gallia Narbonensis
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaul</a></span>)&mdash;and the re-establishment of Roman authority
+over the kings and princes of the Near East, were achievements
+which fully justified the acclamations of senate and people.</p>
+
+<p>In 18 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus&rsquo;s <i>imperium</i> was renewed for five years,
+and his tried friend Marcus Agrippa, now his son-in-law, was
+associated with him as a colleague. From October of 19 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+till the middle of 16 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus&rsquo;s main attention was given
+to Rome and to domestic reform, and to this period belong
+such measures as the Julian law &ldquo;as to the marriage of the
+orders.&rdquo; In June of 17 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the opening of the new and better
+age, which he had worked to bring about, was marked by the
+celebration in Rome of the Secular games. The chief actors in
+the ceremony were Augustus himself and his colleague Agrippa,&mdash;while,
+as the extant record tells us, the processional hymn,
+chanted by youths and maidens first before the new temple of
+Apollo on the Palatine and then before the temple of Jupiter
+on the Capitol, was composed by Horace. The hymn, the
+well-known <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, gives fervent expression to the
+prevalent emotions of joy and gratitude.</p>
+
+<p>In the next year (16 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), however, Augustus was suddenly
+called away from Rome to deal with a problem which engrossed
+much of his attention for the next twenty-five years. The
+defeat of Marcus Lollius, the legate commanding on the Rhine,
+by a horde of German invaders, seems to have determined
+Augustus to take in hand the whole question of the frontiers
+of the empire towards the north, and the effective protection
+of Gaul and Italy. The work was entrusted to Augustus&rsquo;s
+step-sons Tiberius and Drusus. The first step was the annexation
+of Noricum and Raetia (16-15 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which brought under Roman
+control the mountainous district through which the direct
+routes lay from North Italy to the upper waters of the Rhine
+and the Danube. East of Noricum Tiberius reduced to order
+for the time the restless tribes of Pannonia, and probably
+established a military post at Carnuntum on the Danube. To
+Drusus fell the more ambitious task of advancing the Roman
+frontier line from the Rhine to the Elbe, a work which occupied
+him until his death in Germany in 9 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus
+had returned to Rome; his return, and the conclusion of his
+second period of rule, were commemorated by the erection of
+one of the most beautiful monuments of the Augustan age, the
+Ara Pacis Augustae (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Art</a></span>, Pl. II, III). His <i>imperium</i>
+was renewed, again for five years, and in 12 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, on the death of
+his former fellow-triumvir Lepidus, he was elected Pontifex
+Maximus. But this third period of his imperium brought with it
+losses which Augustus must have keenly felt. Only a few months
+after his reappointment as Augustus&rsquo;s colleague, Marcus Agrippa,
+his trusted friend since boyhood, died. As was fully his due,
+his funeral oration was pronounced by Augustus, and he was
+buried in the mausoleum near the Tiber built by Augustus for
+himself and his family. Three years later his brilliant step-son
+Drusus died on his way back from a campaign in Germany, in
+which he had reached the Elbe. Finally in 8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he lost the
+comrade who next to Agrippa had been the most intimate
+friend and counsellor of his early manhood, Gaius Cilnius Maecenas,
+the patron of Virgil and Horace.</p>
+
+<p>For the moment Augustus turned, almost of necessity, to his
+surviving step-son. Tiberius was associated with him as Agrippa
+had been in the tribunician power, was married against his
+will to Julia, and sent to complete his brother Drusus&rsquo;s work in
+Germany (7-6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). But Tiberius was only his step-son, and,
+with all his great qualities, was never a very lovable man.
+On the other hand, the two sons of Agrippa and Julia, Gaius
+and Lucius, were of his own blood and evidently dear to him.
+Both had been adopted by Augustus (178. c.). In 6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Tiberius,
+who had just received the tribunician power, was transferred
+from Germany to the East, where the situation in Armenia
+demanded attention. His sudden withdrawal to Rhodes has
+been variously explained, but, in part at least, it was probably
+due to the plain indications which Augustus now gave of his
+wish that the young Caesars should be regarded as his heirs.
+The elder, Gaius, now fifteen years old (5 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was formally
+introduced to the people as consul-designate by Augustus
+himself, who for this purpose resumed the consulship (12th)
+which he had dropped since 23 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was authorized to take
+part in the deliberations of the senate. Three years later
+(2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Augustus, now consul for the 13th and last time, paid a
+similar compliment to the younger brother Lucius. In 1 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Gaius was given proconsular imperium, and sent to re-establish
+order in Armenia, and a few years afterwards (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 2) Lucius
+was sent to Spain, apparently to take command of the legions
+there. But the fates were unkind; Lucius fell sick and died
+at Marseilles on his way out, and in the next year (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 3) Gaius,
+wounded by an obscure hand in Armenia, started reluctantly
+for home, only to die in Lycia. Tiberius alone was left, and
+Augustus, at once accepting facts, formally and finally declared
+him to be his colleague and destined successor (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 4) and
+adopted him as his son.</p>
+
+<p>The interest of the last ten years of Augustus&rsquo;s life centres
+in the events occurring on the northern frontier. The difficult
+task of bringing the German tribes between the Rhine and the
+Elbe under Roman rule, commenced by Drusus in 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had
+on his death been continued by Tiberius (9-6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During
+Tiberius&rsquo;s retirement in Rhodes no decisive progress was made,
+but in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 4 operations on a large scale were resumed. From
+Velleius Paterculus, who himself served in the war, we learn
+that in the first campaign Roman authority was restored over
+the tribes between the Rhine and the Weser, and that the Roman
+forces, instead of returning as usual to their headquarters on
+the Rhine, went into winter-quarters near the source of the
+Lippe. In the next year (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 5) the Elbe was reached by the
+troops, while the fleet, after a hazardous voyage, arrived at
+the mouth of the same river and sailed some way up it. Both
+feats are deservedly commemorated by Augustus himself in the
+Ancyran monument. To complete the conquest of Germany
+and to connect the frontier with the line of the Danube, it
+seemed that only one thing remained to be done, to break the
+power of the Marcomanni and their king Maroboduus. In the
+spring of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 6 preparations were made for this final achievement;
+the territory of the Marcomanni (now Bohemia) was
+to be invaded simultaneously by two columns. One, starting
+apparently from the headquarters of the army of Upper Germany
+at Mainz, was to advance by way of the Black Forest and attack
+Maroboduus on the west; the other, led by Tiberius himself,
+was to start from the new military base at Carnuntum on the
+Danube and operate from the south-east.</p>
+
+<p>But the attack was never delivered, for at this moment, in
+the rear of Tiberius, the whole of Pannonia and Dalmatia burst
+into a blaze of insurrection. The crisis is pronounced by Suetonius
+to have been more serious than any which had confronted Rome
+since the Hannibalic war, for it was not merely the loss of a
+province but the invasion of Italy that was threatened, and
+Augustus openly declared in the senate that the insurgents
+might be before Rome in ten days. He himself moved to
+Ariminum to be nearer the seat of war, recruiting was vigorously
+carried on in Rome and Italy, and legions were summoned from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span>
+Moesia and even from Asia. In the end, and not including the
+Thracian cavalry of King Rhoemetalces, a force of 15 legions
+with an equal number of auxiliaries was employed. Even so
+the task of putting down the insurrection was difficult enough,
+and it was not until late in the summer of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 9, after three years
+of fighting, that Germanicus, who had been sent to assist Tiberius,
+ended the war by the capture of Andetrium in Dalmatia.</p>
+
+<p>Five days later the news reached Rome of the disaster to Varus
+and his legions, in the heart of what was to have been the new
+province of Germany beyond the Rhine. The disaster was
+avowedly due entirely to Varus&rsquo;s incapacity and vanity, and
+might no doubt have been repaired by leaders of the calibre of
+Tiberius and Germanicus. Augustus, however, was now seventy-two,
+the Dalmatian outbreak had severely tried his nerve, and
+now for the second time in three years the fates seemed to pronounce
+clearly against a further prosecution of his long-cherished
+scheme of a Roman Germany reaching to the Elbe.</p>
+
+<p>All that was immediately necessary was done. Recruiting
+was pressed forward in Rome, and first Tiberius and then
+Germanicus were despatched to the Rhine. But the German
+leaders were too prudent to risk defeat, and the Roman generals
+devoted their attention mainly to strengthening the line of the
+Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>The defeat of Varus, and the tacit abandonment of the plans
+of expansion begun twenty-five years before, are almost the last
+events of importance in the long principate of Augustus. The
+last five years of his life (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10-14) were untroubled by war
+or disaster. Augustus was ageing fast, and was more and more
+disinclined to appear personally in the senate or in public. Yet
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 13 he consented, reluctantly we are told, to yet one more
+renewal of his <i>imperium</i> for ten years, stipulating, however, that
+his step-son Tiberius, himself now over fifty, should be associated
+with himself on equal terms in the administration of the empire.
+Early in the same year (January 16, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 13) the last triumph
+of his principate was celebrated. Tiberius was now in Rome,
+the command on the Rhine having been given to Germanicus,
+who went out to it immediately after his consulship (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 12),
+and the time had come to celebrate the Dalmatian and Pannonian
+triumph, which the defeat of Varus had postponed. Augustus
+witnessed the triumphal procession, and Tiberius, as it turned
+from the Forum to ascend the Capitol, halted, descended from
+his triumphal car, and did reverence to his adopted father.</p>
+
+<p>One last public appearance Augustus made in Rome. During
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 13 he and Tiberius conducted a census of Roman citizens,
+the third taken by his orders; the first having been in 28 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+at the very outset of his rule. The business of the census lasted
+over into the next year, but on the 11th of May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14, before
+a great crowd in the Campus Martius, Augustus took part in the
+solemn concluding ceremony of burying away out of sight the old
+age and inaugurating the new. The ceremony had been full
+of significance in 28 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and now more than forty years later
+it was given a pathetic interest by Augustus himself. When the
+tablets containing the vows to be offered for the welfare of the
+state during the next lustrum were handed to him, he left the
+duty of reciting them to Tiberius, saying that he would not take
+vows which he was never destined to perform.</p>
+
+<p>It was apparently at the end of June or early in July that
+Augustus left Rome on his last journey. Travelling by road
+to Astura (Torre Astura) at the southern point of the little bay
+of Antium, he sailed thence to Capri and to Naples. On his way
+at Puteoli, the passengers and crew of a ship just come from
+Alexandria cheered the old man by their spontaneous homage,
+declaring, as they poured libations, that to him they owed life,
+safe passage on the seas, freedom and fortune.</p>
+
+<p>At Naples, in spite of increasing disease, he bravely sat out
+a gymnastic contest held in his honour, and then accompanied
+Tiberius as far as Beneventum on his way to Brundusium and
+Illyricum. On his return he was forced by illness to stop at
+Nola, his father&rsquo;s old home. Tiberius was hastily recalled and
+had a last confidential talk on affairs of state. Thenceforward,
+says Suetonius, he gave no more thought to such great affairs.
+He bade farewell to his friends, inquired after the health of
+Drusus&rsquo;s daughter who was ill, and then quietly expired in the
+arms of the wife who for more than fifty years had been his most
+intimate and trusted guide and counsellor, and to whom his
+last words were an exhortation to &ldquo;live mindful of our wedded
+life.&rdquo; He died on the 19th of August, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14, in the same room
+in which his father had died before him, and on the anniversary
+of his entrance upon his first consulship fifty-seven years before
+(43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The corpse was carried to Rome in slow procession
+along the Appian Way. On the day of the funeral it was borne
+to the Campus Martius on the shoulders of senators and there
+burnt. The ashes were reverently collected by Livia, and placed
+in the mausoleum by the Tiber which her husband had built
+for himself and his family.  The last act was the formal decree
+of the senate by which Augustus, like his father Julius before
+him, was added to the number of the gods recognized by the
+Roman state.</p>
+
+<p>If we except writers like Voltaire who could see in Augustus
+only the man who had destroyed the old republic and extinguished
+political liberty, the verdict of posterity on Augustus
+has varied just in proportion as his critics have fixed their
+attention, mainly, on the means by which he rose to power,
+or the use which he made of the power when acquired. The
+lines of argument followed respectively by friendly and hostile
+contemporaries immediately after his death (Tac. <i>Ann</i>. i. 9, 10)
+have been followed by later writers with little change. But of
+late years, our increasing mistrust of the current gossip about
+him, and our increased knowledge of the magnitude of what
+he actually accomplished, have conspicuously influenced the
+judgments passed upon him. We allow the faults and crimes
+of his early manhood, his cruelties and deceptions, his readiness
+to sacrifice everything that came between him and the end
+he had in view. On the other hand, a careful study of what
+he achieved between the years 38 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when he married Livia,
+and his death in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14, is now held to give him a claim to rank,
+not merely as an astute and successful intriguer, or an accomplished
+political actor, but as one of the world&rsquo;s great men, a
+statesman who conceived and carried through a scheme of
+political reconstruction which kept the empire together, secured
+peace and tranquillity, and preserved civilization for more than
+two centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The most comprehensive work on Augustus and
+his age is that of V. Gardthausen, <i>Augustus und seine Zeit</i> (2 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1891-1904), which deals with all aspects of Augustus&rsquo;s life,
+vol. ii. consisting of elaborate critical and bibliographical notes.
+See also histories of Rome generally, and among special works:&mdash;E.S.
+Shuckburgh, <i>Augustus</i> (London, 1903; reviewed by F.T.
+Richards in <i>Class. Rev.</i> vol. xviii.), containing the text of the <i>Monumentum
+Ancyranum</i> (see also Gardthausen, book xiii.); J.B. Firth,
+<i>Augustus Caesar</i> (London, 1903), in &ldquo;Heroes of the Nations&rdquo;
+series; O. Seeck, &ldquo;Kaiser Augustus&rdquo; (<i>Monographien zur Weltgeschichte</i>,
+xvii., 1902), nine essays on special problems, <i>e.g.</i> the
+campaigns of Mutina, Perusia and against Sextus Pompeius, &ldquo;das
+Augustische Zeitalter&rdquo;; A. Duméril, &ldquo;Auguste et la fondation de
+l&rsquo;empire romain,&rdquo; in the <i>Annales de la Fac. des lett. de Bordeaux</i>
+(1890); a suggestive monograph on the reforms of Augustus in
+relation to the decrease of population is Jules Ferlet&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Abaissement
+de la natalité à Rome</i> (Paris, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. F. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On the name see Neumann, in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie
+f. cl. alterth.</i>, s.v. 2374.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUS I.<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1526-1586), elector of Saxony, was the younger
+son of Henry, duke of Saxony, and consequently belonged to the
+Albertine branch of the Wettin family. Born at Freiberg on the
+31st of July 1526, and brought up as a Lutheran, he received a
+good education and studied at the university of Leipzig. When
+Duke Henry died in 1541 he decreed that his lands should be
+divided equally between his two sons, but as his bequest was
+contrary to law, it was not carried out, and the dukedom passed
+almost intact to his elder son, Maurice. Augustus, however,
+remained on friendly terms with his brother, and to further his
+policy spent some time at the court of the German king, Ferdinand
+I., in Vienna. In 1544 Maurice secured the appointment of his
+brother as administrator of the bishopric of Merseburg; but
+Augustus was very extravagant and was soon compelled to return
+to the Saxon court at Dresden. Augustus supported his brother
+during the war of the league of Schmalkalden, and in the policy
+which culminated in the transfer of the Saxon electorate from
+John Frederick I., the head of the Ernestine branch of the Wettin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span>
+family, to Maurice. On the 7th of October 1548 Augustus was
+married at Torgau to Anna, daughter of Christian III., king of
+Denmark, and took up his residence at Weissenfels. But he
+soon desired a more imposing establishment. The result was
+that Maurice made more generous provision for his brother,
+who acted as regent of Saxony in 1552 during the absence of the
+elector. Augustus was on a visit to Denmark when by Maurice&rsquo;s
+death in July 1553 he became elector of Saxony.</p>
+
+<p>The first care of the new elector was to come to terms with
+John Frederick, and to strengthen his own hold upon the electoral
+position. This object was secured by a treaty made at Naumburg
+in February 1554, when, in return for the grant of Altenburg
+and other lands, John Frederick recognized Augustus as elector
+of Saxony. The elector, however, was continually haunted by
+the fear that the Ernestines would attempt to deprive him of
+the coveted dignity, and his policy both in Saxony and in Germany
+was coloured by this fear. In imperial politics Augustus
+acted upon two main principles: to cultivate the friendship of
+the Habsburgs, and to maintain peace between the contending
+religious parties. To this policy may be traced his share in
+bringing about the religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, his
+tortuous conduct at the diet of Augsburg eleven years later,
+and his reluctance to break entirely with the Calvinists. On
+one occasion only did he waver in his allegiance to the Habsburgs.
+In 1568 a marriage was arranged between John Casimir, son of
+the elector palatine, Frederick III., and Elizabeth, a daughter
+of Augustus, and for a time it seemed possible that the Saxon
+elector would support his son-in-law in his attempts to aid the
+revolting inhabitants of the Netherlands. Augustus also entered
+into communication with the Huguenots; but his aversion to
+foreign complications prevailed, and the incipient friendship
+with the elector palatine soon gave way to serious dislike.
+Although a sturdy Lutheran the elector hoped at one time to
+unite the Protestants, on whom he continually urged the necessity
+of giving no cause of offence to their opponents, and he favoured
+the movement to get rid of the clause in the peace of Augsburg
+concerning ecclesiastical reservation, which was offensive to
+many Protestants. His moderation, however, prevented him
+from joining those who were prepared to take strong measures
+to attain this end, and he refused to jeopardize the concessions
+already won.</p>
+
+<p>The hostility between the Albertines and the Ernestines
+gave serious trouble to Augustus. A preacher named Matthias
+Flacius held an influential position in ducal Saxony, and taught
+a form of Lutheranism different from that taught in electoral
+Saxony. This breach was widened when Flacius began to make
+personal attacks on Augustus, to prophesy his speedy downfall,
+and to incite Duke John Frederick to make an effort to recover
+his rightful position. Associated with Flacius was a knight,
+William of Grumbach, who, not satisfied with words only, made
+inroads into electoral Saxony and sought the aid of foreign
+powers in his plan to depose Augustus. After some delay
+Grumbach and his protector, John Frederick, were placed under
+the imperial ban, and Augustus was entrusted with its execution.
+His campaign in 1567 was short and successful. John Frederick
+surrendered, and passed his time in prison until his death in
+1595; Grumbach was taken and executed; and the position of
+the elector was made quite secure.</p>
+
+<p>The form of Lutheranism taught in electoral Saxony was
+that of Melanchthon, and many of its teachers and adherents,
+who were afterwards called Crypto-Calvinists, were favoured by
+the elector. When Augustus, freed from the fear of an attack
+by the Ernestines, became gradually estranged from the elector
+palatine and the Calvinists, he seemed to have looked with
+suspicion upon the Crypto-Calvinists, who did not preach the
+pure doctrines of Luther. Spurred on by his wife the matter
+reached a climax in 1574, when letters were discovered, which,
+while revealing a hope to bring over Augustus to Calvinism,
+cast some aspersions upon the elector and his wife. Augustus
+ordered the leaders of the Crypto-Calvinists to be seized, and they
+were tortured and imprisoned. A strict form of Lutheranism
+was declared binding upon all the inhabitants of Saxony, and
+many persons were banished from the country. In 1576 he
+made a serious but unsuccessful attempt to unite the Protestants
+upon the basis of some articles drawn up at Tolgau, which inculcated
+a strict form of Lutheranism. The change in Saxony,
+however, made no difference to the attitude of Augustus on
+imperial questions. In 1576 he opposed the proposal of the
+Protestant princes to make a grant for the Turkish War conditional
+upon the abolition of the clause concerning ecclesiastical
+reservation, and he continued to support the Habsburgs.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the elector&rsquo;s time was devoted to extending his
+territories. In 1573 he became guardian to the two sons of John
+William, duke of Saxe-Weimar, and in this capacity was able
+to add part of the county of Henneberg to electoral Saxony.
+His command of money enabled him to take advantage of the
+poverty of his neighbours, and in this way he secured Vogtland
+and the county of Mansfeld. In 1555 he had appointed one of
+his nominees to the bishopric of Meissen, in 1561 he had secured
+the election of his son Alexander as bishop of Merseburg, and
+three years later as bishop of Naumburg; and when this prince
+died in 1565 these bishoprics came under the direct rule of
+Augustus.</p>
+
+<p>As a ruler of Saxony Augustus was economical and enlightened.
+He favoured trade by encouraging Flemish emigrants to settle
+in the country, by improving the roads, regulating the coinage
+and establishing the first posts. He was specially interested in
+benefiting agriculture, and added several fine buildings to the
+city of Dresden. His laws were numerous and comprehensive.
+The constitution of 1572 was his work, and by these laws the
+church, the universities and the police were regulated, the
+administration of justice was improved, and the raising of taxes
+placed upon a better footing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saxony</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In October 1585 the electress Anna died, and a few weeks
+later Augustus married Agnes Hedwig, a daughter of Joachim
+Ernest, prince of Anhalt. His own death took place at Dresden
+on the 21st of January 1586, and he was buried at Freiberg.
+By his first wife he had fifteen children, but only four of these
+survived him, among whom was his successor, the elector
+Christian I. (1560-1591). Augustus was a covetous, cruel and
+superstitious man, but these qualities were redeemed by his
+political caution and his wise methods of government. He
+wrote a small work on agriculture entitled <i>Künstlich Obstund
+Gartenbüchlein</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, <i>Geschichte Sachsens</i>, Band ii.
+(Gotha, 1870); M. Ritter, <i>Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegenreformation</i>,
+Band i. (Stuttgart, 1890); R. Calinich, <i>Kampf und
+Untergang des Melanchthonismus in Kursachsen</i> (Leipzig, 1866);
+J. Falke, <i>Geschichte des Kurfürsten August in volkswirtschaftlicher
+Beziehung</i> (Leipzig, 1868); J. Janssen, <i>Geschichte des Deutschen
+Volks seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters</i> (Freiburg, 1885-1894);
+W. Wenck, <i>Kurfürst Moritz und Herzog August</i> (Leipzig, 1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUS II.,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> king of Poland, and, as <span class="sc">Frederick Augustus
+I</span>., elector of Saxony (1670-1733), second son of John George III.,
+elector of Saxony, was born at Dresden on the 12th of May 1670.
+He was well educated, spent some years in travel and in fighting
+against France, and on account of his immense strength was
+known as &ldquo;the Strong.&rdquo; On the death of his brother, John
+George IV., in 1694, he became elector of Saxony, and in 1695
+and 1696 led the imperial troops against the Turks, but without
+very much success. When John Sobieski died in 1696, Augustus
+was a candidate for the Polish throne, and in order to further
+his chances became a Roman Catholic, a step which was strongly
+resented in Saxony. By a lavish expenditure of money, and by
+his promptness in entering the country, he secured his election
+and coronation in September 1697, and his principal rival F.L.
+de Bourbon, prince of Conti, abandoned the contest and returned
+to France. Augustus continued the war against the Turks for
+a time, and being anxious to extend his influence and to find a
+pretext for retaining the Saxon troops in Poland, made an
+alliance in 1699 with Russia and Denmark against Charles XII.
+of Sweden. The Poles would not assist, and at the head of the
+Saxons Augustus invaded Livonia, but for various causes the
+campaign was not a success, and in July 1702 he was defeated
+by Charles at Klissow. Augustus was then deposed in Poland,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span>
+and after holding Warsaw for a short time he fled to Saxony.
+The alliance with Russia was renewed and in reply Charles
+invaded Saxony in 1706, and compelled the elector to sign the
+treaty of Altranstädt in September of that year, to recognize
+Stanislaus Leszczynski as his successor in Poland, and to abandon
+the Russian alliance. During the War of the Spanish Succession,
+Augustus fought with the imperialists in the Netherlands, but
+after the defeat of Charles XII. at Poltawa in July 1709, he
+turned his attention to the recovery of Poland. Declaring the
+treaty of Altranstädt void and renewing his alliance with Russia
+and Denmark, he quickly recovered the Polish crown. He then
+attacked Swedish Pomerania. He was handicapped by the
+mutual jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle
+broke out in Poland which was only ended when the king promised
+to limit the number of his army in that country to 18,000
+men. Peace was made with Sweden in December 1719 at
+Stockholm after the death of Charles XII., and Augustus was
+recognized as king of Poland. His remaining years were spent
+in futile plans to make Poland a hereditary monarchy, to
+weaken the power of the Saxon nobles, and to gain territory
+for his sons in various parts of Europe. He was a man of extravagant
+and luxurious tastes, and, although he greatly improved
+the city of Dresden, he cannot be called a good ruler. He
+sought to govern Saxony in an absolute fashion, and, in spite
+of his declaration that his conversion to Roman Catholicism
+was personal only, assisted the spread of the teachings of Rome.
+His wife was Christine Eberhardine, a member of the Hohenzollern
+family, who left him when he became a Roman Catholic,
+and died in 1727. Augustus died at Warsaw on the 1st of
+February 1733, leaving a son Frederick Augustus, who succeeded
+him in Poland and Saxony, and many illegitimate children,
+among whom was the famous general, Maurice of Saxony,
+known as Marshal Saxe (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Otwikowski, <i>History of Poland under Augustus II.</i> (Cracow,
+1849); F. Förster, <i>Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im achtzehnten
+Jahrhtmdert</i> (Potsdam, 1839); Jarochowski, <i>History of Augustus II.</i>
+(Posen, 1856-1874); C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, <i>Geschichte des
+Kurstaates und Königreichs Sachsen</i> (Gotha, 1867-1873).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUS III.,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> king of Poland, and, as <span class="sc">Frederick Augustus
+II</span>., elector of Saxony (1696-1763), the only legitimate son of
+Augustus II. (&ldquo;the Strong&rdquo;), was born at Dresden on the 17th
+of October 1696. Educated as a Protestant, he followed his
+father&rsquo;s example by joining the Roman Catholic Church in 1712,
+although his conversion was not made public until 1717. In
+August 1719 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the emperor
+Joseph I., and seems to have taken very little part in public
+affairs until he became elector of Saxony on his father&rsquo;s death
+in February 1733. He was then a candidate for the Polish
+crown; and having purchased the support of the emperor
+Charles VI. by assenting to the Pragmatic Sanction, and that
+of the czarina Anne by recognizing the claim of Russia to Courland,
+he was elected king of Poland in October 1733. Aided
+by the Russians, his troops drove Stanislaus Leszczynski from
+Poland; Augustus was crowned at Cracow in January 1734,
+and was generally recognized as king at Warsaw in June 1736.
+On the death of Charles VI. in October 1740, Augustus was
+among the enemies of his daughter Maria Theresa, and, as a
+son-in-law of the emperor Joseph I., claimed a portion of the
+Habsburg territories. In 1742, however, he was induced to
+transfer his support to Maria Theresa, and his troops took part
+in the struggle against Frederick the Great during the Silesian
+wars, and again when the Seven Years&rsquo; War began in 1756.
+Saxony was in that year attacked by the Prussians, and with
+so much success that not only was the Saxon army forced to
+capitulate at Pirna in October, but the elector, who fled to
+Warsaw, made no attempt to recover Saxony, which remained
+under the dominion of Frederick. When the treaty of Hubertsburg
+was concluded in February 1763, he returned to Saxony,
+where he died on the 5th of October 1763. He left five sons,
+the eldest of whom was his successor in Saxony, Frederick
+Christian; and five daughters, one of whom was the wife of
+Louis, the dauphin of France, and mother of Louis XVI. Another
+daughter was the wife of Charles III., king of Spain, but she
+predeceased her father. Augustus, who showed neither talent
+nor inclination for government, was content to leave Poland
+under the influence of Russia, and Saxony to the rule of his
+ministers. He took great interest in music and painting, and
+added to the collection of art treasures at Dresden.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, <i>Geschichte des Kurstaates
+und Königreichs Sachsen</i> (Gotha, 1867-1873); R. Röpell, <i>Polen um
+die Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts</i> (Gotha, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUSBAD,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom
+of Saxony, 10 m. E. from Dresden, close to Radeberg,
+in a pleasant valley. Pop. 900. It has five saline chalybeate
+springs, used both for drinking and bathing, and specific in
+feminine disorders, rheumatism, paralysis and neuralgia. The
+spa is largely frequented in summer and has agreeable public
+rooms and gardens.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUK,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a name commonly given to several species of sea-fowl.
+A special interest attaches to the great auk (<i>Alca impennis</i>),
+owing to its recent extinction and the value of its eggs to
+collectors. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Garefowl</a></span>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guillemot</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Puffin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Razorbill</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;),
+French historian, was born at Montbron in Charente in 1849.
+Having obtained the degree of doctor of letters in 1877 with a
+Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French one upon
+Giacomo Leopardi (whose works he subsequently translated into
+French), he made a study of parliamentary oratory during the
+French Revolution, and published two volumes upon <i>Les
+Orateurs de la constituante</i> (1882) and upon <i>Les Orateurs de la
+legislative et de la convention</i> (1885). With these works, which
+were reprinted in 1905, he entered a fresh field, where he soon
+became an acknowledged master. Applying to the study of the
+French Revolution the rules of historical criticism which had
+produced such rich results in the study of ancient and medieval
+history, he devoted himself to profound research in the archives,
+and to the publication of numerous most important contributions
+to the political, administrative and moral history of that
+marvellous period. Appointed professor of the history of the
+French Revolution at the Sorbonne, he formed the minds of
+students who in their turn have done valuable work. To him
+we owe the <i>Recueil des actes du comité de salut public</i>
+(vol. i., 1889; vol. xvi., 1904); <i>La Société des Jacobins;
+recueil de documents pour l&rsquo;histoire du club des Jacobins de Paris</i>
+(6 vols., 1889-1897); and <i>Paris pendant la reaction thermidorienne
+et sous le directoire, recueil de documents pour l&rsquo;histoire de
+l&rsquo;esprit public à Paris</i> (5 vols., 1898-1902), which was
+followed by an analogous collection for Paris sous le consulat
+(2 vols., 1903-1904). For the Société de l&rsquo;Histoire de la Révolution
+Française, which brought out under his supervision an important periodical publication
+called <i>La Révolution française</i>, he produced the <i>Registre des
+déliberations du consulat provisoire</i> (1894), and <i>L&rsquo;État de la
+France en l&rsquo;an VIII et en l&rsquo;an IX</i>, with the reports of the
+prefects (1897), besides editing various works or memoirs written
+by men of the Revolution, such as J.C. Bailleul, Chaumette,
+Fournier (called the American), Hérault de Séchelles, and
+Louvet de Couvrai. But these large collections of documents
+are not his entire output. Besides a little pamphlet upon
+Danton, he has written a <i>Histoire politique de la Révolution
+française</i> (1901), and a number of articles which have been
+collected in volumes under the title <i>Études et leçons sur la
+Révolution française</i> (5 vols., 1893-1908). In a volume entitled
+<i>Taine, historien de la Révolution française</i> (1908),
+Aulard has submitted the method of the eminent philosopher to
+a criticism, severe, perhaps even unjust, but certainly
+well-informed. This is, as it were, the &ldquo;manifesto&rdquo; of
+the new school of criticism applied to the
+political and social history of the Revolution (see <i>Les Annales
+Révolutionnaires</i>, June 1908).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Mathiez, &ldquo;M. Aulard, historien et professeur,&rdquo; in the <i>Revue
+de la Révolution française</i> (July 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AULIC COUNCIL<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (<i>Reichshofrat</i>), an organ of the Holy Roman
+Empire, originally intended for executive work, but acting
+chiefly as a judicature, which worked from 1497 to 1806. In the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span>
+early middle ages the emperor had already his <i>consiliarii</i>;
+but his council was a fluctuating body of personal advisers.
+In the 14th century there first arose an official council, with
+permanent and paid members, many of whom were legists.
+Its business was largely executive, and it formed something of a
+ministry; but it had also to deal with petitions addressed to the
+king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme court of judicature.
+It was thus parallel to the king&rsquo;s council, or <i>concilium continuum</i>,
+of medieval England; while by its side, during the 15th century,
+stood the <i>Kammergericht</i>, composed of the legal members of the
+council, in much the same way as the Star Chamber stood
+beside the English council. But the real history of the Aulic
+Council, as that term was understood in the later days of the
+Empire, begins with Maximilian I. in 1497-1498. In these years
+Maximilian created three organs (apparently following the
+precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in the Netherlands)&mdash;a
+<i>Hofrat</i>, a <i>Hofkammer</i> for finance, and a <i>Hofkanzlei.</i>
+Primarily intended for the hereditary dominions of Maximilian, these
+bodies were also intended for the whole Empire; and the
+<i>Hofrat</i> was to deal with &ldquo;all and every business which may
+flow in from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king&rsquo;s
+hereditary principalities.&rdquo; It was thus to be the supreme
+executive and judicial organ, discharging all business except
+that of finance and the drafting of documents; and it was
+intended to serve Maximilian as a <i>point d&rsquo;appui</i> for the monarchy
+against the system of oligarchical committees, instituted by
+Berthold, archbishop of Mainz. But it was difficult to work such
+a body both for the Empire and for the hereditary principalities;
+and under Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire alone
+(<i>circ.</i> 1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from its
+cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its composition and
+powers were fixed by the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. (1) It
+consisted of about 20 members&mdash;a president, a vice-president,
+the vice-chancellor of the Empire, and some 18 other members.
+These came partly from the Empire at large, partly (and in
+greater numbers) from the hereditary lands of the emperor.
+There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors of
+civil law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council
+followed the person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed
+at Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its
+members, whose office terminated with his life&mdash;an arrangement
+which made the council more dependent than it should have been
+on the emperor&rsquo;s will. (2) Its powers were nominally both
+executive and judicial. (<i>a</i>) Its executive powers were small:
+it gradually lost everything except the formal business of investiture
+with imperial fiefs and the confirmation of charters,
+its other powers being taken over by the <i>Geheimräte.</i> These
+<i>Geheimräte</i>, a narrow body of secret counsellors, had already
+become a determinate <i>concilium</i> by 1527; and though at first
+only concerned with foreign affairs, they acquired, from the
+middle of the 16th century onwards, the power of dealing with
+imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic Council. (<i>b</i>) In its judicial
+aspect, the Aulic Council, exercising the emperor&rsquo;s judicial
+powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it were, to the old
+<i>Kammergericht</i>, had exclusive cognizance of matters relating
+to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals
+of the Empire, imperial charters, Italian affairs, and cases
+&ldquo;reserved&rdquo; for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic
+Council was a competitor for judicial work with the Imperial
+Chamber<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>, a tribunal dating from the
+great diet of Worms of 1495: see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Imperial Chamber</a></span>).
+It was determined in 1648 that the one of these two judicial
+authorities which first dealt with a case should alone have competence
+to pursue it. An appeal lay from the decision of the
+council to the emperor, and judgment on appeal was given by
+those members of the council who had not joined in the original
+decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by
+members of the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could
+deal with cases of outlawry, except to prepare such cases for the
+decision of the diet. To-day the archives of the Aulic Council are
+in Vienna, though parts of its records have been given to the
+German states which they concern.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;R. Schröder, <i>Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte</i>
+(Leipzig, 1904), gives the main facts; S. Adler, <i>Die
+Organisation der Centralverwaltung unter Maximilian I.</i> (Leipzig,
+1886), deals with Maximilian&rsquo;s reorganization of the Council; and
+J. St. Pütter, <i>Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung
+des Teutschen Reichs</i> (Göttingen, 1798-1799), may be consulted for its
+development and later form.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Br.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor,
+with its members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public
+court of the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of
+the Empire.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AULIE-ATA,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province
+of Syr-darya, 152 m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at
+the western end of the Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft.
+The inhabitants are mostly Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle,
+horses and hides. Pop. (1897) 12,006.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AULIS,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated
+on a rocky peninsula between two bays, near the modern village
+of Vathy, about 3 m. S. of Chalcis. Its fame was due to the
+tradition that it was the starting-place of the Greek fleet before
+the Trojan War, the scene of the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The
+temple of Artemis was still to be seen in the time of Pausanias.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AULNOY<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Aunoy</span>), <b>MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE
+BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE,</b> <span class="sc">Baronne D&rsquo;</span> (<i>c.</i> 1650-1705),
+French author, was born about 1650 at Barneville near
+Bourg-Achard (Eure). She was the niece of Marie Bruneau des Loges,
+the friend of Malherbe and of J.G. de Balzac, who was called
+the &ldquo;tenth Muse.&rdquo; She married on the 8th of March 1666
+François de la Motte, a gentleman in the service of César, duc de
+Vendôme, who became Baron d&rsquo;Aulnoy in 1654. With her
+mother, who by a second marriage had become marquise de
+Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high treason against
+her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two women
+saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they
+went (February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed
+to return to France in reward for secret services rendered to
+the government. Mme. d&rsquo;Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of
+January 1705. She wrote fairy tales, <i>Contes nouvelles ou les
+Fées a la mode</i> (3 vols., 1698), in the manner of Charles Perrault.
+This collection (24 tales) included <i>L&rsquo;Oiseau bleu, Finette Cendron,
+La Chatte blanche</i> and others. The originals of most of her
+admirable tales are to be found in the <i>Pentamerone</i> (1637) of
+Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are: <i>L&rsquo;Histoire d&rsquo;Hippolyte,
+comte de Duglas</i> (1690), a romance in the style of Madame
+de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model; <i>Mémoires
+de la cour d&rsquo;Espagne</i> (1679-1681); and a <i>Relation du voyage
+d&rsquo;Espagne</i> (1690 or 1691) in the form of letters, edited in 1874-1876
+as <i>La Cour et la ville de Madrid</i> by Mme. B. Carey; <i>Histoire de
+Jean de Bourbon</i> (1692); <i>Mémoires sur la cour de France</i> (1692);
+<i>Mémoires de la cour d&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (1695). Her historical writings
+are partly borrowed from existing records, to which she adds
+much that must be regarded as fiction, and some vivid descriptions
+of contemporary manners.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Diverting Works of the Countess d&rsquo;Anois</i>, including some
+extremely untrustworthy &ldquo;Memoirs of her own life,&rdquo; were printed
+in London in 1707. <i>The Fairy Tales of Madame d&rsquo;Aulnoy</i>, with an
+introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For
+biographical particulars see M. de Lescure&rsquo;s introduction to the
+<i>Contes des Fées</i> (1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AULOS<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="aulos">&#945;&#8016;&#955;&#972;&#962;</span>; Lat. <i>tibia</i>; Egyptian hieroglyphic,
+<i>Ma-it</i>; medieval equivalents, <i>shalm, chalumeau, schalmei,
+hautbois</i>), in Greek antiquities, a class of wood-wind instruments
+with single or with double reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical
+or conical bore, thus corresponding to both oboe and clarinet.
+In its widest acceptation the <i>aulos</i> was a generic term for instruments
+consisting of a tube in which the air column was set
+in vibration either directly by the lips of the performer, or through
+the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or a double reed.
+Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (<i>syrinx polycalamus</i>,<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+<span class="grk" title="syrinx polykalamos">&#963;&#8166;&#961;&#953;&#947;&#958; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#954;&#940;&#955;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>) were sometimes called auloi (<span class="grk" title="auloi">&#945;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#943;</span>). The
+aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which, by gradual
+assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe, reached
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span>
+the stage at which it became known as the <i>Tyrrhenian aulos</i>
+(Pollux iv. 70) or the <i>hydraulos</i>, according to the method of
+compressing the wind supply (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Organ</a></span>: <i>Early History</i>; and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syrinx</a></span>). The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during
+the best classical period had a cylindrical bore (<span class="grk" title="koilia">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span>)
+like that of the modern clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic
+properties of the stopped pipe, whether the air column was set in
+vibration by means of a single or of a double reed, for the
+mouthpiece does not affect the harmonic series.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> To the acoustic
+properties of open or stopped pipes are due those essential
+differences which underlie the classification of modern wind
+instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone
+one octave lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding
+length, and overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the
+third above the second octave of the fundamental tone, <i>i.e.</i>
+the odd numbers of the series; whereas the open pipe gives the
+whole series of harmonics, the octave, the twelfth, the double
+octave, and the third above it, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its
+compass, the stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the
+side of the pipe, at appropriate distances from each other, and
+from the end of the pipe, whereas the open pipe requires but
+six. The acoustic properties of the open pipe can only be secured
+in combination with a reed mouthpiece by making the bore
+conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps
+assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their
+indebtedness to the Greeks in matters relating to musical
+instruments, and more especially to the cithara and aulos)
+understood the acoustic principle utilized to-day in making wind
+instruments, that a hole of small diameter nearer the mouthpiece
+may be substituted for one of greater diameter in the theoretically
+correct position. This is demonstrated by the 4th-century
+grammarian Macrobius, who says (<i>Comm. in Somn. Scip.</i> ii. 4, 5):
+&ldquo;Nec secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis
+inflantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et
+termino proximis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina,
+gravior per angusta&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bassoon</a></span>). Aristotle gives directions
+for boring holes in the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe
+of cylindrical bore (<i>Probl</i>. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but
+three or four holes; to Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of
+having increased this number (Pollux iv. 80). Pronomus, the
+musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), further
+improved the aulos by making it possible to play on one pair of
+instruments the three musical scales in use at his time, the Dorian,
+the Phrygian, and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate
+pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5;
+Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass
+of a tenth in order to produce the fundamental octave in each.</p>
+
+<p>There are two ways in which this increased compass might
+have been obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes
+and covering up those not required, (2) by means of contrivances
+for lowering the pitch of individual notes as required. We have
+evidence that both means were known to the Greeks and Romans.
+The simplest device for closing holes not in use was a band of
+metal left free to slide round the pipe, and having a hole bored
+through it corresponding in diameter with the hole in the pipe.
+Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases
+prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings
+of metal. The line on fig. 1 between <i>r</i> and <i>s</i> is thought to
+have been one of these rings.</p>
+
+<p>Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the
+bone, in such a manner that only one could be exposed at a
+time. This is clearly shown in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments
+of an aulos from the museum at Candia, for which the writer is
+greatly indebted to Professor John L. Myres, by whom measured
+drawings were made from the instrument in 1893. These
+highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5),
+seem to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad
+pipes in the Castellani collection at the British Museum,
+illustrated below; they are constructed like modern flutes, but
+played by means of a reed inserted into the lateral embouchure.</p>
+
+<p>In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represented
+the bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 joining the broken end of
+No. 2 at <i>l</i>; there being a possible fit at the other end at s with a
+in No. 4 (the drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed
+for parts 3 and 4), and No. 5 joining on to No. 4 at <i>k</i>.</p>
+
+<p>According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a pair
+of pipes in the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same construction
+as the one in Candia. In the drawing, the shape and relative
+position of the holes <i>on the circumference</i> is approximate only,
+but their position lengthways is measured.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:509px; height:281px" src="images/img918.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">(From a drawing by Prof. John L. Myres.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Diagram of the Fragments of an <i>Aulos</i> (Candia Mus.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Triple wrapping of bronze as well as slide.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Slide with hole.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Slides with two holes not uncovered together.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Slides with two holes not uncovered together, one hole at back.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Slide.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Slide missing.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Slide missing, scars of slide holes.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Slide.</p>
+<p><i>i</i> and <i>j</i>, Slide.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Socket.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Male half of joint.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>m, n, o</i>, Slides, the top hole being in the slide only.</p>
+<p><i>p</i> and <i>q</i>, Slides, with two holes; the small hole shown is in the
+    pipe, there being a corresponding hole in the slide at the back.</p>
+<p><i>r</i>, Bronze covering (and slide?).</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Male joint.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>, The wavy line shows the extreme length of fragment.</p>
+<p><i>u</i>, 13 mm. inside diameter, 14 mm. outside diameter.</p>
+<p><i>w</i>, Engraved lines and conical form of bronze covering.</p>
+<p><i>x</i>, Wavy line shows extreme length of fragment.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>, Stopped end of pipe with engraved lines.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><p>The line between <i>r</i> and <i>s</i> is either a turned ring or part of bronze
+  cover. The double lines to the right of t are engraved lines.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from Pompeii<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+(fig. 2), as well as on two pipes belonging to the Castellani
+collection (fig. 4) and on one from Halicarnassus, in the British
+Museum. In order to enable the performer to use these bands
+conveniently, a contrivance such as a little ring, a horn or a
+hook termed keras (<span class="grk" title="keras">&#954;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#962;</span>) was attached to the band.<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets
+which probably originally contained <i>kerata</i>. Pollux (iv. 80)
+mentions that Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the
+range of the aulos, made lateral channels for the air (<span class="grk" title="plagiai
+hodoi">&#960;&#955;&#940;&#947;&#953;&#945;&#953; &#8001;&#948;&#959;&#943;</span>). These consisted of tubes inserted into the holes in the
+bands for the purpose of lengthening the column of air, and
+lowering individual notes at will, the sound being then produced
+at the extremity of the tube, instead of at the surface of the
+pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes in the slides
+of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of these
+tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modern
+crook or piston.<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The mouthpiece of the aulos was called <i>zeugos</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span>
+(<span class="grk" title="zeugos">&#950;&#949;&#8166;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>),<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the reed tongue <i>glossa</i><a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> or <i>glotta</i> (<span class="grk" title="glossa">&#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;</span>
+or <span class="grk" title="glotta">&#947;&#955;&#8182;&#964;&#964;&#945;</span>), and the socket into which the reed was fixed
+<i>glottis</i><a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="glottis">&#947;&#955;&#969;&#964;&#964;&#943;&#962;</span>).</p>
+
+<p>The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest
+form of mouthpiece; the word <i>zeugos</i>, moreover, signifies a
+pair of like things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting
+the probability that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece
+was used by the Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it
+with the as-it or arghoul (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:35px; height:573px" src="images/img919a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Drawn from a photo by Brogi.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Roman Ivory Aulos found at Pompeii (Naples Mus.),
+showing slides and rings.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii
+(fig. 3) has all the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having,
+on the side not shown, the lay on which to
+fix a single or beating reed.<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> It may, however,
+have been the cap of a covered reed,
+or even a whistle mouthpiece in which the
+lip does not show in the photograph. It is
+difficult to form a conclusion without seeing
+the real instrument. On a mosaic of Monnus
+in Trèves<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> is represented an aulos which also
+appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of the aulos, as in the
+Pompeian pipes, frequently had the form of
+a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped
+bulb, respectively identified as the <i>holmos</i>
+(<span class="grk" title="holmos">&#8004;&#955;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>) and the <i>hypholmion</i> (<span class="grk" title="hypholmion">&#8017;&#966;&#972;&#955;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>), the
+support of the <i>holmos</i>. An explanation of
+the original nature and construction of the
+bulb and flaring cup, so familiar in the
+various representations of the aulos, and in
+the real instruments found in Pompeii, is
+provided by an ancient Egyptian flute
+belonging to the collection of G. Maspero,
+illustrated and described by Victor Loret.<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
+Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouthpiece
+of the instrument, and describes its
+construction; it consists of a piece of reed
+of larger diameter than that of the flute,
+and eight centimetres long; this reed has
+been forcibly compressed a little more than
+half way down by means of a ligature of
+twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6 mm.
+to 4 mm. The end of the pipe,
+covered by rows of waxed thread, fits into
+the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was
+also bound by waxed thread exactly as in
+the Elgin pipe at the British Museum,
+described below. There is no indication of
+the manner in which the pipe was sounded, and Loret assumes
+that there was once a whistle or flageolet mouthpiece. To the
+present writer, however, it seems probable that the constricted
+diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which
+the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case
+at least, the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated
+in the upper bulb or air-chamber. This simple contrivance was
+probably also employed in the earliest Greek pipes, and was
+later copied and elaborated in wood, bone or metal, the upper
+bulb being made shorter and developing into the flaring cup,
+in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the mouth.
+During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken
+directly into the mouth<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> and not enclosed in an air-chamber.
+The two pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped
+the holes and turned the bands by means of the <span class="grk" title="phorbeia">&#966;&#959;&#961;&#946;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span> (Lat.
+<i>capistrum</i>), a bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having
+holes through which the reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth
+of the performer; the <i>phorbeia</i> also relieved the pressure of the
+breath on the cheeks and lips,<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> which is felt more especially by
+performers on oboe and bassoon at the present day.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:78px; height:376px" src="images/img919b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From a photo by Brogi.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Beak mouthpiece. Found at Pompeii (Naples Mus.).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to
+the Elgin collection at the British Museum,
+one of the bulbs, partly broken, but preserved
+in the same case as the pipes, was
+fastened to the pipes by means of waxed
+thread, the indented lines being still visible
+on the rim of the bulb. The aulos was
+kept in a case called <i>sybene</i><a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="sybaenae">&#963;&#965;&#946;&#942;&#957;&#951;</span>)
+or <i>aulotheke</i><a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="aulothaekae">&#945;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#952;&#942;&#954;&#951;</span>),
+and the little bag or case in which the delicate reeds were carried
+was known by the name of <i>glottokomeion</i><a href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a>
+(<span class="grk" title="glottokomeion">&#947;&#955;&#969;&#964;&#964;&#959;&#954;&#959;&#956;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>).<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Two Egyptian flute
+cases are extant, one in the Louvre,<a name="fa17n" id="fa17n" href="#ft17n"><span class="sp">17</span></a> and
+the other in the museum at Leiden. The
+latter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical
+in shape, with a stopper of the same wood;
+there is no legend or design upon it. The
+case contained seven pipes, five pieces of
+reed without bore or holes, and three pieces
+of straw suitable for making double-reed
+mouthpieces.<a name="fa18n" id="fa18n" href="#ft18n"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of
+pipes as over three octaves:&mdash;&ldquo;For doubtless we should find an
+interval greater than the above mentioned three octaves between
+the highest note of the soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest
+note of the bass-clarinet (aulos); and again between the highest
+note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker open, and
+the lowest note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker
+closed.&rdquo;<a name="fa19n" id="fa19n" href="#ft19n"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p>
+
+<p>This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to
+the full range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves
+from <img style="width:59px; height:33px" src="images/img919c.jpg" alt="" />
+to <img style="width:62px; height:36px" src="images/img919d.jpg" alt="" />
+It is evident that the ancient
+Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of
+the harmonics. Proclus (<i>Comm. in Alcibiad.</i> chap. 68) states
+that from each hole of the pipe at least three tones could be
+produced. Moreover, classic writers maintain that if the performer
+press the <i>zeugos</i> or the <i>glottai</i> of the pipes, a sharper
+tone is produced.<a name="fa20n" id="fa20n" href="#ft20n"><span class="sp">20</span></a> This is exactly how a performer on a
+modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher harmonics of the
+instrument.<a name="fa21n" id="fa21n" href="#ft21n"><span class="sp">21</span></a> The small bore of the aulos in comparison to its
+length facilitated the production of the harmonics (cf. Zamminer p. 218),
+as does also the use of a small hole near the mouthpiece,
+called in Greek <i>syrinx</i> (<span class="grk" title="syrinx">&#963;&#8166;&#961;&#953;&#947;&#958;</span>) and in the modern clarinet
+the &ldquo;speaker,&rdquo; which when open enables the performer to overblow
+with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span>
+tones. To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University is due
+the credit of having identified the <i>syrinx</i> of the aulos with the
+speaker of the clarinet.<a name="fa22n" id="fa22n" href="#ft22n"><span class="sp">22</span></a> This assumption is doubtless
+correct, and is supported by classical grammarians,<a name="fa23n" id="fa23n" href="#ft23n"><span class="sp">23</span></a>
+who state that the <i>syrinx</i> was one of the holes of the aulos.
+It renders quite clear certain passages in Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch,
+and a scholion to Pindar&rsquo;s 12th <i>Pythian</i>, which before were difficult
+to understand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syrinx</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:143px" src="images/img920a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.&mdash;The Plagiaulos. Castellani Collection (Maenad Pipes), British Museum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:121px; height:501px" src="images/img920b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;Ancient Greek Double Pipes. Elgin Collection, British Museum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties
+enumerated by Pollux (<i>Onomast.</i> iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus
+(iv. 76 et seq.). They fall into two distinct classes, the single and
+the double pipes. There were three principal single pipes, the
+<i>monaulos</i>, the <i>plagiaulos</i> and the <i>syrinx monocalamos</i>. The
+double pipes were used by the great musicians of ancient Greece,
+and notably at the musical contests at Delphi, and what has been
+said above concerning the construction of the aulos refers
+mainly to the double pipes. The <i>monaulos</i>, a single pipe of
+Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been
+played from the end by means of a reed,
+may have been the archetype of the oboe
+or clarinet. The <i>plagiaulos photinx</i> or
+<i>tibia obliqua</i>, invented by the Libyans (Pollux iv. 74),
+or, according to Pliny (vii. 204), by Midas
+of Phrygia, was held like the modern flute,
+but was played by means of a mouthpiece
+containing a reed. Three of the existing
+pipes at the British Museum (the two in
+the Castellani collection, and the pipe from
+Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The
+mouthpiece projects from the side of the
+pipe and communicates with the main bore
+by means of a slanting passage; the end
+nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the
+modern flute; in the latter, however, the
+embouchure is not closed by the lips when
+playing, and therefore the flute has the
+acoustic properties of the open pipe, whereas
+the <i>plagiaulos</i> having a reed mouthpiece gave
+the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double
+pipes existed in five sizes according to pitch,
+in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a treatise
+on the construction of the auloi (<span class="grk" title="Peri aulon
+traeseos">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#945;&#8016;&#955;&#8182;&#957; &#964;&#961;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>), unfortunately not extant,<a name="fa24n" id="fa24n" href="#ft24n"><span class="sp">24</span></a> divides them thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Parthenioi auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="parthenioi auloi">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#953;&#959;&#953; &#945;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#943;</span>), the maiden&rsquo;s
+<i>auloi</i>, corresponding to the soprano compass.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Paidikoi auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="paidikoi auloi">&#960;&#945;&#953;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8054; &#945;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#943;</span>), the boy&rsquo;s pipes or alto
+<i>auloi</i>, used to accompany boys&rsquo; songs and also in double pairs at feasts.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Kitharisterioi auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="kitharistaerioi auloi">&#954;&#953;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#953; &#945;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#943;</span>),
+used to accompany the cithara.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Teleioi auloi</i>, the perfect aulos, or tenor&rsquo;s pipes; also known
+as the <i>pythic auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="pythikoi auloi">&#960;&#965;&#952;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8054; &#945;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#943;</span>); used for the paeans
+and for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was the <i>pythic
+auloi</i> and the <i>kitharisterioi auloi</i> more especially which were
+provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the harmonic notes
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syrinx</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Hyperteleioi auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="hyperteleioi auloi">&#8017;&#960;&#949;&#961;&#964;&#941;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#953; &#945;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#943;</span>) or <i>andreioi
+auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="andreioi ayloi">&#7936;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#943; &#945;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#943;</span>) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi.</p>
+
+<p>The Phrygian pipes or <i>auloi Elymoi</i><a name="fa25n" id="fa25n" href="#ft25n"><span class="sp">25</span></a> were made of box-wood
+and were tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but differed
+from all others in that the two pipes were unequal in length and
+in the diameter of their bores;<a name="fa26n" id="fa26n" href="#ft26n"><span class="sp">26</span></a>
+sometimes one of the pipes was curved upwards and terminated in a horn bell;<a name="fa27n" id="fa27n" href="#ft27n"><span class="sp">27</span></a>
+they seem to have had a conical bore, if representations on monuments are
+to be trusted. We may conclude that the archetype of the oboe
+with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks; it was
+frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appears on
+many has-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments. For
+illustrations see Wilhelm Froehner, <i>Les Musées de France</i>, pl. iii.,
+&ldquo;Marsyas playing the double pipes.&rdquo; There the bore is decidedly
+conical in the ratio of at least 1 : 4 between the mouthpiece and
+the end of the instrument; the vase is Roman, from the south
+of France. See also <i>Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica
+Comunale di Roma</i>, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd series, pl. vii.
+and p. 119 et seq., &ldquo;Le Nozze di Elena e Paride,&rdquo; from a bas-relief
+in the monastery of S. Antonio on the Esquiline; Wilhelm Zahn,
+<i>Die schonsten Ornamente und die merkwurdigsten Gemälde aus
+Pompeji, Herkulaneum und Stabiae</i> (German and French), vol.
+iii., pl. 43 and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further information on the aulos, consult Albert A. Howard,
+&ldquo;The Aulos or Tibia,&rdquo; <i>Harvard Studies</i>, iv., 1893; François A.
+Gevaert, <i>Histoire de la musique dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i>, vol. ii. p. 273 et seq.;
+Carl von Jan&rsquo;s article &ldquo;Flote&rdquo; in August Baumeister&rsquo;s <i>Denkmaler
+des klassischen Altertums</i> (Munich, 1884-1888), vol. i.; Dr Hugo
+Riemann, <i>Handbuch der Musikgeschichte</i>, Bd. I.T. 1, pp. 93-112
+(Leipzig, 1904); Caspar Bartholinus, <i>De Tibiis Veterum</i> (Amsterdam,
+1779).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Pollux, <i>Onom.</i> iv. 69.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Friedrich Zamminer, <i>Die Musik und musikalischen Instrumente
+in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik</i> (Giessen, 1855), p. 305.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> These pipes were discovered during the excavations in 1867,
+and are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductions and
+descriptions of them are given in &ldquo;The Aulos or Tibia,&rdquo; by Albert
+A. Howard, <i>Harvard Studies</i>, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. ii. and
+pp. 48-55.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For illustrations of <i>auloi</i> provided with these contrivances, see
+illustration (fig. 2) of an aulos from Pompeii; a relief in Vatican,
+No. 535; Helbig&rsquo;s <i>Wandgemãlde</i>, Nos. 56, 69, 730, 765, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For illustrations of <span class="grk" title="hodoi">&#8001;&#948;&#959;&#943;</span> showing the holes at the ends of the
+tubes, see <i>Description des marbres antiques du Musée Campana</i>, by
+H. d&rsquo;Escamps, pl. 25; Wilhelm Froehner&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue of the Louvre</i>,
+No. 378; Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188; Albert A.
+Howard, &ldquo;The Aulos or Tibia,&rdquo; <i>Harvard Studies</i>, iv. (Boston, 1893),
+pl. 1, No. 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and
+mouthpiece were made see Theophrastus, <i>Hist. Plant.</i> iv. 11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle, <i>H.A.</i> 6, 10, 9, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Lucian, <i>Harm.</i> 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Cf. article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mouthpiece</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See <i>Antike Denkmaler</i>, Deutsches archäol. Inst.,
+Berlin, 1891, vol. i. pi. 49.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See &ldquo;Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,&rdquo; <i>Journal asiatique</i>,
+8th ser. vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 212-215.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See Aristotle, <i>De Audib.</i> p. 802 b, 18, and p. 804a;
+Festus, ed. Mueller, p. 116.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann,
+<i>Gesch. d. Musik</i>, Bd. i. T. 1, p. 111 (Leipzig, 1904).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Pollux, <i>Onomasticon</i>, vii. 153.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Hesychius.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153, x. 153-154; A.A. Howard, op. cit.
+pp. 26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given in <i>Denkmaler des
+klassischen Altertums</i>, by August Baumeister, vol. i. p. 554, fig. 591.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17n" id="ft17n" href="#fa17n"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case
+ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double
+pipe. See E. de Rougé, <i>Notice sommaire des monuments égyptiens
+exposés dans les galeries du Louvre</i>, p. 87.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18n" id="ft18n" href="#fa18n"><span class="fn">18</span></a> See Victor Loret, &ldquo;Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,&rdquo; in <i>Journal
+asiatique</i>, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 199, 200 and 201 (note), pp. 207,
+211 and 217, and Conrad Leemans, <i>Description raisonnée des monuments
+égyptiens du Musée d&rsquo;Antiquités de Leyde</i>, p. 132, No. 489;
+contents of case Nos. 474-488.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19n" id="ft19n" href="#fa19n"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Aristoxenus, <i>Harm.</i> bk. i. 20 and 21, H.S. Macran&rsquo;s edition
+with translation (Oxford, 1902), p. 179.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20n" id="ft20n" href="#fa20n"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Aristotle, <i>De audib.</i> p. 804a;
+Porphyry, ed. Wallis, p. 249; <i>ibid.</i> p. 252.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21n" id="ft21n" href="#fa21n"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Zamminer, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 301.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22n" id="ft22n" href="#fa22n"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> p. 32-35.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23n" id="ft23n" href="#fa23n"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See <i>Etymologicum magnum</i> (Augsburg. 1848), s.v. &ldquo;Syrinx.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24n" id="ft24n" href="#fa24n"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See Athenaeus xiv. 634, who quotes from Didymus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25n" id="ft25n" href="#fa25n"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Pollux iv. 74.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26n" id="ft26n" href="#fa26n"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Servius <i>ad Aen.</i> ix. 615.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27n" id="ft27n" href="#fa27n"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Tibullus ii. 85; Virg. <i>Aen.</i> xi. 735;
+Ovid, <i>Met.</i> iii. 533, <i>Ex Ponto</i> i. 1. 39.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE PHILIPPE LOUIS D&rsquo;ORLÉANS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc d&rsquo;</span> (1822-1897),
+French prince and statesman, fifth son
+of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, afterwards king of the French,
+and of Marie Amélie, princess of the Two Sicilies, was born at
+Paris on the 16th of January 1822. While still young he inherited
+a large fortune from the prince de Condé. Brought up
+by his parents with great simplicity, he was educated at the
+college of Henri IV., on leaving which at the age of seventeen
+he entered the army with the rank of a captain of infantry.
+He distinguished himself during the conquest of Algeria, and
+was appointed governor of that colony, in which capacity he
+received the submission of the amir Abd-el-Kader. After the
+revolution of 1848 he retired to England and busied himself with
+historical and military studies, replying in 1861 by a <i>Letter upon
+the History of France</i> to Prince Napoleon&rsquo;s violent attacks upon
+the house of Orleans. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
+War he volunteered for service in the French army, but his offer
+was declined. Elected deputy for the Oise department, he
+returned to France, and succeeded to the <i>fauteuil</i> of the comte
+de Montalembert in the French Academy. In March 1872 he
+resumed his place in the army as general of division; and in 1873
+he presided over the court-martial which condemned Marshal
+Bazaine to death. About this period, being appointed commandant
+of the VII. army corps at Besançon, he retired from
+political life, and in 1879 became inspector-general of the army.
+By the act of exception passed in 1883 all members of families
+that had reigned in France serving in the army were deprived
+of their military positions; consequently the duc d&rsquo;Aumale
+was placed on the unemployed supernumerary list. Subsequently,
+in 1886, another law was promulgated which expelled
+from French territory the heads of former reigning families,
+and provided that henceforward all members of those families
+should be disqualified for any public position or function, and
+for election to any public body. The duc d&rsquo;Aumale protested
+energetically, and was himself expelled. By his will of the 3rd
+of June 1884, however, he had bequeathed to the Institute of
+France his Chantilly estate, with all the art-collection he had
+gathered there. This generosity led the government to withdraw
+the decree of exile, and the duke returned to France in 1889.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span>
+He died at Zucco in Sicily on the 7th of May 1897. Of his
+marriage, contracted in 1844 with his first cousin, Caroline de
+Bourbon, daughter of the prince of Salerno, were born two sons:
+the prince de Condé (d. 1866), and the due de Guise (d. 1872).
+The due d&rsquo;Aumale&rsquo;s principal literary work was an <i>Histoire des
+princes de Condé</i>, which he left unfinished.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Georges Picot, <i>M. le duc d&rsquo;Aumale</i> (Paris, 1898); Ernest
+Daudet, <i>Le duc d&rsquo;Aumale</i> (Paris, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUMALE,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of
+Seine-Inférieure, on the left bank of the Bresle, 47 m. N.E.
+of Rouen on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 1999. The
+church is an interesting building of the 16th and 17th centuries,
+and has a portal attributed to Jean Goujon. The town has glass
+and steel works.</p>
+
+<p>The territory of Aumale (Albemarle, Aubemale, Aumerle;
+Lat. <i>Alba Marla</i>) in Normandy, a dependency of the archbishopric
+of Rouen, was granted to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law
+of William the Conqueror, who founded the first line of counts
+of Aumale. Hawise (Hadwide, Havoise or Avoie), countess of
+Aumale, after the death of her first husband William de Mandeville,
+earl of Essex (d. 1189), married William des Forts (de Fors,
+or de Fortz; Lat. de Fortibus), a military adventurer who had been
+one of the commanders of the fleet under Richard I. during his
+first crusade. He died in 1195, and his widow married Baldwin
+de Betun, who became count of Aumale in her right. He died
+in 1213, and in 1214 William de Fortibus, son of Hawise by her
+second husband, was confirmed by King John in all his mother&rsquo;s
+lands. Meanwhile, however, the territory of Aumale shared
+the fate of the rest of Normandy, and was annexed to the French
+crown by King Philip Augustus; but the title of earl of Albemarle,
+derived from it, continued to be borne in England by
+William de Fortibus, and was passed on to his heirs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albemarle</a></span>).
+Aumale itself was conferred by Philip Augustus as an
+appanage on his son Philip. It was subsequently granted by
+Louis VIII. to Simon, count of Dammartin, whose daughter,
+Jeanne, countess of Dammartin, transferred it, together with
+the countship of Ponthieu, to the house of Castile, by her
+marriage with Ferdinand III., king of Castile, called the Saint
+(1238). It then remained in the possession of a branch of her
+descendants bearing the name of Ponthieu, until it passed to the
+house of Harcourt on the marriage of Blanche of Ponthieu with
+John, count of Harcourt (1340). Marie d&rsquo;Harcourt (d. 1476),
+heiress of Aumale, married Anthony of Lorraine, count of
+Vaudémont, and Aumale was created a duchy in the peerage
+of France for Claude and Francis of Lorraine in 1547. By the
+marriage of Anne of Lorraine with the duke of Nemours in
+1618 the duchy of Aumale passed to the house of Savoy-Nemours.
+In 1686 Marie Jeanne Baptiste, duchess of Nemours and of
+Aumale, and wife of Charles Emmanuel II., duke of Savoy,
+sold Aumale to Louis XIV., who gave it to his natural son, the
+duke of Maine. After the death of that prince, the dukedom
+devolved upon his brother, the count of Toulouse, subsequently
+passing to the latter&rsquo;s son, the duke of Penthièvre, whose daughter
+married the duke of Orleans. Since the reign of Louis Philippe,
+king of the French, the title of duke of Aumale has been borne
+by a son of the duke of Orleans.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUMONT,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> the name of a family which played an important
+part in French history. The origin of the name is uncertain,
+but it has usually been derived from Aumont, now a small
+commune in the department of the Somme. The family was
+of great antiquity, a Jean, sire d&rsquo;Aumont, having accompanied
+Louis IX. on crusade. It was already powerful in the 14th
+century, and during the English wars of that period its members
+fought in the armies of the kings of France. Towards the end
+of the century, the family took the part of the dukes of Burgundy,
+but returned to the side of France on the death of Charles the
+Bold. Jean d&rsquo;Aumont, lieutenant-general to the king of France
+in the government of Burgundy, rendered important services
+to Louis XII. and Francis I. Another Jean d&rsquo;Aumont (d. 1595),
+a marshal of France and knight of the order of the Holy Ghost
+since its institution in 1578, fought against the Huguenots
+under the last of the Valois kings; but he was among the first to
+recognize Henry IV., and was appointed governor of Champagne
+and of Brittany, where he had to fight against the League. His
+grandson Antoine (1601-1669) was also a marshal of France
+(1651), governor of Paris (1662), duke and peer (1665). Louis
+Marie Augustin, duc d&rsquo;Aumont (1709-1782), was a celebrated
+collector of works of art. Louis Marie Celeste d&rsquo;Aumont, due de
+Piennes, afterwards duc d&rsquo;Aumont (1762-1831), emigrated
+during the Revolution and served in the army of the royalists,
+as also in the Swedish army. During the Hundred Days he
+effected a descent upon Normandy in the Bourbon interest,
+and succeeded in capturing Bayeux and Caen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUNCEL<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (from the Anglo-Fr. <i>auncelle</i>, a confused derivation
+from <i>l&rsquo;auncelle</i>, Ital. <i>lancella</i>, a little balance), a balance formerly
+used in England; now, in dialectical use, a term for the weighing
+of meat by hand instead of by scales.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUNDH,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Deccan division of
+Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs. Its area is 447
+sq. m.; its population was 63,921 in 1901, showing a decrease
+of 2% in the decade. Estimated revenue £9422. The chief,
+whose title is Pant Pratinidhi, is a Brahman by caste. The
+state has suffered severely from plague. The town of Aundh
+is situated 26 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. about 3500.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1287-1345), commonly known as
+<span class="sc">Richard de Bury</span>, English bibliophile, writer and bishop, was
+born near Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, on the 24th of January
+1287. He was the son of Sir Richard Aungervyle, who was
+descended from one of William the Conqueror&rsquo;s soldiers, settled
+in Leicestershire, where the family came into possession of the
+manor of Willoughby. His education was undertaken by his
+uncle, John de Willoughby, and after leaving the grammar
+school of his native place he was sent to Oxford, where he is
+said to have distinguished himself in philosophy and theology.
+John Pits<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> says, but apparently without authority, that he
+became a Benedictine monk. He was made tutor to Prince
+Edward of Windsor (afterwards Edward III.), and, according
+to Dibdin, inspired him with some of his own love of books.
+He was mixed up with the sordid intrigues which preceded
+the deposition of Edward II., and supplied Queen Isabella and
+Mortimer in Paris with money in 1325 from the revenues of
+Guienne, of which province he was treasurer. For some time
+he had to hide in Paris from the officers sent by Edward II. to
+apprehend him. On the accession of Edward III. his services
+were rewarded by rapid promotion. He was cofferer to the
+king, treasurer of the wardrobe and afterwards clerk of the
+privy seal. The king, moreover, repeatedly recommended him
+to the pope, and twice sent him, in 1330 and 1333, as ambassador
+to the papal court, then in exile at Avignon. On the first of
+these visits he made the acquaintance of a fellow bibliophile in
+Petrarch, who records his impression (<i>Epist. Famil.</i> lib. iii.
+Ep. 1) of the Englishman as &ldquo;not ignorant of literature and ...
+from his youth up curious beyond belief of hidden things.&rdquo;
+He asked him for information about Thule, but Aungervyle,
+who promised information when he should once more be at home
+among his books, never sent any answer, in spite of repeated
+enquiries. The pope, John XXII., made him his principal
+chaplain, and presented him with a rochet in earnest of the
+first vacant bishopric in England.</p>
+
+<p>During his absence from England he was made (1333) dean of
+Wells. In September of the same year the see of Durham fell
+vacant, and the king overruled the choice of the monks, who had
+elected and actually installed their sub-prior, Robert de Graystanes,
+in favour of Aungervyle. In February 1334 he was
+made lord treasurer, an appointment he exchanged later in
+the year for that of lord chancellor. This charge he resigned
+in the next year, and, after making arrangements for the protection
+of his northern diocese from an expected inroad of the
+Scots, he proceeded in July 1336 to France to attempt a settlement
+of the claims in dispute between Edward and Philip. In
+the next year he served on three commissions for the defence
+of the northern counties. In June 1338 he was once more sent
+abroad to secure peace, but within a month of his appointment
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span>
+Edward himself landed in Flanders to procure allies for his approaching
+campaign. Aungervyle accompanied him to Coblenz
+to his meeting with the emperor Louis IV., and in the
+next year was sent to England to raise money. This seems
+to have been his last visit to the continent. In 1340 and 1342
+he was again engaged in trying to negotiate peace with the
+Scots, but from this time his life appears to have passed quietly
+in the care of his diocese and in the accumulation of a library.</p>
+
+<p>He sent far and wide in search of manuscripts, rescuing many
+treasures from the charge of ignorant and neglectful monks.
+&ldquo;No dearness of price,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;ought to hinder a man from
+the buying of books, if he has the money demanded for them,
+unless it be to withstand the malice of the seller or to await a
+more favourable opportunity of buying.&rdquo; It is to be supposed
+that Richard de Bury sometimes brought undue pressure to
+bear on the owners, for it is recorded that an abbot of St Albans
+bribed him to secure his influence for the house by four valuable
+books, and that de Bury, who procured certain coveted privileges
+for the monastery, bought from him thirty-two other books,
+for fifty pieces of silver, far less than their normal price. The
+record of his passion for books, his <i>Philobiblon</i>, was completed
+on his fifty-eighth birthday, the 24th of January 1345, and he
+died on the 14th of April (May, according to Adam Murimuth)
+of that year. He gives an account (chapter viii.) of the
+unwearied efforts made by himself and his agents to collect
+books. In the eighteenth chapter he records his intention of
+founding a hall at Oxford, and in connexion with it a library
+of which his books were to form the nucleus. He even details the
+rules to be observed for the lending and care of the books, and
+he had already taken the preliminary steps for the foundation.
+The bishop died, however, in great poverty, and it seems likely
+that his collection was dispersed immediately after his death.
+But the traditional account is that the books were sent to the
+Durham Benedictines at Oxford, and that on the dissolution
+of the foundation by Henry VIII. they were divided between
+Duke Humphrey of Gloucester&rsquo;s library, Balliol College and
+Dr George Owen. Only two of the volumes are known to be
+in existence; one is a copy of John of Salisbury&rsquo;s works in the
+British Museum, and the other some theological treatises by
+Anselm and others in the Bodleian.</p>
+
+<p>The chief authority for the bishop&rsquo;s life is William de Chambre
+(printed in Wharton&rsquo;s <i>Anglia Sacra</i>, 1691, and in <i>Historiae
+Dunelmensis scriptores tres</i>, Surtees Soc. 1839), who describes
+him as an amiable and excellent man, charitable in his diocese,
+and the liberal patron of many learned men, among these being
+Thomas Bradwardine, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury,
+Richard Fitzralph, afterwards archbishop of Armagh, the
+enemy of the mendicant orders, Walter Burley, who translated
+Aristotle, John Mauduit the astronomer, Robert Holkot and
+Richard de Kilvington. John Bale<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Pits<a name="fa3o" id="fa3o" href="#ft3o"><span class="sp">3</span></a> mention other
+works of his, <i>Epistolae Familiares</i> and <i>Orationes ad Principes</i>.
+The opening words of the <i>Philobiblon</i> and the <i>Epistolae</i> as given
+by Bale represent those of the <i>Philobiblon</i> and its prologue,
+so that he apparently made two books out of one treatise. It is
+possible that the <i>Orationes</i> may represent a letter book of
+Richard de Bury&rsquo;s, entitled <i>Liber Epistolaris quondam domini
+Ricardi de Bury, Episcopi Dunelmensis</i>, now in the possession
+of Lord Harlech. This MS., the contents of which are fully
+catalogued in the Fourth Report (1874) of the Historical MSS.
+Commission (Appendix, pp. 379-397), contains numerous letters
+from various popes, from the king, a correspondence dealing
+with the affairs of the university of Oxford, another with the
+province of Gascony, beside some harangues and letters evidently
+kept as models to be used on various occasions.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been asserted that the <i>Philobiblon</i> itself was not
+written by Richard de Bury at all, but by Robert Holkot. This
+assertion is supported by the fact that in seven of the extant
+MSS. of <i>Philobiblon</i> it is ascribed to Holkot in an introductory
+note, in these or slightly varying terms: <i>Incipit prologus in
+philobiblon ricardi dunelmensis episcopi qu&#275; libr&#363; composuit
+Robertus holcote de ordine predicalorum sub nomine dicti episcopi</i>.
+The Paris MS. has simply <i>Philobiblon olchoti anglici</i>, and does
+not contain the usual concluding note of the date when the book
+was completed by Richard. As a great part of the charm of
+the book lies in the unconscious record of the collector&rsquo;s own
+character, the establishment of Holkot&rsquo;s authorship would
+materially alter its value. A notice of Richard de Bury by his
+contemporary Adam Murimuth (<i>Continuatio Chronicarum</i>, Rolls
+Series, 1889, p. 171) gives a less favourable account of him than
+does William de Chambre, asserting that he was only moderately
+learned, but desired to be regarded as a great scholar.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The original Latin text was printed at Cologne (1473), Spires
+(1483), Paris (1500), Oxford (1598 and 1599), &amp;c. It was first translated
+into English by J.B. Inglis in 1832, and into French by Hippolyte
+Cocheris in 1856. The best translation is that by Mr E.C.
+Thomas, accompanying the Latin text, with full biographical and
+bibliographical introductions (1888). Other editions are in the
+<i>King&rsquo;s Classics</i> (1902) and for the Grolier Club (New York, 1889,
+ed. A.W. West).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>De Ill. Angl. Script.</i> (1619, p. 467).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Script. Ill. Maj. Brit.</i> cent. v. No. 69.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3o" id="ft3o" href="#fa3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>De Ill. Angl. Script.</i> (1619, p. 468).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUNT SALLY,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> the English name for a game popular at
+fairs, race-courses and summer resorts. It consists in throwing
+hard balls, of wood or leather-covered yarn, at puppets dressed
+to represent different characters, originally a grotesque female
+figure called &ldquo;Aunt Sally,&rdquo; with the object of smashing a clay
+pipe which is inserted either in the mouth or forehead of the
+puppet. In France the game is popular under the name <i>jeu de
+massacre</i>. In a variation of the pastime the mark consists of a
+living person&rsquo;s head thrust through a hole in a sheet of canvas. In
+case of a hit a second shy is allowed, or a small prize is given.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURA<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (from the Gr. for &ldquo;breath&rdquo; or &ldquo;breeze&rdquo;), a term used
+in old days to denote a supposed ethereal emanation from a
+volatile substance; applied later to the &ldquo;electrical aura,&rdquo; or
+air-current caused by electrical discharge; in epilepsy (<i>q.v.</i>)
+to one of its premonitory symptoms; and in spiritualism to
+a mysterious light associated with the presence of spirit-forms.
+See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aureola</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURANGABAD,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aurungabad</span>, a city of India, in the
+dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad, north-west division,
+situated 138 m. from Poona, 207 from Bombay via Poona,
+and 270 from Hyderabad on the river Kaum. It gives its name
+to a district. It was founded in 1610, under the name of Fatchnagar,
+by Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian, who had risen from the
+condition of a slave to great influence. Subsequently it became
+the capital of the Mogul conquests in the south of India. Aurangzeb,
+who erected here a mausoleum to his wife which has been
+compared to the Taj at Agra, made the city the seat of his
+government during his viceroyalty of the Deccan, and gave
+it the name of Aurangabad. It thus grew into the principal
+city of an extensive province of the same name, stretching
+westward to the sea, and comprehending nearly the whole of
+the territory now comprised within the northern division of the
+presidency of Bombay. Aurangabad long continued to be the
+capital of the succession of potentates bearing the modern title
+of nizam, after those chiefs became independent of Delhi. They
+abandoned it subsequently, and transferred their capital to
+Hyderabad, when the town at once began to decline. Aurangabad
+is a railway station on the Hyderabad-Godavari line, 435 m. from
+Bombay. In 1901 the population, with military cantonments,
+was 36,837, showing an increase of 8% in the decade. It has a
+cotton mill.</p>
+
+<p>The district of Aurangabad has an area of 6172 sq. m. The
+population in 1901 was 721,407. It contains the famous caves
+of Ajanta, and also the battlefield of Assaye.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURANGZEB<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1618-1707), one of the greatest of the Mogul
+emperors of Hindustan, was the third son of Shah Jahan, and
+was born in November 1618. His original name, Mahommed,
+was changed by his father, with whom he was a favourite, into
+Aurangzeb, meaning ornament of the throne, and at a later
+time he assumed the additional titles of Mohi-eddin, reviver of
+religion, and Alam-gir, conqueror of the world. At a very early
+age, and throughout his whole life, he manifested profound
+religious feeling perhaps instilled into him in the course of his
+education under some of the strictest Mahommedan doctors.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span>
+He was employed, while very young, in some of his father&rsquo;s
+expeditions into the country beyond the Indus, gave promise
+of considerable military talents, and was appointed to the
+command of an army directed against the Uzbegs. In this
+campaign he was not completely successful, and soon after was
+transferred to the army engaged in the Deccan. Here he gained
+several victories, and in conjunction with the famous general,
+Mir Jumla, who had deserted from the king of Golconda, he
+seized and plundered the town of Hyderabad, which belonged to
+that monarch. His father&rsquo;s express orders prevented Aurangzeb
+from following up this success, and, not long after, the sudden
+and alarming illness of Shah Jahan turned his thoughts in
+another direction. Of Shah Jahan&rsquo;s four sons, the eldest, Dara,
+a brave and honourable prince, but disliked by the Mussulmans
+on account of his liberality of thought, had a natural right to the
+throne. Accordingly, on the illness of his father, he at once
+seized the reins of government and established himself at Delhi.
+The second son, Shuja, governor of Bengal, a dissolute and
+sensual prince, was dissatisfied, and raised an army to dispute
+the throne with Dara. The keen eye of Aurangzeb saw in this
+conjuncture of events a favourable opportunity for realising his
+own ambitious schemes. His religious exercises and temperate
+habits gave him, in popular estimation, a great superiority
+over his brothers, but he was too politic to put forward his claims
+openly. He made overtures to his younger brother Murad,
+governor of Gujarat, representing that neither of their elder
+brothers was worthy of the kingdom, that he himself had no
+temporal ambition, and desired only to place a fit monarch on
+the throne, and then to devote himself to religious exercises and
+make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He therefore proposed to unite
+his forces to those of Murad, who would thus have no difficulty
+in making himself master of the empire while the two elder
+brothers were divided by their own strife. Murad was completely
+deceived by these crafty representations, and at once accepted the
+offer. Their united armies then moved northward. Meanwhile
+Shah Jahan had recovered, and though Dara resigned the crown
+he had seized, the other brothers professed not to believe in their
+father&rsquo;s recovery, and still pressed on. Shuja was defeated by
+Dara&rsquo;s son, but the imperial forces under Jaswant Singh were
+completely routed by the united armies of Aurangzeb and
+Murad. Dara in person took the field against his brothers,
+but was defeated and compelled to fly. Aurangzeb then, by a
+clever stroke of policy, seized the person of his father, and threw
+him into confinement, in which he was kept for the remaining
+eight years of his life. Murad was soon removed by assassination,
+and the way being thus cleared, Aurangzeb, with affected reluctance,
+ascended the throne in August 1658. He quickly freed
+himself from all other competitors for the imperial power. Dara,
+who again invaded Gujarat, was defeated and closely pursued,
+and was given up by the native chief with whom he had taken
+refuge. He was brought up to Delhi, exhibited to the people,
+and assassinated. Shuja, who had been a second time defeated
+near Allahabad, was attacked by the imperial forces under Mir
+Jumla and Mahommed, Aurangzeb&rsquo;s eldest son, who, however,
+deserted and joined his uncle. Shuja was defeated and fled to
+Arakan, where he perished; Mahommed was captured, thrown
+into the fortress of Gwalior, and died after seven years&rsquo; confinement.
+No similar contest disturbed Aurangzeb&rsquo;s long
+reign of forty-six years, which has been celebrated, though with
+doubtful justice, as the most brilliant period of the history of
+Hindustan. The empire certainly was wealthy and of enormous
+extent, for there were successively added to it the rich kingdoms
+of Bijapur and Golconda, but it was internally decaying and
+ready to crumble away before the first vigorous assault. Two
+causes principally had tended to weaken the Mogul power.
+The one was the intense bigotry and intolerant policy of Aurangzeb,
+which had alienated the Hindus and roused the fierce animosity
+of the haughty Rajputs. The other was the rise and
+rapid growth of the Mahratta power. Under their able leader,
+Sivaji, these daring freebooters plundered in every direction,
+nor could all Aurangzeb&rsquo;s efforts avail to subdue them. For the
+last twenty-six years of his life Aurangzeb was engaged in wars
+in the Deccan, and never set foot in his own capital. At the
+close of the long contest the Mogul power was weaker, the
+Mahratta stronger than at first. Still the personal ability and
+influence of the emperor were sufficient to keep his realms intact
+during his own life. His last years were embittered by remorse,
+by gloomy forebodings, and by constant suspicion, for he had
+always been in the habit of employing a system of espionage,
+and only then experienced its evil effects. He died on the 3rd
+of March 1707 at Ahmadnagar, while engaged on an extensive
+but unfortunate expedition against the Mahrattas.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lane-Poole, <i>Aurangzib</i>, &ldquo;Rulers of India&rdquo; series (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURAY,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a town of France near the mouth of the Auray river,
+in the department of Morbihan, 12 m. W. of Vannes on the
+railway between that town and Lorient. Pop. (1906) 5241.
+Its port, which is formed by the channel of the river and divides
+the town into two parts, is frequented by coasting and fishing
+vessels. The principal buildings are the church of St Esprit
+(13th century) now secularized; the Renaissance church of
+St Gildas; the town-hall (18th century); and, at a short distance
+from the town, the Carthusian monastery, now a deaf and dumb
+institute, on the site of the battle of 1364, at which Charles of
+Blois was defeated by John of Montfort (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brittany</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+Adjoining the Chartreuse is a small chapel in which are preserved
+the bones of the Royalists captured by the Republicans in a battle
+fought near the spot in 1795. In the neighbourhood is the church
+of Sainte Anne d&rsquo;Auray, one of the principal places of pilgrimage
+in Brittany. Auray is one of the chief centres in France for
+oyster-breeding, and carries on boat-building and sardine-fishing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURELIA, VIA,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> an ancient highroad of Italy, the date of
+the construction of which is unknown. It ran from Rome to
+Alsium, where it reached the sea, and thence along the south-west
+coast of Italy, perhaps originally only as far as Cosa, and was
+later extended to Vada Volaterrana, and in 109 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to Genua
+and Dertona by means of the Via Aemilia, though a coast road
+as far as Genua at least must have existed long before. The name
+is applied in the Antonine Itinerary to these extensions, and even
+to the prolongation to Aries. Its line is in the main closely
+followed by the modern coast highroad; cf., however, for the
+section between Cosa and Populonia, O. Cuntz in <i>Jahreshefte
+des Öslerr. arch. Instituts</i>, vii. (1904), 54.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURELIAN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Lucius Domitius Aurelianus</span>], one of the greatest
+of the Roman soldier emperors, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia
+between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 212-214. He was of humble origin, but nothing
+definite is known of his family. He had always shown great
+enthusiasm for a military career, and so distinguished himself
+in the campaigns in which he took part that on one occasion
+he received a public vote of thanks. At the same time he was
+proclaimed consul elect, and adopted by Ulpius Crinitus, military
+governor of Illyria and Thrace. On the death of the emperor
+Claudius II. Gothicus (270), Aurelian was proclaimed his successor
+with the universal approval of the soldiers. His first task was
+to continue the war which had been begun by Claudius against
+the Goths. He drove them out of Moesia across the Danube,
+where he left them in possession of Dacia, which he did not think
+himself able to retain; the name was transferred to Moesia,
+which was then called Dacia Aureliani. The chronology, however,
+of Aurelian&rsquo;s reign is very confused, and the abandonment
+of Dacia is placed by some authorities towards its close. He
+next entered upon campaigns against the Juthungi, Alamanni,
+and other Germanic tribes, over whom, after a severe defeat
+which was said to have imperilled the very existence of the empire,
+he at length obtained a complete victory. Having thus secured
+the Rhine and Danube frontiers, he turned his energies towards
+the east, and in 271 set out on his expedition against Zenobia,
+queen of Palmyra (<i>q.v.</i>). At the same time he crushed two
+pretenders to the throne&mdash;Firmus and Tetricus. Firmus,
+a wealthy merchant of Seleucia, had proclaimed himself emperor
+of Egypt. Aurelian, who was at the time in Mesopotamia,
+hastened thither, and ordered him to be seized and put to death.
+Tetricus, who had been proclaimed emperor in the west after
+the death of Gallienus, and left undisturbed by Claudius II., still
+ruled over Gaul, Spain and Britain. A decisive battle was fought
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span>
+near the modern Châlons, in which Tetricus was defeated. The
+restoration of the unity of the empire was thus complete. In
+274 a brilliant triumph, adorned by the persons of Zenobia and
+Tetricus, was celebrated at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Aurelian now turned his attention to the internal affairs of
+the empire. He introduced sumptuary laws; relieved the poor
+by distributions of bread and meat, proceeded with great severity
+against informers and embezzlers; began the construction of
+various public works and buildings; and proclaimed a general
+amnesty for political crimes. The restoration and enlargement
+of the walls of Rome, commenced by him, was not completed
+till the reign of Probus. An attempt to restore the standard
+of the coinage is said to have caused a revolt of the workmen
+and officials connected with the mint, which was only put down
+with the loss of 7000 soldiers. It has been suggested that this
+was really an attempt at revolution incited by the senate and
+praetorian guards, the opportunity being found in disturbances
+resulting from opposition to the attempted reform, which by
+themselves could hardly have assumed such serious proportions.
+Aurelian&rsquo;s restless spirit was not long able to endure a life of
+inaction in the city. Towards the end of 274, he started on an
+expedition against the Persians, halting in Thrace by the way.
+While on the march between Heracleia and Byzantium, at the
+beginning of the following year, he was assassinated through
+the treachery of his secretary Eros, who, in order to escape the
+discovery of his own irregularities, incited certain officers against
+the emperor by showing them a forged list, on which their names
+appeared as marked out for death.</p>
+
+<p>Aurelian well deserved the title of restorer of the empire, and
+it must be remembered that he lived in an age when severity was
+absolutely necessary. He was a great soldier and a rigid but
+just disciplinarian. In more favourable circumstances he would
+have been a great administrator. He displayed a fondness
+for pomp and show on public occasions; he was the first Roman
+emperor to wear the diadem, and assumed the title of Lord and
+God on medals.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authority for the events of Aurelian&rsquo;s reign is his life
+by Vopiscus, one of the writers of the &ldquo;Augustan History&rdquo;; it is
+founded on Greek memoirs and certain journals deposited in the
+Ulpian library at Rome. See L. Homo, <i>Le Règne de l&rsquo;empereur
+Aurélien</i> (1904), and Groag&rsquo;s art. in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>,
+v. 1347 foll.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURELIANUS, CAELIUS,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> a physician of Sicca in Numidia,
+who probably flourished in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, although some
+place him two or even three centuries earlier. In favour of the
+later date is the nature of his Latin, which shows a strong
+tendency to the Romance, and the similarity of his language
+to that of Cassius Felix, also an African medical writer, who
+about 450 wrote a short treatise, chiefly based on Galen. We
+possess a translation by Aurelianus of two works of Soranus
+of Ephesus (2nd century), the chief of the &ldquo;methodist&rdquo; school
+of medicine, on chronic and acute maladies&mdash;<i>Tardae</i> or <i>Chronicae
+Passiones</i>, in five, and <i>Celeres</i> or <i>Acutae Passiones</i> in three books.
+The translation, which is especially valuable since the original
+has been lost, shows that Soranus possessed considerable practical
+skill in the diagnosis of ordinary and even of exceptional diseases.
+It is also important as containing numerous references to the
+methods of earlier medical authorities. We also possess considerable
+fragments of his <i>Medicinales Responsiones</i>, also adapted
+from Soranus, a general treatise on medicine in the form of
+question and answer; it deals with rules of health (<i>salutaria
+praecepta</i>) and the pathology of internal diseases (ed. Rose,
+<i>Anecdota Graeca et Latina</i>, ii., 1870). Where it is possible to
+compare Aurelianus&rsquo;s translation with the original&mdash;as in a
+fragment of his Gynaecia with Soranus&rsquo;s <span class="grk" title="Peri gynaikeion Pathon">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#947;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#949;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>&mdash;it
+is found that it is literal, but abridged. There is
+apparently no MS. of the treatises in existence. (Editions:
+Amman, 1709; Haller, 1774.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN BAPTISTE D&rsquo;<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span>
+(1804-1877), French general, was born at Malzieu, Lozère, on
+the 9th of January 1804. He was educated at St Cyr, and
+entered the army as sub-lieutenant of foot in 1824. He served
+with distinction in Algeria between 1841 and 1848, becoming
+lieut.-colonel and an officer of the Legion of Honour; took part
+in the Roman campaigns of 1848 and 1849, and was made colonel.
+He served as general of brigade throughout the Crimean War of
+1854-56, being promoted general of division and commander of
+the Legion of Honour. During the campaign in Lombardy in
+1859 he commanded at Marseilles, and superintended the despatch
+of men and stores to the seat of war, and for his services he was
+made a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. Placed on the
+reserve list in 1869, he was recalled to the Marseilles command
+on the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870-71. After
+the first capture of Orleans by the Germans, he was appointed
+by the Government of National Defence, in November 1870,
+to the command of the Army of the Loire. He was at first very
+successful against von der Tann-Rathsamhausen, winning the
+battle of Coulmiers and compelling the Germans to evacuate
+Orleans, but the capitulation of Metz had set free additional
+German troops to oppose him, and, after his defeat at Beaune la
+Rolande and subsequent unsuccessful fighting near Orleans,
+resulting in its recapture by the Germans in December, Aurelle
+retreated into the Sologne and was superseded. After the armistice
+he was elected to the National Assembly by the departments
+both of Allier and Gironde. He sat for Allier and was one of
+the fifteen officers chosen to assist in the peace negotiations.
+He was decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour,
+and was given the command at Bordeaux, but retired in 1872.
+Elected a life senator in 1875, he supported the monarchical
+majority of 1876. He died at Versailles on the 17th of December
+1877. He was the author of <i>La Première Armée de la Loire</i>,
+published in 1872.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUREOLA,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> <span class="sc">Aureole</span> (diminutive of Lat. <i>aura</i>, air), the radiance
+of luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages, is
+represented as surrounding the whole figure. In the earliest
+periods of Christian art this splendour was confined to the figures
+of the persons of the Godhead, but it was afterwards extended
+to the Virgin Mary and to several of the saints. The aureola,
+when enveloping the whole body, is generally oval or elliptical
+in form, but is occasionally circular or quatrefoil. When it is
+merely a luminous disk round the head, it is called specifically
+a <i>nimbus</i>, while the combination of nimbus and aureole is called
+a <i>glory</i>. The strict distinction between nimbus and aureole is
+not commonly maintained, and the latter term is most frequently
+used to denote the radiance round the heads of saints, angels
+or persons of the Godhead. The <i>nimbus</i> in Christian art appeared
+first in the 5th century, but practically the same device was
+known still earlier, though its history is obscure, in non-Christian
+art. Thus (though earlier Indian and Bactrian coins do not show
+it) it is found with the gods on some of the coins of the Indian
+kings Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva, 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 41
+(Gardner&rsquo;s <i>Cat. of Coins of Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria
+and India</i>, Brit. Mus. 1886, plates 26-29). And its use has been
+traced through the Egyptians to the Greeks and Romans,
+representations of Trajan (arch of Constantine) and Antoninus
+Pius (reverse of a medal) being found with it. In the circular
+form it constitutes a natural and even primitive use of the idea
+of a crown, modified by an equally simple idea of the emanation
+of light from the head of a superior being, or by the meteorological
+phenomenon of a halo. The probability is that all later associations
+with the symbol refer back to an early astrological origin (cf.
+<span class="sc">Mithras</span>), the person so glorified being identified with the sun
+and represented in the sun&rsquo;s image; so the aureole is the <i>Hvareno</i>
+of Mazdaism. From this early astrological use the form of
+&ldquo;glory&rdquo; or &ldquo;nimbus&rdquo; has been adapted or inherited under
+new beliefs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURICH,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hanover, chief town of the district of East Friesland, on the
+Ems-Jade canal, 18 m. N.W. from Emden by rail. Pop. (1900)
+6013. It is built in the Dutch style, and lies in a sandy but
+fertile plain, surrounded by pleasant promenades which have
+taken the place of the old fortifications. It has a palace, formerly
+the residence of the counts of East Friesland and now used as
+government offices, a Roman Catholic and two Protestant
+churches, a gymnasium, and four libraries. There are breweries
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span>
+and small manufactories of paper and tobacco. Close by is the
+<i>Upstallsboom</i>, the hill of oath and liberty, where every year at
+Whitsuntide representatives of the seven Frisian coast lands
+assembled to deliberate.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wiarda, <i>Bruchstücke zur Geschichte der Stadt Aurich</i> (Emden,
+1835).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURICLE<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (from Lat. diminutive of <i>auris</i>, ear), the external ear
+in animals, or an analogous part in plants, &amp;c. From a supposed
+resemblance to the ear of a dog, the term was applied to the
+upper cavities of the heart. The adjective &ldquo;auricular&rdquo; is
+more specially used in the phrase &ldquo;auricular confession&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Confession</a></span>), <i>i.e.</i> private.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURICULA<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (<i>Primula auricula</i>), an Alpine plant, which has
+been an inmate of British gardens for about three hundred
+years, and is still prized by florists as a favourite spring flower.
+It loves a cool soil and shady situation. The florists&rsquo; varieties
+are grown in rich composts, for the preparation of which numberless
+receipts have been given; but many of the old nostrums are
+now exploded, and a more rational treatment has taken their
+place. Thus Mr Douglas writes (<i>Hardy Florists&rsquo; Flowers</i>):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;There is no mystery, as some suppose, about the potting, any
+more than there is about the potting material. The compost should
+consist of turfy loam four parts, leaf-mould one part, sharp river or
+silver sand one part, and a few bits of broken charcoal mixed with  it.
+The pots to be used should be from 3 to 4½ in. in diameter, inside
+measure; about 1 in. of potsherds should be placed in the bottom
+of each pot, and over this some fibrous turf, from which the fine
+particles of earth have been removed. The old soil should be shaken
+from the roots of the plants to be potted; and before potting cut off,
+if necessary, a portion of the main root. In potting press the soil
+rather firmly around the roots.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Auriculas are best grown in a cold frame mounted on legs
+about 2 ft. from the ground, and provided with hinged sashes.
+A graduated stage formed of wood battens 6 in. broad, with a
+rise of 2 in., should be fixed so as to take each one row of pots,
+with the plants standing at about 15 in. from the glass; the
+spaces between the shelves should be closed, while the top board
+of the back and the front should be hinged so as to be let down
+when desired for ventilation, the sashes, too, being movable for
+the same purpose, and also to afford facilities for examining
+and attending to the plants. This frame should face the north
+from May to October, and south in winter. No protection
+will be needed except in very severe frosts, when two or three
+thicknesses of garden mats may be thrown over the glass, and
+allowed to remain on until the soil is thawed, should it become
+frozen.</p>
+
+<p>Auriculas may be propagated from seed, which is to be sown as
+soon as ripe, in July or August, in boxes, kept under cover, and
+exposed only to the rays of the morning sun. When seed has
+been saved from the finer sorts, the operation is one of considerable
+nicety, as it not unfrequently happens that the best seedlings
+are at first exceedingly weak. They generally flower in the
+second or third year, a few good sorts being all that can be
+expected from a large sowing. The established varieties are
+increased by taking off the offshoots, an operation performed at
+the time of potting in July or the beginning of August. But
+some varieties are very shy in producing offsets.</p>
+
+<p>The original of the auricula is a hardy perennial herb, of
+dwarf habit, bearing dull yellowish blossoms. This and the
+commoner forms raised from seed, as well as one or two double
+forms, are interesting hardy border flowers. The choice florists&rsquo;
+varieties are divided into five classes:&mdash;the <i>green-edged</i>, with the
+margins of the flowers green; the <i>grey-edged</i>, with the green
+margins powdered with meal so as to appear to be coloured grey;
+the <i>white-edged</i>, with the mealy powder so dense as to cover the
+green; the <i>selfs</i>, which have none of the green variegation of
+margin seen in the foregoing, but are of some distinct colour,
+as purple, maroon, &amp;c., but have, like the preceding, a white
+paste surrounding the eye; and the <i>alpines</i>, which resemble the
+selfs in not having any green marginal variegation, but differ
+in having a yellow centre more or less dense. The individual
+flowers of the first three groups of florists&rsquo; auriculas show four
+distinct circles:&mdash;first the eye or tube, which should have the
+stamens lying in it, but sometimes has the pin-headed stigma
+instead, which is a defect; second, the paste or circle of pure
+white surrounding the eye; third, the body colour, a circle of
+some dark tint, as maroon or violet, which feathers out more or
+less towards the edge, but is the more perfect the less it is so
+feathered, and is quite faulty if it breaks through to the outer
+circle; fourth, the margin, which is green or grey or white.
+These circles should be about equal in width and clearly defined,
+and the nearer they are to this standard the more perfect is the
+flower. In the group of selfs the conditions are the same, except
+that there is no margin, and consequently the body colour,
+which should be uniform in tone, extends to the edge. In the
+alpines there should be no paste or white surrounding the eye,
+but this space should be either golden-yellow or creamy-yellow,
+which makes two subdivisions in this group; and the body
+colour is more or less distinctly shaded, the edges being of a paler
+hue. There is besides a group of laced alpines, in which a distinct
+and regular border of colour surrounds each of the marginal
+lobes.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a selection of the best varieties cultivated
+in 1909:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Green-edged</i>.&mdash;Abbé Liszt, Abraham Barker, Shirley Hibberd, Prince Charming, Mrs Henwood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grey-edged</i>.&mdash;Amy Robsart, George Lightbody, Marmion, Olympus, George Rudd,
+Richard Headly.</p>
+
+<p><i>White-edged</i>.&mdash;Acme, Conservative, Heather Bell, Mrs Dodson, Rachel,
+Smiling Beauty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selfs</i>.&mdash;Andrew Miller, Gerald, Mikado, Mrs Phillips, Mrs Potts, Harrison
+Weir.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alpines</i>.&mdash;Argus, Dean Hole, Duke of York, Firefly, Flora Mclvor, Mrs
+Douglas, Mrs Markham, Perfection, Phyllis, Rosy Morn, The
+Bride, Teviotdale.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURIFABER<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (the latinized form of Goldschmidt), a surname
+borne by three prominent men of the Reformation period in
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Andreas</span> (1514-1559) was a physician of some repute, but
+through his influence with Albert of Brandenburg, last grand-master
+of the Teutonic order, and first Protestant duke of
+Prussia, became an outstanding figure in the controversy
+associated with Andreas Osiander (<i>q.v.</i>) whose daughter he had
+married.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Joannes</span> (Vratislaviensis; 1517-1568), the younger
+brother of Andreas, was born at Breslau on the 30th of January
+1517, and educated at Wittenberg, where he formed a close and
+lasting friendship with Melanchthon. After graduating in 1538
+he spent twelve years as <i>docent</i> at the university, and having
+then received his doctorate of divinity, was appointed professor
+of divinity and pastor of the church of St Nicholas at Rostock.
+He distinguished himself by his conciliatory disposition, earned
+the special confidence of Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg, and
+took a leading part in 1552 in drawing up the constitution of
+the Mecklenburg church. He also settled some religious disputes
+in the town of Lübeck. In 1553 Duke Albert of Prussia, anxious
+to heal the differences in the Prussian church caused by the
+discussion of Osiander&rsquo;s doctrines, invited him to Königsberg,
+and in the following year appointed him professor of divinity
+and president of the Samland diocese. Joannes, however,
+found it impossible to conciliate all parties, and in 1565 returned
+to Breslau, where, in 1567, he became pastor in the church of
+St Elizabeth and inspector of the Lutheran churches and schools.
+He died on the 19th of October 1568.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Joannes</span> (Vinariensis; 1519-1575), was born in the
+county of Mansfeldt in 1519. He studied at Wittenberg where
+he heard the lectures of Luther, and afterwards became tutor
+to Count Mansfeldt. In the war of 1544-45 he accompanied the
+army as field-preacher, and then lived with Luther as his <i>famulus</i>
+or private secretary, being present at his death in 1546. In the
+following year he spent six months in prison with John Frederick,
+elector of Saxony, who had been captured by the emperor,
+Charles V. He held for some years the office of court-preacher
+at Weimar, but owing to theological disputes was compelled
+to resign this office in 1561. In 1566 he was appointed to the
+Lutheran church at Erfurt, and there remained till his death
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span>
+in November 1575. Besides taking a share in the first collected
+or Jena edition of Luther&rsquo;s works (1556), Aurifaber sought out
+and published at Eisleben in 1564-1565 several writings not
+included in that edition. He also published Luther&rsquo;s <i>Letters</i>
+(1556, 1565), and <i>Table Talk</i> (1566). This popular work, which
+has given him most of his fame, is unfortunately but a second
+or third hand compilation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Kawerau&rsquo;s art. in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyk. für prot.
+Theologie</i>, and the literature there cited.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURIGA<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (the &ldquo;charioteer&rdquo; or &ldquo;waggoner&rdquo;), in astronomy, a
+constellation of the northern hemisphere, found in the catalogues
+of Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). It
+was symbolized by the Greeks as an old man in a more or less
+sitting posture, with a goat and her kids in his left hand, and
+a bridle in his right. The ancient Greeks associated this constellation
+with many myths. Some assume it to be Erichthonius,
+son of Athena and Hephaestus, who was translated to the skies
+by Zeus on account of his invention of chariots or coaches.
+Others assume it to be Myrtilus, a son of Hermes and Clytic,
+and charioteer to Oenomaus, who was placed in the heavens by
+Hermes. Another myth has it to be Olenus, a son of Hephaestus,
+and father of Aega and Helice, two nymphs who nursed Zeus.
+Ptolemy catalogued fourteen stars, Tycho Brahe twenty-seven,
+and Hevelius forty in this constellation. Interesting stars
+are: &alpha; <i>Aurigae</i> or <i>Capella</i> (the goat), one of the brightest
+stars in the heavens, determined by Newall and Campbell to be
+a spectroscopic binary; &beta; <i>Aurigae</i>, a star of the second magnitude
+also a spectroscopic binary; &epsilon; <i>Aurigae</i>, an irregularly variable
+star; and <i>Nova Aurigae</i>, a &ldquo;new&rdquo; star discovered by Anderson
+in 1892, and afterwards found on a photographic plate exposed
+at Harvard in December 1891. Several fine star clusters also
+appear in this constellation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURILLAC,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of the department
+of Cantal, 140 m. N.N.E. of Toulouse, on the Orléans railway
+between Figeac and Murat. Pop. (1906) 14,097. Aurillac
+stands on the right bank of the Jordanne, and is dominated
+from the north-west by the Roc Castanet, crowned by the castle
+of St Etienne, the keep of which dates from the 11th century.
+Its streets are narrow and uninteresting, with the exception of
+one which contains, among other old houses, that known as the
+Maison des Consuls, a Gothic building of the 16th century,
+decorated with sculptured stone-work. Aurillac owes its origin
+to an abbey founded in the 9th century by St Géraud, and the
+abbey-church, rebuilt in the 17th century in the Gothic style,
+is the chief building in the town. The former college, which
+dates from the 17th century, is now occupied by a museum and
+a library. There is a statue of Pope Silvester II., born near
+Aurillac in 930 and educated in the abbey, which soon afterwards
+became one of the most famous schools of France. Aurillac
+is the seat of a prefect, and its public institutions include tribunals
+of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a
+lycée, training-colleges and a branch of the Bank of France.
+The chief manufactures are wooden shoes and umbrellas, and
+there is trade in cheese and in the cattle and horses reared in
+the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURISPA, GIOVANNI<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1370-1459), one of the learned
+Italians of the 15th century, who did so much to promote the
+revival of the study of Greek in Italy, was born at Noto in
+Sicily. In 1418 he visited Constantinople, where he remained
+for some years, perfecting his knowledge of Greek and searching
+for ancient MSS. His efforts were rewarded by the acquisition
+of some 250 MSS., with which he returned to Venice. Here he
+is said to have been obliged to pawn his treasures for 50 gold
+florins to provide for his immediate wants. Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici,
+hearing of his embarrassment, redeemed the MSS. and summoned
+the owner to Florence. In 1438, at the council of Basel, Aurispa
+attracted the attention of Pope Eugenius IV., who made him his
+secretary; he held a similar position under Nicholas V., who
+presented him to two lucrative abbacies. He died at Ferrara.
+Considering his long life and reputation Aurispa produced little:
+Latin translations of the commentary of Hierocles on the golden
+verses of Pythagoras (1474) and of <i>Philisci Consolatoria ad
+Ciceronem</i> from Dio Cassius (not published till 1510); and,
+according to Gesner, a translation of the works of Archimedes.
+Aurispa&rsquo;s reputation rests upon the extensive collection of MSS.
+copied and distributed by him, and his persistent efforts to
+revive and promote the study of ancient literature.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUROCHS<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>urus</i>, the wild ox, and &ldquo;ox&rdquo;) or <span class="sc">Urus</span>,
+the name of the extinct wild ox of Europe (<i>Bos taurus
+primigenius</i>), which after the disappearance of that animal became
+transferred to the bison. According to the German Freiherr
+von Herberstein (1486-1566), in his <i>Moscovia</i>, of which an Italian
+translation was published at Venice in 1550, the aurochs survived
+in Poland (and probably also in Hungary) during the latter
+middle ages. In this work appear woodcuts&mdash;rude but characteristic
+and unmistakable&mdash;of two distinct types of European
+wild cattle; one the aurochs, or ur, and the other the bison.
+As Herberstein had travelled in Poland, it is probable that he
+had seen both species alive, and the drawings were most likely
+executed under his own direction. It has indeed been suggested
+that the figure of the aurochs was taken from a domesticated
+ox, but this is a mistaken idea. Not the least important feature
+of the work of Herberstein is the application of the name aurochs
+to the wild ox, as distinct from the bison. The locality where
+aurochs survived in Herberstein&rsquo;s time was the forest of Jaktozowka,
+situated about 55 kilometres west-south-west of Warsaw,
+in the provinces of Bolemow and Sochaczew. From other
+evidence it appears that the last aurochs was killed in this forest
+in the year 1627. Herberstein describes the colour of the aurochs
+as black, and this is confirmed by another old picture of the
+animal. Gesner&rsquo;s figure of the aurochs, or as he calls it &ldquo;thur,&rdquo;
+given in the <i>Icones</i> to his <i>History of Animals</i>, was probably
+adapted from Herberstein&rsquo;s. It may be added that an ancient
+gold goblet depicts the hunting and taming of the wild aurochs.</p>
+
+<p>As a wild animal, then, the aurochs appears to have ceased
+to exist in the early part of the 17th century; but as a species
+it survives, for the majority of the domesticated breeds of
+European cattle are its descendants, all diminished in point of
+size, and some departing more widely from the original type
+than others. Aurochs&rsquo; calves were in all probability captured
+by the early inhabitants of Britain and the continent and tamed;
+and from these, with perhaps an occasional blending of wild
+blood, are descended most European breeds of cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Much misconception, however, has prevailed as to which
+breeds are the nearest to the ancestral wild stock. At one time
+this position was supposed to be occupied by the white half-wild
+cattle of Chillingham and other British parks. These white
+breeds are, however, partial albinos; and such semi-albinos are
+always the result of domestication and could not have arisen
+in the wild state. Moreover, park-cattle display evidence of
+their descent from dark-coloured breeds by the retention of red
+or black ears and brown or black muzzles. In the Chillingham
+cattle the ears are generally red, although sometimes black,
+and the muzzle is brown; while in the breed at Cadzow Chase
+Lanarkshire, both ears and muzzle are black, and there are
+usually flecks of black on the head and forequarters. It is further
+significant that, in the Chillingham herd, dark-coloured calves,
+which are weeded out, make their appearance from time to
+time.</p>
+
+<p>A very ancient British breed is the black Pembroke; and when
+this breed tends to albinism, the ears and muzzle, and more rarely
+the fetlocks, remain completely black, or very dark grey, although
+the colour elsewhere is whitish, more or less flecked and blotched
+with pale grey. In the shape and curvature of the horns, which
+at first incline outwards and forwards, and then bend somewhat
+upwards and inwards, this breed of cattle resembles the aurochs
+and the (by comparison) dwarfed park-breeds. Moreover, in
+both the Pembroke and the park-breeds the horns are light-coloured
+with black tips.</p>
+
+<p>Evidence as to the affinity between these breeds is afforded by
+the fact that a breed of cattle very similar to that at Chillingham
+was found in Wales in the 10th century; these cattle being
+white with red ears. Individuals of this race survived till at
+least 1850 in Pembroke, where they were at one time kept
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span>
+perfectly pure as a part of the regular farm-stock. Until a
+period comparatively recent, they were relatively numerous, and
+were driven in droves to the pasturages of the Severn and the
+neighbouring markets. Their whole essential characters are the
+same as those of the cattle at Chillingham. Their horns are
+white, tipped with black, and extended and turned upwards in
+the manner distinctive of the park-breed. The inside of the ears
+and the muzzle are black, and the feet are black to the fetlock
+joint. The skin is unctuous and of a deep-toned yellow colour.
+Individuals of the race were sometimes born entirely black, and
+then were not to be distinguished from the common Pembroke
+cattle of the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus evident that park-cattle are an albino offshoot
+from the ancient Pembroke black breed, which, from their soft
+and well-oiled skins, are evidently natives of a humid climate,
+such as that of the forests in which dwelt the wild aurochs.
+This disposes of a theory that they are descendants of a white
+sacrificial breed introduced into Britain by the ancient Romans.</p>
+
+<p>The Pembroke and park-cattle are, however, by no means the
+sole descendants of the aurochs, the black Spanish fighting-bulls
+claiming a similar descent. This breed shows a light-coloured
+line along the spine, which was characteristic of the aurochs.
+It has also been suggested that the Swiss Siemental cattle are
+nearly related to the aurochs. The latter was a gigantic animal,
+especially during the Pleistocene period; the skulls and limb-bones
+discovered in the brick-earths and gravels of the Thames
+valley and many other parts of England having belonged to
+animals that probably stood six feet at the shoulder.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURORA<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (perhaps through a form <i>ausosa</i> from Sansk. <i>ush</i>,
+to burn; the common idea of &ldquo;brightness&rdquo; suggests a connexion
+with <i>aurum</i>, gold), the Roman goddess of the dawn, corresponding
+to the Greek goddess Eos. According to Hesiod (<i>Theog</i>. 271)
+she was the daughter of the Titan Hyperion and Thea (or
+Euryphassa), and sister of Helios and Selene. By the Titan Astraeus,
+she was the mother of the winds Zephyrus, Notus and Boreas,
+of Hesperus and the stars. Homer represents her as rising
+every morning from the couch of Tithonus (by whom she was
+the mother of Emathion and Memnon), and drawn out of the
+east in a chariot by the horses Lampus and Phaëthon to carry
+light to gods and men (<i>Odyssey</i>, xxiii. 253); in Homer, she
+abandons her course when the sun is fully risen (or at the latest at
+mid-day, <i>Iliad</i>, ix. 66), but in later literature she accompanies
+the sun all day and thus becomes the goddess of the daylight.
+From the roseate shafts of light which herald the dawn, she
+bears in Homer the epithet &ldquo;rosy-fingered.&rdquo; The conception of
+a dawn-goddess is common in primitive religions, especially in
+the Vedic mythology, where the deity Usás is closely parallel to
+the Greco-Roman; see Paul Regnaud, <i>Le Rig-Véda</i> in <i>Annales
+du musée Guimet</i>, vol. i. c. 6 (Paris, 1892). She is also represented
+as the lover of the hunter Orion (<i>Odyssey</i>, v. 121), the
+representative of the constellation that disappears at the flush of dawn,
+and the youthful hunter Cephalus, by whom she was the mother
+of Phaëthon (Apollodorus iii. 14. 3). In works of art, Eos is
+represented as a young woman, fully clothed, walking fast
+with a youth in her arms; or rising from the sea in a chariot
+drawn by winged horses; sometimes, as the goddess who dispenses
+the dews of the morning, she has a pitcher in each hand.
+In the fresco-painting by Guido Reni in the Rospigliosi palace
+at Rome, Aurora is represented strewing flowers before the
+chariot of the sun. Metaphorically the word Aurora was used
+(<i>e.g.</i> Virg. <i>Aen</i>. viii. 686, vii. 606) for the East generally.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURORA,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> a city of Kane county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the
+N.E. part of the state, on the Fox river, about 37 m. W. of
+Chicago. Pop. (1890) 19,688; (1900) 24,147, of whom 5075 were
+foreign-born; (1910) 29,807. Aurora is served by the Chicago,
+Burlington &amp; Quincy, the Chicago &amp; North-Western, the Elgin,
+Joliet &amp; Eastern, and the Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota railways,
+and is connected with Chicago by an electric line. The
+city has a soldiers&rsquo; memorial hall, erected by popular
+subscription, and a Carnegie library. Aurora is an important
+manufacturing centre; among its manufactures are railway cars&mdash;the
+shops of the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy railway being
+here&mdash;flour and cotton, carriages, hardware specialties, corsets,
+suspenders, stoves and silver-plate. In 1905 the city&rsquo;s factory
+products were valued at $7,329,028, an increase of 30% in 5 years.
+The municipality owns and operates the water-works and electric-lighting
+plants. The first settlement in the vicinity of Aurora
+was made in 1834. In 1845 the village of East Aurora was
+incorporated, and West Aurora was incorporated nine years later.
+In 1853 the two villages were united under a city charter, which
+was superseded by a revised charter in 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURORA,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a city of Lawrence county, Missouri, U.S.A.,
+275 m. S.W. of St Louis, on the St Louis &amp; San Francisco, and
+the St Louis, Iron Mountain &amp; Southern railways. Pop.(1890)
+3482; (1900) 6191; (1910) 4148. It is situated near a lead and
+zinc mining region, where surface lead was discovered in 1873
+and systematic mining began in 1887; among the cities of the
+state it is second to Joplin in mineral importance, and has large
+iron-works and flour-mills; mining machinery also is manufactured.
+Farming and fruit-growing are carried on in the
+surrounding country, and Aurora is the place from which the
+products are shipped. Aurora was platted in 1870 and was
+chartered as a city in 1886.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURORA,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a village of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A., on
+Cayuga Lake, 16 m. S.W. of Auburn. Pop. (1905) 623; (1910)
+493. It is served by the Lehigh Valley railway. Aurora is a beautiful
+place and a popular summer resort, but it is best known as
+the seat of Wells College, a non-sectarian college for women,
+founded in 1868 by Henry Wells (1805-1878), of the Wells
+Fargo Express Company, and liberally endowed by Edwin B.
+Morgan (1806-1881), also connected with the same company,
+and by others. At Aurora are also the Somes school (a preparatory
+school for boys), founded in 1798 and until 1904 known as
+the Cayuga Lake Academy, and the Wells school (a preparatory
+school for girls). The village has a public library. Aurora was
+settled in 1789 chiefly by residents of New England, and was
+incorporated in 1905.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURORA POLARIS<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (<i>Aurora Borealis</i> and <i>Australis</i>, Polar
+Light, Northern Lights), a natural phenomenon which occurs
+in many forms, some of great beauty.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Forms.</i>&mdash;Various schemes of classification have been
+proposed, but none has met with universal acceptance; the
+following are at least the principal types. (1) <i>Arcs.</i> These
+most commonly resemble segments of circles, but are not infrequently
+elliptical or irregular in outline. The ends of arcs
+frequently extend to the horizon, but often one or both ends
+stop short of this. Several arcs may be visible at the same
+time. Usually the under or concave edge of the arc is the more
+clearly defined, and adjacent to it the sky often seems darker
+than elsewhere. It is rather a disputed point whether this dark
+segment&mdash;through which starlight has been seen to pass&mdash;represents
+a real atmospheric condition or is merely a contrast
+effect. (2) <i>Bands.</i> These may be nearly straight and regular
+in outline, as if broken portions of arcs; frequently they are
+ribbon-like serpentine forms showing numerous sinuosities.
+(3) <i>Rays.</i> Frequently an arc or band is visibly composed of
+innumerable short rays separated by distinctly less luminous
+intervals. These rays are more or less perpendicular to the arc
+or band; sometimes they are very approximately parallel to
+one another, on other occasions they converge towards a point.
+Longer rays often show an independent existence. Not infrequently
+rays extend from the upper edge of an arc towards
+the zenith. Combinations of rays sometimes resemble a luminous
+fan, or a series of fans, or part of a hollow luminous cylinder.
+Rays often alter suddenly in length, seeming to stretch down
+towards the horizon or mount towards the zenith. This accounts
+for the description of aurora as &ldquo;Merry Dancers.&rdquo; (4) <i>Curtains
+or Draperies.</i> This form is rare except in Arctic regions, where
+it is sometimes fairly frequent. It is one of the most imposing
+forms. As a rule the higher portion is visibly made up of rays,
+the light tending to become more continuous towards the lower
+edge; the combination suggests a connected whole, like a
+curtain whose alternate portions are in light and shade. The
+curtain often shows several conspicuous folds, and the lower
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span>
+edge often resembles frilled drapery. At several stations in
+Greenland auroral curtains have been observed when passing
+right overhead to narrow to a thin luminous streak, exactly as
+a vertical sheet of light would seem to do to one passing underneath
+it. (5) <i>Corona</i>. A fully developed corona is perhaps the
+finest form of aurora. As the name implies, there is a sort of
+crown of light surrounding a comparatively or wholly dark
+centre. Farther from the centre the ray structure is usually
+prominent. The rays may lie very close together, or may
+be widely separated from one another. (6) <i>Patches</i>. During
+some displays, auroral light appears in irregular areas or patches,
+which sometimes bear a very close resemblance to illuminated
+detached clouds. (7) <i>Diffused Aurora</i>. Sometimes a large
+part of the sky shows a diffuse illumination, which, though
+brighter in some parts than others, possesses no definite outlines.
+How far the different forms indicate real difference in the nature
+of the phenomenon, and how far they are determined by the
+position of the observer, it is difficult to say. Not infrequently
+several different forms are visible at the same time.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:531px; height:685px" src="images/img928.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">2. <i>Isochasms</i>.&mdash;Aurora is seldom observed in low latitudes.
+In the southern hemisphere there is comparatively little inhabited
+land in high latitudes and observational data are few;
+thus little is known as to how the frequency varies with latitude
+and longitude. Even in the northern hemisphere there are large
+areas in the Arctic about which little is known. H. Fritz (<b>2</b>)
+has, however, drawn a series of curves which are believed to give
+a good general idea of the relative frequency of aurora throughout
+the northern hemisphere. Fritz&rsquo; curves, shown in the illustration,
+are termed isochasms, from the Greek word employed by Aristotle
+to denote aurora. Points on the same curve are supposed
+to have the same average number of auroras in the year, and
+this average number is shown adjacent to the curve. Starting
+from the equator and travelling northwards we find in the
+extreme south of Spain an average of only one aurora in ten
+years. In the north of France the average rises to five a year;
+in the north of Ireland to thirty a year; a little to the north of
+the Shetlands to one hundred a year. Between the Shetlands
+and Iceland we cross the curve of maximum frequency, and
+farther north the frequency diminishes. The curve of maximum
+frequency forms a slightly irregular oval, whose centre, the
+auroral pole, is according to Fritz at about 81° N. lat., 70° W.
+long. Isochasms reach a good deal farther south in America
+than in Europe. In other words, auroras are much more
+numerous in the southern parts of Canada and in the United
+States than in the same latitudes of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Annual Variation</i>.&mdash;Table I. shows the annual variation
+observed in the frequency of aurora. It has been compiled from
+several authorities, especially Joseph Lovering (<b>4</b>) and Sophus
+Tromholt (<b>5</b>). The monthly figures denote the percentages of the
+total number seen in the year. The stations are arranged in
+order of latitude. Individual places are first considered, then
+a few large areas.</p>
+
+<p>The Godthaab data in Table I. are essentially those given by
+Prof. A. Paulsen (<b>6</b>) as observed by Kleinschmidt in the winters
+of 1865 to 1882, supplemented by Lovering&rsquo;s data for summer.
+Starting at the extreme north, we have a simple period with a
+well-marked maximum at midwinter, and no auroras during
+several months at midsummer. This applies to Hammerfest,
+Jakobshavn, Godthaab and the most northern division of
+Scandinavia. The next division of Scandinavia shows a transition
+stage. To the south of this in Europe the single maximum
+at mid-winter is replaced by two maxima, somewhere about the
+equinoxes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>4. In considering what is the real significance of the great difference
+apparent in Table I. between higher and middle latitudes, a
+primary consideration is that aurora is seldom seen until the sun is
+some degrees below the horizon. There is no reason to suppose that
+the physical causes whose effects we see as aurora are in existence
+only when aurora is visible. Until means are devised for detecting
+aurora during bright sunshine, our knowledge as to the hour at
+which these causes are most frequently or most powerfully in operation
+must remain incomplete. But it can hardly be doubted that
+the differences apparent in Table I. are largely due to the influence
+of sunlight. In high latitudes for several months in summer it is
+never dark, and consequently a total absence of visible aurora is
+practically inevitable. Some idea of this influence can be derived
+from figures obtained by the Swedish International Expedition of
+1882-1883 at Cape Thorsden, Spitsbergen, lat. 78° 28&prime; N. (<b>7</b>). The
+original gives the relative frequency of aurora for each degree of
+depression of the sun below the horizon, assuming the effect of twilight
+to be nil (<i>i.e.</i> the relative frequency to be 100) when the depression
+is 18.5° or more. The following are a selection of the
+figures:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Angle of depression</td> <td class="tcl">4.5°</td> <td class="tcl">7.5°</td> <td class="tcl">10.5°</td> <td class="tcl">12.5°</td> <td class="tcl">15.5°.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Relative frequency</td> <td class="tcl">0.3</td> <td class="tcl">9.3</td> <td class="tcl">44.9</td> <td class="tcl">74.5</td> <td class="tcl">95.9.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">These figures are not wholly free from uncertainties, arising from
+true diurnal and annual variations in the frequency, but they give
+a good general idea of the influence of twilight.</p>
+
+<p>If sunlight and twilight were the sole cause of the apparent annual
+variation, the frequency would have a simple period, with a maximum
+at midwinter and a minimum at midsummer. This is what
+is actually shown by the most northern stations and districts in
+Table I. When we come, however, below 65° lat. in Europe the
+frequency near the equinoxes rises above that at midwinter, and
+we have a distinct double period, with a principal minimum at midsummer
+and a secondary minimum at midwinter. In southern
+Europe&mdash;where, however, auroras are too few to give smooth results
+in a limited number of years&mdash;in southern Canada, and in the
+United States, the difference between the winter and summer
+months is much reduced. Whether there is any real difference
+between high and mean latitudes in the annual frequency of the
+causes rendered visible by aurora, it is difficult to say. The
+Scandinavian data, from the wealth of observations, are probably the
+most representative, and even in the most northern district of
+Scandinavia the smallness of the excess of the frequencies in December
+and January over those in March and October suggests that
+some influence tending to create maxima at the equinoxes has largely
+counterbalanced the influence of sunlight and twilight in reducing
+the frequency at these seasons.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Fourier Analysis</i>.&mdash;With a view to more minute examination,
+the annual frequency can be expressed in Fourier series, whose terms
+represent waves, whose periods are 12, 6, 4, 3, &amp;c. months. This
+has been done by Lovering (4) for thirty-five stations. The nature of
+the results will best be explained by reference to the formula given
+by Lovering as a mean from all the stations considered, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">8.33 + 3.03 sin(30t + 100°52&prime;) + 2.53 sin(60t + 309° 5&prime;)
+       + 0.16 sin(90t + 213°31&prime;) + 0.56 sin(120t + 162°45&prime;)
+       + 0.27 sin(150t + 32°38&prime;).</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The total number of auroras in the year is taken as 100, and t denotes
+the time, in months, that has elapsed since the middle of January.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span>
+Putting t = 0, 1, &amp;c., in succession, we get the percentages of the total
+number of auroras which occur in January, February, and so on.
+The first periodic term has a period of twelve, the second of six
+months, and similarly for the others. The first periodic term is
+largest when t × 30° + 100° 52&prime; = 450°. This makes t = 11.6 months
+after the middle of January, otherwise the 3rd of January,
+approximately. The 6-month term has the earliest of its two equal
+maxima about the 26th of March. These two are much the most
+important of the periodic terms. The angles 100° 52&prime;, 309° 5&prime;, &amp;c., are
+known as the phase angles of the respective periodic terms, while
+3.03, 2.53, &amp;c., are the corresponding amplitudes. Table II. gives
+a selection of Lovering&rsquo;s results. The stations are arranged according
+to latitude.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:351px" src="images/img928a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1&mdash;TWO TYPES OF AURORAL ARCS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:470px; height:613px" src="images/img928b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2&mdash;TWO TYPES OF AURORAL RAYS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From the <i>Internationale Polarforschung</i>, 1882-1883, by permission of the
+<i>Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>, Vienna.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:603px; height:214px" src="images/img928c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3&mdash;AURORAL BANDS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:602px; height:355px" src="images/img928d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4&mdash;AURORAL CURTAIN BELOW AN ARC.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:600px; height:497px" src="images/img928e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;AURORAL CORONA.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> I.&mdash;<i>Annual Frequency</i> (<i>Relative</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Place.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Latitude.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Feb.</td> <td class="tcc allb">March.</td> <td class="tcc allb">April.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June.</td> <td class="tcc allb">July.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sep.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hammerfest</td> <td class="tcc rb">70½</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jakobshavn</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Godthaab</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Christiania</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upsala</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stockholm</td> <td class="tcc rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Edinburgh</td> <td class="tcc rb">56</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc rb">52½</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcc rb">51½</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Quebec</td> <td class="tcc rb">47</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Toronto</td> <td class="tcc rb">43½</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cambridge, Mass.</td> <td class="tcc rb">42½</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Haven, Conn.</td> <td class="tcc rb">41½</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Scandinavia</td> <td class="tcc rb">N. of 68½</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">68½  to 65</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">65 to 61½</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">61½  to 58</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">S. of 58</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">New York State</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">45 to 40½</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11.0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11.7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5.4</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> II.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Station.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Annual Term.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">6-Month Term.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">4-Month Term.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Amp.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Phase.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Amp.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Phase.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Amp.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Phase.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jakobshavn</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">333</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Godthaab</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">316</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">335</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">309</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">208</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Christiania</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">317</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.76</td> <td class="tcr rb">189</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upsala</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">322</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">296</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stockholm</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">303</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">180</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Makerstown (Scotland)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.79</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.47</td> <td class="tcr rb">310</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">342</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.87</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.24</td> <td class="tcr rb">287</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Toronto</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">260</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.52</td> <td class="tcr rb">305</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cambridge, Mass.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.02</td> <td class="tcr rb">262</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.84</td> <td class="tcr rb">339</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.28</td> <td class="tcr rb">253</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Haven, Conn.</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">183</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.02</td> <td class="tcr rb">313</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">197</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">New York State</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.34</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">264</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.29</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">325</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.54</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">157</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Speaking generally, the annual term diminishes in importance
+as we travel south. North of 55° in Europe its phase angle seems
+fairly constant, not differing very much from the value 110° in
+Lovering&rsquo;s general formula. The 6-month term is small, in the two
+most northern stations, but south of 60° N. lat. it is on the whole
+the most important term. Excluding Jakobshavn, the phase angles
+in the 6-month term vary wonderfully little, and approach the value
+309° in Lovering&rsquo;s general formula. North of lat. 50° the 4-month
+term is, as a rule, comparatively unimportant, but in the American
+stations its relative importance is increased. The phase angle,
+however, varies so much as to suggest that the term mainly represents
+local causes or observational uncertainties. Lovering&rsquo;s general
+formula suggests that the 4-month term is really less important than
+the 3-month term, but he gives no data for the latter at individual
+stations.</p>
+
+<p>6. Sunlight is not the only disturbing cause in estimates of auroral
+frequency. An idea of the disturbing influence of cloud may be
+derived from some interesting results from the Cape Thorsden (<b>7</b>)
+observations. These show how the frequency of visible auroras
+diminished as cloud increased from 0 (sky quite clear) to 10 (sky
+wholly overcast).</p>
+
+<p>Grouping the results, we have:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amount of cloud</td> <td class="tcc">&emsp;0</td> <td class="tcc">1 to 3</td> <td class="tcc">4 to 6</td> <td class="tcc">7 to 9</td> <td class="tcc">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Relative frequency</td> <td class="tcc">100</td> <td class="tcc">82</td> <td class="tcc">57</td> <td class="tcc">46</td> <td class="tcc">8</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Out of a total of 1714 hours during which the sky was wholly overcast
+the Swedish expedition saw auroras on 17, occurring on 14 separate
+days, whereas 226 hours of aurora would have occurred out of an
+equal number of hours with the sky quite clear. The figures being
+based on only one season&rsquo;s observations are somewhat irregular.
+Smoothing them, Carlheim-Gyllensköld gives f = 100&prime; &minus; 7.3c as the
+most probable linear relation between c, the amount of cloud, and
+f, the frequency, assuming the latter to be 100 when there is no
+cloud.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>7. <i>Diurnal Variation.</i>&mdash;The apparent daily period at most
+stations is largely determined by the influence of daylight on
+the visibility. It is only during winter and in high latitudes that
+we can hope to ascertain anything directly as to the real diurnal
+variation of the causes whose influence is visible at night as
+aurora. Table III. gives particulars of the number of occasions
+when aurora was seen at each hour of
+the twenty-four during three expeditions
+in high latitudes when a special outlook
+was kept.</p>
+
+<p>The data under A refer to Cape
+Thorsden (78° 28&prime; N. lat., 15° 42&prime; E.
+long.), those under B to Jan Mayen (<b>8</b>)
+(71° 0&prime; N. lat., 8° 28&prime; W. long.), both for
+the winter of 1882-1883. The data under
+C are given by H. Arctowski (<b>9</b>) for the
+&ldquo;Belgica&rdquo; Expedition in 1898. They may
+be regarded as applying approximately
+to the mean position of the &ldquo;Belgica,&rdquo;
+or 70½° S. lat., 86½° W. long. The method
+of counting frequencies was fairly alike,
+at least in the case of A and B, but
+in comparing the different stations the
+data should be regarded as relative rather than absolute.
+The Jan Mayen data refer really to Göttingen mean time, but
+this was only twenty-three minutes late on local time. In
+calculating the percentages of forenoon and afternoon occurrences
+half the entries under noon and midnight were assigned
+to each half of the day. Even at Cape Thorsden, the sun at midwinter
+is only 11° below the horizon at noon, and its effect on the
+visibility is thus not wholly negligible. The influence of daylight
+is presumably the principal cause of the difference between the
+phenomena during November, December and January at Cape
+Thorsden and Jan Mayen, for in the equinoctial months the
+results from these two stations are closely similar. Whilst daylight
+is the principal cause of the diurnal inequality, it is not the
+only cause, otherwise there would be as many auroras in the
+morning (forenoon) as in the evening (afternoon). The number
+seen in the evening is, however, according to Table III.,
+considerably in excess at all seasons. Taking the whole winter, the
+percentage seen in the evening was the same for the &ldquo;Belgica&rdquo;
+as for Jan Mayen, <i>i.e.</i> for practically the same latitudes South
+and North. At Cape Thorsden from November to January
+there seems a distinct double period, with minima near noon
+and midnight. The other months at Cape Thorsden show a
+single maximum and minimum, the former before midnight.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span>
+The same phenomenon appears at Jan Mayen especially in
+November, December and January, and it is the normal state
+of matters in temperate latitudes, where the frequency is usually
+greatest between 8 and 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> An excess of evening over
+morning occurrences is also the rule, and it is not infrequently
+more pronounced than in Table III. Thus at Tasiusak (65° 37&prime;
+N. lat., 37° 33&prime; W. long.) the Danish Arctic Expedition (<b>10</b>)
+of 1904 found seventy-five out of every hundred occurrences
+to take place before midnight.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> III.&mdash;<i>Diurnal Variation.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Hour.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Dec.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Nov. and Jan.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Feb., March,<br />Sept. and Oct.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Sept. to March (N. Lat.).<br />March to Sept. (S. Lat.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">A</td> <td class="tcc allb">B</td> <td class="tcc allb">A</td> <td class="tcc allb">B</td> <td class="tcc allb">A</td> <td class="tcc allb">B</td> <td class="tcc allb">A</td> <td class="tcc allb">B</td> <td class="tcc allb">C</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Noon</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Midnight</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">&ensp;Totals</td> <td class="tcr allb">277</td> <td class="tcr allb">140</td> <td class="tcr allb">354</td> <td class="tcr allb">167</td> <td class="tcr allb">266</td> <td class="tcr allb">244</td> <td class="tcr allb">897</td> <td class="tcr allb">551</td> <td class="tcr allb">221</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Percentages&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Forenoon</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&ensp;Afternoon</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">58</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">58</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">65</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">65</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>8. The preceding remarks relate to auroras as a whole; the
+different forms differ considerably in their diurnal variation. Arcs,
+bands and, generally speaking, the more regular and persistent forms,
+show their greatest frequencies earlier in the night than rays or
+patches. Table IV. shows the percentages of e. (evening) and m.
+(morning) occurrences of the principal forms as recorded by the
+Arctic observers at Cape Thorsden, Jan Mayen and Tasiusak.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IV.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Arcs.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Bands.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Rays.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Patches.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">e.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">e.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">e.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">e.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cape Thorsden</td> <td class="tcc rb">76</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">66</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">51</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jan Mayen</td> <td class="tcc rb">78</td> <td class="tcc rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">68</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Tasiusak</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">62</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">38</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At Cape Thorsden diffused auroral light had percentages e. 65,
+m. 35, practically identical with those for bands. At Tasiusak,
+8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> was the hour of most frequent occurrence for arcs and bands,
+whereas patches had their maximum frequency at 11 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and rays
+at midnight.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>9. <i>Lunar and other Periods.</i>&mdash;The action of moonlight
+necessarily gives rise to a true lunar period in the
+visibility of aurora. The extent to which it
+renders aurora invisible depends, however, so
+much on the natural brightness of the aurora&mdash;which
+depends on the time and the place&mdash;and
+on the sharpness of the outlook kept, that it is
+difficult to gauge it. Ekholm and Arrhenius (<b>11</b>)
+claim to have established the existence of a true tropical lunar
+period of 27-32 days, and also of a 26-day period, or, as they make
+it, a 25.929-day period. A 26-day period has also been derived
+by J. Liznar (<b>12</b>), after an elaborate allowance for the disturbing
+effects of moonlight from the observations in 1882-1883 at
+Bossekop, Fort Rae and Jan Mayen. Neither of these periods
+is universally conceded. The connexion between aurora and
+earth magnetic disturbances renders it practically certain that
+if a 26-day or similar period exists in the one phenomenon it
+exists also in the other, and of the two terrestrial magnetism
+(<i>q.v.</i>) is probably the element least affected by external complications,
+such as the action of moonlight.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Sun-spot Connexion.</i>&mdash;The frequency of auroral displays
+is much greater in some years than others. At most places the
+variation in the frequency has
+shown a general similarity to
+that of sun-spots. Table V.
+gives contemporaneous data for
+the frequency of sun-spots and
+of auroras seen in Scandinavia.
+The sun-spot data prior to 1902
+are from A. Wolfer&rsquo;s table in
+the <i>Met. Zeitschrift</i> for 1902,
+p. 195; the more recent data
+are from his quarterly lists. All
+are observed frequencies, derived
+after Wolf&rsquo;s method; maxima
+and minima are in heavy type.</p>
+
+<p>The auroral data are from
+Table E of Tromholt&rsquo;s catalogue
+(<b>5</b>), with certain modifications.
+In Tromholt&rsquo;s yearly data
+the year commences with July.
+This being inconvenient for comparison
+with sun-spots, use was
+made of his monthly values to
+obtain corresponding data for
+years commencing with January.
+The Tromholt-Schroeter data
+for Scandinavia as a whole commenced
+with 1761; the figures
+for earlier years were obtained
+by multiplying the data for
+Sweden by 1.356, the factor
+being derived by comparing
+the figures for Sweden alone and for the whole of Scandinavia
+from July 1761 to June 1783.</p>
+
+<p>In a general way Table V. warrants the conclusion that years
+of many sun-spots are years of many auroras, and years of few
+sun-spots years of few auroras; but it does not disclose any
+very definite relationship between the two frequencies. The
+maxima and minima in the two phenomena in a good many
+cases are not found in the same years. On the other hand, there
+is absolute coincidence in a number of cases, some of them very
+striking, as for instance the remarkably low minima of 1810 and
+1823.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>11. During the period 1764 to 1872 there have been ten years of
+maximum, and ten of minimum, in sun-spot frequency. Taking
+the three years of greatest frequency at each maximum, and the
+three years of least frequency at each minimum, we get thirty years
+of many and thirty of few sun-spots. Also we can split the period
+into an earlier half, 1764 to 1817, and a later half, 1818 to 1872,
+containing respectively the earlier five and the later five of the above
+groups of sun-spot maximum and minimum years. The annual
+means derived from the whole group, and the two sub-groups, of
+years of many and few sun-spots are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Years of</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1764-1872.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1764-1817.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1818-1872.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Spots.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Auroras.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Spots.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Auroras.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Spots.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Auroras.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Many sun-spots</td> <td class="tcr rb">93.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">99.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">86.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">70.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">100.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">129.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Few sun-spots</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">61.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">51.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">71.3</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In each case the excess of auroras in the group of years of many
+sun-spots is decided, but the results from the two sub-periods do
+not harmonize closely. The mean sun-spot frequency for the group
+of years of few sun-spots is almost exactly the same for the two sub-periods,
+but the auroral frequency for the later group is nearly
+40% in excess of that for the earlier, and even exceeds the auroral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span>
+frequency in the years of many sun-spots in the earlier sub-period.
+This inconsistency, though startling at first sight, is probably more
+apparent than real. It is almost certainly due in large measure to
+a progressive change in one or both of the units of frequency. In
+the case of sun-spots, A. Schuster (<b>13</b>) has compared J.R. Wolf and
+A. Wolfer&rsquo;s frequencies with data obtained by other observers for
+areas of sun-spots, and his figures show unquestionably that the unit
+in one or other set of data must have varied appreciably from time
+to time. Wolf and Wolfer have, however, aimed persistently at
+securing a definite standard, and there are several reasons for
+believing that the change of unit has been in the auroral rather than
+the sun-spot frequency. R. Rubenson (<b>14</b>), from whom Tromholt
+derives his data for Sweden, seems to accept this view, assigning the
+apparent increase in auroral frequency since 1860 to the institution
+by the state of meteorological stations in 1859, and to the increased
+interest taken in the subject since 1865 by the university of Upsala.
+The figures themselves in Table V. certainly point to this conclusion,
+unless we are prepared to believe that auroras have increased enormously
+in number. If, for instance, we compare the first and the
+last three 11-year cycles for which Table V. gives complete data, we
+obtain as yearly means:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">1749-1781</td> <td class="tcc">Sun-spots</td> <td class="tcr">56.4</td> <td class="tcc">Auroras</td> <td class="tcr">77.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1844-1876</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">55.8</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">112.2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The mean sun-spot frequencies in the two periods differ by only
+1%, but the auroral frequency in the later period is 45% in excess
+of that in the earlier.</p>
+
+<p>The above figures would be almost conclusive if it were not for
+the conspicuous differences that exist between the mean sun-spot
+frequencies for different 11-year periods. Schuster, who has considered
+the matter very fully, has found evidence of the existence of
+other periods&mdash;notably 8.4 and 4.8 years&mdash;in addition to the recognized
+period of 11.125 years, and he regards the difference between
+the maxima in successive 11-year periods as due at least partly
+to an overlapping of maxima from the several periodic terms. This
+cannot, however, account for all the fluctuations observed in sun-spot
+frequencies, unless other considerably longer periods exist. There
+has been at least one 33-year period during which the mean value of
+sun-spot frequency has been exceptionally low, and, as we shall see,
+there was a corresponding remarkable scarcity of auroras. The
+period in question may be regarded as extending from 1794 to 1826
+inclusive. Comparing it with the two adjacent periods of thirty-three
+years, we obtain the following for the mean annual frequencies:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">33-Year Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sun-spots.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Auroras.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1761-1793</td> <td class="tcc rb">65.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">76.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1794-1826</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1827-1859</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">56.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">84.4</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>12. The association of high auroral and sun-spot frequencies
+shown in Table V. is not peculiar to Scandinavia. It is shown, for
+instance, in Loomis&rsquo;s auroral data, which are based on observations
+at a variety of European and American stations (<i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th ed.
+art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteorology</a></span>, Table XXVIII.). It does not seem, however, to
+apply universally. Thus at Godthaab we have, according to Adam
+Paulsen (<b>15</b>), comparing 3-year periods of few and many sun-spots:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">3-Year Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Sun-spot<br />Frequency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Nights<br />of Aurora.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1865-1868</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;48</td> <td class="tcc rb">274</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1869-1872</td> <td class="tcc rb">339</td> <td class="tcc rb">138</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1876-1879</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;23</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">273</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The years start in the autumn, and 1865-1868 includes the three
+winters of 1865 to &rsquo;66, &rsquo;66 to &rsquo;67, and &rsquo;67 to &rsquo;68. Paulsen also gives
+data from two other stations in Greenland, viz. Ivigtut (1869 to
+1879) and Jakobshavn (1873 to 1879), which show the same phenomenon
+as at Godthaab in a prominent fashion. Greenland lies to
+the north of Fritz&rsquo;s curve of maximum auroral frequency, and the
+suggestion has been made that the zone of maximum frequency
+expands to the south as sun-spots increase, and contracts again as
+they diminish, the number of auroras at a given station increasing
+or diminishing as the zone of maximum frequency approaches to
+or recedes from it. This theory, however, does not seem to fit all the
+facts and stands in want of confirmation.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Table V.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2" colspan="2">Frequency.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2" colspan="2">Frequency.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2" colspan="2">Frequency.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Frequency.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">Sun-spot.</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">Auroral.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Sun-spot.</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">Auroral.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Sun-spot.</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">Auroral.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Sun-spot.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Auroral.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1749</td> <td class="tcr rb">80.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">103</td> <td class="tcc rb">1789</td> <td class="tcr rb">118.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1829</td> <td class="tcr rb">67.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">93</td> <td class="tcc rb">1869</td> <td class="tcr rb">73.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1750</td> <td class="tcr rb">83.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">134</td> <td class="tcc rb">1790</td> <td class="tcr rb">89.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">90</td> <td class="tcc rb">1830</td> <td class="tcr rb">71.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">132</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">139.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">195</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1751</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">1791</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">1831</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1871</td> <td class="tcr rb">111.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">185</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1752</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">111</td> <td class="tcc rb">1792</td> <td class="tcr rb">60.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">1832</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">1872</td> <td class="tcr rb">101.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1753</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">96</td> <td class="tcc rb">1793</td> <td class="tcr rb">46.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">1833</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">79</td> <td class="tcc rb">1873</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">189</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1754</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1794</td> <td class="tcr rb">41.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">1834</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">1874</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">158</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1755</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">1795</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">1835</td> <td class="tcr rb">56.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1875</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">133</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1756</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1796</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">1836</td> <td class="tcr rb">121.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">98</td> <td class="tcc rb">1876</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">137</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1757</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1797</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">1837</td> <td class="tcr rb">138.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">137</td> <td class="tcc rb">1877</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">126</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1758</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">80</td> <td class="tcc rb">1798</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">1838</td> <td class="tcr rb">103.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">159</td> <td class="tcc rb">1878</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1759</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">113</td> <td class="tcc rb">1799</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">28</td> <td class="tcc rb">1839</td> <td class="tcr rb">85.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">165</td> <td class="tcc rb">1879</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1760</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">86</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">1840</td> <td class="tcr rb">63.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">82</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1761</td> <td class="tcr rb">85.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">124</td> <td class="tcc rb">1801</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">1841</td> <td class="tcr rb">36.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">75</td> <td class="tcc rb">1881</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1762</td> <td class="tcr rb">61.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">114</td> <td class="tcc rb">1802</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1842</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">91</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcr rb">59.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1763</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcr rb">43.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">73</td> <td class="tcc rb">1843</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">66</td> <td class="tcc rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">63.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1764</td> <td class="tcr rb">36.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">107</td> <td class="tcc rb">1804</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">101</td> <td class="tcc rb">1844</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">63.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1765</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">76</td> <td class="tcc rb">1805</td> <td class="tcr rb">42.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">85</td> <td class="tcc rb">1845</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">52.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1766</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">51</td> <td class="tcc rb">1806</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1846</td> <td class="tcr rb">61.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1767</td> <td class="tcr rb">37.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">68</td> <td class="tcc rb">1807</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">1847</td> <td class="tcr rb">98.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">63</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1768</td> <td class="tcr rb">69.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">80</td> <td class="tcc rb">1808</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">1848</td> <td class="tcr rb">124.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">107</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1769</td> <td class="tcr rb">106.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1809</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">1849</td> <td class="tcr rb">95.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">131</td> <td class="tcc rb">1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1770</td> <td class="tcr rb">100.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1810</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">95</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1771</td> <td class="tcr rb">81.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1811</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">1851</td> <td class="tcr rb">64.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1772</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">1812</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1852</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">92</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">73.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1773</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1813</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">1853</td> <td class="tcr rb">39.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">84.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1774</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">98</td> <td class="tcc rb">1814</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">1854</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">78.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1775</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1815</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1855</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">49</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">64.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1776</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">1816</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1856</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">46</td> <td class="tcc rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">41.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1777</td> <td class="tcr rb">92.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">1817</td> <td class="tcr rb">41.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1857</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1778</td> <td class="tcr rb">154.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">59</td> <td class="tcc rb">1818</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">74</td> <td class="tcc rb">1858</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">88</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1779</td> <td class="tcr rb">125.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1819</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">1859</td> <td class="tcr rb">93.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">131</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1780</td> <td class="tcr rb">84.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">67</td> <td class="tcc rb">1820</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcr rb">95.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1781</td> <td class="tcr rb">68.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">103</td> <td class="tcc rb">1821</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">1861</td> <td class="tcr rb">77.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">127</td> <td class="tcc rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1782</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">67</td> <td class="tcc rb">1822</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1862</td> <td class="tcr rb">59.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">135</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1783</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">70</td> <td class="tcc rb">1823</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">1863</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">135</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1784</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">78</td> <td class="tcc rb">1824</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1864</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">124</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">42.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1785</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.1 </td> <td class="tcr rb2">83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1825</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">1865</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1786</td> <td class="tcr rb">82.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">136</td> <td class="tcc rb">1826</td> <td class="tcr rb">36.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1866</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">130</td> <td class="tcc rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb">53.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1787</td> <td class="tcr rb">132.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">115</td> <td class="tcc rb">1827</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">79</td> <td class="tcc rb">1867</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">127</td> <td class="tcc rb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1788</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">130.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">97</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1828</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">62.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1868</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">37.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">144</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">48.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>13. <i>Auroral Meridian.</i>&mdash;It is a common belief that the summit
+of an auroral arc is to be looked for in the observer&rsquo;s magnetic
+meridian. On any theory it would be rather extraordinary if
+this were invariably true. In temperate latitudes auroral arcs
+are seldom near the zenith, and there is reason to believe them
+at very great heights. In high latitudes the average height is
+probably less, but the direction in which the magnetic needle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span>
+points changes rapidly with change of latitude and longitude,
+and has a large diurnal variation. Thus there must in general
+be a difference between the observer&rsquo;s magnetic meridian&mdash;answering
+to the mean position of the magnetic needle at his
+station&mdash;and the direction the needle would have at a given hour,
+if undisturbed by the aurora, at any spot where the phenomena
+which the observer sees as aurora exist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Very elaborate observations have been made during several
+Arctic expeditions of the azimuths of the summits of auroral arcs.
+At Cape Thorsden (<b>7</b>) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth derived from
+371 arcs was 24° 12&prime; W., or 11° 27&prime; to the W. of the magnetic meridian.
+As to the azimuths in individual cases, 130 differed from the mean by
+less than 10°, 118 by from 10° to 20°, 82 by from 20° to 30°, 21 by
+from 30° to 40°, 14 by from 40° to 50°; in six cases the departure
+exceeded 50°, and in one case it exceeded 70°. Also, whilst the
+mean azimuths deduced from the observations between 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and
+noon, between noon and 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, and between 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and midnight,
+were closely alike, their united mean being 22.4° W. of N. (or E. of S.),
+the mean derived from the 113 arcs observed between midnight and
+6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> was 47.8° W. At Jan Mayen (<b>8</b>) in 1882-1883 the mean
+azimuth of the summit of the arcs was 28.8° W. of N., thus approaching
+much more closely to the magnetic meridian 29.9° W. As to
+individual azimuths, 113 lay within 10° of the mean, 37 differed by
+from 10° to 20°, 18 by from 20° to 30°, 6 by from 30° to 40°, whilst
+6 differed by over 40°. Azimuths were also measured at Jan Mayen
+for 338 auroral bands, the mean being 22.0° W., or 7.9° to the east
+of the magnetic meridian. Combining the results from arcs and
+bands, Carlheim-Gyllensköld gives the &ldquo;anomaly&rdquo; of the auroral
+meridian at Jan Mayen as 5.7° E. At the British Polar station of
+1882, Fort Rae (62° 23&prime; N. lat., 115° 44&prime; W. long.), he makes it
+15.7° W. At Godthaab in 1882-1883 the auroral anomaly was,
+according to Paulsen, 15.5° E., the magnetic meridian lying 57.6° W.
+of the astronomical.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>14. <i>Auroral Zenith</i>.&mdash;Another auroral direction having apparently
+a close relation to terrestrial magnetism is the imaginary line
+drawn to the eye of an observer from the centre of the corona&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>
+the point to which the auroral rays converge. This seems in general
+to be nearly coincident with the direction of the dipping needle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Thus at Cape Thorsden (<b>7</b>) in 1882-1883 the mean of a considerable
+number of observations made the angle between the two directions
+only 1° 7&prime;, the magnetic inclination being 80° 35&prime;, whilst the coronal
+centre had an altitude of 79° 55&prime; and lay somewhat to the west of the
+magnetic meridian. Even smaller mean values have been found
+for the angle between the auroral and magnetic &ldquo;zeniths&rdquo;&mdash;as the
+two directions have been called&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> 0° 50&prime; at Bossekop (<b>16</b>) in
+1838-1839, and 0° 7&prime; at Treurenberg (<b>17</b>) (79° 55&prime; N. lat., 16° 51&prime; E.
+long.) in 1899-1900.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>15. <i>Relations to Magnetic Storms</i>.&mdash;That there is an intimate
+connexion between aurora when visible in temperate latitudes
+and terrestrial magnetism is hardly open to doubt. A bright
+aurora visible over a large part of Europe seems always accompanied
+by a magnetic storm and earth currents, and the largest
+magnetic storms and the most conspicuous auroral displays
+have occurred simultaneously. Noteworthy examples are afforded
+by the auroras and magnetic storms of August 28-29 and September
+1-2, 1859; February 4, 1872; February 13-14 and
+August 12, 1892; September 9, 1898; and October 31, 1903.
+On some of these occasions aurora was brilliant in both the
+northern and southern hemispheres, whilst magnetic disturbances
+were experienced the whole world over. In high latitudes,
+however, where both auroras and magnetic storms are most
+numerous, the connexion between them is much less uniform.
+Arctic observers, both Danish and British, have repeatedly
+reported displays of aurora unaccompanied by any special
+magnetic disturbance. This has been more especially the case
+when the auroral light has been of a diffused character, showing
+only minor variability. When there has been much apparent
+movement, and brilliant changes of colour in the aurora, magnetic
+disturbance has nearly always accompanied it. In the Arctic,
+auroral displays seem sometimes to be very local, and this
+may be the explanation. On the other hand, Arctic observers
+have reported an apparent connexion of a particularly definite
+character. According to Paulsen (<b>18</b>), during the Ryder
+expedition in 1891-1892, the following phenomenon was seen
+at least twenty times by Lieut. Vedel at Scoresby Sound (70° 27&prime;
+N. lat., 26° 10&prime; W. long.). An auroral curtain travelling with
+considerable velocity would approach from the south, pass right
+overhead and retire to the north. As the curtain approached,
+the compass needle always deviated to the west, oscillated as
+the curtain passed the zenith, and then deviated to the east.
+The behaviour of the needle, as Paulsen points out, is exactly
+what it should be if the space occupied by the auroral curtain
+were traversed by electric currents directed upwards from the
+ground. The Danish observers at Tasiusak (<b>10</b>) in 1898-1899
+observed this phenomenon occasionally in a slightly altered
+form. At Tasiusak the auroral curtain after reaching the zenith
+usually retired in the direction from which it had come. The
+direction in which the compass needle deviated was west or east,
+according as the curtain approached from the south or the
+north; as the curtain retired the deviation eventually diminished.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Kr. Birkeland (<b>19</b>). who has made a special study of magnetic
+disturbances in the Arctic, proceeding on the hypothesis that they arise
+from electric currents in the atmosphere, and who has thence
+attempted to deduce the position and intensity of these currents,
+asserts that whilst in the case of many storms the data were
+insufficient, when it was possible to fix the position of the mean line of
+flow of the hypothetical current relatively to an auroral arc, he
+invariably found the directions coincident or nearly so.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>16. In the northern hemisphere to the south of the zone of
+greatest frequency, the part of the sky in which aurora most
+generally appears is the magnetic north. In higher latitudes
+auroras are most often seen in the south. The relative frequency
+in the two positions seems to vary with the hour, the type of
+aurora, probably with the season of the year, and possibly with
+the position of the year in the sun-spot cycle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At Jan Mayen (<b>8</b>) in 1882-1883, out of 177 arcs whose position was
+accurately determined, 44 were seen in the north, their summits
+averaging 38.5° above the northern horizon; 88 were seen in the
+south, their average altitude above the southern horizon being 33.5°;
+while 45 were in the zenith. At Tasiusak (<b>10</b>) in 1898-1899 the
+magnetic directions of the principal types were noted separately.
+The results are given in Table VI.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Table VI.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Direction.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="5">Absolute Number for each Type.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Percentage<br />from all<br />Types.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Arcs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Bands.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Curtains.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Rays.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Patches.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">N.E.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">E.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">S.E.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">S.W.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">W.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">N.W.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Table VI. accounts for only 81% of the total displays; of the
+remainder 15% appeared in the zenith, while 4% covered the
+whole sky. Auroral displays generally cover a considerable
+area, and are constantly changing, so the figures are necessarily
+somewhat rough. But clearly, whilst the arcs and bands, and
+to a lesser extent the patches, showed a marked preference for
+the magnetic meridian, the rays showed no such preference.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At Cape Thorsden (<b>7</b>) in 1882-1883 auroras as a whole were
+divided into those seen in the north and those seen in the south.
+The variation throughout the twenty-four hours in the percentage
+seen in the south was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Hour.</td> <td class="tcc allb">0-3.</td> <td class="tcc allb">3-6.</td> <td class="tcc allb">6-9.</td> <td class="tcc allb">9-12.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="scs">A.M.</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"><span class="scs">P.M.</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">70</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The mean from the whole twenty-four hours is sixty-three.
+Between 3 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> the percentage of auroras seen in the
+south thus appears decidedly below the mean.</p>
+
+<p>17. The following data for the apparent angular width of arcs
+were obtained at Cape Thorsden, the arcs being grouped according
+to the height of the lower edge above the horizon. Group I.
+contained thirty arcs whose altitudes did not exceed 11° 45&prime;;
+Group II. thirty arcs whose altitudes lay between 12° and 35°;
+and Group III, thirty arcs whose altitudes lay between 36° and 80°.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Group.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">II.</td> <td class="tcc allb">III.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greatest width.</td> <td class="tcl rb">11.5°</td> <td class="tcl rb">12.0°</td> <td class="tcl rb">21.0°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Least width.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;1.0°</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;0.75°</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;2.0°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mean width.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp;3.45°</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp;4.6°</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp;6.9°</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">There is here a distinct tendency for the width to increase with the
+altitude. At the same time, arcs near the horizon often appeared
+wider than others near the zenith. Furthermore, Gyllensköld says
+that when arcs mounted, as they not infrequently did, from the
+horizon, their apparent width might go on increasing right up to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span>
+zenith, or it might increase until an altitude of about 45° was reached
+and then diminish, appearing much reduced when the zenith was
+reached. Of course the phenomenon might be due to actual change
+in the arc, but it is at least consistent with the view that arcs are of
+two kinds, one form constituting a layer of no great vertical depth
+but considerable real horizontal width, the other form having little
+horizontal width but considerable vertical depth, and resembling
+to some extent an auroral curtain.</p>
+
+<p>18. According to numerous observations made at Cape Thorsden,
+the apparent angular velocity of arcs increases on the
+average with their altitude. Dividing the whole number of arcs,
+156, whose angular velocities were measured into three numerically
+equal groups, according to their altitude, the following were the
+results in minutes of arc per second of time (or degrees per minute
+of time):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Group.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">II.</td> <td class="tcc allb">III.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mean altitude</td> <td class="tcl rb">10.5°</td> <td class="tcl rb">34.6°</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;72.3°</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greatest velocity</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;4.81</td> <td class="tcl rb">15.12</td> <td class="tcl rb">109.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mean velocity</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp;0.48</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp;2.42</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&emsp;8.67</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.86</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Each group contained auroras which appeared stationary. The
+intervals to which the velocities referred were usually from five to
+ten minutes, but varied widely. The velocity 109.09 was much the
+largest observed, the next being 52.38; both were from observations
+lasting under half a minute.</p>
+
+<p>19. In 1882-1883 the direction of motion of arcs was from north
+to south in 62% of the cases at Jan Mayen, and in 58% of the
+cases at Cape Thorsden. This seems the more common direction
+in the northern hemisphere, at least for stations to the south of the
+zone of maximum frequency, but a considerable preponderance of
+movements towards the north was observed in Franz Joseph Land
+by the Austrian Expedition of 1872-1874. The apparent motion of
+arcs is sometimes of a complicated character. One end only, for
+example, may appear to move, as if rotating round the other; or
+the two ends may move in opposite directions, as if the arc were
+rotating about a vertical axis through its summit.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>20. <i>Height.</i>&mdash;If an auroral arc represented a definite
+self-luminous portion of space of small transverse dimensions at a
+uniform height above the ground, its height could be accurately
+determined by observations made with theodolites at the two
+ends of a measured base, provided the base were not too short
+compared to the height. If a very long base is taken, it becomes
+increasingly open to doubt whether the portions of space emitting
+auroral light to the observers at the two ends are the same.
+There is also difficulty in ensuring that the observations shall
+be simultaneous, an important matter especially when the
+apparent velocity is considerable. If the base is short, definite
+results can hardly be hoped for unless the height is very moderate.
+Amongst the best-known theodolite determinations of height are
+those made at Bossekop in Norway by the French Expedition of
+1838-1839 (<b>16</b>) and the Norwegian Expedition of 1882-1883, and
+those made in the latter year by the Swedes at Cape Thorsden
+and the Danes at Godthaab. At Bossekop and Cape Thorsden
+there were a considerable proportion of negative or impossible
+parallaxes. Much the most consistent results were those obtained
+at Godthaab by Paulsen (<b>15</b>). The base was 5.8 km. (about
+3½ miles) long, the ends being in the same magnetic meridian,
+on opposite sides of a fiord, and observations were confined to
+this meridian, strict simultaneity being secured by signals.
+Heights were calculated only when the observed parallax
+exceeded 1°, but this happened in three-fourths of the cases.
+The calculated heights&mdash;all referring to the lowest border of the
+aurora&mdash;varied from 0.6 to 67.8 km. (about 0.4 to 42 m.),
+the average being about 20 km. (12 m.). Regular arcs were
+selected in most cases, but the lowest height obtained was for
+a collection of rays forming a curtain which was actually situated
+between the two stations.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1885 Messrs Garde and Eherlin made similar observations at
+Nanortalik near Cape Farewell in Greenland, but using a base of only
+1250 metres (about ¾ m.). Their results were very similar to
+Paulsen&rsquo;s. On one occasion twelve observations, extending over half an
+hour, were made on a single arc, the calculated heights varying in a
+fairly regular fashion from 1.6 to 12.9 km. (about 1 to 8 m.). The
+calculated horizontal distances of this arc varied between 5 and
+24 km. (about 3 and 15 m.), the motion being sometimes towards,
+sometimes away from the observers, but not apparently exceeding
+3 km. (nearly 2 m.) per minute. Heights of arcs have often been
+calculated from the apparent altitudes at stations widely apart in
+Europe or America. The heights calculated in this way for the under
+surface of the arc, have usually exceeded 100 m.; some have been
+much in excess of this figure. None of the results so obtained can
+be accepted without reserve, but there are several reasons for believing
+that the average height in Greenland is much below that in lower
+latitudes. Heights have been calculated in various less direct ways,
+by observing for instance the angular altitude of the summit of an arc
+and the angular interval between its extremities, and then making
+some assumption such as that the portion visible to an observer
+may be treated as a circle whose centre lies over the so-called auroral
+pole. The mean height calculated at Arctic stations, where careful
+observations have been made, in this or analogous ways, has varied
+from 58 km. (about 36 m.) at Cape Thorsden (Gyllensköld) to 227 km.
+(about 141 m.) at Bossekop (Bravais). The height has also been
+calculated on the hypothesis that auroral light has its source where
+the atmospheric pressure is similar to that at which most brilliancy
+is observed when electric discharges pass in vacuum tubes. Estimates
+on this basis have suggested heights of the order of 50 km.
+(about 31 m.). There are, of course, many uncertainties, as the conditions
+of discharge in the free atmosphere may differ widely from
+those in glass vessels. If the Godthaab observations can be trusted,
+auroral discharges must often occur within a few miles of the earth&rsquo;s
+surface in Arctic regions. In confirmation of this view reference
+may be made to a number of instances where observers&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> General
+Sabine, Sir John Franklin, Prof. Selim Lemström, Dr David Walker
+(at Fort Kennedy in 1858-1859), Captain Parry (Fort Bowen, 1825)
+and others&mdash;have seen aurora below the clouds or between themselves
+and mountains. One or two instances of this kind have even been
+described in Scotland. Prof. Cleveland Abbe (<b>20</b>) has given a full
+historical account of the subject to which reference may be made
+for further details.</p>
+
+<p>21. <i>Brightness.</i>&mdash;In auroral displays the brightness often varies
+greatly over the illuminated area and changes rapidly. Estimates
+of the intensity of the light have been based on various arbitrary
+scales, such for instance as the size of type which the observer can
+read at a given distance. The estimate depends in the case of reading
+type on the general illumination. In other cases scales have
+been employed which make the result mainly depend on the brightest
+part of the display. At Jan Mayen (<b>8</b>) in 1882-1883 a scale was
+employed running from 1, taken as corresponding to the brightness
+of the milky way, to 4, corresponding to full moonlight. The
+following is an analysis of the results obtained, showing the number
+of times the different grades were reached:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Scale of<br />Intensity.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1.</td> <td class="tccm allb">2.</td> <td class="tccm allb">3.</td> <td class="tccm allb">4.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mean<br />Intensity.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Arcs</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.87</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bands</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rays</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Corona</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.81</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">On one or two occasions at Jan Mayen auroral light is described as
+making the full moon look like an ordinary gas jet in presence of
+electric light, whilst rays could be seen crossing and brighter than
+the moon&rsquo;s disk. Such extremely bright auroras seem very rare,
+however, even in the Arctic. There is a general tendency for both
+bands and rays to appear brightest at their lowest parts; arcs
+seldom appear as bright at their summits as nearer the horizon. It
+is not unusual for arcs and bands to look as if pulses or waves of
+light were travelling along them; also the direction in which these
+pulses travel does not seem to be wholly arbitrary. Movements to
+the east were twice as numerous at Jan Mayen and thrice as numerous
+at Traurenberg as movements to the west. In some cases changes
+of intensity take place round the auroral zenith, simulating the effect
+that would be produced by a cyclonic rotation of luminous matter.
+In the case of isolated patches the intensity often waxes and wanes
+as if a search-light were being thrown on and turned off.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>22. <i>Colour.</i>&mdash;The ordinary colour of aurora is white, usually
+with a distinct yellow tint in the brighter forms, but silvery white
+when the light is faint. When the light is intense and changing
+rapidly, red is not infrequently present, especially towards the
+lower edge. Under these circumstances, green is also sometimes
+visible, especially towards the zenith. Thus a bright auroral
+ray may seem red towards the foot and green at its summit,
+with yellow intervening. In some cases the green may be only
+a contrast effect. Other colours, <i>e.g.</i> violet, have occasionally
+been noticed but are unusual.</p>
+
+<p>23. <i>Spectrum.</i>&mdash;The spectrum of aurora consists of a number of
+lines. Numerous measurements have been made of the wave-lengths
+of the brightest. One line, in the yellow green, is so
+dominant optically as often to be described as the auroral line.
+Its wave-length is probably very near 5571 tenth-metres, and it
+is very close to, if not absolutely coincident with, a prominent
+line in the spectrum of krypton. This line is so characteristic
+that its presence or absence is the usual criterion for deciding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span>
+whether an atmospheric light is aurora. The Swedish Expedition
+(<b>17</b>) of 1899-1902, engaged in measuring an arc of the
+meridian in Spitsbergen, were unusually well provided
+spectrographically, and succeeded in taking photographs of aurora in
+conjunction with artificial lines&mdash;chiefly of hydrogen&mdash;which led
+to results claiming exceptional accuracy. In the spectrograms
+three auroral rays&mdash;including the principal one mentioned
+above&mdash;were pre-eminent. For the two shorter wave-lengths,
+for whose measurement he claims the highest precision, the
+observer, J. Westman, gives the values 4276.4 and 3913.5. In
+addition, he assigns wave-lengths for 156 other auroral lines
+between wave-lengths 5205 and 3513. The following table gives
+the wave-lengths of the photographically brightest of these,
+retaining four significant figures in place of Westman&rsquo;s five.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Table VII.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb tb">4830</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">4489</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">4329</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">3997</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">3861</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4709</td> <td class="tcc rb">4420</td> <td class="tcc rb">4242</td> <td class="tcc rb">3986</td> <td class="tcc rb">3804</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4699</td> <td class="tcc rb">4371</td> <td class="tcc rb">4230</td> <td class="tcc rb">3947</td> <td class="tcc rb">3793</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4661</td> <td class="tcc rb">4356</td> <td class="tcc rb">4225</td> <td class="tcc rb">3937</td> <td class="tcc rb">3704</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4560</td> <td class="tcc rb">4344</td> <td class="tcc rb">4078</td> <td class="tcc rb">3880</td> <td class="tcc rb">3607</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">4550</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4337</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4067</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3876</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3589</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There are a number of optically bright lines of longer wave-length.
+For the principal of these Angot (1) gives the following
+wave-lengths (unit 1 µµ or 1 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;9</span> metre):&mdash;630, 578, 566,
+535, 523, 500.</p>
+
+<p>Out of a total of 146 auroral lines, with wave-lengths longer
+than 3684 tenth-metres, Westman identifies 82 with oxygen or
+nitrogen lines at the negative pole in vacuum discharges. Amongst
+the lines thus identified are the two principal auroral lines having
+wave-lengths 4276.4 and 3913.5. The interval considered by
+Westman contains at least 300 oxygen and nitrogen lines, so
+that approximate coincidence with a number of auroral lines
+was almost inevitable, and an appreciable number of the coincidences
+may be accidental. E.C.C. Baly (<b>21</b>), making use of the
+observations of the Russian expedition in Spitsbergen in 1899,
+accepts as the wave-lengths of the three principal auroral lines
+5570, 4276 and 3912; and he identifies all three and ten other
+auroral lines ranging between 5570 and 3707 with krypton lines
+measured by himself. In addition to these, he mentions other
+auroral lines as very probably krypton lines, but in their case
+the wave-lengths which he quotes from Paulsen (<b>22</b>) are given to
+only three significant figures, so that the identification is more
+uncertain. The majority of the krypton lines which Baly identifies
+with auroral lines require for their production a Leyden jar
+and spark gap.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>If, as is now generally believed, aurora represents some form of
+electrical discharge, it is only reasonable to suppose that the auroral
+lines arise from atmospheric gases. The conditions, however, as
+regards pressure and temperature under which the hypothetical
+discharges take place must vary greatly in different auroras, or even
+sometimes in different parts of the same aurora. Further, auroras
+are often possessed of rapid motion, so that conceivably spectral lines
+may receive small displacements in accordance with Doppler&rsquo;s
+principle. Thus the differences in the wave-lengths of presumably
+the same lines as measured by different Arctic observers may be
+only partly due to unfavourable observational conditions. Many
+of the auroral lines seen in any single aurora are exceedingly faint,
+so that even their relative positions are difficult to settle with high
+precision.</p>
+
+<p>24. Whether or not auroral displays are ever accompanied by a
+characteristic sound is a disputed question. If sound waves originate
+at the seat of auroral displays they seem hardly likely to be audible
+on the earth, unless the aurora comes very low and great stillness
+prevails. It is thus to the Arctic one looks for evidence. According
+to Captain H.P. Dawson (<b>26</b>), in charge of the British Polar Station
+at Fort Rae in 1882-1883, &ldquo;The Indians and <i>voyageurs</i> of the
+Hudson Bay Company, who often pass their nights in the open, say
+that it [sound] is not uncommon ... there can be no doubt that
+distinct sound does occasionally accompany certain displays of
+aurora.&rdquo; On the one occasion when Captain Dawson says he heard it
+himself, &ldquo;the sound was like the swishing of a whip or the noise
+produced by a sharp squall of wind in the upper rigging of a ship,
+and as the aurora brightened and faded so did the sound which
+accompanied it.&rdquo; If under these conditions the sound was really
+due to the aurora, the latter, as Captain Dawson himself remarks,
+must have been pretty close.</p>
+
+<p>25. Usually the electric potential near the ground is positive
+compared to the earth and increases with the height (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Atmospheric
+Electricity</a></span>). Several Arctic observers, however, especially
+Paulsen (<b>18</b>) have observed a diminution of positive potential, or
+even a change to negative, for which they could suggest no explanation
+except the presence of a bright aurora. Other Arctic observers
+have failed to find any trace of this phenomenon. If it exists, it is
+presumably confined to cases when the auroral discharge comes
+unusually low.</p>
+
+<p>26. <i>Artificial Phenomena resembling Aurora.</i>&mdash;At Sodankylä, the
+station occupied by the Finnish Arctic Expedition of 1882-1883,
+Selim Lemström and Biese (<b>23</b>) described and gave drawings of
+optical phenomena which they believed to be artificially produced
+aurora. A number of metallic points, supported on insulators, were
+connected by wires enclosing several hundred square metres on the
+top of a hill. Sometimes a Holtz machine was employed, but even
+without it illumination resembling aurora was seen on several
+occasions, extending apparently to a considerable height. In the
+laboratory, Kr. Birkeland (<b>19</b>) has produced phenomena bearing
+a striking resemblance to several forms of aurora. His apparatus
+consists of a vacuum vessel containing a magnetic sphere&mdash;intended
+to represent the earth&mdash;and the phenomena are produced by sending
+electric discharges through the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>27. <i>Theories.</i>&mdash;A great variety of theories have been advanced
+to account for aurora. All or nearly all the most recent regard it
+as some form of electrical discharge. Birkeland (<b>19</b>) supposes the
+ultimate cause to be cathode rays emanating from the sun;
+C.  Nordmann (<b>24</b>) replaces the cathode rays by Hertzian waves; while
+Svante Arrhenius (<b>25</b>) believes that negatively charged particles are
+driven through the sun&rsquo;s atmosphere by the Maxwell-Bartoli repulsion
+of light and reach the earth&rsquo;s atmosphere. For the size and
+density of particles which he considers most likely, Arrhenius
+calculates the time required to travel from the sun as forty-six hours.
+By modifying the hypothesis as to the size and density, times
+appreciably longer or shorter than the above would be obtained.
+Cathode rays usually have a velocity about a tenth that of light,
+but in exceptional cases it may approach a third of that of light.
+Hertzian waves have the velocity of light itself. On either Birkeland&rsquo;s
+or Nordmann&rsquo;s theory, the electric impulse from the sun acts
+indirectly by creating secondary cathode rays in the earth&rsquo;s atmosphere,
+or ionizing it so that discharges due to natural differences
+of potential are immensely facilitated. The ionized condition
+must be supposed to last to a greater or less extent for a good many
+hours to account for aurora being seen throughout the whole night.
+The fact that at most places the morning shows a marked decay of
+auroral frequency and intensity as compared to the evening, the
+maximum preceding midnight by several hours, is certainly favourable
+to theories which postulate ionization of the atmosphere by
+some cause or other emanating from the sun.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The following works are numbered according to the references
+in the text:&mdash;(<b>1</b>) A. Angot, <i>Les Aurores polaires</i> (Paris, 1895);
+(<b>2</b>) H. Fritz, <i>Das Polarlicht</i> (Leipzig, 1881);
+(<b>3</b>) Svante August Arrhenius, <i>Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik</i>;
+(<b>4</b>) Joseph Lovering, &ldquo;On the Periodicity of the Aurora Borealis,&rdquo; <i>Mem.
+American Acad.</i> vol. x. (1868);
+(<b>5</b>) Sophus Tromholt, <i>Catalog der in Norwegen bis Juni 1878 beobachteten
+Nordlichter</i>;
+(<b>6</b>) <i>Observations internationales polaires</i> (1882-1883),
+<i>Expédition Danoise</i>, tome i. &ldquo;Aurores boréales&rdquo;;
+(<b>7</b>) Carlheim-Gyllensköld, &ldquo;Aurores boréales&rdquo; in <i>Observations faites au
+Cap Thorsden Spitzberg par l&rsquo;expédition suédoise</i>, tome ii. 1;
+(<b>8</b>) &ldquo;Die Österreichische Polar Station Jan Mayen&rdquo; in <i>Die Internationale
+Polarforschung</i>, 1882-1883, Bd. ii.  Abth. 1;
+(<b>9</b>) Henryk Arctowski, &ldquo;Aurores australes&rdquo; in <i>Expédition antarctique
+belge ... Voyage du S. Y. &ldquo;Belgica&rdquo;</i>;
+(<b>10</b>) G.C. Amdrup, <i>Observations ... faites par l&rsquo;expédition danoise</i>;
+H. Ravn, <i>Observations de l&rsquo;aurore boréale de Tasiusak</i>;
+(<b>11</b>) <i>K. Sven. Vet.-Akad. Hand</i>. Bd. 31, Nos. 2, 3, &amp;c.;
+(<b>12</b>) <i>Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss.</i> (Vienna), Math. Naturw. Classe,
+Bd. xcvii. Abth. iia, 1888;
+(<b>13</b>) <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1906, lxxvii. A, 141;
+(<b>14</b>) <i>Kongl. Sven. Vet.-Akad. Hand.</i> Bd. 15, No. 5, Bd. 18, No. 1;
+(<b>15</b>) <i>Bull. Acad. Roy. Danoise</i>, 1889, p. 67;
+(<b>16</b>) <i>Voyages ... pendant les années 1838, 1839 et 1840 sur ... la Recherche</i>,
+&ldquo;Aurores boréales,&rdquo; by MM. Lottin, Bravais, &amp;c.;
+(<b>17</b>) <i>Missions scientifiques ... au Spitzberg ... en 1899-1902, Mission
+suédoise</i>, tome ii. VIII<span class="sp">e</span> Section, C. &ldquo;Aurores boréales&rdquo;;
+(<b>18</b>) <i>Bull. Acad. R. des Sciences de Danemark</i>, 1894, p. 148;
+(<b>19</b>) Kr. Birkeland, <i>Expédition norvégienne 1899-1900 pour l&rsquo;étude des
+aurores boréales</i> (Christiania, 1901);
+(<b>20</b>) <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, vol. iii. (1898), pp. 5, 53, 149;
+(<b>21</b>) <i>Astrophysical Journal</i>, 1904, xix. p. 187;
+(<b>22</b>) <i>Rapports présentés au Congrès International de Physique réuni à Paris</i>,
+1900, iii. 438;
+(<b>23</b>) <i>Expédition polaire finlandaise</i> (1882-1884), tome iii.;
+(<b>24</b>) Charles Nordmann, <i>Thèses présentées à la Faculté des Sciences
+de Paris</i> (1903);
+(<b>25</b>) <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, vol. 10, 1905, p. 1;
+(<b>26</b>) <i>Observations of the International Polar Expeditions 1882-1883
+Fort Rae</i> ... by Capt. H.P. Dawson, R.A.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AURUNCI,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> the name given by the Romans to a tribe which
+in historical times occupied only a strip of coast on either side
+of the Mons Massicus between the Volturnus and the Liris,
+although it must at an earlier period have extended over a
+considerably wider area. Their own name for themselves in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span>
+the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was <i>Aus&#335;nes</i>, and in Greek writers we find
+the name <i>Aus&#335;nia</i> applied to Latium and Campania (see Strabo
+v. p. 247; Aristotle, <i>Pol.</i> iv. (vii.) 10; Dion. Hal. i. 72), while in
+the Augustan poets (<i>e.g.</i> Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vii. 795) it is used as one of
+many synonyms for Italy. In history the tribe appears only
+for a brief space, from 340 to 295 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Mommsen, <i>C.I.L.</i> x.
+pp. 451, 463, 465), and their struggle with the Romans ended
+in complete extermination; their territory was parcelled out
+between the Latin colonies of Cales (Livy viii. 16) and Suessa
+Aurunca (<i>id.</i> ix. 28) which took the place of an older town called
+<i>Ausona</i> (<i>id.</i> ix. 25; viii. 15), and the maritime colonies Sinuessa
+(the older <i>Vescia</i>) and Minturnae (both in 295 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Livy x. 21).
+The coin formerly attributed to Suessa Aurunca on the strength
+of its supposed legend <i>Aurunkud</i> has now been certainly referred
+to Naples (see R.S. Conway, <i>Italic Dialects</i>, 145, and <i>Verner&rsquo;s
+law in Italy</i>, p. 78, where the change of <i>s</i> to <i>r</i> is explained as
+probably due to the Latin conquest). Seeing that the tribe
+was blotted out at the beginning of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, we can
+scarcely wonder that no record of its speech survives; but its
+geographical situation and the frequency of the <i>co</i>-suffix in that
+strip of coast (besides <i>Aurunci</i> itself we have the names <i>Vescia</i>,
+<i>Mons Massicus</i>, <i>Marica</i>, <i>Glanica</i> and <i>Caedicii</i>; see <i>Italic
+Dialects</i>, pp. 283 f.) rank them beyond doubt with their neighbours
+the Volsci (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSCULTATION<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>auscultare</i>, to listen), a term in
+medicine, applied to the method employed by physicians for
+determining, by the sense of hearing, the condition of certain
+internal organs. The ancient physicians appear to have practised
+a kind of auscultation, by which they were able to detect the
+presence of air or fluids in the cavities of the chest and abdomen.
+Still no general application of this method of investigation was
+resorted to, or was indeed possible, till the advance of the study
+of anatomy led to correct ideas regarding the locality, structure
+and uses of the various organs of the body, and the alterations
+produced in them by disease. In 1761 Leopold Auenbrugger
+(1722-1809), a Viennese physician, published his <i>Inventum
+Novum</i>, describing the art of percussion in reference more
+especially to diseases of the chest. This consisted in tapping
+with the fingers the surface of the body, so as to elicit sounds
+by which the comparative resonance of the subjacent parts or
+organs might be estimated. Auenbrugger&rsquo;s method attracted
+but little attention till the French physician J.N. Corvisart
+(1755-1828) in 1808 demonstrated its great practical importance,
+and then its employment in the diagnosis of affections of the
+chest soon became general. Percussion was originally practised
+in the manner above mentioned (<i>immediate percussion</i>), but
+subsequently the method of <i>mediate percussion</i> was introduced
+by P.A. Piorry (1794-1879). It is accomplished by placing
+upon the spot to be examined some solid substance, upon which
+the percussion strokes are made with the fingers. For this
+purpose a thin oval piece of ivory (called a <i>pleximeter</i>, or stroke-measurer)
+may be used, with a small hammer; but one or more
+fingers of the left hand applied flat upon the part answer equally
+well, and this is the method which most physicians adopt.
+Percussion must be regarded as a necessary part of auscultation,
+particularly in relation to the examination of the chest; for
+the physician who has made himself acquainted with the normal
+condition of that part of the body in reference to percussion is
+thus able to recognize by the ear alterations of resonance produced
+by disease. But percussion alone, however important
+in diagnosis, could manifestly convey only limited and imperfect
+information, for it could never indicate the nature or extent of
+functional disturbance.</p>
+
+<p>In 1819 the distinguished French physician R.T.H. Laënnec
+(1781-1826) published his <i>Traité de L&rsquo;auscultation médiate</i>,
+embodying the present methods of auscultatory examination,
+and venturing definite conclusions based on years of his own
+study. He also invented the stethoscope (<span class="grk" title="staethos">&#963;&#964;&#8134;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>, the breast,
+and <span class="grk" title="skopein">&#963;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to examine). Since then many men have widened
+the scope of auscultation, notably Skoda, Wintrich, A. Geigel,
+Th. Weber and Gerhardt. According to Laënnec the essential
+of a good stethoscope was its capability of intensifying the tone
+vibrations. But since his time the opinion of experts on this
+matter has somewhat changed, and there are now two definite
+schools. The first and older condemns the resonating stethoscope,
+maintaining that the tones are bound to be altered; the second
+and younger school warmly advocates its use. In America,
+more than elsewhere, there is a type of phonendoscope much used
+by the younger men, which has the advantage that it can be
+used when the older type of instrument fails, viz. when the
+patient is recumbent and too ill to be moved. By slipping it
+beneath the patient&rsquo;s back a fairly accurate idea of the breathing
+over the bases of the lungs behind can often be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Stethoscopes have been made of many forms and materials.
+They usually consist of a hollow stem of wood, hard rubber
+or metal, with an enlarged tip slightly funnel-shaped at one end,
+and an ear-plate with a hole in the middle, fastened perpendicularly
+to the other end. To enable the instrument to be more
+conveniently carried, the ear-plate can be unscrewed from the
+tube. The length of the stem of the instrument is of minor
+importance, but its bore should be as nearly as possible that of
+the entrance of the external ear. A flexible stethoscope in
+general use both in England and America transmits the sound
+from a funnel through tubes to the ears of the observer. This
+is the common form of a binaural resonating stethoscope. It is
+convenient and gives a loud tone, but is condemned by the
+older school, who say that the resonance is confusing, and that
+the slightest movement in handling gives rise to perplexing
+murmurs. Nevertheless, it is this form of instrument which
+has by far the greatest vogue. It is probable, however, that the
+most skilled physicians of all find a special use in each form, the
+monaural non-resonating type being more sensitive to high-pitched
+sounds, and of greater assistance in differentiating
+the sounds and murmurs of the heart, the ordinary binaural
+form being more useful in examining the lungs and other organs.
+In using the stethoscope, it must be applied very carefully, so
+that the edge of the funnel makes an air-tight connexion with
+the skin, and in the monaural form the ear must be but lightly
+applied to the ear-plate, not pressing heavily on the patient.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous diseases affecting the lungs can now be recognized
+and discriminated from each other with a precision which,
+but for auscultation and the stethoscope, would have been
+altogether unattainable. The same holds good in the case of
+the heart, whose varied and often complex forms of disease can,
+by auscultation, be identified with striking accuracy. But in
+addition to these its main uses, auscultation is found to render
+great assistance in the investigation of many obscure internal
+affections, such as aneurysms and certain diseases of the oesophagus
+and stomach. To the accoucheur the stethoscope yields
+valuable aid in the detection of some forms of uterine tumours,
+and especially in the diagnosis of pregnancy&mdash;the only evidence
+now accepted as absolutely diagnostic of that condition being
+the hearing of the foetal heart sounds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 310-395), Roman poet
+and rhetorician, was born at Burdigala [<i>Bordeaux</i>]. He received
+an excellent education, especially in grammar and rhetoric, but
+confesses that his progress in Greek was unsatisfactory. Having
+completed his studies, he practised for some time as an advocate,
+but his inclination lay in the direction of teaching. He set
+up (in 334) a school of rhetoric in his native place, which was
+largely attended, his most famous pupil being Paulinus, afterwards
+bishop of Nola. After thirty years of this work, he was summoned
+by Valentinian to the imperial court, to undertake the education
+of Gratian, the heir-apparent. The prince always entertained
+the greatest regard for his tutor, and after his accession bestowed
+upon him the highest titles and honours, culminating in the consulship
+(379). After the murder of Gratian (383), Ausonius retired
+to his estates near Burdigala. He appears to have been a (not
+very enthusiastic) convert to Christianity. He died about 395.</p>
+
+<p>His most important extant works are: in prose, <i>Gratiarum
+Actio</i>, an address of thanks to Gratian for his elevation to the
+consulship; <i>Periochae</i>, summaries of the books of the <i>Iliad</i> and
+<i>Odyssey</i>; and one or two <i>epistolae</i>; in verse, <i>Epigrammata</i>,
+including several free translations from the Greek Anthology;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span>
+<i>Ephemeris</i>, the occupations of a day; <i>Parentalia</i> and
+<i>Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium</i>, on deceased relatives and
+literary friends; <i>Epitaphia</i>, chiefly on the Trojan heroes;
+<i>Caesares</i>, memorial verses on the Roman emperors from Julius
+Caesar to Elagabalus; <i>Ordo Nobilium Urbium</i>, short poems
+on famous cities; <i>Ludus Septem Sapientum</i>, speeches delivered
+by the Seven Sages of Greece; <i>Idyllia</i>, of which the best-known
+are the <i>Mosella</i>, a descriptive poem on the Moselle, and the
+infamous <i>Cento Nuptialis</i>. We may also mention <i>Cupido Cruciatus</i>,
+Cupid on the cross; <i>Technopaegion</i>, a literary trifle consisting
+of a collection of verses ending in monosyllables; <i>Eclogarum
+Liber</i>, on astronomical and astrological subjects; <i>Epistolae</i>,
+including letters to Paulinus and Symmachus; lastly, <i>Praefatiunculae</i>,
+three poetical epistles, one to the emperor Theodosius.
+Ausonius was rather a man of letters than a poet; his
+wide reading supplied him with material for a great variety of
+subjects, but his works exhibit no traces of a true poetic spirit;
+even his versification, though ingenious, is frequently defective.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are no MSS. containing the whole of Ausonius&rsquo;s works.
+Editio princeps, 1472; editions by Scaliger 1575, Souchay 1730,
+Schenkl 1883, Peiper 1886; cf. <i>Mosella</i>, Böcking 1845, de la Ville
+de Mirmont (critical edition with translation) 1889, and <i>De Ausonii
+Mosella</i>, 1892, Hosius 1894. See Deydou, <i>Un Poète bordelais</i>
+(1868); Everat, <i>De Ausonii Operibus</i> (1885); Jullian, <i>Ausone et
+Bordeaux</i> (1893); C. Verrier and R. de Courmont, <i>Les Épigrammes
+d&rsquo;Ausone</i> (translation with bibliography, 1905); R. Pichon, <i>Les
+Derviers Écrivains profanes</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSSIG<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (Czech <i>Oustí nad Labem</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
+68 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 37,255, mostly German.
+It is situated in a mountainous district, at the confluence of the
+Biela and the Elbe, and, besides being an active river port, is an
+important junction of the northern Bohemian railways. Aussig
+has important industries in chemicals, textiles, glass and boat-building,
+and carries on an active trade in coal from the neighbouring
+mines, stone and stoneware, corn, fruit and wood. It
+was the birthplace of the painter, Raphael Mengs (1728-1779).
+Aussig is mentioned as a trading centre as early as 993. It was
+made a city by Ottokar II. in the latter part of the 13th century.
+In 1423 it was pledged by King Sigismund to the elector
+Frederick of Meissen, who occupied it with a Saxon garrison.
+In 1426 it was besieged by the Hussites, who on the 16th of June,
+though only 25,000 strong, defeated a German army of 70,000,
+which had been sent to its relief, with great slaughter. The
+town was stormed and sacked next day. After lying waste for
+three years, it was rebuilt in 1429. It suffered much during the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; and Seven Years&rsquo; Wars, and in 1830 it had only
+1400 inhabitants. Not far from Aussig is the village of Kulm,
+where, on the 29th and 30th of August 1813, a battle took place
+between the French under Vandamme and an allied army of
+Austrians, Prussians and Russians. The French were defeated,
+and Vandamme surrendered with his army of 10,000 men.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTEN, JANE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1775-1817), English novelist, was born on
+the 16th of December 1775 at the parsonage of Steventon,
+in Hampshire, a village of which her father, the Rev. George
+Austen, was rector. She was the youngest of seven children.
+Her mother was Cassandra Leigh, niece of Theophilus Leigh,
+a dry humorist, and for fifty years master of Balliol, Oxford.
+The life of no woman of genius could have been more uneventful
+than Miss Austen&rsquo;s. She did not marry, and she never left home
+except on short visits, chiefly to Bath. Her first sixteen years
+were spent in the rectory at Steventon, where she began early
+to trifle with her pen, always jestingly, for family entertainment.
+In 1801 the Austens moved to Bath, where Mr Austen died in
+1805, leaving only Mrs Austen, Jane and her sister Cassandra,
+to whom she was always deeply attached, to keep up the home;
+his sons were out in the world, the two in the navy, Francis
+William and Charles, subsequently rising to admiral&rsquo;s rank.
+In 1805 the Austen ladies moved to Southampton, and in 1809
+to Chawton, near Alton, in Hampshire, and there Jane Austen
+remained till 1817, the year of her death, which occurred at
+Winchester, on July 18th, as a memorial window in the cathedral
+testifies.</p>
+
+<p>During her placid life Miss Austen never allowed her literary
+work to interfere with her domestic duties: sewing much and
+admirably, keeping house, writing many letters and reading
+aloud. Though, however, her days were quiet and her area
+circumscribed, she saw enough of middle-class provincial society
+to find a basis on which her dramatic and humorous faculties
+might build, and such was her power of searching observation
+and her sympathetic imagination that there are not in English
+fiction more faithful representations of the life she knew than
+we possess in her novels. She had no predecessors in this genre.
+Miss Austen&rsquo;s &ldquo;little bit (two inches wide) of ivory&rdquo; on which
+she worked &ldquo;with so fine a brush&rdquo;&mdash;her own phrases&mdash;was her
+own invention.</p>
+
+<p>Her best-known, if not her best work, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>,
+was also her first. It was written between October 1796 and
+August 1797, although, such was the blindness of publishers,
+not issued until 1813, two years after <i>Sense and Sensibility</i>,
+which was written, on an old scenario called &ldquo;Eleanor and
+Marianne,&rdquo; in 1797 and 1798. Miss Austen&rsquo;s inability to find
+a publisher for these stories, and for <i>Northanger Abbey</i>, written
+in 1798 (although it is true that she sold that MS. in 1803 for
+£10 to a Bath bookseller, only, however, to see it locked away
+in a safe for some years, to be gladly resold to her later), seems
+to have damped her ardour; for there is no evidence that
+between 1798 and 1809 she wrote anything but the fragment
+called &ldquo;The Watsons,&rdquo; after which year she began to revise
+her early work for the press. Her other three books belong
+to a later date&mdash;<i>Mansfield Park</i>, <i>Emma</i> and <i>Persuasion</i> being
+written between 1811 and 1816. The years of publication were
+<i>Sense and Sensibility</i>, 1811; <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>, 1813;
+<i>Mansfield Park</i>, 1814; and <i>Emma</i>, 1816&mdash;all in their author&rsquo;s lifetime.
+<i>Persuasion</i> and <i>Northanger Abbey</i> were published posthumously
+in 1818. All were anonymous, agreeably to their author&rsquo;s
+retiring disposition.</p>
+
+<p>Although <i>Pride and Prejudice</i> is the novel which in the mind
+of the public is most intimately associated with Miss Austen&rsquo;s
+name, both <i>Mansfield Park</i> and <i>Emma</i> are finer achievements&mdash;at
+once riper and richer and more elaborate. But the fact that
+<i>Pride and Prejudice</i> is more single-minded, that the love story
+of Elizabeth Bennet and D&rsquo;Arcy is not only <i>of</i> the book but <i>is</i>
+the book (whereas the love story of Emma and Mr Knightley
+and Fanny Price and Edmund Bertram have parallel streams),
+has given <i>Pride and Prejudice</i> its popularity above the others
+among readers who are more interested by the course of romance
+than by the exposition of character. Entirely satisfactory as is
+<i>Pride and Prejudice</i> so far as it goes, it is, however, thin beside
+the niceness of analysis of motives in <i>Emma</i> and the wonderful
+management of two housefuls of young lovers that is exhibited
+in <i>Mansfield Park</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It has been generally agreed by the best critics that Miss
+Austen has never been approached in her own domain. No one
+indeed has attempted any close rivalry. No other novelist has
+so concerned herself or himself with the trivial daily comedy of
+small provincial family life, disdaining equally the assistance
+offered by passion, crime and religion. Whatever Miss Austen
+may have thought privately of these favourite ingredients of
+fiction, she disregarded all alike when she took her pen in hand.
+Her interest was in life&rsquo;s little perplexities of emotion and
+conduct; her gaze was steadily ironical. The most untoward
+event in any of her books is Louisa&rsquo;s fall from the Cobb at Lyme
+Regis, in <i>Persuasion</i>; the most abandoned, Maria&rsquo;s elopement
+with Crawford, in <i>Mansfield Park</i>. In pure ironical humour
+Miss Austen&rsquo;s only peer among novelists is George Meredith,
+and indeed <i>Emma</i> may be said to be her <i>Egoist</i>, or the <i>Egoist</i> his
+<i>Emma</i>. But irony and fidelity to the fact alone would not have
+carried her down the ages. To these gifts she allied a perfect
+sense of dramatic progression and an admirably lucid and
+flowing prose style which makes her stories the easiest reading.</p>
+
+<p>Recognition came to Miss Austen slowly. It was not until
+quite recent times that to read her became a necessity of culture.
+But she is now firmly established as an English classic, standing
+far above Miss Burney (Madame d&rsquo;Arblay) and Miss Edgeworth,
+who in her day were the popular women novelists of real life,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span>
+while Mrs Radcliffe and &ldquo;Monk&rdquo; Lewis, whose supernatural
+fancies&rsquo; <i>Northanger Abbey</i> was written in part to ridicule, are no
+longer anything but names. Although, however, she has become
+only lately a household word, Miss Austen had always her panegyrists
+among the best intellects&mdash;such as Coleridge, Tennyson,
+Macaulay, Scott, Sydney Smith, Disraeli and Archbishop
+Whately, the last of whom may be said to have been her
+discoverer. Macaulay, whose adoration of Miss Austen&rsquo;s genius
+was almost idolatrous, considered <i>Mansfield Park</i> her greatest
+feat; but many critics give the palm to <i>Emma</i>. Disraeli read
+<i>Pride and Prejudice</i> seventeen times. Scott&rsquo;s testimony is often
+quoted: &ldquo;That young lady had a talent for describing the
+involvements, feelings and characters of ordinary life which
+is to me the most wonderful I have ever met with. The big
+bow-wow I can do myself like any one going; but the exquisite
+touch which renders commonplace things and characters interesting
+from the truth of the description and the sentiment is
+denied to me.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many monographs on Miss Austen have been written, in addition
+to the authorized <i>Life</i> by her nephew J.E. Austen Leigh in 1870,
+and the collection of her <i>Letters</i> edited by Lord Brabourne in 1884.
+The chief books on her and around her are
+<i>Jane Austen</i>, by S.F. Malden (1889);
+<i>Jane Austen</i>, by Goldwin Smith (1890);
+<i>Jane Austen: Her Contemporaries and Herself</i>, by W.H. Pollock;
+<i>Jane Austen: Her Homes and Her Friends</i>, by Constance Hill (1902);
+<i>Jane Austen and Her Times</i>, by G.E. Mitton (1905);
+<i>Jane Austen&rsquo;s Sailor Brothers</i>, by J H. and E.C. Hubback (1906);
+and the essay on her in Lady Richmond (Thackeray) Ritchie&rsquo;s <i>Book of
+Sibyls</i> (1883).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. V. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTERLITZ<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (Czech <i>Slavkov</i>), a town of Austria, in Moravia,
+15 m. E.S.E. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 3145, mostly Czech.
+It contains a magnificent palace belonging to the prince of
+Kaunitz-Rietberg, and a beautiful church.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:511px; height:534px" src="images/img937.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The great battle in which the French under Napoleon I.
+defeated the Austrians and Russians on the 2nd of December
+1805, was fought in the country to the west of Austerlitz, the
+position of Napoleon&rsquo;s left wing being almost equi-distant from
+Brünn and from Austerlitz. The wooded hills to the northward
+throw out to the south and south-west long spurs, between
+which are the low valleys of several rivers and brooks. The
+scene of the most important fighting was the Pratzen plateau.
+The famous &ldquo;lakes&rdquo; in the southern part of the field were
+artificial ponds, which have long since been drained. On the
+west or Brünn side of the Goldbach is another and lower ridge,
+which formed in the battle the first position of the French right
+and centre. On the other wing is the mass of hills from which
+the spurs and streams descend: here the Olmütz-Brünn road
+passes. The road from Brunn to Vienna, Napoleon&rsquo;s presumed
+line of retreat, runs in a southerly direction, and near the village
+of Raigern (3 m. west of Monitz) is very close to the extreme
+right of the French position, a fact which had a great influence
+on the course of the battle. (The course of events which led
+to the action is described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>.)
+Napoleon, falling back before the advance of the allied Austrians
+and Russians from Olmütz, bivouacked west of the Goldbach,
+whilst the allies, holding, near Austerlitz, the junction of the
+roads from Olmutz and from Hungary, formed up in the valleys
+east of the Pratzen heights. The cavalry of both sides remained
+inactive, Napoleon&rsquo;s by express order, the enemy&rsquo;s seemingly
+from mere negligence, since they had 177 squadrons at their
+disposal. Napoleon, having determined to fight, as usual called
+up every available battalion; the splendid III. corps of Davout
+only arrived upon the field after a heavy march, late on the night
+of December 1st. The plan of the allies was to attack Napoleon&rsquo;s
+right, and to cut him off from Vienna, and their advanced guard
+began, before dark on the 1st of December, to skirmish towards
+Telnitz. At that moment Napoleon was in the midst of his
+troops, thousands of whom had made their bivouac-straw into
+torches in his honour. The glare of these seemed to the allies to
+betoken the familiar device of lighting fires previous to a retreat,
+and thus confirmed them in the impression which Napoleon&rsquo;s
+calculated timidity had given. Thus encouraged, those who
+desired an immediate battle soon gained the upper hand in the
+councils of the tsar and the emperor Francis. The attack orders
+for the 2nd of December (drawn up by the Austrian general
+Weyrother, and explained by him to a council of superior
+officers, of whom some were hostile, the greater part indifferent,
+and the chief Russian member, General Kutusov, asleep) gave the
+five columns and the reserve, into which the Austro-Russian
+army was organized, the following tasks: the first and second
+(Russians) to move south-westward behind the Pratzen ridge
+towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz; the third (Russian) to cross the
+southern end of the plateau, and come into line on the right of
+the first two; the fourth (Austrians and Russians under Kolowrat)
+on the right of the third to advance towards Kobelnitz.
+An Austrian advanced guard preceded the 1st and 2nd columns.
+Farther still on the right the 5th column (cavalry under Prince
+John of Liechtenstein) was to hold the northern part of the
+plateau, south of the Brunn-Olmutz road; across the road itself
+was the corps of Prince Bagration, and in rear of Liechtenstein&rsquo;s
+corps was the reserve (Russians under the grand-duke Constantine).
+Thus, the farther the four main columns penetrated into
+the French right wing, the wider would the gap become between
+Bagration and Kolowrat, and Liechtenstein&rsquo;s squadrons could
+not form a serious obstacle to a heavy attack of Napoleon&rsquo;s
+centre. The whole plan was based upon defective information
+and preconceived ideas; it has gone down to history as a classical
+example of bad generalship, and its author Weyrother, who was
+perhaps nothing worse than a pedant, as a charlatan.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon, on the other hand, with the exact knowledge of the
+powers of his men, which was the secret of his generalship,
+entrusted nearly half of his line of battle to a division (Legrand&rsquo;s)
+of Soult&rsquo;s corps, which was to be supported by Davout, some
+of whose brigades had marched, from Vienna, 90 m. in forty-eight
+hours. But the ground which this thin line was to hold against
+three columns of the enemy was marshy and densely intersected
+by obstacles, and the III. corps was the best in the <i>Grande
+Armée</i>, while its leader was perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon&rsquo;s
+marshals. The rest of the army formed in the centre and left.
+&ldquo;Whilst they march to turn my right,&rdquo; said Napoleon in the
+inspiriting proclamation which he issued on the eve of the battle,
+&ldquo;they present me their flank,&rdquo; and the great counterstroke
+was to be delivered against the Pratzen heights by the French
+centre. This was composed of Soult&rsquo;s corps, with Bernadotte&rsquo;s
+in second line. On the left, around the hill called by the French
+the Santon (which was fortified) was Lannes&rsquo; corps, supported
+by the cavalry reserve under Murat. The general reserve
+consisted of the Guard and Oudinot&rsquo;s grenadiers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span></p>
+
+<p>The attack of the allies was begun by the first three columns,
+which moved down from their bivouacs behind the Pratzen
+plateau before dawn on the 2nd, towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz.
+The Austrian advanced guard engaged at daybreak, and the
+French in Telnitz made a vigorous defence; both parties were
+reinforced, and Legrand drew upon himself, in fulfilling his
+mission, the whole weight of the allied attack. The contest was
+long and doubtful, but the Russians gradually drove back Legrand
+and a part of Davout&rsquo;s corps; numerous attacks both of infantry
+and cavalry were made, and by the successive arrival of reinforcements
+each side in turn received fresh impetus. Finally, at
+about 10 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, the allies were in possession of the villages on the
+Goldbach from Sokolnitz southwards, and Davout&rsquo;s line of
+battle had reformed more than a mile to rearward, still, however,
+maintaining touch with the French centre on the Goldbach at
+Kobelnitz. Between the two lines the fighting continued almost
+to the close of the battle. With 12,500 men of all arms the
+Marshal held in front of him over 40,000 of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre, the defective arrangements of the allied staff had
+delayed the 4th column (Kolowrat), the line of march of which
+was crossed by Liechtenstein&rsquo;s cavalry moving in the opposite
+direction. The objective of this column was Kobelnitz, and the
+two emperors and Kutusov accompanied it. The delay had, however,
+opened a gap between Kolowrat and the 3rd column on his
+left; and towards this gap, and the denuded Pratzen plateau,
+Napoleon sent forward St Hilaire&rsquo;s division of Soult&rsquo;s corps for
+the decisive attack. Kutusov was pursuing this march to the south-west
+when he was surprised by the swift advance of Soult&rsquo;s men
+on the plateau itself. Napoleon had here double the force of the
+allies; Kutusov, however, displayed great energy, changed front
+to his right and called up his reserves. The French did not win
+the plateau without a severe struggle. St Hilaire&rsquo;s (the right
+centre) division was fiercely engaged by Kolowrat&rsquo;s column,
+General Miloradovich opposed the left centre attack under
+Vandamme, but the French leaders were two of the best fighting
+generals in their army. The rearmost troops of the Russian 2nd
+column, not yet committed to the fight on the Goldbach, made a
+bold counter stroke against St Hilaire&rsquo;s right flank, but were
+repulsed, and Soult now turned to relieve the pressure on Davout
+by attacking Sokolnitz. The Russians in Sokolnitz surrendered,
+an opportune cavalry charge further discomfited the allied left,
+and the Pratzen plateau was now in full possession of the French.
+Even the Russian Guard failed to shake Vandamme&rsquo;s hold.
+In the meanwhile Lannes and Murat had been engaged in the
+defence of the Santon. Here the allied leaders displayed the
+greatest vigour, but they were unable to drive back the French.
+The cavalry charges in this quarter are celebrated in the history
+of the mounted arm; and Kellermann, the hero of Marengo, won
+fresh laurels against the cavalry of Liechtenstein&rsquo;s command.
+The French not only held their ground, but steadily advanced and
+eventually forced back the allies on Austerlitz, thereby barring
+their retreat on Olmütz. The last serious attempt of the allies
+in the centre led to some of the hardest fighting of the day;
+the Russian Imperial Guard under the grand-duke Constantine
+pressed closely upon St Hilaire and Vandamme on the plateau,
+and only gave way when the French Guard and the Grenadiers
+came into action. After the &ldquo;Chevalier Guards&rdquo; had been
+routed by Marshal Bessières and the Guard cavalry, the allies
+had no more hope of victory; orders had already been sent to
+Buxhöwden, who commanded the three columns engaged against
+Davout, to retreat on Austerlitz. No further attempt was made
+on the plateau, which was held by the French from Pratzen to
+the Olmütz road. The allied army was cut in two, and the last
+confused struggle of the three Russian columns on the Goldbach
+was one for liberty only. The fighting in Telnitz was perhaps
+the hardest of the whole battle, but the inevitable retreat,
+every part of which was now under the fire of the French on the
+plateau, was terribly costly. Soult now barred the way to
+Austerlitz, and the allies turned southward towards Satschan.
+As they retreated, the ice of the Satschan pond was broken up
+by the French artillery, and many of the fugitives were drowned.
+In the twelve hours from 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> to nightfall, the 65,000 French
+troops had lost 6800 men, or about 10%; the allies (82,500
+engaged) had 12,200 killed and wounded, and left in the enemy&rsquo;s
+hands 15,000 prisoners (many wounded) and 133 guns.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN, ALFRED<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1835-&emsp;&emsp;), English poet-laureate, was
+born at Headingley, near Leeds, on the 30th of May 1835. His
+father, Joseph Austin, was a merchant of the city of Leeds;
+his mother, a sister of Joseph Locke, M.P. for Honiton. Mr
+Austin was educated at Stonyhurst, Oscott, and London University,
+where he graduated in 1853. He was called to the bar four
+years later, and practised as a barrister for a short time; but in
+1861, after two comparatively false starts in poetry and fiction,
+he made his first noteworthy appearance as a writer with a
+satire called <i>The Season</i>, which contained incisive lines, and
+was marked by some promise both in wit and observation.
+In 1870 he published a volume of criticism, <i>The Poetry of the
+Period</i>, which was again conceived in a spirit of satirical invective,
+and attacked Tennyson, Browning, Matthew Arnold and
+Swinburne in no half-hearted fashion. The book aroused some
+discussion at the time, but its judgments were extremely uncritical.
+In 1881 Mr Austin returned to verse with a tragedy,
+<i>Savonarola</i>, to which he added <i>Soliloquies</i> in 1882, <i>Prince
+Lucifer</i> in 1887, <i>England&rsquo;s Darling</i> in 1896, <i>The Conversion of
+Winckelmann</i> in 1897, &amp;c. A keen Conservative in politics, for
+several years he edited <i>The National Review</i>, and wrote leading
+articles for <i>The Standard</i>. On Tennyson&rsquo;s death in 1892 it was
+felt that none of the then living poets, except Swinburne or
+William Morris, who were outside consideration on other
+grounds, was of sufficient distinction to succeed to the laurel
+crown, and for several years no new poet-laureate was nominated.
+In the interval the claims of one writer and another were much
+canvassed, but eventually, in 1896, Mr Austin was appointed.
+As poet-laureate, his occasional verses did not escape adverse
+criticism; his hasty poem in praise of the Jameson Raid in
+1896 being a notable instance. The most effective characteristic
+of Mr Austin&rsquo;s poetry, as of the best of his prose, is a genuine
+and intimate love of nature. His prose idylls, <i>The Garden that
+I love</i> and <i>In Veronica&rsquo;s Garden</i>, are full of a pleasant, open-air
+flavour, which is also the outstanding feature of his <i>English
+Lyrics</i>. His lyrical poems are wanting in spontaneity and
+individuality, but many of them possess a simple, orderly
+charm, as of an English country lane. He has, indeed, a true
+love of England, sometimes not without a suspicion of insularity,
+but always fresh and ingenuous. A drama by him, <i>Flodden
+Field</i>, was acted at His Majesty&rsquo;s theatre in 1903.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN, JOHN<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1790-1859), English jurist, was born on the
+3rd of March 1790. His father was the owner of flour mills at
+Ipswich and in the neighbourhood, and was in good circumstances.
+John was the eldest of five brothers. One of his brothers,
+Charles (1799-1874), obtained great distinction at the bar.
+John Austin entered the army at a very early age; he is said
+to have been only sixteen. He served with his regiment under
+Lord William Bentinck in Malta and Sicily. He seems to have
+liked his profession, and to have joined in the amusements and
+even in the follies of his brother officers. Yet it appears from a
+journal kept by him at the time that he occupied himself with
+studies of a far more serious kind than is common amongst
+young officers in the army. He notes having read in the course
+of one year Dugald Stewart&rsquo;s <i>Philosophical Essays</i>, Drummond&rsquo;s
+<i>Academical Questions</i>, Enfield&rsquo;s <i>History of Philosophy</i>, and
+Mitford&rsquo;s <i>History of Greece</i>, and upon all of these he makes
+observations which disclose much thought and a capacity for
+criticism which must have come from extensive reading elsewhere.
+The prevailing note of this journal is one of bitter
+self-depreciation. He says in it that the retrospect of the past
+year (1811) &ldquo;has hardly given rise to one single feeling of
+satisfaction,&rdquo; and farther on he says that &ldquo;indolence, always
+the prominent vice of my character,&rdquo; has &ldquo;assumed over me
+an empire I almost despair of shaking off.&rdquo; It is difficult to
+believe that a man only just of age, whose serious reading
+consisted of such books, and who (as appears from the same
+journal) was in the habit of turning to the classics as an
+alternative, could have deserved the reproach of indolence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1812, he resigned his commission in the army, and returned
+home. He then began to read law in the chambers of a barrister.
+He was called to the bar in the year 1818, and joined the Norfolk
+circuit, but he never obtained any large practice, and he finally
+retired from the bar in 1825. In 1819 he married Sarah Taylor
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austin, Sarah</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Although Austin had failed to attain success at the bar it was
+not long before he had an opportunity of exercising his abilities
+and in a manner peculiarly suited to his particular turn of mind.
+In 1826 a number of eminent men were engaged in the foundation
+of University College, and it was determined to establish in it a
+chair of jurisprudence. This chair was offered to Austin and he
+agreed to accept it. As he was not called upon to begin his
+lectures immediately, he resolved to proceed to Germany in
+order to prepare himself for his duties by studying the method
+of legal teaching pursued at German universities. He resided
+first at Heidelberg, and afterwards at Bonn, where he lived
+on terms of intimacy with such distinguished lawyers as Savigny
+and K.J.A. Mittermaier; and such eminent men of letters as
+Niebuhr, Brandis, Schlegel and A.W. Heffter. He began
+lecturing in 1828, and at first was not without encouragement.
+His class was a peculiarly brilliant one. It included a number
+of men who afterwards became eminent in law, politics and
+philosophy&mdash;Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Charles Buller,
+Charles Villiers, Sir Samuel Romilly and his brother Lord
+Romilly, Edward Strutt afterwards Lord Belper, Sir William
+Erie and John Stuart Mill were all members of his class.
+All of these have left on record expressions of the profound
+admiration which the lectures excited in the minds of those who
+heard them. But the members of his class, though exceptional
+in quality, were few in number, and as there was no fixed salary
+attached to the professorship, Austin could not afford to remain
+in London, and in 1832 he resigned. In that year he published
+his <i>Province of Jurisprudence determined</i>, being the first ten of
+his delivered lectures compressed into six.</p>
+
+<p>There is ample testimony that Austin&rsquo;s lectures were very
+highly appreciated by those who heard them. Their one fault
+was that they were over-elaborated. In his desire to avoid
+ambiguity, he repeats his explanations and qualifications to an
+extent which must have tired his hearers. Nevertheless the
+lectures excited an admiration which almost amounted to
+enthusiasm. Nor was Austin&rsquo;s influence confined to his lectures.
+Sir William Erle says in a letter written to him in 1844, &ldquo;The
+interchange of mind with you in the days of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn I
+regard as a deeply important event in my life, and I ever
+remember your friendship with thankfulness and affection.&rdquo;
+John Stuart Mill, whose views on political subjects were entirely
+opposed to those of Austin, spoke of him after his death as the
+man &ldquo;to whom he (Mill) had been intellectually and morally
+most indebted,&rdquo; and he expressed the opinion &ldquo;that few men
+had contributed more by their individual influence, and their
+conversation, to the formation and growth of the most active
+minds of the generation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1833 a royal commission was issued to draw up a digest of
+criminal law and procedure. Of this commission Austin was a
+member. The first report was signed by all the commissioners,
+and was presented in June 1834. Nevertheless it appears from
+some notes made at the time that Austin, though he thought it
+his duty to sign the report, strongly objected to some passages
+which it contained. It is pretty obvious from the nature of
+these objections that nothing would have satisfied him short of
+a complete recasting of the criminal law, whereas what the
+commissioners were ordered to produce was not a code but a
+digest. Probably Austin felt, as Mr Justice Wills felt some
+years later, that the anomalies which a code would remove
+would &ldquo;choke a digest.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1834 the benchers of the Inner Temple appointed Austin
+to give lectures on the &ldquo;General Principles of Jurisprudence
+and International Law.&rdquo; He delivered a few lectures in the
+spring of that year, but in June the course was by order of the
+benchers suspended on account of the smallness of the attendance,
+and it was never resumed. He then went to live with his
+wife and only child Lucie (afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon) at
+Boulogne. Here he remained for about a year and a half. He
+then accepted an appointment offered him by Sir James Stephen
+to go as royal commissioner to Malta in conjunction with Mr
+(afterward Sir George) Cornewall Lewis, to inquire into the
+nature and extent of the grievances of which the natives of that
+island complained.</p>
+
+<p>The Austins remained in Malta until July 1838. After their
+return they lived a good deal abroad, and in 1844 they settled
+in Paris, where they remained until driven out of France by
+the revolution of 1848. They then took a house at Weybridge,
+and there Austin remained until his death in December 1859.
+He was urged by his friends to publish a second edition of the
+<i>Province of Jurisprudence</i>, which was then out of print, and he
+went so far as to allow a prospectus to be issued by Mr Murray
+of an extended work on &ldquo;The Principles and Relations of
+Jurisprudence and Ethics.&rdquo; But nothing came of it.</p>
+
+<p>In 1842 Austin published in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> an attack
+upon Friedrich List&rsquo;s system of trade protection (<i>Das nationale
+System der politischen Okonomie</i>). And in 1859 he published a
+pamphlet entitled &ldquo;A Plea for the Constitution.&rdquo; This was
+occasioned by the publication of Lord Grey&rsquo;s essay on &ldquo;Parliamentary
+Government.&rdquo; Its main object was to show that the
+consequences to be anticipated from Parliamentary Reform
+were all of them either impossible of realization or mischievous.
+He thought any attempt on the part of the poorer classes to
+improve their position was barred by the inexorable laws of
+political economy; and that if they obtained power they would
+only use it to plunder the rich; whilst, on the other hand, he seems
+not to have had any suspicion that the &ldquo;proprietary class&rdquo;
+were likely to disregard the interests of the poor. He thinks
+that political power is safest in the hands of those possessed
+of hereditary or acquired property; and that without property
+even intelligence and knowledge afford no presumption of
+political capacity. Undoubtedly Austin was a utilitarian in the
+Benthamite sense, and remained so to the end of his life. It
+must be remembered that Bentham&rsquo;s sole and immutable test
+of human action was the greatest happiness of the greatest
+number. This is a principle which an aristocrat may adopt if
+he chooses, no less than a democrat; an individualist no less
+than a socialist; and there is nothing in the &ldquo;Plea for the
+Constitution&rdquo; which contravenes this. But Austin thought,
+and in this no doubt he differed from Bentham, that the mass
+of the people did not know their own interests so well as &ldquo;an
+aristocracy of independent gentlemen&rdquo; who might be trusted
+to provide for the wants of all classes alike.</p>
+
+<p>Austin&rsquo;s position as a jurist is much more difficult to estimate.
+Twice his influence appeared likely to produce some impression
+upon English law, but upon both occasions it lasted only a short
+time, and never extended very far. The men whom he influenced
+were very eminent, but in numbers they were few. As a rule,
+students for the bar never at any time paid any attention to his
+teaching. The first published lectures were almost forgotten
+when Mr (afterwards Sir Henry) Maine was appointed to lecture
+on jurisprudence at the Inner Temple. Both in his private and
+public lectures Maine constantly urged upon his hearers the
+importance of Austin&rsquo;s analytical inquiries into the meaning of
+legal terms. He used to say that it was Austin&rsquo;s inquiries
+which had made a philosophy of law possible. Undoubtedly
+Maine&rsquo;s influence revived for a short time the interest in Austin&rsquo;s
+teaching. Maine was lecturing about the time of Austin&rsquo;s death,
+and in 1861 Mrs Austin published a second edition of the <i>Province
+of Jurisprudence</i>, and this was followed soon after by two
+volumes which contained in addition in a fragmentary form the
+remaining lectures delivered at University College and other
+notes (<i>Lectures on Jurisprudence; or The Philosophy of Positive
+Law</i>).</p>
+
+<p>It cannot be said that Austin&rsquo;s views of jurisprudence have
+had, as yet, any visible influence whatever on the study of
+English law. But if we consider what it was that Austin endeavoured
+to teach, it can hardly be said that the subject is one
+which a lawyer can with impunity neglect. He proposes to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span>
+distinguish law from morals; to explain the notions which
+have been entertained of duty, right, liberty, injury, punishment
+and redress; and their connexion with, and relations to,
+sovereignty; to examine the distinction between rights <i>in rem</i>
+and rights <i>in personam</i>, and between rights <i>ex contractu</i> and
+rights <i>ex delicto</i>; and further to determine the meaning of
+such terms as right, obligation, injury, sanction, person, thing,
+act and forbearance. These are some of the terms, notions
+and distinctions which Austin endeavoured to explain. They
+are daily in the mouth of every practising lawyer. The only
+portion of Austin&rsquo;s work which has attracted much attention
+of recent years is his conception of sovereignty, and his dictum
+that all laws properly so called must be considered as sanctioned
+expressly or tacitly by the sovereign. This has been indignantly
+denied. It has been considered enough to justify this denial
+to point out that there are in existence states where the seat
+of sovereignty, and the ultimate source of law, cannot be accurately
+indicated. But this criticism is entirely misplaced;
+for as pointed out by Maine (<i>Early History of Institutions</i>,
+Lecture xii.), in an elaborate discussion of Austin&rsquo;s views,
+which in the main he accepts, what Austin was engaged upon
+was not an inquiry into the nature of sovereignty as it is found
+to exist, but an inquiry into what was the connexion between
+the various forms of political superiority. And this inquiry
+was undertaken in order to enable him to distinguish the province
+of jurisprudence properly so called from the province of morality;
+an inquiry which was hopeless unless the connexion just stated
+was clearly conceived. Austin&rsquo;s views of sovereignty, therefore,
+was an abstraction, useless it is true for some purposes, but by
+no means useless for others. &ldquo;There is,&rdquo; as Maine says, &ldquo;not
+the smallest necessity for accepting all the conclusions of these
+great writers (<i>i.e.</i> Bentham and Austin) with implicit deference,
+but there is the strongest necessity for knowing what these conclusions
+are. They are indispensable, if for no other object,
+for the purpose of clearing the head.&rdquo; These last words exactly
+express the work which Austin set himself to do. It was to clear
+his own head, and the heads of his hearers, that he laboured so
+hard. As Austin once said of himself, his special vocation was
+that of untying intellectual knots. The disentangling of classifications
+and distinctions, the separation of real from accidental
+distinctions, the analysis of ideas confusedly apprehended, these
+(as has been truly said) were the characteristics of Austin&rsquo;s
+work which specially distinguished him. Austin thought that this
+somewhat irksome task was a necessary preliminary both to the
+study of law as a science, and to the production of a code. It
+is a curious reflection that whilst the lectures in which these
+inquiries were begun (though not completed) excited the admiration
+of his contemporaries, hardly any one now thinks
+such inquiries worth pursuing.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Lectures on Jurisprudence</i> were reviewed by J.S. Mill in the
+<i>Edinburgh Review</i> of October 1863, and this review is republished
+in Mill&rsquo;s <i>Dissertations and Discussions</i>, vol. 3, p. 206. Professor
+Jethro Brown has published (1906) an edition of Austin&rsquo;s earlier
+lectures, in which they are stated in an abbreviated form. There
+is a sketch of his life by his widow in the preface to the <i>Lectures on
+Jurisprudence</i>, which she published after his death.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Ma.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN, SARAH<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1793-1867), English author, was born in
+1793, the daughter of John Taylor (d. 1826), a wool-stapler and
+a member of the well-known Taylor family of Norwich. Her great
+grandfather, Dr John Taylor (1694-1761), had been pastor of the
+Presbyterian church there, and wrote a once famous polemical
+work on <i>The Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin</i> (1738), which
+called forth celebrated treatises by Jonathan Edwards on <i>Original
+Sin</i>. Her mother, Susannah Cook, was an exceedingly clever
+woman who transmitted both her beauty and her talent to her
+daughter. Their friends included Dr Alderson and his daughter
+Mrs Opie, Henry Crabbe Robinson, the Gurneys and Sir James
+Mackintosh. Sarah Taylor married in 1820 John Austin (<i>q.v.</i>).
+They lived in Queen Square, Westminster, where Mrs. Austin,
+whose tastes, unlike her husband&rsquo;s, were extremely sociable,
+gathered round her a large circle, Jeremy Bentham, James Mill
+and the Grotes being especially intimate. She received many
+Italian exiles, who found a real friend in her. In 1821 was born
+her only child, Lucie, afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon. Mrs.
+Austin never attempted any considerable original work, contenting
+herself chiefly with translations, of which the most
+important are the <i>History of the Reformation in Germany</i> and
+the <i>History of the Popes</i> (1840), from the German of Leopold von
+Ranke, <i>Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia</i> (1834)
+from the French of V. Cousin, and F.W. Carove&rsquo;s <i>The Story
+without an End</i> (1864). After her husband&rsquo;s death in 1859 she
+edited his <i>Lectures on Jurisprudence</i>. She also edited the
+<i>Memoirs of Sydney Smith</i> (1855) and Lady Duff-Gordon&rsquo;s
+<i>Letters from Egypt</i> (1865). She died at Weybridge on the 8th of
+August 1867.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Three Generations of Englishwomen</i> (1888), by her grand-daughter,
+Mrs Janet Ross.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1793-1836), American pioneer,
+was born in Austinville, Wythe county, Virginia, on the 3rd of
+November 1793. He was the son of Moses Austin (1767-1821),
+a native of Durham, Connecticut, who in 1820 obtained from
+Mexico a grant of land for an American colony in Texas, but died
+before he could carry out his project. The son was educated
+in New London, Connecticut, and at Transylvania University,
+Lexington, Kentucky, and settled in Missouri, where he was a
+member of the territorial legislature from 1813 to 1819. In
+1819 he removed to Arkansas Territory, where he was appointed
+a circuit judge. After his father&rsquo;s death he obtained a confirmation
+of the Texas grants from the newly established Mexican
+government, and in 1821-1823 he established a colony of several
+hundred American families on the Brazos river, the principal town
+being named, in his honour, San Felipe de Austin. He was a
+firm defender of the rights of the Americans in Texas, and in
+1833 he was sent to the city of Mexico to present a petition from
+a convention in Texas praying for the erection of a separate
+state government. While there, despairing of success for his
+petition, he wrote home recommending the organization of a
+state without waiting for the consent of the Mexican congress.
+This letter falling into the hands of the Mexican government,
+Austin, while returning home, was arrested at Saltillo, carried
+as a prisoner back to Mexico, and imprisoned for a year without
+trial. Returning to Texas in 1835, he found the Texans in armed
+revolt against Mexican rule, and was chosen commander-in-chief
+of the revolutionary forces, but after failing to take San Antonio
+he resigned the command, for which he had never considered
+himself fitted, and in November 1835 went to the United States as
+a commissioner to secure loans and supplies, and to learn the
+position the United States authorities would be likely to take
+in the event of a declaration of Texan independence. He succeeded
+in raising large sums, and received assurances that satisfied
+him that Americans would look with great favour on an independent
+Texas. Returning to Texas in the summer of 1836,
+he became a candidate, rather reluctantly, for the presidency
+of the newly established republic of Texas, but was defeated by
+Samuel Houston, under whom he was secretary of state until his
+sudden death on the 7th of December 1836.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>A Comprehensive History of Texas</i>, edited by D.G. Wooten
+(2 vols., Dallas, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Mower county,
+Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red Cedar river and Turtle creek,
+(by rail) 105 m. S. of Minneapolis and 100 m. from St Paul.
+Pop. (1900) 5474; (1905, state census) 6489 (913 foreign-born);
+(1910, U.S. census) 6960. It is served by the Chicago
+Great Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St Paul railways.
+Austin is the seat of the Southern Minnesota Normal College
+and Austin School of Commerce (1896), and has a Carnegie
+library, court house and city hall. It is a market for livestock,
+and for dairy and farm products, and has slaughtering and
+packing establishments, flour mills, creameries and cheese
+factories, canning and preserving factories, carriage works,
+a flax fibre mill and grain elevators. Brick, tile, sewer-pipe,
+and hydraulic cement are manufactured, and there are railway
+repair shops. A valuable water-power is utilized for manufacturing
+purposes. Fresh-water pearls of considerable value
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span>
+and beauty are found in the Red Cedar river. The city owns
+and operates its own water-supply system and electric-lighting
+plant. Austin was settled in 1855, was incorporated as a village
+in 1868, and was chartered as a city in 1873.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> the capital of Texas, U.S.A., and the county-seat
+of Travis county, on the N. bank of the Colorado river, near
+the centre of the state and about 145 m. W.N.W. of Houston.
+Pop. (1890) 14,575; (1900) 22,258, of whom 5822 were negroes;
+(1910 census) 29,860. Austin is served by the Houston &amp;
+Texas Central, the International &amp; Great Northern, and the
+Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas railways. The city is built on high
+bluffs 40-120 ft. above the river, which is spanned here by a bridge,
+built in 1874. The Texas State Capitol, a handsome building
+of red Texas granite, with a dome 318 ft. high, cost more than
+$3,500,000, and stands in a square in the centre of the city.
+It was built (1881-1888) by Chicago capitalists in exchange for
+a land grant of 3,000,000 acres. It is in the form of a Greek cross,
+with an extreme length of 556.5 ft. and an extreme width of
+288.8 ft. Next to the National Capitol at Washington, it is
+the largest capitol building in the United States, and it is said
+to be one of the ten largest buildings in the world. Austin
+is the seat of the University of Texas (opened in 1883; co-educational);
+the medical department of the state university
+is at Galveston, and the departments in Austin are the college
+of arts, department of education, department of engineering,
+department of law, school of pharmacy, and school of nursing.
+The government of the university is vested in a board of eight
+regents nominated by the governor and appointed with the
+advice and consent of the state senate. At Austin are also
+state institutions and asylums for the insane, the blind, the
+coloured deaf and blind; the state school for the deaf and dumb;
+the state Confederate home; the Confederate woman&rsquo;s home
+(1907; for wives and widows of Confederate soldiers and sailors),
+maintained by the Daughters of the Confederacy; St Mary&rsquo;s
+Academy (Roman Catholic, under the supervision of the
+Sisters of the Holy Cross, founded 1875, chartered 1886); St
+Edward&rsquo;s College (Roman Catholic, chartered 1885); the Austin
+Presbyterian Theological Seminary (Presbyterian Church,
+South), opened in 1902 by the Synod of Texas, and after 1905
+partly controlled by the Synod of Arkansas; Tillotson College
+(a negro school under Congregational control, founded by the
+American Missionary Association, chartered in 1877, and opened
+in 1881), and Samuel Huston College (for negroes; Methodist
+Episcopal; opened in 1900 and named in honour of an Iowan
+benefactor). The principal newspapers of Austin are the
+<i>Statesman</i> (Democratic, established in 1871), a morning paper,
+and the <i>Tribune</i> (Democratic, established in 1891), an evening
+paper. The <i>Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society</i> is
+published here. Austin is the principal trade and jobbing centre
+for central and western Texas, is an important market for livestock,
+cotton, grain and wool, and has extensive manufactories
+of flour, cotton-seed oil, leather goods, lumber and wooden
+ware; the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,569,353,
+being 105.2% more than in 1900. The city owns and operates
+its water-supply system. In 1890-1893 one of the largest dams
+in the world, an immense structure of granite masonry, 1200 ft.
+long. 60-70 ft. high, and 18 to 66 ft. thick, was constructed
+across the Colorado river 2 m. above the city for the purpose
+of supplying water and power, creating a reservoir (Lake
+M&lsquo;Donald) about 30 m. long. Freshets in the spring of 1900,
+however, undermined the wall, and on the 7th of April the dam
+broke with a resulting loss of several lives and about $1,000,000
+worth of property. The rebuilding of the dam was projected
+in 1907. Austin was first settled in 1838 and was named Waterloo,
+but in 1839, when it was chosen as the site of the capital of the
+Republic of Texas, it was renamed in honour of Stephen F.
+Austin, one of its founders. Under the influence of General Sam
+Houston the capital was for a time in 1842-1845 removed from
+Austin to Houston, but in 1845 an ordinance was passed making
+Austin the capital, and it remained the state capital after Texas
+entered the Union, although Huntsville and Tehuacana Springs
+in 1850 and Houston in 1872 attempted in popular elections
+to be chosen in its place. The first Anglo-American settlement
+in Texas, established on the Brazos river in 1823 by members of
+the Austin colony, was San Felipe de Austin now San Felipe.
+In 1909 Austin adopted a commission form of government.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTRALASIA,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a term used by English geographers in a
+sense nearly synonymous with the Oceania of continental writers.
+It thus comprises all the insular groups which extend almost continuously from the south-eastern extremity of Asia to more than
+half-way across the Pacific. Its chief divisions are Malaysia
+with the Philippines; Australia with Tasmania and New
+Zealand; Melanesia, that is, New Guinea, New Britain, New
+Ireland, Admiralty, the Solomons, New Hebrides, Santa Cruz,
+Fiji, Loyalties and New Caledonia; Micronesia, that is, the
+Ladrones, Pelew and Carolines, with the Marshall and Gilbert
+groups; lastly, Polynesia, that is, Samoa, Tonga, Cook, Tahiti,
+the Marquesas, Ellice, Hawaii and all intervening clusters.
+The term is so far justified in that it harmonizes better than
+Oceania did with the names of the other continents, and also
+embodies the two essential facts that it is a south-eastern
+extension of Asia, and that its central and most important
+division is the great island-continent of Australia. In a more
+restricted sense the term Australasia corresponds to the large
+division including Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Australasia</i>, 2 vols. Stanford Compendium Series, new issue
+(London, 1907-1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTRALIA,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> the only continent entirely in the southern
+hemisphere. It lies between 10° 39&prime; and 39° 11½&rsquo; S., and between
+113° 5&prime; and 153° 16&prime; E. Its greatest length is 2400 m. from
+east to west, and the greatest breadth 1971 m. from north to
+south. The area is, approximately, 2,946,691 sq. m., with a
+coast line measuring about 8850 m. This is equal to 1 m. to
+each 333 sq. m. of land, the smallest proportion of coast shown
+by any of the continents.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Physical Geography</p>
+
+<p><i>Physiography</i>.&mdash;The salient features of the Australian
+continent are its compact outline, the absence of navigable
+rivers communicating with the interior, the absence of
+active volcanoes or snow-capped mountains, its
+<span class="sidenote">General character.</span>
+isolation from other lands, and its antiquity. Some of
+the most profound changes that have taken place on this globe
+occurred in Mesozoic times, and a great portion of Australia
+was already dry land when vast tracts of Europe and Asia
+were submerged; in this sense, therefore, Australia has been
+rightly referred to as one of the oldest existing land surfaces.
+It has been described as at once the largest island and the
+smallest continent on the globe. The general contours exemplify
+the law of geographers in regard to continents, viz. as to their
+having a high border around a depressed interior, and the highest
+mountains on the side of the greatest ocean. On the N.
+Australia is bounded by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and
+Torres Strait; on the E. by the Pacific Ocean; on the S. by
+Bass Strait and the Southern Ocean; and on the W. by the
+Indian Ocean. It stands up from the ocean depths in three
+fairly well-marked terraces. The basal plain of these terraces
+is the bed of the ocean, which on the Pacific side has an average
+depth of 15,000 ft. From this profound foundation rise
+Australia, New Guinea and Melanesia, in varying slopes. The
+first ledge rising from the ocean floor has a depth averaging
+8000 ft. below sea-level. The outer edge of this ledge is roughly
+parallel to the coast of Western Australia, and more than 150 m.
+from the land. Round the Australian Bight it continues parallel
+to the coast, until south of Spencer Gulf (the basal ledge still
+averaging 8000 ft. in depth) it sweeps southwards to lat. 55°,
+and forms a submarine promontory 1000 m. long. The edge of
+the abysmal area comes close to the eastern coasts of Tasmania
+and New South Wales, approaching to within 60 m. of Cape
+Howe. The terrace closest to the land, known as the continental
+shelf, has an average depth of 600 ft., and connects Australia,
+New Guinea, and Tasmania in one unbroken sweep. Compared
+with other continents, the Australian continental shelf is extremely
+narrow, and there are points on the eastern coast where
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span>
+the land plunges down to oceanic depths with an abruptness
+rarely paralleled. Off the Queensland coast the shelf broadens,
+its outer edge being lined by the seaward face of the Great
+Barrier Reef. From Torres Strait to Dampier Land the shelf
+spreads out, and connects Australia with New Guinea and the
+Malay Archipelago. An elongation of the shelf to the south joins
+Tasmania with the mainland. The vertical relief of the land
+above the ocean is a very important factor in determining the
+climate as well as the distribution of the fauna and flora of a
+continent.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The land mass of Australia rises to a mean height much less than
+that of any other continent; and the chief mountain systems are
+parallel to, and not far from, the coast-line. Thus, taking the continent
+as a whole, it may be described as a plateau, fringed by a low-lying
+well-watered coast, with a depressed, and for the most part
+arid, interior. A great plain, covering quite 500,000 sq. m., occupies
+a position a little to the east of a meridional line bisecting the continent,
+and south of the 22nd degree, but portions of it stretch
+upwards to the low-lying country south of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
+The contour of the continent in latitude 30° 5&prime; is as follows:&mdash;a
+short strip of coastal plain; then a sharp incline rising to a mountain
+range 4000 ft. above sea-level, at a distance of 40 m. from the coast.
+From this a gently-sloping plateau extends to almost due north of
+Spencer Gulf, at which point its height has fallen almost to
+sea-level. Then there is a gentle rise to the low steppes, 500 to 1000 ft.
+above sea-level. A further gentle rise in the high steppes leads to
+the mountains of the West Australian coast, and another strip of
+low-lying coastal land to the sea.</p>
+
+<p>With a circumference of 8000 m. Australia presents a contour
+wonderfully devoid of inlets from the sea except on its northern
+shores, where the coast-line is largely indented. The Gulf of Carpentaria,
+situated in the north, is enclosed on the east by the projection
+of Cape York, and on the west by Arnheim Land, and forms
+the principal bay on the whole coast, measuring about 6° of long.
+by 6° of lat. Farther to the west, Van Diemen&rsquo;s Gulf, though much
+smaller, forms a better-protected bay, having Melville Island between
+it and the ocean; while beyond this, Queen&rsquo;s Channel and Cambridge
+Gulf form inlets about 14° 50&prime; S. On the north-west of the continent
+the coast-line is much broken, the chief indentations being Admiralty
+Gulf, Collier Bay and King Sound, on the shores of Tasman Land.
+Western Australia, again, is not favoured with many inlets, Exmouth
+Gulf and Shark&rsquo;s Bay being the only bays of any size. The same
+remark may be made of the rest of the sea-board; for, with the
+exception of Spencer Gulf, the Gulf of St Vincent and Port Phillip
+on the south, and Moreton Bay, Hervey Bay and Broad Sound on
+the east, the coast-line is singularly uniform. There are, however,
+numerous spacious harbours, especially on the eastern coast, which
+are referred to in the detailed articles dealing with the different
+states. The Great Barrier Reef forms the prominent feature off
+the north-east coast of Australia; its extent from north to south is
+1200 m., and it is therefore the greatest of all coral reefs. The
+channel between the reef and the coast is in places 70 m. wide and
+400 ft. deep. There are a few clear openings in the outer rampart
+which the reef presents to the ocean. These are opposite to the
+large estuaries of the Queensland rivers, and might be thought to
+have been caused by fresh water from the land. The breaks are,
+however, some 30 to 90 m. away from land and more probably were
+caused by subsidence; the old river-channels known to exist below
+sea-level, as well as the former land connexion with New Guinea, seem
+to point to the conditions assumed in Darwin&rsquo;s well-known subsidence
+theory, and any facts that appear to be inconsistent with the theory
+of a steady and prolonged subsidence are explainable by the assumption
+of a slight upheaval.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Tasmania there are no important islands
+belonging geographically to Australia, for New Guinea, Timor and
+other islands of the East Indian archipelago, though not removed
+any great distance from the continent, do not belong to its system.
+On the east coast there are a few small and unimportant islands.
+In Bass Strait are Flinders Island, about 800 sq. m. in area, Clarke
+Island, and a few other small islands. Kangaroo Island, at the
+entrance of St Vincent Gulf, is one of the largest islands on the
+Australian coast, measuring 80 m. from east to west with an average
+width of 20 m. Numerous small islands lie off the western coast,
+but none has any commercial importance. On the north coast are
+Melville and Bathurst Islands; the former, which is 75 m. long and
+38 m. broad, is fertile and well watered. These islands are opposite
+Port Darwin, and to the westward of the large inlet known as
+Van Diemen&rsquo;s Gulf. In the Gulf of Carpentaria are numerous
+islands, the largest bearing the Dutch name of Groote Eylandt.</p>
+
+<p>Along the full length of the eastern coast extends a succession
+of mountain chains. The vast Cordillera of the Great Dividing
+Range originates in the south-eastern corner of the continent,
+and runs parallel with and close to the eastern
+<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
+shore, through the states of Victoria and New South Wales,
+right up to the far-distant York Peninsula in Queensland. In
+Victoria the greatest elevation is reached in the peaks of Mount
+Bogong (6508 ft.) and Mount Feathertop (6303 ft.), both of which
+lie north of the Dividing Range; in the main range Mount Hotham
+(6100 ft.) and Mount Cobberas (6025 ft.) are the highest summits.
+In New South Wales, but close to the Victorian border, are found the
+loftiest peaks of Australia, Mount Kosciusco and Mount Townsend,
+rising to heights of 7328 and 7260 ft. respectively. The range is here
+called the Muniong, but farther north it receives the name of Monaro
+Range; the latter has a much reduced altitude, its average being
+only about 2000 ft. As the tableland runs northward it decreases
+both in height and width, until it narrows to a few miles only, with an
+elevation of scarcely 1500 ft.; under the name of the Blue Mountains
+the plateau widens again and increases in altitude, the chief peaks
+being Mount Clarence (4000 ft.), Mount Victoria (3525 ft.), and Mount
+Hay (3270 ft.). The Dividing Range decreases north of the Blue
+Mountains, until as a mere ridge it divides the waters of the coastal
+rivers from those flowing to the Darling. The mass widens out once
+more in the Liverpool Range, where the highest peak, Mount Oxley,
+reaches 4500 ft., and farther north, in the New England Range,
+Ben Lomond reaches an elevation of 5000 ft. Near the Queensland
+border, Mount Lindsay, in the Macpherson Range, rises to a height
+of 5500 ft. In the latitude of Brisbane the chain swerves inland;
+no other peak north of this reaches higher than Mount Bartle Frere
+in the Bellenden Ker Range (5438 ft.). The Southern Ocean system
+of the Victorian Dividing Range hardly attains to the dignity of
+high mountains. An eastern system in South Australia touches at
+a few points a height of 3000 ft.; and the Stirling Range, belonging
+to the south-western system of South Australia, reaches to 2340 ft.
+There are no mountains behind the Great Australian Bight. On
+the west the Darling Range faces the Indian Ocean, and extends
+from Point D&rsquo;Entrecasteaux to the Murchison river. North of the
+Murchison, Mount Augustus and Mount Bruce, with their connecting
+highlands, cut off the coastal drainage from the interior; but no
+point on the north-west coast reaches a greater altitude than 4000 ft.
+Several minor ranges, the topography of which is little known,
+extend from Cambridge Gulf, behind a very much broken coast-line,
+to Limmen Bight on the Gulf of Carpentaria. Nothing is more
+remarkable than the contrast between the aspect of the coastal
+ranges on the north-east and on the south-east of the continent. The
+higher Australian peaks in the south-east look just what they are, the
+worn and denuded stumps of mountains, standing for untold ages
+above the sea. Their shoulders are lifted high above the tree-line.
+Their summits stand out gaunt and lonely in an unbroken solitude.
+Having left the tree-line far behind him, nothing is visible to the
+traveller for miles around but barren peaks and torn crags in indescribable
+confusion. A verdure of herbage clothes the valleys
+that have been scooped from the summits downwards. But there are
+no perpetual snow-fields, no glaciers creep down these valleys, and
+no alpine hamlets ever appear to break the monotony. The mountains
+of the north-east, on the contrary, are clothed to their summits
+with a rich and varied flora. Naked crags, when they do appear, lift
+themselves from a sea of green, and a tropical vegetation, quite
+Malaysian in character, covers everything.</p>
+
+<p>The absence of active volcanoes in Australia is a state of things,
+in a geological sense, quite new to the continent. Some of the
+volcanoes of the western districts of Victoria have been in eruption
+probably subsequent to the advent of the black-fellow. In some
+instances the cones are quite intact, and the beds of ash and scoriae
+are as yet almost unaffected by denuding agencies. Late in the
+Tertiary period vast sheets of lava poured from many points of the
+Great Dividing Range of eastern Australia. But it is notable that
+all recent volcanic action was confined to a wide belt parallel to
+the coast. No evidences of recent lava flows can be found in the
+interior over the great alluvial plain, the Lower, or the Higher
+Steppes. Nor has the continent, as a whole, in recent times been
+subjected to any violent earth tremors; though in 1873, to the
+north of Lake Amadeus, in central Australia, Ernest Giles records
+the occurrence of earthquake shocks violent enough to dislodge considerable
+rock masses.</p>
+
+<p>Australia possesses one mountain which, though not a volcano,
+is a &ldquo;burning mountain.&rdquo; This is Mount Wingen, situated in a spur
+of the Liverpool Range and close to the town of Scone. Its fires
+are not volcanic, but result from the combustion of coal some
+distance underground, giving off much smoke and steam; geologists
+estimate that the burning has been going on for at least 800 years.</p>
+
+<p>The coastal belt of Australia is everywhere well watered, with
+the exception of the country around the Great Australian Bight
+and Spencer Gulf. Flowing into the Pacific Ocean on the
+east coast there are some fine rivers, but the majority have
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+short and rapid courses. In Queensland a succession of rivers falls
+into the Pacific from Cape York to the southern boundary of the
+state. The Burdekin is the finest of these, draining an area of
+53,500 sq. m., and emptying into Upstart Bay; it receives numerous
+tributaries in its course, and carries a large body of fresh water even
+in the driest seasons. The Fitzroy river is the second in point of
+size; it drains an area of 55,600 sq. m., and receives several tributary
+streams during its course to Keppel Bay. The Brisbane river,
+falling into Moreton Bay, is important chiefly from the fact that the
+city of Brisbane is situated on its banks. In New South Wales there
+are several important rivers, the largest of which is the Hunter,
+draining 11,000 sq. m., and having a course of 200 m. Taking them
+from north to south, the principal rivers are the Richmond, Clarence,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span>
+Macleay, Hastings, Manning, Hunter, Hawkesbury and Shoalhaven.
+The Snowy river has the greater part of its course in New South
+Wales, but its mouth and the last 120 m. are in Victoria. The other
+rivers worth mentioning are the Yarra, entering the sea at Port
+Phillip, Hopkins and Glenelg. The Murray (<i>q.v.</i>), the greatest river
+of Australia, debouches into Lake Alexandrina, and thence into the
+sea at Encounter Bay in South Australia. There are no other rivers
+of importance in South Australia, but the Torrens and the Gawler
+may be mentioned. Westward of South Australia, on the shores of
+the Australian Bight, there is a stretch of country 300 m. in length
+unpierced by any streams, large or small, but west of the bight,
+towards Cape Leeuwin, some small rivers enter the sea. The south-west
+coast is watered by a few streams, but none of any size;
+amongst these is the Swan, upon which Perth, the capital of Western
+Australia, is built. Between the Swan and North-West Cape the
+principal rivers are the Greenough, Murchison and Gascoyne; on
+the north-west coast, the Ashburton, Fortescue and De Grey; and in
+the Kimberley district, the Fitzroy, Panton, Prince Regent and the
+Ord. In the Northern Territory are several fine rivers. The Victoria
+river is navigable for large vessels for a distance of about 43 m. from
+the sea, and small vessels may ascend for another 80 m. The Fitzmaurice,
+discharging into the estuary of the Victoria, is also a large
+stream. The Daly, which in its upper course is called the Katherine,
+is navigable for a considerable distance, and small vessels are able
+to ascend over 100 m. The Adelaide, discharging into Adam Bay,
+has been navigated by large vessels for about 38 m., and small vessels
+ascend still farther. The South Alligator river, flowing into Van
+Diemen&rsquo;s Gulf, is also a fine stream, navigable for over 30 m. by large
+vessels; the East Alligator river, falling into the same gulf, has been
+navigated for 40 m. Besides those mentioned, there are a number
+of smaller rivers discharging on the north coast, and on the west
+shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria the Roper river discharges itself
+into Limmen Bight. The Roper is a magnificent stream, navigable
+for about 75 or 80 m. by vessels of the largest tonnage, and light
+draught vessels can ascend 20 m. farther. Along the portion of the
+south shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria which belongs to Queensland
+and the east coast, many large rivers discharge their waters, amongst
+them the Norman, Flinders, Leichhardt, Albert and Gregory on the
+southern shore, and the Batavia, Archer, Coleman, Mitchell, Staaten
+and Gilbert on the eastern shore. The rivers flowing into the Gulf
+of Carpentaria, as well as those in the Northern Territory, drain
+country which is subject to regular monsoonal rains, and have the
+general characteristics of sub-tropical rivers.</p>
+
+<p>The network of streams forming the tributaries of the Darling
+and Murray system give an idea of a well-watered country. The
+so-called rivers have a strong flow only after heavy rains, and some
+of them do not ever reach the main drainage line. Flood waters
+disappear often within a distance of a few miles, being absorbed by
+porous soil, stretches of sand, and sometimes by the underlying
+bed-rocks. In many cases the rivers as they approach the main
+stream break up into numerous branches, or spread their waters over
+vast flats. This is especially the case with the tributaries of the
+Darling on its left bank, where in seasons of great rains these rivers
+overspread their banks and flood the flat country for miles around
+and thus reach the main stream. Lieutenant John Oxley went down
+the Lachlan (1817) during one of these periods of flood, and the great
+plains appeared to him to be the fringe of a vast inland sea. As a
+matter of fact, they are an alluvial deposit spread out by the same
+flood waters. The great rivers of Australia, draining inland, carve
+out valleys, dissolve limestone, and spread out their deposit over
+the plains when the waters become too sluggish to bear their burden
+farther. From a geological standpoint, the Great Australian Plain
+and the fertile valley of the Nile have had a similar origin. Taking
+the Lachlan as one type of Australian river, we find it takes its rise
+amongst the precipitous and almost unexplored valleys of the Great
+Dividing Range. With the help of its tributaries it acts as a denuding
+agent for 14,000 sq. m. of country, and carries its burden of
+sediment westwards. A point is reached about 200 m. from the
+Dividing Range, where the river ceases to act as a denuding agent,
+and the area of deposition begins, at a level of 250 ft. above the sea,
+but before the waters can reach the ocean they have still to travel
+about 1000 m.</p>
+
+<p>The Darling is reckoned amongst the longest rivers in the world,
+for it is navigable, part of the year, from Walgett to its confluence
+with the Murray, 1758 m., and then to the sea, a further distance of
+587 m.&mdash;making in all 2345 m. of navigable water. But this gives
+no correct idea of the true character of the Darling, for it can hardly
+be said to drain its own watershed. From the sources of its various
+tributaries to the town of Bourke, the river may be described as
+draining a watershed. But from Bourke to the sea, 550 m. in a direct
+line, the river gives rather than receives water from the country it
+flows through.</p>
+
+<p>The annual rainfall and the area of the catchment afford no
+measure whatever as to the size of a river in the interior of Australia.
+The discharge of the Darling river at Bourke does not amount to
+more than 10% of the rainfall over the country which it drains.
+It was this remarkable fact which first led to the idea that, as the
+rainfall could not be accounted for either by evaporation or by the
+river discharge, much of the 90% unaccounted for must sink into
+the ground, and in part be absorbed by some underlying bed-rock.
+All Australian rivers, except the Murray and the Murrumbidgee,
+depend entirely and directly on the rainfall. They are flooded after
+rain, and in seasons of drought many of them, especially the tributaries
+of the Darling, become chains of ponds. Springs which would
+equalize the discharge of rivers by continuing to pour water into
+their beds after the rainy season has passed seem entirely absent
+in the interior. Nor are there any snowfields to feed rivers, as in the
+other continents. More remarkable still, over large tracts of country
+the water seems disposed to flow away from, rather than to, the
+river-beds. As the low-lying plains are altogether an alluvial deposit,
+the coarser sediments accumulate in the regions where the river first
+overflows its banks to spread out over the plains. The country
+nearest the river receiving the heaviest deposit becomes in this way
+the highest ground, and so continues until a &ldquo;break-away&rdquo; occurs,
+when a new river-bed is formed, and the same process of deposition
+and accumulation is repeated. As the general level of the country
+is raised by successive alluvial deposits, the more ancient river-beds
+become buried, but being still connected with the newer rivers at
+some point or other, they continue to absorb water. This underground
+network of old river-beds underlying the great alluvial plains
+must be filled to repletion before flood waters will flow over the
+surface. It is not surprising, therefore, that comparatively little of
+the rainfall over the vast extent of the great central plain ever reaches
+the sea by way of the river systems; indeed these systems as
+usually shown on the maps leave a false impression as to the actual
+condition of things.</p>
+
+<p>The great alluvial plain is one of Australia&rsquo;s most notable inland
+features; its extent is upwards of 500,000 sq. m., lying east of
+135° W. and extending right across the continent from
+the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Murray river. The interior
+<span class="sidenote">Steppes.</span>
+of the continent west of 135° and north of the Musgrave ranges is
+usually termed by geographers the Australian Steppes. It is entirely
+different in all essential features from the great alluvial plains. Its
+prevailing aspect is characterized by flat and terraced hills, capped
+by desert sandstone, with stone-covered flats stretching over
+long distances. The country round Lake Eyre, where some of the
+land is actually below sea-level, comes under this heading. The
+higher steppes, as far as they are known, consist of Ordovician and
+Cambrian rocks, with an average elevation of 1500 to 3000 ft. above
+sea-level. Over this country water-courses are shown on maps.
+These run in wet seasons, but in every instance for a short distance
+only, and sooner or later they are lost in sand-hills, where their
+waters disappear and a line of stunted gum-trees (<i>Eucalyptus rostrata</i>)
+is all that is present to indicate that there may be even a soakage to
+mark the abandoned course. The steppes cover a surface of 400,000
+sq. m., and from this vast expanse not a drop of the scanty rainfall
+reaches the sea; there is no leading drainage system and there are
+no rivers. Another notable feature of the interior is the so-called
+lake area, a district stretching to the north of Spencer Gulf. These
+<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span>
+lakes are expanses of brackish waters that spread or
+contract as the season is one of drought or rain. In
+seasons of drought they are hardly more than swamps and mud flats,
+which for a time may become a grassy plain, or desolate coast encrusted
+with salt. The country around is the dreariest imaginable,
+the surface is a dead level, there is no heavy timber and practically
+no settlement. Lake Torrens, the largest of these depressions, sometimes
+forms a sheet of water 100 m. in length. To the north again
+stretches Lake Eyre, and to the west Lake Gairdner. Some of these
+lake-beds are at or slightly below sea-level, so that a very slight
+depression of the land to the south of them would connect much of
+the interior with the Southern Ocean.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. A. C.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;The states of Australia are divided by natural boundaries,
+which separate geographical areas having different characters,
+owing, mainly, to their different geological structures. Hence the
+general stratigraphical geology can be most conveniently summarized
+for each state separately, dealing here with the geological history of
+Australia as a whole. Australia is essentially the fragment of a great
+plateau land of Archean rocks. It consists in the main of an Archean
+block or &ldquo;coign,&rdquo; which still occupies nearly the whole of the western
+half of the continent, outcrops in north-eastern Queensland, forms
+the foundation of southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria,
+and is exposed in western Victoria, in Tasmania, and in the western
+flank of the Southern Alps of New Zealand. These areas of Archean
+rocks were doubtless once continuous. But they have been separated
+by the foundering of the Coral Sea and the Tasman Sea, which
+divided the continent of Australia from the islands of the Australasian
+festoon; and the foundering of the band across Australia, from the
+Gulf of Carpentaria, through western Queensland and western New
+South Wales, to the lower basin of the Murray, has separated the
+Archean areas of eastern and western Australia. The breaking up
+of the old Archean foundation block began in Cambrian and Ordovician
+times. A narrow Cambrian sea must have extended across
+central Australia from the Kimberley Goldfield in the north-west,
+through Tempe Downs and the Macdonnell chain in central Australia,
+to the South Australian highlands, central Victoria at Mansfield,
+and northern Tasmania. Cambrian rocks occur in each of these
+districts, and they are best developed in the South Australian highlands,
+where they include a long belt of contemporary glacial deposits.
+Marine Ordovician rocks were deposited along the same
+general course. They are best developed in the Macdonnell chain in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span>
+central Australia and in Victoria, where the fullest sequence is
+known; while they also extended north-eastward from Victoria
+into New South Wales, where, as yet, no Cambrian rocks have been
+found. The Silurian system was marked by the retreat of the sea
+from central Australia; but the sea still covered a band across
+Victoria, from the coast to the Murray basin, passing to the east of
+Melbourne. This Silurian sea was less extensive than the Ordovician
+in Victoria; but it appears to have been wider in New South Wales
+and in Queensland. The best Silurian sequence is in New South
+Wales. Silurian rocks are well developed in western Tasmania, and
+the Silurian sea must have washed the south-western corner of the
+continent, if the rocks of the Stirling Range be rightly identified as
+of this age.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:853px; height:749px" src="images/img944.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The Devonian system includes a complex series of deposits, which
+are of most interest in eastern Australia. This period was marked
+by intense earth movements, which affected the whole of the east
+Australian highlands. The Lower Devonian beds are in the main
+terrestrial, or coarse littoral deposits, and volcanic rocks. The
+Middle Devonian was marked by the same great transgression as in
+Europe and America; it produced inland seas, extending into
+Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, in which were deposited
+limestones with a rich coral fauna. The Upper Devonian was a
+period of marine retreat; the crustal disturbances of the Lower
+Devonian were renewed and great quartz-pebble beaches were
+formed on the rising shore lines, producing the West Coast Range
+conglomerates of Tasmania, and the similar rocks to the south-east
+of Mansfield in Victoria. Intrusions of granitic <i>massifs</i> in the
+Devonian period formed the primitive mountain axis of Victoria,
+which extends east and west across the state and forms the nucleus
+of the Victorian highlands. Similar granitic intrusions occurred in
+New South Wales and Queensland, and built up a mountain chain,
+which ran north and south across the continent; its worn-down
+stumps now form the east Australian highlands.</p>
+
+<p>The Carboniferous period began with a marine transgression,
+enabling limestones to form in Tasmania and New South Wales;
+and at the same time the sea first got in along the western edge of
+the western plateau, depositing the Carboniferous rocks of the
+Gascoyne basin and the coastal plain of north-western Australia.
+The Upper Carboniferous period was in the main terrestrial, and
+during it were laid down the coal-seams of New South Wales; they
+are best developed in the basin of the Hunter river, and they extend
+southward, covered by Mesozoic deposits, beyond Sydney. The
+Coal Measures become narrower in the south, until, owing to the
+eastward projection of the highlands, the Lower Palaeozoic rocks
+reach the coast. The coal-seams must have been formed in well-watered,
+lowland forests, at the foot of a high mountain range, built
+up by the Devonian earth movements. The mountains both in
+Victoria and New South Wales were snow-capped, and glaciers
+flowed down their flanks and laid down Carboniferous glacial deposits,
+which are still preserved in basins that flank the mountain ranges,
+such as the famous conglomerates of Bacchus Marsh, Heathcote
+and the Loddon valley in Victoria, and of Branxton and other
+localities in New South Wales. The age of the glacial deposits is
+later than the <i>Glossopteris</i> flora and occurs early in the time of the
+<i>Gangamopteris</i> flora. Kitson&rsquo;s work in Tasmania shows that there
+also the glacial beds may be correlated with the lower or Greta Coal
+Measures of New South Wales.</p>
+
+<p>The Permian deposits are best developed in New South Wales
+and Tasmania, where their characters show the continuation of the
+Carboniferous conditions. The Mesozoic begins with a Triassic land
+period in the mainland of Australia; while the islands of the
+Australasian festoon contain the Triassic marine limestones, which fringe
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span>
+the whole of the Pacific. The Triassic beds are best known in New
+South Wales, where round Sydney they include a series of sandstones
+and shales. They also occur in northern Tasmania.</p>
+
+<p>The Jurassic system is represented by two types. In Victoria,
+Tasmania, northern New South Wales and Queensland, there are
+Jurassic terrestrial deposits, containing the coal seams of Victoria,
+of the Clarence basin of north-eastern New South Wales, and of the
+Ipswich series in Queensland; the same beds range far inland on
+the western slopes of the east Australian highlands in New South
+Wales and Queensland and they occur, with coal-seams, at Leigh&rsquo;s
+Creek, at the northern foot of the South Australian highlands. They
+are also preserved in basins on the western plateau, as shown by
+brown coal deposits passed through in the Lake Phillipson bore.
+The second and marine type of the Jurassics occurs in Western
+Australia, on the coastal plain skirting the western foot of the western
+plateau.</p>
+
+<p>The Cretaceous period was initiated by the subsidence of a large
+area to the south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, whereby a Lower
+Cretaceous sea spread southward, across western Queensland,
+western New South Wales and the north-eastern districts of South
+Australia. In this sea were laid down the shales of the Rolling
+Downs formation. The sea does not appear to have extended completely
+across Australia, breaking it into halves, for a projection
+from the Archean plateau of Western Australia extended as far east
+as the South Australian highlands, and thence probably continued
+eastward, till it joined the Victorian highlands. The Cretaceous sea
+gradually receded and the plains of the Rolling Downs formation
+formed on its floor were covered by the sub-aerial and lacustrine
+deposits of the Desert Sandstone.</p>
+
+<p>The Kainozoic period opened with fresh earth movements, the
+most striking evidence of which are the volcanic outbreaks all round
+the Australian coasts. These movements in the south-east formed
+the Great Valley of Victoria, which traverses nearly the whole of
+the state between the Victorian highlands to the north, and the
+Jurassic sandstones of the Otway Ranges and the hills of south
+Gippsland. In this valley were laid down, either in Eocene or Oligocene
+times, a great series of lake beds and thick accumulations of
+brown coal. Similar deposits, of approximately the same age, occur
+in Tasmania and New Zealand; and at about the same time there
+began the Kainozoic volcanic period of Australasia. The first
+eruptions piled up huge domes of lavas rich in soda, including the
+geburite-dacites and sölvsbergites of Mount Macedon in Victoria,
+and the kenyte and tephrite domes of Dunedin, in New Zealand.
+These rocks were followed by the outpouring of the extensive older
+basalts in the Great Valley of Victoria and on the highlands of
+eastern Victoria, and also in New South Wales and Queensland.
+Then followed a marine transgression along most of the southern
+coast of Australia. The sea encroached far on the land from the
+Great Australian Bight and there formed the limestones of the
+Nullarbor Plains. The sea extended up the Murray basin into the
+western plains of New South Wales. Farther east the sea was
+interrupted by the still existing land-connexion between Tasmania
+and Victoria; but beyond it, the marine deposits are found again,
+fringing the coasts of eastern Gippsland and Croajingolong. These
+marine deposits are not found anywhere along the eastern coast of
+Australia; but they occur, and reach about the same height above
+sea-level, in New Guinea, and are widely developed in New Zealand.
+No doubt eastern Australia then extended far out into the Tasman
+Sea. The great monoclinal fold which formed the eastern face of the
+east Australian highlands, west of Sydney, is of later age. After
+this marine period was brought to a close the sea retreated. Tasmania
+and Victoria were separated by the foundering of Bass
+Strait, and at the same time the formation of the rift valley of
+Spencer Gulf, and Lake Torrens, isolated the South Australian
+highlands from the Eyre Peninsula and the Westralian plateau.
+Earth movements are still taking place both along Bass Strait
+and the Great Valley of South Australia, and apparently along the
+whole length of the southern coast of Australia.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Flowing Wells of Central Australia</i>.&mdash;The clays of the Rolling
+Downs formation overlie a series of sands and drifts, saturated with
+water under high pressure, which discharges at the surface as a
+flowing well, when a borehole pierces the impermeable cover. The
+first of these wells was opened at Kallara in the west of New South
+Wales in 1880. In 1882, Dr W.L. Jack concluded that western
+Queensland might be a deep artesian basin. The Blackhall bore, put
+down at his advice from 1885 to 1888, reached a water-bearing layer
+at the depth of 1645 ft. and discharged 291,000 gallons a day. It was
+the first of the deep artesian wells of the continent. As the plains on
+the Rolling Downs formation are mostly waterless, the discovery
+of this deep reservoir of water has been of great aid in the development
+of central Australia. In Queensland to the 30th of June 1904,
+973 wells had been sunk, of which 596 were flowing wells, and the
+total flow was 62,635,722 cub. ft. a day. The deepest well is that
+at Whitewood, 5046 ft. deep. In New South Wales by the 30th of
+June 1903, the government had put down 101 bores producing 66
+flowing wells and 22 sub-artesian wells, with a total discharge of
+54,000,000 gallons a day; and there were also 144 successful private
+wells. In South Australia there are 38 deep bores, from 20 of which
+there is a flow of 6,250,000 gallons a day.</p>
+
+<p>The wells were first called artesian in the belief that the ascent of
+the water in them was due to the hydrostatic pressure of water at a
+higher level in the Queensland hills. The well-water was supposed
+to have percolated underground, through the Blythesdale Braystone,
+which outcrops in patches on the eastern edge of the Rolling Downs
+formation. But the Blythesdale Braystone is a small local formation,
+unable to supply all the wells that have been sunk; and many of
+the wells derive their water from the Jurassic shales and mudstones.
+The difference in level between the outcrop of the assumed eastern
+intake and of the wells is often so small, in comparison with their
+distance apart, that the friction would completely sop up the whole
+of the available hydrostatic head. Many of the well-waters contain
+gases; thus the town of Roma is lighted by natural gas which
+escapes from its well. The chemical characters of the well-waters,
+the irregular distribution of the water-pressure, the distribution of
+the underground thermal gradients, and the occurrence in some of
+the wells of a tidal rise and fall of a varying period, are facts which
+are not explained on the simple hydrostatic theory. J.W. Gregory
+has maintained (<i>Dead Heart of Australia</i>, 1906, pp. 273-341) that
+the ascent of water in these wells is due to the tension of the included
+gases and the pressure of overlying sheets of rocks, and that some
+of the water is of plutonic origin.<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. W. G.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The Australian continent, extending over 28° of
+latitude, might be expected to show a considerable diversity of
+climate. In reality, however, it experiences fewer climatic
+variations than the other great continents, owing to its distance
+(28°) from the Antarctic circle and (11°) from the equator.
+There is, besides, a powerful determining cause in the uniform
+character and undivided extent of its dry interior. The plains
+and steppes already described lie either within or close to the
+tropics. They present to the fierce play of the sun almost a
+level surface, so that during the day that surface becomes
+intensely heated and at night gives off its heat by radiation.
+Ordinarily the alternate expansion and contraction of the
+atmosphere which takes place under such circumstances would
+draw in a supply of moisture from the ocean, but the heated
+interior, covering some 900,000 sq. m., is so immense, that the
+moist air from the ocean does not come in sufficient supply, nor
+are there mountain chains to intercept the clouds which from
+time to time are formed; so that two-fifths of Australia, comprising
+a region stretching from the Australian Bight to 20° S.
+and from 117° to 142° E., receives less than an average of 10 in.
+of rain throughout the year, and a considerable portion of this
+region has less than 5 in. No part of Victoria and very little of
+Queensland and New South Wales lie within this area. The
+rest of the continent may be considered as well watered. The
+north-west coast, particularly the portions north of Cambridge
+Gulf and the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, are favoured
+with an annual visitation of the monsoon from December to
+March, penetrating as far as 500 m. into the continent, and
+sweeping sometimes across western and southern Queensland
+to the northern interior of New South Wales. It is this tropical
+downpour that fills and floods the rivers flowing into Lake Eyre
+and those falling into the Darling on its right bank. The whole
+of the east coast of the continent is well watered. From Cape
+York almost to the tropic of Capricorn the rainfall exceeds 50 in.
+and ranges to over 70 in. At Brisbane the fall is 50 in., and
+portions of the New South Wales coast receive a like quantity,
+but speaking generally the fall is from 30 in. to 40 in. The
+southern shores of the continent receive much less rain. From
+Cape Howe to Melbourne the fall may be taken at from 30 in.
+to 40 in., Melbourne itself having an average of 25.6 in. West
+of Port Phillip the fall is less, averaging 20 in. to 30 in., diminishing
+greatly away from the coast. Along the shores of Encounter
+Bay and St Vincent and Spencer Gulfs, the precipitation ranges
+from 10 to 20 in., the yearly rainfall at Adelaide is a little less
+than 21 in., while the head of Spencer Gulf is within the 5 to
+10 in. district. The rest of the southern coast west as far as
+124° E., with the exception of the southern projection of Eyre
+Peninsula, which receives from 10 to 20 in., belongs to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span>
+district with from 5 to 10 in. annual rainfall. The south-western
+angle of the continent, bounded by a line drawn diagonally
+from Jurien river to Cape Riche, has an average of from 30 to
+40 in. annual rainfall, diminishing to about 20 to 30 in. in the
+country along the diagonal line. The remainder of the south
+and west coast from 124° E. to York Sound in the Kimberley
+district for a distance of some 150 m. inland has a fall ranging
+from 10 to 20 in. The 10 to 20 in. rainfall band circles across
+the continent through the middle of the Northern Territory,
+embraces the entire centre and south-west of Queensland, with
+the exception of the extreme south-western angle of the state,
+and includes the whole of the interior of New South Wales to a
+line about 200 m. from the coast, as well as the western and
+northern portions of Victoria and South Australia south of the
+Murray.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The area of Australia subject to a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in. is
+843,000 sq. m. On the seaward side of this area in the north and
+east is the 20 to 30 in. annual rainfall area, and still nearer the sea
+are the exceptionally well-watered districts. The following table
+shows the area of the rainfall zones in square miles:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm">Rainfall.</td> <td class="tcc">Rainfall Area<br />in sq. m.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Under 10 inches</td> <td class="tcr cl">1,219,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">10 to 20&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">843,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">20 to 30&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr cl">399,900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">30 to 40&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">225,700</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">40 to 50&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr cl">140,300</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">50 to 60&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">47,900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">60 to 70&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr cl">56,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Over 70&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">14,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">2,946,700</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The tropic of Capricorn divides Australia into two parts. Of these
+the northern or intertropical portion contains 1,145,000 sq. m.,
+comprising half of Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the
+north-western divisions of Western Australia. The whole of New South
+Wales, Victoria and South Australia proper, half of Queensland, and
+more than half of Western Australia, comprising 1,801,700 sq. m.,
+are without the tropics. In a region so extensive very great varieties
+of climate are naturally to be expected, but it may be stated as a
+general law that the climate of Australia is milder than that of
+corresponding lands in the northern hemisphere. During July, which
+is the coldest month in southern latitudes, one-half of Australia has
+a mean temperature ranging from 45° to 61°, and the other half from
+62° to 80°. The following are the areas subject to the various average
+temperatures during the month referred to:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc">Temperature<br />Fahr.</td> <td class="tcc">Area<br />in sq. m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">45°-50°</td> <td class="tcr cl">18,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">50°-55°</td> <td class="tcr">506,300</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">55°-60°</td> <td class="tcr cl">681,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">60°-65°</td> <td class="tcr">834,400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">65°-70°</td> <td class="tcr cl">515,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">70°-75°</td> <td class="tcr">275,900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">75°-80°</td> <td class="tcr cl">24,500</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The temperature in December ranges from 60° to above 95° Fahr.,
+half of Australia having a mean temperature below 84°. Dividing
+the land into zones of average summer temperature, the following
+are the areas which would fall to each:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc">Temperature<br />Fahr.</td> <td class="tcc">Area<br />in sq. m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">60°-65°</td> <td class="tcr cl">67,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">65°-70°</td> <td class="tcr">63,700</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">70°-75°</td> <td class="tcr cl">352,300</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">75°-80°</td> <td class="tcr">439,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">80°-85°</td> <td class="tcr cl">733,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">85°-90°</td> <td class="tcr">570,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">90°-95°</td> <td class="tcr cl">584,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">95° and over</td> <td class="tcr">135,400</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Judging from the figures just given, it must be conceded that a
+considerable area of the continent is not adapted for colonization by
+European races. The region with a mean summer temperature in
+excess of 95° Fahr. is the interior of the Northern Territory north
+of the 20th parallel; and the whole of the country, excepting the
+seaboard, lying between the meridians of 120° and 140°, and north
+of the 25th parallel, has a mean temperature in excess of 90° Fahr.</p>
+
+<p>The area of Australia is so large that the characteristics of its
+climate will not be understood without reference to the individual
+states. About one-half of the colony of Queensland lies
+in the tropics, the remaining area lying between the
+<span class="sidenote">Queensland.</span>
+tropic and 29° S. The temperature, however, has a daily
+range less than that of other countries under the same isothermal
+lines. This circumstance is due to the sea-breezes, which blow with
+great regularity, and temper what would otherwise be an excessive
+heat. The hot winds which prevail during the summer in some of
+the other colonies are unknown in Queensland. Of course, in a
+territory of such large extent there are many varieties of climate,
+and the heat is greater along the coast than on the elevated lands of
+the interior. In the northern parts of the colony the high
+temperature is very trying to persons of European descent. The mean
+temperature at Brisbane, during December, January and February,
+is about 76°, while during the months of June, July and August it
+averages about 60°. Brisbane, however, is situated near the extreme
+southern end of the colony, and its average temperature is
+considerably less than that of many of the towns farther north. Thus
+the winter in Rockhampton averages nearly 65°, while the summer
+heat rises almost to 85°; and at Townsville and Normanton the
+average temperature is still higher. The average rainfall along the
+coast is high, especially in the north, where it ranges from 60 to 70 in.
+per annum, and along a strip of country south from Cape Melville to
+Rockingham Bay the average rainfall exceeds 70 in. At Brisbane
+the rainfall is about 50 in., taking an average of forty years. A large
+area of the interior is watered to the extent of 20 to 30 in. per annum,
+but in the west and south, more remote than from 250 to 300 m.,
+there is a rainfall of less than 20 in.</p>
+
+<p>Climatically, New South Wales is divided into three marked
+divisions. The coastal region has an average summer temperature
+ranging from 78° in the north to 67° in the south, with
+a winter temperature of from 59° to 52°. Taking the
+<span class="sidenote">New South Wales.</span>
+district generally, the difference between the mean
+summer and mean winter temperatures may be set down
+as averaging not more than 20°, a range smaller than is found in
+most other parts of the world. Sydney, situated in latitude 33° 51&prime; S.,
+has a mean temperature of 62.9° Fahr., which corresponds with that
+of Barcelona in Spain and of Toulon in France, the former of these
+being in latitude 41° 22&prime; N. and the latter in 43° 7&prime; N. At Sydney
+the mean summer temperature is 70.8° Fahr., and that of winter
+53.9°. The range is thus 16.9° Fahr. At Naples, where the mean
+temperature for the year is about the same as at Sydney, the summer
+temperature reaches a mean of 74.4°, and the mean of winter
+is 47.6°, with a range 26.8°. The mean temperature of Sydney
+for a long series of years was spring 62°, summer 71°, autumn 64°,
+winter 54°.</p>
+
+<p>Passing from the coast to the tableland, a distinct climatic region
+is entered. Cooma, with a mean summer temperature of 65.4°, and
+a mean winter temperature of 41.4°, may be taken as illustrative
+of the climate of the southern tableland, and Armidale of the
+northern. The yearly average temperature of the latter is scarcely
+65.5°, while the summer only reaches 67.7°, and the winter falls
+to 44.4°.</p>
+
+<p>The climatic conditions of the western districts of the state are
+entirely different from those of the other two regions. The summer
+is hot, but on the whole the climate is very healthy. The town of
+Bourke, lying on the upper Darling, may be taken as an example of
+many of the interior districts, and illustrates peculiarly well the
+defects as well as the excellencies of the climate of the whole region.
+Bourke has exactly the same latitude as Cairo, yet its mean summer
+temperature is 1.3° less, and its mean annual temperature 4° less
+than that of the Egyptian city. New Orleans, also on the same
+parallel, is 4° hotter in summer. As regards winter temperature
+Bourke leaves little to be desired. The mean winter reading of
+the thermometer is 54.7, and accompanied as this is by clear skies
+and an absence of snow, the season is both pleasant and invigorating.
+The rainfall of New South Wales ranges from an annual
+average of 64 in. at various points on the northern coast, and at
+Kiandra in the Monaro district, to 9 in. at Milparinka in the
+trans-Darling district. The coastal districts average about 42 in. per
+annum, the tablelands 32 in., and the western interior has an average
+as low as 20 in. At Sydney, the average rainfall, since observations
+were commenced, has been 50 in.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Victoria does not differ greatly from that of New
+South Wales. The heat, however, is generally less intense in summer,
+and the cold greater in winter. Melbourne, which stands
+in latitude 37° 50&prime; S., has a mean temperature of 57.3°,
+<span class="sidenote">Victoria.</span>
+and therefore corresponds with Washington in the United States,
+Madrid, Lisbon and Messina. The difference between summer and
+winter is, however, less at Melbourne than at any of the places
+mentioned, the result of a long series of observations being spring 57°,
+summer 65.3°, autumn 58.7°, and winter 49.2°. The highest recorded
+temperature in the shade at Melbourne is 110.7°, and the lowest
+27°, but it is rare for the summer heat to exceed 85°, or for the winter
+temperature in the daytime to fall below 40°. Ballarat, the second
+city of Victoria, lies above 100 m. west from Melbourne at a height
+of 1400 ft. above sea-level. It has a minimum temperature of 29°,
+and a maximum of 104.5°, the average yearly mean being 54.1°.
+The rainfall of Melbourne averages 25.58 in., the mean number of
+rainy days being 131.</p>
+
+<p>South Australia proper extends over 26 degrees of latitude, and
+naturally presents considerable variations of climate. The coldest
+months are June, July and August, during which the
+temperature is very agreeable, averaging 53.6°, 51.7°,
+<span class="sidenote">South Australia.</span>
+and 54° in those months respectively. On the plains
+slight frosts occur occasionally, and ice is sometimes seen on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span>
+highlands. In summer the sun has great power, and the temperature
+reaches 100° in the shade, with hot winds blowing from the interior.
+The weather on the whole is remarkably dry. At Adelaide there are
+on an average 120 rainy days per annum, with a mean rainfall of
+20-88 in. The country is naturally very healthful, as evidence of
+which may be mentioned that no great epidemic has ever visited
+the state.</p>
+
+<p>Western Australia has practically only two seasons, the winter
+or wet season, which commences in April and ends in October, and
+the summer or dry season, which comprises the remainder
+of the Year. During the wet season frequent and heavy
+<span class="sidenote">Western Australia.</span>
+rains fall, and thunderstorms, with sharp showers, occur
+in the summer, especially on the north-west coast, which is sometimes
+visited by hurricanes of great violence. In the southern and
+early-settled parts of the state the mean temperature is about 64°,
+but in the more northern portions the heat is excessive, though the
+dryness of the atmosphere makes it preferable to moist tropical
+climates. The average rainfall at Perth is 33 in. per annum.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of the Northern Territory is extremely not, except
+on the elevated tablelands; altogether, the temperature of this part
+of the continent is very similar to that of northern Queensland, and
+the climate is not favourable to Europeans. The rainfall in the
+extreme north, especially in January and February, is very heavy,
+and the annual average along the coast is about 63 in. The whole
+of the peninsula north of 15° S. has a rainfall considerably exceeding
+40 in. This region is backed by a belt of about 100 m. wide, in
+which the rainfall is from 30 to 40 in., from which inwards the
+rainfall gradually declines until between Central Mount Stuart and
+Macdonnell ranges it falls to between 5 and 10 in.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fauna and Flora</i>.&mdash;The origin of the fauna and flora of
+Australia has attracted considerable attention. Much accumulated
+evidence, biological and geological, has pointed to a
+southern extension of India, an eastern extension of South
+Africa, and a western extension of Australia into the Indian
+Ocean. The comparative richness of proteaceous plants in
+Western Australia and South Africa first suggested a common
+source for these primitive types. Dr H.O. Forbes drew attention
+to a certain community amongst birds and other vertebrates,
+invertebrates, and amongst plants, on all the lands stretching
+towards the south pole. A theory was therefore propounded
+that these known types were all derived from a continent which
+has been named Antarctica. The supposed continent extended
+across the south pole, practically joining Australia and South
+America. Just as we have evidence of a former mild climate in
+the arctic regions, so a similar mild climate has been postulated
+for Antarctica. Modern naturalists consider that many of the
+problems of Australia&rsquo;s remarkable fauna and flora can be best
+explained by the following hypothesis:&mdash;The region now covered
+by the antarctic ice-cap was in early Tertiary times favoured
+by a mild climate; here lay an antarctic continent or archipelago.
+From an area corresponding to what is now South America
+there entered a fauna and flora, which, after undergoing modification,
+passed by way of Tasmania to Australia. These immigrants
+then developed, with some exceptions, into the present Australian
+flora and fauna. This theory has advanced from the position
+of a disparaged heresy to acceptance by leading thinkers. The
+discovery as fossil, in South America, of primitive or ancestral
+forms of marsupials has given it much support. One of these,
+<i>Prothylacinus</i>, is regarded as the forerunner of the marsupial
+wolf of Tasmania. An interesting link between divergent
+marsupial families, still living in Ecuador, the <i>Coenolestes</i>, is
+another discovery of recent years. On the Australian side the
+fact that Tasmania is richest in marsupial types indicates the
+gate by which they entered. It is not to be supposed that this
+antarctic element, to which Professor Tate has applied the name
+<i>Euronotian</i>, entered a desert barren of all life. Previous to its
+arrival Australia doubtless possessed considerable vegetation
+and a scanty fauna, chiefly invertebrate. At a comparatively
+recent date Australia received its third and newest constituent.
+The islands of Torres Strait have been shown to be the denuded
+remnant of a former extension of Cape York peninsula in North
+Queensland. Previous to the existence of the strait, and across
+its site, there poured into Australia a wealth of Papuan forms.
+Along the Pacific slope of the Queensland Cordillera these
+found in soil and climate a congenial home. Among the plants
+the wild banana, pepper, orange and mangosteen, rhododendron,
+epiphytic orchids and the palm; among mammals the bats and
+rats; among birds the cassowary and rifle birds; and among
+reptiles the crocodile and tree snakes, characterize this element.
+The numerous facts, geological, geographical and biological,
+which when linked together lend great support to this theory,
+have been well worked out in Australia by Mr Charles Hedley
+of the Australian Museum, Sydney.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The zoology of Australia and Tasmania presents a very conspicuous
+point of difference from that of other regions of the globe,
+in the prevalence of non-placental mammalia. The vast
+majority of the mammalia are provided with an organ in
+<span class="sidenote">Fauna.</span>
+the uterus, by which, before the birth of their young, a vascular
+connexion is maintained between the embryo and the parent animal.
+There are two orders, the Marsupialia and the Monotremata, which
+do not possess this organ; both these are found in Australia, to
+which region indeed they are not absolutely confined.</p>
+
+<p>The geographical limits of the marsupials are very interesting.
+The opossums of America are marsupials, though not showing
+anomalies as great as kangaroos and bandicoots (in their feet), and
+<i>Myrmecobius</i> (in the number of teeth). Except the opossums, no
+single living marsupial is known outside the Australian zoological
+region. The forms of life characteristic of India and the Malay
+peninsula come down to the island of Bali. Bali is separated from
+Lombok by a strait not more than 15 m. wide. Yet this narrow
+belt of water is the boundary line between the Australasian and the
+Indian regions. The zoological boundary passing through the Bali
+Strait is called &ldquo;Wallace&rsquo;s line,&rdquo; after the eminent naturalist who
+was its discoverer. He showed that not only as regards beasts, but
+also as regards birds, these regions are thus sharply limited. Australia,
+he pointed out, has no woodpeckers and no pheasants, which
+are widely-spread Indian birds. Instead of these it has mound-making
+turkeys, honey-suckers, cockatoos and brush-tongued lories,
+all of which are found nowhere else in the world.</p>
+
+<p>The marsupials constitute two-thirds of all the Australian species
+of mammals. It is the well-known peculiarity of this order that the
+female has a pouch or fold of skin upon her abdomen, in which she
+can place the young for suckling within reach of her teats. The
+opossum of America is the only species out of Australasia which is
+thus provided. Australia is inhabited by at least 110 different species
+of marsupials, which is about two-thirds of the known species; these
+have been arranged in five tribes, according to the food they eat,
+viz., the grass-eaters (kangaroos), the root-eaters (wombats), the
+insect-eaters (bandicoots), the flesh-eaters (native cats and rats),
+and the fruit-eaters (phalangers).</p>
+
+<p>The kangaroo (<i>Macropus</i>) lives in droves in the open grassy
+plains. Several smaller forms of the same general appearance are
+known as wallabies, and are common everywhere. The kangaroo
+and most of its congeners show an extraordinary disproportion of
+the hind limbs to the fore part of the body. The rock wallabies again
+have short tarsi of the hind legs, with a long pliable tail for climbing,
+like that of the tree kangaroo of New Guinea, or that of the jerboa.
+Of the larger kangaroos, which attain a weight of 200 &#8468; and more,
+eight species are named, only one of which is found in Western
+Australia. Fossil bones of extinct kangaroo species are met with;
+these kangaroos must have been of enormous size, twice or thrice that
+of any species now living.</p>
+
+<p>There are some twenty smaller species in Australia and Tasmania,
+besides the rock wallabies and the hare kangaroos; these last are
+wonderfully swift, making clear jumps 8 or 10 ft. high. Other
+terrestrial marsupials are the wombat (<i>Phascolomys</i>), a large, clumsy,
+burrowing animal, not unlike a pig, which attains a weight of from
+60 to 100 &#8468;; the bandicoot (<i>Perameles</i>), a rat-like creature whose
+depredations annoy the agriculturist; the native cat (<i>Dasyurus</i>),
+noted robber of the poultry yard; the Tasmanian wolf (<i>Thylacinus</i>),
+which preys on large game; and the recently discovered <i>Notoryctes</i>,
+a small animal which burrows like a mole in the desert of the interior.
+Arboreal species include the well-known opossums (<i>Phalanger</i>); the
+extraordinary tree-kangaroo of the Queensland tropics; the flying
+squirrel, which expands a membrane between the legs and arms, and
+by its aid makes long sailing jumps from tree to tree; and the native
+bear (<i>Phascolarctos</i>), an animal with no affinities to the bear, and
+having a long soft fur and no tail.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Myrmecobius</i> of Western Australia is a bushy-tailed ant-eater
+about the size of a squirrel, and from its lineage and structure of
+more than passing interest. It is, Mivart remarks, a survival of a
+very ancient state of things. It had ancestors in a flourishing condition
+during the Secondary epoch. Its congeners even then lived
+in England, as is proved by the fact that their relics have been found
+in the Stonesfield oolitic rocks, the deposition of which is separated
+from that which gave rise to the Paris Tertiary strata by an abyss
+of past time which we cannot venture to express even in thousands
+of years.</p>
+
+<p>We pass on to the other curious order of non-placental mammals,
+that of the Monotremata, so called from the structure of their organs
+of evacuation with a single orifice, as in birds. Their abdominal
+bones are like those of the marsupials; and they are furnished with
+pouches for their young, but have no teats, the milk being distilled
+into their pouches from the mammary glands. Australia and
+Tasmania possess two animals of this order&mdash;the echidna, or spiny
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span>
+ant-eater (hairy in Tasmania), and the <i>Platypus anatinus</i>, the duckbilled
+water mole, otherwise named the <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>.
+This odd animal is provided with a bill or beak, which is not, like that
+of a bird, affixed to the skeleton, but is merely attached to the skin
+and muscles.</p>
+
+<p>Australia has no apes, monkeys or baboons, and no ruminant
+beasts. The comparatively few indigenous placental mammals,
+besides the dingo or wild dog&mdash;which, however, may have come from
+the islands north of this continent&mdash;are of the bat tribe and of the
+rodent or rat tribe. There are four species of large fruit-eating bats,
+called flying foxes, twenty of insect-eating bats, above twenty of
+land-rats, and five of water-rats. The sea produces three different
+seals, which often ascend rivers from the coast, and can live in
+lagoons of fresh water; many cetaceans, besides the &ldquo;right whale&rdquo;
+and sperm whale; and the dugong, found on the northern shores,
+which yields a valuable medicinal oil.</p>
+
+<p>The birds of Australia in their number and variety of species
+may be deemed some compensation for its poverty of mammals;
+yet it will not stand comparison in this respect with regions of Africa
+and South America in the same latitudes. The black swan was
+thought remarkable when discovered, as belying an old Latin
+proverb. There is also a white eagle. The vulture is wanting. Sixty
+species of parrots, some of them very handsome, are found in Australia.
+The emu corresponds with the African and Arabian ostrich,
+the rhea of South America, and the cassowary of the Moluccas and
+New Guinea. In New Zealand this group is represented by the
+apteryx, as it formerly was by the gigantic moa, the remains of which
+have been found likewise in Queensland. The graceful <i>Menura
+superba</i>, or lyre-bird, with its tail feathers spread in the shape of a
+lyre, is a very characteristic form. The mound-raising megapodes,
+the bower-building satin-birds, and several others, display peculiar
+habits. The honey-eaters present a great diversity of plumage.
+There are also many kinds of game birds, pigeons, ducks, geese,
+plovers and quails. The ornithology of New South Wales and
+Queensland is more varied and interesting than that of the other
+provinces.</p>
+
+<p>As for reptiles, Australia has a few tortoises, all of one family, and
+not of great size. The &ldquo;leathery turtle,&rdquo; which is herbivorous, and
+yields abundance of oil, has been caught at sea off the Illawarra
+coast so large as 9 ft. in length. The saurians or lizards are numerous,
+chiefly on dry sandy or rocky ground in the tropical region. The
+great crocodile of Queensland has been known to attain a length of
+30 ft.; there is a smaller one about 6 ft. in length to be met with
+in the shallow lagoons of the interior of the Northern Territory.
+Lizards occur in great profusion and variety. The monitor, or fork-tongued
+lizard, which burrows in the earth, climbs and swims, is said
+to grow to a length of 8 to 9 ft. This species and many others do
+not extend to Tasmania. The monitor is popularly known as the
+goanna, a name derived from the iguana, an entirely different animal.
+There are about twenty kinds of night-lizards, and many which
+hibernate. One species can utter a cry when pained or alarmed,
+and the tall-standing frilled lizard can lift its forelegs, and squat or
+hop like a kangaroo. There is also the <i>Moloch horridus</i> of South
+and Western Australia, covered with tubercles bearing large spines,
+which give it a very strange aspect. This and some other lizards
+have power to change their colour, not only from light to dark, but
+over some portions of their bodies, from yellow to grey or red.
+Frogs of many kinds are plentiful, the brilliant green frogs being
+especially conspicuous and noisy. Australia is rich in snakes, and
+has more than a hundred different kinds. Most of these are venomous,
+but all are not equally dreaded. Five rather common species are
+certainly deadly&mdash;the death adder, the brown, the black, the superb
+and the tiger snakes. During the colder months these reptiles remain
+in a torpid state. No certain cure has been or is likely to be discovered
+for their poison, but in less serious cases strychnine has
+been used with advantage. In tropical waters a sea snake is found,
+which, though very poisonous, rarely bites. Among the inoffensive
+species are counted the graceful green &ldquo;tree snake,&rdquo; which pursues
+frogs, birds and lizards to the topmost branches of the forest; also
+several species of pythons, the commonest of which is known as the
+carpet snake. These great reptiles may attain a length of 10 ft.;
+they feed on small animals which they crush to death in their
+folds.</p>
+
+<p>The Australian seas are inhabited by many fishes of the same genera
+as exist in the southern parts of Asia and Africa. Of those peculiar
+to Australian waters may be mentioned the arripis, represented by
+what is called among the colonists a salmon trout. A very fine freshwater
+fish is the Murray cod, which sometimes weighs 100 &#8468;; and
+the golden perch, found in the same river, has rare beauty of colour.
+Among the sea fish, the schnapper is of great value as an article of
+food, and its weight comes up to 50 &#8468; This is the <i>Pagrus unicolor</i>, of
+the family of <i>Sparidae</i>, which includes also the bream. Its colours are
+beautiful, pink and red with a silvery gloss; but the male as it grows
+old takes on a singular deformity of the head, with a swelling in the
+shape of a monstrous human-like nose. These fish frequent rocky shoals
+off the eastern coast and are caught in numbers outside Port Jackson
+for the Sydney market. Two species of mackerel, differing somewhat
+from the European species, are also caught on the coasts. The
+so-called red garnet, a pretty fish, with hues of carmine and blue
+stripes on its head, is much esteemed for the table. The <i>Trigla
+polyommata</i>, or flying garnet, is a greater beauty, with its body of
+crimson and silver, and its large pectoral fins, spread like wings, of
+a rich green, bordered with purple, and relieved by a black and white
+spot. Whiting, mullet, gar-fish, rock cod and many others known
+by local names, are in the lists of edible fishes belonging to New South
+Wales and Victoria. Oysters abound on the eastern coast, and on
+the shelving banks of a vast extent of the northern coast the pearl
+oyster is the source of a considerable industry.</p>
+
+<p>Two existing fishes may be mentioned as ranking in interest with
+the <i>Myrmecobius</i> (ant-eater) in the eyes of the naturalist. These are
+the <i>Ceratodus Forsteri</i> and the Port Jackson shark. The &ldquo;mud-fish&rdquo;
+of Queensland (<i>Ceratodus Forsteri</i>) belongs to an ancient order
+of fishes&mdash;the Dipnoi, only a few species of which have survived from
+past geological periods. The Dipnoi show a distinct transition
+between fishes and amphibia. So far the mud-fish has been found
+only in the Mary and the Burnett rivers. Hardly of less scientific
+interest is the Port Jackson shark (<i>Heterodontus</i>). It is a
+harmless helmeted ground-shark, living on molluscs, and almost
+the sole survivor of a genus abundant in the Secondary rocks of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern parts of Australia are very much richer both in their
+botany and in their zoology than any of the other parts. This is due
+in part to the different physical conditions there prevailing
+and in part to the invasion of the north-eastern
+<span class="sidenote">Flora.</span>
+portion of the continent by a number of plants characteristically
+Melanesian. This element was introduced via Torres Strait, and
+spread down the Queensland coast to portions of the New South
+Wales littoral, and also round the Gulf of Carpentaria, but has
+never been able to obtain a hold in the more arid interior. It has
+so completely obliterated the original flora, that a Queensland coast
+jungle is almost an exact replication of what may be seen on the
+opposite shores of the straits, in New Guinea. This wealth of plant
+life is confined to the littoral and the coastal valleys, but the central
+valleys and the plateaux have, if not a varied flora, a considerable
+wealth of timber trees in every way superior to the flora inland in the
+same latitudes. In the interior there is little change in the general
+aspect of the vegetation, from the Australian Bight to the region
+of Carpentaria, where the exotic element begins. Behind the
+luxuriant jungles of the sub-tropical coast, once over the main range,
+we find the purely Australian flora with its apparent sameness and
+sombre dulness. Physical surroundings rather than latitude determine
+the character of the flora. The contour lines showing the
+heights above sea-level are the directions along which species spread
+to form zones. Putting aside the exotic vegetation of the north
+and east coast-line, the Australian bush gains its peculiar character
+from the prevalence of the so-called gum-trees (<i>Eucalyptus</i>) and the
+acacias, of which last there are 300 species, but the eucalypts above
+all are everywhere. Dwarfed eucalypts fringe the tree-limit on
+Mount Kosciusco, and the soakages in the parched interior are indicated
+by a line of the same trees, stunted and straggling. Over
+the vast continent from Wilson&rsquo;s Promontory to Cape York, north,
+south, east and west&mdash;where anything can grow&mdash;there will be found
+a gum-tree. The eucalypts are remarkable for the oil secreted in
+their leaves, and the large quantity of astringent resin of their bark.
+This resinous exudation (Kino) somewhat resembles gum, hence
+the name &ldquo;gum&rdquo; tree. It will not dissolve in water as gums do,
+but it is soluble in alcohol, as resin usually is. Many of the gum-trees
+throw off their bark, so that it hangs in long dry strips from
+the trunk and branches, a feature familiar in &ldquo;bush&rdquo; pictures.
+The bark, resin and &ldquo;oils&rdquo; of the eucalyptus are well known as
+commercial products. As early as 1866, tannic acid, gallic acid,
+wood spirit, acetic acid, essential oil and eucalyptol were produced
+from various species of eucalyptus, and researches made by Australian
+chemists, notably by Messrs. Baker and Smith of the Sydney
+Technical College, have brought to light many other valuable products
+likely to prove of commercial value. The genus <i>Eucalyptus</i>
+numbers more than 150 species, and provides some of the most
+durable timbers known. The iron-bark of the eastern coast uplands
+is well known (<i>Eucalyptus sideroxylon</i>), and is so called from the
+hardness of the wood, the bark not being remarkable except for its
+rugged and blackened aspect. Samples of this timber have been
+studied after forty-three years&rsquo; immersion in sea-water. Portions
+most liable to destruction, those parts between the tide marks, were
+found perfectly sound, and showed no signs of the ravages of marine
+organisms. Other valuable timber trees of the eastern portion of
+the continent are the blackbutt, tallow-wood, spotted gum, red
+gum, mahogany, and blue gum, eucalyptus; and the turpentine
+(<i>Syncarpia laurifolia</i>), which has proved to be more resistant to the
+attacks of teredo than any other timber and is largely used in wharf
+construction in infested waters. There are also several extremely
+valuable soft timbers, the principal being red cedar (<i>Cedrela Toona</i>),
+silky oak (<i>Grevillea robusta</i>), beech and a variety of teak, with several
+important species of pine. The red gum forests of the Murray
+valley and the pine forests bordering the Great Plains are important
+and valuable. In Western Australia there are extensive forests of
+hardwood, principally jarrah (<i>Eucalyptus marginata</i>), a very durable
+timber; 14,000 sq. m. of country are covered with this species.
+Jarrah timber is nearly impervious to the attacks of the teredo, and
+there is good evidence to show that, exposed to wear and weather, or
+placed under the soil, or used as submarine piles, the wood remained
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span>
+intact after nearly fifty years&rsquo; trial. The following figures show the
+high density of Australian timber:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc">Australian<br />timber.</td> <td class="tcc">Specific<br />gravity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Jarrah</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.12&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Grey iron-bark</td> <td class="tcr">1.18&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Red iron-bark</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.22&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Forest oak</td> <td class="tcr">1.21&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Tallow wood</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.23&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahogany</td> <td class="tcr">1.20&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Grey gum</td> <td class="tcr cl">917</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Red gum</td> <td class="tcr">995</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt1">European<br /> timber.</td> <td class="tcc pt1">Specific<br />gravity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ash</td> <td class="tcr cl">.753</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Beech</td> <td class="tcr">.690</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Chestnut</td> <td class="tcr cl">.535</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">British oak</td> <td class="tcr">.99&ensp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The resistance to breaking or rupture of Australian timber is very
+high; grey iron-bark with a specific gravity of 1.18 has a modulus
+of rupture of 17,900 &#8468; per sq. in. compared with 11,800 &#8468; for
+British oak with a specific gravity of .69 to .99. No Australian
+timber in the foregoing list has a less modulus than 13,100 &#8468; per
+sq. in.</p>
+
+<p>Various &ldquo;scrubs&rdquo; characterize the interior, differing very widely
+from the coastal scrubs. &ldquo;Mallee&rdquo; scrub occupies large tracts of
+South Australia and Victoria, covering probably an extent of
+16,000 sq. m. The mallee is a species of eucalyptus growing 12 to
+14 ft. high. The tree breaks into thin stems close to the ground, and
+these branch again and again, the leaves being developed umbrella-fashion
+on the outer branches. The mallee scrub appears like a forest
+of dried osier, growing so close that it is not always easy to ride
+through it. Hardly a leaf is visible to the height of one&rsquo;s head; but
+above, a crown of thick leather-like leaves shuts out the sunlight.
+The ground below is perfectly bare, and there is no water. Nothing
+could add to the sterility and the monotony of these mallee scrubs.
+&ldquo;Mulga&rdquo; scrub is a somewhat similar thicket, covering large areas.
+The tree in this instance is one of the acacias, a genus distributed
+through all parts of the continent. Some species have rather elegant
+blossoms, known to the settlers as &ldquo;wattle.&rdquo; They serve admirably
+to break the sombre and monotonous aspect of the Australian vegetation.
+Two species of acacia are remarkable for the delicate and
+violet-like perfume of their wood&mdash;myall and yarran. The majority
+of the species of <i>Acacia</i> are edible and serve as reserve fodder for
+sheep and cattle. In the alluvial portions of the interior salsolaceous
+plants&mdash;saltbush, bluebush, cottonbush&mdash;are invaluable to the
+pastoralist, and to their presence the pre-eminence of Australia
+as a wool-producing country is largely due.</p>
+
+<p>Grasses and herbage in great variety constitute the most valuable
+element of Australian flora from the commercial point of view. The
+herbage for the most part grows with marvellous rapidity after a
+spring or autumn shower and forms a natural shelter for the more
+stable growth of nutritious grasses.</p>
+
+<p>Under the system of grazing practised throughout Australia it is
+customary to allow sheep, cattle and horses to run at large all the
+year round within enormous enclosures and to depend entirely upon
+the natural growth of grass for their subsistence. Proteaceous plants,
+although not exclusively Australian, are exceedingly characteristic
+of Australian scenery, and are counted amongst the oldest flowering
+plants of the world. The order is easily distinguished by the hard,
+dry, woody texture of the leaves and the dehiscent fruits. They
+are found in New Zealand and also in New Caledonia, their greatest
+developments being on the south-west of the Australian continent.
+Proteaceae are found also in Tierra del Fuego and Chile. They are
+also abundant in South Africa, where the order forms the most
+conspicuous feature of vegetation. The range in species is very
+limited, no one being common to eastern and western Australia.
+The chief genera are banksia (<i>honeysuckle</i>), and hakea (<i>needle bush</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Moreton Bay pine (<i>Araucaria Cunninghamii</i>) is reckoned
+amongst the giants of the forest. The genus is associated with one
+long extinct in Europe. Moreton Bay pine is chiefly known by the
+utility of its wood. Another species, <i>A. Bidwillii</i>, or the bunya-bunya,
+afforded food in its nut-like seeds to the aborigines. A most
+remarkable form of vegetation in the north-west is the gouty-stemmed
+tree (<i>Adansonia Gregorii</i>), one of the Malvaceae. It is related closely
+to the famous baobab of tropical Africa. The &ldquo;grass-tree&rdquo; (<i>Xanthorrhoea</i>),
+of the uplands and coast regions, is peculiarly Australian
+in its aspect. It is seen as a clump of wire-like leaves, a few feet in
+diameter, surrounding a stem, hardly thicker than a walking-stick,
+rising to a height of 10 or 12 ft. This terminates in a long spike
+thickly studded with white blossoms. The grass-tree gives as distinct
+a character to an Australian picture as the agave and cactus do to
+the Mexican landscape. With these might be associated the gigantic
+lily of Queensland (<i>Nymphaea gigantea</i>), the leaves of which float
+on water, and are quite 18 in. across. There is also a gigantic lily
+(<i>Doryanthes excelsa</i>) which grows to a height of 15 feet. The &ldquo;flame
+tree&rdquo; is a most conspicuous feature of an Illawarra landscape,
+the largest racemes of crimson red suggesting the name. The
+waratah or native tulip, the magnificent flowering head of which,
+with the kangaroo, is symbolic of the country, is one of the Proteaceae.
+The natives were accustomed to suck its tubular flowers
+for the honey they contained. The &ldquo;nardoo&rdquo; seed, on which the
+aborigines sometimes contrived to exist, is a creeping plant, growing
+plentifully in swamps and shallow pools, and belongs to the natural
+order of Marsileaceae. The spore-cases remain after the plant is
+dried up and withered. These are collected by the natives, and are
+known over most of the continent as nardoo.</p>
+
+<p>No speculation of hypothesis has been propounded to account
+satisfactorily for the origin of the Australian flora. As a step
+towards such hypothesis it has been noted that the Antarctic,
+the South African, and the Australian floras have many types in
+common. There is also to a limited extent a European element
+present. One thing is certain, that there is in Australia a flora
+that is a remnant of a vegetation once widely distributed. Heer
+has described such Australian genera as Banksia, Eucalyptus,
+<i>Grevillea</i> and <i>Hakea</i> from the Miocene of Switzerland. Another
+point agreed upon is that the Australian flora is one of vast antiquity.
+There are genera so far removed from every living genus that many
+connecting links must have become extinct. The region extending
+round the south-western extremity of the continent has a peculiarly
+characteristic assemblage of typical Australian forms, notably a
+great abundance of the Proteaceae. This flora, isolated by arid
+country from the rest of the continent, has evidently derived its
+plant life from an outside source, probably from lands no longer
+existing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Political and Economic Conditions</p>
+
+<p><i>Population</i>.<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a>&mdash;The Australian people are mainly of British
+origin, only 3¼% of the population of European descent being
+of non-British race. It is certain that the aborigines (see the
+section on Aborigines below) are very much less numerous than
+when the country was first colonized, but their present numbers
+can be given for only a few of the states. At the census of 1901,
+48,248 aborigines were enumerated, of whom 7434 were in New
+South Wales, 652 in Victoria, 27,123 in South Australia, and
+6212 in Western Australia. The assertion by the Queensland
+authorities that there are 50,000 aborigines in that state is a
+crude estimate, and may be far wide of the truth. In South
+Australia and the Northern Territory a large number are outside
+the bounds of settlement, and it is probable that they are as
+numerous there as in Queensland. The census of Western
+Australia included only those aborigines in the employment
+of the colonists; and as a large part of this, the greatest of the
+Australian states, is as yet unexplored, it may be presumed that
+the aborigines enumerated were very far short of the whole
+number of persons of that race in the state. Taking all things
+into consideration, the aboriginal population of the continent
+may be set down at something like 180,000. Chinese, numbering
+about 30,000, are chiefly found in New South Wales, Queensland,
+Victoria, and the Northern Territory. Of Japanese there were
+3500, of Hindu and Sinhalese 4600, according to recent computation,
+but the policy of the Commonwealth is adverse to
+further immigration of other than whites. South Sea Islanders
+and other coloured races, numbering probably about 15,000,
+were in 1906 to be found principally in Queensland, but further
+immigration of Pacific Islanders to Australia is now restricted,
+and the majority of those in the country in 1906 were deported
+by the middle of 1907.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of 1906 the population of Australia was approximately
+4,120,000, exclusive of aborigines. The increase of
+population since 1871 was as follows: 1871, 1,668,377; 1881,
+2,252,617; 1891, 3,183,237; 1901, 3,773,248. The expansion
+has been due mainly to the natural increase; that is, by reason
+of excess of births over deaths. Immigration to Australia has
+been very slight since 1891, owing originally to the stoppage of
+progress consequent on the bank crisis of 1893, and, subsequently,
+to the disinclination of several of the state governments
+towards immigration and their failure to provide for the welfare
+of immigrants on their arrival. During 1906 a more rational
+view of the value of immigration was adopted by the various
+state governments and by the federal government, and immigration
+to Australia is now systematically encouraged. Australia&rsquo;s
+gain of population by immigration,&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> the excess of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span>
+inward over the outward movement of a population&mdash;since the
+discovery of gold in 1851, arranged in ten years periods, was</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">1852-1861</td> <td class="tcr cl">520,713</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1862-1871</td> <td class="tcr">188,158</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">1872-1881</td> <td class="tcr cl">223,326</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1882-1891</td> <td class="tcr">374,097</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">1892-1901</td> <td class="tcr cl">2,377</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">During the five years following the last year of the foregoing table,
+there was practically no increase in population by immigration.</p>
+
+<p>The birth rate averages 26.28 per thousand of the population
+and the death rate 12.28, showing a net increase of 14 per
+thousand by reason of the excess of births over deaths. The
+marriage rate varies as in other countries from year to year
+according to the degree of prosperity prevailing. In the five
+years 1881-1888 the rate was 8.08 marriages (16.1 persons) per
+thousand of the population, declining to 6.51 in 1891-1895; in
+recent years there has been a considerable improvement, and
+the Australian marriage rate may be quoted as ranging between
+6.75 and 7.25. The death rate of Australia is much below that
+of European countries and is steadily declining. During the
+twenty years preceding the census of 1901 there was a fall in the
+death rate of 3.4 per thousand, of which, however, 1 per thousand
+is attributable to the decline in the birth rate, the balance being
+attributable to improved sanitary conditions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Territorial Divisions</i>.&mdash;Australia is politically divided into
+five states, which with the island of Tasmania form the Commonwealth
+of Australia. The area of the various states is as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Sq. m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">New South Wales</td> <td class="tcr cl">310,700</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Victoria</td> <td class="tcr">87,884</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Queensland</td> <td class="tcr cl">668,497</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">South Australia</td> <td class="tcr">903,690</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Western Australia</td> <td class="tcr cl">975,920</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">2,946,691</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Tasmania</td> <td class="tcr cl">26,215</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">=======</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Commonwealth</td> <td class="tcr cl">2,972,906</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">To the area of the Commonwealth shown in the table might be
+added that of New Guinea, 90,000 sq. m.; this would bring
+the area of the territory controlled by the Commonwealth to
+3,062,906 sq. m. The distribution of population at the close of
+1906 (4,118,000) was New South Wales 1,530,000, Victoria
+1,223,000, Queensland 534,000, South Australia 381,000, Western
+Australia 270,000, Tasmania 180,000. The rate of increase since
+the previous census was 1.5% per annum, varying from 0.31 in
+Victoria to 2.06 in New South Wales and 6.9 in Western Australia.</p>
+
+<p>Australia contains four cities whose population exceeds
+100,000, and fifteen with over 10,000. The principal cities and
+towns are Sydney (pop. 530,000), Newcastle, Broken Hill,
+Parramatta, Goulburn, Maitland, Bathurst, Orange, Lithgow,
+Tamworth, Grafton, Wagga and Albury, in New South Wales;
+Melbourne (pop. 511,900), Ballarat, Bendigo, Geelong, Eaglehawk,
+Warrnambool, Castlemaine, and Stawell in Victoria;
+Brisbane (pop. 128,000), Rockhampton, Maryborough, Townsville,
+Gympie, Ipswich, and Toowoomba in Queensland;
+Adelaide (pop. about 175,000), Port Adelaide and Port Pirie in
+South Australia; Perth (pop. 56,000), Fremantle, and Kalgoorlie
+in Western Australia; and Hobart (pop. 35,500) and
+Launceston in Tasmania.</p>
+
+<p><i>Defence</i>.&mdash;Up to the end of the 19th century, little was
+thought of any locally-raised or locally-provided defensive forces,
+the mother-country being relied upon. But the Transvaal War
+of 1899-1902, to which Australia sent 6310 volunteers (principally
+mounted rifles), and the gradual increase of military sentiment,
+brought the question more to the front, and more and more
+attention was given to making Australian defence a matter of
+local concern. Naval defence in any case remained primarily
+a question for the Imperial navy, and by agreement (1903, for
+ten years) between the British government and the governments
+of the Commonwealth (contributing an annual subsidy of
+£200,000) and of New Zealand (£40,000), an efficient fleet
+patrolled the Australasian waters, Sydney, its headquarters,
+being ranked as a first-class naval station. Under the agreement
+a royal naval reserve was maintained, three of the Imperial
+vessels provided being utilized as drill ships for crews recruited
+from the Australian states. At the end of 1908 the strength of
+the naval forces under the Commonwealth defence department
+was: permanent, 217, naval militia, 1016; the estimated
+expenditure for 1908-1909 being £63,531. In 1908-1909 a
+movement began for the establishment by Australia of a local
+flotilla of torpedo-boat destroyers, to be controlled by the
+Commonwealth in peace time, but subject to the orders of the
+British admiralty in war time, though not to be removed from the
+Australian coast without the sanction of the Commonwealth;
+and by 1909 three such vessels had been ordered in England
+preparatory to building others in Australia. The military
+establishment at the beginning of 1909 was represented by a
+small permanent force of about 1400, a militia strength of about
+17,000, and some 6000 volunteers, besides 50,000 members of
+rifle clubs and 30,000 cadets; the expenditure being (estimate,
+1908-1909) £623,946. But a reorganization of the military
+forces, on the basis of obligatory national training, was already
+contemplated, though the first Bill introduced for this purpose by
+Mr Deakin&rsquo;s government (Sept. 1908) was dropped, and in 1909
+the subject was still under discussion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion</i>.&mdash;There is no state church in Australia, nor is the
+teaching of religion in any way subsidized by the state. The
+Church of England claims as adherents 39% of the population,
+and the Roman Catholic Church 22%; next in numerical
+strength are the Wesleyans and other Methodists, numbering
+12%, the various branches of the Presbyterians 11%, Congregationalists 2%, and Baptists 2%. These proportions
+varied very little between 1881 and 1906, and may be taken
+as accurately representing the present strength of the various
+Christian denominations. Churches of all denominations are
+liberally supported throughout the states, and the residents of
+every settlement, however small, have their places of worship
+erected and maintained by their own contributions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Instruction</i>.&mdash;Education is very widely distributed, and in
+every state it is compulsory for children of school ages to attend
+school. The statutory ages differ in the various states; in New
+South Wales and Western Australia it is from 6 to 13 years
+inclusive, in Victoria 6 to 12 years, in Queensland 6 to 11 years,
+and in South Australia 7 to 12 years inclusive. Religious instruction
+is not imparted by the state-paid teachers in any state,
+though in certain states persons duly authorized by the religious
+organizations are allowed to give religious instruction to children
+of their own denomination where the parents&rsquo; consent has been
+obtained. According to the returns for 1905 there were 7292
+state schools, with 15,628 teachers and 648,927 pupils, and the
+average attendance of scholars was 446,000. Besides state
+schools there were 2145 private schools, with 7825 teachers and
+137,000 scholars, the average number of scholars in attendance
+being 120,000. The census of 1901 showed that about 83%
+of the whole population and more than 91% of the population
+over five years of age could read and write. There was, therefore,
+a residue of 9% of illiterates, most of whom were not born in
+Australia. The marriage registers furnish another test of
+education. In 1905 only ten persons in every thousand married
+were unable to sign their names, thus proving that the number
+of illiterate adults of Australian birth is very small.</p>
+
+<p>Instruction at state schools is either free or at merely nominal
+cost, and high schools, technical colleges and agricultural colleges
+are maintained by appropriations from the general revenues
+of the states. There are also numerous grammar schools and
+other private schools. Universities have been established at
+Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Hobart, and are well equipped
+and numerously attended; they are in part supported by grants
+from the public funds and in part by private endowments
+and the fees paid by students. The number of students attending
+lectures is about 2500 and the annual income a little over
+£100,000. The cost of public instruction in Australia averages
+about 11s. 4d. per inhabitant, and the cost per scholar in average
+attendance at state schools is £4 : 13 : 9.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pastoral and Agricultural Industries</i>.&mdash;The continent is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span>
+essentially a pastoral one, and the products of the flocks and
+herds constitute the chief element in the wealth of Australia.
+Practically the whole of the territory between the 145° meridian
+and the Great Dividing Range, as well as extensive tracts in
+the south and west, are a natural sheep pasture with climatic
+conditions and indigenous vegetation pre-eminently adapted
+for the growth of wool of the highest quality. Numerically
+the flocks of Australia represent one-sixth of the world&rsquo;s sheep,
+and in just over half a century (1851-1905) the exports of
+Australian wool alone reached the value of £650,000,000. During
+the same period, owing to the efforts of pastoralists to improve
+their flocks, there was a gradual increase in the weight of wool
+produced per sheep from 3¼ &#8468; to an average of over 7 &#8468; The
+cattle and horse-breeding industries are of minor importance
+as compared with wool-growing, but nevertheless represent a
+great source of wealth, with vast possibilities of expansion in the
+over-sea trade. The perfection of refrigeration in over-sea
+carriage, which has done so much to extend the markets for
+Australian beef and mutton, has also furthered the expansion
+of dairying, there being an annual output of over 160 million &#8468;
+of butter, valued at £6,000,000; of this about 64 million &#8468;,
+valued at £2,500,000, is exported annually to British markets.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the pastoral industry, agriculture is the principal
+source of Australian wealth. At the close of 1905 the area
+devoted to tillage was 9,365,000 acres, the area utilized for
+the production of breadstuffs being 6,270,000 acres or over
+two-thirds of the whole extent of cultivation. At first wheat
+was cultivated solely in the coastal country, but experience
+has shown that the staple cereal can be most successfully grown
+over almost any portion of the arable lands within the 20 to 40 in.
+rainfall areas. The value of Australian wheat and flour exported
+in 1905 was £5,500,000.</p>
+
+<p>Other important crops grown are&mdash;maize, 324,000 acres; oats,
+493,000 acres; other grains, 160,000 acres; hay, 1,367,000
+acres; potatoes, 119,000 acres; sugar-cane, 141,000 acres;
+vines, 65,000 acres; and other crops, 422,000 acres. The chief
+wheat lands are in Victoria, South Australia and New South
+Wales; the yield averages about 9 bushels to the acre; this
+low average is due to the endeavour of settlers on new lands
+to cultivate larger areas than their resources can effectively
+deal with; the introduction of scientific farming should almost
+double the yield. Maize and sugar-cane are grown in New South
+Wales and Queensland. The vine is cultivated in all the states,
+but chiefly in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales.
+Australia produces abundant quantities and nearly all varieties
+of fruits; but the kinds exported are chiefly oranges, pineapples,
+bananas and apples. Tobacco thrives well in New South
+Wales and Victoria, but kinds suitable for exportation are not
+largely grown. Compared with the principal countries of the
+world, Australia does not take a high position in regard to the
+gross value of the produce of its tillage, the standard of cultivation
+being for the most part low and without regard to maximum returns,
+but in value per inhabitant it compares fairly well; indeed,
+some of the states show averages which surpass those of many of
+the leading agricultural countries. For 1905 the total value of
+agricultural produce estimated at the place of production was
+£18,750,000 sterling, or about £4 : 13 : 4 per inhabitant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Timber Industry</i>.&mdash;Although the timbers of commercial value
+are confined practically to the eastern and a portion of the western
+coastal belt and a few inland tracts of Australia, they constitute
+an important national asset. The early settlement of heavily
+timbered country was characterized by wanton destruction
+of vast quantities of magnificent timber; but this waste is a
+thing of the past, and under the pressure of a demand for sound
+timber both for local use and for exportation, the various
+governments are doing much to conserve the state forests.
+In Western Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland
+there are many hundreds of well-equipped saw-mills affording
+employment to about 5000 men. The export of timber is in
+ordinary years valued at a million sterling and the total production
+at £2,250,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fisheries</i>.&mdash;Excellent fish of many varieties abound in the
+Australian seas and in many of the rivers. In several of the
+states, fish have been introduced successfully from other
+countries. Trout may now be taken in many of the mountain
+streams. At one time whaling was an important industry on
+the coasts of New South Wales and Tasmania, and afterwards
+on the Western Australian coasts. The industry gravitated to
+New Zealand, and finally died out, chiefly through the wasteful
+practice of killing the calves to secure the capture of the mothers.
+Of late years whaling has again attracted attention, and a small
+number of vessels prosecute the industry during the season.
+The only source of maritime wealth that is now being sufficiently
+exploited to be regarded as an industry is the gathering of
+pearl-oysters from the beds off the northern and north-western
+coasts of the continent. In Queensland waters there are about
+300 vessels, and on the Western Australian coast about 450
+licensed craft engaged in the industry, the annual value of
+pearl-shell and pearls raised being nearly half a million sterling.
+Owing to the depletion of some of the more accessible banks,
+and to difficulties in connexion with the employment of coloured
+crews, many of the vessels have now gone farther afield. As
+the pearl-oyster is remarkably prolific, it is considered by experts
+that within a few years of their abandonment by fishing fleets
+the denuded banks will become as abundantly stocked as ever.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mineral Production</i>.&mdash;Australia is one of the great gold
+producers of the world, and its yield in 1905 was about £16,000,000
+sterling, or one-fourth of the gold output of the world;
+and the total value of its mineral production was
+<span class="sidenote">Gold.</span>
+approximately £25,000,000. Gold is found throughout Australia,
+and the present prosperity of the states is largely due to the
+discoveries of this metal, the development of other industries
+being, in a country of varied resources, a natural sequence to
+the acquisition of mineral treasure. From the date of its first
+discovery, up to the close of 1905, gold to the value of
+£460,000,000 sterling has been obtained in Australia. Victoria,
+in a period of fifty-four years, contributed about £273,000,000
+to this total, and is still a large producer, its annual yield being
+about 800,000 oz., 29,000 men being engaged in the search for
+the precious metal. Queensland&rsquo;s annual output is between
+750,000 and 800,000 oz.; the number of men engaged in gold-mining
+is 10,000. In New South Wales the greatest production
+was in 1852, soon after the first discovery of the precious metal,
+when the output was valued at £2,660,946; the production in
+1905 was about 270,000 oz., valued at £1,150,000. For many
+years Western Australia was considered to be destitute of mineral
+deposits of any value, but it is now known that a rich belt of
+mineral country extends from north to south. The first important
+discovery was made in 1882, when gold was found in
+the Kimberley district; but it was not until a few years later
+that this rich and extensive area was developed. In 1887 gold
+was found in Yilgarn, about 200 m. east of Perth. This was the
+first of the many rich discoveries in the same district which have
+made Western Australia the chief gold-producer of the Australian
+group. In 1907 there were eighteen goldfields in the state, and
+it was estimated that over 30,000 miners were actively engaged
+in the search for gold. In 1905 the production amounted to
+1,983,000 oz., valued at £8,300,000. Tasmania is a gold producer
+to the extent of about 70,000 or 80,000 oz. a year, valued at
+£300,000; South Australia produces about 30,000 oz.</p>
+
+<p>Gold is obtained chiefly from quartz reefs, but there are still
+some important alluvial deposits being worked. The greatest
+development of quartz reefing is found in Victoria, some of the
+mines being of great depth. There are eight mines in the Bendigo
+district over 3000 ft. deep, and fourteen over 2500 ft. deep. In
+the Victoria mine a depth of 3750 ft. has been reached, and in
+Lazarus mine 3424 ft. In the Ballarat district a depth of 2520
+ft. has been reached in the South Star mine. In Queensland
+there is one mine 3156 ft. deep, and several others exceed 2000 ft.
+in depth. A considerable number of men are engaged in the
+various states on alluvial fields, in hydraulic sluicing, and
+dredging is now adopted for the winning of gold in river deposits.
+So far this form of winning is chiefly carried on in New South
+Wales, where there are about fifty gold-dredging plants in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span>
+successful operation. Over 70,000 men are employed in the
+gold-mining industry, more than two-thirds of them being
+engaged in quartz mining.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Silver has been discovered in all the states, either alone or in the
+form of sulphides, antimonial and arsenical ores, chloride, bromide,
+iodide and chloro-bromide of silver, and argentiferous
+lead ores, the largest deposits of the metal being found
+<span class="sidenote">Silver.</span>
+in the last-mentioned form. The leading silver mines are in New
+South Wales, the returns from the other states being comparatively
+insignificant. The fields of New South Wales have proved to
+be of immense value, the yield of silver and lead during 1905 being
+£2,500,000, and the total output to the end of the year named over
+£40,000,000. The Broken Hill field, which was discovered in 1883,
+extends over 2500 sq. m. of country, and has developed into one of the
+principal mining centres of the world. It is situated beyond the
+river Darling, and close to the boundary between New South Wales
+and South Australia. The lodes occur in Silurian metamorphic
+micaceous schists, intruded by granite, porphyry and diorite, and
+traversed by numerous quartz reefs, some of which are gold-bearing.
+The Broken Hill lode is the largest yet discovered. It varies in
+width from 10 ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several miles.
+Although indications of silver abound in all the other states, no fields
+of great importance have yet been discovered. Up to the end of
+1904 Australia had produced silver to the value of £45,000,000. At
+Broken Hill mines about 11,000 miners are employed.</p>
+
+<p>Copper is known to exist in all the states, and has been mined
+extensively in South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and
+Tasmania. The low quotations which ruled for a number
+of years had a depressing effect upon the industry, and
+<span class="sidenote">Copper.</span>
+many mines once profitably worked were temporarily closed, but
+in 1906 there was a general revival. The discovery of copper had
+a marked effect on the fortunes of South Australia at a time when
+the young colony was surrounded by difficulties. The first important
+mine, the Kapunda, was opened up in 1842. It is estimated that at
+one time 2000 tons were produced annually, but the mine was closed
+in 1879. In 1845 the celebrated Burra Burra mine was discovered.
+This mine proved to be very rich, and paid £800,000 in dividends to
+the original owners. For a number of years, however, the mine has
+been suffered to remain untouched, as the deposits originally worked
+were found to be depicted. For many years the average output was
+from 10,000 to 13,000 tons of ore, yielding from 22 to 23% of copper.
+For the period of thirty years during which the mine was worked the
+production of ore amounted to 234,648 tons, equal to 51,622 tons of
+copper, valued at £4,749,924. The Wallaroo and Moonta mines,
+discovered in 1860 and 1861, proved to be even more valuable than
+the Burra Burra, the Moonta mines employing at one time upwards
+of 1600 hands. The dividends paid by these mines amounted to
+about £1,750,000 sterling. The satisfactory price obtained during
+recent years has enabled renewed attention to be paid to copper
+mining in South Australia, and the production of the metal in 1905
+was valued at £470,324. The principal deposits of copper in New
+South Wales are found in the central part of the state between the
+Macquarie, Darling and Bogan rivers. Deposits have also been
+found in the New England and southern districts, as well as at Broken
+Hill, showing that the mineral is widely distributed throughout the
+state. The more important mines are those of Cobar, where the
+Great Cobar mine produces annually nearly 4000 tons of refined
+copper. In northern Queensland copper is found throughout the
+Cloncurry district, in the upper basin of the Star river, and the
+Herberton district. The returns from the copper fields in the state
+are at present a little over half a million sterling per annum, and
+would be still greater if it were not for the lack of suitable fuel for
+smelting purposes, which renders the economical treatment of the ore
+difficult; the development of the mines is also retarded by the want
+of easy and cheaper communication with the coast. In Western
+Australia copper deposits have been worked for some years. Very
+rich lodes of the metal have been found in the Northampton,
+Murchison and Champion Bay districts, and also in the country to
+the south of these districts on the Irwin river. Tasmania is now the
+largest copper-producing state of the Commonwealth; in 1905 the
+output was over £672,010 and in earlier years even larger. The chief
+mines belong to the Mount Lyell Mining &amp; Railway Co., and are
+situated on the west side of the island with an outlet by rail to
+Strahan on the west coast. The total value of copper produced in
+Australia up to the end of 1905 was £42,500,000 sterling, £24,500,000
+having been obtained in South Australia, £7,500,000 in New South
+Wales, £6,400,000 in Tasmania and over £3,500,000 in Queensland.</p>
+
+<p>Tin was known to exist in Australia from the first years of colonization.
+The wealth of Queensland and the Northern Territory
+in this mineral, according to the reports of Dr Jack, late
+Government geologist of the former state, and the late
+<span class="sidenote">Tin.</span>
+Rev. J.E. Tenison-Woods, appears to be very great. The most
+important tin-mines in Queensland are in the Herberton district,
+south-west of Cairns; at Cooktown, on the Annan and Bloomfield
+rivers; and at Stanthorpe, on the border of New South Wales.
+Herberton and Stanthorpe have produced more than three-fourths
+of the total production of the state. Towards the close of the 19th
+century the production greatly decreased in consequence of the low
+price of the metal, but in 1899 a stimulus was given to the industry,
+and since then the production has increased very considerably, the
+output for 1905 being valued at £989,627. In New South Wales
+lode tin occurs principally in the granite and stream tin under the
+basaltic country in the extreme north of the state, at Tenterfield,
+Emmaville, Tingha, and in other districts of New England. The
+metal has also been discovered in the Barrier ranges, and many other
+places. The value of the output in 1905 was £226,110. The yield
+of tin in Victoria is very small, and until lately no fields of importance
+have been discovered; but towards the latter end of 1899
+extensive deposits were reported to exist in the Gippsland district&mdash;at
+Omeo and Tarwin. In South Australia tin-mining is unimportant.
+In Western Australia the production from the tin-fields
+at Greenbushes and elsewhere was valued at £87,000. Tasmania
+during the last few years has attained the foremost position in the
+production of tin, the annual output now being about £363,000.
+The total value of tin produced in Australia is nearly a million
+sterling per annum, and the total production to the end of 1905 was
+£22,500,000, of which Tasmania produced about 40%, New South
+Wales one-third, Queensland a little more than a fourth.</p>
+
+<p>Iron is distributed throughput Australia, but for want of capital
+for developing the fields this industry has not progressed. In New
+South Wales there are, together with coal and limestone
+in unlimited supply, important deposits of rich iron ores
+<span class="sidenote">Iron.</span>
+suitable for smelting purposes; and for the manufacture of steel of
+certain descriptions abundance of manganese, chrome and tungsten
+ores are available. The most extensive fields are in the Mittagong,
+Wallerawang and Rylstone districts, which are roughly estimated to
+contain in the aggregate 12,944,000 tons of ore, containing 5,853,000
+tons of metallic iron. Extensive deposits, which are being developed
+successfully, occur in Tasmania, it being estimated that there are,
+within easy shipping facilities, 17,000,000 tons of ore. Magnetite,
+or magnetic iron, the richest of all iron ores, is found in abundance
+near Wallerawang in New South Wales. The proximity of coal-beds
+now being worked should accelerate the development of the iron
+deposits, which, on an average, contain 41% of metal. Magnetite
+occurs in great abundance in Western Australia, together with
+haematite, which would be of enormous value if cheap labour were
+available. Goethite, limonite and haematite are found in New South
+Wales, at the junction of the Hawkesbury sandstone formation and
+the Wianamatta shale, near Nattai, and are enhanced in their value
+by their proximity to coal-beds. Near Lithgow extensive deposits of
+limonite, or clay-band ore, are interbedded with coal. Some samples
+of ore, coal and limestone, obtained in the Mittagong district, with
+pig-iron and castings manufactured therefrom, were exhibited at the
+Mining Exhibition in London and obtained a first award.</p>
+
+<p>Antimony is widely diffused throughout Australia, and is sometimes
+found associated with gold. In New South Wales the principal
+centre of this industry is Hillgrove, near Armidale, where
+the Eleanora Mine, one of the richest in the state, is
+<span class="sidenote">Other Minerals.</span>
+situated. The ore is also worked for gold. In Victoria the
+production of antimony gave employment in 1890 to 238 miners,
+but owing to the low price of the metal, production has almost
+ceased. In Queensland the fields were all showing development in
+1891, when the output exhibited a very large increase compared
+with that of former years; but, as in the case of Victoria, the
+production of the metal seems to have ceased. Good lodes of stibnite
+(sulphide of antimony) have been found near Roebourne in Western
+Australia, but no attempt has yet been made to work them.</p>
+
+<p>Bismuth is known to exist in all the Australian states, but up
+to the present time it has been mined for only in three states, viz.
+New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania. It
+is usually found in association with tin and other minerals. The
+principal mine in New South Wales is situated at Kingsgate, in
+the New England district, where the mineral is generally associated
+with molybdenum and gold.</p>
+
+<p>Manganese probably exists in all the states, deposits having been
+found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western
+Australia, the richest specimens being found in New South Wales.
+Little, however, has been done to utilize the deposits, the demands
+of the colonial markets being extremely limited. The ore generally
+occurs in the form of oxides, manganite and pyrolusite, and contains
+a high percentage of sesquioxide of manganese.</p>
+
+<p>Platinum and the allied compound metal iridosmine have been
+found in New South Wales, but so far in inconsiderable quantities.
+Iridosmine occurs commonly with gold or tin in alluvial drifts.</p>
+
+<p>The rare element tellurium has been discovered in New South
+Wales at Bingara and other parts of the northern districts, as well
+as at Tarana, on the western line, though at present in such minute
+quantities as would not repay the cost of working. At many of the
+mines at Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, large quantities of ores of
+telluride of gold have been found in the lode formations.</p>
+
+<p>Lead is found in all the Australian states, but is worked only
+when associated with silver. In Western Australia the lead occurs
+in the form of sulphides and carbonates of great richness, but the
+quantity of silver mixed with it is very small. The lodes are most
+frequently of great size, containing huge masses of galena, and so
+little gangue that the ore can very easily be dressed to 83 or 84%.
+The association of this metal with silver in the Broken Hill mines
+of New South Wales adds very greatly to the value of the product.</p>
+
+<p>Mercury is found in New South Wales and Queensland. In New
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span>
+South Wales, in the form of cinnabar, it has been discovered on the
+Cudgegong river, near Rylstone, and it also occurs at Bingara,
+Solferino, Yulgilbar and Cooma. In the last-named place the assays
+of ore yielded 22% of mercury.</p>
+
+<p>Titanium, in the minerals known as octahedrite and brookite, is
+found in alluvial deposits in New South Wales, in conjunction with
+diamonds.</p>
+
+<p>Wolfram (tungstate of iron and manganese) occurs in some of the
+states, notably in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland.
+Scheelite, another mineral of tungsten, is also found in Queensland.
+Molybdenum, in the form of molybdenite (sulphide of molybdenum),
+is found in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria,
+associated in the parent state with tin and bismuth in quartz reefs.</p>
+
+<p>Zinc ores, in the several varieties of carbonates, silicates, oxide,
+sulphide and sulphate of zinc, have been found in several of the
+Australian states but have attracted little attention except in New
+South Wales, where special efforts are being made successfully to
+produce a high-grade zinc concentrate from the sulphide ores.
+Several companies are devoting all their energies to zinc extraction,
+and the output is now equal to about 5% of the world&rsquo;s production.</p>
+
+<p>Nickel, so abundant in the island of New Caledonia, has up to the
+present been found in none of the Australian states except Queensland
+and Tasmania. Few attempts, however, have been made to
+prospect systematically for this valuable mineral.</p>
+
+<p>Cobalt occurs in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia,
+and efforts have been made in the former state to treat the ore, the
+metal having a high commercial value; but the market is small, and
+no attempt has been made up to 1907 to produce it on any large
+scale. The manganese ores of the Bathurst district of New South
+Wales often contain a small percentage of cobalt&mdash;sufficient, indeed,
+to warrant further attempts to work them. In New South Wales
+chromium is found in the northern portion of the state, in the
+Clarence and Tamworth districts and also near Gundagai. It is
+usually associated with serpentine. In the Gundagai district the
+industry was rapidly becoming a valuable one, but the low price of
+chrome has greatly restricted the output. Chromium has been
+discovered in Tasmania also.</p>
+
+<p>Arsenic, in its well-known and beautiful forms, orpiment and
+realgar, is found in New South Wales and Victoria. It usually occurs
+in association with other minerals in veins.</p>
+
+<p>The Australian states have been bountifully supplied with mineral
+fuel. Five distinct varieties of black coal, of well-characterized
+types, may be distinguished, and these, with the two
+extremes of brown coal or lignite and anthracite, form a
+<span class="sidenote">Fuel.</span>
+perfectly continuous series. Brown coal, or lignite, occurs principally
+in Victoria. Attempts have frequently been made to use the
+mineral for ordinary fuel purposes, but its inferior quality has
+prevented its general use. Black coal forms one of the principal
+resources of New South Wales; and in the other states the deposits
+of this valuable mineral are being rapidly developed. Coal of a
+very fair description was discovered in the basin of the Irwin river,
+in Western Australia, as far back as the year 1846. It has been
+ascertained from recent explorations that the area of carboniferous
+formation in that state extends from the Irwin northwards to the
+Gascoyne river, about 300 m., and probably all the way to the
+Kimberley district. The most important discovery of coal in the
+state, so far, is that made in the bed of the Collie river, near Bunbury,
+to the south of Perth. The coal has been treated and found to be of
+good quality, and there are grounds for supposing that there are
+250,000,000 tons in the field. Dr Jack, late government geologist
+of Queensland, considers the extent of the coal-fields of that state
+to be practically unlimited, and is of opinion that the carboniferous
+formations extend to a considerable distance under the Great
+Western Plains. It is roughly estimated that the Coal Measures
+at present practically explored extend over an area of about 24,000
+sq. m. Coal-mining is an established industry in Queensland, and
+is progressing satisfactorily. The mines, however, are situated too
+far from the coast to permit of serious competition with Newcastle
+in an export trade, and the output is practically restricted to supplying
+local requirements. The coal-fields of New South Wales are
+situated in three distinct regions&mdash;the northern, southern and
+western districts. The first of these comprises chiefly the mines
+of the Hunter river districts; the second includes the Illawarra
+district, and, generally, the coastal regions to the south of Sydney,
+together with Berrima, on the tableland; and the third consists of
+the mountainous regions on the Great Western railway and extends
+as far as Dubbo. The total area of the Carboniferous strata of New
+South Wales is estimated at 23,950 sq. m. The seams vary in thickness.
+One of the richest has been found at Greta in the Hunter river
+district; it contains an average thickness of 41 ft. of clean coal,
+and the quantity underlying each acre of ground has been computed
+to be 63,700 tons. The coal mines of New South Wales give employment
+to 14,000 persons, and the annual production is over 6,600,000
+tons. Black coal has been discovered in Victoria, and about 250,000
+tons are now being raised. The principal collieries in the state are
+the Outtrim Howitt, the Coal Creek Proprietary and the Jumbunna.
+In South Australia, at Leigh&rsquo;s Creek, north of Port Augusta, coal-beds
+have been discovered. The quantity of coal extracted annually
+in Australia had in 1906 reached 7,497,000 tons.</p>
+
+<p>Kerosene shale (torbanite) is found in several parts of New South
+Wales. It is a species of cannel coal, somewhat similar to the Boghead
+mineral of Scotland, but yielding a much larger percentage of
+volatile hydro-carbon than the Scottish mineral. The richest quality
+yields about 100 to 130 gallons of crude oil per ton, or 17,000 to
+18,000 cub. ft. of gas, with an illuminating power of 35 to 40 sperm
+candles, when gas only is extracted from the shale.</p>
+
+<p>Large deposits of alum occur close to the village of Bulladelah,
+30 m. from Port Stephens, New South Wales. It is said to yield
+well, and a quantity of the manufactured alum is sent to Sydney
+for local consumption. Marble is found in many parts of New South
+Wales and South Australia. Kaolin, fire-clays and brick-clays are
+common to all the states. Except in the vicinity of cities and townships,
+however, little use has been made of the abundant deposits of
+clay. Kaolin, or porcelain clay, although capable of application to
+commercial purposes, has not as yet been utilized to any extent,
+although found in several places in New South Wales and in Western
+Australia.</p>
+
+<p>Asbestos has been found in New South Wales in the Gundagai
+Bathurst and Broken Hill districts&mdash;in the last-mentioned district
+in considerable quantities. Several specimens of very fair quality
+have also been met with in Western Australia.</p>
+
+<p>Many descriptions of gems and gem stones have been discovered
+in various parts of the Australian states, but systematic search has
+been made principally for the diamond and the noble opal.
+Diamonds are found in all the states; but only in New
+<span class="sidenote">Gems.</span>
+South Wales have any attempts been made to work the diamond
+drifts. The best of the New South Wales diamonds are harder and
+much whiter than the South African diamonds, and are classified as
+on a par with the best Brazilian gems, but no large specimens have
+yet been found. The finest opal known is obtained in the Upper
+Cretaceous formation at White Cliffs, near Wilcannia, New South
+Wales, and at these mines about 700 men find constant employment.
+Other precious stones, including the sapphire, emerald, oriental
+emerald, ruby, opal, amethyst, garnet, chrysolite, topaz, cairngorm,
+onyx, zircon, &amp;c., have been found in the gold and tin bearing drifts
+and river gravels in numerous localities throughout the states. The
+sapphire is found in all the states, principally in the neighbourhood
+of Beechworth, Victoria. The oriental topaz has been found in New
+South Wales. Oriental amethysts also have been found in that
+state, and the ruby has been found in Queensland, as well as in
+New South Wales. Turquoises have been found near Wangaratta,
+in Victoria, and mining operations are being carried on in that state.
+Chrysoberyls have been found in New South Wales; spinel rubies
+in New South Wales and Victoria; and white topaz in all the states.
+Chalcedony, carnelian, onyx and cat&rsquo;s eyes are found in New South
+Wales; and it is probable that they are also to be met with in the
+other states, particularly in Queensland. Zircon, tourmaline, garnet
+and other precious stones of little commercial value are found
+throughout Australia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Commerce</i>.&mdash;The number of vessels engaged in the over-sea
+trade of Australia in 1905 was 2112, viz. 1050 steamers, with a
+tonnage of 2,629,000, and 1062 sailers, tonnage 1,090,000; the
+total of both classes was 3,719,000 tons. The nationality of the
+tonnage was, British 2,771,000, including Australian 288,000,
+and foreign 948,000. The destination of the shipping was, to
+British ports 2,360,000 tons, and to foreign ports 1,350,000 tons.
+The value of the external trade was £95,188,000, viz. £38,347,000
+imports, and £56,841,000 exports. The imports represent
+£9:11:6 per inhabitant and the exports £14 : 4 : 2, with a
+total trade of £23 : 15 : 8. The import trade is divided between
+the United Kingdom and possessions and foreign countries as
+follows:&mdash;United Kingdom £23,074,000, British possessions
+£5,384,000, and foreign states £9,889,000, while the destination
+of the exports is, United Kingdom £26,703,000, British possessions
+£12,519,000, and foreign countries £17,619,000. The United
+Kingdom in 1905 sent 60% of the imports taken by Australia,
+compared with 26% from foreign countries, and 14% from
+British possessions; of Australian imports the United Kingdom
+takes 47%, foreign countries 31% and British possessions 22%.
+In normal years (that is to say, when there is no large movement
+of capital) the exports of Australia exceed the imports by some
+£15,300,000. This sum represents the interest payable on
+government loans placed outside Australia, mainly in England,
+and the income from British and other capital invested in the
+country; the former may be estimated at £7,300,000 and the
+latter £8,000,000 per annum. The principal items of export
+are wool, skins, tallow, frozen mutton, chilled beef, preserved
+meats, butter and other articles of pastoral produce, timber,
+wheat, flour and fruits, gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and other
+metals. In 1905 the value of the wool export regained the
+£20,000,000 level, and with the rapid recovery of the numerical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span>
+strength of the flocks, great improvements in the quality and
+weight of fleeces, this item is likely to show permanent advancement.
+The exports of breadstuffs&mdash;chiefly to the United
+Kingdom&mdash;exceed six millions per annum, butter two and a
+half millions, and minerals of all kinds, except gold, six millions.
+Gold is exported in large quantities from Australia. The total
+gold production of the country is from £14,500,000 to £16,000,000,
+and as not more than three-quarters of a million are required
+to strengthen existing local stocks, the balance is usually available
+for export, and the average export of the precious metal during
+the ten years, 1896-1905, was £12,500,000 per annum. The
+chief articles of import are apparel and textiles, machinery and
+hardware, stimulants, narcotics, explosives, bags and sacks,
+books and paper, oils and tea.</p>
+
+<p>Lines of steamers connect Australia with London and other
+British ports, with Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Japan,
+China, India, San Francisco, Vancouver, New York and Montevideo,
+several important lines being subsidized by the countries
+to which they belong, notably Germany, France and Japan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways</i>.&mdash;Almost the whole of the railway lines in Australia
+are the property of the state governments, and have been
+constructed and equipped wholly by borrowed capital. There
+were on the 30th of June 1905, 15,000 m. open for traffic, upon
+which nearly £135,000,000 had been expended.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The railways are of different gauges, the standard narrow gauge
+of 4 ft. 8½ in. prevailing only in New South Wales; in Victoria the
+gauge is 5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia 5 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. 6 in., and
+in the other states 3 ft. 6 in. Taking the year 1905, the gross earnings
+amounted to £11,892,262; the working expenses, exclusive of interest,
+£7,443,546; and the net earnings £4,448,716; the latter figure represents
+3.31% upon the capital expended upon construction and
+equipment; in the subsequent year still better results were obtained.
+In several of the states, New South Wales and South Australia
+proper, the railways yield more than the interest paid by the government
+on the money borrowed for their construction. The earnings
+per train-mile vary greatly; but for all the lines the average is
+7s. 1d., and the working expenses about 4s. 5d., making the net
+earnings 2s. 8d. per train-mile. The ratio of receipts from coaching
+traffic to total receipts is about 41%, which is somewhat less than in
+the United Kingdom; but the proportion varies greatly amongst
+the states themselves, the more densely populated states approaching
+most nearly to the British standard. The tonnage of goods
+carried amounts to about 16,000,000 tons, or 4 tons per inhabitant,
+which must be considered fairly large, especially as no great proportion
+of the tonnage consists of minerals on which there is usually
+a low freightage. Excluding coal lines and other lines not open to
+general traffic, the length of railways in private hands is only 382 m.
+or about 2½% of the total mileage open. Of this length, 277 m. are
+in Western Australia. The divergence of policy of that state from
+that pursued by the other states was caused by the inability of the
+government to construct lines, when the extension of the railway
+system was urgently needed in the interests of settlement. Private
+enterprise was, therefore, encouraged by liberal grants of land to
+undertake the work of construction; but the changed conditions of
+the state have now altered the state policy, and the government have
+already acquired one of the two trunk lines constructed by private
+enterprise, and it is not likely that any further concessions in regard
+to railway construction will be granted to private persons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Posts and Telegraphs</i>.&mdash;The postal and telegraphic facilities offered
+by the various states are very considerable. There are some 6686
+post-offices throughout the Commonwealth, or about one office to
+every 600 persons. The letters carried amount to about 80 per head,
+the newspapers to 32 per head and the packets to 15 per head.
+The length of telegraph lines in use is 46,300 m., and the length of
+wire nearly three times that distance. In 1905 there were about
+11,000,000 telegraphic messages sent, which gives an average of
+2.7 messages per inhabitant. The postal services and the telegraphs
+are administered by the federal government.</p>
+
+<p><i>Banking</i>.&mdash;Depositors in savings banks represent about twenty-nine
+in every hundred persons, and in 1906 the sum deposited
+amounted to £37,205,000 in the names of 1,152,000 persons. In
+ordinary banks the deposits amounted to £106,625,000, so that the
+total deposits stood at £143,830,000, equivalent to the very large
+sum of £34, 18s. per inhabitant. The coin and bullion held by the
+banks varies between 20 and 24 millions sterling and the note circulation
+is almost stationary at about 3¼ millions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Public Finance</i>.&mdash;Australian public finance requires to be treated
+under the separate headings of Commonwealth and states finance.
+Under the Constitution Act the Commonwealth is given the control
+of the postal and telegraph departments, public defence and several
+other services, as well as the power of levying customs and excise
+duties; its powers of taxation are unrestricted, but so far no taxes
+have been imposed other than those just mentioned. The Commonwealth
+is empowered to retain one-fourth of the net revenue from
+customs and excise, the balance must be handed back to the states.
+This arrangement was to last until 1910. Including the total receipts
+derived from the customs, the Commonwealth revenue, during the
+year 1906, was made up as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Customs and excise</td> <td class="tcr">£8,999,485</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Posts, telegraphs, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr">2,824,182</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Other revenue</td> <td class="tcr">55,676</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">£11,879,343</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The return made to the states was £7,385,731, so that the actual
+revenue disposed of by the Commonwealth was less by that amount,
+or £4,493,612. The expenditure was distributed as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Customs collection</td> <td class="tcr">£261,864</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Posts, telegraphs, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr">2,774,804</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Defence</td> <td class="tcr">949,286</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Other expenditure</td> <td class="tcr">508,887</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">£4,494,841</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The states have the same powers of taxation as the Commonwealth
+except in regard to customs and excise, over which the Commonwealth
+has exclusive power, but the states are the owners of the
+crown lands, and the revenues derived from this source form an important
+part of their income. The states have a total revenue, from
+sources apart from the Commonwealth, of £23,820,439, and if to
+this be added the return of customs duties made by the federal
+government, the total revenue is £31,206,170. Although the financial
+operations of the Commonwealth and the states are quite distinct, a
+statement of the total revenue of the Australian Commonwealth
+and states is not without interest as showing the weight of taxation
+and the different sources from which revenue is obtained. For 1906
+the respective revenues were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Commonwealth</td> <td class="tcr">£11,879,343</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">States</td> <td class="tcr">23,820,439</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">£35,699,782</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">=======</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Direct taxation</td> <td class="tcr">£3,200,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Indirect taxation; customs and excise</td> <td class="tcr">8,999,485</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Land revenue</td> <td class="tcr">3,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Post-office and telegraphs</td> <td class="tcr">2,824,182</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Railways, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr">13,650,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Other service</td> <td class="tcr">3,526,115</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The revenue from direct taxation is equal to 15s. 10d. per inhabitant,
+from indirect taxation £2 : 4 : 6, and the total revenue from all
+sources £35,699,782, equal to £8 : 16 : 2 per inhabitant. The federal
+government has no public debt, but each of the six states has contracted
+debts which aggregate £237,000,000, equal to about £58, 8s.
+per inhabitant. The bulk of this indebtedness has been contracted
+for the purpose of constructing railways, tramways, water-supplies,
+and other revenue-producing works and services, and it is estimated
+that only 8% of the total indebtedness can be set down for unproductive
+services.</p>
+
+<p>Information regarding Australian state finance will be found under
+the heading of each state.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. A. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Aborigines</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the natives of Australia presents a difficult
+problem. The chief difficulty in deciding their ethnical relations
+is their remarkable physical difference from the neighbouring
+peoples. And if one turns from physical criteria to their manners
+and customs it is only to find fresh evidence of their isolation.
+While their neighbours, the Malays, Papuans and Polynesians,
+all cultivate the soil, and build substantial huts and houses,
+the Australian natives do neither. Pottery, common to Malays
+and Papuans, the bows and arrows of the latter, and the elaborate
+canoes of all three races, are unknown to the Australians. They
+then must be considered as representing an extremely primitive
+type of mankind, and it is necessary to look far afield for their
+prehistoric home.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever they came from, there is abundant evidence that
+their first occupation of the Australian continent must have
+been at a time so remote as to permit of no traditions.
+No record, no folk tales, as in the case of the Maoris
+<span class="sidenote">Origin.</span>
+of New Zealand, of their migration, are preserved by the
+Australians. True, there are legends and tales of tribal migrations
+and early tribal history, but nothing, as A.W. Howitt
+points out, which can be twisted into referring even indirectly
+to their first arrival. It is almost incredible there should be
+none, if the date of their arrival is to be reckoned as only dating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span>
+back some centuries. Again, while they differ physically from
+neighbouring races, while there is practically nothing in common
+between them and the Malays, the Polynesians, or the Papuan
+Melanesians, they agree in type so closely among themselves
+that they must be regarded as forming one race. Yet it is noteworthy
+that the languages of their several tribes are different.
+The occurrence of a large number of common roots proves them
+to be derived from one source, but the great variety of dialects&mdash;sometimes
+unintelligible between tribes separated by only a few
+miles&mdash;cannot be explained except by supposing a vast period
+to have elapsed since their first settlement. There is evidence
+in the languages, too, which supports the physical separation
+from their New Zealand neighbours and, therefore, from the
+Polynesian family of races. The numerals in use were limited.
+In some tribes there were only three in use, in most four. For
+the number &ldquo;five&rdquo; a word meaning &ldquo;many&rdquo; was employed.
+This linguistic poverty proves that the Australian tongue has
+no affinity to the Polynesian group of languages, where denary
+enumeration prevails: the nearest Polynesians, the Maoris,
+counting in thousands. Further evidence of the antiquity of
+Australian man is to be found in the strict observance of tribal
+boundaries, which would seem to show that the tribes must
+have been settled a long time in one place.</p>
+
+<p>A further difficulty is created by a consideration of the Tasmanian
+people, extinct since 1876. For the Tasmanians in
+many ways closely approximated to the Papuan type. They
+had coarse, short, woolly hair and Papuan features. They
+clearly had no racial affinities with the Australians. They did
+not possess the boomerang or woomerah, and they had no boats.
+When they were discovered, a mere raft of reeds in which they
+could scarcely venture a mile from shore was their only means of
+navigation. Yet while the Tasmanians are so distinctly separated
+in physique and customs from the Australians, the fauna and
+flora of Tasmania and Australia prove that at one time the two
+formed one continent, and it would take an enormous time for
+the formation of Bass Strait. How did the Tasmanians with
+their Papuan affinities get so far south on a continent inhabited
+by a race so differing from Papuans? Did they get to Tasmania
+before or after its separation from the main continent? If
+before, why were they only found in the south? It would have
+been reasonable to expect to find them sporadically all over
+Australia. If after, how did they get there at all? For it is
+impossible to accept the theory of one writer that they sailed or
+rowed round the continent&mdash;a journey requiring enormous
+maritime skill, which, according to the theory, they must have
+promptly lost.</p>
+
+<p>Four points are clear: (1) the Australians represent a distinct
+race; (2) they have no kinsfolk among the neighbouring races;
+(3) they have occupied the continent for a very long period;
+(4) it would seem that the Tasmanians must represent a still
+earlier occupation of Australia, perhaps before the Bass Strait
+existed.</p>
+
+<p>Several theories have been propounded by ethnologists. An
+attempt has been made to show that the Australians have close
+affinities with the African negro peoples, and certain resemblances
+in language and in customs have been relied on. Sorcery,
+the scars raised on the body, the knocking out of teeth, circumcision
+and rules as to marriage have been quoted; but many
+such customs are found among savage peoples far distant from
+each other and entirely unrelated. The alleged language
+similarities have broken down on close examination. A.R.
+Wallace is of the opinion that the Australians &ldquo;are really of
+Caucasian type and are more nearly allied to ourselves than
+to the civilized Japanese or the brave and intelligent Zulus.&rdquo;
+He finds near kinsmen for them in the Ainus of Japan, the
+Khmers and Chams of Cambodia and among some of the Micronesian
+islanders who, in spite of much crossing, still exhibit
+marked Caucasic types. He regards the Australians as representing
+the lowest and most primitive examples of this primitive
+Caucasic type, and he urges that they must have arrived in
+Australia at a time when their ancestors had no pottery, knew
+no agriculture, domesticated no animals, had no houses and
+used no bows and arrows. This theory has been supported by
+the investigations of Dr Klaatsch, of the university of Heidelberg,
+who would, however, date Australian ancestry still farther back,
+for his studies on the spot have convinced him that the Australians
+are &ldquo;a generalized, not a specialized, type of humanity&mdash;that
+is to say, they are a very primitive people, with more of the
+common undeveloped characteristics of man, and less of the
+qualities of the specialized races of civilization.&rdquo; Dr Klaatsch&rsquo;s
+view is that they are survivals of a primitive race which inhabited
+a vast Antarctic continent of which South America, South
+Africa and Australia once formed a part, as evidenced by the
+identity of many species of birds and fish. He urges that the
+similarities of some of the primitive races of India and Africa
+to the aborigines of Australia are indications that they were
+peopled from one common stock. This theory, plausible and
+attractive as it is, and fitting in, as it does, with the acknowledged
+primitive character of the Australian blackfellow, overlooks,
+nevertheless, the Tasmanian difficulty. Why should a Papuan
+type be found in what was certainly once a portion of the
+Australian continent? The theory which meets this difficulty
+is that which has in its favour the greatest weight of evidence,
+viz. that the continent was first inhabited by a Papuan type of
+man who made his way thither from Flores and Timor, New
+Guinea and the Coral Sea. That in days so remote as to be
+undateable, a Dravidian people driven from their primitive home
+in the hills of the Indian Deccan made their way south via
+Ceylon (where they may to-day be regarded as represented by
+the Veddahs) and eventually sailed and drifted in their bark
+boats to the western and north-western shores of Australia.
+It is difficult to believe that they at first arrived in such numbers
+as at once to overwhelm the Papuan population. There were
+probably several migrations. What seems certain, if this theory
+is adopted, is that they did at last accumulate to an extent
+which permitted of their mastering the former occupiers of the
+soil, who were probably in very scattered and defenceless
+communities.</p>
+
+<p>In the slow process of time they drove them into the most
+southerly corner of Australia, just as the Saxons drove the
+Celts into Cornwall and the Welsh hills. Even if this Dravidian
+invasion is put subsequent to the Bass Strait forming, even if
+one allows the probability of much crossing between the two
+races at first, in time the hostilities would be renewed. With
+their earliest settlements on the north-north-west coasts, the
+Dravidians would probably tend to spread out north, north-east
+and east, and a southerly line of retreat would be the most
+natural one for the Papuans.<a name="fa3p" id="fa3p" href="#ft3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> When at last they were driven
+to the Strait they would drift over on rafts or in clumsy shallops;
+being thereafter left in peace to concentrate their race, then
+possibly only in an approximately pure state, in the island to
+which the Dravidians would not take the trouble to follow them,
+and where they would have centuries in which once more to fix
+their racial type and emphasize over again those differences,
+perhaps temporarily marred by crossing, which were found to
+exist on the arrival of the Whites.</p>
+
+<p>This Indo-Aryan origin for the Australian blackfellows is
+borne out by their physique. In spite of their savagery they
+are admitted by those who have studied them to be far removed
+from the low or Simian type of man. Dr Charles Pickering
+(1805-1878), who studied the Australians on the spot, writes:
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span>
+&ldquo;Strange as it may appear, I would refer to an Australian as
+the finest model of the human proportions I have ever met; in
+muscular development combining perfect symmetry, activity and
+strength, while his head might have compared with the antique
+bust of a philosopher.&rdquo; Huxley concluded, from descriptions,
+that &ldquo;the Deccan tribes are indistinguishable from the Australian
+races.&rdquo; Sir W.W. Hunter states that the Dravidian tribes were
+driven southwards in Hindustan, and that the grammatical
+relations of their dialects are &ldquo;expressed by suffixes,&rdquo; which is
+true as to the Australian languages. He states that Bishop Caldwell,<a name="fa4p" id="fa4p" href="#ft4p"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+whom he calls &ldquo;the great missionary scholar of the
+Dravidian tongue,&rdquo; showed that the south and western
+Australian tribes use almost the same words for &ldquo;I, thou, he, we,
+you, as the Dravidian fishermen on the Madras coast.&rdquo; When
+in addition to all this it is found that physically the Dravidians
+resemble the Australians; that the boomerang is known among
+the wild tribes of the Deccan alone (with the doubtful exception
+of ancient Egypt) of all parts of the world except Australia,
+and that the Australian canoes are like those of the Dravidian
+coast tribes, it seems reasonable enough to assume that the
+Australian natives are Dravidians, exiled in remote times from
+Hindustan, though when their migration took place and how
+they traversed the Indian Ocean must remain questions to which,
+by their very nature, there can be no satisfactory answer.</p>
+
+<p>The low stage of culture of the Australians when they reached
+their new home is thus accounted for, but their stagnation is
+remarkable, because they must have been frequently in contact
+with more civilized peoples. In the north of Australia there
+are traces of Malay and Papuan blood. That a far more advanced
+race had at one time a settlement on the north-west coast is
+indicated by the cave-paintings and sculptures discovered by
+Sir George Grey. In caves of the valley of the Glenelg river,
+north-west Australia, about 60 m. inland and 20 m. south of
+Prince Regent&rsquo;s river, are representations of human heads and
+bodies, apparently of females clothed to the armpits, but all
+the faces are without any indication of mouths. The heads
+are surrounded with a kind of head-dress or halo and one wears
+a necklace. They are drawn in red, blue and yellow. The figures
+are almost life-size. Rough sculptures, too, were found, and two
+large square mounds formed of loose stones, and yet perfect
+parallelograms in outline, placed due east and west. In the same
+district Sir George Grey noticed among the blackfellows people
+he describes as &ldquo;almost white.&rdquo; On the Gascoyne river, too,
+were seen natives of an olive colour, quite good-looking; and
+in the neighbourhood of Sydney rock-carvings have been also
+found. All this points to a temporary occupation by a race at
+a far higher stage of culture than any known Australians, who
+were certainly never capable of executing even the crude works
+of art described.</p>
+
+<p>Physically the typical Australian is the equal of the average
+European in height, but is inferior in muscular development,
+the legs and arms being of a leanness which is often
+emphasized by an abnormal corpulence. The bones
+<span class="sidenote">Physique.</span>
+are delicately formed, and there is the lack of calf usual in black
+races. The skull is abnormally thick and the cerebral capacity
+small. The head is long and somewhat narrow, the forehead
+broad and receding, with overhanging brows, the eyes sunken,
+large and black, the nose thick and very broad at the nostrils.
+The mouth is large and the lips thick but not protuberant.
+The teeth are large, white and strong. In old age they appear
+much ground down; particularly is this the case with women,
+who chew the different kinds of fibres, of which they make nets
+and bags. The lower jaw is heavy; the cheekbones somewhat
+high, and the chin small and receding. The neck is thicker and
+shorter than that of most Europeans. The colour of the skin
+is a deep copper or chocolate, never sooty black. When born,
+the Australian baby is of a much lighter colour than its parents
+and remains so for about a week. The hair is long, black or very
+dark auburn, wavy and sometimes curly, but never woolly,
+and the men have luxuriant beards and whiskers, often of an
+auburn tint, while the whole body inclines to hairiness. On
+the Balonne river, Queensland, Baron Mikluho Maclay found
+a group of hairless natives. The head hair is usually matted
+with grease and dirt, but when clean is fine and glossy. The
+skin gives out an objectionable odour, owing to the habit of
+anointing the body with fish-oils, but the true fetor of the negro
+is lacking in the Australian. The voices of the blackfellows are
+musical. Their mental faculties, though inferior to those of the
+Polynesian race, are not contemptible. They have much acuteness
+of perception for the relations of individual objects, but little
+power of generalization. No word exists in their language for
+such general terms as tree, bird or fish; yet they have invented
+a name for every species of vegetable and animal they know.
+The grammatical structure of some north Australian languages
+has a considerable degree of refinement. The verb presents a
+variety of conjugations, expressing nearly all the moods and
+tenses of the Greek. There is a dual, as well as a plural form
+in the declension of verbs, nouns, pronouns and adjectives.
+The distinction of genders is not marked, except in proper names
+of men and women. All parts of speech, except adverbs, are
+declined by terminational inflections. There are words for the
+elementary numbers, one, two, three; but &ldquo;four&rdquo; is usually
+expressed by &ldquo;two-two.&rdquo; They have no idea of decimals. The
+number and diversity of separate languages is bewildering.</p>
+
+<p>In disposition the Australians are a bright, laughter-loving
+folk, but they are treacherous, untruthful and hold human life
+cheaply. They have no great physical courage. They
+are mentally in the condition of children. None of
+<span class="sidenote">Character.</span>
+them has an idea of what the West calls morality, except the
+simple one of right or wrong arising out of property. A wife
+will be beaten without mercy for unfaithfulness to her husband,
+but the same wife will have had to submit to the first-night
+promiscuity, a widespread revel which Roth shows is a regular
+custom in north-west-central Queensland. A husband claims
+his wife as his absolute property, but he has no scruple in handing
+her over for a time to another man. There is, however, no
+proof that anything like community of women or unlimited
+promiscuity exists anywhere. It would be wrong, however, to
+conclude that moral considerations have led up to this state of
+things. Of sexual morality, in the everyday sense of the word,
+there is none. In his treatment of women the aboriginal may
+be ranked lower than even the Fuegians. Yet the Australian
+is capable of strong affections, and the blind (of whom there
+have always been a great number) are cared for, and are often
+the best fed in a tribe.</p>
+
+<p>The Australians when first discovered were found to be
+living in almost a prehistoric simplicity. Their food was the
+meat they killed in the chase, or seeds and roots,
+grubs or reptiles. They never, in any situation,
+<span class="sidenote">Manners.</span>
+cultivated the soil for any kind of food-crop. They never
+reared any kind of cattle, or kept any domesticated animal
+except the dog, which probably came over with them in their
+canoes. They nowhere built permanent dwellings, but contented
+themselves with mere hovels for temporary shelter. They
+neither manufactured nor possessed any chattels beyond such
+articles of clothing, weapons, ornaments and utensils as they
+might carry on their persons, or in the family store-bag for
+daily use. In most districts both sexes are entirely nude.
+Sometimes in the south during the cold season they wear a cloak
+of skin or matting, fastened with a skewer, but open on the
+right-hand side.</p>
+
+<p>When going through the bush they sometimes wear an apron
+of skins, for protection merely. No headgear is worn, except
+sometimes a net to confine the hair, a bunch of feathers, or the
+tails of small animals. The breast or back, of both sexes, is
+usually tattooed, or rather, scored with rows of hideous raised
+scars, produced by deep gashes made at puberty. Their dwellings
+for the most part are either bowers, formed of the branches of
+trees, or hovels of piled logs, loosely covered with grass or bark,
+which they can erect in an hour, wherever they encamp. But
+some huts of a more substantial form were seen by Captain
+Matthew Flinders on the south-east coast in 1799, and by
+Captain King and Sir T. Mitchell on the north-east, where they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span>
+no longer appear. The ingenuity of the race is mostly exhibited
+in the manufacture of their weapons of warfare and the chase.
+While the use of the bow and arrow does not seem to have
+occurred to them, the spear and axe are in general use, commonly
+made of hard-wood; the hatchets of stone, and the javelins
+pointed with stone or bone. The characteristic weapon of the
+Australian is the boomerang (<i>q.v.</i>). Their nets, made by women,
+either of the tendons of animals or the fibres of plants, will
+catch and hold the kangaroo or the emu, or the very large fish
+of Australian rivers. Canoes of bent bark, for the inland waters,
+are hastily prepared at need; but the inlets and straits of the
+north-eastern sea-coast are navigated by larger canoes and
+rafts of a better construction. As to food, they are omnivorous.
+In central Queensland and elsewhere, snakes, both venomous
+and harmless, are eaten, the head being first carefully smashed
+to pulp with a stone.</p>
+
+<p>The tribal organization of the Australians was based on that
+of the family. There were no hereditary or formally elected
+chiefs, nor was there any vestige of monarchy. The
+affairs of a tribe were ruled by a council of men past
+<span class="sidenote">Tribal organization.</span>
+middle age. Each tribe occupied a recognized territory,
+averaging perhaps a dozen square miles, and used a
+common dialect. This district was subdivided between the
+chief heads of families. Each family, or family group, had a
+dual organization which has been termed (1) the Social, (2) the
+Local. The first was matriarchal, inheritance being reckoned
+through the mother. No territorial association was needed.
+All belonged to the same totem or totemic class, and might be
+scattered throughout the tribe, though subject to the same
+marriage laws. The second was patriarchal and of a strictly
+territorial nature. A family or group of families had the same
+hunting-ground, which was seldom changed, and descended
+through the males. Thus, the sons inherited their fathers&rsquo;
+hunting-ground, but bore their mothers&rsquo; name and therewith
+the right to certain women for wives. The Social or matriarchal
+took precedence of the Local or patriarchal organization. In
+many cases it arranged the assemblies and ceremonial of the
+tribe; it regulated marriage, descent and relationship; it
+ordered blood feuds, it prescribed the rites of hospitality and so
+on. Nevertheless the Local side of tribal life in time tended
+to overwhelm the Social and to organize the tribe irrespective
+of matriarchy, and inclined towards hereditary chieftainship.</p>
+
+<p>The most intricate and stringent rules existed as to marriage
+within and without the totemic inter-marrying classes. There
+is said to be but one exception to the rule that marriage must
+be contracted outside the totem name. This exception was
+discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen among the Arunta of
+central Australia, some allied septs, and their nearest neighbours
+to the north, the Kaitish. This tribe may legally marry within
+the totem, but always avoids such unions. Even in casual
+amours these class laws were invariably observed, and the
+young man or woman who defied them was punished, he with
+death, she with spearing or beating. At the death of a man,
+his widows passed to his brother of the same totem class. Such
+a system gave to the elder men of a tribe a predominant position,
+and generally respect was shown to the aged. Laws and penalties
+in protection of property were enforced by the tribe. Thus,
+among some tribes of Western Australia the penalty for abducting
+another&rsquo;s wife was to stand with leg extended while each male
+of the tribe stuck his spear into it. Laws, however, did not
+protect the women, who were the mere chattels of their lords.
+Stringent rules, too, governed the food of women and the youth
+of both sexes, and it was only after initiation that boys were
+allowed to eat of all the game the forest provided. In every
+case of death from disease or unknown causes sorcery was
+suspected and an inquest held, at which the corpse was asked
+by each relative in succession the name of the murderer. This
+formality having been gone through, the flight of the first bird
+which passed over the body was watched, the direction being
+regarded as that in which the sorcerer must be sought. Sometimes
+the nearest relative sleeps with his head on the corpse,
+in the belief that he will dream of the murderer. The most
+sacred duty an Australian had to perform was the avenging of
+the death of a kinsman, and he was the object of constant
+taunts and insults till he had done so. Cannibalism was almost
+universal, either in the case of enemies killed in battle or when
+animal food was scarce. In the Luritcha tribe it was customary
+when a child was in weak health to kill a younger and healthy
+one and feed the weakling on its flesh. Cannibalism seems
+also to have sometimes been in the nature of a funeral observance,
+in honour of the deceased, of whom the relatives reverently
+ate portions.</p>
+
+<p>They had no special forms of religious worship, and no idols.
+The evidence on the question of whether they believed in a
+Supreme Being is very contradictory. Messrs Spencer
+and Gillen appear to think that such rudimentary idea
+<span class="sidenote">Religion.</span>
+of an All-Father as has, it is thought, been detected among the
+blackfellows is an exotic growth fostered by contact with missionaries.
+A.W. Howitt and Dr Roth appear to have satisfied
+themselves of a belief, common to most tribes, in a mythic being
+(he has different names in different tribes) having some of the
+attributes of a Supreme Deity. But Mr Howitt finds in this
+being &ldquo;no trace of a divine nature, though under favourable
+conditions the beliefs might have developed into an actual
+religion.&rdquo; Other authorities suggest that it is going much too
+far to deny the existence of religion altogether, and instance as
+proof of the divinity of the supra-normal anthropomorphic
+beings of the Baiame class, the fact that the Yuin and cognate
+tribes dance around the image of Daramulun (their equivalent of
+Baiame) and the medicine men &ldquo;invocate his name.&rdquo; A good
+deal perhaps depends on each observer&rsquo;s view of what religion
+really is. The Australians believed in spirits, generally of an
+evil nature, and had vague notions of an after-life. The only
+idea of a god known to be entertained by them seems to be that of
+the Euahlayi and Kamilaori tribe, Baiame, a gigantic old man
+lying asleep for ages, with his head resting on his arm, which is
+deep in the sand. He is expected one day to awake and eat up
+the world. Researches go to show that Baiame has his counterpart
+in other tribes, the myth varying greatly in detail. But the
+Australians are distinguished by possessing elaborate initiatory
+ceremonies. Circumcision of one or two kinds was usual in the
+north and south, but not in Western Australia or on the Murray
+river. In South Australia boys had to undergo three stages of
+initiation in a place which women were forbidden to approach.
+At about ten they were covered with blood from head to foot,
+several elder men bleeding themselves for the purpose. At about
+twelve or fourteen circumcision took place and (or sometimes
+as an alternative on the east coast) a front tooth was knocked
+out, to the accompaniment of the booming of the bullroarer
+(<i>q.v.</i>). At the age of puberty the lad was tattooed or scarred
+with gashes cut in back, shoulders, arms and chest, and the
+septum of the nose was pierced. The gashes varied in patterns
+for the different tribes. Girls, too, were scarred at puberty and
+had teeth knocked out, &amp;c. The ceremonies&mdash;known to the
+Whites under the native generic term for initiatory rites, <i>Bora</i>,&mdash;were
+much the same throughout Australia. Polygamy was
+rare, due possibly to the scarcity of women.<a name="fa5p" id="fa5p" href="#ft5p"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Infanticide was
+universally recognized. The mode of disposing of the dead
+varied. Among some tribes a circular grave was dug and the
+body placed in it with its face towards the east, and a high
+mound covered with bark or thatch raised over it. In New
+South Wales the body is often burned and the ashes buried.
+On the Lower Murray the body is placed on a platform of sticks
+and left to decay. Young children are often not buried for
+months, but are carried about by their mothers. At the funeral
+of men there is much mourning, the female relatives cutting or
+tearing their hair off and plastering their faces with clay, but for
+women no public ceremonies took place.</p>
+
+<p>The numbers of the native Australians are steadily diminishing.
+It was estimated that when first visited by Europeans the native
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span>
+population did not much exceed 200,000. A remnant of the race
+exists in each of the provinces, while a few tribes still wander
+over the interior.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Dr A.W. Howitt, <i>The Native Tribes of South-east
+Australia</i> (1904) and <i>On the Organization of Australian Tribes</i> (1889);
+G.T. Bettany, <i>The Red, Brown and Black Men of Australia</i> (1890);
+B. Spencer and F.J. Gillen, <i>Native Tribes of Central Australia</i> (1899);
+<i>The Northern Tribes of Central Australia</i> (London, 1904); E.M. Curr,
+<i>The Australian Race</i> (3 vols., 1886-1887); G.W. Rusden, <i>History of
+Australia</i> (1897); <i>Australasia</i>, British Empire Series (Kegan Paul
+&amp; Co., 1900); A.R. Wallace, <i>Australasia</i> (1880, new ed., 2 vols.,
+1893-1895); Rev. Lorimer Fison and Dr A.W. Howitt, <i>Kamilaroi
+and Kurnai, Group Marriage and Relationship</i> (Melbourne, 1880);
+H. Ling Roth, <i>Queensland Aborigines</i> (Brisbane, 1897); Carl Lumholtz,
+<i>Among Cannibals</i> (1889); Walter E. Roth, <i>Ethnological
+Studies among the North-west-central Queensland Aborigines</i> (London,
+1897); Mrs K. Langloh Parker, <i>Euahlayi Tribes</i> (1905); F.J. Gillen,
+<i>Notes on Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Macdonnell
+Ranges belonging to the Arunta Tribe</i>; J.E. Frazer, &ldquo;The Beginnings
+of Religion and Totemism among the Australian Aborigines,&rdquo;
+<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, July 1905; N.W. Thomas, <i>Native Tribes of
+Australia</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Ar.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">1. <i>The Discovery of Australia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to say who were the first discoverers of
+Australia, although there is evidence that the Chinese had some
+knowledge of the continent so far back as the 13th century.
+The Malays, also, would seem to have been acquainted with the
+northern coast; while Marco Polo, who visited the East at the
+close of the 13th century, makes reference to the reputed existence
+of a great southern continent. There is in existence a map,
+dedicated to Henry VIII. of England, on which a large southern
+land is shown, and the tradition of a Terra Australis appears to
+have been current for a long period before it enters into authentic
+history.</p>
+
+<p>In 1503 a French navigator named Binot Paulmyer, sieur de
+Gonneville, was blown out of his course, and landed on a large
+island, which was claimed to be the great southern land of tradition,
+although Flinders and other authorities are inclined to
+think that it must have been Madagascar. Some French
+authorities confidently put forward a claim that Guillaume le
+Testu, of Provence, sighted the continent in 1531. The Portuguese
+also advance claims to be the first discoverers of Australia,
+but so far the evidence cannot be said to establish their pretensions.
+As early as 1597 the Dutch historian, Wytfliet, describes
+the Australis Terra as the most southern of all lands, and proceeds
+to give some circumstantial particulars respecting its geographical
+relation to New Guinea, venturing the opinion that, were it
+thoroughly explored, it would be regarded as a fifth part of the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the 17th century Philip III. of Spain sent out an
+expedition from Callao, in Peru, for the purpose of searching for
+a southern continent. The little fleet comprised three
+vessels, with the Portuguese pilot, De Quiros, as
+<span class="sidenote">De Torres.</span>
+navigator, and De Torres as admiral or military commander.
+They left Callao on the 21st of December 1605, and in the
+following year discovered the island now known as Espiritu
+Santo, one of the New Hebrides group, which De Quiros, under
+the impression that it was indeed the land of which he was in
+search, named <i>La Austrialia del Espiritu Santo</i>. Sickness and
+discontent led to a mutiny on De Quiros&rsquo; vessel, and the crew,
+overpowering their officers during the night, forced the captain
+to navigate his ship to Mexico. Thus, abandoned by his consort,
+De Torres, compelled to bear up for the Philippines to refit,
+discovered and sailed through the strait that bears his name,
+and may even have caught a glimpse of the northern coast of the
+Australian continent. His discovery was not, however, made
+known until 1792, when Dalrymple rescued his name from
+oblivion, bestowing it upon the passage which separates New
+Guinea from Australia. De Quiros returned to Spain to re-engage
+in the work of petitioning the king to despatch an expedition
+for the purpose of prosecuting the discovery of the Terra
+Australis. He was finally successful in his petitions, but died
+before accomplishing his work, and was buried in an unknown
+grave in Panama, never being privileged to set his foot upon the
+continent the discovery of which was the inspiration of his life.</p>
+
+<p>During the same year in which De Torres sailed through the
+strait destined to make him famous, a little Dutch vessel called
+the &ldquo;Duyfken,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Dove,&rdquo; set sail from Bantam,
+in Java, on a voyage of discovery. This ship entered
+<span class="sidenote">Dutch discoverers.</span>
+the Gulf of Carpentaria, and sailed south as far as Cape
+Keerweer, or Turn-again. Here some of the crew landed, but,
+being attacked by natives, made no attempt to explore the
+country. In 1616 Dirk Hartog discovered the island bearing
+his name. In 1622 the &ldquo;Leeuwin,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Lioness,&rdquo; made some
+discoveries on the south-west coast; and during the following
+year the yachts &ldquo;Pera&rdquo; and &ldquo;Arnheim&rdquo; explored the shores
+of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Arnheim Land, a portion of the
+Northern Territory, still appears on many maps as a memento
+of this voyage. Among other early Dutch discoverers were
+Edel; Pool, in 1629, in the Gulf of Carpentaria; Nuyts,
+in the &ldquo;Guide Zeepaard,&rdquo; along the southern coast, which he
+called, after himself, Nuyts Land; De Witt; and Pelsaert,
+in the &ldquo;Batavia.&rdquo; Pelsaert was wrecked on Houtman&rsquo;s
+Abrolhos; his crew mutinied, and he and his party suffered
+greatly from want of water. The record of his voyage is interesting
+from the fact that he was the first to carry back to Europe
+an authentic account of the western coast of Australia, which
+he described in any but favourable terms. It is to Dutch
+navigators in the early portion of the 17th century that we owe
+the first really authentic accounts of the western coast and
+adjacent islands, and in many instances the names given by these
+mariners to prominent physical features are still retained. By
+1665 the Dutch possessed rough charts of almost the whole
+of the western littoral, while to the mainland itself they had
+given the name of New Holland. Of the Dutch discoverers,
+Pelsaert was the only one who made any detailed observations
+of the character of the country inland, and it may here be remarked
+that his journal contains the first notice and description
+of the kangaroo that has come down to us.</p>
+
+<p>In 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman sailed on a voyage of discovery
+from Batavia, the headquarters of the governor and council
+of the Dutch East Indies, under whose auspices the expedition
+was undertaken. He was furnished with a yacht, the &ldquo;Heemskirk,&rdquo;
+and a fly-boat, the &ldquo;Zeehaen&rdquo; (or &ldquo;Sea Hen&rdquo;), under
+the command of Captain Jerrit Jansen. He left Batavia on
+what has been designated by Dutch historians the &ldquo;Happy
+Voyage,&rdquo; on the 14th of August 1642. After a visit to the
+Mauritius, then a Dutch possession, Tasman bore away to the
+south-east, and on the 24th of November sighted the western
+coast of the land which he named Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land, in honour
+of the governor under whose directions he was acting. The
+honour was later transferred to the discoverer himself, and the
+island is now known as Tasmania. Tasman doubled the southern
+extremity of Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land and explored the east coast
+for some distance. The ceremony of hoisting a flag and taking
+possession of the country in the name of the government of the
+Netherlands was actually performed, but the description of the
+wildness of the country, and of the fabulous giants by which
+Tasman&rsquo;s sailors believed it to be inhabited, deterred the Dutch
+from occupying the island, and by the international principle
+of &ldquo;non-user&rdquo; it passed from their hands. Resuming his voyage
+in an easterly direction, Tasman sighted the west coast of
+the South Island of New Zealand on the 13th of December of the
+same year, and describes the coast-line as consisting of &ldquo;high
+mountainous country.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The first English navigator to sight the Australian continent
+was William Dampier, who made a visit to these shores in 1688,
+as supercargo of the &ldquo;Cygnet,&rdquo; a trader whose crew
+had turned buccaneers. On his return to England he
+<span class="sidenote">Dampier.</span>
+published an account of his voyage, which resulted in his being
+sent out in the &ldquo;Roebuck&rdquo; in 1699 to prosecute his discoveries
+further. To him we owe the exploration of the coast for about
+900 m.&mdash;from Shark&rsquo;s Bay to Dampier&rsquo;s Archipelago, and
+thence to Roebuck Bay. He appears to have landed in several
+places in search of water. His account of the country was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span>
+quite as unfavourable as Pelsaert&rsquo;s. He described it as barren
+and sterile, and almost devoid of animals, the only one of any
+importance somewhat resembling a raccoon&mdash;a strange creature,
+which advanced by great bounds or leaps instead of walking,
+using only its hind legs, and covering 12 or 15 ft. at a time. The
+reference is, of course, to the kangaroo, which Pelsaert had also
+remarked and quaintly described some sixty years previously.</p>
+
+<p>During the interval elapsing between Dampier&rsquo;s two voyages,
+an accident led to the closer examination of the coasts of Western
+Australia by the Dutch. In 1684 a vessel had sailed from
+Holland for the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, and after
+rounding the Cape of Good Hope, she was never again heard of.
+Some twelve years afterwards the East India Company fitted
+out an expedition under the leadership of Commander William
+de Vlamingh, with the object of searching for any traces of the
+lost vessel on the western shores of New Holland. Towards the
+close of the year 1696 this expedition reached the island of
+Rottnest, which was thoroughly explored, and early the following
+year a landing party discovered and named the Swan river.
+The vessels then proceeded northward without finding any traces
+of the object of their search, but, at the same time, making fairly
+accurate charts of the coast-line.</p>
+
+<p>The great voyage of Captain James Cook, in 1769-1770, was
+primarily undertaken for the purposes of observing the transit
+of Venus, but he was also expressly commissioned
+to ascertain &ldquo;whether the unexplored part of the
+<span class="sidenote">Cook.</span>
+southern hemisphere be only an immense mass of water, or
+contain another continent.&rdquo; H.M.S. &ldquo;Endeavour,&rdquo; the vessel
+fitted out for the voyage, was a small craft of 370 tons, carrying
+twenty-two guns, and built originally for a collier, with a view
+rather to strength than to speed. Chosen by Cook himself,
+she was renamed the &ldquo;Endeavour,&rdquo; in allusion to the great work
+which her commander was setting out to achieve. Mr Charles
+Green was commissioned to conduct the astronomical observations,
+and Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander were appointed
+botanists to the expedition. After successfully observing the
+transit from the island of Tahiti, or Otaheite, as Cook wrote it,
+the &ldquo;Endeavour&rsquo;s&rdquo; head was turned south, and then north-west,
+beating about the Pacific in search of the eastern coast of the
+great continent whose western shores had been so long known
+to the Dutch. On the 6th of October 1769 the coast of New
+Zealand was sighted, and two days later Cook cast anchor in
+Poverty Bay, so named from the inhospitality and hostility
+of the natives.</p>
+
+<p>After voyaging westward for nearly three weeks, Cook, on the
+19th of April 1770, sighted the eastern coast of Australia at a
+point which he named after his lieutenant, who discovered it,
+Point Hicks, and which modern geographers identify with
+Cape Everard.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Endeavour&rdquo; then coasted northward, and after passing
+and naming Mount Dromedary, the Pigeon House, Point Upright,
+Cape St George and Red Point, Botany Bay was discovered
+on the 28th of April 1770, and as it appeared to offer a suitable
+anchorage, the &ldquo;Endeavour&rdquo; entered the bay and dropped
+anchor. The ship brought-to opposite a group of natives,
+who were cooking over a fire. The great navigator and his crew,
+unacquainted with the character of the Australian aborigines,
+were not a little astonished that these natives took no notice
+of them or their proceedings. Even the splash of the anchor in
+the water, and the noise of the cable running out through the
+hawse-hole, in no way disturbed them at their occupation, or
+caused them to evince the slightest curiosity. But as the captain
+of the &ldquo;Endeavour&rdquo; ordered out the pinnace and prepared to
+land, the natives threw off their nonchalance; for on the boat
+approaching the shore, two men, each armed with a bundle of
+spears, presented themselves on a projecting rock and made
+threatening signs to the strangers. It is interesting to note that
+the ingenious <i>wommera</i>, or throw-stick, which is peculiar to
+Australia, was first observed on this occasion. As the men were
+evidently determined to oppose any attempt at landing, a
+musket was discharged between them, in the hope that they
+would be frightened by the noise, but it produced no effect
+beyond causing one of them to drop his bundle of spears, of
+which, however, he immediately repossessed himself, and with his
+comrade resumed the same menacing attitude. At last one cast
+a stone towards the boat, which earned him a charge of small
+shot in the leg. Nothing daunted, the two ran back into the bush,
+and presently returned furnished with shields made of bark,
+with which to protect themselves from the firearms of the crew.
+Such intrepidity is certainly worthy of passing notice. Unlike
+the American Indians, who supposed Columbus and his crew
+to be supernatural beings, and their ships in some way endowed
+with life, and were thrown into convulsions of terror by the first
+discharge of firearms which they witnessed, these Australians
+were neither excited to wonder by the ship nor overawed by
+the superior number and unknown weapons of the strangers.
+Cook examined the bay in the pinnace, and landed several times;
+but by no endeavour could he induce the natives to hold any
+friendly communication with him. The well-known circumstance
+of the great variety of new plants here obtained, from which
+Botany Bay derives its name, should not be passed over. Before
+quitting the bay the ceremony was performed of hoisting the
+Union Jack, first on the south shore, and then near the north
+head, formal possession of the territory being thus taken for the
+British crown. During the sojourn in Botany Bay the crew had
+to perform the painful duty of burying a comrade&mdash;a seaman
+named Forby Sutherland, who was in all probability the first
+British subject whose body was committed to Australian soil.</p>
+
+<p>After leaving Botany Bay, Cook sailed northward. He saw
+and named Port Jackson, but forbore to enter the finest natural
+harbour in Australia. Broken Bay and other inlets, and several
+headlands, were also seen and named, but the vessel did not
+come to an anchor till Moreton Bay was reached, although the
+wind prevented Cook from entering this harbour. Still sailing
+northward, taking notes as he proceeded for a rough chart of the
+coast, and landing at Bustard and Keppel Bays and the Bay of
+Inlets, Cook passed over 1300 m. without the occurrence of any
+event worthy of being chronicled, till suddenly one night at ten
+o&rsquo;clock the water was found to shoal, without any sign of
+breakers or land. While Cook was speculating on the cause of
+this phenomenon, and was in the act of ordering out the boats
+to take soundings, the &ldquo;Endeavour&rdquo; struck heavily, and fell
+over so much that the guns, spare cables, and other heavy gear
+had at once to be thrown overboard to lighten the ship. As
+day broke, attempts were made to float the vessel off with the
+morning tide; but these were unsuccessful. The water was
+rising so rapidly in the hold that with four pumps constantly
+going the crew could hardly keep it in check. At length one of
+the midshipmen suggested the device of &ldquo;fothering,&rdquo; which he
+had seen practised in the West Indies. This consists of passing
+a sail, attached to cords, and charged with oakum, wool, and
+other materials, under the vessel&rsquo;s keel, in such a manner that
+the suction of the leak may draw the canvas into the aperture,
+and thus partially stop the vent. This was performed with great
+success, and the vessel was floated off with the evening tide.
+The land was soon after made near the mouth of a small stream,
+which Cook called, after the ship, the Endeavour river. A
+headland close by he named Cape Tribulation. The ship was
+steered into the river, and there careened and thoroughly
+repaired. Cook having completed the survey of the east coast,
+to which he gave the name of New South Wales, sighted and
+named Cape York, the northernmost point of Australia, and
+took final possession of his discoveries northward from 38° S.
+to 10½° S., on a spot which he named Possession Island, thence
+returning to England by way of Torres Straits and the Indian
+Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>The great navigator&rsquo;s second voyage, undertaken in 1772,
+with the &ldquo;Resolution&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Adventure,&rdquo; is of less importance.
+The vessels became separated, and both at different
+times visited New Zealand. Captain Tobias Furneaux, in the
+&ldquo;Adventure,&rdquo; also found his way to Storm Bay in Tasmania.
+In 1777, while on his way to search for a north-east passage
+between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Cook again touched
+at the coast of Tasmania and New Zealand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span></p>
+
+<p>On his first voyage, in 1770, Cook had some grounds for the
+belief that Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land, as Tasmania was then called,
+was a separate island. The observations of Captain Furneaux,
+however, did not strengthen this belief, and when making his
+final voyage, the great navigator appears to have definitely
+concluded that it was part of the mainland of Australia. This
+continued to be the opinion of geographers until 1798, when
+Bass discovered the strait which bears his name. The next
+recorded expedition is a memorable one in the annals of Australian
+history&mdash;the despatch of a British colony to the shores of
+Botany Bay. The fleet sailed in May 1787, and arrived off the
+Australian coast early in the following January.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">2. <i>Inland Exploration.</i></p>
+
+<p>For a period of twenty-five years after the first establishment
+of a British settlement in Australia, the colonists were only
+acquainted with the country along the coast extending northwards
+about 70 m. from Sydney and about a like distance to the
+south and shut in to the west by the Blue Mountain range,
+forming a narrow strip not more than 50 m. wide at its broadest
+part.</p>
+
+<p>The Blue Mountains attain a height of between 3000 and
+4000 ft. only, but they are intersected with precipitous ravines
+1500 ft. deep, which baffled every effort to reach the interior
+until in 1813, when a summer of severe drought had made it of
+vital importance to find new pastures, three of the colonists,
+Messrs Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth, more fortunate than
+their predecessors in exploration, after crossing the Nepean
+river at Emu Plains and ascending the Dividing Range, were
+able to reach a position enabling them to obtain a view of the
+grassy valley of the Fish river, which lies on the farther side
+of the Dividing Range. The western descent of the mountains
+appeared to the explorers comparatively easy, and they returned
+to report their discovery. A line of road was constructed
+across the mountains as far as the Macquarie river by the
+surveyor, Mr Evans, and the town of Bathurst laid out. This
+marks the beginning of the occupation of the interior of the
+continent. Some small expeditions were made from Bathurst,
+resulting in the discovery of the Lachlan, and in 1816 the first
+of the great exploration expeditions of Australia was fitted out
+<span class="sidenote">Oxley.</span>
+under Lieutenant Oxley, R.N. Oxley was accompanied
+by Mr Evans and Mr Allan Cunningham the botanist,
+and the object of his expedition was to trace the course of the
+Lachlan in a westerly direction. Oxley traced the river until
+it lost itself in the swamps east of 147° E., then crossing the
+river he traversed the country between the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee
+as far as 34° S. and 144° 30&prime; E. On his return journey
+Oxley again crossed the Lachlan about 160 m., measured along
+the river, below the point where he left it on his journey south.
+Continuing in a north-easterly direction Oxley struck the
+Macquarie river at a place he called Wellington, and from this
+place in the following year he organized a second expedition in
+hopes of discovering an inland sea. He was, however, disappointed
+in this, as after descending the course of the Macquarie
+below Mount Harris, he found that the river ended in an immense
+swamp overgrown with reeds. Oxley now turned aside&mdash;led by
+Mr Evans&rsquo;s report of the country eastward&mdash;crossed the Arbuthnot
+range, and traversing the Liverpool Plains, and ascending
+the Peel and Cockburn rivers to the Blue Mountains, gained
+sight of the open sea, which he reached at Port Macquarie. A
+valuable extension of geographical knowledge had been gained
+by this circuitous journey of more than 800 m. Yet its result
+was a disappointment to those who had looked for means of
+inland navigation by the Macquarie river, and by its supposed
+issue in a mediterranean sea.</p>
+
+<p>During the next two or three years public attention was
+occupied with Captain King&rsquo;s maritime explorations of the
+north-west coast in three successive voyages, and by explorations
+of Western Australia in 1821. These steps were followed by the
+foundation of a settlement on Melville Island, in the extreme
+north, which, however, was soon abandoned. In 1823 Lieutenant
+Oxley proceeded to Moreton Bay and Port Curtis, the first place
+500 m., the other 690 m. north of Sydney, to choose the site of a
+new penal establishment. From a shipwrecked English sailor
+he met with, who had lived with the savages, he heard of the
+river Brisbane. About the same time, in the opposite direction,
+south-west of Sydney, a large extent of the interior was revealed.
+Messrs Hamilton Hume and Hovell set out from Lake George,
+crossed the Murrumbidgee, and, after following the river for a
+short distance, struck south, skirting the foothills of what are
+now known as the Australian Alps until they reached a fine
+river, which was called the Hume after the leader&rsquo;s father.
+Crossing the Murray at Albury, the explorers, bearing to the
+south-west, skirted the western shore of Port Philip and reached
+the sea-coast near where the town of Geelong now stands. In
+1827 and the two following years, Cunningham prosecuted
+instructive explorations on both sides of the Liverpool range,
+between the upper waters of the Hunter and those of the Peel
+and other tributaries of the Brisbane north of New South Wales.
+Some of his discoveries, including those of Pandora&rsquo;s Pass and
+the Darling Downs, were of great practical utility.</p>
+
+<p>By this time much had thus been done to obtain an acquaintance
+with the eastern parts of the Australian continent, although
+the problem of what could become of the large rivers
+flowing north-west and south-west into the interior
+<span class="sidenote">Darling.</span>
+was still unsolved. With a view to determine this question,
+Governor Sir Ralph Darling, in the year 1828, sent out the expedition
+under Captain Charles Sturt, who, proceeding first to
+the marshes at the end of the Macquarie river, found his progress
+checked by the dense mass of reeds in that quarter. He therefore
+turned westward, and struck a large river, with many affluents,
+to which he gave the name of the Darling. This river, flowing
+from north-east to south-west, drains the marshes in which the
+Macquarie and other streams from the south appeared to be lost.
+The course of the Murrumbidgee, a deep and rapid river, was
+followed by the same eminent explorer in his second expedition
+in 1831 with a more satisfactory result. He travelled on this
+occasion nearly 2000 m., and discovered that both the Murrumbidgee,
+carrying with it the waters of the Lachlan morass, and
+likewise the Darling, from a more northerly region, finally joined
+another and larger river. This stream, the Murray, in the upper
+part of its course runs in a north-westerly direction, but afterwards
+turning southwards, almost at a right angle, expands into
+Lake Alexandrina on the south coast, about 60 m. south-east of
+the town of Adelaide, and finally enters the sea at Encounter Bay
+in E. long. 139°.</p>
+
+<p>After gaining a practical solution of the problem of the destination
+of the westward-flowing rivers, Sir Thomas Mitchell, in 1833,
+led an expedition northward to the upper branches
+of the Darling; the party met with a sad disaster in
+<span class="sidenote">Mitchell.</span>
+the death of Richard Cunningham, brother of the eminent
+botanist, who was murdered by the blacks near the Bogan river.
+The expedition reached the Darling on the 25th of May 1833,
+and after establishing a depot at Fort Bourke, Mitchell traced
+the Darling southwards for 300 m. until he was certain the river
+was identical with that reported by Sturt as joining the Murray
+about 142° E.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, from the new colony of Adelaide, South Australia,
+on the shores of Gulf St Vincent, a series of adventurous journeys
+to the north and to the west was begun by Mr Eyre,
+who explored a country very difficult of access. In
+<span class="sidenote">Eyre.</span>
+1840 he performed a feat of extraordinary personal daring,
+travelling all the way along the barren sea-coast of the Great
+Australian Bight, from Spencer Gulf to King George Sound.
+Eyre also explored the interior north of the head of Spencer
+Gulf, where he was misled, however, by appearances to form an
+erroneous theory about the water-surfaces named Lake Torrens.
+It was left to the veteran explorer, Sturt, to achieve the arduous
+enterprise of penetrating from the Darling northward to the very
+centre of the continent. This was in 1845, the route lying for the
+most part over a stony desert, where the heat (reaching 131°
+Fahr.), with scorching winds, caused much suffering to the party.
+The most northerly point reached by Sturt on this occasion was
+about S. lat. 24° 25&prime;.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:662px; height:962px" src="images/img960a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:656px; height:962px" src="images/img960c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img960b.jpg">(Click to enlarge left section.)</a><br />
+<a href="images/img960d.jpg">(Click to enlarge right section.)</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page961" id="page961"></a>961</span></p>
+
+<p>A military station having been fixed by the British government
+at Port Victoria, on the coast of Arnheim Land, for the
+protection of shipwrecked mariners on the north coast,
+it was thought desirable to find an overland route
+<span class="sidenote">Leichhardt.</span>
+between this settlement and Moreton Bay, in what
+then was the northern portion of New South Wales, now called
+Queensland. This was the object of Dr Leichhardt&rsquo;s expedition
+in 1844, which proceeded first along the banks of the Dawson
+and the Mackenzie, tributaries of the Fitzroy river, in Queensland.
+It thence passed farther north to the Burdekin, ascending to
+the source of that river, and turned westward across a table-land,
+from which there was an easy descent to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
+Skirting the low shores of this gulf, all the way round its upper
+half to the Roper, Leichhardt crossed Arnheim Land to the
+Alligator river, which he descended to the western shore of the
+peninsula, and arrived at Port Victoria, otherwise Port Essington,
+after a journey of 3000 m., performed within a year and three
+months. In 1847 Leichhardt undertook a much more formidable
+task, that of crossing the entire continent from east to west.
+His starting-point was on the Fitzroy Downs, north of the river
+Condamine, in Queensland, between the 26th and 27th degrees
+of S. latitude. But this eminent explorer had not proceeded
+far into the interior before he met his death, his last despatch
+dating from the Cogoon, 3rd of April 1848. In the same region,
+from 1845 to 1847, Sir Thomas Mitchell and Mr E.B. Kennedy
+explored the northern tributaries of the Darling, and a river
+in S. lat. 24°, named the Barcoo or Victoria, which flows to
+the south-west. This river was more thoroughly examined by
+Mr A.C. Gregory in 1858. Mr Kennedy lost his life in 1848,
+being killed by the natives while attempting to explore the
+peninsula of Cape York, from Rockingham Bay to Weymouth
+Bay.</p>
+
+<p>Among the performances of less renown, but of much practical
+utility in surveying and opening new paths through the country,
+we may mention that of Captain Banister, showing the way
+across the southern part of Western Australia, from Swan river
+to King George Sound, and that of Messrs Robinson and G.H.
+Haydon in 1844, making good the route from Port Phillip to
+Gipps&rsquo; Land with loaded drays, through a dense tangled scrub,
+which had been described by Strzelecki as his worst obstacle.
+Again, in Western Australia there were the explorations of the
+Arrowsmith, the Murchison, the Gascoyne, and the Ashburton
+rivers, by Captain Grey, Mr Roe, Governor Fitzgerald, Mr R.
+Austin, and the brothers Gregory, whose discoveries have great
+importance from a geographical point of view.</p>
+
+<p>These local researches, and the more comprehensive attempts
+of Leichhardt and Mitchell to solve the chief problems of
+Australian geography, must yield in importance to the
+grand achievement of Mr Stuart in 1862. The first
+<span class="sidenote">Stuart.</span>
+of his tours independently performed, in 1858 and 1859, were
+around the South Australian lakes, namely, Lake Torrens, Lake
+Eyre and Lake Gairdner. These waters had been erroneously
+taken for parts of one vast horse-shoe or sickle shaped lake, only
+some 20 m. broad, believed to encircle a large portion of the
+inland country, with drainage at one end by a marsh into
+Spencer Gulf. The mistake, shown in all the old maps of
+Australia, had originated in a curious optical illusion. When Mr
+Eyre viewed the country from Mount Deception in 1840, looking
+between Lake Torrens and the lake which now bears his own
+name, the refraction of light from the glittering crust of salt
+that covers a large space of stony or sandy ground produced an
+appearance of water. The error was discovered, after eighteen
+years, by the explorations of Mr Babbage and Major Warburton
+in 1858, while Mr Stuart, about the same time, gained a more
+complete knowledge of the same district.</p>
+
+<p>A reward of £10,000 having been offered by the legislature
+of South Australia to the first man who should traverse the
+whole continent from south to north, starting from the city of
+Adelaide, Mr Stuart resolved to make the attempt. He started
+in March 1860, passing Lake Torrens and Lake Eyre, beyond
+which he found a pleasant, fertile country till he crossed the
+Macdonnell range of mountains, just under the line of the tropic
+of Capricorn. On the 23rd of April he reached a mountain in
+S. lat. nearly 22°, and E. long. nearly 134°, which is the most
+central marked point of the Australian continent, and has been
+named Central Mount Stuart. Mr Stuart did not finish his task
+on this occasion, on account of indisposition and other causes.
+But the 18th degree of latitude had been reached, where the
+watershed divided the rivers of the Gulf of Carpentaria from
+the Victoria river, flowing towards the north-west coast. He
+had also proved that the interior of Australia was not a stony
+desert, like the region visited by Sturt in 1845. On the first day
+of the next year, 1861, Mr Stuart again started for a second
+attempt to cross the continent, which occupied him eight months.
+He failed, however, to advance farther than one geographical
+degree north of the point reached in 1860, his progress being
+arrested by dense scrubs and the want of water.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in the province of Victoria, by means of a fund
+subscribed among the colonists and a grant by the legislature,
+the ill-fated expedition of Messrs Burke and Wills
+was started. It made for the Barcoo (Cooper&rsquo;s Creek),
+<span class="sidenote">Burke and Wills.</span>
+with a view to reach the Gulf of Carpentaria by a
+northerly course midway between Sturt&rsquo;s track to the west and
+Leichhardt&rsquo;s to the east. The leading men of the party were Mr
+Robert O&rsquo;Hara Burke, an officer of police, and Mr William John
+Wills, of the Melbourne observatory. Leaving the main body
+of his party at Menindie on the Darling under a man named
+Wright, Burke, with seven men, five horses and sixteen camels,
+pushed on for Cooper&rsquo;s Creek, the understanding being that
+Wright should follow him in easy stages to the depot proposed
+to be there established. Wright frittered away his time in the
+district beyond the Darling and did not attempt to follow the
+party to Cooper&rsquo;s Creek, and Burke, tired of waiting, determined
+to push on. Accordingly, dividing his party, leaving at the
+depot four men and taking with him Wills and two men, King
+and Gray, with a horse and six camels, he left Cooper&rsquo;s Creek
+on the 16th of December and crossed the desert traversed by
+Sturt fifteen years before. They got on in spite of great difficulties,
+past the McKinlay range of mountains, S. lat. 21° and
+22°, and then reached the Flinders river, which flows into the
+head of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Here, without actually standing
+on the sea-beach of the northern shore, they met the tidal waters
+of the sea. On the 23rd of February 1861 they commenced the
+return journey, having in effect accomplished the feat of crossing
+the Australian continent. Gray, who had fallen ill, died on the
+16th of April. Five days later, Burke, Wills and King had
+repassed the desert to the place on Cooper&rsquo;s Creek (the Barcoo,
+S. lat. 27° 40&prime;, E. long. 140° 30&prime;), where they had left the depot,
+with the rest of the expedition. Here they experienced a cruel
+disappointment. The depot was abandoned; the men in charge
+had quitted the place the same day, believing that Burke and
+those with him were lost. The men who had thus abandoned
+the depot rejoined the main body of the expedition under Wright,
+who at length moved to Cooper&rsquo;s Creek, and, incredible to relate,
+neglected to search for the missing explorers. Burke, Wills and
+King, when they found themselves so fearfully left alone and
+unprovided in the wilderness, wandered about in that district
+till near the end of June. They subsisted miserably on the bounty
+of some natives, and partly by feeding on the seeds of a plant
+called nardoo. At last both Wills and Burke died of starvation.
+King, the sole survivor, was saved by meeting the friendly blacks,
+and was found alive in September by Mr A.W. Howitt&rsquo;s party,
+sent on purpose to find and relieve that of Burke.</p>
+
+<p>Four other parties, besides Howitt&rsquo;s, were sent out that year
+from different Australian provinces. Three of them, respectively
+commanded by Mr Walker, Mr Landsborough, and Mr Norman,
+sailed to the north, where the latter two landed on the shores
+of the Gulf of Carpentaria, while Mr Walker marched inland
+from Rockhampton. The fourth party, under Mr J. McKinlay,
+from Adelaide, made for the Barcoo by way of Lake Torrens.
+By these means, the unknown region of Mid Australia was
+simultaneously entered from the north, south, east and west,
+and important additions were made to geographical knowledge
+Landsborough crossed the entire continent from north to south.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page962" id="page962"></a>962</span>
+between February and June 1862; and McKinlay, from south to
+north, before the end of August in that year. The interior of
+New South Wales and Queensland, all that lies east of the 140th
+degree of longitude, was examined. The Barcoo or Cooper&rsquo;s
+Creek and its tributary streams were traced from the Queensland
+mountains, holding a south-westerly course to Lake Eyre in
+South Australia; the Flinders, the Gilbert, the Gregory, and
+other northern rivers watering the country towards the Gulf of
+Carpentaria were also explored. These valuable additions to
+Australian geography were gained through humane efforts to
+relieve the lost explorers. The bodies of Burke and Wills were
+recovered and brought to Melbourne for a solemn public funeral,
+and a noble monument has been erected to their honour.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Stuart, in 1862, made his third and final attempt to
+traverse the continent from Adelaide along a central line, which,
+inclining a little westward, reaches the north coast of Arnheim
+Land, opposite Melville Island. He started in January, and on
+the 7th of April reached the farthest northern point, near S. lat.
+17°, where he had turned back in May of the preceding year.
+He then pushed on, through a very thick forest, with scarcely
+any water, till he came to the streams which supply the Roper,
+a river flowing into the western part of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
+Having crossed a table-land of sandstone which divides these
+streams from those running to the western shores of Arnheim
+Land, Mr Stuart, in the month of July, passed down what is
+called the Adelaide river of north Australia. Thus he came at
+length to stand on the verge of the Indian Ocean; &ldquo;gazing
+upon it,&rdquo; a writer has said, &ldquo;with as much delight as Balboa,
+when he crossed the Isthmus of Darien from the Atlantic to
+the Pacific.&rdquo; The line crossing Australia which was thus
+explored has since been occupied by the electric telegraph
+connecting Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and other Australian
+cities with London.</p>
+
+<p>A third part, at least, of the interior of the whole continent,
+between the central line of Stuart and the known parts of
+Western Australia, from about 120° to 134° E. long.,
+an extent of half a million square miles, still remained
+<span class="sidenote">Gosse.</span>
+a blank in the map. But the two expeditions of 1873, conducted by
+William Christie Gosse (1842-1881), afterwards deputy surveyor-general
+for South Australia, and Colonel (then Major) Egerton
+Warburton, made a beginning in the exploration of this <i>terra
+incognita</i> west of the central telegraph route. That line of more
+than 1800 m., having its southern extremity at the head of
+Spencer Gulf, its northern at Port Darwin, in Arnheim Land,
+passes Central Mount Stuart, in the middle of the continent,
+S. lat. 22°, E. long. 134°. Mr Gosse, with men and horses provided
+by the South Australian government, started on the 21st
+of April from the telegraph station 50 m. south of Central Mount
+Stuart, to strike into Western Australia. He passed the Reynolds
+range and Lake Amadeus in that direction, but was compelled
+to turn south, where he found a tract of well-watered grassy
+land. A singular rock of conglomerate, 2 m. long, 1 m. wide,
+and 1100 ft. high, with a spring of water in its centre, struck his
+attention. The country was mostly poor and barren, sandy
+hillocks, with scanty growth of spinifex. Mr Gosse, having
+travelled above 600 m., and getting to 26° 32&prime; S. and 127° E.,
+two degrees within the Western Australian boundary, was forced
+to return. Meantime a more successful attempt to reach the
+<span class="sidenote">Warburton.</span>
+western coast from the centre of Australia was made by
+Major Warburton, with thirty camels, provided by Mr
+(afterwards Sir) T. Elder, of South Australia. Leaving
+the telegraph line at Alice Springs (23° 40&prime; S., 133° 14&prime; E.),
+1120 m. north of Adelaide city, Warburton succeeded in making
+his way to the De Grey river, Western Australia. Overland
+routes had now been found possible, though scarcely convenient
+for traffic, between all the widely separated Australian provinces.
+In northern Queensland, also, there were several explorations
+about this period, with results of some interest. That performed
+by Mr W. Hann, with Messrs Warner, Tate and Taylor, in 1873,
+related to the country north of the Kirchner range, watered by
+the Lynd, the Mitchell, the Walsh and the Palmer rivers, on
+the east side of the Gulf of Carpentaria. The coasting expedition
+of Mr G. Elphinstone Dalrymple, with Messrs Hill and Johnstone,
+finishing in December 1873, effected a valuable survey of the
+inlets and navigable rivers in the Cape York Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Of the several attempts to cross Western Australia, even
+Major Warburton&rsquo;s expedition, the most successful, had failed
+in the important particular of determining the nature of the
+country through which it passed. Major Warburton had
+virtually raced across from the Macdonnell range in South
+Australia to the headwaters of the Oakover river on the north-west
+coast, without allowing himself sufficient time to note the
+characteristics of the country. The next important expedition
+<span class="sidenote">Forrest.</span>
+was differently conducted. John (afterwards Sir John)
+Forrest was despatched by the Perth government
+with general instructions to obtain information regarding the
+immense tract of country out of which flow the rivers falling
+into the sea on the northern and western shores of Western
+Australia. Leaving Yewin, a small settlement about lat. 28° S.,
+long. 116° E., Forrest travelled north-east to the Murchison
+river, and followed the course of that river to the Robinson
+ranges; thence his course lay generally eastward along the
+26th parallel. Forrest and his party safely crossed the entire
+extent of Western Australia, and entering South Australia
+struck the overland telegraph line at Peake station, and, after
+resting, journeyed south to Adelaide. Forrest traversed seventeen
+degrees of desert in five months, a very wonderful achievement,
+more especially as he was able to give a full report of the country
+through which he passed. His report destroyed all hope that
+pastoral settlement would extend to the spinifex region; and
+the main object of subsequent explorers was to determine the
+extent of the desert in the direction of north and south. Ernest
+<span class="sidenote">Giles.</span>
+Giles made several attempts to cross the Central
+Australian Desert, but it was not until his third
+attempt that he was successful. His journey ranks almost with
+Forrest&rsquo;s in the importance of its results and the success with
+which the appalling difficulties of the journey were overcome.
+Through the generosity of Sir Thomas Elder, of Adelaide, Giles&rsquo;s
+expedition was equipped with camels. It started on the 23rd
+of May 1875 from Port Augusta. Working westerly along the
+line of the 30th parallel, Giles reached Perth in about five months.
+After resting in Perth for a short time, he commenced the return
+journey, which was made for the most part between the 24th
+and 25th parallels, and again successfully traversed the desert,
+reaching the overland telegraph line in about seven months.
+Giles&rsquo;s journeys added greatly to our knowledge of the characteristics
+of Western and South Australia, and he was able to bear
+out the common opinion that the interior of Australia west of
+132° E. long, is a sandy and waterless waste, entirely unfit for
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>The list of explorers since 1875 is a long one; but after
+Forrest&rsquo;s and Giles&rsquo;s expeditions the main object ceased to be
+the discovery of pastoral country: a new zest had
+been added to the cause of exploration, and most of
+<span class="sidenote">Recent explorers.</span>
+the smaller expeditions concerned themselves with the
+search for gold. Amongst the more important explorations
+may be ranked those of Tietkins in 1889, of Lindsay in 1891,
+of Wells in 1896, of Hübbe in 1896, and of the Hon. David
+Carnegie in 1896-97. Lindsay&rsquo;s expedition, which was fitted
+out by Sir Thomas Elder, the generous patron of Australian
+exploration, entered Western Australia about the 26th parallel
+south lat., on the line of route taken by Forrest in 1874. From
+this point the explorer worked in a south-westerly direction to
+Queen Victoria Springs, where he struck the track of Giles&rsquo;s
+expedition of 1875. From the Springs the expedition went
+north-west and made a useful examination of the country lying
+between 119° and 115° meridians and between 26° and 28° S. lat.
+Wells&rsquo;s expedition started from a base about 122° 20&prime; E. and
+25° 54&prime; S., and worked northward to the Joanna Springs, situated
+on the tropic of Capricorn and near the 124th meridian. From
+the springs the journey was continued along the same meridian
+to the Fitzroy river. The country passed through was mostly
+of a forbidding character, except where the Kimberley district
+was entered, and the expedition suffered even more than the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page963" id="page963"></a>963</span>
+usual hardships. The establishment of the gold-fields, with
+their large population, caused great interest to be taken in the
+discovery of practicable stock routes, especially from South
+Australia in the east, and from Kimberley district in the north.
+Alive to the importance of the trade, the South Australian
+government despatched Hübbe from Oodnadatta to Coolgardie.
+He successfully accomplished his journey, but had to report
+that there was no practicable route for cattle between the two
+districts.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most successful expeditions which traversed
+Western Australia was that led and equipped by the Hon.
+David Carnegie, which started in July 1896, and travelled
+north-easterly until it reached Alexander Spring; then turning
+northward, it traversed the country between Wells&rsquo;s track of
+1896 and the South Australian border. The expedition encountered
+very many hardships, but successfully reached Hall
+Creek in the Kimberley district. After a few months&rsquo; rest it
+started on the return journey, following Sturt Creek until its
+termination in Gregory&rsquo;s Salt Sea, and then keeping parallel
+with the South Australian border as far as Lake Macdonald.
+Rounding that lake the expedition moved south-west and
+reached the settled districts in August 1897. The distance
+travelled was 5000 m., and the actual time employed was eight
+months. This expedition put an end to the hope, so long
+entertained, that it was possible to obtain a direct and practicable
+route for stock between Kimberley and Coolgardie gold-fields; and
+it also proved that, with the possible exception of small isolated
+patches, the desert traversed contained no auriferous country.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that exploration on a large scale is now at an
+end; there remain only the spaces, nowhere very extensive,
+between the tracks of the old explorers yet to be examined, and
+these are chiefly in the Northern Territory and in Western
+Australia north of the tropic of Capricorn. The search for gold
+and the quest for unoccupied pasturage daily diminish the
+extent of these areas.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">3. <i>Political History</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Of the six Australian states, New South Wales is the oldest.
+It was in 1788, eighteen years after Captain Cook explored
+the east coast, that Port Jackson was founded as
+a penal station for criminals from England; and
+<span class="sidenote">Early colonization.</span>
+the settlement retained that character, more or less,
+during the subsequent fifty years, transportation being
+virtually suspended in 1839. The colony, however, from 1821
+had made a fair start in free industrial progress. By this time,
+too, several of the other provinces had come into existence.
+Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land, now called Tasmania, had been occupied
+as early as 1803. It was an auxiliary penal station under New
+South Wales till in 1825 it became a separate government.
+From this island, ten years later, parties crossed Bass Strait
+to Port Phillip, where a new settlement was shortly established,
+forming till 1851 a part of New South Wales, but now the state of
+Victoria. In 1827 and 1829, an English company endeavoured
+to plant a settlement at the Swan river, and this, added to a small
+military station established in 1825 at King George Sound,
+constituted Western Australia. On the shores of the Gulf St
+Vincent, again, from 1835 to 1837, South Australia was created
+by another joint-stock company, as an experiment in the Wakefield
+scheme of colonization. Such were the political component
+parts of British Australia up to 1839. The early history, therefore,
+of New South Wales is peculiar to itself. Unlike the other
+mainland provinces, it was at first held and used chiefly for the
+reception of British convicts. When that system was abolished,
+the social conditions of New South Wales, Victoria, and South
+Australia became more equal. Previous to the gold discoveries
+of 1851 they may be included, from 1839, in a general summary
+view.</p>
+
+<p>The first British governors at Sydney, from 1788, ruled with
+despotic power. They were naval or military officers in command
+of the garrison, the convicts and the few free settlers. The
+duty was performed by such men as Captain Arthur Phillip,
+Captain Hunter, and others. In the twelve years&rsquo; rule of General
+Macquarie, closing with 1821, the colony made a substantial
+advance. By means of bond labour roads and bridges were
+<span class="sidenote">Rise of New South Wales.</span>
+constructed, and a route opened into the interior beyond
+the Blue Mountains. A population of 30,000, three-fourths
+of them convicts, formed the infant commonwealth,
+whose attention was soon directed to the profitable
+trade of rearing fine wool sheep, first commenced by Captain
+John McArthur in 1803. During the next ten years, 1821-1831,
+Sir Thomas Brisbane and Sir Ralph Darling, two generals of the
+army, being successively governors, the colony increased, and
+eventually succeeded in obtaining the advantages of a representative
+institution, by means of a legislative council. Then
+came General Sir Richard Bourke, whose wise and liberal
+administration proved most beneficial. New South Wales
+became prosperous and attractive to emigrants with capital.
+Its enterprising ambition was encouraged by taking fresh
+country north and south. In the latter direction, explored by
+Mitchell in 1834 and 1836, lay Australia Felix, now Victoria,
+including the well-watered, thickly-wooded country of Gipps&rsquo;
+Land.</p>
+
+<p>This district, then called Port Phillip, in the time of Governor
+Sir George Gipps, 1838-1846, was growing fast into a position
+claiming independence. Melbourne, which began with
+a few huts on the banks of the Yarra-Yarra in 1835,
+<span class="sidenote">Growth of Victoria.</span>
+was in 1840 a busy town of 6000 inhabitants, the
+population of the whole district, with the towns of Geelong
+and Portland, reaching 12,850; while its import trade amounted
+to £204,000, and its exports to £138,000. Such was the growth
+of infant Victoria in five years; that of Adelaide or South
+Australia, in the same period, was nearly equal to it. At Melbourne
+there was a deputy governor, Mr Latrobe, under Sir
+George-Gipps at Sydney. Adelaide had its own governors, first
+Captain Hindmarsh, next Colonel Gawler, and then Captain
+George Grey. Western Australia progressed but slowly, with
+less than 4000 inhabitants altogether, under Governors Stirling
+and Hutt.</p>
+
+<p>The general advancement of Australia, to the era of the gold-mining,
+had been satisfactory, in spite of a severe commercial
+crisis, from 1841 to 1843, caused by extravagant land
+speculations and inflated prices. Victoria produced
+<span class="sidenote">Discovery of gold.</span>
+already more wool than New South Wales, the aggregate
+produce of Australia in 1852 being 45,000,000 &#8468;; and South
+Australia, between 1842 and this date, had opened most valuable
+mines of copper. The population of New South Wales in 1851
+was 190,000; that of Victoria, 77,000; and that of South
+Australia about the same. At Summerhill Creek, 20 m. north
+of Bathurst, in the Macquarie plains, gold was discovered, in
+February 1851, by Mr E. Hargraves, a gold-miner from California.
+The intelligence was made known in April or May; and then
+began a rush of thousands,&mdash;men leaving their former employments
+in the bush or in the towns to search for the ore so greatly
+coveted in all ages. In August it was found at Andersen&rsquo;s
+Creek, near Melbourne; a few weeks later the great Ballarat
+gold-field, 80 m. west of that city, was opened; and after that,
+Bendigo to the north. Not only in these lucky provinces, New
+South Wales and Victoria, where the auriferous deposits were
+revealed, but in every British colony of Australasia, all ordinary
+industry was left for the one exciting pursuit. The copper mines
+of South Australia were for the time deserted, while Tasmania
+and New Zealand lost many inhabitants, who emigrated to the
+more promising country. The disturbance of social, industrial
+and commercial affairs, during the first two or three years of
+the gold era, was very great. Immigrants from Europe, and to
+some extent from North America and China, poured into Melbourne,
+where the arrivals in 1852 averaged 2000 persons in a
+week. The population of Victoria was doubled in the first twelvemonth
+of the gold fever, and the value of imports and exports
+was multiplied tenfold between 1851 and 1853. The colony
+of Victoria was constituted a separate province in July 1851,
+Mr Latrobe being appointed governor, followed by Sir Charles
+Hotham and Sir Henry Barkly in succession.</p>
+
+<p>The separation of the northern part of eastern Australia,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page964" id="page964"></a>964</span>
+under the name of Queensland, from the original province of
+New South Wales, took place in 1859. At that time the district
+contained about 25,000 inhabitants; and in the first six years
+<span class="sidenote">Responsible government.</span>
+its population was quadrupled and its trade trebled.
+At the beginning of 1860, when the excitement of the
+gold discoveries was wearing off, five of the states
+had received from the home government the boon
+of responsible government, and were in a position to work out
+the problem of their position without external interference; it
+was not, however, until 1890 that Western Australia was placed
+in a similar position. After the establishment of responsible
+government the main questions at issue were the secular as
+opposed to the religious system of public instruction, protection
+as opposed to a revenue tariff, vote by ballot, adult suffrage,
+abolition of transportation and assignment of convicts, and
+free selection of lands before survey; these, and indeed all
+the great questions upon which the country was divided, were
+settled within twenty years of the granting of self-government.<a name="fa6p" id="fa6p" href="#ft6p"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+With the disposal of these important problems, politics in
+Australia became a struggle for office between men whose
+political principles were very much alike, and the tenure of power
+enjoyed by the various governments did not depend upon the
+principles of administration so much as upon the personal
+fitness of the head of the ministry, and the acceptability of his
+ministry to the members of the more popular branch of the
+legislature.</p>
+
+<p>The two most striking political events in the modern history
+of Australia, as a whole, apart from the readiness it has shown
+to remain a part of the British empire (<i>q.v.</i>), and to
+develop along Imperial lines, are the advent of the
+<span class="sidenote">General Australian problems.</span>
+Labour party and the establishment of federation.
+As regards the last mentioned it may be said that it
+was accomplished from within, there being no real external
+necessity for the union of the states. Leading politicians have in
+all the states felt the cramping effects of mere domestic legislation,
+albeit on the proper direction of such legislation depends the well-being
+of the people; and to this sense of the limitations of local
+politics was due, as much as to anything else, the movement
+towards federation.</p>
+
+<p>Before coming, however, to the history of federation, and the
+evolution of the Labour party, we must refer briefly to some
+other questions which have been of general interest
+in Australia. Taking the states as a whole, agrarian
+<span class="sidenote">Agrarian legislation.</span>
+legislation has been the most important subject that
+has engrossed the attention of their parliaments, and
+every state has been more or less engaged in tinkering with its
+land laws. The main object of all such legislation is to secure
+the residence of the owners on the land. The object of settlers,
+however, in a great many, perhaps in the majority of instances,
+is to dispose of their holdings as soon as possible after the requirements
+of the law have been complied with, and to avoid permanent
+settlement. This has greatly facilitated the formation
+of large estates devoted chiefly to grazing purposes, contrary to
+the policy of the legislature, which has everywhere sought to encourage
+tillage, or tillage joined to stock-rearing, and to discourage
+large holdings. The importance of the land question is so great
+that it is hardly an exaggeration to say that it is usual for every
+parliament of Australia to have before it a proposal to alter or
+amend its land laws. Since 1870 there have been five radical
+changes made in New South Wales. In Victoria the law has been
+altered five times, and in Queensland and South Australia seven
+times.</p>
+
+<p>The prevention or regulation of the immigration of coloured
+races has also claimed a great share of parliamentary attention.
+The agitation against the influx of Chinese commenced
+very soon after the gold discoveries, the European
+<span class="sidenote">Immigration question.</span>
+miners objecting strongly to the presence of these
+aliens upon the diggings. The allegations made concerning
+the Chinese really amounted to a charge of undue
+industry. The Chinese were hard-working and had the usual
+fortune attending those who work hard. They spent little on
+drink or with the storekeepers, and were, therefore, by no means
+popular. As early as 1860 there had been disturbances of a
+serious character, and the Chinese were chased off the goldfields
+of New South Wales, serious riots occurring at Lambing Flat,
+on the Burrangong goldfield. The Chinese difficulty, so far as
+the mining population was concerned, was solved by the exhaustion
+of the extensive alluvial deposits; the miners&rsquo; prejudice
+against the race, however, still exists, though they are no longer
+serious competitors, and the laws of some of the states forbid
+any Chinese to engage in mining without the express authority
+in writing of the minister of mines. The nearness of China to
+Australia has always appeared to the Australian democracy as a
+menace to the integrity of the white settlements; and at the
+many conferences of representatives from the various states,
+called to discuss matters of general concern, the Chinese question
+has always held a prominent place, but the absence of any federal
+authority had made common action difficult. In 1888 the last
+important conference on the Chinese question was held in
+Sydney and attended by delegates from all the states. Previously
+to the meeting of the conference there had been a great deal
+of discussion in regard to the influx of Chinese, and such influx
+was on all sides agreed to be a growing danger. The conference,
+therefore, merely expressed the public sentiment when it resolved
+that, although it was not advisable to prohibit altogether this
+class of immigration, it was necessary in the public interests
+that the number of Chinese privileged to land should be so
+limited as to prevent the people of that race from ever becoming
+an important element in the community. In conformity with
+this determination the various state legislatures enacted new
+laws or amended the existing laws to cope with the difficulty;
+these remained until they were in effect superseded by Commonwealth
+legislation. The objection to admitting immigrants was
+not only to the Chinese, but extended to all Asiatics; but as a
+large proportion of the persons whose entrance into the colonies
+it was desired to stop were British subjects, and the Imperial
+government refused to sanction any measure directly prohibiting
+in plain terms the movement of British subjects from one part
+of the empire to another, resort was made to indirect legislation;
+this was the more advisable, as the rise of the Japanese power
+in the East and the alliance of that country with Great Britain
+rendered it necessary to pay attention to the susceptibilities of a
+powerful nation whose subjects might be affected by restrictive
+laws. Eventually the difficulty was overcome by the device of an
+educational test based on the provisions of an act in operation in
+Natal. It was provided that a person was to be prohibited from
+landing in Australia who failed to write in any prescribed
+language fifty words dictated to him by the commonwealth
+officer supervising immigration. The efficacy of this legislation
+is in its administration, the language in which coloured aliens
+are usually tested being European. The agitation against the
+Chinese covered a space of over fifty years, a long period in
+the history of a young country, and was promoted and kept
+alive almost entirely by the trades unions, and the restriction
+acts were the first legislative triumph of the Labour party,
+albeit that party was not at the time directly represented in
+parliament.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most notable events in the modern history of
+Australia occurred shortly after the great strike of 1890. This
+was what is ordinarily termed the bank crisis of 1893.
+Although this crisis followed on the great strike, the crisis of
+<span class="sidenote">Bank crisis of 1893.</span>
+two things had no real connexion, the crisis being the
+natural result of events long anterior to 1890. The
+effects of the crisis were mainly felt in the three eastern states,
+Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, Tasmania and South
+Australia being affected chiefly by reason of the fact of their
+intimate financial connexion with the eastern states. The
+approach of the crisis was heralded by many signs. Deposits
+were shifted from bank to bank, there were small runs on several
+of the savings banks guaranteed by the government, mortgagees
+required additional security from their debtors, bankruptcies
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page965" id="page965"></a>965</span>
+became frequent, and some of the banks began to accumulate
+gold against the evil day. The building societies and financial
+institutions in receipt of deposits, or so many of them as were on
+an unsound footing, failed at an early period of the depression,
+so also did the weaker banks. There was distrust in the minds
+of the depositors, especially those whose holdings were small,
+and most of the banks were, at a very early period, subjected to
+the strain of repaying a large proportion of their deposits as
+they fell due. For a time the money so withdrawn was hoarded,
+but after a while it found its way back again into the banks.
+The crisis was by no means a sudden crash, and even when the
+failures began to take place they were spread over a period of
+sixteen weeks.</p>
+
+<p>The first noticeable effect of the crisis was a great scarcity of
+employment. Much capital was locked up in the failed banks,
+and was therefore not available for distribution amongst wage-earners.
+Wages fell precipitately, as also did rents. There was
+an almost entire cessation of building, and a large number of
+houses in the chief cities remained untenanted, the occupants
+moving to lodgings and more than one family living in a single
+house. Credit became greatly restricted, and all descriptions
+of speculative enterprise came to an end. The consuming
+power of the population was greatly diminished, and in the
+year following the crisis the imports into Australia from abroad
+diminished by four and three-quarter millions. In fact, everywhere
+the demand for goods, especially of those for domestic
+consumption, fell away; and there was a reduction in the
+average number of persons employed in the manufacturing
+industries to the extent of more than 20%. The lack of
+employment in factories naturally affected the coal mining
+industry, and indeed every industry in the states, except those
+connected with the export trade, was severely affected. During
+the crisis banks having a paid-up capital and reserves of
+£5,000,000 and deposits of £53,000,000 closed their doors. Most
+of these, however, reopened for business before many weeks.
+The crisis was felt in the large cities more keenly than in the
+country districts, and in Melbourne more severely than in any
+other capital. The change of fortune proved disastrous to
+many families, previously to all appearances in opulent circumstances,
+but by all classes alike their reverses were borne with
+the greatest bravery. In its ultimate effects the crisis was by
+no means evil. Its true meaning was not lost upon a business
+community that had had twenty years of almost unchecked
+prosperity. It required the chastening of adversity to teach it
+a salutary lesson, and a few years after, when the first effects
+of the crisis had passed away, business was on a much sounder
+footing than had been the case for very many years. One of
+the first results was to put trade on a sound basis and to abolish
+most of the abuses of the credit system, but the most striking
+effect of the crisis was the attention which was almost immediately
+directed to productive pursuits. Agriculture everywhere
+expanded, the mining industry revived, and, if it had not
+been for the low prices of staple products, the visible effects
+of the crisis would have passed away within a very few
+years.</p>
+
+<p>Another matter which deserves attention was the great
+drought which culminated in the year 1902. For some years
+previously the pastoral industry had been declining
+and the number of sheep and cattle in Australia had
+<span class="sidenote">Drought of 1902.</span>
+greatly diminished, but the year 1902 was one of
+veritable drought. The failure of the crops was almost universal
+and large numbers of sheep and cattle perished for want of food.
+The truth is, pastoralists for the most part carried on their
+industry trusting very greatly to luck, not making any special
+provisions against the vicissitudes of the seasons. Enormous
+quantities of natural hay were allowed every year to rot or be
+destroyed by bush fires, and the bountiful provision made by
+nature to carry them over the seasons of dry weather absolutely
+neglected; so that when the destructive season of 1902 fell upon
+them, over a large area of territory there was no food for the
+stock. The year 1903 proved most bountiful, and in a few years
+all trace of the disastrous drought of 1902 passed away. But
+beyond this the pastoralist learnt most effectually the lesson
+that, in a country like Australia, provision must be made for the
+occasional season when the rainfall is entirely inadequate to the
+wants of the farmer and the pastoralist.</p>
+
+<p>The question of federation was not lost sight of by the framers
+of the original constitution which was bestowed upon New South
+Wales. In the report of the committee of the legislative
+council appointed in 1852 to prepare a constitution
+<span class="sidenote">Federation.</span>
+for that colony, the following passage occurs:&mdash;&ldquo;One
+of the most prominent legislative measures required by the
+colony, and the colonies of the Australian group generally, is
+the establishment at once of a general assembly, to make laws
+in relation to those intercolonial questions that have arisen or
+may hereafter arise among them. The questions which would
+claim the exercise of such a jurisdiction appear to be (1) intercolonial
+tariffs and the coasting trade; (2) railways, roads,
+canals, and other such works running through any two of the
+colonies; (3) beacons and lighthouses on the coast; (4) intercolonial
+gold regulations; (5) postage between the said colonies;
+(6) a general court of appeal from the courts of such colonies;
+(7) a power to legislate on all other subjects which may be
+submitted to them by addresses from the legislative councils
+and assemblies of the colonies, and to appropriate to any of
+the above-mentioned objects the necessary sums of money, to
+be raised by a percentage on the revenues of all the colonies
+interested.&rdquo; This wise recommendation received very scant
+attention, and it was not until the necessities of the colonies
+forced them to it that an attempt was made to do what the
+framers of the original constitution suggested. Federation at
+no time actually dropped out of sight, but it was not until thirty-five
+years later that any practical steps were taken towards its
+accomplishment. Meanwhile a sort of makeshift was devised,
+and the Imperial parliament passed a measure permitting the
+formation of a federal council, to which any colony that felt
+inclined to join could send delegates. Of the seven colonies
+New South Wales and New Zealand stood aloof from the council,
+and from the beginning it was therefore shorn of a large share of
+the prestige that would have attached to a body speaking and
+acting on behalf of a united Australia. The council had also
+a fatal defect in its constitution. It was merely a deliberative
+body, having no executive functions and possessing no control
+of funds or other means to put its legislation in force. Its
+existence was well-nigh forgotten by the people of Australia
+until the occurrence of its biennial meetings, and even then but
+slight interest was taken in its proceedings. The council held
+eight meetings, at which many matters of intercolonial interest
+were discussed. The last occasion of its being called together
+was in 1899, when the council met in Melbourne. In 1889 an
+important step towards federation was taken by Sir Henry
+Parkes. The occasion was the report of Major-General Edwards
+on the defences of Australia, and Sir Henry addressed the other
+premiers on the desirability of a federal union for purposes of
+defence. The immediate result was a conference at Parliament
+House, Melbourne, of representatives from each of the seven
+colonies. This conference adopted an address to the queen
+expressing its loyalty and attachment, and submitting certain
+resolutions which affirmed the desirability of an early union,
+under the crown, of the Australasian colonies, on principles
+just to all, and provided that the remoter Australasian colonies
+should be entitled to admission upon terms to be afterwards
+agreed upon, and that steps should be taken for the appointment
+of delegates to a national Australasian convention, to consider
+and report upon an adequate scheme for a federal convention.
+In accordance with the understanding arrived at, the various
+Australasian parliaments appointed delegates to attend a national
+convention to be held in Sydney, and on the 2nd March 1891
+the convention held its first meeting. Sir Henry Parkes was
+elected president, and he moved a series of resolutions embodying
+the principles necessary to establish, on an enduring foundation,
+the structure of a federal government. These resolutions were
+slightly altered by the conference, and were adopted in the
+following form:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page966" id="page966"></a>966</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The powers and rights of existing colonies to remain intact,
+except as regards such powers as it may be necessary to hand over
+to the Federal government.</p>
+
+<p>2. No alteration to be made in states without the consent of the
+legislatures of such states, as well as of the federal parliament.</p>
+
+<p>3. Trade between the federated colonies to be absolutely free.</p>
+
+<p>4. Power to impose customs and excise duties to be in the Federal
+government and parliament.</p>
+
+<p>5. Military and naval defence forces to be under one command.</p>
+
+<p>6. The federal constitution to make provision to enable each
+state to make amendments in the constitution if necessary for the
+purposes of federation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">Other formal resolutions were also agreed to, and on the 31st of
+March Sir Samuel Griffith, as chairman of the committee on
+constitutional machinery, brought up a draft Constitution Bill,
+which was carefully considered by the convention in committee
+of the whole and adopted on the 9th of April, when the convention
+was formally dissolved. The bill, however, fell absolutely
+dead, not because it was not a good bill, but because the
+movement out of which it arose had not popular initiative, and
+therefore failed to reach the popular imagination.</p>
+
+<p>Although the bill drawn up by the convention of 1891 was not
+received by the people with any show of interest, the federation
+movement did not die out; on the contrary, it had many enthusiastic
+advocates, especially in the colony of Victoria. In
+1894 an unofficial convention was held at Corowa, at which the
+cause of federation was strenuously advocated, but it was not
+until 1895 that the movement obtained new life, by reason of the
+proposals adopted at a meeting of premiers convened by Mr
+G.H. Reid of New South Wales. At this meeting all the colonies
+except New Zealand were represented, and it was agreed that
+the parliament of each colony should be asked to pass a bill
+enabling the people to choose ten persons to represent the colony
+on a federal convention; the work of such convention being the
+framing of a federal constitution to be submitted to the people
+for approval by means of the referendum. During the year 1896
+Enabling Acts were passed by New South Wales, Victoria,
+Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia, and delegates
+were elected by popular vote in all the colonies named except
+Western Australia, where the delegates were chosen by parliament.
+The convention met in Adelaide on the 22nd of March
+1897, and, after drafting a bill for the consideration of the
+various parliaments, adjourned until the 2nd of September.
+On that date the delegates reassembled in Sydney, and debated
+the bill in the light of the suggestions made by the legislatures
+of the federating colonies. In the course of the proceedings it
+was announced that Queensland desired to come within the
+proposed union; and in view of this development, and in order
+to give further opportunity for the consideration of the bill,
+the convention again adjourned. The third and final session
+was opened in Melbourne on the 20th of January 1898, but
+Queensland was still unrepresented; and, after further consideration,
+the draft bill was finally adopted on the 16th of March
+and remitted to the various colonies for submission to the people.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution was accepted by Victoria, South Australia
+and Tasmania by popular acclamation, but in New South Wales
+very great opposition was shown, the main points of objection
+being the financial provisions, equal representation in the Senate,
+and the difficulty in the way of the larger states securing an
+amendment of the constitution in the event of a conflict with
+the smaller states. As far as the other colonies were concerned, it
+was evident that the bill was safe, and public attention throughout
+Australia was fixed on New South Wales, where a fierce political
+contest was raging, which it was recognized would decide the
+fate of the measure for the time being. The fear was as to whether
+the statutory number of 80,000 votes necessary for the acceptance
+of the bill would be reached. This fear proved to be well founded,
+for the result of the referendum in New South Wales showed
+71,595 votes in favour of the bill and 66,228 against it, and
+it was accordingly lost. In Victoria, Tasmania and South
+Australia, on the other hand, the bill was accepted by triumphant
+majorities. Western Australia did not put it to the vote, as the
+Enabling Act of that colony only provided for joining a federation
+of which New South Wales should form a part. The existence
+of such a strong opposition to the bill in the mother colony
+convinced even its most zealous advocates that some changes
+would have to be made in the constitution before it could be
+accepted by the people; consequently, although the general
+election in New South Wales, held six or seven weeks later,
+was fought on the federal issue, yet the opposing parties seemed
+to occupy somewhat the same ground, and the question narrowed
+itself down to one as to which party should be entrusted with
+the negotiations to be conducted on behalf of the colony, with a
+view to securing a modification of the objectionable features of
+the bill. The new parliament decided to adopt the procedure
+of again sending the premier, Mr Reid, into conference, armed
+with a series of resolutions affirming its desire to bring about the
+completion of federal union, but asking the other colonies to
+agree to the reconsideration of the provisions which were most
+generally objected to in New South Wales. The other colonies
+interested were anxious to bring the matter to a speedy termination,
+and readily agreed to this course of procedure. Accordingly
+a premiers&rsquo; conference was held in Melbourne at the end
+of January 1899, at which Queensland was for the first time
+represented. At this conference a compromise was effected,
+something was conceded to the claims of New South Wales,
+but the main principles of the bill remained intact. The bill as
+amended was submitted to the electors of each colony and
+again triumphantly carried in Victoria, South Australia and
+Tasmania. In New South Wales and Queensland there were still
+a large number of persons opposed to the measure, which was
+nevertheless carried in both colonies. New South Wales having
+decided in favour of federation, the way was clear for a decision
+on the part of Western Australia. The Enabling Bill passed the
+various stages in the parliament of that colony, and the question
+was then adopted by referendum.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with this general verdict of all the states, the
+colonial draft bill was submitted to the imperial government for
+legislation as an imperial act; and six delegates were sent to
+England to explain the measure and to pilot it through the cabinet
+and parliament. A bill was presented to the British parliament
+which embodied and established, with such variations as had
+been accepted on behalf of Australia by the delegates, the
+constitution agreed to at the premiers&rsquo; conference of 1899 and
+speedily became law. Under this act, which was dated the 9th
+of July 1900, a proclamation was issued on the 17th of September
+of the same year, declaring that, on and after the 1st of January
+1901, the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia,
+Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia should be united
+in a federal commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth
+of Australia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The six colonies entering the Commonwealth were denominated
+original states, and new states might be admitted, or might be
+formed by separation from or union of two or more states
+or parts of states; and territories (as distinguished from
+<span class="sidenote">Provisions of the Act of 1900.</span>
+states) might be taken over and governed under the legislative
+power of the Commonwealth. The legislative
+power is vested in a federal parliament, consisting of the sovereign,
+a senate, and a house of representatives, the sovereign being
+represented by a governor-general. The Senate was to consist of the
+same number of members (not less than six) for each state, the
+term of service being six years, but subject to an arrangement that
+half the number would retire every three years. The House of
+Representatives was to consist of members chosen in the different
+states in numbers proportioned to their population, but never fewer
+than five. The first House of Representatives was to contain
+seventy-five members. For elections to the Senate the governors of
+states, and for general elections of the House of Representatives the
+governor-general, would cause writs to be issued. The Senate would
+choose its own president, and the House of Representatives its
+speaker; each house would make its own rules of procedure; in
+each, one-third of the number of members would form a quorum;
+the members of each must take oath, or make affirmation of allegiance;
+and all alike would receive an allowance of £400 a year. The
+legislative powers of the parliament have a wide range, many
+matters being transferred to it from the colonial parliaments. The
+more important subjects with which it deals are trade, shipping
+and railways; taxation, bounties, the borrowing of money on the
+credit of the Commonwealth; the postal and telegraphic services;
+defence, census and statistics; currency, coinage, banking, bankruptcy;
+weights and measures; copyright, patents and trade
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page967" id="page967"></a>967</span>
+marks; marriage and divorce; immigration and emigration; conciliation
+and arbitration in industrial disputes. Bills imposing
+taxation or appropriating revenue must not originate in the Senate,
+and neither taxation bills nor bills appropriating revenue for the
+annual service of the government may be amended in the Senate,
+but the Senate may return such bills to the House of Representatives
+with a request for their amendment. Appropriation laws must not
+deal with other matters. Taxation laws must deal with only one
+subject of taxation; but customs and excise duties may, respectively,
+be dealt with together. Votes for the appropriation of the revenue
+shall not pass unless recommended by the governor-general.
+The constitution provides means for the settlement of disputes
+between the houses, and requires the assent of the sovereign to all
+laws. The executive power is vested in the governor-general, assisted
+by an executive council appointed by himself. He has command of
+the army and navy, and appoints federal ministers and judges.
+The ministers are members of the executive council, and must be,
+or within three months of their appointment must become, members
+of the parliament. The judicial powers are vested in a high court
+and other federal courts, and the federal judges hold office for life
+or during good behaviour. The High Court has appellate jurisdiction
+in cases from other federal courts and from the supreme courts of the
+states, and it has original jurisdiction in matters arising under laws
+made by the federal parliament, in disputes between states, or
+residents in different states, and in matters affecting the representatives
+of foreign powers. Special provisions were made respecting
+appeals from the High Court to the sovereign in council. The constitution
+set forth elaborate arrangements for the administration of
+finance and trade during the transition period following the transference
+of departments to the Commonwealth. Within two years
+uniform customs duties were to be imposed; thereafter the parliament
+of the Commonwealth had exclusive power to impose customs
+and excise duties, or to grant bounties; and trade within the
+Commonwealth was to be absolutely free. Exceptions were made
+permitting the states to grant bounties on mining and (with the
+consent of the parliament) on exports of produce or manufactures&mdash;Western
+Australia being for a time partially exempted from the
+prohibition to impose import duties.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution, parliament and laws of each state, subject to
+the federal constitution, retained their authority; state rights were
+carefully safeguarded, and an inter-state commission was given
+powers of adjudication and of administration of the laws relating
+to trade, transport and other matters. Provision was made for
+necessary alteration of the constitution of the Commonwealth, but
+so that no alteration could be effected unless the question had been
+directly submitted to, and the change accepted by the electorate in
+the states. The seat of government was to be within New South
+Wales, not less than 100 m. distant from Sydney, and of an area
+not less than 100 sq. m. Until other provision was made, the
+governor-general was to have a salary of £10,000, paid by the
+Commonwealth. Respecting the salaries of the governors of states,
+the constitution made no provision.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The choice of governor-general of the new Commonwealth
+fell upon Lord Hopetoun (afterwards Lord Linlithgow), who
+had won golden opinions as governor of Victoria a few years
+before; Mr (afterwards Sir Edmund) Barton, who had taken
+the lead among the Australian delegates, became first prime
+minister; and the Commonwealth was inaugurated at the opening
+of 1901. The first parliament under the constitution was
+elected on the 29th and 30th of March 1901, and was opened by
+the prince of Wales on the 9th of May following. In October
+1908 the Yass-Canberra district, near the town of Yass, N.S.W.,
+was at length selected by both federal houses to contain the
+future federal capital.</p>
+
+<p>The Labour movement in Australia may be traced back to
+the early days when transportation was in vogue, and the free
+immigrant and the time-expired convict objected
+to the competition of the bond labourer. The great
+<span class="sidenote">Labour movement.</span>
+object of these early struggles being attained, Labour
+directed its attention mainly to securing shorter hours. It
+was aided very materially by the dearth of workers consequent
+on the gold discoveries, when every man could command his
+own price. When the excitement consequent on the gold finds
+had subsided, there was a considerable reaction against the claims
+of Labour, and this was greatly helped by the congested state
+of the labour market; but the principle of an eight-hours day
+made progress, and was conceded in several trades. In the early
+years of the &rsquo;seventies the colonies entered upon an era of well-being,
+and for about twelve years every man, willing to work
+and capable of exerting himself, readily found employment.
+The Labour unions were able to secure in these years many
+concessions both as to hours and wages. In 1873 there was an
+important rise in wages, in the following year there was a further
+advance, and another in 1876; but in 1877 wages fell back a
+little, though not below the rate of 1874. In 1882 there was
+a very important advance in wages; carpenters received 11s. a
+day, bricklayers 12s. 6d., stone-masons 11s. 6d., plasterers 12s.,
+painters 11s., blacksmiths 10s., and navvies and general labourers
+8s., and work was very plentiful. For five years these high
+wages ruled; but in 1886 there was a sharp fall, though wages
+still remained very good. In 1888 there was an advance,
+and again in 1889. In 1890 matters were on the eve of a great
+change and wages fell, in most cases to a point 20% below the
+rates of 1885. During the whole period from 1873 onwards,
+prices, other than of labour, were steadily tending downwards,
+so that the cost of living in 1890 was much below that of 1873.
+Taking everything into consideration the reduction was, perhaps,
+not less than 20%, so that, though the nominal or money wages
+in 1873 and 1890 were the same, the actual wages were much
+higher in the latter year. Much of the improvement in the lot
+of the wage-earners has been due to the Labour organizations,
+yet so late as 1881 these organizations were of so little account,
+politically, that when the law relating to trades unions was
+passed in New South Wales, the English law was followed, and
+it was simply enacted that the purposes of any trades union
+shall not be deemed unlawful (so as to render a member liable
+to criminal prosecution for conspiracy or otherwise) merely
+by reason that they are in restraint of trade. After the year
+1884 Labour troubles became very frequent, the New South
+Wales coal miners in particular being at war with the colliery
+owners during the greater part of the six years intervening
+between then and what is called the Great Strike. The strong
+downward tendency of prices made a reduction of wages imperative;
+but the labouring classes failed to recognize any such
+necessity, and strongly resented any reductions proposed by
+employers. It was hard indeed for a carter drawing coal to a
+gasworks to recognize the necessity which compelled a reduction
+in his wages because wool had fallen 20%. Nor were other
+labourers, more nearly connected with the producing interests,
+satisfied with a reduction of wages because produce had fallen
+in price all round. Up to 1889 wages held their ground, although
+work had become more difficult to obtain, and some industries
+<span class="sidenote">The Great Strike of 1890.</span>
+were being carried on without any profit. It was
+at such an inopportune time that the most extensive
+combination of Labour yet brought into action against
+capital formulated its demands. It is possible that the
+London dockers&rsquo; strike was not without its influence on the minds
+of the Australian Labour leaders. That strike had been liberally
+helped by the Australian unions, and it was confidently predicted
+that, as the Australian workers were more effectively organized
+than the English unions, a corresponding success would result
+from their course of action. A strike of the Newcastle miners,
+after lasting twenty-nine weeks, came to an end in January 1890,
+and throughout the rest of the year there was great unrest in
+Labour circles. On the 6th of September the silver mines closed
+down, and a week later a conference of employers issued a
+manifesto which was met next day by a counter-manifesto of
+the Intercolonial Labour Conference, and almost immediately
+afterwards by the calling out of 40,000 men. The time chosen
+for the strike was the height of the wool season, when a cessation
+of work would be attended with the maximum of inconvenience.
+Sydney was the centre of the disturbance, and the city was in
+a state of industrial siege, feeling running to dangerous extremes.
+Riotous scenes occurred both in Sydney and on the coal-fields,
+and a large number of special constables were sworn in by the
+government. Towards the end of October 20,000 shearers were
+called out, and many other trades, principally concerned with
+the handling or shipping of wool, joined the ranks of the strikers,
+with the result that the maritime and pastoral industries throughout
+the whole of Australia were most injuriously disturbed.
+The Great Strike terminated early in November 1890, the
+employers gaining a decisive victory. The colonies were, however,
+to have other and bitter experiences of strikes before
+Labour recognized that of all means for settling industrial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page968" id="page968"></a>968</span>
+disputes strikes are, on the whole, the most disastrous that
+it can adopt. The strikes of the years 1890 and 1892 are just as
+important on account of their political consequences as from
+the direct gains or losses involved.</p>
+
+<p>As one result of the strike of 1890 a movement was set afoot
+by a number of enthusiasts, more visionary than practical, that
+has resulted in a measure of more or less disaster.
+This was the planting of a colony of communistic
+<span class="sidenote">Political consequences.</span>
+Australians in South America. After much negotiation
+the leader, Mr William Lane, a Brisbane journalist,
+decided on Paraguay, and he tramped across the continent,
+preaching a new crusade, and gathering in funds and recruits in
+his progress. On the 16th of July 1893 the first little army of
+&ldquo;New Australians&rdquo; left Sydney in the &ldquo;Royal Tar,&rdquo; which
+arrived at Montevideo on the 31st of August. Other consignments
+of intending settlers in &ldquo;New Australia&rdquo; followed; but
+though the settlement is still in existence it has completely failed
+to realize the impracticable ideals of its original members. The
+Queensland government assisted some of the disillusioned to
+escape from the paradise which proved a prison; some managed
+to get away on their own account; and those that have remained
+have split into as many settlements almost as there are settlers.
+Another effect of the Great Strike was in a more practical direction.
+New South Wales was the first country which endeavoured
+to settle its labour grievances through the ballot-box and to send
+a great party to parliament as the direct representation of
+Labour, pledged to obtain through legislation what it was
+unable to obtain by strikes and physical force. The principle
+of one-man one-vote had been persistently advocated without
+arousing any special parliamentary or public enthusiasm until
+the meeting of the Federal Convention in 1891. The convention
+was attended by Sir George Grey, who was publicly welcomed
+to the colony by New Zealanders resident in Sydney, and by
+other admirers, and his reception was an absolute ovation.
+He eloquently and persistently advocated the principle of one-man
+one-vote as the bed-rock of all democratic reform. This
+subsequently formed the first plank of the Labour platform.
+Several attempts had been made by individuals belonging to the
+Labour party to enter the New South Wales parliament, but
+it was not until 1891 that the occurrence of a general election
+gave the party the looked-for opportunity for concerted action.
+The results of the election came as a complete surprise to the
+majority of the community. The Labour party captured 35
+seats out of a House of 125 members; and as the old parties
+almost equally divided the remaining seats, and a fusion was
+impossible, the Labour representatives dominated the situation.
+It was not long, however, before the party itself became divided
+on the fiscal question; and a Protectionist government coming into
+power, about half the Labour members gave it consistent support
+and enabled it to maintain office for about three years, the party
+as a political unit being thus destroyed. The events of these
+three years taught the Labour leaders that a parliamentary party
+was of little practical influence unless it was able to cast on all
+important occasions a solid vote, and to meet the case a new
+method was devised. The party therefore determined that
+they would refuse to support any person standing in the Labour
+interests who refused to pledge himself to vote on all occasions
+in such way as the majority of the party might decide to be
+expedient. This was called the &ldquo;solidarity pledge,&rdquo; and, united
+under its sanction, what was left of the Labour party contested
+the general election of 1894. The result was a defeat, their
+numbers being reduced from 35 to 19; but a signal triumph
+was won for solidarity. Very few of the members who refused
+to take the pledge were returned and the adherents of the united
+party were able to accomplish more with their reduced number
+than under the old conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The two features of the Labour party in New South Wales are
+its detachment from other parties and the control of the caucus. The
+caucus, which is the natural corollary of the detachment, determines
+by majority the vote of the whole of the members of the party,
+independence of action being allowed on minor questions only.
+So far the party has refrained from formal alliance with the other
+great parties of the state. It supports the government as the power
+alone capable of promoting legislation, but its support is given only
+so long as the measures of the government are consistent with the
+Labour policy. This position the Labour party has been able to
+maintain with great success, owing to the circumstance that the other
+parties have been almost equally balanced.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The movement towards forming a parliamentary Labour
+party was not confined to New South Wales; on the contrary,
+it was common to all the states, having its origin in
+the failure of the Great Strike of 1890. The experience
+<span class="sidenote">Parliamentary Labour party.</span>
+of the party was also much the same as in New South
+Wales, but its greatest triumphs were achieved in
+South Australia. The Labour party has been in power in
+Queensland, Western Australia and South Australia, and has,
+on many occasions, decided the fate of the government on a
+critical division in all the states except Tasmania and Victoria.
+Different ideals dominate the party in the different states. The
+one ideal which has just been described represents the Labour
+party from the New South Wales standpoint. The only qualification
+worth mentioning is the signing of the pledge of solidarity.
+The other ideal, typified by the South Australian party, differs
+from this in one important respect. To the Labour party in
+that state are admitted only persons who have worked for their
+living at manual labour, and this qualification of being an actual
+worker is one that was strongly insisted upon at the formation
+of the party and strictly adhered to, although the temptation to
+break away from it and accept as candidates persons of superior
+education and position has been very great. On the formation
+of the Commonwealth a Labour party was established in the
+federal houses. It comprises one-third of the representation in
+the House of Representatives, and perhaps a still larger proportion
+in the Senate. The party is, however, formed on a broader
+basis than the state parties, the solidarity pledge extends only
+to votes upon which the fate of a government depends. Naturally,
+however, as the ideals of the members of the party are the
+same, the members of the Labour party will be generally found
+voting together on all important divisions, the chief exception
+being with regard to free trade or protection. The Labour party
+held power in the Commonwealth for a short period, and has
+had the balance of power in its hands ever since the formation of
+the Commonwealth.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. A. C.)</div>
+
+<p>Australian legislation in the closing years of the 19th century
+and the first decade of the 20th bore the most evident traces
+of the Labour party&rsquo;s influence. In all the colonies a
+complete departure from principles laid down by the
+<span class="sidenote">Recent legislation.</span>
+leading political economists of the 19th century was
+made when acts were passed subjecting every branch of
+domestic industry to the control of specially constituted tribunals,
+which were empowered among other important functions to
+fix the minimum rate of wages to be paid to all grades of workmen.
+(See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration and Conciliation</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trade Unions</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Labour Legislation</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Victoria was the pioneer in factory legislation, the first Victorian
+act of that character dating from 1873. In 1884 a royal commission,
+appointed two years earlier to inquire into the conditions
+of employment in the colony and certain allegations of
+<span class="sidenote">Victoria.</span>
+&ldquo;sweating&rdquo; that had then recently been made, reported that:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+most effective mode of bringing about industrial co-operation
+and mutual sympathy between employers and employed, and thus
+obviating labour conflicts in the future, is by the establishment of
+courts of conciliation in Victoria, whose procedure and awards shall
+have the sanction and authority of law.&rdquo; This report led to the
+passing of a number of acts which, proving ineffectual, were followed
+by the Factories and Shops Act of 1896, passed by the ministry of
+Mr (afterwards Sir Alexander) Peacock. This measure, together
+with several subsequent amending acts, of which the most important
+became law in 1903, 1905 and 1907, forms a complete industrial code
+in which the principle of state regulation of wages is recognized
+and established. Its central enactment was to bring into existence
+(1) &ldquo;Special Boards,&rdquo; consisting of an equal number of representatives
+of employers and workmen respectively in any trade, under
+the presidency of an independent chairman, and (2) a Court of
+Industrial Appeals. A special board may be formed at the request
+of any union of employers or of workmen, or on the initiative of
+the Labour department. After hearing evidence, which may be
+given on oath, the special board issues a &ldquo;determination,&rdquo; fixing
+the minimum rate of wages to be paid to various classes of workers
+of both sexes and different ages in the trade covered by the determination,
+including apprentices; and specifying the number of hours
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page969" id="page969"></a>969</span>
+per week for which such wages are payable, with the rates for overtime
+when those hours are exceeded. The determination is then
+gazetted, and it becomes operative over a specified area, which varies
+in different cases, on a date fixed by the board. Either party, or the
+minister for Labour, may refer a determination to the court of
+industrial appeals, and the court, in the event of a special board
+failing to make a determination, may itself be called upon to frame
+one. The general administration of the Factories and Shops Acts,
+to which the special boards owe their being, is vested in a chief
+inspector of factories, subject to the control of the minister of Labour
+in matters of policy. Before the end of 1906 fifty-two separate
+trades in Victoria had obtained special boards, by whose determinations
+their operations were controlled.</p>
+
+<p>A similar system was introduced into South Australia
+<span class="sidenote">South Australia.<br />Queensland.</span>
+by an act passed in 1900 amending the Factory Act of
+1894, which was the first legislation of the sort passed in
+that state.</p>
+
+<p>In Queensland, where the earliest factory legislation dates from
+1896, keen parliamentary conflict raged round the proposal
+in 1907 to introduce the special boards system for
+fixing wages. More than one change of government
+occurred before the bill became law in April 1908.</p>
+
+<p>In New South Wales, whose example was followed by Western
+Australia, the machinery adopted for fixing the statutory rate of
+wages was of a somewhat different type. The model
+followed in these two states was not Victoria but New
+Zealand, where an Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration
+<span class="sidenote">New South Wales.</span>
+Act was passed in 1894. A similar measure, under the guidance of
+the attorney-general, the Hon. B.R. Wise, was carried after much
+opposition in New South Wales in 1901, to remain in force till the
+30th of June 1908. By it an arbitration court was instituted, consisting
+of a president and assessors representing the employers&rsquo;
+unions and the workers&rsquo; unions respectively; in any trade in which
+a dispute occurs, any union of workmen or employers registered
+under the act was given the right to bring the matter before the
+arbitration court, and if the court makes an award, an application
+may be made to it to make the award a &ldquo;common rule,&rdquo; which thereupon
+becomes binding over the trade affected, wherever the act
+applies. The award of the court is thus the equivalent of the determination
+of a special board in Victoria, and deals with the same
+questions, the most important of which are the minimum rates of
+wages and the number of working hours per week. The act contained
+stringent provisions forbidding strikes; but in this respect it failed
+to effect its purpose, several strikes occurring in the years following
+its enactment, in which there were direct refusals to obey awards.</p>
+
+<p>In the years 1900 and 1902 acts were passed in Western Australia
+still more closely modelled on the New Zealand act than was the
+above-mentioned statute in New South Wales. Unlike
+the latter, they reproduced the institution of district
+<span class="sidenote">Western Australia.</span>
+conciliation boards in addition to the arbitration court;
+but these boards were a failure here as they were in New Zealand, and
+after 1903 they fell into disuse. In Western Australia, too, the act
+failed to prevent strikes taking place. In 1907 a serious strike
+occurred in the timber trade, attended by all the usual accompaniments,
+except actual disorder, of an industrial conflict.</p>
+
+<p>In all this legislation one of the most hotly contested points was
+whether the arbitration court should be given power to lay it down
+that workers who were members of a trade union should
+be employed in preference to non-unionists. This power
+<span class="sidenote">Federal Arbitration Act of 1904.</span>
+was given to the tribunal in New South Wales, but was
+withheld in Western Australia. It was the same question
+that formed the chief subject of debate over the Federal
+Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which, after causing the defeat of
+more than one ministry, passed through the Commonwealth parliament
+in 1904. It was eventually compromised by giving the power,
+but only with safeguarding conditions, to the Federal arbitration
+court. This tribunal differs from similar courts in the states inasmuch
+as it consists of a single member, called the &ldquo;president,&rdquo; an officer
+appointed by the governor-general from among the justices of the
+High Court of Australia. The president has the power to appoint
+assessors to advise him on technical points; and considerable powers
+of devolution of authority for the purpose of inquiry and report are
+conferred upon the court, the main object of which is to secure
+settlement by conciliatory methods. The distinctive object of the
+Federal Act, as defined in the measure itself, is to provide machinery
+for dealing with industrial disputes extending beyond any one state,
+examples of which were furnished by the first two important cases
+submitted to the court&mdash;the one concerning the merchant marine
+of Australia, and the other the sheep shearers, both of which were
+heard in 1907. An additional duty was thrown on the Federal
+arbitration court by the Customs and Excise Tariff Acts of 1906,
+in which were embodied the principles known as the &ldquo;New Protection.&rdquo;
+By the Customs Act the duty was raised on imported
+agricultural implements, while as a safeguard to the consumer the
+maximum prices for the retail of the goods were fixed. In order to
+provide a similar protection for the artisans employed in the protected
+industries, an excise duty was imposed on the home-produced articles,
+which was to be remitted in favour of manufacturers who could
+show that they paid &ldquo;fair and reasonable&rdquo; wages, and complied
+with certain other conditions for the benefit of their workmen. The
+chief authority for determining whether these conditions are satisfied
+or not is the Federal arbitration court.</p>
+
+<p>The same period that saw this legislation adopted was also marked
+by the establishment of old age pensions in the three eastern states,
+and also in the Commonwealth. By the Federal Act,
+passed in the session of 1908, a pension of ten shillings
+<span class="sidenote">Old age pensions.</span>
+a week was granted to persons of either sex over sixty-five
+years of age, or to persons over sixty who are incapacitated from
+earning a living. The Commonwealth legislation thus made provision
+for the aged poor in the three states which up to 1908 had
+not accepted the principle of old age pensions, and also for those
+who, owing to their having resided in more than one state, were
+debarred from receiving pension in any.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An important work of the Commonwealth parliament was the
+passing of a uniform tariff to supersede the six separate tariffs
+in force at the establishment of the Commonwealth,
+but many other important measures were considered
+<span class="sidenote">Tariff.</span>
+and some passed into law. During the first six years of federation
+there were five ministries; the tenure of office under the three-yearly
+system was naturally uncertain, and this uncertainty was
+reflected in the proposals of whatever ministry was in office.
+The great task of adjusting the financial business of the Commonwealth
+on a permanent basis was one of very great difficulty,
+as the apparent interests of the states and of the Commonwealth
+were opposed. Up till 1908 it had been generally assumed that
+the constitution required the treasurer of the Commonwealth
+to hand over to the states month by month whatever surplus
+funds remained in his hands. But in July 1908 a Surplus
+Revenue Act was passed which was based on a different interpretation
+of the constitution. Under this act the appropriation
+of these surplus funds to certain trust purposes in the Federal
+treasury is held to be equivalent to payment to the states. The
+money thus obtained was appropriated in part to naval defence
+and harbours, and in part to the provision of old age pensions
+under the Federal Old Age Pension Act of 1908. The act was
+strongly opposed by the government of Queensland, and the
+question was raised as to whether it was based on a true interpretation
+of the constitution. The chief external interest, however,
+of the new financial policy of the Commonwealth lay in
+its relation towards the empire as a whole. At the Imperial
+Conference in London in 1907 Mr Deakin, the Commonwealth
+premier, was the leading advocate of colonial preference with a view
+to imperial commercial union; and though no reciprocal arrangement
+was favoured by the Liberal cabinet, who temporarily
+spoke for the United Kingdom, the colonial representatives
+were all agreed in urging such a policy, and found the Opposition
+(the Unionist party) in England prepared to adopt it as part of
+Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s tariff reform movement. In spite of the
+official rebuff received from the mother-country, the Australian
+ministry, in drawing up the new Federal tariff, gave a substantial
+preference to British imports, and thus showed their willingness
+to go farther. (See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">British Empire</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">General Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For Physical Geography: Barton,
+<i>Australian Physiography</i> (Brisbane, 1895); Wall, <i>Physical Geography
+of Australia</i> (Melbourne, 1883); Taylor, <i>Geography of New South
+Wales</i> (Sydney, 1898); Saville Kent, <i>The Great Barrier Reef of
+Australia</i> (London, 1893); A. Agassiz, <i>Visit to the Barrier Reef</i> (Cambridge,
+Mass., 1899); J.P. Thomson, <i>The Physical Geography of
+Australia</i> (Smithsonian Report, Washington, 1898); J.W. Gregory,
+<i>The Dead Heart of Australia</i>. For Flora: Maiden, <i>Useful Native
+Plants of Australia</i> (Sydney, 1889); Bentham and Mueller, <i>Flora
+Australiensis</i> (London, 1863-1878); Fitzgerald, <i>Australian Orchids</i>
+(Sydney, 1870-1890); Mueller, <i>Census of Australian Plants</i> (Melbourne,
+1889). For Fauna: Forbes, &ldquo;The Chatham Islands; their
+Relation to a former Southern Continent,&rdquo; <i>Geographical Journal</i>,
+vol. ii. (1893); Hedley, &ldquo;Surviving Refugees in Austral Lands of
+Ancient Antarctic Life,&rdquo; <i>Royal Society N.S. Wales</i>, 1895; &ldquo;The
+Relation of the Fauna and Flora of Australia to those of New
+Zealand,&rdquo; <i>Nat. Science</i> (1893); Tenison-Woods, <i>The Fish and
+Fisheries of New South Wales</i> (Sydney, 1883); Ogilvy, <i>Catalogue of
+Australian Mammals</i> (Sydney, 1892); Aflalo, <i>Natural History of
+Australia</i> (London, 1896); Flower and Lydekker, <i>Mammals, Living
+and Extinct</i> (London, 1891); J. Douglas Ogilby, <i>Catalogue of the
+Fishes of New South Wales</i>, 4to (Sydney, 1886). For Statistics
+and Miscellanea: T.A. Coghlan, <i>A Statistical Account of the Seven
+Colonies of Australasia</i>, 8vo (Sydney, 1904); G. Collingridge, <i>The
+Discovery of Australia</i> (Sydney, 1895); W. Epps, <i>The Land Systems
+of Australia</i>, 8vo (London, 1894); Ernest Favenc, <i>The History of
+Australasian Exploration</i>, royal 8vo (Sydney, 1885); R.R. Garraa,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page970" id="page970"></a>970</span>
+<i>The Coming Commonwealth: a Handbook of Federal Government</i>
+(Sydney, 1897); George William Rusden, <i>History of Australia</i>,
+3 vols. 8vo (London, 1883); K. Schmeisser, <i>The Goldfields of Australasia</i>,
+2 vols. (London, 1899); G.F. Scott, <i>The Romance of Australian
+Exploring</i> (London, 1899); H. de R. Walker, <i>Australasian Democracy</i>
+(London, 1897); William Westgarth, <i>Half a Century of Australian
+Progress</i> (London, 1899); T.A. Coghlan and T.T. Ewing, <i>Progress
+of Australia in the 19th Century</i>; G.P. Tregarthen, <i>Commonwealth
+of Australia</i>; Ida Lee, <i>Early Days of Australia</i>; W.P. Reeves,
+<i>State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand</i>; A. Metin, <i>La
+Socialisme sans doctrine</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The literature of the geology of Australia is enumerated, to
+1884, in the bibliography by Etheridge and Jack. A general summary
+of the stratigraphical geology was given by R. Tate, <i>Rep.
+Austral. Assoc. Adv. Sci.</i> vol. v. (1893), pp. 1-69. References to the
+chief sources of information regarding the states is given under each
+of them. A geological map of the whole continent, on the scale of
+50 m. to the inch, was compiled by A. Everett, and issued in 1887 in
+six sheets, by the Geological Survey of Victoria.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The statistical portion of this article includes Tasmania, which
+is a member of the Australian Commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3p" id="ft3p" href="#fa3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In his <i>Discoveries in Central Australia</i>, E.T. Eyre has ingeniously
+attempted to reconstruct the routes taken by the Australians in
+their advance across the continent. He has relied, however, in his
+efforts to link the tribes together, too much on the prevalence or
+absence of such customs as circumcision&mdash;always very treacherous
+evidences&mdash;to allow of his hypothetical distribution being regarded
+very seriously. The migrations must have always been dependent
+upon physical difficulties, such as waterless tracts or mountain
+barriers. They were probably not definite massed movements, such
+as would permit of the survival of distinctive lines of custom between
+tribe and tribe; but rather spasmodic movements, sometimes of
+tribes or of groups, sometimes only of families or even couples, the
+first caused by tribal wars, the second to escape punishment for
+some offence against tribal law, such as the defiance of the rules as
+to clan-marriages.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4p" id="ft4p" href="#fa4p"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>The Languages of India</i> (1875).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5p" id="ft5p" href="#fa5p"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The existence of &ldquo;Group Marriage&rdquo; is a much-controverted
+point. This custom, which has been defined as the invasion of
+actual marriage by allotting permanent paramours, is confined to
+a special set of tribes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6p" id="ft6p" href="#fa6p"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Australia, it may be noted, has woman&rsquo;s suffrage in all the
+states (Victoria, the last, adopting it in November 1908), and for
+the federal assembly.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTRASIA<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span>. The word <i>Austria</i> signifies the realm of the
+east (Ger. <i>Ost Reich</i>). In Gregory of Tours this word is still
+used vaguely, but the sense of it is gradually defined, and
+finally the name of <i>Austria</i> or <i>Austrasia</i> was given to the easternmost
+part of the Frankish kingdom. It usually had Metz for its
+capital, and the inhabitants of the kingdom were known as the
+<i>Austrasii</i>. Retrospectively, later historians have given this
+name to the kingdom of Theuderich I. (511-534), of his son
+Theudebert (534-548), and of his grandson Theudebald (548-555);
+then, after the death of Clotaire I., to the kingdom of
+Sigebert (561-575), and of his son Childebert (575-597). They
+have even tried to interpret the long struggle between Fredegond
+and Brunhilda as a rivalry between the two kings of Neustria
+and Austrasia. When these two words are at last found in the
+texts in their precise signification, Austrasia is applied to that
+part of the Frankish kingdom which Clotaire II. entrusted to his
+son Dagobert, subject to the guardianship of Pippin and Arnulf
+(623-629), and which Dagobert in his turn handed on to his son
+Sigebert (634-639), under the guardianship of Cunibert, bishop
+of Cologne, and Ansegisel, mayor of the palace. After the death
+of Dagobert, Austrasia and Neustria almost always had separate
+kings, with their own mayors of the palace, and then there arose
+a real rivalry between these two provinces, which ended in the
+triumph of Austrasia. The Austrasian mayors of the palace
+succeeded in enforcing their authority in the western as well
+as in the eastern part, and in re-establishing to their own advantage
+the unity of the Frankish kingdom. The mayor Pippin
+the Short was even powerful enough to take the title of king over
+the whole.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of Charlemagne, the word Austrasia underwent
+a change of meaning and became synonymous with <i>Francia
+orientalis</i>, and was applied to the Frankish dominions beyond
+the Rhine (Franconia). This Franconia was in 843 included
+in the kingdom of Louis the German, and was then increased
+by the addition of the territories of Mainz, Spires and Worms,
+on the right bank of the river.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Huguenin, <i>Histoire du royaume mérovingien d&rsquo;Austrasie</i>
+(Paris, 1857); Aug. Digot, <i>Histoire du royaume d&rsquo;Austrasie</i>, 4 vols.
+(Nancy, 1863); L. Drapeyron, <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;origine, le développement
+et les résultats de la lutte entre la Neustrie et l&rsquo;Austrasie</i> (Paris, 1867);
+Auguste Longnon, <i>Atlas historique</i>, 1st and 2nd parts.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AUSTRIA<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span>. (Ger. <i>Österreich</i>), a country of central Europe,
+bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic
+Sea and Italy, W. by Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German
+empire (Bavaria), and N. by the German empire (Saxony and
+Prussia) and Russia. It has an area of 115,533 sq. m., or about
+twice the size of England and Wales together. Austria is one
+of the states which constitute the Austro-Hungarian (Habsburg)
+monarchy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>), and is also called
+Cisleithania, from the fact that it contains the portion of that
+monarchy which lies to the west of the river Leitha. Austria
+does not form a geographical unity, and the constituent parts
+of this empire belong to different geographical regions. Thus,
+Tirol, Styria and Carinthia belong, like Switzerland, to the
+system of the Alps, but these provinces together with those
+lying in the basin of the Danube form, nevertheless, a compact
+stretch of country. On the other hand Galicia, extending on
+the eastern side of the Carpathians, belongs to the great plain
+of Russia; Bohemia stretches far into the body of Germany;
+while Dalmatia, which is quite separated from the other provinces,
+belongs to the Balkan Peninsula.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Coasts.</i>&mdash;Austria has amongst all the great European countries
+the most continental character, in so far as its frontiers are mostly
+land-frontiers, only about one-tenth of them being coast-land.
+The Adriatic coast, which stretches for a distance of about 1000 m.,
+is greatly indented. The Gulf of Trieste on the west, and the Gulf
+of Fiume or Quarnero on the east, include between them the peninsula
+of Istria, which has many sheltered bays. In the Gulf of
+Quarnero are the Quarnero islands, of which the most important
+are Cherso, Veglia and Lussin. The coast west of the mouth of the
+Isonzo is fringed by lagoons, and has the same character as the
+Venetian coast, while the Gulf of Trieste and the Istrian peninsula
+have a steep coast with many bays and safe harbours. The principal
+ports are Trieste, Capodistria, Pirano, Parenzo, Rovigno and Pola,
+the great naval harbour and arsenal of Austria. The coast of Dalmatia
+also possesses many safe bays, the principal being those of
+Zara, Cattaro and Ragusa, but in some places it is very steep and
+inaccessible. On the other hand a string of islands extends along
+this coast, which offer many safe and easily accessible places of
+anchorage to ships during the fierce winter gales which rage in the
+Adriatic. The principal are Pago, Pasman, Isola Lunga and Isola
+Incoronata, Brazza, Lesina, Curzola and Meleda.</p>
+
+<p>The political divisions of Austria correspond, for the most part,
+so closely to natural physical divisions that the detailed account
+of the physical features, natural resources and the movement of the
+population has been given under those separate headings. In this
+general article the geography of Austria&mdash;physical, economical and
+political&mdash;has been treated in its broad aspects, and those points
+insisted upon which give an adequate idea of the country as a whole.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mountains.</i>&mdash;Austria is the most mountainous country of Europe
+after Switzerland, and about four-fifths of its entire area is more
+than 600 ft. above the level of the sea. The mountains of Austria
+belong to three different mountain systems, namely, the Alps (<i>q.v.</i>),
+the Carpathians (<i>q.v.</i>), and the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains.
+The Danube, which is the principal river of Austria, divides the
+Alpine region, which occupies the whole country lying at its south,
+from the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains and their offshoots lying
+at its north; while the valleys of the March and the Oder separate
+the last-named mountains from the Carpathians. Of the three
+principal divisions of the Alps&mdash;the western, the central and the
+eastern Alps&mdash;Austria is traversed by several groups of the central
+Alps, while the eastern Alps lie entirely within its territory. The
+eastern Alps are continued by the Karst mountains, which in their
+turn are continued by the Dinaric Alps, which stretch through
+Croatia and Dalmatia. The second great mountain-system of
+Austria, the Carpathians, occupy its eastern and north-eastern
+portions, and stretch in the form of an arch through Moravia, Silesia,
+Galicia and Bukovina, forming the frontier towards Hungary, within
+which territory they principally extend. Finally, the Bohemian-Moravian
+Mountains, which enclose Bohemia and Moravia, and form
+the so-called quadrilateral of Bohemia, constitute the link of the
+Austrian mountain-system with the hilly region (the <i>Mittelgebirge</i>)
+of central Europe. Only a little over 25% of the area of Austria is
+occupied by plains. The largest is the plain of Galicia, which is part
+of the extensive Sarmatic plain; while in the south, along the
+Isonzo, Austria comprises a small part of the Lombardo-Venetian
+plain. Several smaller plains are found along the Danube, as the
+Tulner Becken in Lower Austria, and the Wiener Becken, the plain
+on which the capital is situated; to the north of the Danube this
+plain is called the Marchfeld, and is continued under the name of
+the Marchebene into Moravia as far north as Olmütz. Along the
+other principal rivers there are also plains of more or less magnitude,
+some of them possessing tracts of very fertile soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rivers.</i>&mdash;Austria possesses a fairly great number of rivers, pretty
+equally distributed amongst its crown lands, with the exception of
+Istria and the Karst region, where there is a great scarcity of even
+the smallest rivers. The principal rivers are: the Danube, the
+Dniester, the Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine and the Adige
+or Etsch. As the highlands of Austria form part of the great
+watershed of Europe, which divides the waters flowing northward
+into the North Sea or the Baltic from those flowing southward or
+eastward into the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, its rivers flow
+in three different directions&mdash;northward, southward and eastward.
+With the exception of the small streams belonging to it which fall
+into the Adriatic, all its rivers have their mouths in other countries,
+and its principal river, the Danube, has also its source in another
+country. When it enters Austria at the gorge of Passau, where it
+receives the Inn, a river which has as large a body of water as itself,
+the Danube is already navigable. Till it leaves the country at
+Hainburg, just before Pressburg, its banks are pretty closely hemmed
+by the Alps, and the river passes through a succession of narrow
+defiles. But the finest part of its whole course, as regards the picturesqueness
+of the scenery on its banks, is between Linz and Vienna.
+Where it enters Austria the Danube is 898 ft. above the level of
+the sea, and where it leaves it is only 400 ft.; it has thus a fall within
+the country of 498 ft., and is at first a very rapid stream, becoming
+latterly much slower. The Danube has in Austria a course of 234 m.,
+and it drains an area of 50,377 sq. m. Its principal affluents in Austria,
+besides the Inn, are the Traun, the Enns and the March. The
+Dniester, which, like the Danube, flows into the Black Sea, has its
+source in the Carpathians in Eastern Galicia, and pursues a very
+winding course towards the south-east, passing into Russia. It has
+in Austria a course of 370 m. of which 300 are navigable, and drains
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page971" id="page971"></a>971</span>
+an area of 12,000 sq. m. The Vistula and the Oder both fall into
+the Baltic. The former rises in Moravia, flows first north through
+Austrian Silesia, then takes an easterly direction along the borders
+of Prussian Silesia, and afterwards a north-easterly, separating
+Galicia from Russian Poland, and leaving Austria not far from
+Sandomir. Its course in Austria is 240 m., draining an area of 15,500
+sq. m. It is navigable for nearly 200 m., and its principal affluents
+are the Dunajec, the San and the Bug. The Oder has also its source
+in Moravia, flows first east and then north-east through Austrian
+Silesia into Prussia. Its length within the Austrian territory is only
+about 55 m., no part of which is navigable. The only river of this
+country which flows into the North Sea is the Elbe. It has its source
+in the Riesengebirge, not far from the Schneekoppe, flows first south,
+then west, and afterwards north-west through Bohemia, and then
+enters Saxony. Its principal affluents are the Adler, Iser and Eger,
+and, most important of all, the Moldau. The Elbe has a course
+within the Austrian dominions of 185 m., for about 65 of which it is
+navigable. It drains an area of upwards of 21,000 sq. m. The Rhine,
+though scarcely to be reckoned a river of the country, flows for about
+25 m. of its course between it and Switzerland. The principal river
+of Austria which falls into the Adriatic is the Adige or Etsch.
+It rises in the mountains of Tirol, flows south, then east, and
+afterwards south, into the plains of Lombardy. It has in Austria a
+course of 138 m., and drains an area of 4266 sq. m. Its principal
+affluent is the Eisak. Of the streams which have their course entirely
+within the country, and fall into the Adriatic, the principal is the
+Isonzo, 75 m. in length, but navigable only for a short distance from
+its mouth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lakes</i>.&mdash;Austria does not possess any great lakes; but has numerous
+small mountain lakes situated in the Alpine region, the most
+renowned for the beauty of their situation being found in Salzburg,
+Salzkammergut, Tirol and Carinthia. There should also be mentioned
+the periodical lakes situated in the Karst region, the largest
+of them being the Lake of Zirknitz. The numerous and large
+marshes, found now mostly in Galicia and Dalmatia, have been
+greatly reduced in the other provinces through the canalization of
+the rivers, and other works of sanitation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mineral Springs</i>.&mdash;No other European country equals Austria
+in the number and value of its mineral springs. They are mostly
+to be found in Bohemia, and are amongst the most frequented
+watering-places in the world. The most important are, the alkaline
+springs of Carlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad and Bilin; the alkaline
+acidulated waters of Giesshubel, largely used as table waters; the
+iron springs of Marienbad, Franzensbad and of Pyrawarth in Lower
+Austria; the bitter waters of Pullna, Saidschitz and Sedlitz; the
+saline waters of Ischl and of Aussee in Styria; the iodine waters
+of Hall in Upper Austria; the different waters of Gastein; and
+lastly the thermal waters of Teplitz-Schönau, Johannisbad, and of
+Römerbad in Styria. Altogether there are reckoned to exist over
+1500 mineral springs, of which many are not used.</p>
+<div class="author">(O. Br.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is traversed by the
+great belt of folded beds which constitutes the Alps and the Carpathians;
+a secondary branch proceeding from the main belt runs
+along the Adriatic coast and forms the Julian and Dinaric Alps. In
+the space which is thus enclosed, lies the Tertiary basin of the Hungarian
+plain; and outside the belt, on the northern side, is a region
+which, geologically, is composite, but has uniformly resisted the
+Carpathian folding. In the neighbourhood of Vienna a gap in the
+folded belt&mdash;the gap between the Alps and the Carpathians&mdash;has
+formed a connexion between these two regions since the early part
+of the Miocene period. On its outer or convex side the folded belt
+is clearly defined by a depression which is generally filled by modern
+deposits. Beyond this, in Russia and Galicia, lies an extensive
+plateau, much of which is covered by flat-lying Miocene and Pliocene
+beds; but in the deep valleys of the Dniester and its tributaries the
+ancient rocks which form the foundation of the plateau are laid
+bare. Archaean granite is thus exposed at Yampol and other places
+in Russia, and this is followed towards the west by Silurian and
+Devonian beds in regular succession&mdash;the Devonian being of the Old
+Red Sandstone type characteristic of the British Isles and of Northern
+Russia. Throughout, the dip is very low and the beds are unaffected
+by the Carpathian folds, the strike being nearly from north to south.
+After Devonian times the region seems to have been dry land until
+the commencement of the Upper Cretaceous period, when it was
+overspread by the Cenomanian sea, and the deposits of that sea
+lie flat upon the older sediments.</p>
+
+<p>Some 25 or 30 m. of undulating country separate the Dniester
+from the margin of the Carpathian chain, and in this space the
+Palaeozoic floor sinks far beneath the surface, so that not even the
+deep-cut valley of the Pruth exposes any beds of older date than
+Miocene. Towards the north-west, also, the Palaeozoic foundation
+falls beneath an increasing thickness of Cretaceous beds and lies
+buried far below the surface. At Lemberg a boring 1650 ft. in depth
+did not reach the base of the Senonian. West of Cracow the Cretaceous
+beds are underlaid by Jurassic and Triassic deposits, the general
+dip being eastward. It is not till Silesia that the Palaeozoic formations
+again rise to the surface. Here is the margin, often concealed
+by very modern deposits, of the great mass of Archaean and Palaeozoic
+rocks which forms nearly the whole of Bohemia and Moravia.
+The Palaeozoic beds no longer lie flat and undisturbed, as in the
+Polish plain. They are faulted and folded. But the folds are altogether
+independent of those of the Carpathians; they are of much
+earlier date, and are commonly different in direction. The principal
+biding took place towards the close of the Carboniferous period,
+and the <i>massif</i> is a fragment of an ancient mountain chain, the
+<i>Variscische Gebirge</i> of E. Suess, which in Permian and Triassic times
+stretched across the European area from west to east.</p>
+
+<p>In Bohemia and Moravia the whole of the beds from the Cambrian
+to the Lower Carboniferous are of marine origin; but after the
+Carboniferous period the area appears to have been dry land until the
+beginning of the Upper Cretaceous period, when the sea again spread
+over it. The deposits of this sea are now visible in the large basin
+of Upper Cretaceous beds which stretches from Dresden southeastward
+through Bohemia. Since the close of the Cretaceous period
+the Bohemian <i>massif</i> has remained above the sea; but the depression
+which lies immediately outside the Carpathian chain has at times
+been covered by an arm of the sea and at other times has been
+occupied by a chain of salt lakes, to which the salt deposits of
+Wieliczka and numerous brine springs owe their origin.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:414px" src="images/img971.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Geological Map of Austria-Hungary.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The large area which is enclosed within the curve of the Carpathians
+is for the most part covered by loess, alluvium and other
+modern deposits, but Miocene and Pliocene beds appear around its
+borders. In the hilly region of western Transylvania a large mass of
+more ancient rocks is exposed; the Carboniferous system and all
+the Mesozoic systems have been recognized here, and granite and
+volcanic rocks occur. In the middle of Hungary a line of hills rises
+above the plain, striking from the Platten See towards the north-east,
+where it merges into the inner girdle of the Carpathian chain.
+These hills are largely formed of volcanic rocks of late Tertiary age;
+but near the Platten See Triassic beds of Alpine type are well developed.
+The Tertiary eruptions were not confined to this line of hills.
+They were most extensive along the inner border of the Carpathians,
+and they occurred also in the north of Bohemia. Most of the eruptions
+took place during the Miocene and Pliocene periods.</p>
+
+<p>The mineral wealth of Austria is very great. The older rocks are
+in many places peculiarly rich in metalliferous ores of all kinds.
+Amongst them may be mentioned the silver-bearing lead ores of
+Erzgebirge and of P&#345;ibram in Bohemia; the iron ores of Styria
+and Bukovina; and the iron, copper, cobalt and nickel of the districts
+of Zips and Gomor. The famous cinnabar and mercury mines
+of Idria in Carniola are in Triassic beds; and the gold and silver of
+northern Hungary and of Transylvania are associated with the
+Tertiary volcanic rocks. The Carboniferous coal-fields of Silesia
+and Bohemia are of the greatest importance; while Jurassic
+coal is worked at Steyerdorf and Funfkirchen in Hungary, and
+lignite at many places in the Tertiary beds. The great salt mines
+of Galicia are in Miocene deposits; but salt is also worked largely in
+the Trias of the Alps. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alps</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carpathians</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tirol</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author">(P. La.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate of Austria, in consequence of its great
+extent, and the great differences in the elevation of its surface, is
+very various. It is usual to divide it into three distinct zones. The
+most southern extends to 46° N. lat., and includes Dalmatia and the
+country along the coast, together with the southern portions of Tirol
+and Carinthia. Here the seasons are mild and equable, the winters
+are short (snow seldom falling), and the summers last for five months.
+The vine and maize are everywhere cultivated, as well as olives and
+other southern products. In the south of Dalmatia tropical plants
+flourish in the open air. The central zone lies between 46° and 49°
+N. lat., and includes Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria,
+Carinthia, Carniola, Central and Northern Tirol, Southern Moravia
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page972" id="page972"></a>972</span>
+and a part of Bohemia. The seasons are more marked here than in
+the preceding. The winters are longer and more severe, and the
+summers are hotter. The vine and maize are cultivated in
+favourable situations, and wheat and other kinds of grain are generally
+grown. The northern zone embraces the territory lying north
+of 49° N. lat., comprising Bohemia, Northern
+Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. The winters are
+here long and cold; the vine and maize are no
+longer cultivated, the principal crops being wheat,
+barley, oats, rye, hemp and flax. The mean
+annual temperature ranges from about 59° in the
+south to 48° in the north. In some parts of the
+country, however, it is as low as 46° 40&prime; and even
+36°. In Vienna the average annual temperature
+is 50°, the highest temperature being 94°, the
+lowest 2° Fahr. In general the eastern part of
+the country receives less rain than the western.
+In the south the rains prevail chiefly in spring
+and autumn, and in the north and central parts
+during summer. Storms are frequent in the
+region of the south Alps and along the coast.
+In some parts in the vicinity of the Alps the
+rainfall is excessive, sometimes exceeding 60 in.
+It is less among the Carpathians, where it usually
+varies from 30 to 40 in. In other parts the rainfall
+usually averages from 20 to 24 in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;From the varied character of its
+climate and soil the vegetable productions of
+Austria are very diverse. It has floras of
+the plains, the hills and the mountains; an alpine flora, and an
+arctic flora; a flora of marshes, and a flora of steppes; floras peculiar
+to the clay, the chalk, the sandstone and the slate formations. The
+number of different species is estimated at 12,000, of which one-third
+are phanerogamous, or flowering plants, and two-thirds cryptogamous,
+or flowerless. The crown land of Lower Austria far surpasses in this
+respect the other divisions of the country, having about four-ninths
+of the whole, and not less than 1700 species of flowering plants. As
+stated above, Austria is a very mountainous country and the mountains
+are frequently covered with vegetation to a great elevation.
+At the base are found vines and maize; on the lower slopes are green
+pastures, or wheat, barley and other kinds of corn; above are often
+forests of oak, ash, elm, &amp;c.; and still higher the yew and the fir may
+be seen braving the climatic conditions. Corn grows to between
+3400 and 4500 ft. above the level of the sea, the forests extend to
+5600 or 6400 ft., and the line of perpetual snow is from 7800 to 8200 ft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The animal kingdom embraces, besides the usual
+domestic animals (as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, asses, &amp;c.),
+wild boars, deer, wild goats, hares, &amp;c.; also bears, wolves, lynxes,
+foxes, wild cats, jackals, otters, beavers, polecats, martens, weasels
+and the like. Eagles and hawks are common, and many kinds of
+singing birds. The rivers and lakes abound in different kinds of fish,
+which are also plentiful on the sea-coast. Among the insects the bee
+and the silkworm are the most useful. The leech forms an article
+of trade. In all there are 90 different species of mammals, 248
+species of birds, 377 of fishes and more than 13,000 of insects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Divisions</i>.&mdash;Austria is composed of seventeen &ldquo;lands,&rdquo; called
+also &ldquo;crown lands.&rdquo; Of these, three&mdash;namely, Bohemia, Galicia
+and Lodomeria, and Dalmatia&mdash;are kingdoms; two&mdash;Lower and
+Upper Austria&mdash;archduchies; six&mdash;Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia,
+Carniola, Silesia and Bukovina&mdash;duchies; two&mdash;Görz-Gradisca and
+Tirol&mdash;countships of princely rank (<i>gefurstete Grafschaften</i>); two&mdash;Moravia
+and Istria&mdash;margraviates (march counties). Vorarlberg
+bears the title simply of &ldquo;land.&rdquo; Trieste, with its district, is a town
+treated as a special crown land. For administrative purposes Trieste,
+with Görz-Gradisca and Istria, constituting the Küstenland (the
+Coast land) and Tirol and Vorarlberg, are each comprehended as
+one administrative territory. The remaining lands constitute each
+an administrative territory by itself.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population</i>.&mdash;Austria had in 1900 a population of 26,107,304
+inhabitants,<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which is equivalent to 226 inhabitants per sq. m.
+As seen from the table below, the density of the population is
+unequal in the various crown lands. The most thickly populated
+province is Lower Austria; the Alpine provinces are sparsely
+populated, while Salzburg is the most thinly populated crown land
+of Austria. As regards sex, for every 1000 men there were
+1035 women, the female element being the most numerous in
+every crown land, except the Küstenland, Bukovina and Dalmatia.
+Compared with the census returns of 1890, the population shows
+an increase of 2,211,891, or 9.3% of the total population. The
+increase between the preceding census returns of 1880 and 1890
+was of 1,750,093 inhabitants, or 7.9% of the total population.
+A very important factor in the movement of the population
+is the large over-sea emigration, mostly to the United States of
+America, which has grown very much during the last quarter
+of the 19th century, and which shows a tendency to become still
+larger. Between 1891 and 1900 the number of over-sea emigrants
+was 387,770 persons. The movement of the population shown
+in the other vital statistics&mdash;births, marriages, deaths&mdash;are
+mostly satisfactory, and show a steady and normal progress.
+The annual rate per thousand of population in 1900 was: births,
+37.0; still-births, 1.1; deaths, 25.2; marriages, 8.2. The only
+unsatisfactory points are the great number of illegitimate births,
+and the high infant mortality. Of the total population of
+Austria 14,009,233 were scattered in 26,321 rural communities
+with less than 2000 inhabitants; while the remainder was
+distributed in 1742 communities with a population of 2000-5000;
+in 260 communities with a population of 5000-10,000; in 96
+towns with a population of 10,000-20,000; in 41 towns with
+a population of 20,000-50,000; in 6 towns with a population
+of 50,000-100,000; and in 6 towns with a population
+of over 100,000 inhabitants. The principal towns of Austria
+are Vienna (1,662,269), Prague (460,849), Trieste (132,879),
+Lemberg (159,618), Graz (138,370), Brünn (108,944), Cracow
+(91,310), Czernowitz (67,622), Pilsen (68,292) and Linz (58,778).</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Administrative Territories</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Areas in<br />Square<br />Miles.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Density of<br />Population<br />per sq. m.<br />in 1900.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb sc">Austria&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Lower Austria</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,654</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,661,799</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,100,493</td> <td class="tcr rb">405</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Upper Austria</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,617</td> <td class="tcr rb">785,831</td> <td class="tcr rb">809,918</td> <td class="tcr rb">175</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Salzburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,757</td> <td class="tcr rb">173,510</td> <td class="tcr rb">193,247</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Styria</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,642</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,282,708</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,350,058</td> <td class="tcr rb">156</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Carinthia</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,992</td> <td class="tcr rb">361,008</td> <td class="tcr rb">367,344</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Carniola</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,844</td> <td class="tcr rb">498,958</td> <td class="tcr rb">508,348</td> <td class="tcr rb">132</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Küstenland</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,074</td> <td class="tcr rb">695,384</td> <td class="tcr rb">755,183</td> <td class="tcr rb">245</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Tirol and Vorarlberg</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,287</td> <td class="tcr rb">928,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">979,878</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Bohemia</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,997</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,843,094</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,318,280</td> <td class="tcr rb">315</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Moravia</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,555</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,276,870</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,435,081</td> <td class="tcr rb">284</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Silesia</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,981</td> <td class="tcr rb">605,649</td> <td class="tcr rb">680,529</td> <td class="tcr rb">342</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Galicia</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,212</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,607,816</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,295,538</td> <td class="tcr rb">241</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Bukovina</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,022</td> <td class="tcr rb">646,591</td> <td class="tcr rb">729,921</td> <td class="tcr rb">181</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Dalmatia</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,923</td> <td class="tcr rb">527,426</td> <td class="tcr rb">591,597</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">115,533</td> <td class="tcr allb">23,895,413</td> <td class="tcr allb">26,107,304</td> <td class="tcr allb">226</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:524px; height:401px" src="images/img972.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Races</i>.&mdash;From an ethnographical point of view Austria
+contains a diversity of races; in fact no other European state
+contains within its borders so many nationalities as the Austrian
+empire. The three principal races of Europe&mdash;the Latin, the
+Teutonic and the Slavonic&mdash;are all represented in Austria.
+The Slavonic race, numbering 15,690,000, is numerically the
+principal race in Austria, but as it is divided into a number
+of peoples, differing from one another in language, religion,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page973" id="page973"></a>973</span>
+culture, customs and historical traditions, it does not possess
+a national unity. Besides, these various nationalities are
+geographically separated from one another by other races, and
+are divided into two groups. The northern group includes the
+Czechs, the Moravians, the Slovaks, the Ruthenians and the
+Poles; while the southern group contains the Slovenes, the
+Servians and the Croats. Just as their historical traditions are
+different, so are also the aspirations of these various peoples of
+the Slavonic race different, and the rivalries between them,
+as for instance between the Poles and the Ruthenians, have
+prevented them from enjoying the full political advantage due
+to their number. The Germans, numbering 9,171,614, constitute
+the most numerous nationality in Austria, and have played
+and still play the principal role in the political life of the country.
+The Germans are in a relative majority over the other peoples
+in the empire, their language is the vehicle of communication
+between all the other peoples both in official life and in the press;
+they are in a relatively more advanced state of culture, and they
+are spread over every part of the empire. Historically they have
+contributed most to the foundation and to the development
+of the Austrian monarchy, and think that for all the above-mentioned
+reasons they are entitled to the principal position
+amongst the various nationalities of Austria. The Latin race
+is represented by the Italians, Ladini and Rumanians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following table gives the numbers of different nationalities, as
+determined by the languages spoken by them in 1900:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Germans</td> <td class="tcr cl">9,171,614</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Czechs and Slovaks</td> <td class="tcr">5,955,397</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Poles</td> <td class="tcr cl">4,252,483</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ruthenians</td> <td class="tcr">3,381,570</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Slovenes</td> <td class="tcr cl">1,192,780</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Italians and Ladini</td> <td class="tcr">727,102</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Servians and Croats</td> <td class="tcr cl">711,380</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rumanians</td> <td class="tcr">230,963</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Magyars</td> <td class="tcr cl">9,516</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Germans occupy exclusively Upper Austria, Salzburg,
+Vorarlberg, and, to a large extent, Lower Austria; then the north
+and central part of Styria, the north and western part of Carinthia,
+and the north and central part of Tirol. In Bohemia they are
+concentrated round the borders, in the vicinity of the mountains,
+and they form nearly half the population of Silesia; besides they
+are found in every part of the monarchy. The Czechs occupy the
+central and eastern parts of Bohemia, the greatest part of Moravia
+and a part of Silesia. The Poles are concentrated in western Galicia,
+and in a part of Silesia; the Ruthenians in eastern Galicia and a
+part of Bukovina; the Slovenes in Carniola, Görz and Gradisca,
+Istria, the south of Styria, and the Trieste territory. The Servians
+and Croats are found in Istria and Dalmatia; the Italians and Ladini
+in southern Tirol, Görz and Gradisca, Trieste, the coast of Istria,
+and in the towns of Dalmatia; while the Rumanians live mostly in
+Bukovina.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Notwithstanding the great industrial progress made
+by Austria during the last quarter of the 19th century, agriculture
+still forms the most important source of revenue of its inhabitants.
+In 1900 over 50% of the total population of Austria derived their
+income from agricultural pursuits. The soil is generally fertile,
+although there is a great difference in the productivity of the various
+crown-lands owing to their geographical situation. The productive
+land of Austria covers 69,519,953 acres, or 93.8% of the total area,
+which is 74,102,001 acres; to this must be added 0.4 of lakes and fishponds,
+making a total of 94.2% of productive area. The remainder
+is unproductive, or used for other, not agricultural purposes. The
+area of the productive land has been steadily increasing&mdash;it was
+estimated to cover about 89% in 1875,&mdash;and great improvements in
+the agricultural methods have also been introduced. Of the whole
+productive area of Austria, 37.6% is laid out in arable land; 34.6%
+in woods; 25.2% in pastures and meadows; 1.3% in gardens,
+0.9% in vineyards; and 0.4% in lakes, marshes and ponds. The
+provinces having the largest proportion of arable land are Bohemia,
+Galicia, Moravia and Lower Austria. The principal products are
+wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, and cattle
+turnip. The produce of the ploughed land does not, on the whole,
+suffice for the home requirements. Large quantities in particular of
+wheat and maize are imported from Hungary for home consumption.
+Only barley and oats are usually reaped in quantity for export.
+The provinces which have the lowest proportion of arable land are
+Tirol and Salzburg. Besides these principal crops, other crops of
+considerable magnitude are: buckwheat in Styria, Galicia, Carniola
+and Carinthia; rape and rape-seed in Bohemia and Galicia, poppy in
+Moravia and Silesia; flax in Bohemia, Moravia, Styria and Galicia;
+hemp in Galicia, chicory in Bohemia; tobacco, which is a state
+monopoly, in Galicia, Bukovina, Dalmatia and Tirol; fuller&rsquo;s
+thistle in Upper Austria and Styria; hops in Bohemia, including
+the celebrated hops round Saaz, in Galicia and Moravia; rice in the
+Küstenland; and cabbage in Bohemia, Galicia, Lower Austria and
+Styria. The principal garden products are kitchen vegetables and
+fruit, of which large quantities are exported. The best fruit districts
+are in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Styria. Certain
+districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tirol for
+apples, Bohemia for plums, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates and
+olives. The chestnut, olive and mulberry trees are common in the
+south&mdash;chiefly in Dalmatia, the Küstenland and Tirol; while in the
+south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The vineyards of Austria covered in 1901 an area of 626,044 acres,
+the provinces with the largest proportion of vineyards being Dalmatia,
+the Küstenland, Lower Austria, Styria and Moravia. The
+wines of Dalmatia are mostly sweet wines, and not suitable to be
+kept for long periods, while those of the other provinces are not so
+sweet, but improve with age.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forests.</i>&mdash;The forests occupy just a little over one-third of the
+whole productive area of Austria, and cover 24,157,709 acres. In
+the forests tall timber predominates to the extent of 85%, and
+consists of conifers much more than of green or leaved trees, in the
+proportion of seventy against fifteen out of the 85% of the total
+forests laid out in tall timber. Exceptions are the forest lands of
+the Karst region, where medium-sized trees and underwood occupy
+80%, and of Dalmatia, where underwood occupies 92.6% of the
+whole forest land. The Alpine region is well wooded, and amongst
+the other provinces Bukovina is the most densely wooded, having
+43.2% of its area under forests, while Galicia with 25.9% is the
+most thinly-wooded crown-land of Austria. The forests are chiefly
+composed of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and the like, and constitute
+one of the great sources of wealth of the country. Forestry is
+carried on in a thoroughly scientific manner. Large works of
+afforestation have been undertaken in Carinthia, Carniola and Tirol
+with a view of checking the periodical inundations, while similar
+works have been successfully carried out in the Karst region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Landed Property.</i>&mdash;Of the whole territory of the state, 74,102,001
+acres, about 29%, is appropriated to large landed estates; 71% is
+disposed of in medium and smaller properties. Large landed property
+is most strongly represented in Bukovina, where it absorbs 46% of
+the whole territory, and in Salzburg, Galicia, Silesia and Bohemia.
+To the state belongs 4½% of the total territory. The Church, the
+communities, and the corporations are also in possession of large
+areas of land; 4% (speaking roundly) of the territory of Austria
+is held on the tenure of <i>fidei-commissum</i>. Of the entire property in
+large landed estates, 59% is laid out in woods; of the property in
+<i>fidei-commissum</i>, 66% is woodland; of the entire forest land, about
+10% is the property of the state; 14.5% is communal property;
+and 3.8% is the property of the Church. The whole of the territory
+in large landed estates includes 52% of the entire forest land. The
+forest land held under <i>fidei-commissum</i> amounts to over 9% of the
+entire forest land.</p>
+
+<p><i>Live Stock.</i>&mdash;Although richly endowed by nature, Austria cannot
+be said to be remarkable as a cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except
+in certain districts of the Alpine region, where this branch of human
+activity is carried on under excellent conditions, there is much room
+for improvement. The amount of live stock is registered every ten
+years along with the census of the population.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Horses</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,463,282</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,548,197</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,711,077</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mules and asses</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,618</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,952</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,638</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cattle</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,584,077</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,643,936</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,506,626</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Goats</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,006,675</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,035,832</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,015,682</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheep</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,841,340</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,186,787</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,621,026</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pigs</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,721,541</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,549,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,682,734</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Beehives</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">926,312</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">920,640</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">996,139</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Austria is distinguished for the number and superiority of its
+horses, for the improvements of which numerous studs exist all over
+the country. All kinds of horses are represented from the heaviest
+to the lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful
+horses are found in Bukovina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg;
+those of Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tirol and Upper Austria are
+also famous. In Dalmatia, the Küstenland and Southern Tirol,
+horses are less numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure
+take their place. The finest cattle are to be found in the Alpine
+region; of the Austrian provinces, Salzburg and Upper Austria
+contain the largest proportion of cattle. The number of sheep has
+greatly diminished, but much has been done in the way of improving
+the breeds, more particularly in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and
+Upper and Lower Austria. The main object has been the improvement
+of the wool, and with this object the merino and other fine-woolled
+breeds have been introduced. Goats abound mostly in
+Dalmatia, Bohemia and Tirol. The rearing of pigs is carried on
+most largely in Styria, Bohemia, Galicia and Upper and Lower
+Austria. Bees are extensively kept in Carinthia, Carniola, Lower
+Austria and Galicia. The silk-worm is reared more particularly in
+Southern Tirol and in the Küstenland, and the average annual yield
+is 5,000,000 &#8468; of cocoons. In the Alpine region dairy-farming has
+attained a great degree of development, and large quantities of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page974" id="page974"></a>974</span>
+butter and cheese are annually produced. Altogether, the rearing of
+cattle, with all its actual shortcomings, constitutes a great source of
+revenue, and yields a certain amount for export.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fisheries</i>.&mdash;The fisheries of Austria are very extensive, and are
+divided into river, lake and sea fisheries. The numerous rivers of
+Austria swarm with a great variety of fishes. The lake fisheries are
+mostly pursued in Bohemia, where pisciculture is an art of old standing,
+and largely developed. The sea fisheries on the coast of Dalmatia
+and of the Küstenland constitute an important source of
+wealth to the inhabitants of these provinces. About 4000 vessels,
+with a number of over 16,000 fishermen are employed, and the
+average annual catch realizes £240,000.</p>
+
+<p>In the mountainous regions of Austria game is plentiful, and
+constitutes a large source of income.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals</i>.&mdash;In the extent and variety of its mineral resources
+Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. With the exception
+of platinum, it possesses every useful metal; thus, besides
+the noble metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less
+richness in iron, copper, lead and tin. Rich deposits of coal, both
+pit coal and brown coal are to be found, as well as extensive basins
+of petroleum, and large deposits of salt. In smaller quantities are
+found zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth,
+chromium, uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite and asphalt.
+There are also marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain-earth,
+potter&rsquo;s clay, and precious stones. It is therefore natural that
+mining operations should have been carried out in Austria from the
+earliest times, as, for instance, the salt mines of Hallstatt in Upper
+Austria, which had already been worked during the Celtic and
+Romanic period. Famous through the middle ages were also the
+works, especially for the extraction of gold and silver, carried out
+in Bohemia and Moravia, whose early mining regulations, for instance
+those of Iglau, were adopted in other countries. But the great
+industrial development of the 19th century, with its growing necessity
+for fuel, has brought about the exploitation of the rich coal-fields
+of the country, and to-day the coal mines yield the heaviest output
+of any mineral products. To instance the rapid growth in the extraction
+of coal, it is worth mentioning that in 1825 its output was
+about 150,000 tons; in 1875, or only after half a century, the output
+has become 100 times greater, namely, over 15,000,000 tons; while
+in 1900 it was 32,500,000 tons. Coal is found in nearly every province
+of Austria, with the exception of Salzburg and Bukovina, but the
+richest coal-fields are in Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Moravia and
+Carniola in the order named. Iron ores are found more or less in
+all the crown-lands except Upper Austria, the Küstenland and
+Dalmatia, but it is most plentiful in Styria, Carinthia, Bohemia
+and Moravia. Gold and silver ores are found in Bohemia, Salzburg
+and Tirol. Quicksilver is found at Idria in Carniola, which after
+Almaden in Spain is the richest mine in Europe. Lead is extracted
+in Carinthia and Bohemia, while the only mines for tin in the whole
+of Austria are in Bohemia. Zinc is mostly found in Galicia, Tirol
+and Bohemia, and copper is extracted in Tirol, Moravia and Salzburg.
+Petroleum is found in Galicia, where ozocerite is also raised. Rock-salt
+is extracted in Galicia, while brine-salt is produced in Salzburg,
+Salzkammergut and Tirol. Graphite is extracted in Bohemia,
+Moravia, Styria and Lower Austria. Uranium, bismuth and antimony
+are dug out in Bohemia, while procelain earth is found in
+Bohemia and Moravia. White, red, black and variously-coloured
+marbles exist in the Alps, particularly in Tirol and Salzburg; quartz,
+felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, and asbestos are found in various
+parts; and among precious stones may be specially mentioned the
+Bohemian garnets. The total value of the mines and foundry
+products throughout Austria in 1875 was £5,000,000. The number
+of persons employed in the mines and in the smelting and casting
+works in the same year was 94,019. The total value of the mining
+products throughout Austria in 1902 was £10,500,000, and the value
+of the product of the foundries was £3,795,000. Of this amount
+£3,150,000 represents the value of the iron: raw steel and pig iron.
+The increase in the value of the mining products during the period
+1892-1902 was 40%; and the increase in the product of the furnaces
+in the same period was 35%. The number of persons employed in
+1902 in mining was 140,890; in smelting works 7148; and in the
+extraction of salt, 7963. The value of the chief mining products of
+Austria in 1903 was: Brown coal (21,808,583 tons), £4,182,516;
+coal (12,145,000 tons), £4,059,807; iron ores (1,688,960 tons),
+£615,273; lead ores, £135,965; silver ores, £119,637; quicksilver
+ores, £92,049; graphite, £78,437; tin ores, £78,275; copper ores,
+£22,119; manganese ores, £5368; gold ores, £4407; asphalt, £2250;
+alum and vitriol slate, £992. The production of petroleum was
+660,000 tons, and of salt 340,000 tons. The value of the principal
+products of the smelting furnaces in 1903 was: Iron (955,543 tons),
+£2,970,866; coke, £862,137; zinc (metallic), £174,344; silver,
+£141,594; copper, £57,542; sulphuric acid, £8488; copper vitriol,
+£5710; mineral colours, £5565; lead, £5067; tin, £4566; gold,
+£878; iron vitriol, £603; litharge, £384; quicksilver, £218; coal
+briquettes, £92,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industry</i>.&mdash;The manufactures of Austria were much developed
+during the last quarter of the 19th century, although Austria as a
+whole cannot be said to be an industrial country. Austria possesses
+many favourable conditions for a great industrial activity. It
+possesses an abundance of raw materials, of fuel&mdash;both mineral and
+wood,&mdash;of metals and minerals, in fact all the necessaries for a great
+and nourishing industry; and the rivers can easily be utilized as
+producers of motive power. It is besides densely populated, and
+has an adequate supply of cheap labour, while the undeveloped
+industries of the Balkan states also offer a ready market for its products.
+The glass manufacture in Bohemia is very old, and has kept
+up its leading position in the markets of the world up to the present
+day. Industrial activity is greatly developed in Bohemia, Lower
+Austria, Silesia, Moravia and Vorarlberg, while in Dalmatia and
+Bukovina it is almost non-existent. The principal branches of
+manufactures are, the textile industry, the metallurgic industries;
+brewing and distilling; leather, paper and sugar; glass, porcelain
+and earthenware; chemicals; and scientific and musical instruments.</p>
+
+<p>The textile industry in all its branches&mdash;cotton, woollen, linen,
+silk, flax and hemp&mdash;is mostly concentrated in Bohemia, Moravia,
+Silesia and Lower Austria. It is an old industry, and one which
+has made great progress since 1875. Thus the number of mechanical
+looms increased more than threefold during this period, and numbered
+in 1902 about 120,000. In the same year the number of spindles at
+work was about 3,100,000. Austria had in 1902, 21,837 textile
+factories with 337,514 workmen. The principal seat of the manufacture
+of cotton goods is in northern Bohemia, from the Eger to
+Reichenberg, which can be considered as the Lancashire of Austria,
+Lower Austria between the Wiener Wald and the Leitha, and in
+Vorarlberg. Woollen goods are manufactured in the above places,
+and besides in Moravia, at Brünn and at Iglau; in Silesia; and at
+Biala in Galicia. Vienna is also distinguished for its manufacture
+of shawls. The coarser kind of woollen goods are manufactured
+all over the country, principally in the people&rsquo;s houses as a home
+industry. The most important places for the linen industry are in
+Bohemia at Trautenau; in Moravia and Silesia, while the commoner
+kinds of linen are mostly produced as a home industry by the
+peasants in the above-mentioned crown-lands. The manufacture of
+ribbons, embroidery and lace, the two latter being carried on principally
+as a house industry in Vorarlberg and in the Bohemian Erzgebirge,
+also thrives. The industry in stitched stuffs is especially
+developed in northern Bohemia. Ready-made men&rsquo;s clothes and
+oriental caps (fezes) are produced on a large scale in Bohemia and
+Moravia. The manufacture of silk goods is mainly carried on in
+Vienna, while the spinning of silk has its principal seat in southern
+Tirol, and to a smaller extent in the Küstenland.</p>
+
+<p>The metallurgic industry forms one of the most important branches
+of industry, because iron ore of excellent quality is extracted annually
+in great quantities. The principal seats of the iron and steel manufactures
+are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower Austria,
+Styria and Carinthia, which contain extensive iron-works. The
+most important manufactured products are cutlery, firearms, files,
+wire, nails, tin-plates, scythes, sickles, steel pens, needles, rails, iron
+furniture, drains, and kitchen utensils. A famous place for its iron
+manufacture is Steyr in Upper Austria. The manufacture of
+machinery, for industrial and agricultural purposes, and of railway
+engines is mainly concentrated in Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Prague,
+Brünn and Trieste; while the production of rolling stock for railways
+is carried on in Vienna, Prague and Graz. Ship-building yards for
+sea-vessels are at Trieste and Pola; while for river-vessels the largest
+yards are at Linz. Among other metal manufactures, the principal
+are copper works at Brixlegg and other places in Tirol, and in
+Galicia, tin and lead in Bohemia, and metallic alloys, especially
+<i>Packfong</i> or German silver, an alloy of nickel and copper, at Berndorf
+in Lower Austria. The precious metals, gold and silver, are principally
+worked in the larger towns, particularly at Vienna and Prague.
+Vienna is also the principal seat for scientific and surgical instruments.
+In the manufacture of musical instruments Austria takes a leading
+part amongst European states, the principal places of production
+being Vienna, Prague, Königgrätz, Graslitz and Schönbach.</p>
+
+<p>The glass manufacture is one of the oldest industries in Austria,
+and is mainly concentrated in Bohemia. Its products are of the
+best quality, and rule the markets of the world. In the manufacture
+of earthenwares Austria plays also a leading part, and the porcelain
+industry round Carlsbad and in the Eger district in Bohemia has a
+world-wide reputation. The leather industry is widely extended,
+and is principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia and Moravia.
+Vienna and Prague are great centres for the boot and shoe trade,
+and the gloves manufactured in these towns enjoy a great reputation.
+The manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country,
+and is very varied. In Vienna and other large towns the production
+of ornamental furniture has attained a great development. The
+industry in paper has also assumed great proportions, its principal
+seats being in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria. Of
+food-stuffs, besides milling, and other flour products, the principal
+industry is the manufacture of sugar from beet-root. The sugar industry
+is almost exclusively carried on in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia
+and Galicia. It has attained such large proportions that large
+districts in those provinces have been converted from wheat-growing
+districts into fields for the cultivation of beet-root. Brewing is extensively
+carried on, and the beer produced is of a good quality.
+The largest brewing establishment is at Schwechat near Vienna,
+and large breweries are also found at Pilsen and Budweiss in Bohemia,
+whose products enjoy a great reputation abroad. There were in
+Austria 1341 breweries, which produced 422,993,120 gallons of beer.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page975" id="page975"></a>975</span>
+in 1902-1903. Distilling is carried on on a large scale in Galicia,
+Bukovina, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria; the number of
+distilleries being 1257, which produced 30,435,812 gallons of spirit.
+Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs are made in Dalmatia and
+Moravia. The manufacture as well as the growth of tobacco is a
+government monopoly, which has 30 tobacco factories with over
+40,000 work-people, the largest establishment being at Hainburg in
+Lower Austria. Other important branches of industry are the
+manufacture of chemicals, in Vienna and in Bohemia; petroleum
+refineries in Galicia, and the extraction of various petroleum products;
+the manufacture of buttons; printing, lithographing, engraving, and
+map-making, especially in Vienna, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 the various manufacturing industries employed in Austria
+3,138,800 persons, of whom 2,264,871 were workmen and 103,854
+were labourers. Including families and domestic servants, a little
+over 7,000,000 were dependent on industry for their livelihood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce</i>.&mdash;Austria forms together with Hungary one customs
+and commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade are
+given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span>. Owing to its situation, the bulk
+of the Austrian trade is carried on the railways and on the inland
+navigable rivers. Only a small portion is sea-borne trade, while the
+commercial interchange between the provinces lying on the Adriatic
+coast is very small.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commercial Navy</i>.&mdash;The commercial sea navy of Austria, excluding
+small coasting vessels and fishing-boats, consisted in 1900 of 154
+vessels, with a tonnage of 198,322 tons, of which 123 vessels with a
+tonnage of 183,949 were steamers. The greatest navigation company
+is the Austrian Lloyd in Trieste, which in 1900 employed 70 steamers
+of 165,430 tons. During 1900 the total tonnage of vessels engaged
+in the foreign trade, which entered all the Austrian ports, was
+1,448,764 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 888,707 under
+foreign flags; the total tonnage of vessels cleared during the same
+period was 1,503,532 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and
+866,591 under foreign flags.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government</i>.&mdash;Austria is a parliamentary or constitutional
+(limited) monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of emperor.
+The succession to the throne is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture,
+in the male line of the house of Habsburg-Lothringen;
+and failing this, in the female line. The monarch must be a
+member of the Roman Catholic Church. The emperor of Austria
+is also king of Hungary, but except for having the same monarch
+and a few common affairs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span>), the two
+states are quite independent of one another. The emperor
+has the supreme command over the armed forces of the country,
+has the right to confer degrees of nobility, and has the prerogatives
+of pardon for criminals. He is the head of the executive
+power, and shares the legislative power with the Reichsrat;
+and justice is administered in his name. The constitution of
+Austria is based upon the following statutes:&mdash;(1) the Pragmatic
+Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the
+19th of April 1713, which regulated the succession to the throne;
+(2) the Pragmatic Patent of the emperor Francis II. of the
+1st of August 1804, by which he took the title of Emperor of
+Austria; (3) the Diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I.
+of the 20th of October 1860, by which the constitutional form
+of government was introduced; (4) the Diploma of the emperor
+Francis Joseph I. of the 26th of February 1861, by which the
+provincial diets were created; (5) the six fundamental laws
+of the 21st of December 1867, which contain the exposition
+and guarantee of the civil and political rights of the citizen, the
+organization of justice, the organization and method of election
+for the Reichsrat, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The executive power is vested in the council of ministers,
+at whose head is the minister-president. There are eight
+ministries, namely, the ministry of the interior, of national defence,
+of worship and instruction, of finance, of commerce, of agriculture,
+of justice, and of railways. There are, further, two ministries,
+without portfolio, for Galicia and Bohemia. The civil administration
+in the different provinces is carried out by governors or
+stadtholders (<i>Statthalter</i>), to whom are subordinate the heads
+of the 347 districts in which Austria was divided in 1900, and
+of the 33 towns with special statute, <i>i.e</i>. of the towns which have
+also the management of the civil administration. Local self-government
+of the provinces, districts and communities is
+also granted, and is exercised by various elective bodies. Thus,
+the autonomous provincial administration is discharged by the
+provincial committees elected by the local diets; and the affairs of
+the communities are discharged by an elected communal council.</p>
+
+<p>The legislative power for all the kingdoms and lands which
+constitute Austria is vested in the Reichsrat. It consists of
+two Houses: an Upper House (the <i>Herrenhaus</i>), and a Lower
+House (the <i>Abgeordnetenhaus</i>). The Upper House is composed
+of (1) princes of the imperial house, who are of age (14 in 1907);
+(2) of the members of the large landed nobility, to which the
+emperor had conferred this right, and which is hereditary in
+their family (78 in 1907); (3) of 9 archbishops and 8 prince-bishops;
+and (4) of life members nominated by the emperor for
+distinguished services (170 in 1907). The Lower House has
+undergone considerable changes since its creation in 1861, by
+the various modifications of the electoral laws passed in 1867,
+1873, 1892, 1896 and 1907. The general spirit of those modifications
+was to broaden the electoral basis, and to extend the
+franchise to a larger number of citizens. The law of the 26th of
+January 1907 granted universal franchise to Austrian male citizens
+over twenty-four years of age, who have resided for a year in the
+place of election. The Lower House consists of 516 members,
+elected for a period of six years. The members receive payment
+for their services, as well as an indemnity for travelling expenses.
+A bill to become law must pass through both Houses, and must
+receive the sanction of the emperor. The emperor is bound to
+summon the Reichsrat annually.</p>
+
+<p>According to the imperial Diploma of the 26th February
+1861, local diets have been created for the legislation of matters
+of local interest. These provincial parliaments are 17 in number,
+and their membership varies from 22 members, which compose
+the diet of Görz and Gradisca to the 242 members which constitute
+that of Bohemia. They assemble annually and are composed
+of members elected for a period of six years, and of members
+<i>ex-officio</i>, namely, the archbishops and bishops of the respective
+provinces, and the rector of the local university.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Religion</i>.&mdash;Religious toleration was secured throughout the
+Habsburg dominions by the patent of the 13th of October 1781, but
+Protestants were not given full civil rights until the issue of the
+<i>Protestantenpatent</i> of the 8th of April 1861, after the promulgation of
+the imperial constitution of the 26th of February. The principle
+underlying this and all subsequent acts is the guarantee to all
+religious bodies <i>recognized by law</i> of freedom of worship, the management
+of their own affairs, and the undisturbed possession and disposal
+of their property. Though all the churches are, in a sense, &ldquo;established,&rdquo;
+the Roman Catholic Church, to which the sovereign must
+belong, is the state religion. The reigning house, however, though
+strongly attached to the Roman faith, has always resisted the
+extreme claims of the papacy, an attitude which in Joseph II.&rsquo;s time
+resulted, under the influence of Febronianism (<i>q.v</i>.), in what was
+practically a national schism. Thus the emperor retains the right
+to tax church property, to nominate bishops, and to prohibit the
+circulation of papal bulls without his permission. By the concordat
+of August 18, 1855, this traditional attitude was to some extent
+reversed; but this agreement soon became a dead letter and was
+formally denounced by the Austrian government after the promulgation
+of the dogma of papal infallibility.</p>
+
+<p>Of the population of Austria in 1900, 23,796,814 (91%) were
+Roman Catholics, including 3,134,439 uniate Greeks and 2096 uniate
+Armenians. There were 12,937 Old Catholics, in scattered communities,
+606,764 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, mainly
+in Bukovina and Dalmatia, and 698 Armenians, also mainly in
+Bukovina. The Protestants, who in the 16th century comprised
+90% of the population, are now only 1.9%. In 1900, 365,505 of them
+were returned as belonging to the Augsburg Confession (Lutheran),
+128,557 to the Helvetic (Reformed). Other Christian Confessions
+in Austria are Herrnhuters (Moravian Brethren) in Bohemia,
+Mennonites in Galicia, Lippovanians (akin to the Russian Skoptsi)
+in Bukovina, and Anglicans. The Jews compose 4.7% of the
+population, and are strongest in Galicia, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
+Moravia and Bukovina. The Roman Catholic Church is divided
+into eight provinces, seven of the Latin rite&mdash;Vienna, Prague,
+Lemberg, Salzburg, Olmütz, Görz and Zara&mdash;with 23 bishoprics, and
+one of the Greek rite (Lemberg), with two bishoprics. The Armenian
+bishopric of Lemberg and the Austrian part of the archdiocese of
+Breslau are under the immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. The
+Greek Orthodox Church has one archbishopric (at Czernowitz) and
+two bishoprics. There are 559 communities of the Jewish religion
+(253 in Galicia, and 255 in Bohemia). In 1900 there were, belonging
+to the Roman Catholic Church, 541 monasteries with 7775 monks,
+and 877 convents with 19,194 nuns; while the Greek Orthodox
+Church had 14 monasteries with 85 members. The Evangelical
+Church, according to the constitution granted by imperial decree
+on the 9th of April 1861 (modified by those of January 6, 1866
+and December 9, 1891) is organized on a territorial basis, being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page976" id="page976"></a>976</span>
+administered by 10 superintendents, who are, in their turn, subject
+to the Supreme Church Council (<i>K.K. Oberkirchenrat</i>) at Vienna,
+the emperor as sovereign being technically head of the Church.
+The small Anglican community at Trieste is under the jurisdiction
+of the Evangelical superintendent of Vienna.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education</i>.&mdash;The system of elementary schools dates from the time
+of Maria Theresa; the present organization was introduced by the
+education law of May 14, 1869 (amended in 1883). By this law
+the control of the schools, hitherto in the hands of the Church, was
+assumed by the state, every local community being bound to erect
+and maintain public elementary schools. These are divided into
+<i>Volksschulen</i> (national or primary schools) and <i>Bürgerschulen</i> (higher
+elementary schools). Attendance is obligatory on all from the age of
+six to fourteen (in some provinces six to twelve). Religious instruction
+is given by the parish priest, but in large schools a special grant
+is made or a teacher <i>ad hoc</i> appointed in the higher classes (law of
+June 17, 1888). Private schools are also allowed which, if fulfilling
+the legal requirements, may be accorded the validity of public
+primary schools. The language of instruction is that of the nationality
+prevalent in the district. In about 40% of the schools the
+instruction is given in German; in 26% in Czech; in 28% in other
+Slavonic languages, and in the remainder in Italian, Rumanian or
+Magyar. In 1903 there were in Austria 20,268 elementary schools
+with 78,025 teachers, frequented by 3,618,837 pupils, which compares
+favourably with the figures of the year 1875, when there were
+14,257 elementary schools with 27,677 teachers, frequented by
+2,050,808 pupils. About 88% of the children who are of school age
+actually attend school, but in some provinces like Upper Austria and
+Salzburg nearly the full 100 attend, while in the eastern parts of the
+monarchy the percentage is much lower. In 1900 62% of the total
+population of Austria could read and write, and 2.9% could only
+read. In the number of illiterates are included children under seven
+years of age. For the training of teachers of elementary schools
+there were in 1900 54 institutions for masters and 38 for mistresses.
+In these training colleges, as also in the secondary or &ldquo;middle&rdquo;
+schools (<i>Mittelschulen</i>), religious instruction is also in the hands of
+the Roman Catholic Church; but, by the law of June 20, 1870,
+the state must provide for such teaching in the event of the Protestant
+pupils numbering 20 or upwards (the school authorities usually
+refuse to take more than 19 Protestants in consequence).</p>
+
+<p>Besides the elementary schools three other groups of educational
+establishments exist in Austria: &ldquo;middle&rdquo; schools (<i>Mittelschulen</i>);
+&ldquo;high&rdquo; schools (<i>Hochschulen</i>); professional and technical schools
+(<i>Fachlehranstalten</i> and <i>Gewerbeschulen</i>). The &ldquo;middle&rdquo; schools
+include the classical schools (<i>Gymnasien</i>), &ldquo;modern&rdquo; schools with
+some Latin teaching (<i>Realgymnasien</i>), and modern schools simply
+(Realschulen)&mdash;In 1903 there were 202 <i>Gymnasien</i>, 19 <i>Realgymnasien</i>
+and 117 <i>Realschulen</i>, with 7121 teachers and 111,012 scholars. The
+&ldquo;high&rdquo; schools include the universities and the technical high
+schools (<i>Technische Hochschulen</i>). Of state universities there
+are eight:&mdash;Vienna, Gratz, Innsbruck, Prague (German), and
+Czernowitz, in which German is the language of instruction; Prague
+(Bohemian) with Czech; and Cracow and Lemberg with Polish as
+the language of instruction. Each university has four faculties&mdash;theology,
+law and political science, medicine, and philosophy. In
+Czernowitz, however, the faculty of medicine is wanting. Since
+1905 an Italian faculty of law has been added to the university of
+Innsbruck. The theological faculties are all Roman Catholic, except
+Czernowitz, where the theological faculty is Orthodox Eastern.
+All the universities are maintained by the state. The number
+of professors and lecturers was about 1596 in 1903; while the
+number of students was 17,498.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice</i>.&mdash;The judicial authorities in Austria are:&mdash;(1) the county
+courts, 963 in number; (2) the provincial and district courts,
+74 in number, to which are attached the jury courts,&mdash;both these
+courts are courts of first instance; (3) the higher provincial
+courts, 9 in number, namely, at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbruck,
+Zara, Prague, Brünn Cracow and Lemberg; these are the cours
+of appeal from the lower courts, and have the supervision of the
+criminal courts in their jurisdiction; (4) the supreme court of
+justice and court of cassation in Vienna.  The judicial organization
+is independent of the executive power.  There are also special courts
+for commercial, industrial, shipping, military and other matters.
+There is also the court of the Empire at Vienna, which has the power
+to decide in case of conflict between different authorities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance</i>.&mdash;The growth of the Austrian budget, is shown by the
+following figures:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Expenditure</td> <td class="tcc rb">£44,121,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">£55,396,916</td> <td class="tcc rb">£66,003,494</td> <td class="tcc rb">£74,013,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Revenue</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£43,714,666</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£57,446,091</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£66,020,475</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£74,079,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, indirect taxes,
+customs duties, post and telegraph and post-office savings banks
+receipts, railway receipts, and profits or royalties on forests, domains
+and mining. The direct taxes are divided into two groups, real and
+personal; the former include the land tax and house-rent tax, and
+the latter the personal income tax, tax on salaries, tax on commercial
+and industrial establishments, tax on all business with properly
+audited accounts (like the limited liability companies), and tax on
+investments. The principal indirect taxes are the tobacco monopoly,
+stamps and fees, excise duties on sugar, alcohol and beer, the salt
+monopoly, excise duty on mineral oil, and excise duty on meat and
+cattle for slaughtering.</p>
+
+<p>The national debt of Austria is divided into two groups, a general
+national debt, incurred jointly by the two halves of the Austro-Hungarian
+monarchy for common affairs, and is therefore jointly
+borne by both parts, and a separate debt owed only by Austria alone.
+The following table shows the growth of the Austrian debt in millions
+sterling:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">1885</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">45.</td> <td class="tcc allb">88.23</td> <td class="tcc allb">119.60</td> <td class="tcc allb">140.68</td> <td class="tcc allb">167.91</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At the close of 1903 the debt of Austria was £156,724,000, an
+increase since 1900 of £16,044,000. This large increase is due to the
+great expenditure on public works, as railways, navigable canals,
+harbour works, &amp;c., started by the Austrian government since 1900.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways</i>.&mdash;As regards internal communications, Austria is
+provided with an extensive network of railways, the industrial
+provinces being specially favoured. This has been accomplished in
+spite of the engineering difficulties owing to the mountainous nature
+of the country and of the great financial expenses resulting therefrom.
+The construction of the Semmering railway, opened in 1854,
+for instance, was the first mountain railway built in the European
+continent, and marked an epoch in railway engineering. The first
+railway laid down in Austria was in 1824 between Budweis and
+Kerschbaum, over a distance of 40 m., and was at first used for horse
+tramway. The first steam railway was opened in 1837 over a distance
+of about 10 m. between Floridsdorf (near Vienna) and Wagram.
+From the first, the policy of the Austrian government was to construct
+and to work the railways itself; and in granting concessions
+to private companies it stipulated among its conditions the reversionary
+right of the state, whereby the line becomes the property of
+the state without compensation after the lapse of the period of
+concession. With various modifications, according to its financial
+means, it vigorously pursued its policy, by both building railways
+itself, and encouraging private companies to build. In 1905 the
+total length of railways in Austria was 13,590 m., of which 5017 m.
+belonged to and were worked by the state, and 3359 m. belonged to
+private companies, but were worked by the state.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;F. Umlauft, <i>Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns in
+Wort und Bild</i> (15 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), <i>Die österreichisch-ungarische
+Monarchic</i> (3rd ed., Vienna, 1896), <i>Die österreichische
+Monarchic in Wort und Bild</i> (24 vols., Vienna, 1888-1902), and <i>Die
+Volker Österreich-Ungarns</i> (12 vols., Teschen, 1881-1885); A. Supan,
+&ldquo;Österreich-Ungarn&rdquo; (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhoff&rsquo;s <i>Länderkunde
+von Europa</i>, vol. ii.); Auerbach, <i>Les Races et les nationalitiés en
+Autriche-Hongrie</i> (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, <i>Österreich-ungarisches
+Ortslexikon</i> (Vienna, 1896). For geology see C. Diener, &amp;c., <i>Ban und
+Bild Österreichs</i> (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903); F. von Hauer, <i>Die
+Geologie</i> (Vienna). The official statistical publications of the central
+statistical department, of the ministry of agriculture, and of the
+ministry of commerce, appearing annually.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(O. Br.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The census returns of 1857, and of 1869, which were the first
+systematic censuses taken, gave the population of Austria as
+18,224,500 and 20,394,980 respectively. It must be noticed that
+between these two dates Austria lost its Lombardo-Venetian territories,
+with a population of about 5,000,000 inhabitants.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8
+       "Atherstone" to "Austria"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2010 [EBook #34312]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOLUME 2 SL 8 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ATTICA: "The place in Attica which has been the chief scene
+      of excavations (independently of Athens and its vicinity) is
+      Eleusis ..." 'vicinity' amended from 'vicinty'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME II, SLICE VIII
+
+           Atherstone to Austria
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON      AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE
+  ATHERSTONE                      AUDEFROI LE BATARD
+  ATHERTON                        AUDIENCE
+  ATHETOSIS                       AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDME ARMAND GASTON
+  ATHIAS, JOSEPH                  AUDIT and AUDITOR
+  ATHLETE                         AUDLEY, SIR JAMES
+  ATHLETIC SPORTS                 AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY
+  ATHLONE                         AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR
+  ATHOL                           AUDRAN
+  ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF      AUDRAN, EDMOND
+  ATHOLL                          AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D'
+  ATHOS                           AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES
+  ATHY                            AUE
+  ATINA                           AUERBACH, BERTHOLD
+  ATITLAN                         AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER
+  ATKINSON, EDWARD                AUFIDENA
+  ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT      AUGEAS
+  ATLANTA                         AUGER
+  ATLANTIC                        AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES
+  ATLANTIC CITY                   AUGHRIM
+  ATLANTIC OCEAN                  AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR EMILE
+  ATLANTIS                        AUGITE
+  ATLAS                           AUGMENT
+  ATLAS MOUNTAINS                 AUGMENTATION
+  ATMOLYSIS                       AUGSBURG
+  ATMOSPHERE                      AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF
+  ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY         AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF
+  ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY             AUGURS
+  ATOLL                           AUGUST
+  ATOM                            AUGUSTA (Georgia, U.S.A.)
+  ATONEMENT and DAY OF ATONEMENT  AUGUSTA (Maine, U.S.A.)
+  ATRATO                          AUGUSTA (Sicily)
+  ATREK                           AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM
+  ATREUS                          AUGUSTAN HISTORY
+  ATRI                            AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM
+  ATRIUM                          AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM
+  ATROPHY                         AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
+  ATROPOS                         AUGUSTINE, SAINT (archbishop)
+  ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS           AUGUSTINIAN CANONS
+  ATTACAPA                        AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS
+  ATTACHMENT                      AUGUSTINIANS
+  ATTAINDER                       AUGUSTOWO
+  ATTAINT, WRIT OF                AUGUSTUS
+  ATTALIA                         AUGUSTUS I
+  ATTAR OF ROSES                  AUGUSTUS II
+  ATTEMPT                         AUGUSTUS III
+  ATTENTION                       AUGUSTUSBAD
+  ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS    AUK
+  ATTERBURY, FRANCIS              AULARD, FRANCOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE
+  ATTESTATION                     AULIC COUNCIL
+  ATTHIS                          AULIE-ATA
+  ATTIC                           AULIS
+  ATTICA                          AULNOY, MARIE CATHERINE DE LA MOTTE
+  ATTIC BASE                      AULOS
+  ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS        AUMALE, HENRI EUGENE D'ORLEANS
+  ATTICUS HERODES, CLAUDIUS       AUMALE
+  ATTILA                          AUMONT
+  ATTIS                           AUNCEL
+  ATTLEBOROUGH                    AUNDH
+  ATTOCK                          AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD
+  ATTORNEY                        AUNT SALLY
+  ATTORNEY-GENERAL                AURA
+  ATTORNMENT                      AURANGABAD
+  ATTRITION                       AURANGZEB
+  ATTWOOD, THOMAS (composer)      AURAY
+  ATTWOOD, THOMAS (reformer)      AURELIA, VIA
+  ATWOOD, GEORGE                  AURELIAN
+  AUBADE                          AURELIANUS, CAELIUS
+  AUBAGNE                         AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN D'
+  AUBE                            AUREOLA
+  AUBENAS                         AURICH
+  AUBER, DANIEL FRANCOIS ESPRIT   AURICLE
+  AUBERGINE                       AURICULA
+  AUBERVILLIERS                   AURIFABER
+  AUBIGNAC, FRANCOIS HEDELIN      AURIGA
+  AUBIGNE, CONSTANT D'            AURILLAC
+  AUBIGNE, JEAN HENRI MERLE D'    AURISPA, GIOVANNI
+  AUBIGNE, THEODORE AGRIPPA D'    AUROCHS
+  AUBIN                           AURORA (Roman goddess)
+  AUBREY, JOHN                    AURORA (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  AUBURN (Maine, U.S.A.)          AURORA (Missouri, U.S.A.)
+  AUBURN (New York, U.S.A.)       AURORA (New York, U.S.A.)
+  AUBURN (colour)                 AURORA POLARIS
+  AUBUSSON, PIERRE D'             AURUNCI
+  AUBUSSON                        AUSCULTATION
+  AUCH                            AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS
+  AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL            AUSSIG
+  AUCHTERARDER                    AUSTEN, JANE
+  AUCHTERMUCHTY                   AUSTERLITZ
+  AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN           AUSTIN, ALFRED
+  AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN          AUSTIN, JOHN
+  AUCKLAND                        AUSTIN, SARAH
+  AUCKLAND ISLANDS                AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER
+  AUCTION PITCH                   AUSTIN (Minnesota, U.S.A.)
+  AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS        AUSTIN (Texas, U.S.A.)
+  AUCUBA                          AUSTRALASIA
+  AUDAEUS                         AUSTRALIA
+  AUDE (river of France)          AUSTRASIA
+  AUDE (department of France)     AUSTRIA
+
+
+
+
+ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON (1813-1898), British geologist, one of the
+pioneers in South African geology, was born in 1813, in the district of
+Uitenhage, Cape Colony. Having qualified as M.D. he settled in early
+life as a medical practitioner at Grahamstown, subsequently becoming
+F.R.C.S. In 1839 his interest was aroused in geology, and from that date
+he "devoted the leisure of a long and successful medical practice" to
+the pursuit of geological science. In 1857 he published an account of
+the rocks and fossils of Uitenhage (the latter described more fully by
+R. Tate, _Quart. Journal Geol. Soc._, 1867). He also obtained many
+fossil reptilia from the Karroo beds, and presented specimens to the
+British Museum. These were described by Sir Richard Owen. Atherstone's
+identification in 1867 as a diamond of a crystal found at De Kalk near
+the junction of the Riet and Vaal rivers, led indirectly to the
+establishment of the great diamond industry of South Africa. He
+encouraged the workings at Jagersfontein, and he also called attention
+to the diamantiferous neck at Kimberley. He was one of the founders of
+the Geological Society of South Africa at Johannesburg in 1895; and for
+some years previously he was a member of the Cape parliament. He died at
+Grahamstown, on the 26th of June 1898.
+
+  See the obituary by T. Rupert Jones, _Natural Science_, vol. xiv.
+  (January 1899).
+
+
+
+
+ATHERSTONE, a market-town in the Nuneaton parliamentary division of
+Warwickshire, England, 102-1/2 m. N.W. from London by the London &
+North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5248. It lies in the upper valley of
+the Anker, under well-wooded hills to the west, and is on the Roman
+Watling Street, and the Coventry canal. The once monastic church of St
+Mary is rebuilt, excepting the central tower and part of the chancel.
+The chief industry is hat-making. On the high ground to the west lie
+ruins of the Cistercian abbey of Merevale, founded in 1149; they include
+the gatehouse chapel, part of the refectory and other remains exhibiting
+beautiful details of the 14th century. Coal is worked at Baxterley, 3 m.
+west of Atherstone.
+
+  Atherstone (_Aderestone, Edridestone, Edrichestone_), though not
+  mentioned in any pre-Conquest record, is of unquestionably ancient
+  origin. A Saxon barrow was opened near the town in 1824. It is
+  traversed by Watling Street, and portions of the ancient Roman road
+  have been discovered in modern times. Atherstone is mentioned in
+  Domesday among the possessions of Countess Godiva, the widow of
+  Leofric. In the reign of Henry III. it passed to the monks of Bec in
+  Normandy, who in 1246 obtained the grant of an annual fair at the
+  feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, and the next year of a market
+  every Tuesday. This market became so much frequented that in 1319 a
+  toll was levied upon all goods coming into the town, in order to
+  defray the cost of the repair to the roads necessitated by the
+  constant traffic, and in 1332 a similar toll was levied on all goods
+  passing over the bridge called Feldenbrigge near Atherstone. The
+  September fair and Tuesday markets are still continued. In the reign
+  of Edward III. a house of Austin Friars was founded at Atherstone by
+  Ralph Lord Basset of Drayton, which, however, never rose to much
+  importance, and at its dissolution in 1536 was valued at 30 shillings
+  and 3 pence only.
+
+
+
+
+ATHERTON, or CHOWBENT, an urban district in the Leigh parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 13 m. W.N.W. of Manchester on the
+London & North-Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901)
+16,211. The cotton factories are the principal source of industry; there
+are also iron-works and collieries. The manor was held by the local
+family of Atherton from John's reign to 1738, when it passed by marriage
+to Robert Gwillym, who assumed that name. In 1797 his eldest daughter
+and co-heiress married Thomas Powys, afterwards the second Lord Lilford.
+Up to 1891 the lord of the manor held a court-leet and court-baron
+annually in November, but in that year Lord Lilford sold to the local
+board the market tolls, stallages and pickages, and since this sale the
+courts have lapsed. The earliest manufactures were iron and cotton.
+Silk-weaving, formerly an extensive industry, has now almost entirely
+decayed. The first chapel or church was built in 1645. James Wood, who
+became Nonconformist minister in the chapel at Atherton in 1691, earned
+fame and the familiar title of "General" by raising a force from his
+congregation, uncouthly armed, to fight against the troops of the
+Pretender (1715).
+
+
+
+
+ATHETOSIS (Gr. [Greek: hathetos], "without place"), the medical term
+applied to certain slow, purposeless, deliberate movements of the hands
+and feet. The fingers are separately flexed and extended, abducted and
+adducted in an entirely irregular way. The hands as a whole are also
+moved, and the arms, toes and feet may be affected. The condition is
+usually due to some lesion of the brain which has caused hemiplegia, and
+is especially common in childhood. It is occasionally congenital (so
+called), and is then due to some injury of the brain during birth. It is
+more usually associated with hemiplegia, in which condition there is
+first of all complete voluntary immobility of the parts affected: but
+later, as there is a return of a certain amount of power over the limbs
+affected, the slow rhythmic movements of athetosis are first noticed.
+This never develops, however, where there is no recovery of voluntary
+power. Its distribution is thus nearly always hemiplegic, and it is
+often associated with more or less mental impairment. The movements may
+or may not continue during sleep. They cannot be arrested for more than
+a moment by will power, and are aggravated by voluntary movements. The
+prognosis is unsatisfactory, as the condition usually continues
+unchanged for years, though improvement occasionally occurs in slight
+cases, or even complete recovery.
+
+
+
+
+ATHIAS, JOSEPH (d. 1700), Jewish rabbi and printer, was born in Spain
+and settled in Amsterdam. His editions of the Hebrew Bible (1661, 1667)
+are noted for beauty of execution and the general correctness of the
+text. He also printed a Judaeo-German edition of the Bible in 1679, a
+year after the appearance of the edition by Uri Phoebus.
+
+
+
+
+ATHLETE (Gr. [Greek: athletes]; Lat. _athleta_), in Greek and Roman
+antiquities, one who contended for a prize ([Greek: athlon]) in the
+games; now a general term for any one excelling in physical strength.
+Originally denoting one who took part in musical, equestrian, gymnastic,
+or any other competitions, the name became restricted to the competitors
+in gymnastic contests, and, later, to the class of professional
+athletes. Whereas in earlier times competitors, who were often persons
+of good birth and position, entered the lists for glory, without any
+idea of material gain, the professional class, which arose as early as
+the 5th century B.C., was chiefly recruited from the lower orders, with
+whom the better classes were unwilling to associate, and took up
+athletics entirely as a means of livelihood. Ancient philosophers,
+moralists and physicians were almost unanimous in condemning the
+profession of athletics as injurious not only to the mind but also to
+the body. The attack made upon it by Euripides in the fragment of the
+_Autolycus_ is well known. The training for the contests was very
+rigorous. The matter of diet was of great importance; this was
+prescribed by the _aleiptes_, whose duty it also was to anoint the
+athlete's body. At one time the principal food consisted of fresh
+cheese, dried figs and wheaten bread. Afterwards meat was introduced,
+generally beef, or pork; but the bread and meat were taken separately,
+the former at breakfast, the latter at dinner. Except in wine, the
+quantity was unlimited, and the capacity of some of the heavy-weights
+must have been, if such stories as those about Milo are true, enormous.
+In addition to the ordinary gymnastic exercises of the palaestra, the
+athletes were instructed in carrying heavy loads, lifting weights,
+bending iron rods, striking at a suspended leather sack filled with sand
+or flour, taming bulls, &c. Boxers had to practise delving the ground,
+to strengthen their upper limbs. The competitions open to athletes were
+running, leaping, throwing the discus, wrestling, boxing and the
+pancratium, or combination of boxing and wrestling. Victory in this last
+was the highest achievement of an athlete, and was reserved only for men
+of extraordinary strength. The competitors were naked, having their
+bodies salved with oil. Boxers wore the _caestus_, a strap of leather
+round the wrists and forearms, with a piece of metal in the fist, which
+was sometimes employed with great barbarity. An athlete could begin his
+career as a boy in the contests set apart for boys. He could appear
+again as a youth against his equals, and though always unsuccessful,
+could go on competing till the age of thirty-five, when he was debarred,
+it being assumed that after this period of life he could not improve.
+The most celebrated of the Greek athletes whose names have been handed
+down are Milo of Crotona, Hipposthenes, Polydamas, Promachus and
+Glaucus. Cyrene, famous in the time of Pindar for its athletes, appears
+to have still maintained its reputation to at least the time of
+Alexander the Great; for in the British Museum are to be seen six prize
+vases carried off from the games at Athens by natives of that district.
+These vases, found in the tombs, probably, of the winners, are made of
+clay, and painted on one side with a representation of the contest in
+which they were won, and on the other side with a figure of Pallas
+Athena, with an inscription telling where they were gained, and in some
+cases adding the name of the eponymous magistrate of Athens, from which
+the exact year can be determined.
+
+Amongst the Romans athletic contests had no doubt taken place from the
+earliest times, but according to Livy (xxxix. 22) professional Greek
+athletes were first introduced at Rome by M. Fulvius Nobilior in 186
+B.C. After the institution of the Actian games by Augustus, their
+popularity increased, until they finally supplanted the gladiators. In
+the time of the empire, gilds or unions of athletes were formed, each
+with a temple, treasury and exercise-ground of its own. The profession,
+although it ranked above that of a gladiator or an actor, was looked
+upon as derogatory to the dignity of a Roman, and it is a rare thing to
+find a Roman name amongst the athletes on inscriptions. The system was
+entirely, and the athletes themselves nearly always, Greek. (See also
+GAMES, CLASSICAL.)
+
+  Krause, _Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen_ (1841); Friedlander,
+  _Sittengeschichte Roms_, ii.; Reisch, in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyc_.
+
+
+
+
+ATHLETIC SPORTS. Various sports were cultivated many hundred years
+before the Christian era by the Egyptians and several Asiatic races,
+from whom the early Greeks undoubtedly adopted the elements of their
+athletic exercises (see ATHLETE), which reached their highest
+development in the Olympic games, and other periodical meetings of the
+kind (see GAMES, CLASSICAL). The original Celtic inhabitants of Great
+Britain were an athletic race, and the earliest monuments of Teutonic
+literature abound in records of athletic prowess. After the Norman
+conquest of England the nobles devoted themselves to the chase and to
+the joust, while the people had their games of ball, running at the
+quintain, fencing with club and buckler, wrestling and other pastimes on
+green and river. The chroniclers of the succeeding centuries are for the
+most part silent concerning the sports of the folk, except such as were
+regarded as a training for war, as archery, while they love to record
+the prowess of the kings and their courts. Thus it is told of Henry V.
+that he "was so swift a runner that he and two of his lords, without bow
+or other engine, would take a wild buck in a large park." Several
+romances of the middle ages, quoted by Strutt (_Sports and Pastimes of
+the People of England_), chronicle the fact that young men of good
+family were taught to run, leap, wrestle and joust. In spite of the
+general silence of the historians concerning the sports of the people,
+it is evident that they were indulged in very largely, since several
+English sovereigns found it necessary to curtail, and even prohibit,
+certain popular pastimes, on the ground that they seduced the people
+from the practice of archery. Thus Edward III. prohibited weight-putting
+by statute. Nevertheless a variety of this exercise, "casting of the
+barre," continued to be a popular pastime, and was afterwards one of the
+favourite sports of Henry VIII., who attained great proficiency at it.
+The prowess of the same monarch at throwing the hammer is a matter of
+history, and his reign seems to have been at a time of general athletic
+revival. We even find his secretary, Richard Pace, advising the sons of
+noblemen to practise their sports and "leave study and learning to the
+children of meaner people," and Sir William Forest, in his _Poesye of
+Princeelye Practice_, thus admonishes his high-born readers:--
+
+  "In featis of maistries bestowe some diligence.
+   Too ryde, runne, lepe, or caste by violence
+   Stone, barre or plummett, or such other thinge,
+   It not refuseth any prince or kynge."
+
+Mr Montague Shearman, to whose volume on _Athletics_ in the Badminton
+series the reader is referred, notes that Sir Thomas Elyot, who wrote at
+about the same period, deprecated too much study and flogging for
+schoolboys, saying: "A discrete master may with as much or more ease
+both to himself and his scholler lead him to play at tennis or shoote."
+Elyot recommends the perusal of Galen's _De sanitate tuenda_, and
+suggests as suitable athletic exercises within doors "deambulations,
+labouryng with poyses made of ledde, lifting and throwing the heavy
+stone or barre, playing at tennis," and dwells upon "rennyng" as a "good
+exercise and laudable solace." It is probable that the disciples of the
+"new learning," who had become prominent in Sir Thomas's time,
+endeavoured to combat the influence of athletic exercises, their point
+of view being exemplified by the dictum of Roger Ascham, who, in his
+_Toxophilus_, declares that "running, leaping and quoiting be too vile
+for scholars."
+
+In the 16th century the great football match played annually at Chester
+was abolished in favour of a series of foot-races, which took place in
+the presence of the mayor. A list of the common sports of that time is
+contained in some verses by Randel Holme, a minstrel of the North
+country, and makes mention of throwing the sledge, jumping, "wrastling,"
+stool-ball (cricket), running, pitching the bar, shooting, playing
+loggets, "nine holes or ten pins," "football by the shinnes," leap-frog,
+morris, shove-groat, leaping the bonfire, stow-ball (golf), and many
+other outdoor and indoor sports, some of them now obsolete. Shakespeare
+and the other Elizabethan poets abound in allusions to sport, which
+formed an important feature in school life and at every fair. The Stuart
+kings were warm encouragers of sport, the _Basilikon Doron_ of James I.,
+written for his son, containing a recommendation to the young prince to
+practise "running, leaping, wrestling, fencing, dancing, and playing at
+the caitch, or tennise, archerie, palle-malle, and such like other fair
+and pleasant field games."
+
+An extraordinary variety of sports has been popular in Great Britain
+with high and low for the past five centuries, no other country
+comparing with it in this respect. Nor have Ireland and Scotland lagged
+behind England in athletic prowess. Indeed, so far as history and legend
+record, Ireland boasts of by far the most ancient organized sports
+known, the Tailtin Games, or Lugnasad, traditionally established by
+Lugaid of the Long Arm, one of the gods of Dia and Ana, in honour of his
+foster-mother Tailti, some three thousand years ago. For many centuries
+these games, and others like them, were kept up in Ireland, and though
+the almost constant wars which harried the country finally destroyed
+their organization, yet the Irish have always been, and still are, a
+very important factor in British athletics, as well as in America and
+the colonies.
+
+The Scottish people have, like the Irish, ever delighted in feats of
+strength and skill, especially the Celtic highlanders, the character of
+whose country and mode of life have, however, prevented organized
+athletics from attaining the same prominence as in England.
+Nevertheless, the celebrated Highland games held at Braemar, Bridge of
+Allan, Luss, Aboyne and other places have served to bring into
+prominence many athletes of the first class, although the records, on
+account of the roughness of the grounds, have not generally vied with
+those made farther south.
+
+The Briton does not lose his love of sport upon leaving his native soil,
+and the development of athletics in the United States and the British
+colonies has kept step with that of the mother-land. Upon the continent
+of Europe sports have occupied a more or less prominent place in the
+life of the nations, but their development has been but an echo of that
+in Great Britain. A great advance, however, has been made since the
+institution of the modern Olympic games.
+
+About the year 1812 the Royal Military College at Sandhurst inaugurated
+regular athletic sports, but the example was not followed until about
+1840, when Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury and the Royal Military
+Academy at Woolwich came to the front, the "Crick Run" at Rugby having
+been started in 1837. At the two great English universities there were
+no organized sports of any kind until 1850, when Exeter College, Oxford,
+held a meeting; this example has been followed, one after the other, by
+the other colleges of both institutions. The first contest between
+Oxford and Cambridge occurred at Oxford in 1864, the programme
+consisting of eight events, of which four were won by each side. The
+same year saw the first contest of the Civil Servants, still an annual
+event.
+
+In 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club was formed in London for "gentlemen
+amateurs," most of its members being old university men. Its first
+championship meeting, held in that year, was the beginning of a series
+afterwards continued to the present day by the Amateur Athletic
+Association, founded in 1880, which has jurisdiction over British
+athletic sports. The most important individual English athletic
+organization is the London Athletic Club, which antedated the Amateur
+Athletic Club, and whose meetings have always been the most important
+events except the championships.
+
+In America a revival of interest in athletic sports took place about the
+year 1870. Ten years later was formed the National Association of
+Amateur Athletes of America, which, in 1888, became the Amateur Athletic
+Union. This body controls athletics throughout the United States, and is
+allied with the Canadian Amateur Athletic Association. It is supreme in
+matters of amateur status, records and licensing of meetings, and has
+control over the following branches of sport: basket-ball, billiards,
+boxing, fencing (in connexion with the Amateur Fencers' League of
+America), gymnastics, hand-ball (fives), running, jumping, walking,
+weight-putting (hammer, shot, discus, weights), hurdle-racing, lacrosse,
+pole-vaulting, swimming, tugs-of-war and wrestling. The Amateur Athletic
+Union has eight sectional groups, and is allied with the Intercollegiate
+Association of Amateur Athletes of America (founded 1876) and the
+Western Intercollegiate Association. The first American intercollegiate
+athletic meeting took place at Saratoga in 1873, only three universities
+competing, though the next year there were eight and in 1875 thirteen.
+Professional athletes in America are confined almost entirely to
+base-ball, boxing, bicycling, wrestling and physical training.
+
+The Canadian athletic championships are held independently of the
+American. Annual championship meetings are also held in South Africa,
+New Zealand and the different states of Australia. For the Australasian
+championships New Zealand joins with Australia.
+
+The organization of university sports in America differs from that at
+Oxford and Cambridge, where there is no official control on the part of
+the university authorities, and where a man is eligible to represent his
+college or university while in residence. In nearly all American
+universities and colleges athletic and other sports are under the
+general control of faculty committees, to which the undergraduate
+athletic committees are subordinate, and which have the power to forbid
+the participation of any student who has not attained a certain standard
+of scholarship. For some years prior to 1906 no student of an American
+university was allowed to represent his university in any sport for
+longer than four years. Early in that year, however, many of the most
+important institutions, including Harvard, Yale, Princeton and
+Pennsylvania, entered upon a new agreement, that only students who have
+been in residence one year should play in 'varsity teams in any branch
+of athletics and that no student should play longer than three years.
+This, together with many other reformatory changes, was directly due to
+a widespread outcry against the growing roughness of play exhibited in
+American football, basket-ball, hockey and other sports, the too evident
+desire to win at all hazards, the extraordinary luxury of the training
+equipment, and the enormous gate-receipts of many of the large
+institutions--the Yale Athletic Association held a surplus of about
+$100,000 (L20,000) in December 1905, after deducting immense amounts for
+expenses. The new rule against the participation of freshmen in 'varsity
+sports was to discourage the practice of offering material advantages of
+different kinds to promising athletes, generally those at preparatory
+schools, to induce them to become students at certain universities.
+
+At the present day athletic sports are usually understood to consist of
+those events recognized in the championship programmes of the different
+countries. Those in the competitions between Oxford and Cambridge are
+the 100 yards, 440 yards, 880 yards, 1-mile and 3-mile runs; 120 yards
+hurdle-race; high and long jumps; throwing the hammer; and putting the
+weight (shot). To the above list the English A.A.A. adds the 4-mile and
+10-mile runs; the 2-mile and 7-mile walking races; the 2-mile
+steeplechase; and the pole-vault. The American intercollegiate programme
+is identical with that of the Oxford-Cambridge meeting, except that a
+2-mile run takes the place of the 3-mile, and the pole-vault is added.
+The American A.A.U. programme includes the 100 yards, 220 yards, 440
+yards, 880 yards, 1-mile and 5-mile runs; 120 yards high-hurdle race;
+220 yards low-hurdle race; high and broad (long) jumps; throwing the
+hammer; throwing 56-lb. weight; putting 16-lb. shot; throwing the
+discus; and pole-vault. Of these the running contests are called "track
+athletics," and the rest "field" events.
+
+International athletic contests of any importance have, with the
+exception of the modern Olympic games, invariably taken place between
+Britons, Americans and Canadians, the continental European countries
+having as yet produced few track or field athletes of the first class,
+although the interest in sports in general has greatly increased in
+Europe during the last ten years. In 1844 George Seward, an American
+professional runner, visited England and competed with success against
+the best athletes there; and in 1863 Louis Bennett, called "Deerfoot," a
+full-blooded Seneca Indian, repeated Seward's triumphs, establishing
+running records up to 12 miles. In 1878 the Canadian, C.C. McIvor,
+champion sprinter of America, went to England, but failed to beat his
+British professional rivals. In 1881 L.E. Myers of New York and E.E.
+Merrill of Boston competed successfully in England, Myers winning every
+short-distance championship except the 100-yards, and Merrill all the
+walking championships save the 7-miles. The same year W.C. Davies of
+England won the 5-mile championship of America, but, like several other
+British runners who have had success in America, he competed under the
+colours of an American club. In 1882 the famous English runner, W.G.
+George, ran against Myers in America in races of 1 mile, 3/4 mile and
+1/2 mile, winning over the first two distances. In 1884 Myers again went
+to England and made new British records over 500, 600, 800 and 1000
+yards, and world's records over 1/2 mile and 1200 yards. The next year
+he won both the British 1/4-mile and 1/2-mile championships. The same
+year a team of Irish athletes, among them W.J.M. Barry, won several
+Canadian championships. In 1888 a team of the Manhattan Athletic Club,
+New York, competed in England with fair success, and during the same
+season an Irish team from the Gaelic Athletic Association visited
+America without much success. In 1890 a team from the Salford Harriers
+was invited to America by the Manhattan Athletic Club, but the evidently
+commercial character of the enterprise caused its failure. One of the
+Harriers, E.W. Parry, won the American steeplechase championship. The
+next year saw another visit to Europe of the Manhattan athletes, who had
+fair success in England and won every event at Paris. In 1895 the London
+Athletic Club team competed in New York against the New York Athletic
+Club, but lost every one of the eleven events, several new records being
+established. During the previous summer (1894) occurred the first of the
+international matches between British and American universities which
+still retain their place as the most interesting athletic event. In that
+contest, which took place at Queen's Club, London, Oxford beat Yale by
+5-1/2 to 3-1/2 events. The next summer Cambridge, as the champion
+English university, visited America and was beaten by Yale (3 to 8). In
+1899 both British universities competed at Queen's Club against the
+combined athletes of Harvard and Yale, who were beaten by the odd event.
+The return match took place between the same universities at New York in
+the summer of 1901, the Americans winning 6 to 3 events. In 1904 Harvard
+and Yale beat Oxford and Cambridge at Queen's Club by the same score.
+
+Outside Great Britain and America the most important athletic events are
+undoubtedly the revived Olympic games. They were instituted by delegates
+from the different nations who met in Paris on the 16th of June 1894,
+principally at the instigation of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the result
+being the formation of an International Olympic Games Committee with
+Baron de Coubertin at its head, which resolved that games should be held
+every fourth year in a different country. The first modern Olympiad took
+place at Athens, 6th to 12th April 1896, in the ancient stadium, which
+was rebuilt through the liberality of a Greek merchant and seated about
+45,000 people. The programme of events included the usual field and
+track sports, gymnastics, wrestling, pole-climbing, lawn tennis,
+fencing, rifle and revolver shooting, weight-lifting, swimming, the
+Marathon race and bicycle racing. Among the contestants were
+representatives of nearly every European nation, besides Americans and
+Australians. Great Britain took little direct interest in the occasion
+and was inadequately represented, but the United States sent five men
+from Boston and four from Princeton University, who, though none of them
+held American championships, succeeded in winning every event for which
+they were entered. The Marathon race of 42 kilometres (26 miles),
+commemorative of the famous run of the Greek messenger to Athens with
+the news of the victory of Marathon, was won by a Greek peasant. The
+second Olympiad was held in Paris in June 1900. Again Great Britain was
+poorly represented, but American athletes won eighteen of the
+twenty-four championship events. The third Olympiad was held at St Louis
+in the summer of 1904 in connexion with the Louisiana Purchase
+Exposition, its success being due in great measure to James E. Sullivan,
+the physical director of the Exposition, and Caspar Whitney, the
+president of the American Olympic Games Committee. The games were much
+more numerous than at the previous Olympiads, including sports of all
+kinds, handicaps, inter-club competitions, and contests for aborigines.
+In the track and field competitions the American athletes won every
+championship except weight-throwing (56 lb.) and lifting the bar. The
+sports of the savages, among whom were American Indians, Africans of
+several tribes, Moros, Patagonians, Syrians, Ainus and Filipinos, were
+disappointing; their efforts in throwing the javelin, shooting with bow
+and arrow, weight-lifting, running and jumping, proving to be feeble
+compared with those of white races. The Americanized Indians made the
+best showing.
+
+The Greeks, however, were not altogether satisfied with the cosmopolitan
+character of the revival of these celebrated games of their ancestors,
+and resolved to give the revival a more definitely Hellenic stamp by
+intercalating an additional series, to take place at Athens, in the
+middle of the quadrennial period. Their action was justified by the
+success which attended the first of this additional series at Athens in
+1906. This success may have been partly due to the personal interest
+taken in the games by the king and royal family of Greece, and to the
+presence of King Edward VII., Queen Alexandra, and the prince and
+princess of Wales; but to whatever cause it should be assigned it was
+generally acknowledged that neither in France nor in America had the
+games acquired the same prestige as those held on the classical soil of
+Greece. In 1906 the governments of Germany, France and the United States
+made considerable grants of money to defray the expenses of the
+competitors from those countries. These games aroused much more interest
+in England than the earlier ones in the series, but though upwards of
+fifty British competitors took part in the contests, they were by no
+means representative in all cases of the best British athletics. The
+American representatives were slightly less numerous, but they were more
+successful. It was noteworthy that no British or Americans took part in
+the rowing races in the Bay of Phalerum, nor in the tennis, football or
+shooting competitions. The Marathon race, by far the most important
+event in the games, was won in 1906 by a British athlete, M.D. Sherring,
+a Canadian by birth. The Americans won a total of 75 prizes, the British
+39, and the Swedes and Greeks each 28.
+
+The games of the 4th Olympiad (1908) were held in London in connexion
+with the Franco-British Exhibition of that year. An immense sensation
+was caused by the finish for the Marathon race from Windsor Castle to
+the stadium in the Exhibition grounds in London. The first competitor to
+arrive was the Italian, Dorando Pietri, whose condition of physical
+collapse was such that, appearing to be on the point of death, he had to
+be assisted over the last few yards of the course. He was therefore
+disqualified, and J. Hayes, an American, was adjudged the winner; a
+special prize was presented to the Italian by Queen Alexandra. In the
+whole series of contests the United Kingdom made 38 wins, the Americans
+22, and the Swedes 7. In the Olympic games proper, British athletes,
+including two wins by colonials from Canada and Africa, scored 25
+successes, and the Americans 18. In the track events 8 wins fell to the
+British, including two Colonials, and 6 to American athletes; but the
+latter gained complete supremacy in the field events, of which they won
+9, while British competitors secured only two of minor importance.
+
+  For records, &c., see the annual _Sporting and Athletic Register_; for
+  the Olympic games see Theodore Andrea Cook's volume, published in
+  connexion with the Olympiad of 1908.
+
+
+
+
+ATHLONE, a market-town of Co. Westmeath, Ireland, on both banks of the
+Shannon. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6617. The urban district, under
+the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1900, is wholly in county Westmeath,
+but the same area is divided by the Shannon between the parliamentary
+divisions of South Westmeath and South Roscommon. Athlone is 78 m. W.
+from Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway, and is also served by
+a branch from Portarlington of the Great Southern & Western line,
+providing an alternative and somewhat longer route from the capital. The
+main line of the former company continues W. to Galway, and a branch
+N.W. serves counties Roscommon and Mayo. The Shannon divides the town
+into two portions, known as the Leinster side (east), and the Connaught
+side (west), which are connected by a handsome bridge opened in 1844.
+There is a swivel railway bridge. The rapids of the Shannon at this
+point are obviated by means of a lock communication with a basin, which
+renders the navigation of the river practicable above the town. The
+steamers of the Shannon Development Company ply on the river, and some
+trade by water is carried on with Limerick, and with Dublin by the river
+and the Grand and Royal canals. Athlone is an important agricultural
+centre, and there are woollen factories. The salmon fishing both
+provides sport and is a source of commercial wealth. There are two
+parish churches, St Mary and St Peter, both erected early in the 19th
+century, of which the first has near it an isolated church tower of
+earlier date. There are three Roman Catholic chapels, a court-house and
+other public offices. Early remains include portions of the castle, of
+the town walls (1576), of the abbey of St Peter and of a Franciscan
+foundation. On several islands of the picturesque Lough Ree, to the
+north, are ecclesiastical and other remains.
+
+The military importance of Athlone dates from the erection of the castle
+and of a bridge over the river by John de Grey, bishop of Norwich and
+justiciar of Ireland, in 1210. It became the seat of the presidency of
+Connaught under Elizabeth, and withstood a siege by the insurgents in
+1641. In the war of 1688 the possession of Athlone was considered of the
+greatest importance, and it consequently sustained two sieges, the first
+by William III. in person, which failed, and the second by General
+Godart van Ginkel (q.v.), who, on the 30th of June 1691, in the face
+of the Irish, forded the river and took possession of the town, with the
+loss of only fifty men. Ginkel was subsequently created earl of Athlone,
+and his descendants held the title till it became extinct in 1844. In
+1797 the town was strongly fortified on the Roscommon side, the works
+covering 15 acres and containing two magazines, an ordnance store, an
+armoury with 15,000 stands of arms and barracks for 1500 men. The works
+are now dismantled. Athlone was incorporated by James I., and returned
+two members to the Irish parliament, and one member to the imperial
+parliament till 1885.
+
+
+
+
+ATHOL, a township of Worcester county, northern Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
+having an area of 35 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 7061, of whom 986 were
+foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 8536. Its surface is irregular and
+hilly. The village of Athol is on Miller's river, and is served by the
+Boston & Albany and the Boston & Maine railways. The streams of the
+township furnish good water-power, and manufactures of varied character
+are its leading interests. Athol was first settled in 1735, and was
+incorporated as a township in 1762. It was named by its largest
+landowner Col. James Murray, after the ancestral home of the Murrays,
+dukes of Atholl.
+
+  See L.B. Caswell, _Athol, Mass., Past and Present_ (Athol, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Stewart line of the Scottish earls of
+Atholl, which ended with the 5th Stewart earl in 1595, the earldom
+reverting to the crown, had originated with Sir John Stewart of Balveny
+(d. 1512), who was created earl of Atholl about 1457 (new charter 1481).
+The 5th earl's daughter, Dorothea, married William Murray, earl of
+Tullibardine (cr. 1606), who in 1626 resigned his earldom in favour of
+Sir Patrick Murray, on condition of the revival of the earldom of Atholl
+in his wife and her descendants. The earldom thus passed to the Murray
+line, and John Murray, their only son (d. 1642), was accordingly
+acknowledged as earl of Atholl (the 1st of the Murrays) in 1629.
+
+JOHN STEWART, 4th earl of Atholl, in the Stewart line (d. 1579), son of
+John, 3rd earl, and of Grizel, daughter of Sir John Rattray, succeeded
+his father in 1542. He supported the government of the queen dowager,
+and in 1560 was one of the three nobles who voted in parliament against
+the Reformation and the Confession of Faith, and declared their
+adherence to Roman Catholicism. Subsequently, however, he joined the
+league against Huntly, whom with Murray and Morton he defeated at
+Corrichie in October 1562, and he supported the projected marriage of
+Elizabeth with Arran. On the arrival of Mary from France in 1561 he was
+appointed one of the twelve privy councillors, and on account of his
+religion obtained a greater share of the queen's favour than either
+Murray or Maitland. He was one of the principal supporters of the
+marriage with Darnley, became the leader of the Roman Catholic nobles,
+and with Lennox obtained the chief power in the government, successfully
+protecting Mary and Darnley from Murray's attempts to regain his
+ascendancy by force of arms. According to Knox he openly attended mass
+in the queen's chapel, and was especially trusted by Mary in her project
+of reinstating Roman Catholicism. The fortress of Tantallon was placed
+in his keeping, and in 1565 he was made lieutenant of the north of
+Scotland. He is described the same year by the French ambassador as
+"tres grand catholique hardi et vaillant et remuant, comme l'on dict,
+mais de nul jugement et experience." He had no share in the murders of
+Rizzio or Darnley, and after the latter crime in 1567, he joined the
+Protestant lords against Mary, appeared as one of the leaders against
+her at Carberry Hill, and afterwards approved of her imprisonment at
+Lochleven Castle. In July he was present at the coronation of James, and
+was included in the council of regency on Mary's abdication. He,
+however, was not present at Langside in May 1568, and in July became
+once more a supporter of Mary, voting for her divorce from Bothwell
+(1569). In March 1570 he signed with other lords the joint letter to
+Elizabeth asking for the queen's intercession and supporting Mary's
+claims, and was present at the convention held at Linlithgow in April in
+opposition to the assembly of the king's party at Edinburgh. In 1574 he
+was proceeded against as a Roman Catholic and threatened with
+excommunication, subsequently holding a conference with the ministers
+and being allowed till midsummer to overcome his scruples. He had failed
+in 1572 to prevent Morton's appointment to the regency, but in 1578 he
+succeeded with the earl of Argyll in driving him from office. On the
+24th of March James took the government into his own hands and dissolved
+the regency, and Atholl and Argyll, to the exclusion of Morton, were
+made members of the council, while on the 29th Atholl was appointed lord
+chancellor. Subsequently, on the 24th of May, Morton succeeded in
+getting into Stirling Castle and in regaining his guardianship of James.
+Atholl and Argyll, who were now corresponding with Spain in hopes of
+assistance from that quarter, then advanced to Stirling with a force of
+7000 men, when a compromise was arranged, the three earls being all
+included in the government. While on his way from a banquet held on the
+20th of April 1579 on the occasion of the reconciliation, Atholl was
+seized with sudden illness, and died on the 25th, not without strong
+suspicions of poison. He was buried at St. Giles's cathedral in
+Edinburgh. He married (1) Elizabeth, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl
+of Huntly, by whom he had two daughters, and (2) Margaret, daughter of
+Malcolm Fleming, 3rd Lord Fleming, by whom, besides three daughters, he
+had John, 5th earl of Atholl, at whose death in 1595 the earldom in
+default of male heirs reverted to the crown.
+
+JOHN MURRAY, 1st earl of Atholl in the Murray line (see above), died in
+1642. On the outbreak of the civil war he called out the men of Atholl
+for the king, and was imprisoned by the marquess of Argyll in Stirling
+Castle in 1640.
+
+JOHN MURRAY, 2nd earl and 1st marquess of Atholl (1631-1703), son of the
+1st earl and of Jean, daughter of Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy, was
+born on the 2nd of May 1631. In 1650 he joined in the unsuccessful
+attempt to liberate Charles II. from the Covenanters, and in 1653 was
+the chief supporter of Glencairn's rising, but was obliged to surrender
+with his two regiments to Monk on the 2nd of September 1654. At the
+restoration Atholl was made a privy councillor for Scotland and sheriff
+of Fife, in 1661 lord justice-general of Scotland, in 1667 a
+commissioner for keeping the peace in the western Highlands, in 1670
+colonel of the king's horseguards, in 1671 a commissioner of the
+exchequer, and in 1672 keeper of the privy seal in Scotland and an
+extraordinary lord of session. In 1670 he became earl of Tullibardine by
+the death of his cousin James, 4th earl, and on the 7th of February 1676
+he was created marquess of Atholl, earl of Tullibardine, viscount of
+Balquhidder, Lord Murray, Balvenie and Cask. He at first zealously
+supported Lauderdale's tyrannical policy, but after the raid of 1678,
+called the "Highland Host," in which Atholl was one of the chief
+leaders, he joined in the remonstrance to the king concerning the
+severities inflicted upon the Covenanters, and was deprived of his
+office of justice-general and passed over for the chancellorship in
+1681. In 1679, however, he was present at the battle of Bothwell Brig;
+in July 1680 he was made vice-admiral of Scotland, and in 1681 president
+of parliament. In 1684 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Argyll, and
+invaded the country, capturing the earl of Argyll after his return from
+abroad in June 1685 at Inchinnan. The excessive severities with which he
+was charged in this campaign were repudiated with some success by him
+after the Revolution.[1] The same year he was reappointed lord privy
+seal, and in 1687 was made a knight of the Thistle on the revival of the
+order. At the Revolution he wavered from one side to the other, showing
+no settled purpose but waiting upon the event, but finally in April 1689
+wrote to William to declare his allegiance, and in May took part in the
+proclamation of William and Mary as king and queen at Edinburgh. But on
+the occasion of Dundee's insurrection he retired to Bath to drink the
+waters, while the bulk of his followers joined Dundee and brought about
+in great measure the defeat of the government troops at Killiecrankie.
+He was then summoned from Bath to London and imprisoned during August.
+In 1690 he was implicated in the Montgomery plot and subsequently in
+further Jacobite intrigues. In June 1691 he received a pardon, and acted
+later for the government in the pacification of the Highlands. He died
+on the 6th of May 1703. He married Amelia, daughter of James Stanley,
+7th earl of Derby (through whom the later dukes of Atholl acquired the
+sovereignty of the Isle of Man), and had, besides one daughter, six
+sons, of whom John became 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl; Charles
+was made 1st earl of Dunmore, and William married Margaret, daughter of
+Sir Robert Nairne, 1st Lord Nairne, becoming in her right 2nd Lord
+Nairne.
+
+JOHN MURRAY, 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl (1660-1724), was born
+on the 24th of February 1660, and was styled during his father's
+lifetime Lord Murray, till 1696, when he was created earl of
+Tullibardine. He was a supporter of William and the Revolution in 1688,
+taking the oaths in September 1689, but was unable to prevent the
+majority of his clan, during his father's absence, from joining Dundee
+under the command of his brother James. In 1693 as one of the
+commissioners he showed great energy in the examination into the
+massacre of Glencoe and in bringing the crime home to its authors. In
+1694 he obtained a regiment, in 1695 was made sheriff of Perth, in 1696
+secretary of state, and from 1696 to 1698 was high commissioner. In the
+latter year, however, he threw up office and went into opposition. At
+the accession of Anne he was made a privy councillor, and in 1703 lord
+privy seal for Scotland. The same year he succeeded his father as 2nd
+marquess of Atholl, and on the 30th of June he was created duke of
+Atholl, marquess of Tullibardine, earl of Strathtay and Strathardle,
+Viscount Balquhidder, Glenalmond and Glenlyon, and Lord Murray, Balvenie
+and Gask. In 1704 he was made a knight of the Thistle. In 1703-1704 an
+unsuccessful attempt was made by Simon, Lord Lovat, who used the duke of
+Queensberry as a tool, to implicate him in a Jacobite plot against Queen
+Anne; but the intrigue was disclosed by Robert Ferguson, and Atholl sent
+a memorial to the queen on the subject, which resulted in Queensberry's
+downfall. But he fell nevertheless into suspicion, and was deprived of
+office in October 1705, subsequently becoming a strong antagonist of the
+government, and of the Hanoverian succession. He vehemently opposed the
+Union during the years 1705-1707, and entered into a project for
+resisting by force and for holding Stirling Castle with the aid of the
+Cameronians, but nevertheless did not refuse a compensation of L1000.
+According to Lockhart, he could raise 6000 of the best men in the
+kingdom for the Jacobites. On the occasion, however, of the invasion of
+1708 he took no part, on the score of illness, and was placed under
+arrest at Blair Castle. On the downfall of the Whigs and the advent of
+the Tories to power, Atholl returned to office, was chosen a
+representative peer in the Lords in 1710 and 1713, in 1712 was an
+extraordinary lord of session, from 1713 to 1714 was once more keeper of
+the privy seal, and from 1712 to 1714 was high commissioner. On the
+accession of George I. he was again dismissed from office, but at the
+rebellion of 1715, while three of his sons joined the Jacobites, he
+remained faithful to the government, whom he assisted in various ways,
+on the 4th of June 1717 apprehending Robert Macgregor (Rob Roy), who,
+however, succeeded in escaping. He died on the 14th of November 1724. He
+married (1) Catherine, daughter of William Douglas, 3rd duke of
+Hamilton, by whom, besides one daughter, he had six sons, of whom John
+was killed at Malplaquet in 1709, William was marquess of Tullibardine,
+and James succeeded his father as 2nd duke on account of the share
+taken by his elder brother in the rebellion; and (2) Mary, daughter of
+William, Lord Ross, by whom he had three sons and several daughters.
+
+The _Atholl Chronicles_ have been privately printed by the 7th duke of
+Atholl (b. 1840). See also S. Cowan, _Three Celtic Earldoms_ (1909).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A. Lang, _Hist. of Scotland_, iii. 407.
+
+
+
+
+ATHOLL, or ATHOLE, a district in the north of Perthshire, Scotland,
+covering an area of about 450 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by
+Badenoch, on the N.E. by Braemar, on the E. by Forfarshire, on the S. by
+Breadalbane, on the W. and N.W. by Lochaber. The Highland railway
+bisects it diagonally from Dunkeld to the borders of Inverness-shire. It
+is traversed by the Grampian mountains and watered by the Tay, Tummel,
+Garry, Tilt, Bruar and other streams. Glen Garry and Glen Tilt are the
+chief glens, and Loch Rannoch and Loch Tummel the principal lakes. The
+population mainly centres around Dunkeld, Pitlochry and Blair Atholl.
+The only cultivable soil occurs in the valleys of the large rivers, but
+the deer-forest and the shootings on moor and mountain are among the
+most extensive in Scotland. It is said to have been named Athfotla
+(Atholl) after Fotla, son of the Pictish king Cruithne, and was under
+the rule of a Celtic _mormaer_ (thane or earl) until the union of the
+Picts and Scots under Kenneth Macalpine in 843. The duke of Atholl's
+seats are Blair Castle and Dunkeld House. What is called Atholl brose is
+a compound, in equal parts, of whisky and honey (or oatmeal), which was
+first commonly used in the district for hoarseness and sore throat.
+
+
+
+
+ATHOS (Gr. [Greek: Agion Oros]; Turk. _Aineros_; Ital. _Monte Santo_),
+the most eastern of the three peninsular promontories which extend, like
+the prongs of a trident, southwards from the coast of Macedonia
+(European Turkey) into the Aegean Sea. Before the 19th century the name
+Athos was usually confined to the terminal peak of the promontory, which
+was itself known by its ancient name, _Acte_. The peak rises like a
+pyramid, with a steep summit of white marble, to a height of 6350 ft.,
+and can be seen at sunset from the plain of Troy on the east, and the
+slopes of Olympus on the west. On the isthmus are distinct traces of the
+canal cut by Xerxes before his invasion of Greece in 480 B.C. The
+peninsula is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and derives a
+peculiar interest from its unique group of monastic communities with
+their medieval customs and institutions, their treasures of Byzantine
+art and rich collections of documents. It is about 40 m. in length, with
+a breadth varying from 4 to 7 m.; its whole area belongs to the various
+monasteries. It was inhabited in the earliest times by a mixed Greek and
+Thracian population; of its five cities mentioned by Herodotus few
+traces remain; some inscriptions discovered on the sites were published
+by W.M. Leake (_Travels in N. Greece_, 1835, iii. 140) and Kinch. The
+legends of the monks attribute the first religious settlements to the
+age of Constantine (274-337), but the hermitages are first mentioned in
+historical documents of the 9th century. It is conjectured that the
+mountain was at an earlier period the abode of anchorites, whose numbers
+were increased by fugitives from the iconoclastic persecutions
+(726-842). The "coenobian" rule to which many of the monasteries still
+adhere was established by St Athanasius, the founder of the great
+monastery of Laura, in 969. Under a constitution approved by the emperor
+Constantine Monomachos in 1045, women and female animals were excluded
+from the holy mountain. In 1060 the community was withdrawn from the
+authority of the patriarch of Constantinople, and a monastic republic
+was practically constituted. The taking of Constantinople by the Latins
+in 1204 brought persecution and pillage on the monks; this reminded them
+of earlier Saracenic invasions, and led them to appeal for protection to
+Pope Innocent III., who gave them a favourable reply. Under the
+Palaeologi (1260-1453) they recovered their prosperity, and were
+enriched by gifts from various sources. In the 14th century the
+peninsula became the chosen retreat of several of the emperors, and the
+monasteries were thrown into commotion by the famous dispute over the
+mystical Hesychasts.
+
+Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks after the
+capture of Salonica (1430), their privileges were respected by
+successive sultans: a tribute is paid to the Turkish government, which
+is represented by a resident _kaimakam_, and the community is allowed to
+maintain a small police force. Under the present constitution, which
+dates from 1783, the general affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted
+to an assembly ([Greek: oynaxis]) of twenty members, one from each
+monastery; a committee of four members, chosen in turn, styled
+_epistatae_ ([Greek: epistatai]), forms the executive. The president of
+the committee ([Greek: ho protos]) is also the president of the
+assembly, which holds its sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of
+government since the 10th century. The twenty monasteries, which all
+belong to the order of St Basil, are: Laura ([Greek: ae Laura]), founded
+in 963; Vatopedi ([Greek: Batopedios]), said to have been founded by the
+emperor Theodosius; Rossikon ([Greek: 'Rossikon]), the Russian monastery
+of St Panteleimon; Chiliandari ([Greek: Chiliantarios]: supposed to be
+derived from [Greek: chilioi andres] or [Greek: chilia leontaria]),
+founded by the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya (1159-1195); Iveron
+([Greek: ae monae ton Ibaeron]), founded by Iberians, or Georgians;
+Esphigmenu ([Greek: tou Esphigmenou]: the name is derived from the
+confined situation of the monastery); Kutlumush ([Greek:
+Koutloumousae]); Pandocratoros ([Greek: tou Pantokratoros]); Philotheu
+([Greek: Philotheou]); Caracallu ([Greek: tou Karakallou]); St Paul
+([Greek: tou agiou Paulou]); St Denis ([Greek: tou agiou Dionusiou]); St
+Gregory ([Greek: tou agiou Graegoriou]); Simopetra ([Greek: Simopetra]);
+Xeropotamu ([Greek: tou Xaeropotamou]); St Xenophon ([Greek: tou agiou
+Xenophontos]); Dochiariu ([Greek: Docheiareiou]); Constamonitu ([Greek:
+Konstamonitou]); Zographu ([Greek: tou Zographou]); and Stavronikitu
+([Greek: tou Stavronikitou], the last built, founded in 1545). The
+"coenobian" monasteries ([Greek: koinobia]), each under the rule of an
+abbot ([Greek: aegoumenos]), are subjected to severe discipline; the
+brethren are clothed alike, take their meals (usually limited to bread
+and vegetables) in the refectory, and possess no private property. In
+the "idiorrhythmic" monasteries ([Greek: idiorrythma]), which are
+governed by two or three annually elected wardens ([Greek: epitropoi]),
+a less stringent rule prevails, and the monks are allowed to supplement
+the fare of the monastery from their private incomes. Dependent on the
+several monasteries are twelve _sketae_ ([Greek: skaetai]) or monastic
+settlements, some of considerable size, in which a still more ascetic
+mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several farms ([Greek:
+metochia]), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining habitations
+([Greek: kellia]) and hermitages ([Greek: askaetaeria]). The
+monasteries, with the exception of Rossikon (St Panteleimon) and the
+Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliandari and Zographu, are occupied exclusively by
+Greek monks. The large _skete_ of St Andrew and some others belong to
+the Russians; there are also Rumanian and Georgian _sketae_. The great
+monastery of Rossikon, which is said to number about 3000 inmates, has
+been under a Russian abbot since 1875; it is regarded as one of the
+principal centres of the Russian politico-religious propaganda in the
+Levant. The tasteless style of its modern buildings is out of harmony
+with the quaint beauty of the other monasteries. Furnished with ample
+means, the Russian monks neglect no opportunity of adding to their
+possessions on the holy mountain; their encroachments are resisted by
+the Greek monks, whose wealth, however, was much diminished by the
+secularization of their estates in Rumania (1864). The population of the
+holy mountain numbers from 6000 to 7000; about 3000 are monks ([Greek:
+kalogeroi]), the remainder being lay brothers ([Greek: kosmikoi]). The
+monasteries, which are all fortified, generally consist of large
+quadrangles enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present
+a wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed from the
+sea. Their inmates, when not engaged in religious services, occupy
+themselves with husbandry, fishing and various handicrafts; the standard
+of intellectual culture is not high. A large academy, founded by the
+monks of Vatopedi in 1749, for a time attracted students from all parts
+of the East, but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The
+muniment rooms of the monasteries contain a marvellous series of
+documents, including chrysobulls of various emperors and princes,
+_sigilla_ of the patriarchs, _typica_, irades and other documents, the
+study of which will throw an important light on the political and
+ecclesiastical history and social life of the East from the middle of
+the 10th century. Up to comparatively recent times a priceless
+collection of classical manuscripts was preserved in the libraries; many
+of them were destroyed during the War of Greek Independence (1821-1829)
+by the Turks, who employed the parchments for the manufacture of
+cartridges; others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks,
+who, it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been
+sold to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed to Moscow
+and Paris. The library of Simopetra was destroyed by fire in 1891, and
+that of St Paul in 1905. There is now little hope of any important
+discovery of classical manuscripts. The codices remaining in the
+libraries are for the most part theological and ecclesiastical works. Of
+the Greek manuscripts, numbering about 11,000, 6618 have been catalogued
+by Professor Spyridion Lambros of Athens; his work, however, does not
+include the MSS. in some of the _sketae_, or those in the libraries of
+Laura and Vatopedi, of which catalogues (hitherto unpublished) have been
+prepared by resident monks. The canonic MSS. only of Vatopedi and Laura
+have been catalogued by Benessevich in the supplement to vol. ix. of the
+_Bizantiyskiy Vremennik_ (St Petersburg, 1904). The Slavonic and
+Georgian MSS. have not been catalogued. Apart from the illuminated MSS.,
+the mural paintings, the mosaics, and the goldsmith's work of Mount
+Athos are of infinite interest to the student of Byzantine art. The
+frescoes in general date from the 15th or 16th century: some are
+attributed by the monks to Panselinos, "the Raphael of Byzantine
+painting," who apparently flourished in the time of the Palaeologi. Most
+of them have been indifferently restored by local artists, who follow
+mechanically a kind of hieratic tradition, the principles of which are
+embodied in a work of iconography by the monk Dionysius, said to have
+been a pupil of Panselinos. The same spirit of conservatism is manifest
+in the architecture of the churches, which are all of the medieval
+Byzantine type. Some of the monasteries were seriously damaged by an
+earthquake in 1905.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R.N.C. Curzon, _Visits to Monasteries in the Levant_
+  (London, 1849); J.P. Fallmerayer, _Fragmenta aus dem Orient_
+  (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1845); V. Langlois, _Le Mont Athos et ses
+  monasteres_, with a complete bibliography (Paris, 1867); Duchesne and
+  Bayet, _Memoirs sur une mission en Macedoine et au Mont Athos_ (Paris,
+  1876); Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_ (London, 1864); H.
+  Brockhaus, _Die Kunst in den Athosklostern_ (Leipzig, 1891); A. Riley,
+  _Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks_ (London, 1887); S. Lambros,
+  _Catalogue of the Greek Manuscripts on Mount Athos_ (2 vols.,
+  Cambridge, 1895 and 1900); M.I. Gedeon, [Greek: o Athos]
+  (Constantinople, 1885); P. Meyer, "Beitrage zur Kenntniss der neueren
+  Geschichte und des gegenwartigen Zustandes der Athoskloster," in
+  _Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte_, 1890; _Die Haupturkunden fur die
+  Geschichte der Athoskloster_ (Leipzig, 1894); G. Millet, J. Pargoire
+  and L. Petit, _Recueil des inscriptions chretiennes de l'Athos_
+  (Paris, 1904); H. Gelzer, _Vom Heiligen Berge und aus Makedonien_
+  (Leipzig, 1904); K. Vlachu (Blachos), [Greek: Ae Chersonaesos tou
+  Hagiou Orous] (Athens, 1903); G. Smurnakes, [Greek: To Hagiou
+  Archaiologia Orous Atho], (Athens, 1904).     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+
+
+ATHY (pronounced Athy), a market-town of Co. Kildare, Ireland, in the
+south parliamentary division, 45 m. S.W. of Dublin on a branch of the
+Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3599. It
+is intersected by the river Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge of
+five arches. The crossing of the river here was guarded and disputed
+from the earliest times, and the name of the town is derived from a king
+of Munster killed here in the 2nd century. There are picturesque remains
+of Woodstock Castle of the 12th or 13th century, and White Castle built
+in 1506, and rebuilt in 1575 by a member of the family whose name it
+bears, and still occupied. Both were erected to defend the ford of the
+Barrow. There are also an old town gate, and an ancient cemetery with
+slight monastic remains. Previous to the Union Athy returned two members
+to the Irish parliament. The trade, chiefly in grain, is aided by
+excellent water communication, by a branch of the Grand Canal to Dublin,
+and by the river Barrow, navigable from here to Waterford harbour.
+
+
+
+
+ATINA, the name of three ancient towns of Italy.
+
+1. A town (mod. _Atena_) of Lucania, upon the Via Popillia, 7 m. N. of
+Tegianum, towards which an ancient road leads, in the valley of the
+river now known as Diano. Its ancient importance is vouched for by its
+walls of rough cyclopean work, which may have had a total extent of some
+2 m. (see G. Patroni in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1897, 112; 1901, 498).
+The date of these walls has not as yet been ascertained, recent
+excavations, which led to the discovery of a few tombs in which the
+earliest objects showing Greek influence may go back to the 7th century
+B.C., not having produced any decisive evidence on the point. To the
+Roman period belong the remains of an amphitheatre and numerous
+inscriptions.
+
+2. A town (mod. _Atina_) of the Volsci, 12 m. N. of Casinum, and about
+14 m. E. of Arpinum, on a hill 1607 ft. above sea-level. The walls, of
+carefully worked polygonal blocks of stone, are still preserved in
+parts, and the modern town does not fill the whole area which they
+enclose. Cicero speaks of it as a prosperous country town, which had not
+as yet fallen into the hands of large proprietors; and inscriptions show
+that under the empire it was still flourishing. One of these last is a
+boundary stone relating to the assignation of lands in the time of the
+Gracchi, of which six other examples have been found in Campania and
+Lucania.
+
+3. A town of the Veneti, mentioned by Pliny, _H.N._ iii. 131.
+
+
+
+
+ATITLAN, or SANTIAGO DE ATITLAN, a town in the department of Solola,
+Guatemala, on the southern shore of Lake Atitlan. Pop. (1905) about
+9000, almost all Indians. Cotton-spinning is the chief industry. Lake
+Atitlan is 24 m. long and 10 m. broad, with 64 m. circumference. It
+occupies a crater more than 1000 ft. deep and about 4700 ft. above
+sea-level. The peaks of the Guatemala Cordillera rise round it,
+culminating near its southern end in the volcanoes of San Pedro (7000
+ft.) and Atitlan (11,719 ft.). Although the lake is fed by many small
+mountain torrents, it has no visible outlet, but probably communicates
+by an underground channel with one of the rivers which drain the
+Cordillera. Mineral springs abound in the neighbourhood. The town of
+Solola (q.v.) is near the north shore of the lake.
+
+
+
+
+ATKINSON, EDWARD (1827-1905), American economist, was born at Brookline,
+Massachusetts, on the 10th of February 1827. For many years he was
+engaged in managing various business enterprises, and became, in 1877,
+president of the Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire Insurance Company, a
+post which he held till his death. He was a strong controversialist and
+a prolific writer on such economic subjects as banking, railways, cotton
+manufacture, the tariff and free trade, and the money question. He was
+appointed in 1887 a special commissioner to report upon the status of
+bimetallism in Europe. He also made a special study of mill construction
+and fire prevention, and invented an improved cooking apparatus, called
+the "Aladdin oven." He was an active supporter of anti-imperialism. He
+died at Boston on the 11th of December 1905.
+
+  His principal works were _Right Methods of Preventing Fires in Mills_
+  (1881); _Distribution of Products_ (1885); _Industrial Progress of the
+  Nation_ (1889); _Taxation and Work_ (1892); _Science of Nutrition_
+  (10th ed., 1898).
+
+
+
+
+ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT (1831-1892), British colonial statesman,
+prime minister and speaker of the legislative council, New Zealand, was
+born at Chester in 1831, and in 1855 emigrated to Taranaki, New Zealand,
+where he became a farmer. In 1860 the Waitara war broke out, and from
+its outset Atkinson, who had been selected as a captain of the New
+Plymouth Volunteers, distinguished himself by his contempt for
+appearances and tradition, and by the practical skill, energy and
+courage which he showed in leading his Forest Rangers in the tiresome
+and lingering bush warfare of the next five years. For this work he was
+made a major of militia, and thanked by the government. Elected to the
+house of representatives in 1863, he joined Sir Frederick Weld's
+ministry at the end of November 1864 as minister of defence, and, during
+eleven months of office, was identified with the well-known
+"self-reliance" policy, a proposal to dispense with imperial regulars,
+and meet the Maori with colonials only. Parliament accepted this
+principle, but turned out the Weld ministry for other reasons. For four
+years Atkinson was out of parliament; in October 1873 he re-entered it,
+and a year later became minister of lands under Sir Julius Vogel. Ten
+months later he was treasurer, and such was his aptitude for finance
+that, except during six months in 1876, he thenceforth held that post
+whenever his party was in power. From October 1874 to January 1891
+Atkinson was only out of office for about five years. Three times he was
+premier, and he was always the most formidable debater and fighter in
+the ranks of the Conservative opponents of the growing Radical party
+which Sir George Grey, Sir Robert Stout and John Ballance led in
+succession. It was he, who was mainly responsible for the abolition of
+the provinces into which the colony was divided from 1853 to 1876. He
+repealed the Ballance land-tax in 1879, and substituted a property-tax.
+He greatly reduced the cost of the public service in 1880, and again in
+1888. In both these years he raised the customs duties, amongst other
+taxes, and gave them a quasi-protectionist character. In 1880 he struck
+10% off all public salaries and wages; in 1887 he reduced the salary of
+the governor by one-third, and the pay and number of ministers and
+members of parliament. By these resolute steps revenue was increased,
+expenditure checked, and the colony's finance reinstated. Atkinson was
+an advocate of compulsory national assurance, and the leasing as opposed
+to the selling of crown lands. Defeated in the general election of
+December 1890, he took the appointment of speaker of the legislative
+council. There, while leaving the council chamber after the sitting of
+the 28th of June 1892, he was struck down by heart disease and died in a
+few minutes. Though brusque in manner and never popular, he was esteemed
+as a vigorous, upright and practical statesman. He was twice married,
+and had seven children, of whom three sons and a daughter survived him.
+     (W. P. R.)
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTA, the capital and the largest city of Georgia, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Fulton county, situated at an altitude of 1000-1175 ft.,
+in the N.W. part of the state, near the Chattahoochee river. Pop. (1860)
+9554; (1880) 37,409; (1890) 65,533; (1900) 89,872, of whom 35,727 were
+negroes and 2531 were foreign-born; (1910) 154,839. It is served by the
+Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Seaboard Air Line,
+the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis (which enters the city over the
+Western & Atlantic, one of its leased lines), the Louisville &
+Nashville, the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlanta & West
+Point railways. These railway communications, and the situation of the
+city (on the Piedmont Plateau) on the water-parting between the streams
+flowing into the Atlantic Ocean and those flowing into the Gulf of
+Mexico, have given Atlanta its popular name, the "Gate City of the
+South." Atlanta was laid out in the form of a circle, the radius being
+1-3/4 m. and the centre the old railway station, the Union Depot (the
+new station is called the Terminal); large additions have been made
+beyond this circle, including West End, Inman Park on the east, and
+North Atlanta. Among the best residence streets are Peachtree and West
+Peachtree streets to the north, and the older streets to the south of
+the business centre of the city--Washington Street, Whitehall, Pryor and
+Capitol Avenues. Among the principal office buildings are the Empire,
+the Equitable, the Prudential, the Fourth National, the Austell, the
+Peters, the Century, the English-American and the Candler buildings; and
+there are many fine residences, particularly in Peachtree and Washington
+streets, Inman Park and Ponce de Leon Circle. Among prominent public
+buildings are the State Capitol (completed 1889), containing a law
+library of about 65,000 volumes and a collection of portraits of famous
+Georgians, the north-west front of the Capitol grounds containing an
+equestrian statue (unveiled in 1907) of John Brown Gordon (1832-1904), a
+distinguished Confederate general in the American Civil War and governor
+of Georgia in 1887-1890; the court house; the Carnegie library, in which
+the young men's library, organized in 1867, was merged in 1902; the post
+office building; and the Federal prison (about 4 m. south of the city).
+The principal parks are: the Piedmont (189 acres), the site of the
+Piedmont Exposition of 1887 and of the Cotton States and International
+Exposition of 1895; the Grant, given to the city by L.P. Grant, an
+Atlanta railroad builder, in 1882, and subsequently enlarged by the city
+(in its south-east corner is Fort Walker); the Lakewood, 6 m. south of
+the city; and Ponce de Leon Park, owned by an electric railway company
+and having mineral springs and a fine baseball ground. Four miles south
+of the centre of Atlanta is Fort McPherson, an important United States
+military post, occupying a reservation of 40 acres and having barracks
+for the accommodation of 1000 men. In Oakland Cemetery is a large
+monument to Confederate soldiers; another monument in Oakland, "To the
+unknown Confederate Dead," is a reproduction of the Lion of Lucerne; in
+West View Cemetery (4 m. west of the city) is a memorial erected by the
+United Confederate Veterans. The city obtains its water-supply from the
+Chattahoochee river (above the mouth of Peachtree Creek), whence the
+water is pumped by four pumps, which have a daily capacity of 55,000,000
+gallons. Atlanta is widely known for its public spirit and enterprise,
+to which the expositions of 1881, 1887 and 1895 bear witness. The air is
+bracing, largely because of the city's altitude; the mean annual
+temperature is 60.8 deg. F. (winter 44.1 deg., spring 60.5 deg., summer
+77 deg., autumn 61.5 deg.).
+
+Atlanta is an important educational centre. Its public-school system was
+organized in 1871. Here are the Georgia School of Technology, founded in
+1885 (opened 1888) as a branch of the university of Georgia; the Atlanta
+College of Physicians and Surgeons (established in 1898 by the union of
+the Atlanta Medical College, organized in 1855, and the Southern Medical
+College, organized in 1878); the Atlanta School of Medicine (1905); the
+Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine; the Atlanta Theological Seminary
+(1901, Congregational), the only theological school of the denomination
+in the South in 1908; the Atlanta Dental College; the Southern College
+of Pharmacy (1903); Washington Seminary (1877) for girls; and the
+following institutions for negroes--Atlanta University, founded in 1869,
+which is one of the best institutions in the country for the higher
+education of negroes, standing particularly for "culture" education (as
+opposed to industrial training), which has done particularly good work
+in the department of sociology, under the direction of Prof. W.E.B. du
+Bois (b. 1868), one of the most prominent teachers of negro descent in
+the country, and which had in 1908 339 students; Clark University,
+founded in 1870 by the Freedman's Aid and Southern Educational Society
+of the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Atlanta Baptist College, founded
+in 1867; Morris Brown College (African Methodist Episcopal, founded in
+1882, and opened in 1885), which has college preparatory, scientific,
+academic, normal and missionary courses, correspondence courses in
+English and theology, an industrial department, and departments of law,
+theology (Turner Theological Seminary), nurse-training, music and art;
+the Gammon Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal, chartered in
+1888), which has its buildings just outside the city limits; and the
+Spelman Seminary for women and girls (Baptist) opened in 1881 as the
+Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary--the present name being adopted in 1883
+in honour of the parents of Mrs John D. Rockefeller--and incorporated in
+1888. At Decatur (pop. 1418 in 1900), a residential suburb, 6 m.
+east-north-east of Atlanta, is the Agnes Scott College (1890) for white
+girls; connected with the college is a school of music, art and
+expression, and an academy.
+
+The city's principal charitable institutions are the Grady Memorial
+hospital (opened in 1892), supported by the city and named in honour of
+Henry W. Grady; the Presbyterian hospital; the Baptist Tabernacle
+Infirmary; the Wesley Memorial hospital; St Joseph's infirmary; the
+Municipal hospital for contagious diseases; the Florence Crittenden
+home. Three miles south-east of the city is a (state) soldiers' home,
+for aged, infirm and disabled Confederate veterans. The Associated
+Charities of Atlanta was organized in 1905.
+
+The principal newspapers are the _Constitution_ (morning), edited from
+1880 until 1889 by Henry W. Grady (1851-1889),[1] one of the most
+eloquent of Southern orators, who did much to promote the reconciliation
+of the North and the South after the Civil War, and whose statue stands
+opposite the post office; the _Journal_ (evening), of which Hoke Smith
+(b. 1855), a prominent political leader, secretary of the interior in
+President Cleveland's cabinet in 1893-1896, and later governor of
+Georgia, was long the proprietor; and the _Georgian_ (evening), founded
+in 1906 as a Prohibition organ.
+
+As regards commerce and manufactures, Atlanta ranks first among the
+cities of Georgia. In 1907 its whosesale and retail trade was estimated
+at $100,000,000. The city is said to receive two-fifths of the total
+freight delivered in the state of Georgia. From 1895 to 1907 the bank
+clearings increased from about $65,000,000 to about $260,000,000. In
+recognition of the city's financial strength, Atlanta has been
+designated by the secretary of the treasury as one of the cities whose
+bonds will be accepted as security for Federal deposits. Atlanta is the
+Southern headquarters for a number of fire and life insurance companies,
+and is the third city of the United States in the amount of insurance
+business written and reported to resident agents, the annual premium
+receipts averaging about $10,000,000. It is an important horse and mule
+market, and handles much tobacco.
+
+The development of manufactures has been especially notable. In 1880 the
+capital invested in manufacturing industries was approximately
+$2,468,000; in 1890 it was $9,508,962; in 1900 it had increased to
+$16,045,156; and in 1905, when only establishments under the "factory
+system" were counted in the census, to $21,631,162. In 1900 the total
+product was valued at $16,707,027, and the factory product at
+$14,418,834; and in 1905 the factory product was valued at $25,745,650,
+an increase of 78.6% in five years. Among the products are cotton goods
+(the product value of which in 1905 was 14% of the total value of the
+city's manufactures), foundry and machine-shop products, lumber, patent
+medicines, confectionery, men's clothing, mattresses, spring-beds and
+other furniture. Since 1904 part of the power utilized for manufacturing
+has been obtained from the Chattahoochee river, 15 m. from the city.
+There are many manufactories just outside the city limits.
+
+_History._--Atlanta owes its origin to the development of pioneer
+railroads of Georgia. In 1836 the Western & Atlantic, the first road
+built into North Georgia, was chartered, and the present site of Atlanta
+was chosen as its southern terminal, which it reached in 1843, and which
+was named "Terminus." The Georgia and the Central of Georgia then
+projected branches to Terminus in order to connect with the Western &
+Atlantic, and completed them in 1845 and 1846. The town charter of 1843
+changed the name to Marthasville, in honour of the daughter of Governor
+Wilson Lumpkin; and the city charter of 1847 changed this to Atlanta.
+The population in 1850 was 2572; in 1860, 9554. Manufacturing interests
+soon became important, and during the Civil War Atlanta was the seat of
+Confederate military factories and a depot of supplies. In 1864 it was
+the objective point of the first stage of General William T. Sherman's
+invasion of Georgia (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR), which is therefore
+generally known as the "Atlanta campaign."
+
+After the battles around Marietta (q.v.), and the crossing of the
+Chattahoochee river on the 8th and 9th of July, Sherman continued his
+advance against Atlanta. His plan of operations was directed primarily
+to the seizure of the Decatur railway, by which the Confederate
+commander, General J.E. Johnston, might receive support from Virginia
+and the Carolinas. The three Union armies under Sherman's command,
+outnumbering the Confederates about 3 to 2, began their movement on the
+16th of July; the Army of the Cumberland (Gen. G.H. Thomas) on the right
+marching from Marietta by the fords of the Upper Chattahoochee on
+Atlanta, the Army of the Ohio (Gen. J.M. Schofield) in the centre direct
+on Decatur, and the Army of the Tennessee (Gen. J.B. McPherson) still
+farther east towards Stone Mountain. At the moment of marching out to
+meet the enemy, Johnston was relieved of his command and was replaced by
+Gen. J.B. Hood (July 17). Hood at once prepared to attack Thomas as soon
+as that general should have crossed Peachtree Creek (6 m. north of the
+city) and thus isolated himself from Schofield and McPherson. Sherman's
+confidence in Thomas and his troops was, however, justified. Hood's
+attack (battle of Peachtree Creek, July 20) was everywhere repulsed, and
+Schofield and McPherson closed up at the greatest speed. Hood had to
+retire to Atlanta, with a loss of more than 4000 men, and the three
+Union armies gradually converged on the north and east sides of the
+city. But Hood, who had been put in command as a fighting general, was
+soon ready to attack afresh. This time he placed Gen. W.J. Hardee's
+corps, the largest of his army, to the south of Atlanta, facing the left
+flank of McPherson's army. As Hardee's attack rolled up the Union army
+from left to right, the remainder of the Confederate army was to issue
+from the Atlanta fortifications and join in the battle. Hardee opened
+his attack at noon on the 22nd of July (battle of Atlanta). The troops
+of the Army of the Tennessee were swiftly driven back, and their
+commander, McPherson, killed; but presently the Federals re-formed and a
+severe struggle ensued, in which most of Hood's army joined. The
+veterans of the Army of the Tennessee, led by Gen. J.A. Logan, offered a
+stubborn resistance, however, and Schofield's army now intervened. After
+prolonged attacks lasting to nightfall, Hood had once more to draw off,
+with about 10,000 men killed and wounded. The Confederates now abandoned
+all idea of regaining the Decatur line, and based themselves on
+Jonesboro' and the Macon railway. Sherman quickly realized this, and the
+Army of the Tennessee, now commanded by Gen. O.O. Howard, was
+counter-marched from left to right, until it formed up on the right of
+the Union line about Ezra Church (about 4 m. west of Atlanta). The
+railway from Chattanooga to Atlanta, destroyed by Johnston as he fell
+back in May and June, was now repaired and working up to Thomas's camps.
+Hood had meanwhile extended his entrenchments southwards to cover the
+Macon railway, and Howard's movement led to another engagement (battle
+of Ezra Church, July 28) in which the XV. corps under Logan again bore
+the brunt of Hood's attack. The Confederates were once more
+unsuccessful, and the losses were so heavy that the "fighting" policy
+ordered by the Confederate government was countermanded. Sherman's
+cavalry had hitherto failed to do serious damage to the railway, and the
+Federal general now proceeded to manoeuvre with his main body so as to
+cut off Hood from his Southern railway lines (August). Covered by Howard
+at Ezra Church, Schofield led this advance, but the new Confederate
+lines baffled him. A bombardment of the Atlanta fortifications was then
+begun, but it had no material result. Another cavalry raid effected but
+slight damage to the line, and Sherman now decided to take his whole
+force to the south side. This apparently dangerous movement (August 25)
+is a remarkable illustration of Sherman's genius for war, and in fact
+succeeded completely. Only a small force was left to guard the
+Chattanooga railway, and the Union forces, Howard on the right, Thomas
+in the centre, and Schofield on the left, reached the railway after some
+sharp fighting (action of Jonesboro', September 1). The defence of
+Atlanta was now hopeless; Hood's forces retreated southward the same
+evening, and on the 2nd of September the Union detachment left behind on
+the north side entered Atlanta unopposed.
+
+All citizens were now ordered to leave, the place was turned into a
+military camp, and when Sherman started on his "March to the Sea," on
+the 15th of November, a large part of the city was burned. Consequently
+the present city is a product of the post-bellum development of Georgia.
+The military government of Georgia was established here in 1865. In 1868
+Atlanta was made the capital of the state.
+
+In 1881 an International Cotton Exposition was held in Atlanta. This was
+American, even local, in character; its inception was due to a desire to
+improve the cultivation and manufacture of cotton; but it brought to the
+notice of the whole country the industrial transformation wrought in the
+Southern states during the last quarter of the 19th century. In 1887 the
+Piedmont Exposition was held in Atlanta. The Cotton States and
+International Exposition, also held at Atlanta, in 1895, attracted
+widespread attention, and had exhibits from thirty-seven states and
+thirteen foreign countries.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Grady was succeeded as managing editor by Clark Howell (b. 1863);
+    and Joel Chandler Harris was long a member of the editorial staff.
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTIC, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Iowa, U.S.A., on
+East Nishnabatna river, about 80 m. W. by S. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890)
+4351; (1900) 5046; (1905, state census) 5180 (625 foreign-born); (1910)
+4560. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway, and by
+an inter-urban electric line connecting with Elkhorn and Kimballton, and
+is the trade centre of a fine agricultural country; among its
+manufactures are machine-shop products, canned corn, flour, umbrellas,
+drugs and bricks. The municipality owns the water-works and
+electric-lighting plant. Atlantic was chartered as a city in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTIC CITY, a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
+Atlantic Ocean, 58 m. S.E. of Philadelphia and 137 m. S. by W. of New
+York. Pop. (1890) 13,055; (1900) 27,838, of whom 6513 were of negro
+descent and 3189 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 46,150. It is served
+by the Atlantic City (Philadelphia & Reading) and the West Jersey &
+Seashore (Pennsylvania system) railways. Atlantic City is the largest
+and most popular all-the-year-round resort in the United States, and has
+numerous fine hotels. The city extends for 3 m. along a low sandy island
+(Absecon Beach), 10 m. long by 3/4 m. wide, separated from the mainland
+by a narrow strip of salt water and 4 or 5 m. of salt marshes, partly
+covered with water at highest storm tide. There are good bathing,
+boating, sailing, fishing and wild-fowl shooting. A "Board Walk"
+stretches along the beach for about 5 m.--the newest part of it is of
+concrete--and along or near this walk are the largest hotels, and
+numerous shops, and places of amusement; from the walk into the ocean
+extend several long piers. Other features of the place are the broad
+driveway (Atlantic Avenue) and an automobile boulevard. There are
+several seaside sanitoriums and hospitals, including the Atlantic City
+hospital, the Mercer Memorial home, and the Children's Seashore home. On
+the north end of the beach is Absecon Lighthouse, 160 ft. high. The
+municipality owns the water-works. Oysters are dredged here and are
+shipped hence in large quantities. There was a settlement of fishermen
+on the island in the latter part of the 18th century. In 1852 a movement
+was made to develop it as a seaside resort for Philadelphia, and after
+the completion of the Camden & Atlantic City railway in 1854 the growth
+of the place was rapid. A heavy loss occurred by fire on the 3rd of
+April 1902.
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTIC OCEAN,
+
+
+  Extent.
+
+a belt of water, roughly of an S-shape, between the western coasts of
+Europe and Africa and the eastern coasts of North and South America. It
+extends northward to the Arctic Basin and southward to the Great
+Southern Ocean. For purposes of measurement the polar boundaries are
+taken to be the Arctic and Antarctic circles, although in discussing the
+configuration and circulation it is impossible to adhere strictly to
+these limits. The Atlantic Ocean consists of two characteristic
+divisions, the geographical equator forming a fairly satisfactory line
+of division into North and South Atlantic. The North Atlantic, by far
+the best-known of the main divisions of the hydrosphere, is remarkable
+for the immense length of its coast-line and for the large number of
+enclosed seas connected with it, including on the western side the
+Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St Lawrence and Hudson
+Bay, and on the eastern side the Mediterranean and Black Sea, the North
+Sea and the Baltic. The North Atlantic is connected with the Arctic
+Basin by four main channels: (1) Hudson Strait, about 60 m. wide,
+communicating with the gulfs and straits of the North American Arctic
+archipelago; (2) Davis Strait, about 200 m. wide, leading to Baffin Bay;
+(3) Denmark Strait, between Greenland and Iceland, 130 m. wide; and (4)
+the "Norwegian Sea," about 400 m. wide, extending from Iceland to the
+Faeroe Islands, the Shetland Islands and the coast of Norway. The width
+of the North Atlantic in lat. 60 deg., approximately where it breaks up
+into the branches just named, is nearly 2000 m.; in about lat. 50 deg.
+N. the coasts of Ireland and Newfoundland approach to 1750 m.; the
+breadth then increases rapidly to lat. 40 deg. N., and attains its
+maximum of 4500 m. in lat. 25 deg. N.; farther south the minimum breadth
+is reached between Africa and South America, Cape Palmas being only 1600
+m. distant from Cape St Roque. In marked contrast to this, the South
+Atlantic is distinguished by great simplicity of coast-line; inland seas
+there are none, and it attains its greatest breadth as it merges with
+the Southern Ocean; in lat. 35 deg. S. the width is 3700 m.
+
+The total area of the North Atlantic, not counting inland seas connected
+with it, is, according to G. Karstens, 36,438,000 sq. kilometres, or
+10,588,000 sq. m.; including the inland seas the area is 45,641,000 sq.
+kilometres or 13,262,000 sq. m. The area of the South Atlantic is
+43,455,000 sq. kilometres, or 12,627,000 sq. m. Although not the most
+extensive of the great oceans, the Atlantic has by far the largest
+drainage area. The "long slopes" of the continents on both sides are
+directed towards the Atlantic, which accordingly receives the waters of
+a large proportion of the great rivers of the world, including the St
+Lawrence, the Mississippi, the Orinoco, the Amazon, the rivers of the La
+Plata, the Congo, the Niger, the Loire, the Rhine, the Elbe and the
+great rivers of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Sir J. Murray
+estimates the total area of land draining to the Atlantic to be
+13,432,000 sq. m., or with the Arctic area nearly 20,000,000 sq. m.,
+nearly four times the area draining to the Pacific Ocean, and almost
+precisely four times the area draining to the Indian Ocean. Murray's
+calculations give the amount of precipitation received on this area at
+15,800 cub. m. annually, and the river discharge from it at 3900 cub. m.
+
+
+  Relief of the bed.
+
+The dominant feature of the relief of the Atlantic basin is a submarine
+ridge running from north to south from about lat. 50 deg. N. to lat. 40
+deg. S., almost exactly in the central line, and following the S-shape
+of the coasts. Over this ridge the average depth is about 1700 fathoms.
+Towards its northern end the ridge widens and rises to the plateau of
+the Azores, and in about 50 deg. N. lat. it merges with the "Telegraph
+Plateau," which extends across nearly the whole ocean from Ireland to
+Newfoundland. North of the fiftieth parallel the depths diminish towards
+the north-east, two long submarine ridges of volcanic origin extend
+north-eastwards to the south-west of Iceland and to the Faeroe Islands,
+and these, with their intervening valleys, end in a transverse ridge
+connecting Greenland, through Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, with
+North-western Scotland and the continental mass of Europe. The mean
+depth over this ridge is about 250 fathoms, and the maximum depth
+nowhere reaches 500 fathoms. The main basin of the Atlantic is thus cut
+off from the Arctic basin, with which the area north of the ridge has
+complete deep-water communication. This intermediate region, which has
+Atlantic characteristics down to 300 fathoms, and at greater depths
+belongs more properly to the Arctic Sea, commonly receives the name of
+Norwegian Sea. On both sides of the central ridge deep troughs extend
+southwards from the Telegraph plateau to the Southern Ocean, the deep
+water coming close to the land all the way down on both sides. In these
+troughs the depth is seldom much less than 3000 fathoms, and this is
+exceeded in a series of patches to which Murray has given the name of
+"Deeps." In the eastern trough the Peake Deep lies off the Bay of Biscay
+in 20 deg. W. long., Monaco Deep and Chun Deep off the north-west of
+Africa, Moseley Deep off the Cape Verde Islands, Krech Deep off the
+Liberian coast, and Buchanan Deep off the mouth of the Congo. The
+western trough extends northwards into Davis Strait, forming a
+depression in the Telegraph plateau; to the south of Newfoundland and
+Nova Scotia are Sigsbee Deep, Libbey Deep and Suhm Deep, each of small
+area; north-east of the Bahamas Nares Deep forms the largest and deepest
+depression in the Atlantic, in which a sounding of 4561 fathoms was
+obtained (70 m. north of Porto Rico) by the U.S. ship "Blake" in 1883.
+Immediately to the south of Nares Deep lies the smaller Makarov Deep;
+and off the coast of South America are Tizard Deep and Havergal Deep.
+
+Before the Antarctic expeditions of 1903-1904 our knowledge of the form
+of the sea bottom south of 40 deg. S. lat. was almost wholly derived
+from the soundings of the expedition of Sir J.C. Ross in the "Erebus"
+and "Terror" (1839-1843), and the bathymetrical maps published were
+largely the result of deductions based on one sounding taken by Ross in
+68 deg. 34' S. lat., 12 deg. 49' W. long., in which he recorded a depth
+exceeding 4000 fathoms. The Scottish Antarctic expedition has shown this
+sounding to be erroneous; the "Scotia" obtained samples of bottom, in
+almost the same spot, from a depth of 2660 fathoms. Combining the
+results of recent soundings, Dr W.S. Bruce, the leader of the Scottish
+expedition, finds that there is a ridge "extending in a curve from
+Madagascar to Bouvet Island, and from Bouvet Island to the Sandwich
+group, whence there is a forked connexion through the South Orkneys to
+Graham's Land, and through South Georgia to the Falkland Islands and the
+South American continent." Again, the central ridge of the South
+Atlantic extends a thousand miles farther south than was supposed,
+joining the east and west ridge, just described, between the Bouvet
+Islands and the Sandwich group.
+
+The foundations of our knowledge of the relief of the Atlantic basin may
+be said to have been laid by the work of H.M.S. "Challenger"
+(1873-1876), and the German ship "Gazelle" (1874-1876), the French
+expedition in the "Travailleur" (1880), and the U.S. surveying vessel
+"Blake" (1877 and later). Large numbers of additional soundings have
+been made in recent years by cable ships, by the expeditions of H.S.H.
+the prince of Monaco, the German "Valdivia" expedition under Professor
+Chun (1898), and the combined Antarctic expeditions (1903-1904).
+
+
+  Islands.
+
+The Atlantic Ocean contains a relatively small number of islands. The
+only continental groups, besides some islands in the Mediterranean, are
+Iceland, the British Isles, Newfoundland, the West Indies, and the
+Falklands, and the chief oceanic islands are the Azores, Madeira, the
+Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan da Cunha
+and Bouvet Island.
+
+
+  Mean depth, and bottom deposits.
+
+The mean depth of the North Atlantic is, according to G. Karstens, 2047
+fathoms. If we include the enclosed seas, the North Atlantic has a mean
+depth of 1800 fathoms. The South Atlantic has a mean depth of 2067
+fathoms.
+
+The greater part of the bottom of the Atlantic is covered by a deposit
+of Globigerina ooze, roughly the area between 1000 and 3000 fathoms, or
+about 60% of the whole. At a depth of about 3000 fathoms, i.e. in the
+"Deeps," the Globigerina ooze gradually gives place to red clay. In the
+shallower tropical waters, especially on the central ridge, considerable
+areas are covered by Pteropod ooze, a deposit consisting largely of the
+shells of pelagic molluscs. Diatom ooze is the characteristic deposit in
+high southern latitudes. The terrigenous deposits consist of blue muds,
+red muds (abundant along the coast of Brazil, where the amount of
+organic matter present is insufficient to reduce the iron in the matter
+brought down by the great rivers to produce blue muds), green muds and
+sands, and volcanic and coral detritus.
+
+The question of the origin of the Atlantic basin, like that of the other
+great divisions of the hydrosphere, is still unsettled. Most geologists
+include the Atlantic with the other oceans in the view they adopt as to
+its age; but E. Suess and M. Neumayr, while they regard the basin of the
+Pacific as of great antiquity, believe the Atlantic to date only from
+the Mesozoic age. Neumayr finds evidence of the existence of a continent
+between Africa and South America, which protruded into the central North
+Atlantic, in Jurassic times. F. Kossmat has shown that the Atlantic had
+substantially its present form during the Cretaceous period.
+
+
+  Distribution of temperature.
+
+In describing the mean distribution of temperature in the waters of the
+Atlantic it is necessary to treat the northern and southern divisions
+separately. The heat equator, or line of maximum mean surface
+temperature, starts from the African coast in about 5 deg. N. lat., and
+closely follows that parallel to 40 deg. W. long., where it bends
+northwards to the Caribbean Sea. North of this line, near which the
+temperature is a little over 80 deg. F., the gradient trends somewhat to
+the east of north, and the temperature is slightly higher on the western
+than on the eastern side until, in 45 deg. N. lat., the isothermal of 60
+deg. F. runs nearly east and west. Beyond this parallel the gradient is
+directed towards the north-west, and temperatures are much higher on the
+European than on the American side. From the surface to 500 fathoms the
+general form of the isothermals remains the same, except that instead of
+an equatorial maximum belt there is a focus of maximum temperature off
+the eastern coast of the United States. This focus occupies a larger
+area and becomes of greater relative intensity as the depth increases
+until, at 500 fathoms, it becomes an elongated belt extending right
+across the ocean in about 30 deg. N. lat. Below 500 fathoms the western
+centres of maximum disappear, and higher temperatures occur in the
+eastern Atlantic off the Iberian peninsula and north-western Africa down
+to at least 1000 fathoms; at still greater depths temperature gradually
+becomes more and more uniform. The communication between the Atlantic
+and Arctic basins being cut off, as already described, at a depth of
+about 300 fathoms, the temperatures in the Norwegian Sea below that
+level are essentially Arctic, usually below the freezing-point of fresh
+water, except where the distribution is modified by the surface
+circulation. The isothermals of mean surface temperature in the South
+Atlantic are in the lower latitudes of an ~-shape, temperatures being
+higher on the American than on the African side. In latitudes south of
+30 deg. S. the curved form tends to disappear, the lines running more
+and more directly east and west. Below the surface a focus of maximum
+temperature appears off the coast of South America in about 30 deg. S.
+lat., and of minimum temperature north and north-east of this maximum.
+This distribution is most marked at about 300 fathoms, and disappears at
+500 fathoms, beyond which depth the lines tend to become parallel and to
+run east and west, the gradient slowly diminishing.
+
+
+  Salinity.
+
+The Atlantic is by far the saltest of the great oceans. Its saltest
+waters are found at the surface in two belts, one extending east and
+west in the North Atlantic between 20 deg. and 30 deg. N. lat., and
+another of almost equal salinity extending eastwards from the coast of
+South America in 10 deg. to 20 deg. S. lat. In the equatorial region
+between these belts the salinity is markedly less, especially in the
+eastern part. North of the North Atlantic maximum the waters become
+steadily fresher as latitude increases until the channels opening into
+the Arctic basin are reached. In all of these water of relatively high
+salinity usually appears for a long distance towards the north on the
+eastern side of the channel, while on the western side the water is
+comparatively fresh; but great variations occur at different seasons and
+in different years. In the higher latitudes of the South Atlantic the
+salinity diminishes steadily and tends to be uniform from east to west,
+except near the southern extremity of South America, where the surface
+waters are very fresh. Our knowledge of the salinity of waters below the
+surface is as yet very defective, large areas being still unrepresented
+by a single observation. The chief facts already established are the
+greater saltness of the North Atlantic compared with the South Atlantic
+at all depths, and the low salinity at all depths in the eastern
+equatorial region, off the Gulf of Guinea.
+
+
+  Meteorology.
+
+The wind circulation over the Atlantic is of a very definite character.
+In the South Atlantic the narrow land surfaces of Africa and South
+America produce comparatively little effect in disturbing the normal
+planetary circulation. The tropical belt of high atmospheric pressure is
+very marked in winter; it is weaker during the summer months, and at
+that season the greater relative fall of pressure over the land cuts it
+off into an oval-shaped anticyclone, the centre of which rests on the
+coolest part of the sea surface in that latitude, near the Gulf of
+Guinea. South of this anticyclone, from about the latitude of the Cape,
+we find the region where, on account of the uninterrupted sea surface
+right round the globe, the planetary circulation is developed to the
+greatest extent known; the pressure gradient is steep, and the region is
+swept continuously by strong westerly winds--the "roaring forties."
+
+In the North Atlantic the distribution of pressure and resulting wind
+circulation are very largely modified by the enormous areas of land and
+frozen sea which surround the ocean on three sides. The tropical belt of
+high pressure persists all the year round, but the immense demand for
+air to supply the ascending currents over the heated land surfaces in
+summer causes the normal descending movement to be largely reinforced;
+hence the "North Atlantic anticyclone" is much larger, and its
+circulation more vigorous, in summer than in winter. Again, during the
+winter months pressure is relatively high over North America, Western
+Eurasia and the Arctic regions; hence vast quantities of air are brought
+down to the surface, and circulation must be kept up by ascending
+currents over the ocean. The Atlantic anticyclone is, therefore, at its
+weakest in winter, and on its polar side the polar eddy becomes a trough
+of low pressure, extending roughly from Labrador to Iceland and Jan
+Mayen, and traversed by a constant succession of cyclones. The net
+effect of the surrounding land is, in fact, to reverse the seasonal
+variations of the planetary circulation, but without destroying its
+type. In the intermediate belt between the two high-pressure areas the
+meteorological equator remains permanently north of the geographical
+equator, moving between it and about 11 deg. N. lat.
+
+
+  Currents.
+
+The part of this atmospheric circulation which is steadiest in its
+action is the trade winds, and this is, therefore, the most effective in
+producing drift movement of the surface waters. The trade winds give
+rise, in the region most exposed to their influence, to two
+westward-moving drifts--the equatorial currents, which are separated in
+parts of their course by currents moving in the opposite direction along
+the equatorial belt. These last may be of the nature of "reaction"
+currents; they are collectively known as the equatorial counter-current.
+On reaching the South American coast, the southern equatorial current
+splits into two parts at Cape St Roque: one branch, the Brazil current,
+is deflected southwards and follows the coast as a true stream current
+at least as far as the river Plate. The second branch proceeds
+north-westwards towards the West Indies, where it mingles with the
+waters of the northern equatorial; and the two drifts, blocked by the
+<-shape of the land, raise the level of the surface in the Gulf of
+Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the whole area outside the West
+Indies. This congestion is relieved by what is probably the most rapid
+and most voluminous stream current in the world, the Gulf Stream, which
+runs along the coast of North America, separated from it by a narrow
+strip of cold water, the "cold wall," to a point off the south-east of
+Newfoundland. At this point the Gulf Stream water mixes with that from
+the Labrador current (see below), and a drift current eastwards is set
+up under the influence of the prevailing westerly winds: this is
+generally called the Gulf Stream drift. When the Gulf Stream drift
+approaches the eastern side of the Atlantic it splits into two parts,
+one going southwards along the north-west coast of Africa, the Canaries
+current, and another turning northwards and passing to the west of the
+British Isles. Most of the Canaries current re-enters the northern
+equatorial, but a certain proportion keeps to the African coast, unites
+with the equatorial return currents, and penetrates into the Gulf of
+Guinea. This last feature of the circulation is still somewhat obscure;
+it is probably to be accounted for by the fact that on this part of the
+coast the prevailing winds, although to a considerable extent monsoonal,
+are off-shore winds, blowing the surface waters out to sea, and the
+place of the water thus removed is filled up by the water derived either
+from lower levels or from "reaction" currents.
+
+The movements of the northern branch of the Gulf Stream drift have been
+the object of more careful and more extended study than all the other
+currents of the ocean put together, except, perhaps, the Gulf Stream
+itself. The cruises of the "Porcupine" and "Lightning" which led
+directly to the despatch of the "Challenger" expedition, were altogether
+within its "sphere of influence"; so also was the great Norwegian
+Atlantic expedition. More recently, the area has been further explored
+by the German expedition in the ss. "National," the Danish "Ingolf"
+expedition, and the minor expeditions of the "Michael Sars," "Jackal,"
+"Research," &c., and since 1902 it has been periodically examined by the
+International Council for the Study of the Sea. Much has also been done
+by the discussion of observations made on board vessels belonging to the
+mercantile marine of various countries. It may now be taken as generally
+admitted that the current referred to breaks into three main branches.
+The first passes northwards, most of it between the Faeroe and Shetland
+Islands, to the coast of Norway, and so on to the Arctic basin, which,
+as Nansen has shown, it fills to a great depth. The second, the Irminger
+stream, passes up the west side of Iceland; and the third goes up to the
+Greenland side of Davis Strait to Baffin Bay. These branches are
+separated from one another at the surface by currents moving southwards:
+one passes east of Iceland; the second, the Greenland current, skirts
+the east coast of Greenland; and the third, the Labrador current already
+mentioned, follows the western side of Davis Strait.
+
+The development of the equatorial and the Brazil currents in the South
+Atlantic has already been described. On the polar side of the
+high-pressure area a west wind drift is under the control of the
+"roaring forties," and on reaching South Africa part of this is
+deflected and sent northwards along the west coast as the cold Benguella
+current which rejoins the equatorial. In the central parts of the two
+high-pressure areas there is practically no surface circulation. In the
+North Atlantic this region is covered by enormous banks of gulf-weed
+(_Sargassum bucciferum_), hence the name Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea
+is bounded, roughly, by the lines of 20 deg.-35 deg. N. lat. and 40
+deg.-75 deg. W. long.
+
+The sub-surface circulation in the Atlantic may be regarded as
+consisting of two parts. Where surface water is banked up against the
+land, as by the equatorial and Gulf Stream drift currents, it appears to
+penetrate to very considerable depths; the escaping stream currents are
+at first of great vertical thickness and part of the water at their
+sources has a downward movement. In the case of the Gulf Stream, which
+is not much impeded by the land, this descending motion is relatively
+slight, being perhaps largely due to the greater specific gravity of the
+water; it ceases to be perceptible beyond about 500 fathoms. On the
+European-African side the descending movement is more marked, partly
+because the coast-line is much more irregular and the northward current
+is deflected against it by the earth's rotation, and partly because of
+the outflow of salt water from the Mediterranean; here the movement is
+traceable to at least 1000 fathoms. The northward movement of water
+across the Norwegian Sea extends down from the surface to the
+Iceland-Shetland ridge, where it is sharply cut off; the lower levels of
+the Norwegian Sea are filled with ice-cold Arctic water, close down to
+the ridge. The south-moving currents originating from melting ice are
+probably quite shallow. The second part of the circulation in the depth
+is the slow "creep" of water of very low temperature along the bottom.
+The North Atlantic being altogether cut off from the Arctic regions, and
+the vertical circulation being active, this movement is here practically
+non-existent; but in the South Atlantic, where communication with the
+Southern Ocean is perfectly open, Antarctic water can be traced to the
+equator and even beyond.
+
+The tides of the Atlantic Ocean are of great complexity. The tidal wave
+of the Southern Ocean, which sweeps uninterruptedly round the globe from
+the east to west, generates a secondary wave between Africa and South
+America, which travels north at a rate dependent only on the depth of
+the ocean. With this "free" wave is combined a "forced" wave, generated,
+by the direct action of the sun and moon, within the Atlantic area
+itself. Nothing is known about the relative importance of these two
+waves.     (H. N. D.)
+
+  See also OCEANS AND OCEANOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+ATLANTIS, ATLANTIS, or ATLANTICA, a legendary island in the Atlantic
+Ocean, first mentioned by Plato in the _Timaeus_. Plato describes how
+certain Egyptian priests, in a conversation with Solon, represented the
+island as a country larger than Asia Minor and Libya united, and
+situated just beyond the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar).
+Beyond it lay an archipelago of lesser islands. According to the
+priests, Atlantis had been a powerful kingdom nine thousand years before
+the birth of Solon, and its armies had overrun the lands which bordered
+the Mediterranean. Athens alone had withstood them with success. Finally
+the sea had overwhelmed Atlantis, and had thenceforward become
+unnavigable owing to the shoals which marked the spot. In the _Critias_
+Plato adds a history of the ideal commonwealth of Atlantis. It is
+impossible to decide how far this legend is due to Plato's invention,
+and how far it is based on facts of which no record remains. Medieval
+writers, for whom the tale was preserved by the Arabian geographers,
+believed it true, and were fortified in their belief by numerous
+traditions of islands in the western sea, which offered various points
+of resemblance to Atlantis. Such in particular were the Greek Isles of
+the Blest, or Fortunate Islands, the Welsh Avalon, the Portuguese
+Antilia or Isle of Seven Cities, and St Brendan's island, the subject of
+many sagas in many languages. These, which are described in separate
+articles, helped to maintain the tradition of an earthly paradise which
+had become associated with the myth of Atlantis; and all except Avalon
+were marked in maps of the 14th and 15th centuries, and formed the
+object of voyages of discovery, in one case (St Brendan's island) until
+the 18th century. In early legends, of whatever nationality, they are
+almost invariably described in terms which closely resemble Homer's
+account of the island of the Phaeacians (_Od._ viii.)--a fact which may
+be an indication of their common origin in some folk-tale current among
+several races. Somewhat similar legends are those of the island of
+Brazil (q.v.), of Lyonnesse (q.v.), the sunken land off the Cornish
+coast, of the lost Breton city of Is, and of Mayda or Asmaide--the
+French _Isle Verte_ and Portuguese _Ilha Verde_ or "Green Island"--which
+appears in many folk-tales from Gibraltar to the Hebrides, and until
+1853 was marked on English charts as a rock in 44 deg. 48' N. and 26
+deg. 10' W. After the Renaissance, with its renewal of interest in
+Platonic studies, numerous attempts were made to rationalize the myth of
+Atlantis. The island was variously identified with America, Scandinavia,
+the Canaries and even Palestine; ethnologists saw in its inhabitants the
+ancestors of the Guanchos, the Basques or the ancient Italians; and even
+in the 17th and 18th centuries the credibility of the whole legend was
+seriously debated, and sometimes admitted, even by Montaigne, Buffon and
+Voltaire.
+
+  For the theory that Atlantis is to be identified with Crete in the
+  Minoan period, see "The Lost Continent" in _The Times_ (London) for
+  the 19th of February 1909. See also "Dissertation sur l'Atlantide" in
+  T.H. Martin's _Etudes sur le Timee_ (1841).
+
+
+
+
+ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the "endurer," a son of the Titan Iapetus and
+Clymene (or Asia), brother of Prometheus. Homer, in the _Odyssey_ (i.
+52) speaks of him as "one who knows the depths of the whole sea, and
+keeps the tall pillars which hold heaven and earth asunder." In the
+first instance he seems to have been a marine creation. The pillars
+which he supported were thought to rest in the sea, immediately beyond
+the most western horizon. But as the Greeks' knowledge of the west
+increased, the name of Atlas was transferred to a hill in the north-west
+of Africa. Later, he was represented as a king of that district, rich in
+flocks and herds, and owner of the garden of the Hesperides, who was
+turned into a rocky mountain when Perseus, to punish him for his
+inhospitality, showed him the Gorgon's head (Ovid, _Metam._ iv. 627).
+Finally, Atlas was explained as the name of a primitive astronomer, who
+was said to have made the first celestial globe (Diodorus iii. 60). He
+was the father of the Pleiades and Hyades; according to Homer, of
+Calypso. In works of art he is represented as carrying the heavens or
+the terrestrial globe. The Farnese statue of Atlas in the Naples museum
+is well known.
+
+The plural form ATLANTES is the classical term in architecture for the
+male sculptured figures supporting a superstructure as in the baths at
+Pompeii, and in the temple at Agrigentum in Sicily. In 18th-century
+architecture half-figures of men with strong muscular development were
+used to support balconies (see CARYATIDES and TELAMONES).
+
+A figure of Atlas supporting the heavens is often found as a
+frontispiece in early collections of maps, and is said to have been
+first thus used by Mercator. The name is hence applied to a volume of
+maps (see MAP), and similarly to a volume which contains a tabular
+conspectus of a subject, such as an atlas of ethnographical, subjects or
+anatomical plates. It is also used of a large size of drawing paper.
+
+The name "atlas," an Arabic word meaning "smooth," applied to a smooth
+cloth, is sometimes found in English, and is the usual German word, for
+"satin."
+
+
+
+
+ATLAS MOUNTAINS, the general name for the mountain chains running more
+or less parallel to the coast of North-west Africa. They extend from
+Cape Nun on the west to the Gulf of Gabes on the east, a distance of
+some 1500 m., traversing Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. To their south
+lies the Saharan desert. The Atlas consist of many distinct ranges, but
+they can be roughly divided into two main chains: (1) the Maritime
+Atlas, i.e. the ranges overlooking the Mediterranean from Ceuta to
+Cape Bon; (2) the inner and more elevated ranges, which, starting from
+the Atlantic at Cape Ghir in Sus, run south of the coast ranges and are
+separated from them by high plateaus. This general disposition is seen
+most distinctly in eastern Morocco and Algeria. The western inner ranges
+are the most important of the whole system, and in the present article
+are described first as _the Moroccan Ranges_. The maritime Atlas and the
+inner ranges in Algeria and Tunisia are then treated under the heading
+_Eastern Ranges_.
+
+_The Moroccan Ranges._--This section of the Atlas, known to the
+inhabitants of Morocco by its Berber name, Idraren Draren or the
+"Mountains of Mountains," consists of five distinct ranges, varying in
+length and height, but disposed more or less parallel to one another in
+a general direction from south-west to north-east, with a slight
+curvature towards the Sahara.
+
+1. The main range, that known as the Great Atlas, occupies a central
+position in the system, and is by far the longest and loftiest chain. It
+has an average height of over 11,000 ft., whereas the loftiest peaks in
+Algeria do not exceed 8000 ft., and the highest in Tunisia are under
+6000 ft. Towards the Dahra district at the north-east end the fall is
+gradual and continuous, but at the opposite extremity facing the
+Atlantic between Agadir and Mogador it is precipitous. Although only one
+or two peaks reach the line of perpetual snow, several of the loftiest
+summits are snowclad during the greater part of the year. The northern
+sides and tops of the lower heights are often covered with dense forests
+of oak, cork, pine, cedar and other trees, with walnuts up to the limit
+of irrigation. Their slopes enclose well-watered valleys of great
+fertility, in which the Berber tribes cultivate tiny irrigated fields,
+their houses clinging to the hill-sides. The southern flanks, being
+exposed to the hot dry winds of the Sahara, are generally destitute of
+vegetation.
+
+At several points the crest of the range has been deeply eroded by old
+glaciers and running waters, and thus have been formed a number of
+devious passes. The central section, culminating in Tizi n 'Tagharat or
+Tinzar, a peak estimated at 15,000 ft. high, maintains a mean altitude
+of 11,600 ft., and from this great mass of schists and sandstones a
+number of secondary ridges radiate in all directions, forming divides
+between the rivers Dra'a, Sus, Um-er-Rabia, Sebu, Mulwiya and Ghir,
+which flow respectively to the south-west, the west, north-west, north,
+north-east and south-east. All are swift and unnavigable, save perhaps
+for a few miles from their mouths. With the exception of the Dra'a, the
+streams rising on the side of the range facing the Sahara do not reach
+the sea, but form marshes or lagoons at one season, and at another are
+lost in the dry soil of the desert.
+
+For a distance of 100 m. the central section nowhere presents any passes
+accessible to caravans, but south-westward two gaps in the range afford
+communication between the Tansift and Sus basins, those respectively of
+Gindafi and Bibawan. A few summits in the extreme south-west in the
+neighbourhood of Cape Ghir still exceed 11,000 ft., and although the
+steadily rising ground from the coast and the prominence of nearer
+summits detract from the apparent height, this is on an average greater
+than that of the European Alps. The most imposing view is to be obtained
+from the plain of Marrakesh, only some 1000 ft. above sea-level,
+immediately north of the highest peaks. Besides huge masses of old
+schists and sandstones, the range contains extensive limestone, marble,
+diorite, basalt and porphyry formations, while granite prevails on its
+southern slopes. The presence of enormous glaciers in the Ice Age is
+attested by the moraines at the Atlantic end, and by other indications
+farther east. The best-known passes are: (1) The Bibawan in the upper
+Wad Sus basin (4150 ft.); (2) the Gindafi, giving access from Marrakesh
+to Tarudant, rugged and difficult, but low; (3) the Tagharat, difficult
+and little used, leading to the Dra'a valley (11,484 ft.); (4) the Glawi
+(7600 ft.); (5) Tizi n 'Tilghemt (7250 ft.), leading to Tafilet
+(Tafilalt) and the Wad Ghir.
+
+2. The lower portion of the Moroccan Atlas (sometimes called the Middle
+Atlas), extending north-east and east from an undefined point to the
+north of the Great Atlas to near the frontier of Algeria, is crossed by
+the pass from Fez to Tafilalt. Both slopes are wooded, and its forests
+are the only parts of Morocco where the lion still survives. From the
+north this range, which is only partly explored, presents a somewhat
+regular series of snowy crests.
+
+3. The Anti-Atlas or Jebel Saghru, also known as the Lesser Atlas,
+running parallel to and south of the central range, is one of the least
+elevated chains in the system, having a mean altitude of not more than
+5000 ft., although some peaks and even passes exceed 6000 ft. At one
+point it is pierced by a gap scarcely five paces wide with walls of
+variegated marbles polished by the transport of goods. As to the
+relation of the Anti-Atlas to the Atlas proper at its western end
+nothing certain is known.
+
+The two more or less parallel ranges which complete the western system
+are less important:--(4) the Jebel Bani, south of the Anti-Atlas, a low,
+narrow rocky ridge with a height of 3000 ft. in its central parts; and
+(5) the Mountains of Ghaiata, north of the Middle Atlas, not a
+continuous range, but a series of broken mountain masses from 3000 to
+3500 ft. high, to the south of Fez, Taza and Tlemcen.
+
+_The Eastern Ranges._--The eastern division of the Atlas, which forms
+the backbone of Algeria and Tunisia, is adequately known with the
+exception of the small portion in Morocco forming the province of
+Er-Rif. The lesser range, nearer the sea, known to the French as the
+Maritime Atlas, calls for little detailed notice. From Ceuta, above
+which towers Jebel Musa--about 2800 ft.--to Melilla, a distance of some
+150 m., the Rif Mountains face the Mediterranean, and here, as along the
+whole coast eastward to Cape Bon, many rugged rocks rise boldly above
+the general level. In Algeria the Maritime Atlas has five chief ranges,
+several mountains rising over 5000 ft. The Jurjura range, extending
+through Kabylia from Algiers to Bougie, contains the peaks of Lalla
+Kedija (7542 ft.), the culminating point of the maritime chains, and
+Babor (6447 ft.). (See further ALGERIA.) The Mejerda range, which
+extends into Tunisia, has no heights exceeding 3700 ft. It was in these
+coast mountains of Algeria that the Romans quarried the celebrated
+Numidian marbles.
+
+The southern or main range of the Eastern division is known by the
+French as the Saharan Atlas. On its western extremity it is linked by
+secondary ranges to the mountain system of Morocco. The Saharan Atlas is
+essentially one chain, though known under different names: Jebel K'sur
+and Jebel Amur on the west, and Jebel Aures in the east. The central
+part, the Zab Mountains, is of lower elevation, the Saharan Atlas
+reaching its culminating point, Jebel Shellia (7611 ft. above the sea),
+in the Aures. This range sends a branch northward which joins the
+Mejerda range of the Maritime Atlas, and another branch runs south by
+Gafsa to the Gulf of Gabes. Here Mount Sidi Ali bu Musin reaches a
+height of 5700 ft., the highest point in Tunisia. In the Saharan Atlas
+the passes leading to or from the desert are numerous, and in most
+instances easy. Both in the east (at Batna) and the west (at Ain Sefra)
+the mountains are traversed by railways, which, starting from
+Mediterranean seaports, take the traveller into the Sahara.
+
+_History and Exploration._--The name Atlas given to these mountains by
+Europeans--but never used by the native races--is derived from that of
+the mythical Greek god represented as carrying the globe on his
+shoulders, and applied to the high and distant mountains of the west,
+where Atlas was supposed to dwell. From time immemorial the Atlas have
+been the home of Berber races, and those living in the least accessible
+regions have retained a measure of independence throughout their
+recorded history. Thus some of the mountain districts of Kabylia had
+never been visited by Europeans until the French military expedition of
+1857. But in general the Maritime range was well known to the Romans.
+The Jebel Amur was traversed by the column which seized El Aghuat in
+1852, and from that time dates the survey of the mountains.
+
+The ancient caravan route from Mauretania to the western Sudan crossed
+the lower Moroccan Atlas by the pass of Tilghemt and passed through the
+oasis of Tafilalt, formerly known as Sajilmasa ["Sigilmassa"], on the
+east side of the Anti-Atlas. The Moroccan system was visited, and in
+some instances crossed, by various European travellers carried into
+slavery by the Salli rovers, and was traversed by Rene Caille in 1828 on
+his journey home from Timbuktu, but the first detailed exploration was
+made by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861-1862. Previous to that almost the only
+special report was the misleading one of Lieut. Washington, attached to
+the British embassy of 1837, who from insufficient data estimated the
+height of Mount Tagharat, to which he gave the indefinite name of
+Miltsin (i.e. _Mul et-Tizin_, "Lord of the Peaks"), as 11,400 ft.
+instead of about 15,000 ft.
+
+In 1871 the first scientific expedition, consisting of Dr (afterwards
+Sir) J.D. Hooker, Mr John Ball and Mr G. Maw, explored the central part
+of the Great Atlas with the special object of investigating its flora
+and determining its relation to that of the mountains of Europe. They
+ascended by the Ait Mizan valley to the Tagharat pass (11,484 ft.), and
+by the Amsmiz valley to the summit of Jebel Tezah (11,972 ft.). In the
+Tagharat pass Mr Maw was the only one of the party who reached the
+watershed; but from Jebel Tezah a good view was obtained southward
+across the great valley of the Sus to the Anti-Atlas, which appeared to
+be from 9000 to 10,000 ft. high. Dr Oskar Lenz in 1879-1880 surveyed a
+part of the Great Atlas north of Tarudant, determined a pass south of
+Iligh in the Anti-Atlas, and penetrated thence across the Sahara to
+Timbuktu. He was followed in 1883-1884 by Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, whose
+extensive itineraries include many districts that had never before been
+visited by any Europeans. Such were parts of the first and middle
+ranges, crossed once; three routes over the Great Atlas, which was,
+moreover, followed along both flanks for nearly its whole length; and
+six journeys across the Anti-Atlas, with a general survey of the foot of
+this range and several passages over the Jebel Bani. Then came Joseph
+Thomson, who explored some of the central parts, and made the highest
+ascent yet achieved, that of Mount Likimt, 13,150 ft., but broke little
+new ground, and failed to cross the main range (1888); and Walter B.
+Harris, who explored some of the southern slopes and crossed the Atlas
+at two points during his expedition to Tafilalt in 1894. In 1901 and
+again in 1905 the marquis de Segonzac, a Frenchman, made extensive
+journeys in the Moroccan ranges. He crossed the Great Atlas in its
+central section, explored its southern border, and, in part, the Middle
+and Anti-Atlas ranges. A member of his expeditions, de Flotte
+Rocquevaire, made a triangulation of part of the western portion of the
+main Atlas, his labours affording a basis for the co-ordination of the
+work of previous explorers. (See also MOROCCO, ALGERIA, TUNISIA and
+SAHARA.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, _Reconnaissance au Maroc
+  1883-1884_ (Paris, 1888, almost the sole authority for the geography
+  of the Atlas; his book gives the result of careful surveys, and is
+  illustrated with a good collection of maps and sketches); Hooker, Ball
+  and Maw, _Marocco and the Great Atlas_ (London, 1879, a most valuable
+  contribution, always scientific and trustworthy, especially as to
+  botany and geology); Joseph Thomson, _Travels in the Atlas and
+  Southern Morocco_ (London, 1889, valuable geographical and geological
+  data); Louis Gentil, _Mission de Segonzac, &c._ (Paris, 1906; the
+  author was geologist to the 1905 expedition); Gerhard Rohlfs,
+  _Adventures in Morocco_ (London, 1874); Walter B. Harris, _Tafilet, a
+  Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Mountains, &c._ (London, 1895),
+  full of valuable information; Budgett Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_
+  (London, 1901), first and last chapters; Dr Oskar Lenz _Timbuktu:
+  Reise durch Marokko_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+ATMOLYSIS (Gr. [Greek: atmos], vapour: [Greek: lyein], to loosen), a
+term invented by Thomas Graham to denote the separation of a mixture of
+gases by taking advantage of their different rates of diffusion through
+a porous septum or diaphragm (see DIFFUSION).
+
+
+
+
+ATMOSPHERE (Gr. [Greek: atmos], vapour; [Greek: sphaira], a sphere), the
+aeriform envelope encircling the earth; also the envelope of a
+particular gas or gases about any solid or liquid. Meteorological
+phenomena seated more directly in the atmosphere obtained early
+recognition; thus Hesiod, in his _Works and Days_, speculated on the
+origin of winds, ascribing them to the heating effects of the sun on the
+air. Ctesibius of Alexandria, Hero and others, founded the science of
+pneumatics on observations on the physical properties of air. Anaximenes
+made air the primordial substance, and it was one of the Aristotelian
+elements. A direct proof of its material nature was given by Galileo,
+who weighed a copper ball containing compressed air.
+
+Before the development of pneumatic chemistry, air was regarded as a
+distinct chemical unit or element. The study of calcination and
+combustion during the 17th and 18th centuries culminated in the
+discovery that air consists chiefly of a mixture of two gases, oxygen
+and nitrogen. Cavendish, Priestley, Lavoisier and others contributed to
+this result. Cavendish made many analyses: from more than 500
+determinations of air in winter and summer, in wet and clear weather,
+and in town and country, he discerned the mean composition of the
+atmosphere to be, oxygen 20.833% and nitrogen 79.167% The same
+experimenter noticed the presence of an inert gas, in very minute
+amount; this gas, afterwards investigated by Rayleigh and Ramsay, is now
+named argon (q.v.).
+
+The constancy of composition shown by repeated analyses of atmospheric
+air led to the view that it was a chemical compound of nitrogen and
+oxygen; but there was no experimental confirmation of this idea, and all
+observations tended to the view that it is simply a mechanical mixture.
+Thus, the gases are not present in simple multiples of their combining
+weights; atmospheric air results when oxygen and nitrogen are mixed in
+the prescribed ratio, the mixing being unattended by any manifestation
+of energy, such as is invariably associated with a chemical action; the
+gases may be mechanically separated by atmolysis, i.e. by taking
+advantage of the different rates of diffusion of the two gases; the
+solubility of air in water corresponds with the "law of partial
+pressures," each gas being absorbed in amount proportional to its
+pressure and coefficient of absorption, and oxygen being much more
+soluble than nitrogen (in the ratio of .04114 to .02035 at 0 deg.); air
+expelled from water by boiling is always richer in oxygen.
+
+Various agencies are at work tending to modify the composition of the
+atmosphere, but these so neutralize each other as to leave it
+practically unaltered. Minute variations, however, do occur. Bunsen
+analysed fifteen examples of air collected at the same place at
+different times, and found the extreme range in the percentage of oxygen
+to be from 20.97 to 20.84. Regnault, from analyses of the air of Paris,
+obtained a variation of 20.999 to 20.913; country air varied from 20.903
+to 21.000; while air taken from over the sea showed an extreme variation
+of 20.940 to 20.850. Angus Smith determined London air to vary in oxygen
+content from 20.857 to 20.95, the air in parks and open spaces showing
+the higher percentage; Glasgow air showed similar results, varying from
+20.887 in the streets to 20.929 in open spaces.
+
+In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, there are a number of other gases
+and vapours generally present in the atmosphere. Of these, argon and its
+allies were the last to be definitely isolated. Carbon dioxide is
+invariably present, as was inferred by Dr David Macbride (1726-1778) of
+Dublin in 1764, but in a proportion which is not absolutely constant; it
+tends to increase at night, and during dry winds and fogs, and it is
+greater in towns than in the country and on land than on the sea. Water
+vapour is always present; the amount is determined by instruments termed
+hygrometers (q.v.). Ozone (q.v.) occurs, in an amount supposed to be
+associated with the development of atmospheric electricity (lightning,
+&c.); this amount varies with the seasons, being a maximum in spring,
+and decreasing through summer and autumn to a minimum in winter.
+Hydrogen dioxide occurs in a manner closely resembling ozone. Nitric
+acid and lower nitrogen oxides are present, being formed by electrical
+discharges, and by the oxidation of atmospheric ammonia by ozone. The
+amount of nitric acid varies from place to place; rain-water, collected
+in the country, has been found to contain an average of 0.5 parts in a
+million, but town rain-water contains more, the greater amounts being
+present in the more densely populated districts. Ammonia is also
+present, but in very varying amounts, ranging from 135 to 0.1 parts
+(calculated as carbonate) in a million parts of air. Ammonia is carried
+back to the soil by means of rain, and there plays an important part in
+providing nitrogenous matter which is afterwards assimilated by
+vegetable life.
+
+The average volume composition of the gases of the atmosphere may be
+represented (in parts per 10,000) as follows:--
+
+  Oxygen          2065.94      Ozone             0.015
+  Nitrogen        7711.60      Aqueous vapour  140.00
+  Argon (about)     79.00      Nitric acid       0.08
+  Carbon dioxide     3.36      Ammonia           0.005
+
+In addition to these gases, there are always present in the atmosphere
+many micro-organisms or bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY); another invariable
+constituent is dust (q.v.), which plays an important part in
+meteorological phenomena.
+
+Reference should be made to the articles BAROMETER, CLIMATE and
+METEOROLOGY for the measurement and variation of the pressure of the
+atmosphere, and the discussion of other properties.
+
+
+
+
+ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 1. It was not until the middle of the 18th
+century that experiments due to Benjamin Franklin showed that the
+electric phenomena of the atmosphere are not fundamentally different
+from those produced in the laboratory. For the next century the rate of
+progress was slow, though the ideas of Volta in Italy and the
+instrumental devices of Sir Francis Ronalds in England merit
+recognition. The invention of the portable electrometer and the
+water-dropping electrograph by Lord Kelvin in the middle of the 19th
+century, and the greater definiteness thus introduced into observational
+results, were notable events. Towards the end of the 19th century came
+the discovery made by W. Linss (6)[1] and by J. Elster and H. Geitel (7)
+that even the most perfectly insulated conductors lose their charge, and
+that this loss depends on atmospheric conditions. Hard on this came the
+recognition of the fact that freely charged positive and negative ions
+are always present in the atmosphere, and that a radioactive emanation
+can be collected. Whilst no small amount of observational work has been
+done in these new branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has
+still not developed to a considerable extent beyond preliminary stages.
+Observations have usually been limited to a portion of the year, or to a
+few hours of the day, whilst the results from different stations differ
+much in details. It is thus difficult to form a judgment as to what has
+most claim to acceptance as the general law, and what may be regarded as
+local or exceptional.
+
+2. _Potential Gradient._--In dry weather the electric potential in the
+atmosphere is normally positive relative to the earth, and increases
+with the height. The existence of _earth currents_ (q.v.) shows that the
+earth, strictly speaking, is not all at one potential, but the natural
+differences of potential between points on the earth's surface a mile
+apart are insignificant compared to the normal potential difference
+between the earth and a point one foot above it. What is aimed at in
+ordinary observations of atmospheric potential is the measurement of the
+difference of potential between the earth and a point a given distance
+above it, or of the difference of potential between two points in the
+same vertical line a given distance apart. Let a conductor, say a
+metallic sphere, be supported by a metal rod of negligible electric
+capacity whose other end is earthed. As the whole conductor must be at
+zero (i.e. the earth's) potential, there must be an induced charge on
+the sphere, producing at its centre a potential equal but of opposite
+sign to what would exist at the same spot in free air. This neglects any
+charge in the air displaced by the sphere, and assumes a statical state
+of conditions and that the conductor itself exerts no disturbing
+influence. Suppose now that the sphere's earth connexion is broken and
+that it is carried without loss of charge inside a building at zero
+potential. If its potential as observed there is -V (volts), then the
+potential of the air at the spot occupied by the sphere was +V. This
+method in one shape or another has been often employed. Suppose next
+that a fixed insulated conductor is somehow kept at the potential of the
+air at a given point, then the measurement of its potential is
+equivalent to a measurement of that of the air. This is the basis of a
+variety of methods. In the earliest the conductor was represented by
+long metal wires, supported by silk or other insulating material, and
+left to pick up the air's potential. The addition of sharp points was a
+step in advance; but the method hardly became a quantitative one until
+the sharp points were replaced by a flame (fuse, gas, lamp), or by a
+liquid jet breaking into drops. The matter leaving the conductor,
+whether the products of combustion or the drops of a liquid, supplies
+the means of securing equality of potential between the conductor and
+the air at the spot where the matter quits electrical connexion with the
+conductor. Of late years the function of the collector is discharged in
+some forms of apparatus by a salt of radium. Of flame collectors the two
+best known are Lord Kelvin's portable electrometer with a fuse, or F.
+Exner's gold leaf electroscope in conjunction with an oil lamp or gas
+flame. Of liquid collectors the representative is Lord Kelvin's
+water-dropping electrograph; while Benndorf's is the form of radium
+collector that has been most used. It cannot be said that any one form
+of collector is superior all round. Flame collectors blow out in high
+winds, whilst water-droppers are apt to get frozen in winter. At first
+sight the balance of advantages seems to lie with radium. But while
+gaseous products and even falling water are capable of modifying
+electrical conditions in their immediate neighbourhood, the "infection"
+produced by radium is more insidious, and other drawbacks present
+themselves in practice. It requires a radium salt of high radioactivity
+to be at all comparable in effectiveness with a good water-dropper.
+Experiments by F. Linke (8) indicated that a water-dropper having a
+number of fine holes, or having a fine jet under a considerable
+pressure, picks up the potential in about a tenth of the time required
+by the ordinary radium preparation protected by a glass tube. These fine
+jet droppers with a mixture of alcohol and water have proved very
+effective for balloon observations.
+
+  TABLE I.--_Annual Variation Potential Gradient._
+
+  +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+  | Place and Period.               | Jan.| Feb.|March|April| May | June|July|Aug.|Sept.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.|
+  +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+  | Karasjok (10), 1903-1904        | 143 | 150 | 137 |  94 |  74 |  65 | 70 | 67 |  67 |  87 | 120 | 126 |
+  | Sodankyla (31), 1882-1883       |  94 | 133 | 148 | 155 | 186 |  93 | 53 | 77 |  47 |  72 |  71 |  71 |
+  | Potsdam (9), 1904               | 167 |  95 | 118 |  88 |  93 |  72 | 73 | 65 |  97 | 101 | 108 | 123 |
+  | Kew (12), 1898-1904             | 127 | 141 | 113 |  87 |  77 |  70 | 61 | 72 |  76 |  96 | 126 | 153 |
+  | Greenwich (13), 1893-1894, 1896 | 110 | 112 | 127 | 107 |  83 |  71 | 76 | 84 |  83 | 104 | 104 | 139 |
+  | Florence (14), 1883-1886        | 132 | 110 |  98 |  84 |  86 |  81 | 77 | 90 |  89 |  99 | 129 | 125 |
+  | Perpignan (15), 1886-1888       | 121 | 112 | 108 |  89 |  91 |  92 | 89 | 82 |  74 |  99 | 122 | 121 |
+  | Lisbon (16), 1884-1886          | 104 | 105 | 104 |  92 |  91 |  93 | 87 | 92 | 100 |  99 | 115 | 117 |
+  | Tokyo (17), 1897-1898, 1900-1901| 165 | 145 | 117 |  86 |  62 |  58 | 41 | 59 |  59 |  97 | 134 | 176 |
+  | Batavia (18)(2 m.), 1887-1890   |  97 | 115 | 155 | 127 | 129 | 105 | 79 | 62 |  69 |  79 |  90 |  93 |
+  |     "     (7.8 m.)  1890-1895   | 100 |  89 | 103 | 120 |  98 | 103 | 85 | 99 |  73 | 101 | 117 | 112 |
+  +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+3. Before considering observational data, it is expedient to mention
+various sources of uncertainty. Above the level plain of absolutely
+smooth surface, devoid of houses or vegetation, the equipotential
+surfaces under normal conditions would be strictly horizontal, and if we
+could determine the potential at one metre above the ground we should
+have a definite measure of the potential gradient at the earth's
+surface. The presence, however, of apparatus or observers upsets the
+conditions, while above uneven ground or near a tree or a building the
+equipotential surfaces cease to be horizontal. In an ordinary climate a
+building seems to be practically at the earth's potential; near its
+walls the equipotential surfaces are highly inclined, and near the
+ridges they may lie very close together. The height of the walls in the
+various observatories, the height of the collectors, and the distance
+they project from the wall vary largely, and sometimes there are
+external buildings or trees sufficiently near to influence the
+potential. It is thus futile to compare the absolute voltages met with
+at two stations, unless allowance can be made for the influence of the
+environment. With a view to this, it has become increasingly common of
+late years to publish not the voltages actually observed, but values
+deduced from them for the potential gradient in the open in volts per
+metre. Observations are made at a given height over level open ground
+near the observatory, and a comparison with the simultaneous results
+from the self-recording electrograph enables the records from the latter
+to be expressed as potential gradients in the open. In the case,
+however, of many observatories, especially as regards the older records,
+no data for reduction exist; further, the reduction to the open is at
+best only an approximation, the success attending which probably varies
+considerably at different stations. This is one of the reasons why in
+the figures for the annual and diurnal variations in Tables I., II. and
+III., the potential has been expressed as percentages of its mean value
+for the year or the day. In most cases the environment of a collector is
+not absolutely invariable. If the shape of the equipotential surfaces
+near it is influenced by trees, shrubs or grass, their influence will
+vary throughout the year. In winter the varying depth of snow may exert
+an appreciable effect. There are sources of uncertainty in the
+instrument itself. Unless the insulation is perfect, the potential
+recorded falls short of that at the spot where the radium is placed or
+the water jet breaks. The action of the collector is opposed by the
+leakage through imperfect insulation, or natural dissipation, and this
+may introduce a fictitious element into the apparent annual or diurnal
+variation. The potentials that have to be dealt with are often hundreds
+and sometimes thousands of volts, and insulation troubles are more
+serious than is generally appreciated. When a water jet serves as
+collector, the pressure under which it issues should be practically
+constant. If the pressure alters as the water tank empties, a
+discontinuity occurs in the trace when the tank is refilled, and a
+fictitious element may be introduced into the diurnal variation. When
+rain or snow is falling, the potential frequently changes rapidly. These
+changes are often too rapid to be satisfactorily dealt with by an
+ordinary electrometer, and they sometimes leave hardly a trace on the
+photographic paper. Again rain dripping from exposed parts of the
+apparatus may materially affect the record. It is thus customary in
+calculating diurnal inequalities either to take no account of days on
+which there is an appreciable rainfall, or else to form separate tables
+for "dry" or "fine" days and for "all" days. Speaking generally, the
+exclusion of days of rain and of negative potential comes pretty much to
+the same thing, and the presence or absence of negative potential is not
+infrequently the criterion by reference to which days are rejected or
+are accepted as normal.
+
+  4. The potential gradient near the ground varies with the season of
+  the year and the hour of the day, and is largely dependent on the
+  weather conditions. It is thus difficult to form even a rough estimate
+  of the mean value at any place unless hourly readings exist, extending
+  over the whole or the greater part of a year. It is even somewhat
+  precipitate to assume that a mean value deduced from a single year is
+  fairly representative of average conditions. At Potsdam, G. Ludeling
+  (9) found for the mean value for 1904 in volts per metre 242. At
+  Karasjok in the extreme north of Norway G.C. Simpson (10) in 1903-1904
+  obtained 139. At Kremsmunster for 1902 P.B. Zolss(11) gives 98. At Kew
+  (12) the mean for individual years from 1898 to 1904 varied from 141
+  in 1900 to 179 in 1899, the mean from the seven years combined being
+  159. The large difference between the means obtained at Potsdam and
+  Kremsmunster, as compared to the comparative similarity between the
+  results for Kew and Karasjok, suggests that the mean value of the
+  potential gradient may be much more dependent on local conditions than
+  on difference of latitude.
+
+  At any single station potential gradient has a wide range of values.
+  The largest positive and negative values recorded are met with during
+  disturbed weather. During thunderstorms the record from an
+  electrograph shows large sudden excursions, the trace usually going
+  off the sheet with every flash of lightning when the thunder is near.
+  Exactly what the potential changes amount to under such circumstances
+  it is impossible to say; what the trace shows depends largely on the
+  type of electrometer. Large rapid changes are also met with in the
+  absence of thunder during heavy rain or snow fall. In England the
+  largest values of a sufficiently steady character to be shown
+  correctly by an ordinary electrograph occur during winter fogs. At
+  such times gradients of +400 or +500 volts per metre are by no means
+  unusual at Kew, and voltages of 700 or 800 are occasionally met with.
+
+  5. Annual Variation.--Table I. gives the annual variation of the
+  potential gradient at a number of stations arranged according to
+  latitude, the mean value for the whole year being taken in each case
+  as 100. Karasjok as already mentioned is in the extreme north of
+  Norway (69 deg. 17' N.); Sodankyla was the Finnish station of the
+  international polar year 1882-1883. At Batavia, which is near the
+  equator (6 deg. 11' S.) the annual variation seems somewhat irregular.
+  Further, the results obtained with the water-dropper at two
+  heights--viz. 2 and 7.8 metres--differ notably. At all the other
+  stalions the difference between summer and winter months is
+  conspicuous. From the European data one would be disposed to conclude
+  that the variation throughout the year diminishes as one approaches
+  the equator. It is decidedly less at Perpignan and Lisbon than at
+  Potsdam, Kew and Greenwich, but nowhere is the seasonal difference
+  more conspicuous than at Tokyo, which is south of Lisbon.
+
+
+    TABLE II.--_Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient_.
+
+    +-------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+-------------+---------+
+    |Station|Karasjok|Sodankyla| Kew(19, 12).|Greenwich|Florence|Perpignan| Lisbon.| Tokyo.|   Batavia.  |  Cape   |
+    |       |        |         |             |         |        |         |        |       |             |Horn(20).|
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+    |Period | 1903-4.| 1882-83 | 1862-| 1898-| 1893-96.|1883-85.| 1886-88.|1884-86.|1897-98| 1887-| 1890-| 1882-83.|
+    |       |        |         | 1864.| 1904.|         |        |         |        |1900-1.| 1890.| 1895.|         |
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+    | Days. |        |   All.  | All. |Quiet.|   All.  |  All.  |  Fine.  |  All.  |  All. | Dry. | Dry. |   Pos.  |
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+    |   h   |  5.5   |   3.0   | 3.5  | 3.35 |   3.0   |        |   8.4   |   3.0  |  1.7  |   2  |  7.8 |   3.5   |
+    |   l   |        |   2.5   | 1.0  | 1.3  |   1.8   |        |   1.5   |   0.5  |  2.0  |      |  7.8 |   2.0   |
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+    |  Hour |        |         |      |      |         |        |         |        |       |      |      |         |
+    |   1   |   83   |    91   |   87 |   93 |    97   |    92  |    78   |    84  |  101  |  147 |  125 |    82   |
+    |   2   |   73   |    85   |   79 |   88 |    89   |    83  |    72   |    80  |   98  |  141 |  114 |    73   |
+    |   3   |   66   |    82   |   74 |   84 |    87   |    77  |    71   |    78  |   97  |  135 |  109 |    85   |
+    |   4   |   63   |    84   |   72 |   83 |    86   |    75  |    72   |    81  |   99  |  128 |  102 |    81   |
+    |   5   |   60   |    89   |   71 |   85 |    86   |    74  |    77   |    83  |  121  |  127 |  101 |    85   |
+    |   6   |   68   |    91   |   77 |   93 |    92   |    82  |    92   |    92  |  154  |  137 |  117 |    95   |
+    |   7   |   81   |    97   |   92 |  103 |   100   |   100  |   107   |   101  |  167  |  158 |  147 |   106   |
+    |   8   |   87   |   100   |  106 |  112 |   102   |   112  |   114   |   105  |  149  |  104 |  119 |   118   |
+    |   9   |   94   |    98   |  107 |  115 |   100   |   113  |   111   |   104  |  117  |   67 |   82 |   119   |
+    |  10   |  101   |   102   |  100 |  112 |   101   |   107  |   100   |   104  |   87  |   42 |   55 |   123   |
+    |  11   |   99   |    98   |   90 |  101 |    96   |   100  |    96   |   102  |   70  |   35 |   46 |   123   |
+    | Noon. |  103   |   102   |   92 |   94 |    97   |    95  |    99   |   108  |   61  |   30 |   43 |   115   |
+    |   1   |  106   |   105   |   90 |   89 |    96   |    92  |    99   |   111  |   54  |   30 |   42 |   112   |
+    |   2   |  108   |   107   |   91 |   87 |    94   |    90  |    97   |   114  |   49  |   30 |   43 |    94   |
+    |   3   |  108   |   108   |   92 |   88 |    95   |    89  |    99   |   109  |   53  |   33 |   46 |    89   |
+    |   4   |  109   |   108   |   98 |   93 |    97   |    89  |   105   |   108  |   61  |   41 |   53 |    88   |
+    |   5   |  110   |   108   |  108 |   99 |   102   |    94  |   113   |   108  |   76  |   67 |   73 |    84   |
+    |   6   |  119   |   110   |  121 |  108 |   108   |   113  |   126   |   111  |   95  |   91 |  108 |   110   |
+    |   7   |  129   |   102   |  134 |  115 |   111   |   121  |   131   |   116  |  107  |  120 |  145 |   107   |
+    |   8   |  136   |   111   |  139 |  118 |   115   |   129  |   129   |   114  |  114  |  137 |  155 |   123   |
+    |   9   |  139   |   111   |  138 |  119 |   117   |   132  |   120   |   109  |  119  |  146 |  155 |   112   |
+    |  10   |  133   |   104   |  128 |  115 |   117   |   127  |   109   |   102  |  120  |  148 |  147 |    99   |
+    |  11   |  121   |   108   |  113 |  108 |   111   |   114  |    97   |    92  |  119  |  151 |  143 |    85   |
+    |  12   |  102   |    93   |   99 |   99 |   104   |   100  |    86   |    85  |  112  |  147 |  130 |    98   |
+    +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+
+
+
+    TABLE III.--_Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient_.
+
+    +--------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+    |Station.| Karasjok. | Sodankyla.|       Kew.      | Greenwich.|  Bureau   | Eiffel  | Perpignan |  Batavia  |
+    |        |           |           |                 |           |Central(21)|Tower(21)|   (21).   |  (2 m.)   |
+    +--------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Period.|  1903-4.  |  1882-83. |    1898-1904.   |1894, 1896.|  1894-99. | 1896-98.|  1885-95. |  1887-90. |
+    +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |        | Win-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Win-|Equi-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Summer. | Win-| Sum-| Win | Sum-|
+    |        | ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.| ter.| nox.| mer.| ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.|         | ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.|
+    +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |  Hour. |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |         |     |     |     |     |
+    |    1   |  76 | 104 |  90 |  99 |  91 |  93 |  96 |  87 | 110 |  79 | 102 |    90   |  72 |  88 | 145 | 149 |
+    |    2   |  66 |  96 |  79 |  84 |  86 |  88 |  90 |  84 | 101 |  71 |  92 |    83   |  67 |  83 | 139 | 142 |
+    |    3   |  57 |  89 |  78 |  90 |  82 |  85 |  85 |  76 |  98 |  70 |  88 |    79   |  66 |  81 | 137 | 135 |
+    |    4   |  55 |  83 |  74 |  99 |  81 |  84 |  84 |  77 |  96 |  69 |  84 |    76   |  67 |  83 | 131 | 127 |
+    |    5   |  50 |  79 |  74 | 111 |  82 |  87 |  90 |  78 |  94 |  75 |  94 |    78   |  72 |  92 | 132 | 123 |
+    |    6   |  61 |  83 |  80 | 114 |  86 |  97 | 101 |  82 | 101 |  83 | 106 |    87   |  84 | 107 | 138 | 136 |
+    |    7   |  78 |  89 |  86 | 117 |  95 | 109 | 113 |  94 | 107 |  98 | 118 |    97   | 104 | 114 | 166 | 153 |
+    |    8   |  82 |  93 |  95 | 122 | 104 | 118 | 120 |  97 | 111 | 111 | 120 |   103   | 122 | 108 | 118 |  92 |
+    |    9   |  90 |  93 |  91 | 109 | 111 | 119 | 119 |  98 | 102 | 113 | 106 |   110   | 126 | 100 |  74 |  64 |
+    |   10   | 104 |  93 | 106 | 101 | 114 | 110 | 110 | 102 |  98 | 111 |  94 |   109   | 114 |  93 |  43 |  40 |
+    |   11   | 102 |  92 |  98 |  97 | 107 |  95 |  97 | 103 |  86 | 108 |  84 |   107   |  98 |  90 |  35 |  36 |
+    |  Noon. | 119 |  90 |  98 | 100 | 102 |  86 |  87 | 107 |  94 | 106 |  77 |   104   |  99 |  95 |  31 |  30 |
+    |    1   | 116 |  94 | 116 |  97 |  99 |  81 |  80 | 107 |  85 | 112 |  79 |   107   |  96 |  93 |  29 |  33 |
+    |    2   | 118 |  97 | 113 |  97 |  97 |  80 |  76 | 109 |  82 | 112 |  81 |   110   |  94 |  90 |  28 |  32 |
+    |    3   | 119 | 100 | 121 |  93 |  99 |  82 |  76 | 111 |  78 | 111 |  78 |   107   |  95 |  88 |  24 |  41 |
+    |    4   | 115 |  99 | 111 |  96 | 103 |  88 |  80 | 116 |  81 | 113 |  80 |   105   | 102 |  92 |  30 |  49 |
+    |    5   | 120 | 106 | 105 | 106 | 108 |  96 |  87 | 112 |  93 | 120 |  85 |   106   | 115 |  98 |  60 |  74 |
+    |    6   | 131 | 104 | 115 |  92 | 111 | 109 |  98 | 114 |  98 | 124 |  97 |   109   | 128 | 110 |  88 |  94 |
+    |    7   | 136 | 110 | 118 | 102 | 114 | 120 | 111 | 117 |  99 | 124 | 123 |   113   | 133 | 122 | 119 | 122 |
+    |    8   | 134 | 113 | 117 | 106 | 112 | 124 | 123 | 113 | 108 | 116 | 134 |   110   | 131 | 127 | 138 | 135 |
+    |    9   | 137 | 125 | 115 |  90 | 111 | 123 | 129 | 111 | 118 | 104 | 130 |   109   | 124 | 125 | 145 | 147 |
+    |   10   | 125 | 135 | 112 |  90 | 108 | 118 | 125 | 110 | 124 |  97 | 122 |   105   | 111 | 117 | 148 | 148 |
+    |   11   | 114 | 126 | 113 | 103 | 103 | 109 | 116 | 102 | 120 |  90 | 115 |   101   |  96 | 108 | 149 | 152 |
+    |   12   |  96 | 111 |  95 |  85 |  96 |  99 | 105 |  93 | 116 |  83 | 108 |    94   |  83 |  95 | 148 | 146 |
+    +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  At the temperate stations the maximum occurs near midwinter; in the
+  Arctic it seems deferred towards spring.
+
+  6. _Diurnal Variation._--Table II. gives the mean diurnal variation
+  for the whole year at a number of stations arranged in order of
+  latitude, the mean from the 24 hourly values being taken as 100. The
+  data are some from "all" days, some from "quiet," "fine" or "dry"
+  days. The height, h, and the distance from the wall, l, were the
+  potential is measured are given in metres when known. In most cases
+  two distinct maxima and minima occur in the 24 hours. The principal
+  maximum is usually found in the evening between 8 and 10 P.M., the
+  principal minimum in the morning from 3 to 5 A.M. At some stations the
+  minimum in the afternoon is indistinctly shown, but at Tokyo and
+  Batavia it is mu	ch more conspicuous than the morning minimum.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  7. In Table III. the diurnal inequality is shown for "winter" and
+  "summer" respectively. In all cases the mean value for the 24 hours is
+  taken as 100. By "summer" is meant April to September at Sodankyla,
+  Greenwich and Batavia; May to August at Kew, Bureau Central (Paris),
+  Eiffel Tower and Perpignan; and May to July at Karasjok. "Winter"
+  includes October to March at Sodankyla, Greenwich and Batavia;
+  November to February at Kew and Bureau Central; November to January at
+  Karasjok, and December and January at Perpignan. Mean results from
+  March, April, September and October at Kew are assigned to "Equinox."
+
+  At Batavia the difference between winter and summer is comparatively
+  small. Elsewhere there is a tendency for the double period, usually so
+  prominent in summer, to become less pronounced in winter, the
+  afternoon minimum tending to disappear. Even in summer the double
+  period is not prominent in the arctic climate of Karasjok or on the
+  top of the Eiffel Tower. The diurnal variation in summer at the latter
+  station is shown graphically in the top curve of fig. 1. It presents a
+  remarkable resemblance to the adjacent curve, which gives the diurnal
+  variation at mid-winter at the Bureau Central. The resemblance between
+  these curves is much closer than that between the Bureau Central's own
+  winter and summer curves. All three Paris curves show three peaks, the
+  first and third representing the ordinary forenoon and afternoon
+  maxima. In summer at the Bureau Central the intermediate peak nearly
+  disappears in the profound afternoon depression, but it is still
+  recognizable. This three-peaked curve is not wholly peculiar to Paris,
+  being seen, for instance, at Lisbon in summer. The December and June
+  curves for Kew are good examples of the ordinary nature of the
+  difference between midwinter and midsummer. The afternoon minimum at
+  Kew gradually deepens as midsummer approaches. Simultaneously the
+  forenoon maximum occurs earlier and the afternoon maximum later in the
+  day. The two last curves in the diagram contrast the diurnal variation
+  at Kew in potential gradient and in barometric pressure for the year
+  as a whole. The somewhat remarkable resemblance between the diurnal
+  variation for the two elements, first remarked on by J.D. Everett
+  (19), is of interest in connexion with recent theoretical conclusions
+  by J.P. Elster and H.F.K. Geitel and by H. Ebert.
+
+  In the potential curves of the diagram the ordinates represent the
+  hourly values expressed--as in Tables II. and III.--as percentages of
+  the mean value for the day. If this be overlooked, a wrong impression
+  may be derived as to the absolute amplitudes of the changes. The Kew
+  curves, for instance, might suggest that the range (maximum less
+  minimum hourly value) was larger in June than in December. In reality
+  the December range was 82, the June only 57 volts; but the mean value
+  of the potential was 243 in December as against 111 in June. So again,
+  in the case of the Paris curves, the absolute value of the diurnal
+  range in summer was much greater for the Eiffel Tower than for the
+  Bureau Central, but the mean voltage was 2150 at the former station
+  and only 134 at the latter.
+
+  8. _Fourier Coefficients._--Diurnal inequalities such as those of
+  Tables II. and III. and intended to eliminate irregular changes, but
+  they also to some extent eliminate regular changes if the hours of
+  maxima and minima or the character of the diurnal variation alter
+  throughout the year. The alteration that takes place in the regular
+  diurnal inequality throughout the year is best seen by analysing it
+  into a Fourier series of the type
+
+    c1 sin(t + a1) + c2 sin(2t + a2) + c3 sin(3t + a3) +
+       + c4 sin(4t + a4) + ...
+
+  where t denotes time counted from (local) midnight, c1, c2, c3, c4,
+  ... are the amplitudes of the component harmonic waves of periods 24,
+  12, 8 and 6 hours; a1, a2, a3, a4, are the corresponding phase angles.
+  One hour of time t is counted as 15 deg., and a delay of one hour in
+  the time of maximum answers to a diminution of 15 deg. in a1, of 30
+  deg. in a2, and so on. If a1, say, varies much throughput the year, or
+  if the ratios of c2, c3, c4, ... to c1, vary much, then a diurnal
+  inequality derived from a whole year, or from a season composed of
+  several months, represents a mean curve arising from the superposition
+  of a number of curves, which differ in shape and in the positions of
+  their maxima and minima. The result, if considered alone, inevitably
+  leads to an underestimate of the average amplitude of the regular
+  diurnal variation.
+
+  It is also desirable to have an idea of the size of the irregular
+  changes which vary from one day to the next. On stormy days, as
+  already mentioned, the irregular changes hardly admit of satisfactory
+  treatment. Even on the quietest days irregular changes are always
+  numerous and often large.
+
+  Table IV. aims at giving a summary of the several phenomena for a
+  single station, Kew, on electrically quiet days. The first line gives
+  the mean value of the potential gradient, the second the mean excess
+  of the largest over the smallest hourly value on individual days. The
+  hourly values are derived from smoothed curves, the object being to
+  get the mean ordinate for a 60-minute period. If the actual crests of
+  the excursions had been measured the figures in the second line would
+  have been even larger. The third line gives the range of the _regular_
+  diurnal inequality, the next four lines the amplitudes of the first
+  four Fourier waves into which the regular diurnal inequality has been
+  analysed. These mean values, ranges and amplitudes are all measured in
+  volts per metre (in the open). The last four lines of Table IV. give
+  the phase angles of the first four Fourier waves.
+
+
+    TABLE IV.--_Absolute Potential Data at Kew_ (12).
+
+    +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                                | Jan.| Feb.| Mar.| Apr.| May | June| July| Aug.| Sep.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.|
+    +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Mean Potential Gradient        | 201 | 224 | 180 | 138 | 123 | 111 |  98 | 114 | 121 | 153 | 200 | 243 |
+    | Mean of individual daily ranges| 203 | 218 | 210 | 164 | 143 | 143 | 117 | 129 | 141 | 196 | 186 | 213 |
+    | Range in Diurnal inequality    |  73 |  94 |  83 |  74 |  71 |  57 |  55 |  60 |  54 |  63 |  52 |  82 |
+    |                           / c1 |  22 |  22 |  17 |  13 |  18 |   9 |   6 |   6 |   9 |   7 |  14 |  30 |
+    | Amplitudes of Fourier     | c2 |  21 |  33 |  34 |  31 |  22 |  23 |  24 |  26 |  23 |  30 |  17 |  21 |
+    |   waves                  <  c3 |   7 |  10 |   5 |   5 |   3 |   1 |   3 |   2 |   3 |   6 |   5 |   7 |
+    |                           \ c4 |   2 |   3 |   5 |   6 |   4 |   1 |   4 |   3 |   4 |   3 |   2 |   3 |
+    |                                +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                                | deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.| deg.|
+    |                           / a1 | 206 | 204 | 123 |  72 |  86 |  79 |  48 | 142 | 154 | 192 | 202 | 208 |
+    | Phase angles of Fourier   | a1 | 170 | 171 | 186 | 193 | 188 | 183 | 185 | 182 | 199 | 206 | 212 | 175 |
+    |  waves                   <  a3 |  11 |   9 |  36 |  96 | 100 | 125 | 124 | 107 |  16 |  18 |  38 |  36 |
+    |                           \ a1 | 235 | 225 | 307 | 314 | 314 | 277 | 293 | 313 | 330 | 288 | 238 | 249 |
+    +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  It will be noticed that the difference between the greatest and least
+  hourly values is, in all but three winter months, actually larger than
+  the mean value of the potential gradient for the day; it bears to the
+  range of the regular diurnal inequality a ratio varying from 2.0 in
+  May to 3.6 in November.
+
+  At midwinter the 24-hour term is the largest, but near midsummer it is
+  small compared to the 12-hour term. The 24-hour term is very variable
+  both as regards its amplitude and its phase angle (and so its hour of
+  maximum). The 12-hour term is much less variable, especially as
+  regards its phase angle; its amplitude shows distinct maxima near the
+  equinoxes. That the 8-hour and 6-hour waves, though small near
+  midsummer, represent more than mere accidental irregularities, seems a
+  safe inference from the regularity apparent in the annual variation of
+  their phase angles.
+
+
+    TABLE V.--_Fourier Series Amplitudes and Phase Angles._
+
+    +------------------+---------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+    |                  |         |         Winter.         |         Summer .        |
+    |      Place.      | Period. +------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+
+    |                  |         |  c1. |  c2. | a1. | a2. |  c1. |  c2. | a1. | a2. |
+    +------------------+---------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+
+    |                  |         |      |      | deg.| deg.|      |      | deg.| deg.|
+    | Kew              | 1862-64 |0.283 |0.160 | 184 | 193 |0.127 |0.229 | 111 | 179 |
+    |  "               |1898-1904| .102 | .103 | 206 | 180 | .079 | .213 |  87 | 186 |
+    | Bureau Central   | 1894-98 | .220 | .104 | 223 | 206 | .130 | .200 |  95 | 197 |
+    | Eiffel Tower     | 1896-98 |  ..  |  ..  | ..  | ..  | .133 | .085 | 216 | 171 |
+    | Sonnblick (22)   | 1902-03 |  ..  |  ..  | ..  | ..  | .208 | .120 | 178 | 145 |
+    | Karasjok         | 1903-04 | .356 | .144 | 189 | 155 | .165 | .093 | 141 | 144 |
+    | Kremsmunster (23)|  1902   | .280 | .117 | 224 | 194 | .166 | .153 | 241 | 209 |
+    | Potsdam          |  1904   | .269 | .101 | 194 | 185 | .096 | .152 | 343 | 185 |
+    +------------------+---------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+
+
+  9. Table V. gives some data for the 24-hour and 12-hour Fourier
+  coefficients, which will serve to illustrate the diversity between
+  different stations. In this table, unlike Table IV., amplitudes are
+  all expressed as decimals of the mean value of the potential gradient
+  for the corresponding season. "Winter" means generally the four
+  midwinter, and "summer" the four midsummer, months; but at Karasjok
+  three, and at Kremsmunster six, months are included in each season.
+  The results for the Sonnblick are derived from a comparatively small
+  number of days in August and September. At Potsdam the data represent
+  the arithmetic means derived from the Fourier analysis for the
+  individual months comprising the season. The 1862-1864 data from
+  Kew--due to J.D. Everett (19)--are based on "all" days; the others,
+  except Karasjok to some extent, represent electrically quiet days. The
+  cause of the large difference between the two sets of data for c1 at
+  Kew is uncertain. The potential gradient is in all cases lower in
+  summer than winter, and thus the reduction in c1 in summer would
+  appear even larger than in Table V. if the results were expressed in
+  absolute measure. At Karasjok and Kremsmunster the seasonal variation
+  in a1 seems comparatively small, but at Potsdam and the Bureau Central
+  it is as large as at Kew. Also, whilst the winter values of a1 are
+  fairly similar at the several stations the summer values are widely
+  different. Except at Karasjok, where the diurnal changes seem somewhat
+  irregular, the relative amplitude of the 12-hour term is considerably
+  greater in summer than in winter. The values of a2 at the various
+  stations differ comparatively little, and show but little seasonal
+  change. Thus the 12-hour term has a much greater uniformity than the
+  24-hour term. This possesses significance in connexion with the view,
+  supported by A.B. Chauveau (21), F. Exner (24) and others, that the
+  12-hour term is largely if not entirely a local phenomenon, due to the
+  action of the lower atmospheric strata, and tending to disappear even
+  in summer at high altitudes. Exner attributes the double daily
+  maximum, which is largely a consequence of the 12-hour wave, to a thin
+  layer near the ground, which in the early afternoon absorbs the solar
+  radiation of shortest wave length. This layer he believes specially
+  characteristic of arid dusty regions, while comparatively non-existent
+  in moist climates or where foliage is luxuriant. In support of his
+  theory Exner states that he has found but little trace of the double
+  maximum and minimum in Ceylon and elsewhere. C. Nordmann (25)
+  describes some similar results which he obtained in Algeria during
+  August and September 1905. His station, Philippeville, is close to the
+  shores of the Mediterranean, and sea breezes persisted during the day.
+  The diurnal variation showed only a single maximum and minimum,
+  between 5 and 6 P.M. and 4 and 5 A.M. respectively. So again, a few
+  days' observations on the top of Mont Blanc (4810 metres) by le Cadet
+  (26) in August and September 1902, showed only a single period, with
+  maximum between 3 and 4 P.M., and minimum about 3 A.M. Chauveau points
+  to the reduction in the 12-hour term as compared to the 24-hour term
+  on the Eiffel Tower, and infers the practical disappearance of the
+  former at no great height. The close approach in the values for c1 in
+  Table V. from the Bureau Central and the Eiffel Tower, and the
+  reduction of c2 at the latter station, are unquestionably significant
+  facts; but the summer value for c2 at Karasjok--a low level
+  station--is nearly as small as that at the Eiffel Tower, and notably
+  smaller than that at the Sonnblick (3100 metres). Again, Kew is
+  surrounded by a large park, not devoid of trees, and hardly the place
+  where Exner's theory would suggest a large value for c2, and yet the
+  summer value of c2 at Kew is the largest in Table V.
+
+  10. Observations on mountain tops generally show high potentials near
+  the ground. This only means that the equipotential surfaces are
+  crowded together, just as they are near the ridge of a house. To
+  ascertain how the increase in the voltage varies as the height in the
+  free atmosphere increases, it is necessary to employ kites or
+  balloons. At small heights Exner (27) has employed captive balloons,
+  provided with a burning fuse, and carrying a wire connected with an
+  electroscope on the ground. He found the gradient nearly uniform for
+  heights up to 30 to 40 metres above the ground. At great heights free
+  balloons seem necessary. The balloon carries two collectors a given
+  vertical distance apart. The potential difference between the two is
+  recorded, and the potential gradient is thus found. Some of the
+  earliest balloon observations made the gradient increase with the
+  height, but such a result is now regarded as abnormal. A balloon may
+  leave the earth with a charge, or become charged through discharge of
+  ballast. These possibilities may not have been sufficiently realized
+  at first. Among the most important balloon observations are those by
+  le Cadet (1) F. Linke (28) and H. Gerdien (29). The following are
+  samples from a number of days' results, given in le Cadet's book. h is
+  the height in metres, P the gradient in volts per metre.
+
+    Aug. 9, 1893  / h  824  830 1060 1255 1290 1745 1940 2080 2310 2520
+                  \ P   37   43   43   41   42   34   25   21   18   16
+
+    Sep. 11, 1897 / h 1140 1378 1630 1914 2370 2786 3136 3364 3912 4085
+                  \ P   43   38   33   25   22   21   19   19   14   13
+
+  The ground value on the last occasion was 150. From observations
+  during twelve balloon ascents, Linke concludes that below the
+  1500-metre level there are numerous sources of disturbance, the
+  gradient at any given height varying much from day to day and hour to
+  hour; but at greater heights there is much more uniformity. At heights
+  from 1500 to 6000 metres his observations agreed well with the formula
+
+    dV/dh = 34 - 0.006h,
+
+  V denoting the potential, h the height in metres. The formula makes
+  the gradient diminish from 25 volts per metre at 1500 metres height to
+  10 volts per metre at 4000 metres. Linke's mean value for dV/dh at the
+  ground was 125. Accepting Linke's formula, the potential at 4000
+  metres is 43,750 volts higher than at 1500 metres. If the mean of the
+  gradients observed at the ground and at 1500 metres be taken as an
+  approximation to the mean value of the gradient throughout the lowest
+  1500 metres of the atmosphere, we find for the potential at 1500
+  metres level 112,500 volts. Thus at 4000 metres the potential seems of
+  the order of 150,000 volts. Bearing this in mind, one can readily
+  imagine how close together the equipotential surfaces must lie near
+  the summit of a high sharp mountain peak.
+
+  11. At most stations a negative potential gradient is exceptional,
+  unless during rain or thunder. During rain the potential is usually
+  but not always negative, and frequent alternations of sign are not
+  uncommon. In some localities, however, negative potential gradient is
+  by no means uncommon, at least at some seasons, in the absence of
+  rain. At Madras, Michie Smith (30) often observed negative potential
+  during bright August and September days. The phenomenon was quite
+  common between 9.30 A.M. and noon during westerly winds, which at
+  Madras are usually very dry and dusty. At Sodankyla, in 1882-1883,
+  K.S. Lemstrom and F.C. Biese (31) found that out of 255 observed
+  occurrences of negative potential, 106 took place in the absence of
+  rain or snow. The proportion of occurrences of negative potential
+  under a clear sky was much above its average in autumn. At Sodankyla
+  rain or snowfall was often unaccompanied by change of sign in the
+  potential. At the polar station Godthaab (32) in 1882-1883, negative
+  potential seemed sometimes associated with aurora (see AURORA
+  POLARIS).
+
+  Lenard, Elster and Geitel, and others have found the potential
+  gradient negative near waterfalls, the influence sometimes extending
+  to a considerable distance. Lenard (33) found that when pure water
+  falls upon water the neighbouring air takes a negative charge. Kelvin,
+  Maclean and Gait (34) found the effect greatest in the air near the
+  level of impact. A sensible effect remained, however, after the
+  influence of splashing was eliminated. Kelvin, Maclean and Galt regard
+  this property of falling water as an objection to the use of a
+  water-dropper indoors, though not of practical importance when it is
+  used out of doors.
+
+  12. Elster and Geitel (35) have measured the charge carried by
+  raindrops falling into an insulated vessel. Owing to observational
+  difficulties, the exact measure of success attained is a little
+  difficult to gauge, but it seems fairly certain that raindrops usually
+  carry a charge. Elster and Geitel found the sign of the charge often
+  fluctuate repeatedly during a single rain storm, but it seemed more
+  often than not opposite to that of the simultaneous potential
+  gradient. Gerdien has more recently repeated the experiments,
+  employing an apparatus devised by him for the purpose. It has been
+  found by C.T.R. Wilson (36) that a vessel in which freshly fallen rain
+  or snow has been evaporated to dryness shows radioactive properties
+  lasting for a few hours. The results obtained from equal weights of
+  rain and snow seem of the same order.
+
+  13. W. Linss (6) found that an insulated conductor charged either
+  positively or negatively lost its charge in the free atmosphere; the
+  potential V after time t being connected with its initial value V0 by
+  a formula of the type V = V0e^(-at) where a is constant. This was
+  confirmed by Elster and Geitel (7), whose form of dissipation
+  apparatus has been employed in most recent work. The percentage of the
+  charge which is dissipated per minute is usually denoted by a+ or a-
+  according to its sign. The mean of a+ and a- is usually denoted by
+  a[+-] or simply by a, while q is employed for the ratio a-/a+. Some
+  observers when giving mean values take [Sigma](a-/a+) as the mean
+  value of q, while others take [Sigma](a-)/[Sigma](a+). The Elster and
+  Geitel apparatus is furnished with a cover, serving to protect the
+  dissipator from the direct action of rain, wind or sunlight. It is
+  usual to observe with this cover on, but some observers, e.g. A.
+  Gockel, have made long series of observations without it. The loss of
+  charge is due to more than one cause, and it is difficult to attribute
+  an absolutely definite meaning even to results obtained with the cover
+  on. Gockel (37) says that the results he obtained without the cover
+  when divided by 3 are fairly comparable with those obtained under the
+  usual conditions; but the appropriate divisor must vary to some extent
+  with the climatic conditions. Thus results obtained for a+ or a-
+  without the cover are of doubtful value for purposes of comparison
+  with those found elsewhere with it on. In the case of q the
+  uncertainty is much less.
+
+
+    TABLE VI.--_Dissipation. Mean Values._
+
+    +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+
+    |           Place.         |Period.|    Season.   |     Observer or     | a[+-]|  q   |
+    |                          |       |              |      Authority.     |      |      |
+    +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+
+    | Karasjok                 | 1903-4|     Year     | Simpson (10)        | 3.57 | 1.15 |
+    | Wolfenbuttel             |             Year     | Elster & Geitel (39)| 1.33 | 1.05 |
+    | Potsdam                  |  1904 |     Year     | Ludeling (40)       | 1.13 | 1.33 |
+    | Kremsmuster              |  1902 |     Year     | Zolss (42)          | 1.32 | 1.18 |
+    |     "                    |  1903 |     Year     | Zolss (41)          | 1.35 | 1.14 |
+    | Freiburg                 |       |     Year     | Gockel (43)         |  ..  | 1.41 |
+    | Innsbruck                |  1902 |              | Czermak (44)        | 1.95 | 0.94 |
+    |     "                    |  1905 | Jan. to June | Defant (45)         | 1.47 | 1.17 |
+    | Mattsee (Salzburg)       |  1905 | July to Sept.| von Schweidler (46) |  ..  | 0.99 |
+    | Seewalchen               |  1904 | July to Sept.| von Schweidler (38) |  ..  | 1.18 |
+    | Trieste                  | 1902-3|     Year     | Mazelle (47)        | 0.58 | 1.09 |
+    | Misdroy                  |  1902 |              | Ludeling (40)       | 1.09 | 1.58 |
+    | Swinemunde               |  1904 |Aug. and Sept.| Ludeling (40)       | 1.23 | 1.37 |
+    | Heligoland (sands)       |  1903 |    Summer    | Elster & Geitel (40)| 1.14 | 1.71 |
+    |     "      plateau       |   "   |      "       |    "        "   (40)| 3.07 | 1.50 |
+    | Juist (Island)           |       |      "       |    "        "   (48)| 1.56 | 1.56 |
+    | Atlantic and German Ocean|  1904 |    August    | Boltzmann (49)      | 1.83 | 2.69 |
+    | Arosa (1800 m.)          |  1903 |Feb. to April | Saake (50)          | 1.79 | 1.22 |
+    | Rothhorn (2300 m.)       |  1903 |   September  | Gockel (43)         |  ..  | 5.31 |
+    | Sonnblick (3100 m.)      |  1903 |   September  | Conrad (22)         |  ..  | 1.75 |
+    | Mont Blanc (4810 m.)     |  1902 |   September  | le Cadet (43)       |  ..  |10.3  |
+    +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+
+
+  Table VI. gives the mean values of a[+-] and q found at various
+  places. The observations were usually confined to a few hours of the
+  day, very commonly between 11 A.M. and 1 P.M., and in absence of
+  information as to the diurnal variation it is impossible to say how
+  much this influences the results. The first eight stations lie inland;
+  that at Seewalchen (38) was, however, adjacent to a large lake. The
+  next five stations are on the coast or on islands. The final four are
+  at high levels. In the cases where the observations were confined to a
+  few months the representative nature of the results is more doubtful.
+
+  On mountain summits q tends to be large, i.e. a negative charge is
+  lost much faster than a positive charge. Apparently q has also a
+  tendency to be large near the sea, but this phenomenon is not seen at
+  Trieste. An exactly opposite phenomenon, it may be remarked, is seen
+  near waterfalls, q becoming very small. Only Innsbruck and Mattsee
+  give a mean value of q less than unity. Also, as later observations at
+  Innsbruck give more normal values for q, some doubt may be felt as to
+  the earlier observations there. The result for Mattsee seems less open
+  to doubt, for the observer, von Schweidler, had obtained a normal
+  value for q during the previous year at Seewalchen. Whilst the average
+  q in at least the great majority of stations exceeds unity, individual
+  observations making q less than unity are not rare. Thus in 1902 (51)
+  the percentage of cases in which q fell short of 1 was 30 at Trieste,
+  33 at Vienna, and 35 at Kremsmunster; at Innsbruck q was less than 1
+  on 58 days out of 98.
+
+  In a long series of observations, individual values of q show usually
+  a wide range. Thus during observations extending over more than a
+  year, q varied from 0.18 to 8.25 at Kremsmunster and from 0.11 to 3.00
+  at Trieste. The values of a+, a- and a[+-] also show large variations.
+  Thus at Trieste a+ varied from 0.12 to 4.07, and a- from 0.11 to 3.87;
+  at Vienna a+ varied from 0.32 to 7.10, and a- from 0.78 to 5.42; at
+  Kremsmunster a[+-] varied from 0.14 to 5.83.
+
+  14. _Annual Variation._--When observations are made at irregular
+  hours, or at only one or two fixed hours, it is doubtful how
+  representative they are. Results obtained at noon, for example,
+  probably differ more from the mean value for the 24 hours at one
+  season than at another. Most dissipation results are exposed to
+  considerable uncertainty on these grounds. Also it requires a long
+  series of years to give thoroughly representative results for any
+  element, and few stations possess more than a year or two's
+  dissipation data. Table VII. gives comparative results for winter
+  (October to March) and summer at a few stations, the value for the
+  season being the arithmetic mean from the individual months composing
+  it. At Karasjok (10), Simpson observed thrice a day; the summer value
+  there is nearly double the winter both for a+ and a-. The Kremsmunster
+  (42) figures show a smaller but still distinct excess in the summer
+  values. At Trieste (47), Mazelle's data from all days of the year show
+  no decided seasonal change in a+ or a-; but when days on which the
+  wind was high are excluded the summer value is decidedly the higher.
+  At Freiburg (43), q seems decidedly larger in winter than in summer;
+  at Karasjok and Trieste the seasonal effect in q seems small and
+  uncertain.
+
+
+    TABLE VII.--_Dissipation._
+
+    +--------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
+    |                    |           Winter.         |           Summer.         |
+    +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |       Place.       |  a+  |  a-  | a[+-]|  q   |  a+  |  a-  | a[+-]|  q   |
+    +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    | Karasjok 1903-1904 | 2.28 | 2.69 | 2.49 | 1.18 | 4.38 | 4.94 | 4.65 | 1.13 |
+    | Kremsmuster 1903   | 1.14 | 1.30 | 1.22 | 1.14 | 1.38 | 1.56 | 1.47 | 1.12 |
+    | Freiburg           |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  | 1.57 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  | 1.26 |
+    | Trieste 1902-1903  | 0.56 | 0.59 | 0.58 | 1.07 | 0.55 | 0.61 | 0.58 | 1.13 |
+    |   "     calm days  |  ..  |  ..  | 0.35 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  | 0.48 |  ..  |
+    +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  15. _Diurnal Variation._--P.B. Zolss (41, 42) has published diurnal
+  variation data for Kremsmunster for more than one year, and
+  independently for midsummer (May to August) and midwinter (December to
+  February). His figures show a double daily period in both a+ and a-,
+  the principal maximum occurring about 1 or 2 P.M. The two minima
+  occur, the one from 5 to 7 A.M., the other from 7 to 8 P.M.; they are
+  nearly equal. Taking the figures answering to the whole year, May 1903
+  to 1904, a+ varied throughout the day from 0.82 to 1.35, and a- from
+  0.85 to 1.47. At midsummer the extreme hourly values were 0.91 and
+  1.45 for a+, 0.94 and 1.60 for a-. The corresponding figures at
+  midwinter were 0.65 and 1.19 for a+, 0.61 and 1.43 for a-. Zolss' data
+  for q show also a double daily period, but the apparent range is
+  small, and the hourly variation is somewhat irregular. At Karasjok,
+  Simpson found a+ and a- both larger between noon and 1 P.M. than
+  between either 8 and 9 A.M. or 6 and 7 P.M. The 6 to 7 P.M. values
+  were in general the smallest, especially in the case of a+; the
+  evening value for q on the average exceeded the values from the two
+  earlier hours by some 7%.
+
+  Summer observations on mountains have shown diurnal variations very
+  large and fairly regular, but widely different from those observed at
+  lower levels. On the Rothhorn, Gockel (43) found a+ particularly
+  variable, the mean 7 A.M. value being 4-1/2 times that at 1 P.M. q
+  (taken as [Sigma](a-/a+)) varied from 2.25 at 5 A.M. and 2.52 at 9
+  P.M. to 7.82 at 3 P.M. and 8.35 at 7 P.M. On the Sonnblick, in early
+  September, V. Conrad (22) found somewhat similar results for q, the
+  principal maximum occurring at 1 P.M., with minima at 9 P.M. and 6
+  A.M.; the largest hourly value was, however, scarcely double the
+  least. Conrad found a- largest at 4 A.M. and least at 6 P.M., the
+  largest value being double the least; a+ was largest at 5 A.M. and
+  least at 2 P.M., the largest value being fully 2-1/2 times the least.
+  On Mont Blanc, le Cadet (43) found q largest from 1 to 3 P.M., the
+  value at either of these hours being more than double that at 11 A.M.
+  On the Patscherkofel, H. von Ficker and A. Defant (52), observing in
+  December, found q largest from 1 to 2 P.M. and least between 11 A.M.
+  and noon, but the largest value was only 1-1/2 times the least. On
+  mountains much seems to depend on whether there are rising or falling
+  air currents, and results from a single season may not be fairly
+  representative.
+
+  16. Dissipation seems largely dependent on meteorological conditions,
+  but the phenomena at different stations vary so much as to suggest
+  that the connexion is largely indirect. At most stations a+ and a-
+  both increase markedly as wind velocity rises. From the observations
+  at Trieste in 1902-1903 E. Mazelle (47) deduced an increase of about
+  3% in a+ for a rise of 1 km. per hour in wind velocity. The following
+  are some of his figures, the velocity v being in kilometres per
+  hour:--
+
+    +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |  v  | 0 to 4. | 20 to 24. | 40 to 49. | 60 to 69. |
+    +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |  a  |  0.33   |    0.64   |    1.03   |    1.38   |
+    |  q  |  1.13   |    1.19   |    1.00   |    0.96   |
+    +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  For velocities from 0 to 24 km. per hour q exceeded unity in 74 cases
+  out of 100; but for velocities over 50 km. per hour q exceeded unity
+  in only 40 cases out of 100. Simpson got similar results at Karasjok;
+  the rise in a+ and a- with increased wind velocity seemed, however,
+  larger in winter than in summer. Simpson observed a fall in q for wind
+  velocities exceeding 2 on Beaufort's scale. On the top of the
+  Sonnblick, Conrad observed a _slight_ increase of a[+-] as the wind
+  velocity increased up to 20 km. per hour, but for greater velocities
+  up to 80 km. per hour no further decided rise was observed.
+
+  At Karasjok, treating summer and winter independently, Simpson (10)
+  found a+ and a- both increase in a nearly linear relation with
+  temperature, from below -20 deg. to +15 deg. C. For example, when the
+  temperature was below -20 deg. mean values were 0.76 for a+ and 0.91
+  for a-; for temperatures between -10 deg. and -5 deg. the
+  corresponding means were 2.45 and 2.82; while for temperatures between
+  +10 deg. and +15 deg. they were 4.68 and 5.23. Simpson found no
+  certain temperature effect on the value of q. At Trieste, from 470
+  days when the wind velocity did not exceed 20 km. per hour, Mazelle
+  (47) found somewhat analogous results for temperatures from 0 deg. to
+  30 deg. C.; a-, however, increased faster than a+, i.e. q increased
+  with temperature. When he considered all days irrespective of wind
+  velocity, Mazelle found the influence of temperature obliterated. On
+  the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found a[+-] increase appreciably as
+  temperature rose up to 4 deg. or 5 deg. C.; but at higher temperatures
+  a decrease set in.
+
+  Observations on the Sonnblick agree with those at low-level stations
+  in showing a diminution of dissipation with increase of relative
+  humidity. The decrease is most marked as saturation approaches. At
+  Trieste, for example, for relative humidities between 90 and 100 the
+  mean a[+-] was less than half that for relative humidities under 40. With
+  certain dry winds, notably Fohn winds in Austria and Switzerland,
+  dissipation becomes very high. Thus at Innsbruck Defant (45) found the
+  mean dissipation on days of Fohn fully thrice that on days without
+  Fohn. The increase was largest for a+, there being a fall of about 15%
+  in q. In general, a+ and a- both tend to be less on cloudy than on
+  bright days. At Kiel (53) and Trieste the average value of q is
+  considerably less for wholly overcast days than for bright days. At
+  several stations enjoying a wide prospect the dissipation has been
+  observed to be specially high on days of great visibility when distant
+  mountains can be recognize  to be low on days of fog or rain.
+
+  The results obtained as to the relation between dissipation and
+  barometric pressure are conflicting. At Kremsmunster, Zolss (42) found
+  dissipation vary with the absolute height of the barometer, a[+-]
+  having a mean value of 1.36 when pressure was below the normal, as
+  against 1.20 on days when pressure was above the normal. He also found
+  a[+-] on the average about 10% larger when pressure was falling than
+  when it was rising. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found dissipation
+  increase decidedly as the absolute barometric pressure was larger, and
+  he found no difference between days of rising and falling barometer.
+  At Trieste, Mazelle (47) found no certain connexion with absolute
+  barometric pressure. Dissipation was above the average when cyclonic
+  conditions prevailed, but this seemed simply a consequence of the
+  increased wind velocity. At Mattsee, E.R. von Schweidler (46) found no
+  connexion between absolute barometric pressure and dissipation, also
+  days of rising and falling pressure gave the same mean. At Kiel, K.
+  Kaehler (53) found a+ and a- both greater with rising than with
+  falling barometer.
+
+  V. Conrad and M. Topolansky (54) have found a marked connexion at
+  Vienna between dissipation and ozone. Regular observations were made
+  of both elements. Days were grouped according to the intensity of
+  colouring of ozone papers, 0 representing no visible effect, and 14
+  the darkest colour reached. The mean values of _a+_ and _a-_ answering
+  to 12 and 13 on the ozone scale were both about double the
+  corresponding values answering to 0 and 1 on that scale.
+
+  17. A charged body in air loses its charge in more than one way. The
+  air, as is now known, has always present in it ions, some carrying a
+  positive and others a negative charge, and those having the opposite
+  sign to the charged body are attracted and tend to discharge it. The
+  rate of loss of charge is thus largely dependent on the extent to
+  which ions are present in the surrounding air. It depends, however, in
+  addition on the natural mobility of the ions, and also on the
+  opportunities for convection. Of late years many observations have
+  been made of the ionic charges in air. The best-known apparatus for
+  the purpose is that devised by Ebert. A cylinder condenser has its
+  inner surface insulated and charged to a high positive or negative
+  potential. Air is drawn by an aspirator between the surfaces, and the
+  ions having the opposite sign to the inner cylinder are deposited on
+  it. The charge given up to the inner cylinder is known from its loss
+  of potential. The volume of air from which the ions have been
+  extracted being known, a measure is obtained of the total charge on
+  the ions, whether positive or negative. The conditions must, of
+  course, be such as to secure that no ions shall escape, otherwise
+  there is an underestimate. I+ is used to denote the charge on positive
+  ions, I- that on negative ions. The unit to which they are ordinarily
+  referred is 1 electrostatic unit of electricity per cubic metre of
+  air. For the ratio of the mean value of I+ to the mean value of I-,
+  the letter Q is employed by Gockel (55), who has made an unusually
+  complete study of ionic charges at Freiburg. Numerous observations
+  were also made by Simpson (10)--thrice a day--at Karasjok, and von
+  Schweidler has made a good many observations about 3 P.M. at Mattsee
+  (46) in 1905, and Seewalchen (38) in 1904. These will suffice to give
+  a general idea of the mean values met with.
+
+    +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+
+    | Station.   |    Authority.   |  I+  |  I-  |   Q  |
+    +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+
+    | Freiburg   | Gockel          | 0.34 | 0.24 | 1.41 |
+    | Karasjok   | Simpson         | 0.38 | 0.33 | 1.17 |
+    | Mattsee    | von Schweidler  | 0.35 | 0.29 | 1.19 |
+    | Seewalchen |        "        | 0.45 | 0.38 | 1.17 |
+    +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+
+
+  Gockel's mean values of I+ and Q would be reduced to 0.31 and 1.38
+  respectively if his values for July--which appear abnormal--were
+  omitted. I+ and I- both show a considerable range of values, even at
+  the same place during the same season of the year. Thus at Seewalchen
+  in the course of a month's observations at 3 P.M., I+ varied from 0.31
+  to 0.67, and I- from 0.17 to 0.67.
+
+  There seems a fairly well marked annual variation in ionic contents,
+  as the following figures will show. Summer and winter represent each
+  six months and the results are arithmetic means of the monthly values.
+
+    +--------+--------------------+--------------------+
+    |        |      Freiburg.     |      Karasjok.     |
+    +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |        |  I+  |  I-  |  Q   |  I+  |  I-  |  Q   |
+    +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    | Winter | 0.29 | 0.21 | 1.49 | 0.33 | 0.27 | 1.22 |
+    | Summer | 0.39 | 0.28 | 1.34 | 0.44 | 0.39 | 1.13 |
+    +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  If the exceptional July values at Freiburg were omitted, the summer
+  values of I+ and Q would become 0.33 and 1.25 respectively.
+
+  18. _Diurnal Variation._--At Karasjok Simpson found the mean values of
+  I+ and I- throughout the whole year much the same between noon and 1
+  P.M. as between 8 and 9 A.M. Observations between 6 and 7 P.M. gave
+  means slightly lower than those from the earlier hours, but the
+  difference was only about 5% in I+ and 10% in I-. The evening values
+  of Q were on the whole the largest. At Freiburg, Gockel found I+ and
+  I- decidedly larger in the early afternoon than in either the morning
+  or the late evening hours. His greatest and least mean hourly values
+  and the hours of their occurrence are as follows:--
+
+    +-------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+    |            Winter.            |            Summer.            |
+    +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |      I+       |      I-       |      I+       |      I-       |
+    +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |  Max. |  Min. |  Max. |  Min. |  Max. |  Min. |  Max. |  Min. |
+    | 0.333 | 0.193 | 0.242 | 0.130 | 0.430 | 0.244 | 0.333 | 0.192 |
+    | 2 P.M.| 7 P.M.| 2 P.M.| 8 P.M.| 4 P.M.| 9 to  | 4 P.M.| 9 to  |
+    |       |       |       |       |       |10 P.M.|       |10 P.M.|
+    +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  Gockel did not observe between 10 P.M. and 7 A.M.
+
+  19. Ionization seems to increase notably as temperature rises. Thus at
+  Karasjok Simpson found for mean values:--
+
+    Temp. less than -20 deg.   -10 deg. to -5 deg.    10 deg. to 15 deg.
+      I+ = 0.18, I- = 0.36    I+ = 0.36, I- = 0.30   I+ = 0.45, I- = 0.43
+
+  Simpson found no clear influence of temperature on Q. Gockel observed
+  similar effects at Freiburg--though he seems doubtful whether the
+  relationship is direct--but the influence of temperature on I+ seemed
+  reduced when the ground was covered with snow. Gockel found a
+  diminution of ionization with rise of relative humidity. Thus for
+  relative humidities between 40 and 50 mean values were 0.306 for I+
+  and 0.219 for I-; whilst for relative humidities between 90 and 100
+  the corresponding means were respectively 0.222 and 0.134. At
+  Karasjok, Simpson found a slight decrease in I- as relative humidity
+  increased, but no certain change in I+. Specially large values of I+
+  and I- have been observed at high levels in balloon ascents. Thus on
+  the 1st of July 1901, at a height of 2400 metres, H. Gerdien (29)
+  obtained 0.86 for I+ and 1.09 for I-.
+
+  20. In 1901 Elster and Geitel found that a radioactive emanation is
+  present in the atmosphere. Their method of measuring the radioactivity
+  is as follows (48): A wire not exceeding 1 mm. in diameter, charged to
+  a negative potential of at least 2000 volts, is supported between
+  insulators in the open, usually at a height of about 2 metres. After
+  two hours' exposure, it is wrapped round a frame supported in a given
+  position relative to Elster and Geitel's dissipation apparatus, and
+  the loss of charge is noted. This loss is proportional to the length
+  of the wire. The radioactivity is denoted by A, and A=1 signifies that
+  the potential of the dissipation apparatus fell 1 volt in an hour per
+  metre of wire introduced. The loss of the dissipation body due to the
+  natural ionization of the air is first allowed for. Suppose, for
+  instance, that in the absence of the wire the potential falls from 264
+  to 255 volts in 15 minutes, whilst when the wire (10 metres long) is
+  introduced it falls from 264 to 201 volts in 10 minutes, then
+
+    10A = (254 - 201) X 6 - (264 - 255) X 4 = 342; or A = 34.2.
+
+  The values obtained for A seem largely dependent on the station. At
+  Wolfenbuttel, a year's observations by Elster and Geitel (56) made A
+  vary from 4 to 64, the mean being 20. In the island of Juist, off the
+  Friesland coast, from three weeks' observations they obtained only 5.2
+  as the mean. On the other hand, at Altjoch, an Alpine station, from
+  nine days' observations in July 1903 they obtained a mean of 137, the
+  maximum being 224, and the minimum 92. At Freiburg, from 150 days'
+  observations near noon in 1903-1904, Gockel (57) obtained a mean of
+  84, his extreme values being 10 and 420. At Karasjok, observing
+  several times throughout the day for a good many months, Simpson (10)
+  obtained a mean of 93 and a maximum of 432. The same observer from
+  four weeks' observations at Hammerfest got the considerably lower mean
+  value 58, with a maximum of 252. At this station much lower values
+  were found for A with sea breezes than with land breezes. Observing on
+  the pier at Swinemunde in August and September 1904, Ludeling (40)
+  obtained a mean value of 34.
+
+  Elster and Geitel (58), having found air drawn from the soil highly
+  radioactive, regard ground air as the source of the emanation in the
+  atmosphere, and in this way account for the low values they obtained
+  for A when observing on or near the sea. At Freiburg in winter Gockel
+  (55) found A notably reduced when snow was on the ground, I+ being
+  also reduced. When the ground was covered by snow the mean value of A
+  was only 42, as compared with 81 when there was no snow.
+
+  J.C. McLennan (59) observing near the foot of Niagara found A only
+  about one-sixth as large as at Toronto. Similarly at Altjoch, Elster
+  and Geitel (56) found A at the foot of a waterfall only about
+  one-third of its normal value at a distance from the fall.
+
+  21. _Annual and Diurnal Variations._--At Wolfenbuttel, Elster and
+  Geitel found A vary but little with the season. At Karasjok, on the
+  contrary, Simpson found A much larger at midwinter--notwithstanding
+  the presence of snow--than at midsummer. His mean value for November
+  and December was 129, while his mean for May and June was only 47. He
+  also found a marked diurnal variation, A being considerably greater
+  between 3 and 5 A.M. or 8.30 to 10.30 P.M. than between 10 A.M. and
+  noon, or between 3 and 5 P.M.
+
+  At all seasons of the year Simpson found A rise notably with increase
+  of relative humidity. Also, whilst the mere absolute height of the
+  barometer seemed of little, if any, importance, he obtained larger
+  values of A with a falling than with a rising barometer. This last
+  result of course is favourable to Elster and Geitel's views as to the
+  source of the emanation.
+
+  22. For a wire exposed under the conditions observed by Elster and
+  Geitel the emanation seems to be almost entirely derived from radium.
+  Some part, however, seems to be derived from thorium, and H.A.
+  Bumstead (60) finds that with longer exposure of the wire the relative
+  importance of the thorium emanation increases. With three hours'
+  exposure he found the thorium emanation only from 3 to 5% of the
+  whole, but with 12 hours' exposure the percentage of thorium emanation
+  rose to about 15. These figures refer to the state of the wire
+  immediately after the exposure; the rate of decay is much more rapid
+  for the radium than for the thorium emanation.
+
+  23. The different elements--potential gradient, dissipation,
+  ionization and radioactivity--are clearly not independent of one
+  another. The loss of a charge is naturally largely dependent on the
+  richness of the surrounding air in ions. This is clearly shown by the
+  following results obtained by Simpson (10) at Karasjok for the mean
+  values of a[+-] corresponding to certain groups of values of I[+-]. To
+  eliminate the disturbing influence of wind, different wind strengths
+  are treated separately.
+
+
+    TABLE VIII.--_Mean Values of a[+-]._
+
+    +----------+--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |   Wind   |I[+-]0 to 0.1.|0.1 to 0.2|0.2 to 0.3|0.3 to 0.4|0.4 to 0.5|
+    | Strength.|              |          |          |          |          |
+    +----------+--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |  0 to 1  |     0.45     |   0.60   |   1.26   |   2.04   |   3.03   |
+    |  1 "  2  |     0.65     |   1.08   |   1.85   |   2.92   |   3.83   |
+    |  2 "  3  |      ..      |    ..    |   2.70   |   3.88   |   5.33   |
+    +----------+--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  Simspon concluded that for a given wind velocity dissipation is
+  practically a linear function of ionization.
+
+  24. Table IX. will give a general idea of the relations of potential
+  gradient to dissipation and ionization.
+
+
+    TABLE IX.--_Potential, Dissipation, Ionization._
+
+    +------------+----------------------------+----------------------------------+
+    | Potential  |             q              |      Karasjok (Simpson (10)).    |
+    | gradients  |                            |                                  |
+    | volts per  +----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |   metre.   | Kremsmun-| Freibu-| Rothho-|  a+  |  a-  |  I+  |  I-  |   Q  |
+    |            | ster(41).|rg (43).| rn(43).|      |      |      |      |      |
+    +------------+----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |   0 to  50 |    ..    |  1.12  |   ..   |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+    |  50 "  100 |   1.14   |  1.31  |   ..   | 4.29 | 4.67 | 0.43 | 0.39 | 1.11 |
+    | 100 "  150 |   1.24   |  1.69  |   ..   | 3.38 | 3.93 | 0.37 | 0.32 | 1.15 |
+    | 150 "  200 |   1.48   |  1.84  |   ..   | 1.85 | 2.58 | 0.36 | 0.28 | 1.28 |
+    | 200 "  300 |    ..    |   ..   |  3.21  | 1.37 | 1.58 | 0.26 | 0.19 | 1.42 |
+    | 300 "  400 |    ..    |   ..   |  4.33  | 0.60 | 0.85 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+    | 400 "  500 |    ..    |   ..   |  5.46  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+    | 500 "  700 |    ..    |   ..   |  8.75  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+    +------------+----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  If we regard the potential gradient near the ground as representing a
+  negative charge on the earth, then if the source of supply of that
+  charge is unaffected the gradient will rise and become high when the
+  operations by which discharge is promoted slacken their activity. A
+  diminution in the number of positive ions would thus naturally be
+  accompanied by a rise in potential gradient. Table IX. associates with
+  rise in potential gradient a reduced number of both positive and
+  negative ions and a diminished rate of dissipation whether of a
+  negative or a positive charge. The rise in q and Q indicates that the
+  diminished rate of dissipation is most marked for positive charges,
+  and that negative ions are even more reduced then positive.
+
+  At Kremsmunster Zolss (41) finds a considerable similarity between the
+  diurnal variations in q and in the potential gradient, the hours of
+  the forenoon and afternoon maxima being nearly the same in the two
+  cases.
+
+  No distinct relationship has yet been established between potential
+  gradient and radioactivity. At Karasjok Simpson (10) found fairly
+  similar mean values of A for two groups of observations, one confined
+  to cases when the potential gradient exceeded +400 volts, the other
+  confined to cases of negative gradient.
+
+  At Freiburg Gockel (55, 57) found that when observations were grouped
+  according to the value of A there appeared a distinct rise in both a-
+  and I+ with increasing A. For instance, when A lay between 100 and 150
+  the mean value of a- was 1.27 times greater than when A lay between 0
+  and 50; while when A lay between 120 and 150 the mean value of I+ was
+  1.53 times larger than when A lay between 0 and 30. These apparent
+  relationships refer to mean values. In individual cases widely
+  different values of a- or I+ are associated with the same value of A.
+
+  25. If V be the potential, [rho] the density of free electricity at a
+  point in the atmosphere, at a distance r from the earth's centre, then
+  assuming statical conditions and neglecting variation of V in
+  horizontal directions, we have
+
+    r^(-2)(d/dr)(r^2 dV/dr) + 4[pi][rho] = 0.
+
+  For practical purposes we may treat r^2 as constant, and replace d/dr
+  by d/dh, where h is height in centimetres above the ground.
+
+  We thus find    [rho] = -(1/4[pi]) (d^2)V/d(h^2).
+
+  If we take a tube of force 1 sq. cm. in section, and suppose it cut by
+  equipotential surfaces at heights h1 and h2 above the ground, we have
+  for the total charge M included in the specified portion of the tube
+
+    4[pi]M = (dV/dh)h1 - (dV/dh)h2.
+
+  Taking Linke's (28) figures as given in S 10, and supposing h1 = 0, h2
+  = 15 X 10^4, we find for the charge in the unit tube between the
+  ground and 1500 metres level, remembering that the centimetre is now
+  the unit of length, M = (1/(4[pi])) (125.25)/100. Taking 1 volt equal
+  1/300 of an electrostatic unit, we find M = 0.000265. Between 1500 and
+  4000 metres the charge inside the unit tube is much less, only
+  0.000040. The charge on the earth itself has its surface density given
+  by [sigma] = - (1/(4[pi])) X 125 volts per metre, = 0.000331 in e
+  ectrostatic units. Thus, on the view now generally current, in the
+  circumstances answering to Linke's experiments we have on the ground a
+  charge of -331 X 10^(-6) C.G.S. units per sq. cm. Of the corresponding
+  positive charge, 265 X 10^(-6) lies below the 1500 metres level, 40 X
+  10^(-6) between this and the 4000 metres level, and only 26 X 10^(-6)
+  above 4000 metres.
+
+  There is a difficulty in reconciling observed values of the ionization
+  with the results obtained from balloon ascents as to the variation of
+  the potential with altitude. According to H. Gerdien (61), near the
+  ground a mean value for (d^2)V/d(h^2) is - (1/10) volt/(metre)^2. From
+  this we deduce for the charge [rho] per cubic centimetre (1/(4[pi])) X
+  10^(-5) (volt/cm^2), or 2.7 X 10^(-9) electrostatic units. But taking,
+  for example, Simpson's mean values at Karasjok, we have observed
+
+    [rho] [equivalent] I+ - I1 = 0.05 X (cm./metre)^3 = 5 X 10^(-8),
+
+  and thus (calculated [rho])/(observed [rho]) = 0.05 approximately.
+  Gerdien himself makes I+ - I- considerably larger than Simpson, and
+  concludes that the observed value of [rho] is from 30 to 50 times that
+  calculated. The presumption is either that (d^2)V/d(h^2) near the
+  ground is much larger numerically than Gerdien supposes, or else that
+  the ordinary instruments for measuring ionization fail to catch some
+  species of ion whose charge is preponderatingly negative.
+
+  26. Gerdien (61) has made some calculations as to the probable average
+  value of the vertical electric current in the atmosphere in fine
+  weather. This will be composed of a conduction and a convection
+  current, the latter due to rising or falling air currents carrying
+  ions. He supposes the field near the earth to be 100 volts per metre,
+  or 1/300 electrostatic units. For simplicity, he assumes I+ and I-
+  each equal 0.25 X 10^(-6) electrostatic units. The specific velocities
+  of the ions--i.e. the velocities in unit field--he takes to be 1.3 X
+  300 for the positive, and 1.6 X 300 for the negative. The positive and
+  negative ions travel in opposite directions, so the total current is
+  (1/300)(0.25 X 10^(-6))(1.3 X 300 + 1.6 X 300), or 73 X 10^(-8) in
+  electrostatic measure, otherwise 2.4 X 10^(-16) amperes per sq. cm. As
+  to the convection current, Gerdien supposes--as in S 25--[rho] = 2.7 X
+  10^(-9) electrostatic units, and on fine days puts the average
+  velocity of rising air currents at 10 cm. per second. This gives a
+  convection current of 2.7 X 10^(-8) electrostatic units, or about 1/27
+  of the conduction current. For the total current we have approximately
+  2.5 X 10^(-16) amperes per sq. cm. This is insignificant compared to
+  the size of the currents which several authorities have calculated
+  from considerations as to terrestrial magnetism (q.v.). Gerdien's
+  estimate of the convection current is for fine weather conditions.
+  During rainfall, or near clouds or dust layers, the magnitude of this
+  current might well be enormously increased; its direction would
+  naturally vary with climatic conditions.
+
+  27. H. Mache (62) thinks that the ionization observed in the
+  atmosphere may be wholly accounted for by the radioactive emanation.
+  If this is true we should have q = [alpha] n^2, where q is the number
+  of ions of one sign made in 1 cc. of air per second by the emanation,
+  [alpha] the constant of recombination, and n the number of ions found
+  simultaneously by, say, Ebert's apparatus. Mache and R. Holfmann, from
+  observations on the amplitude of saturation currents, deduce q = 4 as
+  a mean value. Taking for [alpha] Townsend's value 1.2 X 10^(-6), Mache
+  finds n = 1800. The charge on an ion being 3.4 X 10^(-10) Mache
+  deduces for the ionic charge, I+ or I-, per cubic metre 1800 X 3.4 X
+  10^(-10) X 10^6, or 0.6. This is at least of the order observed, which
+  is all that can be expected from a calculation which assumes I+ and I-
+  equal. If, however, Mache's views were correct, we should expect a
+  much closer connexion between I and A than has actually been observed.
+
+  28. C.T.R. Wilson (63) seems disposed to regard the action of rainfall
+  as the most probable source of the negative charge on the earth's
+  surface. That great separation of positive and negative electricity
+  sometimes takes place during rainfall is undoubted, and the charge
+  brought to the ground seems preponderatingly negative. The difficulty
+  is in accounting for the continuance in extensive fine weather
+  districts of large positive charges in the atmosphere in face of the
+  processes of recombination always in progress. Wilson considers that
+  convection currents in the upper atmosphere would be quite inadequate,
+  but conduction may, he thinks, be sufficient alone. At barometric
+  pressures such as exist between 18 and 36 kilometres above the ground
+  the mobility of the ions varies inversely as the pressure, whilst the
+  coefficient of recombination [alpha] varies approximately as the
+  pressure. If the atmosphere at different heights is exposed to
+  ionizing radiation of uniform intensity the rate of production of ions
+  per cc., q, will vary as the pressure. In the steady state the number,
+  n, of ions of either sign per cc. is given by n = [root](q/[alpha]),
+  and so is independent of the pressure or the height. The conductivity,
+  which varies as the product of n into the mobility, will thus vary
+  inversely as the pressure, and so at 36 kilometres will be one hundred
+  times as large as close to the ground. Dust particles interfere with
+  conduction near the ground, so the relative conductivity in the upper
+  layers may be much greater than that calculated. Wilson supposes that
+  by the fall to the ground of a preponderance of negatively charged
+  rain the air above the shower has a higher positive potential than
+  elsewhere at the same level, thus leading to large conduction currents
+  laterally in the highly conducting upper layers.
+
+  29. _Thunder._--Trustworthy frequency statistics for an individual
+  station are obtainable only from a long series of observations, while
+  if means are taken from a large area places may be included which
+  differ largely amongst themselves. There is the further complication
+  that in some countries thunder seems to be on the increase. In
+  temperate latitudes, speaking generally, the higher the latitude the
+  fewer the thunderstorms. For instance, for Edinburgh (64) (1771 to
+  1900) and London (65) (1763 to 1896) R.C. Mossman found the average
+  annual number of thunderstorm days to be respectively 6.4 and 10.7;
+  while at Paris (1873-1893) E. Renou (66) found 27.3 such days. In some
+  tropical stations, at certain seasons of the year, thunder is almost a
+  daily occurrence. At Batavia (18) during the epoch 1867-1895, there
+  were on the average 120 days of thunder in the year.
+
+  As an example of a large area throughout which thunder frequency
+  appears fairly uniform, we may take Hungary (67). According to the
+  statistics for 1903, based on several hundred stations, the average
+  number of days of thunder throughout six subdivisions of the country,
+  some wholly plain, others mainly mountainous, varied only from 21.1 to
+  26.5, the mean for the whole of Hungary being 23.5. The antithesis of
+  this exists in the United States of America. According to A.J. Henry
+  (68) there are three regions of maximum frequency: one in the
+  south-east, with its centre in Florida, has an average of 45 days of
+  thunder in the year; a second including the middle Mississippi valley
+  has an average of 35 days; and a third in the middle Missouri valley
+  has 30. With the exception of a narrow strip along the Canadian
+  frontier, thunderstorm frequency is fairly high over the whole of the
+  United States to the east of the 100th meridian. But to the west of
+  this, except in the Rocky Mountain region where storms are numerous,
+  the frequency steadily diminishes, and along the Pacific coast there
+  are large areas where thunder occurs only once or twice a year.
+
+  30. The number of thunderstorm days is probably a less exact measure
+  of the relative _intensity_ of thunderstorms than statistics as to the
+  number of persons killed annually by lightning per million of the
+  population. Table X. gives a number of statistics of this kind. The
+  letter M stands for "Midland."
+
+
+    TABLE X.--_Deaths by Lightning, per annum, per million Inhabitants._
+
+    Hungary                  7.7     Upper Missouri and Plains   15
+    Netherlands              2.8     Rocky Mountains and Plateau 10
+    England, N. M.           1.8     South Atlantic               8
+       "     E.              1.3     Central Mississippi          7
+       "     S. M.           1.2     Upper    "                   7
+       "     York and W. M.  1.1     Ohio Valley                  7
+       "     N.              1.0     Middle Atlantic              6
+    Wales                    0.9     Gulf States                  5
+    England, S. E.           0.8     New England                  4
+       "     N. W.           0.7     Pacific Coast               <1*
+       "     S. W.           0.6     North and South Dakota      20
+    London                   0.1     California                   0
+
+    * Note in case of Pacific coast, Table X., "<1" means "less than 1."
+
+  The figure for Hungary is based on the seven years 1897-1903; that for
+  the Netherlands, from data by A.J. Monne (69) on the nine years
+  1882-1890. The English data, due to R. Lawson (70), are from
+  twenty-four years, 1857-1880; those for the United States, due to
+  Henry (68), are for five years, 1896-1900. In comparing these data
+  allowance must be made for the fact that danger from lightning is much
+  greater out of doors than in. Thus in Hungary, in 1902 and 1903, out
+  of 229 persons killed, at least 171 were killed out of doors. Of the
+  229 only 67 were women, the only assignable explanation being their
+  rarer employment in the fields. Thus, _ceteris paribtis_, deaths from
+  lightning are much more numerous in a country than in an industrial
+  population. This is well brought out by the low figure for London. It
+  is also shown conspicuously in figures given by Henry. In New York
+  State, where the population is largely industrial, the annual deaths
+  per million are only three, but of the agricultural population eleven.
+  In states such as Wyoming and the Dakotas the population is largely
+  rural, and the deaths by lightning rise in consequence. The frequency
+  and intensity of thunderstorms are unquestionably greater in the Rocky
+  Mountain than in the New England states, but the difference is not so
+  great as the statistics at first sight suggest.
+
+
+    TABLE XI.--_Annual Variation of Thunderstorms._
+
+    +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |              | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
+    +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    | Ediburgh     |  1.8 |  1.4 |  1.4 |  3.8 | 12.3 | 20.8 | 28.2 | 19.1 |  7.0 |  2.3 |  1.1 |  0.8 |
+    | London       |  0.6 |  0.5 |  1.6 |  6.6 | 12.7 | 18.3 | 25.5 | 19.2 |  9.3 |  3.1 |  1.7 |  0.9 |
+    | Paris        |  0.2 |  0.4 |  2.3 |  7.5 | 14.9 | 21.6 | 22.0 | 17.0 |  9.9 |  3.5 |  0.4 |  0.4 |
+    | Netherlands  |  2.2 |  1.8 |  3.7 |  6.5 | 14.0 | 14.7 | 15.6 | 14.7 | 10.3 | 10.1 |  3.8 |  2.5 |
+    | France       |  2.2 |  2.8 |  4.1 |  8.4 | 13.8 | 18.7 | 14.6 | 13.5 | 10.0 |  6.3 |  3.1 |  2.4 |
+    | Switzerland  |  0.2 |  0.3 |  0.5 |  4.9 | 11.9 | 22.9 | 29.9 | 18.0 |  9.8 |  1.1 |  0.3 |  0.2 |
+    | Hungary (a)  |  0.0 |  0.1 |  1.6 |  5.7 | 20.9 | 25.0 | 23.2 | 15.9 |  5.7 |  1.3 |  0.4 |  0.2 |
+    |    "    (b)  |  0.0 |  0.0 |  1.0 |  3.2 | 11.8 | 20.6 | 30.7 | 25.3 |  6.9 |  0.5 |  0.0 |  0.0 |
+    | United States|  0.1 |  0.1 |  1.2 |  4.0 | 14.3 | 25.0 | 27.2 | 20.4 |  5.8 |  1.4 |  0.3 |  0.1 |
+    | Hong-Kong    |  0.0 |  2.1 |  4.3 |  8.5 | 12.8 | 23.4 | 14.9 | 21.3 | 10.6 |  2.1 |  0.0 |  0.0 |
+    | Trevandrum   |  3.2 |  3.8 | 13.1 | 20.9 | 18.6 |  4.9 |  1.2 |  3.5 |  2.5 | 12.9 | 12.0 |  3.3 |
+    | Batavia      | 10.4 |  9.2 | 11.1 | 10.5 |  7.9 |  5.5 |  4.3 |  3.8 |  5.4 |  8.8 | 12.2 | 10.9 |
+    +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  31. Even at the same place thunderstorms vary greatly in intensity and
+  duration. Also the times of beginning and ending are difficult to
+  define exactly, so that several elements of uncertainty exist in data
+  as to the seasonal or diurnal variation. The monthly data in Table XI.
+  are percentages of the total for the year. In most cases the figures
+  are based on the number of days of thunder at a particular station, or
+  at the average station of a country; but the second set for Hungary
+  relates to the number of lightning strokes causing fire, and the
+  figures for the United States relate to deaths by lightning. The data
+  for Edinburgh, due to R.C. Mossman (64), refer to 130 years, 1771 to
+  1900. The data for London (1763-1896) are also due to Mossman (65);
+  for Paris (1873-1893) to Renou (66); for the Netherlands (1882-1900)
+  to A.J. Monne (69); for France(71) (1886-1899) to Frou and Hann; for
+  Switzerland to K. Hess (72); for Hungary (67) (1896-1903) to L. von
+  Szalay and others; for the United States (1890-1900) to A.J. Henry
+  (68); for Hong-Kong (73) (1894-1903) to W. Doberck. The Trevandrum
+  (74) data (1853-1864) were due originally to A. Broun; the Batavia
+  data (1867-1895) are from the Batavia _Observations_, vol. xviii.
+
+  Most stations in the northern hemisphere have a conspicuous maximum at
+  midsummer with little thunder in winter. Trevandrum (8 deg. 31' N.)
+  and Batavia (6 deg. 11' S.), especially the former, show a double
+  maximum and minimum.
+
+
+    TABLE XII.--_Diurnal Variation of Thunderstorms._
+
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |         Hour.      | 0-2.| 2-4.| 4-6.| 6-8.|8-10.|10-12.|0'-2'.|2'-4'.|4'-6'.|6'-8'.|8'-10'|10'-12'|
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    | Finland (76)       | 2.3 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 3.0 | 4.6 | 12.1 | 18.9 | 19.2 | 16.1 | 10.1 |  6.1 |  3.4  |
+    | Edinburgh (64)     | 1.7 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 4.7 | 14.2 | 22.4 | 23.7 | 11.9 |  9.2 |  5.1 |  2.0  |
+    | Belgium (77)       | 3.0 | 2.9 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 2.0 |  6.4 | 12.9 | 21.6 | 19.4 | 15.8 |  8.4 |  4.1  |
+    | Brocken (78)       | 1.6 | 2.5 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 4.2 |  3.1 | 12.1 | 28.6 | 22.4 | 10.1 |  7.2 |  5.6  |
+    | Switzerland (72)   | 3.1 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 2.0 |  7.3 | 13.8 | 20.9 | 20.8 | 14.6 |  8.0 |  3.5  |
+    | Italy (77)         | 1.3 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 2.0 | 3.0 |  8.5 | 19.5 | 26.5 | 16.6 |  9.8 |  8.3 |  1.5  |
+    | Hungary (i.) (67)  | 2.1 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 2.1 | 2.9 | 11.5 | 18.1 | 22.0 | 17.9 | 10.7 |  6.2 |  2.8  |
+    |    "    (ii.) (67) | 6.9 | 4.2 | 2.3 | 2.0 | 2.0 |  5.0 |  9.9 | 16.9 | 18.2 | 10.7 | 11.7 | 10.0  |
+    |    "    (iii.) (75)| 2.3 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 2.4 | 2.7 |  7.9 | 16.1 | 22.1 | 19.1 | 12.7 |  7.6 |  3.2  |
+    |    "    (iv.) (75) | 2.6 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 3.6 | 13.3 | 19.9 | 20.7 | 15.2 |  9.2 |  6.2 |  3.3  |
+    | Trevandrum (74)    | 5.6 | 4.9 | 4.3 | 1.3 | 1.4 |  2.0 | 13.3 | 24.5 | 15.9 | 13.3 |  7.6 |  5.9  |
+    | Agustia (74)       | 2.9 | 2.9 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 1.7 |  2.9 | 15.1 | 36.1 | 22.2 |  9.3 |  4.6 |  2.0  |
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+  32. _Daily Variation._--The figures in Table XII. are again
+  percentages. They are mostly based on data as to the hour of
+  commencement of thunderstorms. Data as to the hour when storms are
+  most severe would throw the maximum later in the day. This is
+  illustrated by the first two sets of figures for Hungary (67). The
+  first set relate as usual to the hour of commencement, the second to
+  the hours of occurrence of lightning causing fires. Of the two other
+  sets of figures for Hungary (75), (iii.) relates to the central plain,
+  (iv.) to the mountainous regions to north and south of this. The hour
+  of maximum is earlier for the mountains, thunder being more frequent
+  there than in the plains between 8 A.M. and 4 P.M., but less frequent
+  between 2 and 10 P.M. Trevandrum (8 deg. 31' N., 76 deg. 59' E., 195
+  ft. above sea-level) and Agustia (8 deg. 37' N., 77 deg. 20' E., 6200
+  ft. above sea-level) afford a contrast between low ground and high
+  ground in India. In this instance there seems little difference in the
+  hour of maximum, the distinguishing feature being the great
+  concentration of thunderstorm occurrence at Agustia between noon and 6
+  P.M.
+
+
+    TABLE XIII.
+
+    +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+
+    | Year.| Netherlands.| France.| Hungary.| U.S.A.|
+    +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+
+    | 1882 |      98     |   ..   |   141   |  ..   |
+    | 1883 |     117     |   ..   |   195   |  ..   |
+    | 1884 |      95     |   ..   |   229   |  ..   |
+    | 1885 |      93     |   ..   |   192   |  ..   |
+    | 1886 |     102     |   251  |   319   |  ..   |
+    | 1887 |      78     |   292  |   236   |  ..   |
+    | 1888 |      94     |   286  |   232   |  ..   |
+    | 1889 |     126     |   294  |   258   |  ..   |
+    | 1890 |      93     |   299  |   265   |  ..   |
+    | 1891 |      98     |   317  |   302   |  204  |
+    | 1892 |      86     |   324  |   350   |  251  |
+    | 1893 |     102     |   288  |   233   |  209  |
+    | 1894 |     111     |   300  |   333   |  336  |
+    | 1895 |     119     |   309  |   280   |  426  |
+    | 1896 |     109     |   266  |   299   |  341  |
+    | 1897 |     119     |   297  |   350   |  362  |
+    | 1898 |      95     |   299  |   386   |  367  |
+    | 1899 |     112     |   299  |   368   |  563  |
+    | 1900 |     108     |   ..   |   401   |  713  |
+    | 1901 |     ..      |   ..   |   502   |  ..   |
+    | 1902 |     ..      |   ..   |   322   |  ..   |
+    | 1903 |     ..      |   ..   |   256   |  ..   |
+    +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+
+
+  33. Table XIII. gives some data as to the variability of thunder from
+  year to year. The figures for the Netherlands (69) and France (71) are
+  the number of days when thunder occurred somewhere in the country. Its
+  larger area and more varied climate give a much larger number of days
+  of thunder to France. Notwithstanding the proximity of the two
+  countries, there is not much parallelism between the data. The figures
+  for Hungary (67) give the number of lightning strokes causing fire;
+  those for the United States (68) give the number of persons killed by
+  lightning. The conspicuous maximum in 1901 and great drop in 1902 in
+  Hungary are also shown by the statistics as to the number of days of
+  thunder. This number at the average station of the country fell from
+  38.4 in 1901 to 23.1 in 1902. On the whole, however, the number of
+  destructive lightning strokes and of days of thunder do not show a
+  close parallelism.
+
+
+    TABLE XIV.
+
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Decade ending  | 1810| 1820| 1830| 1840| 1850| 1860| 1870| 1880| 1890| 1900|
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Edinburgh      |  4.9|  5.7|  7.7|  6.7|  5.7|  6.5|  5.4| 10.6|  9.4|  9.2|
+    | London         |  9.5|  8.3| 11.5| 11.8| 10.5| 11.9|  9.6| 15.7| 13.0|  .. |
+    | Tilsit         |  .. |  .. | 12.5| 12.1| 16.1| 15.3| 11.9| 17.6| 21.8|  .. |
+    | Germany, South |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  49 |  66 |  91 | 143 | 175 |
+    |    "     West  |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  92 | 106 | 187 | 244 | 331 |
+    |    "     North |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. | 124 | 135 | 245 | 288 | 352 |
+    |    "     East  |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. | 102 | 143 | 186 | 210 | 273 |
+    |    "     Whole |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  90 | 116 | 189 | 254 | 318 |
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  34. Table XIV. deals with the variation of thunder over longer
+  periods. The data for Edinburgh (64) and London (65) due to Mossman,
+  and those for Tilsit, due to C. Kassner (79), represent the average
+  number of days of thunder per annum. The data for Germany, due to O.
+  Steffens (80), represent the average number of houses struck by
+  lightning in a year per million houses; in the first decade only seven
+  years (1854-1860) are really included. Mossman thinks that the
+  apparent increase at Edinburgh and London in the later decades is to
+  some extent at least real. The two sets of figures show some
+  corroborative features, notably the low frequency from 1860 to 1870.
+  The figures for Germany--representing four out of six divisions of
+  that country--are remarkable. In Germany as a whole, out of a million
+  houses the number struck per annum was three and a half times as great
+  in the decade 1890 to 1900 as between 1854 and 1860. Von Bezold (81)
+  in an earlier memoir presented data analogous to Steffens', seemingly
+  accepting them as representing a true increase in thunderstorm
+  destructiveness. Doubts have, however, been expressed by others--e.g.
+  A. Gockel, _Das Gewitter_, p. 106--as to the real significance of the
+  figures. Changes in the height or construction of buildings, and a
+  greater readiness to make claims on insurance offices, may be
+  contributory causes.
+
+  35. The fact that a considerable number of people sheltering under
+  trees are killed by lightning is generally accepted as a convincing
+  proof of the unwisdom of the proceeding. When there is an option
+  between a tree and an adjacent house, the latter is doubtless the
+  safer choice. But when the option is between sheltering under a tree
+  and remaining in the open it is not so clear. In Hungary (67), during
+  the three years 1901 to 1903, 15% of the total deaths by lightning
+  occurred under trees, as against 57% wholly in the open. In the United
+  States (68) in 1900, only 10% of the deaths where the precise
+  conditions were ascertained occurred under trees, as against 52% in
+  the open. If then the risk under trees exceeds that in the open in
+  Hungary and the United States, at least five or six times as many
+  people must remain in the open as seek shelter under trees. An
+  isolated tree occupying an exposed position is, it should be
+  remembered, much more likely to be struck than the average tree in the
+  midst of a wood. A good deal also depends on the species of tree. A
+  good many years' data for Lippe (82) in Germany make the liability to
+  lightning stroke as follows--the number of each species being supposed
+  the same:--Oak 57, Fir 39, Pine 5, Beech 1. In Styria, according to K.
+  Prohaska (83), the species most liable to be struck are oaks, poplars
+  and pear trees; beech trees again are exceptionally safe. It should,
+  however, be borne in mind that the apparent differences between
+  different species may be partly a question of height, exposure or
+  proximity to water. A good deal may also depend on the soil. According
+  to Hellmann, as quoted by Henry (82), the liability to lightning
+  stroke in Germany may be put at chalk 1, clay 7, sand 9, loam 22.
+
+  36. Numerous attempts have been made to find periodic variations in
+  thunderstorm frequency. Among the periods suggested are the 11-year
+  sun-spot period, or half this (cf. v. Szalay (67)). Ekholm and
+  Arrhenius (84) claim to have established the existence of a tropical
+  lunar period, and a 25.929-day period; while P. Polis (85) considers a
+  synodic lunar period probable. A.B. MacDowall (86) and others have
+  advanced evidence in favour of the view that thunderstorms are most
+  frequent near new moon and fewest near full moon. Much more evidence
+  would be required to produce a general acceptance of any of the above
+  periods.
+
+  37. _St Elmo's Fire._--Luminous discharges from masts, lightning
+  conductors, and other pointed objects are not very infrequent,
+  especially during thunderstorms. On the Sonnblick, where the
+  phenomenon is common, Elster and Geitel (87) have found St Elmo's fire
+  to answer to a discharge sometimes of positive sometimes of negative
+  electricity. The colour and appearance differ in the two cases, red
+  predominating in a positive, blue in a negative discharge. The
+  differences characteristic of the two forms of discharge are described
+  and illustrated in Gockel's _Das Gewitter_. Gockel states (l.c. p. 74)
+  that during snowfall the sign is positive or negative according as the
+  flakes are large or are small and powdery. The discharge is not
+  infrequently accompanied by a sizzling sound.
+
+  38. Of late years many experiments have been made on the influence of
+  electric fields or currents on plant growth. S. Lemstrom (88), who was
+  a pioneer in this department, found an electric field highly
+  beneficial in some but not in all cases. Attempts have been made to
+  apply electricity to agriculture on a commercial scale, but the exact
+  measure of success attained remains somewhat doubtful. Lemstrom
+  believed atmospheric electricity to play an important part in the
+  natural growth of vegetation, and he assigned a special role to the
+  needles of fir and pine trees.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following abbreviations are here used:--M.Z.,
+  _Meteorologische Zeitschrift_; P.Z., _Physikalische Zeitschrift_; S.,
+  _Sitzungsberichte k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. Naturw. Klasse_, Theil
+  ii. 2; P.T., "Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London";
+  T.M., _Terrestrial Magnetism_, edited by Dr L.A. Bauer.
+
+  Text-books:--(1) G. le Cadet, _Etude du champ electrique de
+  l'atmosphere_ (Paris, 1898); (2) Svante A. Arrhenius, _Lehrbuch der
+  kosmischen Physik_ (Leipzig, 1903); (3) A. Gockel, _Das Gewitter_
+  (Cologne, 1905).
+
+  Lists of original authorities:--(4) F. Exner, M.Z., vol. 17, 1900, p.
+  529 (especially pp. 542-3); (5) G.C. Simpson, _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol.
+  31, 1905, p. 295 (especially pp. 305-6). References in the text:--(6)
+  M.Z., vol. 4, 1887, p. 352; (7) T.M., vol. 4, 1899, p. 213; (8) P.Z.,
+  vol. 4, p. 661; (9) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 114; (10) P.T., vol. 205
+  A, 1906, p. 61; (11) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 260; (12) C. Chree, P.T., vol.
+  206 A, p. 299; (13) Annual volumes, _Greenwich Magnetical and
+  Meteorological Observations_; (14) M.Z., vol. 8, 1891, p. 357; (15)
+  M.Z., vol. 7, 1890, p. 319 and vol. 8, 1891, p. 113; (16) Annual
+  volumes, _Annaes do Obs. do Infante D. Luiz_; (17) _Annual Reports_,
+  Central Meteorological Observatory of Japan; (18) _Observations made
+  at the Mag. and Met. Obs. at Batavia_, vol. 18, 1895; (19) J.D.
+  Everett, P.T., vol. 158, 1868, p. 347; (20) M.Z., vol. 6, 1889, p. 95;
+  (21) A.B. Chauveau, _Ann. bureau central meteorologique, Paris, annee
+  1900_, "Memoires," p. C1; (22) V. Conrad, S., 113, p. 1143; (23) P.B.
+  Zolss, P.Z., vol. 5, p. 260; (24) T.M., vol. 7, 1902, p. 89; (25)
+  _Revue generale des sciences_, 1906, p. 442; (26) T.M., vol. 8, 1903,
+  p. 86. and vol. 9, 1904, p. 147; (27) S., 93, p. 222; (28) M.Z., vol.
+  22, 1905, p. 237; (29) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 632; (30) _Phil. Mag._, vol.
+  20, 1885, p. 456; (31) _Expedition polaire finlandaise_, vol. 3
+  (Helsingfors, 1898); (32) A. Paulsen, _Bull. de l'Acad. ... de
+  Danemarke_, 1894, p. 148; (33) _Wied. Ann._, vol. 46, 1892, p. 584;
+  (34) P.T., vol. 191 A, p. 187; (35) M.Z., vol. 5, 1888, p. 95; S., 99,
+  p. 421; T.M., vol. 4, 1899, p. 15; (36) _Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc._, vol.
+  11, p. 428, and vol. 12, pp. 17 and 85; (37) P.Z., vol. 4, pp. 267 and
+  873; (38) E.R. v. Schweidler, S., 113, p. 1433; (39) S., 111, July
+  1902; (40) _Veroffentl. des Kg. Preuss. Met. Inst._, 1904; (41) P.Z.,
+  vol. 5, p. 106; (42) S., 114, p. 198; (43) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 871; (44)
+  P.Z., vol. 4, p. 93; (45) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 229; (46) S., 114,
+  p. 1705; (47) S., 114, p. 399; (48) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 522; (49) S.,
+  113, p. 1455; (50) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 627; (51) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 90;
+  (52) S., 114, p. 151; (53) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 253; (54) P.Z.,
+  vol. 5, p. 749; (55) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, pp. 53 and 339; (56) P.Z.,
+  vol. 5, p. 11; (57) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 591; (58) T.M., vol. 9, 1904, p.
+  49; (59) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 295; (60) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 504; (61) T.M.,
+  vol. 10, 1905, p. 65; (62) S., 114, p. 1377; (63) _Camb. Phil. Soc.
+  Proc._, vol. 13, p. 363; (64) _Trans. R.S. Edin._, vol. 39, p. 63, and
+  vol. 40, p. 484; (65) _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol. 24, 1898, p. 31; (66)
+  M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 277; (67) _Jahrbucher der Konigl. Ung.
+  Reichsanstalt fur Met. und Erdmag._, vol. 33, 1903, III. Theil with
+  appendix by L. von Szalay; (68) U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, _Weather
+  Bureau Bulletin_, No. 30, 1901; (69) M.Z., vol. 19, 1902, p. 297; (70)
+  _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol. 15, 1889, p. 140; (71) M.Z., vol. 20, 1903,
+  p. 227; (72) M.Z., vol. 20, 1903, p. 522; (73) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p.
+  367; (74) M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p. 175; (75) J. Hegyfoky, M.Z., vol.
+  20, 1903, p. 218; (76) M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p. 575; (77) S. Arrhenius,
+  M.Z., vol. 5, 1888, p. 348; (78) G. Hellmann, M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p.
+  223; (79) M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 239; (80) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p.
+  468; (81) _Berlin Sitz._, 1889, No. 16; (82) A.J. Henry, _U.S. Dept.
+  of Agriculture Bull._, No. 26, 1899; (83) M.Z., vol. 16, 1899, p. 128;
+  (84) _K. Sven. Vet. Akad. Hand._, Bd. 19, No. 8, Bd. 20, No. 6, Bd.
+  31, Nos. 2 and 3; (85) M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 230; (86) _Nature_,
+  vol. 65, 1902, p. 367; (87) M.Z., vol. 8, 1891, p. 321; (88) _Brit.
+  Assoc. Report_ for 1898, p. 808, also _Electricity in Agriculture and
+  Horticulture_ (London, 1904).     (C. Ch.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] see _Authorities_ below.
+
+
+
+
+ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. About 1840-1845 great interest was excited by a
+method of propelling railway trains through the agency of atmospheric
+pressure. Various inventors worked at the realization of this idea. On
+the system worked out in England by Jacob Samuda and S. Clegg, a
+continuous pipe or main was laid between the rails, and in it a partial
+vacuum was maintained by means of air pumps. A piston fitting closely in
+it was connected to the leading vehicle of the train by an iron plate
+which passed through a longitudinal groove or aperture running the whole
+length of the pipe. This aperture was covered by a valve consisting of a
+continuous strip of leather, strengthened on each side with iron plates;
+one edge was fastened, while the other was free to rise, and was closed
+against a composition of beeswax and tallow placed in the groove, the
+surface of which was slightly melted by a heater, carried on each train,
+in order to secure an air-tight joint. Connected behind the piston was a
+frame carrying four wheels which lifted and sustained the continuous
+valve for a distance of about 15 ft. Thus the piston having atmospheric
+pressure on one side of it and a vacuum equal to 15 or 16 in. of mercury
+on the other, was forced along the tube, taking the train with it.
+Various advantages were claimed by the advocates of the system,
+including cheapness of operation as compared with steam locomotives, and
+safety from collision, because the main was divided into sections by
+separating valves and only one train could be in each section at a given
+time. It was installed on about 2 m. of line between Kingstown and
+Dalkey (Ireland) in 1843 and worked till 1855; it was also tried on the
+London and Croydon and on the South Devon lines, but was soon abandoned.
+The same principle is applied in the system of pneumatic despatch (q.v.)
+to the transmission of small parcels in connexion with postal and
+telegraph work.
+
+  For further particulars see three papers by J. Samuda, P.W. Barlow and
+  G. Berkeley, with reports of the discussions upon them, in _Proc.
+  Inst. C.E._, 1844 and 1845.
+
+
+
+
+ATOLL (native name _atollon_ in the Maldive Islands), a horse-shoe or
+ring shaped coral reef enclosing a lagoon. The usual shape is that of a
+partly submerged dish with a broken edge, forming the ring of islands,
+standing upon a conical pedestal. The dish is formed of coral rock and
+the shells of various reef-dwelling mollusca, covered, especially at the
+seaward edges, with a film of living coral polyps that continually
+extend the fringe, and enlarge the diameter of the atoll. The lagoon
+tends to deepen when the land is stationary by the death of the coral
+animals in the still water, and the patchy disintegration of the "hard"
+coral, while waves and storms tear off blocks of rock and pile them up
+at the margin, increasing the height of the islands, which become
+covered by vegetation. The lagoon entrance in the open part of the
+horse-shoe is always to leeward of prevailing winds, since the coral
+growth is there slower than where the waves constantly renew the polyps'
+food supply. The conical pedestal rising from the depths is frequently a
+submarine volcanic cone or island, though any submerged peak may be
+crowned by an atoll. For the theory of atoll formation see CORAL-REEFS.
+
+
+
+
+ATOM
+
+  Theories of matter.
+
+(Gr. [Greek: atomos], indivisible, from [Greek: a-] privative, and
+[Greek: temnein], to cut), the term given in physical science to the
+ultimate indivisible particle of matter, and so by analogy to something
+minutely small in size. If we examine such a substance as sugar we find
+that it can be broken up into fine grains, and these again into finer,
+the finest particles still appearing to be of the same nature as sugar.
+The same is true in the case of a liquid such as water; it can be
+divided into drops and these again into smaller drops, or into the
+finest spray the particles of which are too small to be detected by our
+unaided vision. In fact, so far as the direct evidence of our senses
+tells us, matter appears to be indefinitely divisible. Moreover, small
+particles do not seem to exist in the water until it is broken up; so
+far as we can see, the material of the water is continuous not granular.
+This conception of matter, _as infinitely divisible and continuous_, was
+taught by Anaxagoras more than four centuries before the Christian era,
+and in the philosophy of Aristotle the same ideas are found. But some
+phenomena are difficult to reconcile with this view; for example, a
+cubic foot of air can be compressed into less than one five-hundredth of
+a cubic foot, or, if allowed to expand, the air originally occupying the
+cubic foot can be made to fill, apparently uniformly, a space of a
+million cubic feet or more. This enormous capacity for expansion and
+contraction is astonishing if we believe matter to be continuous, but if
+we imagine air to be made up of little particles separated by relatively
+large empty spaces the changes in volume are more easily conceivable.
+Moreover, if we attribute such a structure to gases, we are led to
+attribute it to liquids and to solids also, since gases can be liquefied
+without any abrupt change, and many substances usually solid can be
+converted into gases by heating them. This conception of the _grained_
+structure of matter is very ancient; traces of it are to be found in
+Indian philosophy, perhaps twelve centuries before the Christian era,
+and the Greek philosophers Democritus and Epicurus, in the 3rd and 4th
+centuries B.C., taught it very definitely. Their view was that "matter
+is not indefinitely divisible, but that all substances are formed of
+indivisible particles or atoms which are eternal and unchangeable, that
+the atoms are separated from one another by void, and that these atoms,
+by their combinations, form the matter we are conscious of." The Roman
+poet Lucretius (_De Rerum Natura_) was an eloquent exponent of this
+theory, but throughout the middle ages, indeed until the 17th century,
+it was eclipsed by the prestige of Aristotle. In the time, however, of
+Boyle[1] and Newton, we again find an atomic theory of matter; Newton[2]
+regarded a gas as consisting of small separate particles which repelled
+one another, the tendency of a gas to expand being attributed to the
+supposed repulsion between the particles.
+
+Let us consider some common phenomena in the light of these rival
+theories as to the nature of matter. When a few lumps of sugar are added
+to a glass of water and stirred, the sugar soon disappears and we are
+left with a uniform liquid resembling water, except that it is sweet.
+What has become of the sugar? Does it still exist? The atomist would
+say, "Yes, it is broken up into its atoms, and these are distributed
+throughout the spaces between the particles of water." The rival
+philosopher, who believes water to be continuous and without spaces
+between its particles, has a greater difficulty in accounting for the
+disappearance of the sugar; he would probably say that the sugar, and
+the water also, had ceased to exist, and that a new continuous substance
+had been formed from them, but he could offer no picture of how this
+change had taken place. Or consider a well-marked case of what we are in
+the habit of calling _chemical combination_. If 127 parts of iodine,
+which is an almost black solid, and 100 parts of mercury, which is a
+white liquid metal, be intimately mixed by rubbing them together in a
+mortar, the two substances wholly disappear, and we obtain instead a
+brilliant red powder quite unlike the iodine or the mercury; almost the
+only property that is unchanged is the weight. The question again
+arises, what has become of the original substances? The atomist has an
+easy answer; he says that the new body is made up by the juxtaposition
+of the atoms of iodine and mercury, which still exist in the red powder.
+His opponent would be disposed to say that the iodine and the mercury
+ceased to exist when the red powder was formed, that they were
+_components_ but not _constituents_ of it. The fact that the two
+components can be recovered from the compound by destroying it does not
+decide the question. It is remarkable that pure chemistry, even to-day,
+has no very conclusive arguments for the settlement of this controversy;
+but the sister science of physics is steadily accumulating evidence in
+favour of the atomic conception.
+
+[Illustation: From Dalton's _New System of Chemical Philosophy_.]
+
+  Hydrogen Gas.
+  Nitrous Gas.
+  Carbonic Acid Gas.]
+
+[Illustation:
+
+        (.) hydrogen.
+        ( ) oxygen.
+        (|) nitrogen.
+        (O) carbon.
+     (.)( ) water.
+     (.)(|) ammonia.
+     (.)(O) ethylene.
+     (O)( ) carbon monoxide.
+  ( )(O)( ) carbon dioxide.
+     (|)( ) nitric oxide (nitous gas).
+  (|)( )(|) nitrous oxide.
+  ( )(|)( ) nitrogen peroxide.]
+
+
+  Dalton.
+
+Until the time of John Dalton, the atomic conception remained purely
+qualitative, and until then it does not appear to have advanced
+chemistry or to have found further confirmation in the facts of
+chemistry. Dalton (1803) gave the atomic theory a quantitative form, and
+showed that, by means of it, a vast number of the facts of chemistry
+could be predicted or explained. In fact, he did so much to make the
+atomic theory of matter probable that he is popularly regarded as its
+originator. Dalton lived in a period marked by great advances in
+experimental chemistry. Rather before the commencement of the 19th
+century the work of Lavoisier had rendered it very probable that
+chemical changes are not accompanied by any change in weight, and this
+principle of the conservation of matter was becoming universally
+accepted; chemists were also acquiring considerable skill in chemical
+analysis, that is, in the determination of the nature and relative
+amounts of the elements contained in compounds. But Sir H.E. Roscoe and
+A. Harden, _New View of the Atomic Theory_ (1896), have shown, from a
+study of Dalton's manuscript notes, that we do not owe his atomic theory
+to such experiments. If their view is correct, the theory appears to be
+a remarkable example of deductive reasoning. Dalton, who was a
+mathematical physicist even more than a chemist, had given much thought
+to the study of gases. Following Newton, he believed a gas to be made up
+of particles or atoms, separated from one another by considerable
+spaces. Certain difficulties that he met with in his speculations led
+him to the conclusion that the particles of any one kind of gas, though
+all of them alike, must differ from those of another gas both in _size_
+and _weight_. He thus arrived at the conception of a definite atomic
+weight peculiar to the particles of each gas, and he thought that he
+could determine these atomic weights, in terms of one of them, by means
+of the quantitative analysis of compounds. The conclusion that each
+element had a definite atomic weight, peculiar to it, was the new idea
+that made his speculations fruitful, because it allowed of quantitative
+deduction and verification. He drew simple diagrams, three of which,
+taken from Dalton's _New System of Chemical Philosophy_, part ii.
+(1810), are reproduced here, in which gases are represented as composed
+of atoms. Knowing that the gas which he called "nitrous gas" was
+composed of oxygen and nitrogen, and believing it to be the simplest
+compound of these two elements, he naturally represented its atom as
+formed of an atom of oxygen and an atom of nitrogen in juxtaposition.
+When two elements form more than one compound, as is the case with
+oxygen and carbon, he assigned to the compound which he thought the more
+complex an atom made up of two atoms of the one element and one atom of
+the other; the diagram for carbonic acid illustrates this, and an
+extension of the same plan enabled him to represent any compound,
+however complex its structure. The table here given contains some of
+Dalton's diagrams of atoms. They are not all considered to be correct at
+the present time; for example, we now think that the ultimate particle
+of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, and that
+that of ammonia contains three atoms of hydrogen to one of nitrogen. But
+these differences between Dalton's views and our present ones do not
+impair the accuracy of the arguments which follow. The diagrams show
+that Dalton formed a very definite conception of the nature of chemical
+combination; it was the union of a small number of atoms of one kind
+with a small number of another kind to form a compound atom, or as we
+now say a "molecule," this identical process being repeated millions of
+times to form a perceptible amount of a compound. The conceptions of
+"element," "compound" and "mixture" became more precise than they had
+been hitherto; in an element all the atoms are alike, in a compound all
+the molecules are alike, in a mixture there are different kinds of
+molecules. If we accept the hypothesis that each kind of atom has a
+specific and invariable weight, we can, with the aid of the above
+theory, make most important inferences concerning the proportions by
+weight in which substances combine to form compounds. These inferences
+are often summarized as the laws of _constant, multiple and reciprocal
+proportions_.
+
+
+  Law of constant proportions.
+
+The law of _constant proportions_ asserts that _when two elements unite
+to form a compound the weights that combine are in an invariable ratio,
+a ratio that is characteristic of that compound._ Thus if Dalton's
+diagram for the molecule, or compound atom, of water be correct, it
+follows that in all samples of water the total number of the hydrogen
+atoms is equal to that of the oxygen atoms; consequently, the ratio of
+the weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen in water is the same as the
+ratio of the weights of an oxygen and a hydrogen atom, and _this is
+invariable_. Different samples of water cannot therefore differ ever so
+little in percentage composition, and the same must be true for every
+compound as distinguished from a mixture. Apart from the atomic theory
+there is no obvious reason why this should be so. We give the name bread
+to a substance containing variable proportions of flour and water.
+Similarly the substance we call wine is undeniably variable in
+composition. Why should not the substance we call water also vary more
+or less? The Aristotelian would find no difficulty in such a
+variability; it is only the disciple of Dalton to whom it seems
+impossible. It is evident that we have in this law a definite prediction
+that can be tested by experiment.
+
+
+  Law of multiple proportions.
+
+The law of _multiple proportions_ asserts that _if two elements form
+more than one compound, then the weights of the one element which are
+found combined with unit weight of the other in the different compounds,
+must be in the ratio of two or more whole numbers._ If we compare
+Dalton's diagrams of the two oxides of carbon or of the three oxides of
+nitrogen that are given in the preceding table, we at once see the
+necessity of this law; for the more complex molecule has to be formed
+from the simpler one by the addition of one or more whole atoms. In the
+oxides of carbon the same weight of carbon must be combined with weights
+of oxygen that are as 1 : 2, and in the oxides of nitrogen a fixed
+weight of nitrogen must be in union with weights of oxygen that are as 1
+: 2 : 1/2, which are the same ratios as 2 : 4 : 1. This law has been
+abundantly verified by experiment; for example, five oxides of nitrogen
+are known, and independent analyses show that, if we consider the same
+weight of nitrogen in every case, the weights of oxygen combined with it
+are to one another as 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5. The discovery of this law is
+due to Dalton; it is a direct deduction from his atomic theory. Here
+again, apart from this theory, there is no obvious reason why the
+composition of different substances should be related in so simple a
+way. As Dalton said, "The doctrine of definite proportions appears
+mysterious unless we adopt the atomic hypothesis." "It appears like the
+mystical ratios of Kepler which Newton so happily elucidated." The
+chemists of Dalton's time were not unanimous in accepting these laws;
+indeed C.L. Berthollet (_Essai de statique chimique_, 1803) expressly
+controverted them. He maintained that, under varying conditions, two
+substances could combine in an indefinitely large number of different
+ratios, that there could in fact be a continuous variation in the
+combining ratio. This view is clearly inconsistent with the atomic
+theory, which requires that when the combining ratio of two substances
+changes it should do so, _per saltum_, to quite another value.
+
+
+  Law of reciprocal proportions.
+
+The law of _reciprocal proportions_, or, as it might well be named, the
+law of _equivalence_, cannot be adequately enunciated in a few words.
+The following gives a partial statement of it. _If we know the weights a
+and b of two elements that are found in union with unit weight of a
+third element, then we can predict the composition of the compounds
+which the first two elements can form with each other; either the
+weights a and b will combine exactly, or if not, these weights must be
+multiplied by integers to obtain the composition of a compound._ To see
+how this law follows from Dalton's theory let us consider his diagrams
+for the molecules of water, ethylene and the oxides of carbon. In water
+and in ethylene experiment shows that 8 parts by weight of oxygen and 6
+parts of carbon, respectively, are in union with one part of hydrogen;
+also, if the diagrams are correct, these numbers must be in the ratio of
+the atomic weights of oxygen and carbon. We can therefore predict that
+all oxides of carbon will have compositions represented by the ratio of
+8m parts of oxygen to 6n parts of carbon, where m and n are whole
+numbers. This prediction is verified by the result of analysis.
+Similarly, if we know by experiment the composition of water and of
+ammonia, we can predict the probable composition of the oxides of
+nitrogen. Experiment shows that, in water and ammonia, we have,
+respectively, 8 parts of oxygen and 4.67 parts of nitrogen in union with
+one part of hydrogen; we can therefore infer that the oxides of nitrogen
+will all have the composition of 8m parts of oxygen to 4.67n parts of
+nitrogen. Experiment alone can tell us the values of m and n; all that
+the theory tells us is that they are whole numbers. In this particular
+case, n turns out to be 3, and m has in succession the values 1, 2, 3,
+4, 5.
+
+It is evident that these laws all follow from the idea that a compound
+molecule can only alter through the addition or subtraction of one or
+more complete atoms, together with the idea that all the molecules in a
+pure substance are alike. Fortunately, the compounds at first examined
+by the chemists engaged in verifying these laws were comparatively
+simple, so that the whole numbers referred to above were small. The
+astonishing variety of ratios in which carbon and hydrogen combine was
+not at first realized. Otherwise Berthollet's position would have been a
+much stronger one, and the atomic theory might have had to wait a long
+while for acceptance. Even at the present time, it would be too much to
+say that all the complex organic substances have been proved by analysis
+to obey these laws; all we can assert is that their composition and
+properties can be satisfactorily explained on the assumption that they
+do so.
+
+The above statement does not by any means exhaust the possible
+predictions that can be made from the atomic theory, but it shows how to
+test the theory. If chemical compounds can be proved by experiment to
+obey these laws, then the atomic theory acquires a high degree of
+probability; if they are contradicted by experiment then the atomic
+theory must be abandoned, or very much modified. Dalton himself made
+many analyses with the purpose of establishing his views, but his skill
+as an analyst was not very great. It is in the work of the great Swedish
+chemist J.J. Berzelius, and somewhat later, in the experiments of the
+Belgian chemist J.S. Stas, that we find the most brilliant and vigorous
+verification of these laws, and therefore of the atomic theory.
+
+We shall now give an outline of the experimental evidence for the truth
+of these laws.
+
+
+  Experimental evidence.
+
+The law of the conservation of matter, an important element in the
+atomic theory, has been roughly verified by innumerable analyses, in
+which, a given weight of a substance having been taken, each ingredient
+in it is isolated and its weight separately determined; the total weight
+of the ingredients is always found to be very nearly equal to the weight
+of the original substance. But on account of experimental errors in
+weighing and measuring, and through loss of material in the transfer of
+substances from one vessel to another, such analyses are rarely
+trustworthy to more than one part in about 500; so that small changes in
+weight consequent on the chemical change could not with certainty be
+proved or disproved. A few experimenters have carried the verification
+much further. Stas, in his syntheses of silver iodide, weighed the
+silver and the iodine separately, and after converting them into the
+compound he weighed this also. In each of a number of experiments he
+found that the weight of the silver iodide did not differ by one
+twenty-thousandth of the whole from the sum of the weights of the silver
+and the iodine used. His analyses of another compound, silver iodate,
+confirm the law to one part in 78,000. In E.W. Morley's experiments on
+the synthesis of water the hydrogen, the oxygen and the water that had
+been formed were separately determined; taking the mean of his results,
+the sum of the weights of the ingredients is not found to differ from
+the weight of the product by one part in 10,000. It is evident that if
+our experiments are solely directed to the verification of this law,
+they should, if possible, be carried out in a hermetically closed
+vessel, the vessel and its contents being weighed before and after the
+chemical change. The extremely careful experiments of this kind, by H.
+Landolt and others, made it at first appear that the change in weight,
+if there is any, consequent on a chemical change can rarely exceed
+one-millionth of the weight of the reacting substances, and that it must
+often be much less. The small discrepancies found are so easily
+accounted for by attributing them to experimental errors that, until
+recently, every chemist would have regarded the law as sufficiently
+verified. Landolt's subsequent experiments showed, what was already
+noticed in the earlier ones, that these minute changes in weight are
+nearly always losses, the products weigh less than the components, while
+if they had been purely experimental errors, due to weighing, they might
+have been expected to be as frequently gains as losses. Landolt was
+disposed to attribute these losses in weight to the containing vessel,
+which was of glass or quartz, not being absolutely impervious, but in
+1908 he showed that, by making allowance for the moisture adsorbed on
+the vessel, the errors were both positive and negative, and were less
+than one in ten million. He concluded that _no change of weight can be
+detected._ Modern researches (see RADIOACTIVITY) on the complex nature
+of the atom have a little shaken the belief in the absolute permanence
+of matter. But it seems pretty clear that if there is any change in
+weight consequent on chemical change, it is _too minute to be of
+importance to the chemist_, though the methods of modern physics may
+settle the question. (See ELEMENT.)
+
+The law of constant proportions is easily verified to a moderate degree
+of accuracy by such experiments as the following. We can prepare, in the
+laboratory, a white powder that proves to be calcium carbonate, that is,
+it appears to be wholly composed of carbon dioxide and lime. We find in
+nature two other unlike substances, marble and Iceland spar, each of
+which is wholly composed of carbon dioxide and lime. Thus these three
+substances, unlike in appearance and origin, are composed of the same
+ingredients: if small variations in the combining ratio of the
+components were possible, we might expect to find them in such a case as
+this. But analysis has failed to find such differences; the ratio of the
+weights of lime and carbon dioxide is found to be the same in all three
+substances. Such analyses, which do not always admit of great accuracy,
+have been confirmed by a few carefully planned experiments in which two
+components were brought together under very varied conditions, and the
+resulting compound analysed. Stas carried out such experiments on the
+composition of silver chloride and of ammonium chloride, but he never
+found a variation of one part in 10,000 in the composition of the
+substances.
+
+The two laws discussed above were more or less accepted before the
+promulgation of the atomic theory, but the law of multiple proportions
+is the legitimate offspring of this theory. Berzelius saw at once that
+it afforded an admirable test for the correctness of Dalton's views, and
+he made numerous experiments expressly designed to test the law. One of
+these experiments may be described. Two chlorides of copper are known,
+one a highly coloured substance, the other quite white. Berzelius took 8
+grams of copper, converted it into the coloured chloride, and sealed up
+the whole of this in solution, together with a weighed strip of copper.
+After some time the colour entirely disappeared; the strip of copper was
+then taken out and reweighed, and it was found to have lost 8.03 grams.
+Thus the chlorine, which in the coloured compound was in union with 8
+grams of copper, appears, in the colourless chloride, to be combined
+with 16.03 grams, or almost exactly double the amount. It is easy to
+verify this result. In a series of repetitions of the experiment, by
+different observers, the following numbers were obtained for the ratio
+of the copper in the two chlorides: 1.98, 1.97, 2.03, 2.003, the mean
+value being 1.996. It will be noticed that the ratio found is sometimes
+above and sometimes below the number 2, which is required by the atomic
+theory, and therefore the deviations may not unreasonably be attributed
+to experimental errors. Such experiments--and numerous ones of about
+this degree of accuracy have been made on a variety of substances--give
+a high degree of probability to the law, but leave it an open question
+whether it has the exactitude of the law of the conservation of matter,
+or whether it is only approximately true. The question is, however,
+vital to the atomic theory. It is, therefore, worth while to quote a
+verification of great exactitude from the work of Stas and J.B.A.
+Dumas[3] on the composition of the two oxides of carbon. From their work
+it follows that the ratio of the weights of oxygen combined with unit
+weight of carbon in the two oxides is 1.99995, or with somewhat
+different data, 1.9996.
+
+The law of reciprocal proportion, of which some examples have been
+already given, is part of a larger law of equivalence that underlies
+most of our chemical methods and calculations. One section of the law
+expresses the fact that the weights of two substances, not necessarily
+elements, that are equivalent in one reaction, are often found to be
+equivalent in a number of other reactions. The neutralization of acids
+by bases affords many illustrations, known even before the atomic
+theory, of the truth of the statement. It is universally found that the
+weights of two bases which neutralize the same weight of one acid are
+equivalent in their power of neutralizing other acids. Thus 5 parts by
+weight of soda, 7 of potash and 3.5 of quicklime will each neutralize
+4.56 parts of hydrochloric acid or 7.875 of nitric or 6.125 parts of
+sulphuric acid; these weights, in fact, are mutually equivalent to one
+another. The Daltonian would say that each of these weights represents a
+certain group of atoms, and that these groups can replace, or combine
+with, each other, to form new molecules. The change from a binary
+compound, that is, one containing two elements, to a ternary compound in
+which these two elements are associated with a third, sometimes affords
+a very good test for the theory. The atomic theory can picture the
+change from the binary to the ternary compound simply as the addition of
+one or more atoms of the third element to the previously existing
+molecule; in such a case the combining ratio of the first two elements
+should be absolutely the same in both compounds. Berzelius tested this
+prediction. He showed that lead sulphide, a black substance containing
+only lead and sulphur, could be _converted_ by oxidation into lead
+sulphate, a white compound containing oxygen as well as lead and
+sulphur. The whole of the lead and sulphur of the sulphide was found to
+be present in the sulphate; in other words, the combining ratio of the
+lead and sulphur was not altered by the addition of the oxygen. This is
+found to be a general rule. It was verified very exactly by Stas's
+experiments, in which he removed the oxygen from the ternary compound
+silver iodate and found that the whole of the silver and the iodine
+remained in combination with each other as silver iodide; his results
+prove, to one part in ten millions, that the combining ratio of the
+silver and the iodine is unaltered by the removal of the oxygen.
+
+The above gives some idea of the evidence that has been accumulated in
+favour of the laws of chemical combination, laws which can be deduced
+from the atomic theory. Whenever any of these laws, or indeed any
+prediction from the theory, can be tested it has so far proved to be in
+harmony with experiment. The existence of the periodic law (see
+ELEMENT), and the researches of physicists on the constitution of
+matter (q.v.), also furnish very strong support to the theory.
+
+
+  Atomic weight.
+
+Dalton was of the opinion that it was possible to determine the weights
+of the elementary atoms in terms of any one by the analysis of
+compounds. It is evident that this is practicable if the number and kind
+of atoms contained in the molecule of a compound can be determined. To
+take the simplest possible case, if Dalton had been correct in assuming
+that the molecule of water was made up of one atom of oxygen and one of
+hydrogen, then the experimental fact that water contains eight parts by
+weight of oxygen to one part of hydrogen, would at once show that the
+atom of oxygen is eight times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen, or that,
+taking the atomic weight of hydrogen as the unit, the atomic weight of
+oxygen is 8. Similarly, Dalton's diagram for ammonia, together with the
+fact that ammonia contains 4.67 parts of nitrogen to one of hydrogen, at
+once leads to the conclusion that the atomic weight of nitrogen is 4.67.
+But, unfortunately, the assumption as to the number of atoms in the
+molecules of these two compounds was an arbitrary one, based on no valid
+evidence. It is now agreed that the molecule of water contains two atoms
+of hydrogen and one of oxygen, so that the atomic weight of oxygen
+becomes 16, and similarly that the molecule of ammonia contains three
+atoms of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, and that consequently the atomic
+weight of nitrogen is 14. On account of this difficulty, the atomic
+weights published by Dalton, and the more accurate ones of Berzelius,
+were not always identical with the values now accepted, but were often
+simple multiples or submultiples of these.
+
+
+  Formulae.
+
+The "symbols" for the elements used by Dalton, apparently suggested by
+those of the alchemists, have been rejected in favour of those which
+were introduced by Berzelius. The latter employed the first letter, or
+the first two letters, of the name of an element as its symbol. The
+symbol, like that of Dalton, always stands for the atomic weight of the
+element, that is, while H stands for one part by weight of hydrogen, O
+stands for 16 parts of oxygen, and so on. The symbols of compounds
+become very concise, as the number of atoms of one kind in a molecule
+can be expressed by a sub-index. Thus the symbol or formula H2O for
+water expresses the view that the molecule of water consists of one atom
+of oxygen and two of hydrogen; and if we know the atomic weights of
+oxygen and hydrogen, it also tells us the composition of water by
+weight. Similarly, the modern formula for ammonia is NH3.
+
+The superiority of this notation over that of Dalton is not so obvious
+when we consider such simple cases as the above, but chemists are now
+acquainted with very complex molecules containing numerous atoms; cane
+sugar, for example, has the formula C12H22O11. It would be a serious
+business to draw a Daltonian diagram for such a molecule.
+
+Dalton believed that the molecules of the elementary gases consisted
+each of one atom; his diagram for hydrogen gas makes the point clear. We
+now believe that the molecule of an element is frequently made up of two
+or more atoms; thus the formulae for the gases hydrogen, oxygen and
+nitrogen are H2, O2, N2, while gaseous phosphorus and sulphur are
+probably P4 and S6, and gaseous mercury is Hg1,--that is, the molecule
+of this element is monatomic. This view, as to the frequently complex
+nature of the elementary molecule, is logically and historically
+connected with the striking hypothesis of Amadeo Avogadro and A.M.
+Ampere. These natural philosophers suggested that equal volumes of all
+gaseous substances must contain, at the same temperature and pressure,
+the same number of molecules. Their hypothesis explains so many facts
+that it is now considered to be as well established as the parts of the
+theory due to Dalton.[4] This principle at once enables the weights of
+molecules to be compared even when their composition is unknown; it is
+only necessary to determine the specific gravities of the various gases
+referred to some one of them, say hydrogen; the numbers so obtained
+giving the weights of the molecules referred to that of the hydrogen
+molecule.
+
+
+  Present position of the atomic theory.
+
+The atomic theory has been of priceless value to chemists, but it has
+more than once happened in the history of science that a hypothesis,
+after having been useful in the discovery and the co-ordination of
+knowledge, has been abandoned and replaced by one more in harmony with
+later discoveries. Some distinguished chemists have thought that this
+fate may be awaiting the atomic theory, and that in future chemists may
+be able to obtain all the guidance they need from the science of the
+transformations of energy. But modern discoveries in radioactivity[5]
+are in favour of the existence of the atom, although they lead to the
+belief that the atom is not so eternal and unchangeable a thing as
+Dalton and his predecessors imagined, and in fact, that the atom itself
+may be subject to that eternal law of growth and decay of which
+Lucretius speaks.     (F. H. Ne.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Robert Boyle, _The Sceptical Chymist_ (1661); _The Usefulness of
+    Natural Philosophy_ (1663).
+
+  [2] Sir Isaac Newton, _Principia_, bk. ii. prop. 23.
+
+  [3] Freund, _The Study of Chemical Composition_.
+
+  [4] It will be seen that in the three gas diagrams of Dalton that are
+    reproduced above, equal numbers of molecules are contained in equal
+    volumes, but if Dalton held this view at one time he certainly
+    afterwards abandoned it.
+
+  [5] Rutherford, _Radioactivity_.
+
+
+
+
+ATONEMENT and DAY OF ATONEMENT.
+
+  The religious doctrine.
+
+"Atone" (originally--see below--"at one") and "atonement" terms
+ordinarily used as practically synonymous with satisfaction, reparation,
+compensation, with a view to reconciliation. As the English technical
+terms representing a theological doctrine which plays an important part
+not only in Christianity but in most religions, the underlying ideas
+require more detailed analysis. A doctrine of atonement makes the
+following presuppositions. (a) There is a natural relation between God
+and man in which God looks favourably upon man. (b) This relation has
+been disturbed so that God regards man's character and conduct with
+disapproval, and inflicts suffering upon him by way of punishment. In
+the higher religions the disturbance is due, as just implied, to
+unsatisfactory conduct on man's part, i.e. sin. (c) The normal
+relation may be restored, i.e. sin may be forgiven; and this
+restoration is the atonement.
+
+The problem of the atonement is the means or condition of the
+restoration of man to God's favour; this has been variously found (a) in
+the endurance of punishment; (b) in the payment of compensation for the
+wrong done, the compensation consisting of sacrifices and other
+offerings; (c) in the performance of magical or other ritual, the
+efficacy of the ritual consisting in its being pleasing to or appointed
+by God, or even in its having a coercive power over the deity; (d) in
+repentance and amendment of life. Most theories of atonement would
+combine two or more of these, and would include repentance and
+amendment. Some or all of the conditions of atonement may be fulfilled,
+according to various views, either by the sinner or vicariously on his
+behalf by some kinsman; or by his family, clan or nation; or by some one
+else.
+
+
+  Old Testament.
+
+In the Old Testament, "atonement," "make an atonement" represent the
+Hebrew _kippur_ and its derivatives. It is doubtful whether this root
+meant originally to "cover" or "wipe out"; but probably it is used as a
+technical term without any consciousness of its etymology. The Old
+Testament presents very varied teaching on this subject without
+attempting to co-ordinate its doctrines in a harmonious system. In some
+cases there is no suggestion of any forgiveness; sinners are "cut off"
+from the chosen people; individuals and nations perish in their
+iniquity.[1] Some passages refer exclusively to the endurance of
+punishment as a condition of pardon;[2] others to the penitence and
+amendment of the sinner.[3] In Ezekiel xxxvi. 25-31, repentance is
+called forth by the divine forgiveness.
+
+Sacrifice and other rites are also spoken of as conditions of the
+restoration of man to happy relations with God. The Priestly Code
+(Leviticus and allied passages) seems to confine the efficacy of
+sacrifice to ritual, venial and involuntary sins,[4] and requires that
+the sacrifices should be offered at Jerusalem by the Aaronic priests;
+but these limitations did not belong to the older religion; and even in
+later times popular faith ascribed a larger efficacy to sacrifice. On
+the other hand, other passages protest against the ascription of great
+importance to sacrifice; or regard the rite as a consequence rather than
+a cause of forgiveness.[5] The Old Testament has no theory of sacrifice;
+in connexion with sin the sacrifice was popularly regarded as payment of
+penalty or compensation. Lev. xvii. 11 suggests a mystic or symbolic
+explanation by its statement "the life of the flesh is in the blood; and
+I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your
+lives:[6] for it is the blood that maketh atonement by reason of the
+life." The Old Testament nowhere explains why this importance is
+attached to the blood, but the passage is often held to mean that the
+life of the victim represented the forfeited life of the offerer.
+
+
+  Jewish day of atonement.
+
+The atoning ritual reached its climax on the Day of Atonement [Hebrew:
+yom hakipurim] [Greek: aemera exilasmon], in the Mishna simply "the
+Day," (_Yoma_), observed annually on the 10th day of the 7th month
+(Tisri), in the autumn, about October, shortly before the Feast of
+Tabernacles or vintage festival. At one time the year began in Tisri.
+The laws of the Day of Atonement belong to the Priestly Code.[7] There
+is no trace of this function before the exile; the earliest reference to
+any such special time of atonement being the proposal of Ezek. xlv.
+18-20 to establish two days of atonement, in the first and seventh
+months.[8] No doubt, however, both the principles and ritual are partly
+derived from earlier times. The object of the observances was to cleanse
+the sanctuary, the priesthood and the people from all their sins, and to
+renew and maintain favourable relations between Yahweh and Israel. The
+ritual includes features found on other holy days, sacrifices,
+abstinence from work, &c.; and also certain unique acts. The Day of
+Atonement is the only fast provided in the Law; it is only on this
+occasion that (a) the Jews are required to "afflict their souls," (b)
+the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies, (c) the High Priest offers
+incense before the mercy seat and sprinkles it with blood, and (d) the
+scapegoat or Azazel is sent away into the wilderness, bearing upon him
+all the iniquities of the people. In later Judaism, especially from
+about 100 B.C., great stress was laid on the Day of Atonement, and it is
+now the most important religious function of the Jews. On that day many
+attend the synagogues who are seldom or never seen in them at other
+times.
+
+The idea of vicarious atonement appears in the Old Testament in
+different forms. The nation suffers for the sin of the individual;[9]
+and the individual for the sin of his kinsfolk[10] or of the nation.[11]
+Above all the Servant of Yahweh[12] appears as atoning for sinners by
+his sufferings and death. Again, the Old Testament speaks of the
+restoration of heathen nations, and of the salvation of the heathen;[13]
+but does not formulate any theory of atonement in this connexion. The
+Old Testament, however, only prepares the way for the Christian doctrine
+of the atonement; this is clear, inasmuch as its teaching is largely
+concerned with the nation, and hardly touches on the future life.
+Moreover, it could not define the relation of Christ to the atonement.
+Later Judaism emphasized the idea of vicarious atonement for Israel
+through the sufferings of the righteous, especially the martyrs; but it
+is very doubtful whether the idea of the atonement through the death of
+the Messiah is a pre-Christian Jewish doctrine.[14]
+
+
+  New Testament.
+
+In the New Testament, the English version uses "atonement" once, Rom. v.
+11, for [Greek: katallagae] (R.V. here and elsewhere "reconciliation").
+This Greek word corresponds to the idea suggested by the etymology of
+at-one-ment, the re-uniting in amity of those at variance, a sense which
+the word had in the 17th century but has since lost. But the idea which
+is now usually expressed by "atonement" is rather represented in the New
+Testament by [Greek: ilasmos] and its cognates, e.g. 1 John ii. 2 R.V.,
+"He (Jesus) is the propitiation ([Greek: ilasmos]) for our sins." But
+these words are rare, and we read more often of "salvation" ([Greek:
+sotaeria]) and "being saved," which includes or involves that
+restoration to divine favour which is called atonement. The leading
+varieties of teaching, the Sayings of Jesus, Paul, the Johannine
+writings, the Epistle to the Hebrews, connect the atonement with Christ
+especially with His death, and associate it with faith in Him and with
+repentance and amendment of life.[15]
+
+These ideas are also common to Christian teaching generally. The New
+Testament, however, does not indicate that its writers were agreed as to
+any formal dogma of the atonement, as regards the relation of the death
+of Christ to the sinner's restoration to God's favour; but various
+suggestions are made as to the solution of the problem. St Paul's
+teaching connects with the Jewish doctrine of vicarious suffering,
+represented in the Old Testament by Is. liii., and probably, though not
+expressly, with the ritual sacrifices. Christ suffering on behalf of
+sinners satisfies the divine righteousness, which was outraged by their
+sin.[16] His work is an expression of God's love to man;[17] the
+redeeming power of Christ's death is also explained by his solidarity
+with humanity as the second Adam,[18]--the redeemed sinner has "died
+with Christ."[19] Some atoning virtue seems also attributed to the
+Resurrection;[20] Christ's sayings connect admission to the kingdom of
+God with susceptibility to the influence of His personality, faith in
+Himself and His mission, and the loyalty that springs from faith.[21] In
+John, Christ is a "propitiation" ([Greek: ilasmos]) provided by the love
+of God that man may be cleansed from sin; He is also their advocate
+([Greek: Paraklaetos]) with God that they may be forgiven, for His
+name's sake.[22] _Hebrews_ speaks of Christ as transcending the rites
+and officials of the law; He accomplishes the realities which they could
+only foreshadow; in relation to the perfect, heavenly sacrifice which
+atones for sin, He is both priest and victim.[23]
+
+
+  Later interpretation.
+
+The subsequent development of the Christian doctrine has chiefly shaped
+itself according to the Pauline formula of vicarious atonement; the
+sufferings of Christ were accepted as a substitute for the punishment
+which men deserved, and so the divine righteousness was satisfied--a
+formula, however, which left much room for controversy. The creeds and
+confessions are usually vague. Thus the Apostles' Creed, "I believe in
+the forgiveness of sins"; the Nicene Creed, "I believe in one Lord Jesus
+Christ ... who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven
+... I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins"; the Athanasian
+Creed, "Who (Christ) suffered for our salvation." In the Thirty-nine
+Articles of the Church of England we have (ii.) "Christ suffered ... to
+reconcile his Father to us, and to be a sacrifice, not only for original
+guilt, but also for all actual sins of men"; and (xxxi.) "The offering
+of Christ once made is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and
+satisfaction, for all the sins of the whole world." The council of Trent
+declared that "_Christus ... nobis sua sanctissima passione ligno crucis
+justificationem meruit et pro nobis deo patri satisfecit_," "Christ
+earned our justification by His most holy passion and satisfied God the
+Father for us." The Confession of Augsburg uses words equivalent to the
+Articles quoted above which were based upon it. The Westminster
+Confession declares: "The Lord Jesus Christ, by His perfect obedience
+and sacrifice of Himself, which He through the Eternal Spirit once
+offered up to God, hath fully satisfied the justice of His Father, and
+purchased not only reconciliation, but an everlasting inheritance in the
+kingdom of heaven, for all those whom the Father hath given unto Him."
+
+Individual theologians have sought to define more exactly the points on
+which the standards are vague. For instance, how was justice satisfied
+by Christ? The early Fathers, from Irenaeus (d. c. 200) to Anselm (d.
+1109),[24] held, _inter alia_, that Christ paid a ransom to Satan to
+induce him to release men from his power. Anselm and the scholastics
+regarded the atonement as an offering to God of such infinite value as
+to outweigh men's sins, a view sometimes styled the "Commerical
+Theory."[25] The leading reformers emphasized the idea that Christ bore
+the punishment of sin, sufferings equivalent to the punishments deserved
+by men, a view maintained later on by Jonathan Edwards junior. But the
+intellectual activity of the Reformation also developed other views; the
+Socinians, with their humanitarian theory of the Person of Christ,
+taught that He died only to assure men of God's forgiving love and to
+afford them an example of obedience--"Forgiveness is granted upon the
+ground of repentance and obedience."[26] Grotius put forward what has
+been called the _Governmental_ Theory, viz. that the atonement took
+place not to satisfy the wrath of God, but in the practical interests of
+the divine government of the world, "The sufferings and death of the Son
+of God are an exemplary exhibition of God's hatred of moral evil, in
+connexion with which it is safe and prudent to remit that penalty, which
+so far as God and the divine attributes are concerned, might have been
+remitted without it."[27]
+
+
+  Modern views.
+
+The formal legal view continued to be widely held, though it was
+modified in many ways by various theologians. For instance, it has been
+held that Christ atoned for mankind not by enduring the penalty of sin,
+but by identifying Himself with the sinner in perfect sympathy, and
+feeling for him an "equivalent repentance" for his sin. Thus McLeod
+Campbell (q.v.) held that Christ atoned by offering up to God a perfect
+confession of the sins of mankind and an adequate repentance for them,
+with which divine justice is satisfied, and a full expiation is made for
+human guilt. A similar view was held by F.D. Maurice.[28] Others hold
+that the effect of the atoning death of Christ is not to propitiate God,
+but to reconcile man to God; it manifests righteousness, and thus
+reveals the heinousness of sin; it also reveals the love of God, and
+conveys the assurance of His willingness to forgive or receive the
+sinner; thus it moves men to repentance and faith, and effects their
+salvation; so substantially Ritschl.[29] In England much influence has
+been exerted by Dr R.W. Dale's _Atonement_ (1875), the special point of
+which is that the death of Christ is not required by the personal demand
+of God to be propitiated, but by the necessity of honouring an ideal law
+of righteousness; thus, "the death of Christ is the objective ground on
+which the sins of men are remitted, because it was an act of submission
+to the righteous authority of the law by which the human race was
+condemned ... and because in consequence of the relation between Him and
+us--His life being our own--His submission is the expression of ours,
+and carries ours with it ... (and) because in His submission to the
+awful penalty of sin ... there was a revelation of the righteousness of
+God, which must otherwise have been revealed in the infliction of the
+penalties of sin on the human race."[30] This view, however, leads to a
+dilemma; if the law of righteousness is simply an expression of the
+divine will, satisfaction to law is equivalent to propitiation offered
+to God; if the law has an independent position, the view is inconsistent
+with pure monotheism.
+
+The present position may be illustrated from a work representing the
+more liberal Anglican theology. Bishop Lyttelton in _Lux Mundi_[31]
+stated that the death of Christ is propitiatory towards God because it
+expressed His perfect obedience, it manifested God's righteous wrath
+against sin, and in virtue of Christ's human nature involved man's
+recognition of the righteousness of God's condemnation of sin; also
+because in some mysterious way death has a propitiatory value; and
+finally because Christ is the representative of the human race. Towards
+man, the death of Christ has atoning efficacy because it delivers from
+sin, bestows the divine gift of life and conveys the assurance of
+pardon. The benefits of the atonement are appropriated by "the
+acceptance of God's forgiveness in Christ, our self-identification with
+Christ's atoning attitude, and then working out, by the power of the
+life bestowed upon us, all the (moral and spiritual) consequence of
+forgiveness."
+
+At present the belief in an objective atonement is still widely held;
+whether in the form of penal theories--the old forensic view that the
+death of Christ atones by paying the penalty of man's sin--or in the
+form of governmental theories; that the Passion fulfilled a necessity of
+divine government by expressing and vindicating God's righteousness. But
+there is also a widespread inclination to minimize, ignore or deny the
+objective aspect of the atonement, the effect of the death of Christ on
+God's attitude towards men; and to follow the moral theories in
+emphasizing the subjective aspect of the atonement, the influence of the
+Passion on man. There is a tendency to eclectic views embracing the more
+attractive features of the various theories; and attempts are made to
+adapt, interpret and qualify the imagery and language of older formulae,
+in order so to speak, to issue them afresh in new editions, compatible
+with modern natural science, psychology and historical criticism. Such
+attempts are necessary in a time of transition, but they involve a
+measure of obscurity and ambiguity.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Atonement: H. Bushnell, _Vicarious Sacrifice_ (1871);
+  J. McLeod Campbell, _Nature of the Atonement_ (1869); T.J. Crawford,
+  _Doctrine of the Holy Spirit respecting the Atonement_ (1871); R.W.
+  Dale, _Atonement_ (1875); J. Denney, _Death of Christ_, _Atonement and
+  the Modern Mind_ (1903); A. Lyttelton, _Lux Mundi_, pp. 201 ff.
+  (Atonement), (1889); R. Moberly, _Atonement and Personality_; A.
+  Ritschl, _Die christliche Lehre van der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung_
+  (1870-1874); G.B. Stevens, _Christian Doctrine of Salvation_ (1905).
+
+  Day of Atonement: articles in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, and in the
+  _Encyclopaedia Biblica_.     (W. H. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. Exodus xii. 15, &c.; Josh. vii. 24 (Achan); Jer. li. 62
+    (Babylon).
+
+  [2] 2 Sam. xii. 13, 14 (David); Isaiah xl. 2 (Jerusalem): in such
+    cases, however, the context implies repentance.
+
+  [3] Ezek. xviii., Micah vi.
+
+  [4] Lev. iv. 2, "sin unwittingly," _bishegag[=a]_, c. 450 B.C., &c.
+
+  [5] Psalm l. 10, li. 16-19; Isaiah i. 11; Micah vi. 6-8.
+
+  [6] Heb. _nephesh_, also translated "soul."
+
+  [7] Lev. xvi., xxiii. 27-32; Numb. xxix. 7-11.
+
+  [8] So Davidson, &c. with LXX. The A.V. with Hebrew text has "seventh
+    day of the month."
+
+  [9] e.g. Achan, Josh. vii. 10-15.
+
+  [10] 2 Sam. xxi. 1-9; Deut. v. 9, 10.
+
+  [11] Ezek. xxi. 3, 4.
+
+  [12] Isaiah liii.
+
+  [13] Isaiah xix. 25, xlix. 6.
+
+  [14] Koberle, _Sunde und Gnade_, pp. 592 ff.
+
+  [15] Mark x. 45; Matt. xxvi. 28; 1 Cor. xv. 3; John xi. 48-52; Heb.
+    ii. 9.
+
+  [16] Rom. iii. 25.
+
+  [17] Rom. v. 8.
+
+  [18] Rom. v. 15-19.
+
+  [19] Rom. vi. 8.
+
+  [20] Rom. iv. 25.
+
+  [21] Matt. xxv. 34 f.; Mark viii. 34 ff., ix. 36 f., x. 21.
+
+  [22] 1 John ii. 1, 2, 12, iii. 5, 8, iv. 10.
+
+  [23] Heb. ii. 17, ix. 14.
+
+  [24] Stevens, _Christian Doctrine of Salvation_, p. 138.
+
+  [25] _Ibid._ p. 151.
+
+  [26] Shedd, _Hist. of Christ. Doctr._ ii. 385 ff.; cf. van Oosterzee,
+    _Christ. Dogmatics_, 611.
+
+  [27] Shedd ii. 358 f.
+
+  [28] Crawford, _Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement_, pp. 327 ff.
+
+  [29] Orr, _Ritschlian Theology_, pp. 149 ff.
+
+  [30] Dale, _Atonement_, pp. 430 ff.
+
+  [31] Pp. 209, 212, 214, 216, 219, 221, 225.
+
+
+
+
+ATRATO, a river of western Colombia, South America, rising on the slopes
+of the Western Cordilleras, in 5 deg. 36' N. lat., and flowing almost due
+north to the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, where it forms a large delta. Its
+length is about 400 m., but owing to the heavy rainfall of this region
+it discharges no less than 175,000 cub. ft. of water per second,
+together with a very large quantity of sediment, which is rapidly
+filling the gulf. The river is navigable to Quibdo (250 m.), and for the
+greater part of its course for large vessels, but the bars at its mouth
+prevent the entrance of sea-going steamers. Flowing through the narrow
+valley between the Cordillera and coast range, it has only short
+tributaries, the principal ones being the Truando, Sucio and Murri. The
+gold and platinum mines of Choco were on some of its affluents, and the
+river sands are auriferous. The Atrato at one time attracted
+considerable attention as a feasible route for a trans-isthmian canal,
+which, it was estimated, could be excavated at a cost of L11,000,000.
+
+
+
+
+ATREK, a river which rises in 37 deg. 10' N. lat. and 59 deg. E., in the
+mountains of the north-east of the Persian province of Khorasan, and
+flows west along the borders of Persia and the Russian Transcaspian
+province, till it falls, after a course of 350 m., into the
+south-eastern corner of the Caspian, a short distance north-north-west
+of Astarabad.
+
+
+
+
+ATREUS, in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodameia, and elder
+brother of Thyestes. Having murdered his stepbrother Chrysippus, Atreus
+fled with Thyestes to Mycenae, where he succeeded Eurystheus in the
+sovereignty. His wife Aerope was seduced by Thyestes, who was driven
+from Mycenae. To avenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthenes (Atreus' son
+whom Thyestes had brought up as his own) to kill Atreus, but Pleisthenes
+was himself slain by his own father. After this Atreus, apparently
+reconciled to his brother, recalled him to Mycenae and invited him to a
+banquet to eat of his son, whom Atreus had slain. Thyestes fled in
+horror. Subsequently Atreus married the daughter of Thyestes, Pelopia,
+who had by her own father a son, Aegisthus, who was adopted by Atreus.
+Thyestes was found by Agamemnon and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus, and
+imprisoned at Mycenae. Aegisthus being sent to murder Thyestes, mutual
+recognition took place, and Atreus was slain by the father and son, who
+seized the throne, and drove Agamemnon and Menelaus out of the country
+(Thucydides i. 9; Hyginus, _Fabulae_; Apollodorus). Homer does not speak
+of the horrors of the story, which are first found in the tragedians; he
+merely states (_Iliad_, ii. 105) that Atreus at his death left the
+kingdom to Thyestes.
+
+  See T. Voigt in _Dissert. philol. Halenses._ vi. (1886).
+
+
+
+
+ATRI, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Teramo, 6 m. W.
+of the station of that name on the railway from Ancona to Foggia, and 18
+m. due E.S.E. of Teramo, on the site of the ancient _Hadria_ (q.v.).
+Pop. (1901) 13,448. Its Gothic cathedral (1285-1305) is remarkably fine;
+and the interior, though spoilt by restoration in 1657, contains some
+important frescoes of the end of the 15th century by Andrea di Lecce and
+his pupils. The crypt was originally a cistern of the Roman period. The
+palace of the Acquaviva family, who were dukes of Atri from 1398 to
+1775, is a massive building situated in the principal square.
+
+
+
+
+ATRIUM (either from _ater_, black, referring to the blackening of the
+walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek [Greek: aethrion],
+open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of
+building is supposed to have originated), the principal entrance hall or
+court of a Roman dwelling, giving access and light to the rooms round
+it. The centre of the roof over the atrium was open to the sky and
+called the _compluvium_; the rain-water from the roof collected in the
+gutters was discharged into a marble tank underneath, which was known as
+the _impluvium_. In the early periods of Roman civilization the atrium
+was the common public apartment, and was used for the reception of
+visitors and clients, and for ordinary domestic purposes, as cooking and
+dining. In it were placed the ancestral pictures, the marriage-couch,
+the hearth and generally a small altar. At a somewhat later period, and
+among the wealthy, separate apartments were built for kitchens and
+dining-rooms, and the atrium was kept as a general reception-room for
+clients and visitors. There were many varieties of the atrium, depending
+on the way in which the roof was carried. These are described by
+Vitruvius under the title of _cavaedium_.
+
+Other buildings, both consecrated and unconsecrated, were called by the
+term (corresponding to the English "hall"), such as the Atrium Vestae,
+where the vestal virgins lived, and the Atrium Libertatis, the residence
+of the censor, where Asinius Pollio established the first public library
+at Rome.
+
+The word _atrium_ in Rome had a second signification, being given to an
+open court with porticos round, sometimes placed in front of a temple. A
+similar arrangement was adopted by the early Christians with relation to
+the Basilica, in front of which there was an open court surrounded by
+colonnades or arcades. The church of San Clemente at Rome, that of Sant'
+Ambrogio at Milan and the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria still retain
+their atria.
+
+
+
+
+ATROPHY (Gr. [Greek: a]- priv., [Greek: trophae], nourishment), a term
+in medicine used to describe a state of wasting due to some interference
+with the function of healthy nutrition (see PATHOLOGY). In the living
+organism there are always at work changes involving the waste of its
+component tissues, which render necessary, in order to maintain and
+preserve life, the supply and proper assimilation of nutritive material.
+It is also essential for the maintenance of health that a due relation
+exist between these processes of waste and repair, so that the one may
+not be in excess of the other. When the appropriation of nutriment
+exceeds the waste, hypertrophy (q.v.) or increase in bulk of the tissues
+takes place. When, on the other hand, the supply of nutritive matter is
+suspended or diminished, or when the power of assimilation is impaired,
+atrophy or wasting is the result. Thus the whole body becomes atrophied
+in many diseases; and in old age every part of the frame, with the
+single exception of the heart, undergoes atrophic change. Atrophy may,
+however, affect single organs or parts of the body, irrespective of the
+general state of nutrition, and this may be brought about in a variety
+of ways. One of the most frequently observed of such instances is
+atrophy from disuse, or cessation of function. Thus, when a limb is
+deprived of the natural power of motion, either by paralysis or by
+painful joint disease, the condition of exercise essential to its
+nutrition being no longer fulfilled, atrophy of all its textures sooner
+or later takes place. The brain in imbeciles is frequently observed to
+be shrivelled, and in many cases of blindness there is atrophy of the
+optic nerve and optic tract. This form of atrophy is likewise well
+exemplified in the case of those organs and structures of the body which
+subserve important ends during foetal life, but which, ceasing to be
+necessary after birth, undergo a sort of natural atrophy, such as the
+thymus gland, and certain vessels specially concerned in the foetal
+circulation. The uterus after parturition undergoes a certain amount of
+atrophy, and the ovaries, after the child-bearing period, become
+shrunken. Atrophy of a part may also be caused by interruption to its
+normal blood-supply, as in the case of the ligature or obstruction of an
+artery. Again, long-standing disease, by affecting the nutrition of an
+organ and by inducing the deposit of morbid products, may result in
+atrophy, as frequently happens in affections of the liver and kidneys.
+Parts that are subjected to continuous pressure are liable to become
+atrophied, as is sometimes seen in internal organs which have been
+pressed upon by tumours or other morbid growths, and is well illustrated
+in the Chinese practice of foot-binding. Atrophy may manifest itself
+simply by loss of substance; but, on the other hand, it is often found
+to co-exist with degenerative changes in the textures affected and the
+formation of adventitious growth, so that the part may not be reduced in
+bulk although atrophied as regards its proper structure. Thus, in the
+case of the heart, when affected with fatty degeneration, there is
+atrophy of the proper muscular texture, but as this is largely replaced
+by fatty matter, the organ may undergo no diminution in volume, but may,
+on the contrary, be increased in size. Atrophy is usually a gradual and
+slow process, but sometimes it proceeds rapidly. In the disease known by
+the name of _acute yellow atrophy of the liver_, that organ undergoes
+such rapidly destructive change as results in its shrinking to half, or
+one-third, of its normal size in the course of a few days. The term
+_progressive muscular atrophy_ (synonyms, _wasting_ or _creeping palsy_)
+is applied to an affection of the muscular system, which is
+characterized by the atrophy and subsequent paralysis of certain
+muscles, or groups of muscles, and is associated with morbid changes in
+the anterior roots of the nerves of the spinal cord. This disease begins
+insidiously, and is often first observed to affect the muscles of one
+hand, generally the right. The attention of the sufferer is first
+attracted by the power of the hand becoming weakened, and then there is
+found to be a wasting of certain of its muscles, particularly those of
+the ball of the thumb. Gradually other muscles in the arms and legs
+become affected in a similar manner, their atrophy being attended with a
+corresponding diminution in power. Although sometimes arrested, this
+disease tends to progress, until in course of time the greater part of
+the muscular system is implicated and a fatal result ensues.
+
+
+
+
+ATROPOS, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the three Fates (see FATE).
+Her name, the "Unalterable" ([Greek: a]- privative, and [Greek:
+trepein], to turn), indicates her function, that of rendering the
+decisions of her sisters irreversible or immutable. Atropos is most
+frequently represented with scales, a sun-dial or a cutting instrument,
+the "abhorred shears," with which she slits the thin-spun thread of life
+that has been placed on the spindle by Clotho and drawn off by Lachesis.
+
+
+
+
+ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS, or QUINTICIUS (d. 77 B.C.), Roman comedy writer,
+was, like Titinius and Afranius, distinguished as a writer of _fabulae
+togatae_, national comedies. He had the reputation of being a vivid
+delineator of character, especially female. He also seems to have
+published a collection of epigrams. The scanty fragments contain many
+archaisms, but are lively in style. According to Horace (_Epistles_, ii
+1. 79) the plays of Atta were still put on the stage in his time.
+
+  Aulus Gellius vii. 9; fragments in Neukirch, _De fabula togata
+  Romanorum_ (1833); Ribbeck, _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+ATTACAPA (Choctaw for "cannibal"), a tribe of North-American Indians,
+whose home was in south-west Louisiana; they are now practically
+extinct.
+
+
+
+
+ATTACHMENT,[1] in law, a process from a court of record, awarded by the
+justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion, or on their own
+knowledge, and properly grantable in cases of contempt. It differs from
+arrest (q.v.), in that he who arrests a man carries him to a person of
+higher power to be forthwith disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the
+party attached, and presents him in court at the day assigned, as
+appears by the words of the writ. Another difference is, that arrest is
+only upon the body of a man, whereas an attachment is often upon his
+goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to lands, as
+the latter does; nor does a distress touch the body, as an attachment
+does. Every court of record has power to fine and imprison for contempt
+of its authority. Attachment being merely a process to bring the
+defendant before the court, is not necessary in cases of contempt in the
+presence of the court itself. Attachment will be granted in England
+against peers and members of parliament only for such gross contempts as
+rescues, disobedience to the sovereign's writs and the like. Attachment
+will not lie against a corporation. The county courts in this respect
+are regulated by acts of 1846 and 1849. They can only punish for
+contempts committed in presence of the court (see CONTEMPT OF COURT).
+Attachments are granted on a rule in the first instance to show cause,
+which must be personally served before it can be made absolute, except
+for non-payment of costs on a master's allocatur, and against a sheriff
+for not obeying a rule to return a writ or to bring in the body. The
+offender is then arrested, and when committed will be compelled to
+answer interrogatories, exhibited against him by the party at whose
+instance the proceedings have been had; and the examination when taken
+is referred to the master, who reports thereon, and on the contempt
+being reported, the court gives judgment according to its discretion, in
+the same manner as upon a conviction for a misdemeanour at common law.
+Sir W. Blackstone observes that "this method of making the defendant
+answer upon oath to a criminal charge is not agreeable to the genius of
+the common law in any other instance"; and the elasticity of the legal
+definitions of contempt of court, especially with respect to comments on
+judicial proceedings, is the subject of much complaint.
+
+_Attachment of Debts._--It was suggested by the common law commissioners
+in 1853 that a remedy analogous to that of Foreign Attachment (see
+below) might be made available to creditors, after judgment, against
+debts due to their debtors. Accordingly, the Common Law Procedure Act
+1854 enacted that any creditor, having obtained judgment in the superior
+courts, should have an order that the judgment debtor might be examined
+as to any debts due and owing to him before a master of the court. The
+rules and regulations under the Judicature Act 1873 retained the process
+for attachment of debts as established by the Procedure Act of 1854. On
+affidavit that the judgment was still unsatisfied, and that any other
+person within the jurisdiction was indebted to the judgment debtor, the
+judge was empowered to attach all debts due from such third person
+(called the _garnishee_) to the judgment debtor, to answer the judgment
+debt. This order binds the debts in the hands of the garnishee, and if
+he does not dispute his liability execution issues against him at once.
+If he disputes his liability the question must be tried. Payment by the
+garnishee or execution against him is a complete discharge as against
+the judgment debtor. These provisions were, by an order in council of
+the 18th of November 1867, extended to the county courts. By the Wages
+Attachment Abolition Act 1870 it is enacted that no order for the
+attachment of the wages of any servant, labourer or workman shall be
+made by the judge of any court of record or inferior court, and by the
+Merchant Shipping Act 1894 it is enacted that the wages of a seaman or
+apprentice are not subject to attachment.
+
+In the United States attachment of debts is a statutory remedy accorded
+in most of the states in certain circumstances for the security of
+creditors, by the seizure by the sheriff of the debtor's goods or the
+imposition of a lien upon his land, before judgment, and sometimes at
+the very commencement of the action. In some states it is only allowed
+in special cases, as when the debtor has absconded, or is a non-resident
+or guilty of fraud; in a few it may be had, as of right, at the
+commencement of ordinary actions. The common-law courts of the United
+States (by act of Congress) follow the practice in this regard of the
+state in which they sit. Such attachments (on mesne process) can
+generally be dissolved by the substitution of a bond with surety. The
+body can also be attached in most states on civil actions of tort (for a
+wrongful or negligent act to the damage of another), but not in actions
+on contract.
+
+_Foreign Attachment_ is an important custom prevailing in the city of
+London, whereby a creditor may attach money owing to his debtor, or
+property belonging to him in the possession of third parties. The person
+holding the property or owing the money must be within the city at the
+time of being served with the process, but all persons are entitled to
+the benefit of the custom. The plaintiff having commenced his action,
+and made a satisfactory affidavit of his debt, is entitled to issue
+attachment, which thereupon affects all the money or property of the
+defendant in the hands of the third party, the garnishee. The garnishee,
+of course, has as against the attachment all the defences which would be
+available to him against the defendant, his alleged creditor. The
+garnishee may plead payment under the attachment, if there has been no
+fraud or collusion, in bar to an action by the defendant for his debt or
+property. The court to which this process belongs is the mayor's court
+of London, the procedure in which is regulated by the Mayor's Court of
+London Procedure Act 1857. This custom, and all proceedings relating
+thereto, are expressly exempted from the operation of the Debtor's Act
+1869. Similar customs exist in Bristol and a few other towns in England
+and also in Scotland.
+
+_A Writ of Attachment_ enforces answers and obedience to decrees and
+orders of the High Court of Justice, and is made out without order upon
+an affidavit of the due service of the process, &c., with whose
+requirements compliance is sought. A corporation, however, is proceeded
+against by distringas and not by attachment. It was formerly competent
+to the plaintiff to compel the appearance of a defendant in chancery by
+attachment, but the usual course was to enter appearance for him in case
+of default. It is one of the modes of execution allowed for the recovery
+of property other than land or money.
+
+_Attachment of the Forest_ was the proceeding in the courts of
+attachments, Woodmote, or Forty Days' courts. These courts have fallen
+into desuetude. They were held before the verderers of the royal forests
+in different parts of the kingdom once in every forty days, for the
+purpose of inquiring into all offences against "vert (greensward) and
+venison." The attachment was by the bodies of the offenders, if taken in
+the very act of killing venison, or stealing wood, or preparing so to
+do, or by fresh and immediate pursuit after the act was done; else they
+must be attached by their goods. These attachments were received by the
+verderers and enrolled, and certified under their seals to the
+Swainmote, or Court of Justice-seat, which was the superior of the
+forest courts.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "To attach" is first used in English in the legal sense of arrest
+    or seizure, and the sense of "fasten to" is comparatively late. The
+    Old French _atachier_, modern _attacher_, from which the English
+    "attach" is derived, is from a word for a peg or nail, in English
+    "tack," which is found in many forms in Scandinavian and Celtic
+    languages, and is ultimately connected with the root seen in Latin
+    _tangere_, to touch. The Italian _attacare_, especially in the phrase
+    _attacare battaglia_, to join battle, gave the French _attaquer_,
+    whence the English "attack," which is therefore by origin a doublet
+    of "attach."
+
+
+
+
+ATTAINDER (from the O. Fr. _ataindre, ateindre_, to attain, i.e. to
+strike, accuse, condemn; Lat. _attingere, tangere_, to touch; the
+meaning has been greatly affected by the confusion with Fr. _taindre,
+teindre_, to taint, stain, Lat. _tingere_, to dye), in English law, was
+the immediate and inseparable consequence from the common law upon the
+sentence of death. When it was clear beyond all dispute that the
+criminal was no longer fit to live he was called _attaint_, and could
+not, before the Evidence Act 1843, be a witness in any court. This
+attainder took place after judgment of death, or upon such circumstances
+as were equivalent to judgment of death, such as judgment of outlawry on
+a capital crime, pronounced for absconding from justice. Conviction
+without judgment was not followed by attainder. The consequences of
+attainder were (1) forfeiture, (2) corruption of blood. On attainder for
+treason, the criminal forfeited to the crown his lands, rights of entry
+on lands, and any interest he might have in lands for his own life or a
+term of years. For murder, the offender forfeited to the crown the
+profit of his freeholds during life, and in the case of lands held in
+fee-simple, the lands themselves for a year and a day; subject to this,
+the lands escheated to the lord of the fee. These forfeitures related
+back to the time of the offence committed. Forfeitures of goods and
+chattels ensued not only on attainder, but on conviction for a felony of
+any kind, or on flight from justice, and had no relation backwards to
+the time of the offence committed. By _corruption of blood_, "both
+upwards and downwards," the attainted person could neither inherit nor
+transmit lands. The lands escheated to the lord of the fee, subject to
+the crown's right of forfeiture. The doctrine of attainder has, however,
+ceased to be of much importance. The Forfeiture Act 1870 enacted that
+henceforth no confession, verdict, inquest, conviction or judgment of or
+for any treason or felony, or _felo de se_, should cause any attainder
+or corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat. Sentence of death,
+penal servitude or imprisonment with hard labour for more than twelve
+months, after conviction for treason or felony, disqualifies from
+holding or retaining a seat in parliament, public offices under the
+crown or otherwise, right to vote at elections, &c., and such disability
+is to remain until the punishment has been suffered or a pardon
+obtained. Provision was made for the due administration of convicts'
+estates, in the interests of themselves and their families. Forfeiture
+consequent on outlawry was exempted from the provisions of the act. The
+United States constitution (Art. III. s. 3) says: "The Congress shall
+have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of
+treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the
+life of the person attainted."
+
+_Bills of Attainder_, in English legal procedure, were formerly a
+parliamentary method of exercising judicial authority. They were
+ordinarily initiated in the House of Lords and the proceedings were the
+same as on other bills, but the parties against whom they were brought
+might appear by counsel and produce witnesses in both Houses. In the
+case of an impeachment (q.v.), the House of Commons was prosecutor and
+the House of Lords judge; but such bills being _legislative_ in form,
+the consent of crown, lords and commons was necessary to pass them.
+Bishops, who do not exercise but who claim the right to vote in cases of
+impeachment (q.v.), have a right to vote upon bills of attainder, but
+their vote is not conclusive in passing judgment upon the accused. First
+passed in 1459, such bills were employed, more particularly during the
+reigns of the Tudor kings, as a species of extrajudicial procedure, for
+the direct punishment of political offences. Dispensing with the
+ordinary judicial forms and precedents, they took away from the accused
+whatever advantages he might have gained in the courts of law; such
+evidence only was admitted as might be necessary to secure conviction;
+indeed, in many cases bills of attainder were passed without any
+evidence being produced at all. In the reign of Henry VIII. they were
+much used, through a subservient parliament, to punish those who had
+incurred the king's displeasure; many distinguished victims who could
+not have been charged with any offence under the existing laws being by
+this means disposed of. In the 17th century, during the disputes with
+Charles I., the Long Parliament made effective use of the same
+procedure, forcing the sovereign to give his consent. After the
+Restoration it became less frequent, though the Jacobite movement in
+Scotland produced several instances of attainder, without, however, the
+infliction of the extreme penalty of death. The last bill of attainder
+passed in England was in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the
+Irish rebel leaders of 1798.
+
+A bill for reversing attainder took a form contrary to the usual rule.
+It was first signed by the sovereign and presented by a peer to the
+House of Lords by command of the crown, then passed through the ordinary
+stages and on to the commons, to whom the sovereign's assent was
+communicated before the first reading was taken, otherwise the whole
+proceedings were null and void.
+
+A _Bill of Pains and Penalties_ resembles a bill of attainder in object
+and procedure, but imposes a lesser punishment than death. The most
+notable instances of the passing of a bill of pains and penalties are
+those of Bishop Atterbury in 1722, and of Queen Caroline, wife of George
+IV., in 1820.
+
+The constitution of the United States declares that "no bill of
+attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed."
+
+
+
+
+ATTAINT, WRIT OF, an obsolete method of procedure in English law, for
+inquiring by a jury of twenty-four whether a false verdict had been
+given in a trial before an ordinary jury of twelve. If it were found
+that an erroneous judgment had been given, the wrong was redressed and
+the original jury incurred infamy, with imprisonment and forfeiture of
+their goods, which punishments were, however, commuted later for a
+pecuniary penalty. In criminal cases a writ of attaint was issued at
+suit of the king, and in civil cases at the suit of either party. In
+criminal cases it appears to have become obsolete by the end of the 15th
+century. Procedure by attaint in civil cases had also been gradually
+giving place to the practice of granting new trials, and after the
+decision in Bushell's case in 1670 (see JURY) it became obsolete, and
+was finally abolished by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurors
+guilty of embracery (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+ATTALIA, an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its name from
+Attalus II., king of Pergamum; the modern Adalia (q.v.). It was
+important as the nearest seaport to the rich districts of south-west
+Phrygia. A much-frequented "half-sea" route led through it to the Lycus
+and Maeander valleys, and so to Ephesus and Smyrna. This was the natural
+way from any part of central Asia Minor to Syria and Egypt, and
+accordingly we hear of Paul and Barnabas taking ship at Attalia for
+Antioch. Originally the port of Perga, Attalia eclipsed the old
+Pamphylian capital in early Christian times and became the metropolis.
+There are extensive remains of the ancient walls, including some
+portions which go back to the foundation of the Pergamenian city. The
+most conspicuous monument is the triple Gate of Hadrian, flanked by a
+tower built by the empress Julia. This lies about half-way round the
+_enceinte_ and formerly admitted the road from Perga.
+
+
+
+
+ATTAR [or OTTO] OF ROSES (Pers. _'atar_, essence), a perfume consisting
+of essential oil of roses, prepared by distilling, or, in some
+districts, by macerating the flowers. The manufacture is chiefly carried
+out in India, Persia and the Balkans; the last named supplying the bulk
+of the European demand. It is used by perfumery manufacturers as an
+ingredient. The genuine attar of roses is costly and it is frequently
+adulterated.
+
+
+
+
+ATTEMPT (Lat. _adtemptare, attentare_, to try), in law, an act done with
+intent to commit a crime, and forming one of a series of acts which
+would constitute its actual commission if it were not interrupted. An
+attempt must proceed beyond mere preparation, but at the same time it
+must fall short of the ultimate purpose in any part of it. The actual
+point, however, at which an act ceases to be an attempt, and becomes
+criminal, depends upon the circumstances of each particular case. A
+person may be guilty of an attempt to commit a crime, even if its
+commission in the manner proposed was impossible. Every attempt to
+commit a treason, felony or indictable misdemeanour is in itself an
+indictable misdemeanour, punishable by fine or imprisonment, unless the
+attempt to commit is specifically punishable by statute as a felony, or
+in a defined manner as a misdemeanour; and a person who has been
+indicted for a felony or misdemeanour may, if the evidence so warrants,
+be found guilty only of the attempt, provided that it too is a
+misdemeanour.
+
+
+
+
+ATTENTION (from Lat. _ad-tendo_, await, expect; the condition of being
+"stretched" or "tense"), in psychology, the concentration of
+consciousness upon a definite object or objects. The result is brought
+about, not by effecting any change in the perceptions themselves, but
+simply by isolating them from other objects. Since all consciousness
+involves this isolation, attention may be defined generally as the
+necessary condition of consciousness. Such a definition, however, throws
+no light upon the nature of the psychological process, which is partly
+explained by the general law that the greater the number of objects on
+which attention is concentrated the less will each receive ("pluribus
+intentus, minor est ad singula sensus"), and conversely. There are also
+special circumstances which determine the amount of attention, e.g.
+influences not subject to the will, such as the vividness of the
+impression (e.g. in the case of a shock), strong change in pleasurable
+or painful sensations. Secondly, an exercise of volition is employed in
+fixing the mind upon a definite object. This is a purely voluntary act,
+which can be strengthened by habit and is variable in different
+individuals; to it the name "attention" is sometimes restricted. The
+distinction is expressed by the words "reflex" or "passive," and
+"volitional" or "active." It is important to notice that in every case
+of attention to an object, there must be in consciousness an implicit
+apprehension of surrounding objects from which the particular object is
+isolated. These objects are known as the "psychic fringe," and are
+essential to the systematic unity of the attention-process. Attempts
+have been made to examine the attention-process from the physiological
+standpoint by investigating the muscular and neural changes which
+accompany it, and even to assign to it a specific local centre. It has,
+for example, been remarked that uniformity of environment, resulting in
+practically automatic activity, produces mental equilibrium and the
+comparative disappearance of attention-processes; whereas the necessity
+of adapting activity to abnormal conditions produces a comparatively
+high degree of attention. In other words, attention is absent where
+there is uniformity of activity in accordance with uniform, or uniformly
+changing, environment. In spite of the progress made in this branch of
+study, it has to be remembered that all psycho-physical experiments are
+to some extent vitiated by the fact that the phenomena can scarcely
+remain normal under inspection.
+
+  See G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (London, 1896), especially part
+  ii. chap. 2; also PSYCHOLOGY, BRAIN, &c.
+
+
+
+
+ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS (1790-1855), Swedish poet, son of a country
+parson, was born in the province of Ostergotland on the 19th of January
+1790. He studied in the university of Upsala from 1805 to 1815, and
+became professor of philosophy there in 1828. He was the first great
+poet of the romantic movement which, inaugurated by the critical work of
+Lorenzo Hammerskold, was to revolutionize Swedish literature. In 1807,
+when in his seventeenth year, he founded at Upsala an artistic society,
+called the Aurora League, the members of which included V.F. Palmblad,
+A.A. Grafstrom (d. 1870), Samuel Hedborn (d. 1849), and other youths
+whose names were destined to take a foremost rank in the literature of
+their generation. Their first newspaper, _Polyfem_, was a crude effort,
+soon abandoned, but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, _Fosforos_,
+edited by Atterbom, which lasted for three years and finds a place in
+classic Swedish literature. It consisted entirely of poetry and
+aesthetico-polemical essays; it introduced the study of the newly arisen
+Romantic school of Germany, and formed a vehicle for the early works,
+not of Atterbom only, but of Hammerskold, Dahlgren, Palmblad and others.
+Later, the members of the Aurora League established the _Poetisk
+Kalender_ (1812-1822), in which their poems appeared, and a new critical
+organ, _Svensk Litteraturtidning_ (1813-1824). Among Atterbom's
+independent works the most celebrated is _Lycksalighetens O_ (_The
+Fortunate Island_), a romantic drama of extraordinary beauty, published
+in 1823. Before this he had published a somewhat in the manner of
+Novalis. Of a dramatized fairy tale, _Fagel bla (The Blue Bird_), only a
+fragment, which is among the most exquisite of his writings, is
+preserved. As a purely lyrical poet he has not been excelled in Sweden,
+but his more ambitious works are injured by his weakness for allegory
+and symbolism, and his consistent adoption of the mannerisms of Tieck
+and Novalis. In his later years he became less violent in literary
+controversy. He became in 1835 professor of aesthetics and literature at
+Upsala, and four years later he was admitted to the Swedish Academy. He
+died on the 21st of July 1855. His _Svenska Siare och Skalder_ (6 vols.,
+1841-1855, supplement, 1864) consists of a series of biographies of
+Swedish poets and men of letters, which forms a valuable history of
+Swedish letters down to the end of the "classical" period. Atterbom's
+works were collected (13 vols., Orebro) in 1854-1870.
+
+
+
+
+ATTERBURY, FRANCIS (1662-1732), English man of letters, politician and
+bishop, was born in the year 1662, at Milton or Middleton Keynes in
+Buckinghamshire, a parish of which his father was rector. He was
+educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he
+became a tutor. In 1682 he published a translation of _Absalom and
+Ahithophel_ into Latin verse; but neither the style nor the
+versification was that of the Augustan age. In English composition he
+succeeded much better. In 1687 he published _An Answer to some
+Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original of the
+Reformation_, a reply to Obadiah Walker, who, elected master of
+University College in 1676, had printed in a press set up by him there
+an attack on the Reformation, written by Abraham Woodhead. Atterbury's
+treatise, though highly praised by Bishop Burnet, is perhaps more
+distinguished for the vigour of his rhetoric than for the soundness of
+his arguments, and the Papists were so much galled by his sarcasms and
+invectives that they accused him of treason, and of having, by
+implication, called King James a Judas.
+
+After the Revolution, Atterbury, though bred in the doctrines of
+non-resistance and passive obedience, readily swore fealty to the new
+government. He had taken holy orders in 1687, preached occasionally in
+London with an eloquence which raised his reputation, and was soon
+appointed one of the royal chaplains. But he ordinarily resided at
+Oxford, where he was the chief adviser and assistant of Dean Aldrich,
+under whom Christ Church was a stronghold of Toryism. Thus he became the
+inspirer of his pupil, Charles Boyle, in the attack (1698) on the Whig
+scholar, Richard Bentley (q.v.), arising out of Bentley's impugnment of
+the genuineness of the _Epistles of Phalaris_. He was figured by Swift
+in the _Battle of the Books_ as the Apollo who directed the fight, and
+was, no doubt, largely the author of Boyle's essay. Bentley spent two
+years in preparing his famous reply, which proved not only that the
+letters ascribed to Phalaris were spurious, but that all Atterbury's
+wit, eloquence and skill in controversial fence was only a cloak for an
+audacious pretence of scholarship.
+
+Atterbury was soon occupied, however, in a dispute about matters still
+more important and exciting. The rage of religious factions was extreme.
+High Church and Low Church divided the nation. The great majority of the
+clergy were on the High Church side; the majority of King William's
+bishops were inclined to latitudinarianism. In 1700 Convocation, of
+which the lower house was overwhelmingly Tory, had not been suffered to
+meet for ten years. This produced a lively controversy, into which
+Atterbury threw himself with characteristic energy, publishing a series
+of treatises written with much wit, audacity and acrimony. By the mass
+of the clergy he was regarded as the most intrepid champion that had
+ever defended their rights against the oligarchy of Erastian prelates.
+In 1701 he was rewarded with the archdeaconry of Totnes and a prebend in
+Exeter cathedral. The lower house of Convocation voted him thanks for
+his services; the university of Oxford created him a doctor of divinity;
+and in 1704, soon after the accession of Anne, while the Tories still
+had the chief weight in the government, he was promoted to the deanery
+of Carlisle.
+
+Soon after he had obtained this preferment the Whig party came into
+power. From that party he could expect no favour. Six years elapsed
+before a change of fortune took place. At length, in the year 1710, the
+prosecution of Sacheverell produced a formidable explosion of High
+Church fanaticism. At such a moment Atterbury could not fail to be
+conspicuous. His inordinate zeal for the body to which he belonged, his
+turbulent and aspiring temper, his rare talents for agitation and for
+controversy, were again signally displayed. He bore a chief part in
+framing that artful and eloquent speech which the accused divine
+pronounced at the bar of the Lords, and which presents a singular
+contrast to the absurd and scurrilous sermon which had very unwisely
+been honoured with impeachment. During the troubled and anxious months
+which followed the trial, Atterbury was among the most active of those
+pamphleteers who inflamed the nation against the Whig ministry and the
+Whig parliament. When the ministry had been changed and the parliament
+dissolved, rewards were showered upon him. The lower house of
+Convocation elected him prolocutor, in which capacity he drew up, in
+1711, the often-cited _Representation of the State of Religion_; and, in
+August 1711, the queen, who had selected him as her chief adviser in
+ecclesiastical matters, appointed him dean of Christ Church on the death
+of his old friend and patron Aldrich.
+
+At Oxford he was as conspicuous a failure as he had been at Carlisle,
+and it was said by his enemies that he was made a bishop because he was
+so bad a dean. Under his administration Christ Church was in confusion,
+scandalous altercations took place, and there was reason to fear that
+the great Tory college would be ruined by the tyranny of the great Tory
+doctor. In 1713 he was removed to the bishopric of Rochester, which was
+then always united with the deanery of Westminster. Still higher
+dignities seemed to be before him. For, though there were many able men
+on the episcopal bench, there was none who equalled or approached him in
+parliamentary talents. Had his party continued in power it is not
+improbable that he would have been raised to the archbishopric of
+Canterbury. The more splendid his prospects the more reason he had to
+dread the accession of a family which was well known to be partial to
+the Whigs, and there is every reason to believe that he was one of those
+politicians who hoped that they might be able, during the life of Anne,
+to prepare matters in such a way that at her decease there might be
+little difficulty in setting aside the Act of Settlement and placing the
+Pretender on the throne. Her sudden death confounded the projects of
+these conspirators, and, whatever Atterbury's previous views may have
+been, he acquiesced in what he could not prevent, took the oaths to the
+house of Hanover, and did his best to ingratiate himself with the royal
+family. But his servility was requited with cold contempt; and he became
+the most factious and pertinacious of all the opponents of the
+government. In the House of Lords his oratory, lucid, pointed, lively
+and set off with every grace of pronunciation and of gesture, extorted
+the attention and admiration even of a hostile majority. Some of the
+most remarkable protests which appear in the journals of the peers were
+drawn up by him; and, in some of the bitterest of those pamphlets which
+called on the English to stand up for their country against the aliens
+who had come from beyond the seas to oppress and plunder her, critics
+easily detected his style. When the rebellion of 1715 broke out, he
+refused to sign the paper in which the bishops of the province of
+Canterbury declared their attachment to the Protestant succession, and
+in 1717, after having been long in indirect communication with the
+exiled family, he began to correspond directly with the Pretender.
+
+In 1721, on the discovery of the plot for the capture of the royal
+family and the proclamation of King James, Atterbury was arrested with
+the other chief malcontents, and in 1722 committed to the Tower, where
+he remained in close confinement during some months. He had carried on
+his correspondence with the exiled family so cautiously that the
+circumstantial proofs of his guilt, though sufficient to produce entire
+moral conviction, were not sufficient to justify legal conviction. He
+could be reached only by a bill of pains and penalties. Such a bill the
+Whig party, then decidedly predominant in both Houses, was quite
+prepared to support, and in due course a bill passed the Commons
+depriving him of his spiritual dignities, banishing him for life, and
+forbidding any British subject to hold intercourse with him except by
+the royal permission. In the Lords the contest was sharp, but the bill
+finally passed by eighty-three votes to forty-three.
+
+Atterbury took leave of those whom he loved with a dignity and
+tenderness worthy of a better man, to the last protesting his innocence
+with a singular disingenuousness. After a short stay at Brussels he went
+to Paris, and became the leading man among the Jacobite refugees there.
+He was invited to Rome by the Pretender, but Atterbury felt that a
+bishop of the Church of England would be out of place at the Vatican,
+and declined the invitation. During some months, however, he seemed to
+stand high in the good graces of James. The correspondence between the
+master and the servant was constant. Atterbury's merits were warmly
+acknowledged, his advice was respectfully received, and he was, as
+Bolingbroke had been before him, the prime minister of a king without a
+kingdom. He soon, however, perceived that his counsels were disregarded,
+if not distrusted. His proud spirit was deeply wounded. In 1728 he
+quitted Paris, fixed his residence at Montpelier, gave up politics, and
+devoted himself entirely to letters. In the sixth year of his exile he
+had so severe an illness that his daughter, Mrs Morice, herself very
+ill, determined to run all risks that she might see him once more. She
+met him at Toulouse, received the communion from his hand, and died that
+night.
+
+Atterbury survived the severe shock of his daughter's death two years.
+He even returned to Paris and to the service of the Pretender, who had
+found out that he had not acted wisely in parting with one who, though a
+heretic, was the most able man of the Jacobite party. In the ninth year
+of his banishment he published a luminous, temperate and dignified
+vindication of himself against John Oldmixon, who had accused him of
+having, in concert with other Christ Church men, garbled the new edition
+of Clarendon's _History of the Rebellion_. The charge, as respected
+Atterbury, had not the slightest foundation; for he was not one of the
+editors of the _History_, and never saw it till it was printed. A copy
+of this little work he sent to the Pretender, with a letter singularly
+eloquent and graceful. It was impossible, the old man said, that he
+should write anything on such a subject without being reminded of the
+resemblance between his own fate and that of Clarendon. They were the
+only two English subjects who had ever been banished from their country
+and debarred from all communication with their friends by act of
+parliament. But here the resemblance ended. One of the exiles had been
+so happy as to bear a chief part in the restoration of the royal house.
+All that the other could now do was to die asserting the rights of that
+house to the last. A few weeks after this letter was written Atterbury
+died, on the 22nd of February 1732. His body was brought to England, and
+laid, with great privacy, under the nave of Westminster Abbey. No
+inscription marks his grave.
+
+It is agreeable to turn from Atterbury's public to his private life. His
+turbulent spirit, wearied with faction and treason, now and then
+required repose, and found it in domestic endearments, and in the
+society of the most illustrious literary men of his time. Of his wife,
+Katherine Osborn, whom he married while at Oxford, little is known; but
+between him and his daughter there was an affection singularly close and
+tender. The gentleness of his manners when he was in the company of a
+few friends was such as seemed hardly credible to those who knew him
+only by his writings and speeches. Though Atterbury's classical
+attainments were not great, his taste in English literature was
+excellent; and his admiration of genius was so strong that it
+overpowered even his political and religious antipathies. His fondness
+for Milton, the mortal enemy of the Stuarts and of the Church, was such
+as to many Tories seemed a crime; and he was the close friend of
+Addison. His favourite companions, however, were, as might have been
+expected, men whose politics had at least a tinge of Toryism. He lived
+on friendly terms with Swift, Arbuthnot and Gay. With Prior he had a
+close intimacy, which some misunderstanding about public affairs at
+last dissolved. Pope found in Atterbury not only a warm admirer, but a
+most faithful, fearless and judicious adviser.
+
+  See F. Williams, _Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury with Notes_,
+  &c. (1869); _Stuart Papers_, vol. i.: _Letters of Atterbury to the
+  Chevalier St George_, &c. (1847); J. Nichols, _Epistolary
+  Correspondence_, &c. (1783-1796); and H.C. Beeching, _Francis
+  Atterbury_, (1909).
+
+
+
+
+ATTESTATION (Lat. _adtestare, attestare_, to bear witness, _testis_, a
+witness), the verification of a deed, will or other instrument by the
+signature to it of a witness or witnesses, who endorse or subscribe
+their names under a memorandum, to the effect that it was signed or
+executed in their presence. The essence of attestation is to show that
+at the execution of the document there was present some disinterested
+person capable of giving evidence as to what took place. The clause at
+the end of the instrument, immediately preceding the signatures of the
+witnesses to the execution, and stating that they have witnessed it, is
+known as the attestation clause. In Scots law, the corresponding clause
+is called the testing-clause (see DEED; WILL OR TESTAMENT; WITNESS).
+
+
+
+
+ATTHIS (an adjective meaning "Attic"), the name given to a monograph or
+special treatise on the religious and political history, antiquities and
+topography of Attica and Athens. During the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C.,
+a class of writers arose, who, making these subjects their particular
+study, were called atthidographi, or compilers of atthides. The first of
+these was Clidemus or Clitodemus (about 378 B.C.); the last, Ister of
+Cyrene (died 212 B.C.); the most important was Philochorus (first half
+of the 3rd century B.C.), of whose work considerable fragments have been
+preserved. The names of the other atthidographi known to us are
+Phanodemus, Demon, Androtion, Andron, Melanthius. They laid no claim to
+literary skill; their style was monotonous and soon became wearisome.
+They were in fact chroniclers or annalists--not historians. Their only
+object was to set down, in plain and simple language, all that seemed
+worthy of note in reference to the legends, history, constitution,
+religion and civilization of Attica. They followed the order of the
+olympiads and archons, and their work was supported by the authority of
+original documents, monuments and inscriptions. Their writings were much
+used by historians, as well as by the scholiasts and grammarians.
+
+  Fragments in Muller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, i.
+
+
+
+
+ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style"), an architectural term given to the
+masonry rising above the main cornice of a building, the earliest
+example known being that of the monument of Thrasyllus at Athens. It was
+largely employed by the Romans, who in their arches of triumph utilized
+it for inscriptions or for bas-relief sculpture. It was used also to
+increase the height of enclosure walls such as those of the Forum of
+Nerva. By the Italian revivalists it was utilized as a complete storey,
+pierced with windows, as found in Palladio's work at Vicenza and in
+Greenwich hospital. The largest attic in existence is that which
+surmounts the entablature of St Peter's at Rome, which measures 39 ft.
+in height. The term is also employed in modern terminology to designate
+an upper storey in a roof, and the feature is sometimes introduced to
+hide a roof behind.
+
+
+
+
+ATTICA, a district of ancient Greece, triangular in shape, projecting in
+a south-easterly direction into the Aegean Sea, the base line being
+formed by the continuous chain of Mounts Cithaeron and Parnes, the apex
+by the promontory of Sunium. It was washed on two sides by the sea, and
+the coast is broken up into numerous small bays and harbours, which,
+however, are with few exceptions exposed to the south wind. The surface
+of Attica, as of the rest of Greece, is very mountainous, and between
+the mountain chains lie several plains of no great size, open on one
+side to the sea. On the west its natural boundary is the Corinthian
+Gulf, so that it would include Megaris; indeed, before the Dorian
+invasion, which resulted in the foundation of Megara, the whole country
+was politically one, in the hands of the Ionian race. This is proved by
+the column which, as we learn from Strabo, once stood on the Isthmus of
+Corinth, bearing on one side in Greek the inscription, "This land is
+Peloponnesus, not Ionia," and on the other, "This land is not
+Peloponnesus, but Ionia."
+
+The position of Attica was one main cause of its historical importance.
+Hence in part arose the maritime character of its inhabitants; and when
+they had once taken to the sea, the string of neighbouring islands,
+Ceos, Cythnos and others, some of which lay within sight of their
+coasts, and from one to another of which it was possible to sail without
+losing sight of land, served to tempt them on to further enterprises.
+Similarly on land, the post it occupied between northern Greece and the
+Peloponnese materially influenced its relation to other states, both in
+respect of its alliances, such as that with Thessaly, towards which it
+was drawn by mutual hostility to Boeotia, which lay between them; and
+also in respect of offensive combinations of other powers, as that
+between Thebes and Sparta, which throughout an important part of Greek
+history were closely associated in their politics, through mutual dread
+of their powerful neighbour.
+
+
+  Mountains.
+
+The mountains of Attica, which form its most characteristic feature, are
+a continuation of that chain which, starting from Tymphrestus at the
+southern extremity of Pindus, passes through Phocis and Boeotia under
+the names of Parnassus and Helicon; from this proceeds the range which,
+as Cithaeron in its western and Parnes in its eastern portion, separates
+Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs southward towards the Saronic
+Gulf in Aegaleos and Hymettus, which bound the plain of Athens. Again,
+the eastern extremity of Parnes is joined by another line of hills,
+which, separating from Mount Oeta, skirts the Euboic Gulf, and, after
+entering Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus, overlooking
+the plain of Marathon, and then sinks towards the sea at Sunium to rise
+once more in the outlying islands. Finally, at the extreme west of the
+whole district, Cithaeron is bent round at right angles in the direction
+of the isthmus, at the northern approach to which it abuts against the
+mighty mass of Mount Geraneia, which is interposed between the
+Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. Both Cithaeron and Parnes are about
+4600 ft. high, Pentelicus 3635, and Hymettus 3370, while Aegaleos does
+not rise higher than 1534 ft. At the present day they are extremely
+bare, and in this respect almost repellent; but the lack of colour is
+compensated by the delicacy of the outlines, the minute articulation of
+the minor ridges and valleys, and the symmetrical grouping of the
+several mountains.
+
+
+  Soil.
+
+The soil is light and thin, and requires very careful agriculture not
+only on the rocky mountain sides but to some extent also in the maritime
+plains. This fact had considerable influence on the inhabitants, both by
+enforcing industrious habits and by leading them at an early period to
+take to the sea. Still, the level ground was sufficiently fertile to
+form a marked contrast to the rest of the district. Thucydides
+attributes to the nature of the soil (i. 2 [Greek: to leptogeon]), which
+presented no attraction to invaders, the permanence of the same
+inhabitants in the country, whence arose the claim to indigenousness on
+which the Athenians so greatly prided themselves; while at the same time
+the richer ground fostered that fondness for country life, which is
+proved by the enthusiastic terms in which it is always spoken of by
+Aristophanes. That we are not justified in judging of the ancient
+condition of the soil by, the aridity which prevails at the present day,
+is shown by the fact that out of the 182 demes (see CLEISTHENES) into
+which Attica was divided, one-tenth were named from trees or plants.
+
+
+  Climate.
+
+The climate of Attica has always been celebrated. In approaching Attica
+from Boeotia a change of temperature is felt as soon as a person
+descends from Cithaeron or Parnes, and the sea breeze, which in modern
+times is called [Greek: ho embates], or that which sets towards shore,
+moderates the heat in summer. The Attic comedians and Plato speak with
+enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the Athenian
+intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attic atmosphere. It
+was in the neighbourhood of Athens itself that the air was thought to
+be purest. So Euripides describes the inhabitants as "ever walking
+gracefully through the most luminous ether" (_Med._ 829); and Milton--
+
+  "Where, on the Aegean shore, a city stands,
+   Built nobly, pure the air, and light the soil--
+   Athens, the eye of Greece."
+
+Or again Xenophon says "one would not err in thinking that this city is
+placed near the centre of Greece--nay, of the civilized world--because,
+the farther removed persons are from it, the severer is the cold or heat
+they meet with" (_Vectigal._ i. 6). The air is so clear that one can see
+from the Acropolis the lines of white marble that streak the sides of
+Pentelicus. The brilliant colouring which is so conspicuous in an
+Athenian sunset is due to the same cause. The epithet "violet-crowned,"
+used of Athens by Pindar, is due either to the blue haze on the
+surrounding hills, or to the use of violets (or irises) for festal
+wreaths. This otherwise perfect climate is slightly marred by the
+prevalence of the north wind. This is expressed on the Horologium of
+Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or Tower of the Winds, at
+Athens, where Boreas is represented as a bearded man of stern aspect,
+thickly clad, and wearing strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell,
+which he holds in his hand as a sign of his tempestuous character.
+
+
+  Vegetation.
+
+  Minerals.
+
+Of the flora of Attica, the olive is the most important. This tree, we
+learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one time to have been found
+in that country only; and the enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (_Oed.
+Col._ 700) teach us that it was the land in which it flourished best. So
+great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the early legend of
+the struggle between the gods of sea and land, Poseidon and Athena, for
+the patronage of the country, the sea-god is represented as having to
+retire vanquished before the giver of the olive; and at a later period
+the evidences of this contention were found in an ancient olive tree in
+the Acropolis, together with three holes in the rock, said to have been
+made by the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well
+hard by. The fig also found its favourite home in this country, for
+Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian
+Phytalus, i.e. "the gardener." Both Cithaeron and Parnes must have been
+wooded in former times; for on the former are laid the picturesque
+silvan scenes in the _Bacchae_ of Euripides, and it was from the latter
+that the wood came which caused the neighbouring deme of Acharnae to be
+famous for its charcoal--the [Greek: anthrakes Parnesioi] of the
+_Acharnians_ of Aristophanes (348). From the thymy slopes of Hymettus
+came the famous Hymettian honey. Among the other products we must notice
+the marble--both that of Pentelicus, which afforded a material of
+unrivalled purity and whiteness for building the Athenian temples, and
+the blue marble of Hymettus--the _trabes Hymettiae_ of Horace--which
+used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces. But the
+richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the silver mines of
+Laurium, the yield of which was so considerable as to render silver the
+principal medium of exchange in Greece, so that "a silver piece"
+([Greek: argurion]) was the Greek equivalent term for money. Hence
+Aeschylus speaks of the Athenians as possessing a "fountain of silver"
+(_Pers._ 235), and Aristophanes makes his chorus of birds promise the
+audience that, if they show him favour, owls from Laurium (i.e. silver
+pieces with the emblem of Athens) shall never fail them (_Birds_, 1106).
+The reputation of these coins for purity of metal and accuracy of weight
+was so great that they had a very wide circulation, and in consequence
+it was thought undesirable to make any alteration in the types lest
+their genuineness should be doubted. This accounts for the somewhat
+inartistic character which the Athenian coins maintained to the last
+(see further NUMISMATICS: _Greek_, S Athens). In Strabo's time, though
+the mines had almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in
+considerable quantities from the scoriae; and at the present day a large
+amount of lead is got in the same way, the work being chiefly carried on
+by two companies, one of which is French and the ether Greek. In the
+ancient workings, many of which are in the same condition as they were
+left 1800 years ago, there are in all 2000 shafts and galleries.
+
+
+  Plain of Megara.
+
+It has been already mentioned that the base line of Attica is formed by
+the chain of Cithaeron and Parnes, running from west to east; and that
+from this transverse chains run southward, dividing Attica into a
+succession of plains. The westernmost of these, which is separated from
+the innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Alcyonium, by
+an offshoot of Cithaeron, and is bounded on the east by a ridge which
+ends towards the Saronic Gulf in a striking two-horned peak called
+Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for geographical purposes
+that we include this district under Attica, for both the Dorian race of
+the inhabitants, and its dangerous proximity to Athens, caused it to be
+at perpetual feud with that city; but its position as an outpost for the
+Peloponnesians, together with the fact of its having once been Ionian
+soil, sufficiently explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians
+towards the Megarians. The great importance of Megara arose from its
+commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were three in
+number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, which, owing to the
+nature of the ground, makes a long detour; the other two starting from
+Megara, and passing, the one by a lofty though gradual route over the
+ridge of Geraneia, the other along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous
+precipices of the Scironian rocks.
+
+
+  Plain of Eleusis.
+
+To the east of the plain of Megara lies that of Eleusis, bounded on the
+one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that of Aegaleos,
+through a depression in which was the line of the sacred way, where the
+torchlight processions from Athens used to descend to the coast, the
+"brightly gleaming shores" ([Greek: lampades aktai]) of Sophocles (_Oed.
+Col._ 1049). The deep bay which here runs into the land is bounded on
+its southern side by the rocky island of Salamis, which was at all times
+an important possession to the Athenians on account of its proximity to
+their city; and the winding channel which separates that island from the
+mainland in the direction of the Peiraeus was the scene of the battle of
+Salamis, while on the last declivities of Mt. Aegaleos, which here
+descends to the sea, was the spot where, as Byron wrote--
+
+  "A king sate on the rocky brow
+   Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis."
+
+The eastern portion of the plain of Eleusis was called the Thriasian
+plain, and the city itself was situated in the recesses of the bay just
+mentioned.
+
+
+  Plain of Athens.
+
+Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came that of Athens, which is the
+most extensive of all, reaching from the foot of Parnes to the sea, and
+bounded on the west by Aegaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most
+conspicuous feature is the broad line of dark green along its western
+side, formed by the olive-groves of Colonus and the gardens of the
+Academy, which owe their fertility to the waters of the Cephisus. This
+river is fed by copious sources on the side of Mt. Parnes, and thus,
+unlike the other rivers of Attica, has a constant supply of water, which
+was diverted in classical times, as it still is, into the neighbouring
+plantations (cf. Sophocles, _Oed. Col._ 685). The position of Colonus
+itself is marked by two bare knolls of light-coloured earth, which
+caused the poet in the same chorus to apply the epithet "white" ([Greek:
+argeta]) to that place. On the opposite side of the plain runs the other
+river, the Ilissus, which rises from two sources on the side of Mt.
+Hymettus, and skirts the eastern extremity of the city of Athens; but
+this, notwithstanding its celebrity, is a mere brook, which stands in
+pools a great part of the year, and in summer is completely dry. The
+situation of Athens relatively to the surrounding objects is singularly
+harmonious; for, while it forms a central point, so as to be the eye of
+the plain, and while the altar-rock of the Acropolis and the hills by
+which it is surrounded are conspicuous from every point of view, there
+is no such exactness in its position as to give formality, since it is
+nearer to the sea than to Parnes, and nearer to Hymettus than to
+Aegaleos. The most striking summit in the neighbourhood of the city is
+that of Lycabettus, on the north-eastern side; and the variety is still
+further increased by the continuation of the ridge which it forms for
+some distance northwards through the plain. Three roads lead to Athens
+from the Boeotian frontier over the intervening mountain barrier--the
+easternmost over Parnes, from Delium and Oropus by Decelea, which was
+the usual route of the invading Lacedaemonians during the Peloponnesian
+War; the westernmost over Cithaeron, by the pass of Dryoscephalae, or
+the "Oakheads," leading from Thebes by Plataea to Eleusis, and so to
+Athens, which we hear of in connexion with the battle of Plataea, and
+with the escape of the Plataeans at the time of the siege of that city
+in the Peloponnesian War; the third, midway between the two, by the pass
+of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged height overlooking the
+Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by Thrasybulus in the days of the
+Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast to the south-west of Athens rises the
+hill of Munychia, a mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the
+town of Peiraeus. It was probably at one time an island; this was
+Strabo's opinion, and at the present day the ground which joins it to
+the mainland is low and swampy, and seems to have been formed by
+alluvial soil brought down by the Cephisus. On one side of this, towards
+Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of Phalerum, on the other the harbour
+of Peiraeus, a completely land-locked inlet, safe, deep and spacious,
+the approach to which was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern
+side of the hill was further indented by two small but commodious
+havens, which were respectively called Zea and Munychia.
+
+
+  Eastern Attica.
+
+The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Athens is formed by the
+graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, which received its name from the deme of
+Pentele at its foot, but was far more commonly known as Brilessus in
+ancient times. This mountain did not form a continous chain with
+Hymettus, for between them intervenes a level space of ground 2 m. in
+width, which formed the entrance to the Mesogaea, an elevated undulating
+plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching nearly to Sunium. At the
+extremity of Hymettus, where it projects into the Saronic Gulf, was the
+promontory of Zoster ("the Girdle"), which was so called because it
+girdles and protects the neighbouring harbour; but in consequence of the
+name, a legend was attached to it, to the effect that Latona had loosed
+her girdle there. From this promontory to Sunium there runs a lower line
+of mountains, and between these and the sea a fertile strip of land
+intervenes, which was called the Paralia. Beyond Sunium, on the eastern
+coast, were two safe ports, that of Thoricus, which is defended by the
+island of Helene, forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that
+of Prasiac, now called Porto Raphti ("the Tailor"), from a statue at the
+entrance to which the natives have given that name. In the north-east
+corner is the little plain of Marathon (q.v.), the scene of the battle
+against the Persians (490 B.C.). It lies between Parnes, Pentelicus and
+the sea. The bay in front is sheltered by Euboea, and on the north by a
+projecting tongue of land, called Cynosura. The mountains in the
+neighbourhood were the home of the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being
+poor mountaineers, and having nothing to lose, were the principal
+advocates of political reform; while, on the other hand, the Pedieis, or
+inhabitants of the plains, being wealthy landholders, formed the strong
+conservative element, and the Parali, or occupants of the sea-coast,
+representing the mercantile interest, held an intermediate position
+between the two (see CLEISTHENES). Finally, there was one district of
+Attica, the territory of Oropus, which properly belonged to Boeotia, as
+it was situated to the north of Parnes; but on this the Athenians always
+endeavoured to retain a firm hold, because it facilitated their
+communications with Euboea. The command of that island was of the utmost
+importance to them; for, if Aegina could rightly be called "the eyesore
+of the Peiraeus," Euboea was quite as truly a thorn in the side of
+Attica; for we learn from Demosthenes (_De Cor._ p. 307) that at one
+period the pirates that made it their headquarters so infested the
+neighbouring sea as to prevent all navigation.
+
+
+  Excavations.
+
+The place in Attica which has been the chief scene of excavations
+(independently of Athens and its vicinity) is Eleusis (q.v.), where
+the remains of the sanctuary of Demeter, the home of the Eleusinian
+Mysteries, together with other buildings in its neighbourhood, were
+cleared by the Greek Archaeological Society in 1882-1887 and 1895-1896.
+Of the other classical ruins in Attica the best-known is the temple of
+Athena at Sunium, which forms a conspicuous object on the headland, to
+which it gave the name of Cape Colonnae, still used by the peasants. It
+is in the Doric style, of white marble, and eleven columns of the
+peristyle and one of the pronaos are now standing. At Thoricus there is
+a theatre, which was cleared of earth by the archaeologists of the
+American School in 1886. In the neighbourhood of Rhamnus are the remains
+of two temples that stood side by side, the larger of which was
+dedicated to Nemesis, the smaller probably to Themis, of which goddess a
+fine statue was discovered in its ruins in the course of the excavations
+of the Greek Archaeological Society in 1890. The same Society, in
+1884,1886 and 1887, excavated the sanctuary of Amphiaraus, 4 m. from
+Oropus; in ancient times this was the resort of numerous invalids, who
+came thither to consult the healing divinity. Within it were found a
+temple of Amphiaraus, a large altar, and a long colonnade, which may
+have been the dormitory where the patients slept in hope of obtaining
+counsel in dreams. There were also baths and a small theatre, and
+numerous inscriptions relating to the arrangement and observances of the
+sanctuary and oracle. The walls and towers also of the city of
+Eleutherae and the fortress of Phyle are fine specimens of Hellenic
+fortifications.
+
+Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern times little need be
+said, for it has followed for the most part the fortunes of Athens. The
+population, however, has undergone a great change, independently of the
+large admixture of Slavonic blood that has affected the Greeks of the
+mainland generally, by the immigration of Albanian colonists, who now
+occupy a great part of the country. The district formed part of the
+_nome_ (administrative division) of Boeotia and Attica until 1899, when
+it became a separate _nome_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols.
+  ii. and v. (London, 1898); W.M. Leake, _The Demi of Attica_ (2nd ed.,
+  London, 1841); Chr. Wordsworth, _Athens and Attica_ (4th ed., London,
+  1869); C. Bursian, _Geographic von Griechenland_, vol. i. (Leipzig,
+  1862); Baedeker's _Greece_ (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1908); _Karten von
+  Attica_, published by the German Archaeological Institute of Athens,
+  with explanatory text, chiefly by Professor Milchhofer (1875-1903);
+  see also ATHENS, ELEUSIS and GREECE: _Topography_.     (H. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ATTIC BASE, the term given in architecture to the base of the Roman
+Ionic order, consisting of an upper and lower torus, separated by a
+scotia (q.v.) and fillets. It was the favourite base of the Romans,
+and was employed by them for columns of the Corinthian and Composite
+orders, and in Byzantine and Romanesque work would seem to have been
+generally adopted as a model.
+
+
+
+
+ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS (109-32 B.C.), Roman patron of letters, was
+born at Rome three years before Cicero, with whom he and the younger
+Marius were educated. His name was Titus Pomponius, that of Atticus, by
+which he is known, being given him afterwards from his long residence in
+Athens (86-65) and his intimate acquaintance with the Greek literature
+and language. His family is said to have been of noble and ancient
+descent; his father belonged to the equestrian order, and was very
+wealthy. When Pomponius was still a young man his father died, and he at
+once took the prudent resolution of transferring himself and his fortune
+to Athens, in order to escape the dangers of the civil war, in which he
+might have been involved through his connexion with the murdered
+tribune, Sulpicius Rufus. Here he lived in retirement, devoting himself
+entirely to study. On his return to Rome, he took possession of an
+inheritance left him by his uncle and assumed the name of Quintus
+Caecilius Pomponianus. From this time he kept aloof from political
+strife, attaching himself to no particular party, and continuing on
+intimate terms with men so opposed as Caesar and Pompey, Antony and
+Octavian. His most intimate friend, however, was Cicero, whose
+correspondence with him extended over many years, and who seems to have
+found his prudent counsel and sympathy a remedy for all his many
+troubles. His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry till
+he was fifty-three years of age, and his only child became the wife of
+Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister of Augustus. In 32,
+being seized with an illness believed to be incurable, he starved
+himself to death. Of his writings none is extant, but mention is made of
+two: a Greek history of Cicero's consulship, and some annals, in Latin,
+an epitome of the events of Roman history down to the year 54. His most
+important work was his edition of the letters addressed to him by
+Cicero. He also formed a large library at Athens, and engaged a staff of
+slaves to make copies of valuable works.
+
+  See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Berwick, _Lives of Messalla Corvinus and
+  T.P.A._ (1813); Fialon, _Thesis in T.P.A._ (1861); Boissier, _Ciceron
+  et ses amis_ (1888: Eng. trans. A.D. Jones, 1897); Peter,
+  _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta._
+
+
+
+
+ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS (c. A.D. 101-177), Greek rhetorician,
+was born at Marathon in Attica. He belonged to a wealthy and
+distinguished family, and received a careful education under the most
+distinguished masters of the time, especially in rhetoric and
+philosophy. His talents gained him the favourable notice of Hadrian, who
+appointed him praefect of the free towns in the province of Asia (125).
+On his return to Athens, he attained great celebrity as an orator and
+teacher of rhetoric, and was elected to the office of archon. In 140 he
+was summoned by Antoninus Pius to undertake the education of Marcus
+Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and received many marks of favour, amongst
+them the consulship (143). He is principally celebrated, however, for
+the vast sums he expended on public purposes. He built at Athens a great
+race-course of Pentelic marble, and a splendid musical theatre, called
+the Odeum in memory of his wife Regilla, which still exists. At Corinth
+he built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium, at Thermopylae hot baths, at
+Canusium in Italy an aqueduct. He even contemplated cutting a canal
+through the Isthmus of Corinth, but was afraid to carry out his plan
+because the same thing had been unsuccessfully attempted before by the
+emperor Nero. Many of the partially ruined cities of Greece were
+restored by Atticus, and numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude
+to their benefactor. His latter years were embittered by family
+misfortune, and having incurred the enmity of the Athenians, he withdrew
+from Athens to his villa near Marathon, where he died. He enjoyed a very
+high reputation amongst his contemporaries, and wrote numerous works, of
+which the only one to come down to us is a rhetorical exercise _On the
+Constitution_ (ed. Hass, 1880), advocating an alliance of the Thebans
+and Peloponnesians against Archelaus, king of Macedonia. The genuineness
+of this speech, which is of little merit, has been disputed.
+
+  Philostratus, _Vit. Soph._ ii. 1; Fiorillo, _Herodis Attici quae
+  supersunt_ (1801); _A Biographical Notice of A.H._ (London, 1832),
+  privately printed; Fuelles, _De Herodis Attici Vita_ (1864);
+  Vidal-Lablache, _Herode Atticus_ (1871).
+
+
+
+
+ATTILA (d. 453), king of the Huns, became king in 433, along with his
+brother Bleda, on the death of his uncle Roua. We hear but little as to
+Bleda, who died about 445, possibly slain by his brother's orders. In
+the first eight years of his reign Attila was chiefly occupied in the
+wars with other barbarian tribes, by which he made himself virtually
+supreme in central Europe. His own special kingdom comprised the
+countries which are now called Hungary and Transylvania, his capital
+being possibly not far from the modern city of Buda-Pest; but having
+made the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae and many other Teutonic tribes his
+subject-allies, and having also sent his invading armies into Media, he
+seems for nearly twenty years to have ruled practically without a rival
+from the Caspian to the Rhine. Very early in his reign, Honoria,
+grand-daughter of the emperor Theodosius II., being subjected to severe
+restraint on account of an amorous intrigue with one of the chamberlains
+of the palace, sent her ring to the king of the Huns and called on him
+to be her husband and her deliverer. Nothing came of the proposed
+engagement, but the wrongs of Honoria, his affianced wife, served as a
+convenient pretext for some of the constantly recurring embassies with
+which Attila, fond of trampling on the fallen majesty of Rome, worried
+and bullied the two courts of Constantinople and Ravenna. Another
+frequent subject of complaint was found in certain sacred vessels which
+the bishop of Sirmium had sent as a bribe to the secretary of Attila,
+and which had been by him, fraudulently, as his master contended, pawned
+to a silversmith at Rome. There were also frequent and imperious demands
+for the surrender of fugitives who had sought shelter from the wrath of
+Attila within the limits of the empire. One of the return embassies from
+Constantinople, that sent in 448, had the great advantage of being
+accompanied by a rhetorician named Priscus, whose minute journalistic
+account of the negotiations, including as it does a vivid picture of the
+great Hun in his banquet-hall, is by far the most valuable source of
+information as to the court and camp of Attila. What lends additional
+interest to the story is the fact that in the ambassador's suite there
+was an interpreter named Vigilas, who for fifty pounds of gold had
+promised to assassinate Attila. This base design was discovered by the
+Hunnish king, but had never been revealed to the head of the embassy or
+to his secretary. The situations created by this strange combination of
+honest diplomacy and secret villainy are described by Priscus with real
+dramatic power.
+
+In 450 Theodosius II., the incapable emperor of the East, died, and his
+throne was occupied by a veteran soldier named Marcian, who answered the
+insulting message of Attila in a manlier tone than his predecessor.
+Accordingly the Hun, who had something of the bully in his nature, now
+turned upon Valentinian III., the trembling emperor of the West, and
+demanded redress for the wrongs of Honoria, and one-half of
+Valentinian's dominions as her dowry. Allying himself with the Franks
+and Vandals, he led his vast many-nationed army to the Rhine in the
+spring of 451, crossed that river, and sacked, apparently, most of the
+cities in Belgic Gaul. Most fortunately for Europe, the Teutonic races
+already settled in Gaul rallied to the defence of the empire against
+invaders infinitely more barbarous than themselves. Prominent in this
+new coalition was Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, whose capital city
+was Toulouse. His firm fighting alliance with the Roman general Aetius,
+with whom he had had many a conflict in previous years, was one of the
+best auguries for the new Europe that was to arise out of the ruins of
+the Roman empire. Meanwhile Attila had reached the Loire and was
+besieging the strong city of Orleans. The citizens, under the leadership
+of their bishop Anianus, made a heroic defence, but the place was on the
+point of being taken when, on the 24th of June, the allied Romano-Gothic
+army was seen on the horizon. Attila, who knew the difficulty that he
+should have in feeding his immense army if his march was further
+delayed, turned again to the north-east, was persuaded by the venerable
+bishop Lupus to spare the city of Troyes, but halted near that place in
+the Catalaunian plains and offered battle to his pursuers Aetius and
+Theodoric. The battle which followed--certainly one of the decisive
+battles of the world--has been well described by the Gothic historian
+Jordanes as "ruthless, manifold, immense, obstinate." It lasted for the
+whole day, and the number of the slain is variously stated at 175,000
+and 300,000. All such estimates are, of course, untrustworthy, but there
+is no doubt that the carnage was terrible. The Visigothic king was
+slain, but the victory, though hardly earned, remained with his people
+and his allies. Attila did not venture to renew the engagement on the
+morrow, but retreated, apparently in good order, on the Rhine, recrossed
+that river and returned to his Pannonian home. From thence in the spring
+of 452 he again set forth to ravage or to conquer Italy. Her great
+champion Aetius showed less energy in her cause than he had shown in his
+defence of Gaul. After a stubborn contest, Attila took and utterly
+destroyed Aquileia, the chief city of Venetia, and then proceeded on his
+destructive course, capturing and burning the cities at the head of the
+Adriatic, Concordia, Altinum and Patavium (Padua). The fugitives from
+these cities, but especially from the last, seeking shelter in the
+lagoons of the Adriatic, laid the foundations of that which was one day
+to become the glorious city of Venice. Upon Milan and the cities of
+western Lombardy the hand of Attila seems to have weighed more lightly,
+plundering rather than utterly destroying; and at last when Pope Leo I.,
+at the head of a deputation of Roman senators, appeared in his camp on
+the banks of the Mincio, entreating him not to pursue his victorious
+career to the gates of Rome, he yielded to their entreaties and
+consented to cross the Alps, with a menace, however, of future return,
+should the wrongs of Honoria remain unredressed. As he himself jokingly
+said: he knew how to conquer men, but the Lion and the Wolf (Leo and
+Lupus) were too strong for him. No further expeditions to Italy were
+undertaken by Attila, who died suddenly in 453, in the night following a
+great banquet which celebrated his marriage with a damsel named Ildico.
+Notwithstanding some rumours of violence it is probable that his death
+was natural and due to his own intemperate habits.
+
+Under his name of Etzel, Attila plays a great part in Teutonic legend
+(see NIBELUNGENLIED) and under that of Atli in Scandinavian Saga, but
+his historic lineaments are greatly obscured in both. He was short of
+stature, swarthy and broad-chested, with a large head which early turned
+grey, snub nose and deep-set eyes. He walked with proud step, darting a
+haughty glance this way and that as if he felt himself lord of all.
+
+  The chief authorities for the life of Attila are Priscus, Jordanes,
+  the _Historia Miscella_, Apollonius Sidonius and Gregory of Tours.
+       (T. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ATTIS, or ATYS, a deity worshipped in Phrygia, and later throughout the
+Roman empire, in conjunction with the Great Mother of the Gods. Like
+Aphrodite and Adonis in Syria, Baal and Astarte at Sidon, and Isis and
+Osiris in Egypt, the Great Mother and Attis formed a duality which
+symbolized the relations between Mother Earth and her fruitage. Their
+worship included the celebration of mysteries annually on the return of
+the spring season. Attis was also known as Papas, and the Bithynians and
+Phrygians, according to evidence of the time of the late Empire, called
+him Zeus. He was never worshipped independently, however, though the
+worship of the Great Mother was not always accompanied by his. He was
+confused with Pan, Sabazios, Men and Adonis, and there were resemblances
+between the orgiastic features of his worship and that of Dionysus. His
+resemblance to Adonis has led to the theory that the names of the two
+are identical, and that Attis is only the Semitic companion of Syrian
+Aphrodite grafted on to the Phrygian Great Mother worship (Haakh,
+_Stuttgarter-Philolog.-Vers._, 1857, 176 ff.). It is likely, however,
+that Attis, like the Great Mother, was indigenous to Asia Minor, adopted
+by the invading Phrygians, and blended by them with a deity of their
+own.
+
+_Legends._--According to Pausanias (vii. 17), Attis was a beautiful
+youth born of the daughter of the river Sangarius, who was descended
+from the hermaphroditic Agdistis, a monster sprung from the earth by the
+seed of Zeus. Having become enamoured of Attis, Agdistis struck him with
+frenzy as he was about to wed the king's daughter, with the result that
+he deprived himself of manhood and died. Agdistis in repentance
+prevailed upon Zeus to grant that the body of the youth should never
+decay or waste. In Arnobius (v. 5-8) Attis emasculates himself under a
+pine tree, which the Great Mother bears into her cave as she and
+Agdistis together wildly lament the death of the youth. Zeus grants the
+petition as in the version of Pausanias, but permits the hair of Attis
+to grow, and his little finger to move. The little finger, _digitus_,
+[Greek: daktylos], is interpreted as the phallus by Georg Kaibel
+(_Gottinger Nachrichten_, 1901, p. 513). In Diodorus (in. 58, 59) the
+Mother is the carnal lover of Attis, and, when her father the king
+discovers her fault and kills her lover, roams the earth in wild grief.
+In Ovid (_Fasti_, iv. 223 ff.) she is inspired with chaste love for him,
+which he pledges himself to reciprocate. On his proving unfaithful, the
+Great Mother slays the nymph with whom he has sinned, whereupon in
+madness he mutilates himself as a penalty. Another form of the legend
+(Paus. vii. 17), showing the influence of the Aphrodite-Adonis myth,
+relates that Attis, the impotent son of the Phrygian Calaust Lydia to
+institute the worship of the Great Mother, and was there slain by a boar
+sent by Zeus.
+
+  See GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS; J.G. Frazer, _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_
+  (1906).     (G. Sn.)
+
+
+
+
+ATTLEBOROUGH, a township of Bristol county, in south-east Massachusetts,
+U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 7577; (1900) 11,335, of whom 3237 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 16,215 It is traversed by the New York, New Haven &
+Hartford railway, and by inter-urban electric lines. It has an area of
+28 sq. m. The population is largely concentrated in and about the
+village which bears the name of the township. In Attleborough are the
+Attleborough Home Sanitarium, and a public library (1885). The principal
+manufactures of the township are jewelry, silverware, cotton goods,
+cotton machinery, coffin trimmings, and leather. In 1905 the total value
+of the township's factory products was $10,050,384, of which $5,544,285
+was the value of jewelry, Attleborough ranking fourth among the cities
+of the country in this industry, and producing 10.4% of the total
+jewelry product of the United States. Attleborough was incorporated in
+1694, though settled soon after 1661 (records since 1672) as part of
+Rehoboth. In 1887 the township was divided in population, wealth and
+area by the creation of the township of NORTH ATTLEBOROUGH--pop. (1890)
+6727; (1900) 7253, of whom 1786 were foreign-born; (1905, state census)
+7878. This township produced manufactured goods in 1900 to the value of
+$3,990,731, jewelry valued at $2,785,567; it maintains the Richards
+memorial library.
+
+  See J. Daggett, _A Sketch of the History of Attleborough to 1887_
+  (Boston, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+ATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Rawalpindi district of
+the Punjab, 47 m. by rail from Peshawar, and situated on the eastern
+bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901) 2822. The place is of both political and
+commercial importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the military and
+trade route through the Khyber Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the
+Great, Tamerlane and Nadir Shah are believed to have successively
+crossed the Indus at or about this spot in their respective invasions of
+India. The river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yds.
+broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen. The
+rocky gorges through which it flows, with a distant view of the Hindu
+Kush, form some of the finest scenery in the world. In 1883 an iron
+girder bridge of five spans was opened, which carries the North-Western
+railway to Peshawar, and has also a subway for wheeled traffic and foot
+passengers. The fort of Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in 1581,
+on a low hillock beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and
+the whole structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is
+of little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is
+divided only by a ravine. On the opposite side of the river is the
+village of Khairabad, with a fort, also erected by Akbar according to
+some, or by Nadir Shah according to others. The military importance of
+Attock has diminished, but it still has a small detachment of British
+troops.
+
+
+
+
+ATTORNEY (from O. Fr. _atorne_ a person appointed to act for another,
+from _atourner_, legal Lat. _attornare_, attorn, literally to turn over
+to another or commit business to another), in English law, in its widest
+sense, any substitute or agent appointed to act in "the turn, stead or
+place of another." Attorneys are of two kinds, attorneys-in-fact and
+attorneys-at-law. An attorney-in-fact is simply an agent, the extent of
+whose capacity to act is bounded only by the powers embodied in his
+authority, his _power of attorney_. An attorney-at-law was a public
+officer, conducting legal proceedings on behalf of others, known as his
+clients, and attached to the supreme courts of common law at
+Westminster. Attorneys-at-law corresponded to the solicitors of the
+courts of chancery and the proctors of the admiralty, ecclesiastical,
+probate and divorce courts. Since the passing of the Judicature Act of
+1873, however, the designation "attorney" has become obsolete in
+England, all persons admitted as solicitors, attorneys or proctors of
+an English court being henceforth called "solicitors of the supreme
+court" (see SOLICITOR).
+
+In the United States an attorney-at-law exercises all the functions
+distributed in England between barristers, attorneys and solicitors, and
+his full title is "attorney and counsellor-at-law." When acting in a
+court of admiralty he is styled "proctor" or "advocate." Formerly, in
+some states, there existed a grade among lawyers of attorneys-at-law,
+which was inferior to that of counsellors-at-law, and in colonial times
+New Jersey established a higher rank still--that of serjeant-at-law. Now
+the term attorney-at-law is precisely equivalent to that of lawyer.
+Attorneys are admitted by some court to which the legislature confides
+the power, and on examination prescribed by the court, or by a board of
+state examiners, as the case may be. The term of study required is
+generally two or three years, but in some states less. In one no
+examination is required. College graduates are often admitted to
+examination after a shorter term of study than that required from those
+not so educated. In the courts of the United States, admission is
+regulated by rules of court and based upon a previous admission to the
+state bar. In almost all states aliens are not admitted as attorneys,
+and in many states women are ineligible, but during recent years several
+states have passed statutes permitting them to practise. Since 1879
+women have been eligible to practise before the U.S. Supreme Court, if
+already admitted to practise in some state court, under the same
+conditions as men. A _state attorney_ or _district attorney_ is the
+local public prosecutor. He is either elected by popular vote at the
+state elections for the district in which he resides and goes out of
+office with the political party for which he was elected, or he is
+appointed by the governor of the state for that district and for the
+same term. He represents the state in criminal prosecutions and also in
+civil actions within his district. There is a _United States district
+attorney_ in each federal district, similarly representing the federal
+government before the courts.
+
+An attorney is an officer of the court which admits him to practise, and
+he is subject to its discipline. He is liable to his client in damages
+for failure to exercise ordinary care and skill, and he can bring action
+for the value of his services. He has a lien on his client's papers, and
+usually on any judgment in favour of his client to secure the payment of
+his fees. (See also under BAR, THE.)
+
+
+
+
+ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England, the chief law officer appointed to manage
+all the legal affairs and suits in which the crown is interested. He is
+appointed by letters-patent authorizing him to hold office during the
+sovereign's pleasure. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and only
+counsel of the highest eminence are appointed to the office. The origin
+of the office is uncertain, but as far back as 1277 we find an
+_attornatus regis_ appointed to look after the interests of the crown,
+in proceedings affecting it before the courts. He has precedence in all
+the courts, and in the House of Lords he has precedence of the lord
+advocate, even in Scottish appeals, but unlike the lord advocate and the
+Irish attorney-general he is not necessarily made a privy councillor. He
+is a necessary party to all proceedings affecting the crown, and has
+extensive powers of control in matters relating to charities, lunatics'
+estates, criminal prosecutions, &c. The attorney-general and the
+solicitor-general are always members of the House of Commons (except for
+temporary difficulties in obtaining a seat) and of the ministry, being
+selected from the party in power, and their advice is at the disposal of
+the government and of each department of the government, while in the
+House of Commons they defend the legality of ministerial action if
+called in question. Previously to 1895 there was no restriction placed
+on the law officers as to their acceptance of private practice, but
+since that date this privilege has been withdrawn, and the salary of the
+attorney-general is fixed at L7000 a year and in addition such fees
+according to the ordinary professional scales as he may receive for any
+litigious business he may conduct on behalf of the crown. The crown has
+also as a legal adviser an attorney-general in Ireland. In Scotland he
+is called lord advocate (q.v.). There is also an attorney-general in
+almost all the British colonies, and his duties are very similar to
+those of the same officer in England. In the self-governing colonies he
+is appointed by the administration of the colony, and in the crown
+colonies by royal warrant under the signet and sign-manual. There is an
+attorney-general for the duchy of Cornwall and also one for the duchy of
+Lancaster, each of whom sues in matters relating to that duchy.
+
+The United States has an officer of this name, who has a seat in the
+cabinet. His duties are in general to represent the federal government
+before the United States Supreme Court, to advise the president on
+questions of law, and to advise similarly the heads of the state
+departments with reference to matters affecting their department. His
+opinions are published by the government periodically for the use of its
+officials and they are frequently cited by the courts. Every state but
+one or two has a similar officer. He represents the state in important
+legal matters, and is often required to assist the local prosecutor in
+trials for capital offences. He appears for the public interest in suits
+affecting public charities. He is generally elected by the people for
+the same term as the governor and on the same ticket.
+
+
+
+
+ATTORNMENT (from Fr. _tourner_, to turn), in English real property law,
+the acknowledgment of a new lord by the tenant on the alienation of
+land. Under the feudal system, the relations of landlord and tenant were
+to a certain extent reciprocal. So it was considered unreasonable to the
+tenant to subject him to a new lord without his own approval, and it
+thus came about that alienation could not take place without the consent
+of the tenant. Attornment was also extended to all cases of lessees for
+life or for years. The necessity for attornment was abolished by an act
+of 1705. The term is now used to indicate an acknowledgment of the
+existence of the relationship of landlord and tenant. An
+attornment-clause, in mortgages, is a clause whereby the mortgagor
+attorns tenant to the mortgagee, thus giving the mortgagee the right to
+distrain, as an additional security.
+
+
+
+
+ATTRITION (Lat. _attritio_, formed from _atterere_, to rub away), a
+rubbing away; a term used in pathology and geology. Theologians have
+also distinguished "attrition" from "contrition" in the matter of sin,
+as an imperfect stage in the process of repentance; attrition being due
+to servile fear of the consequences of sin, contrition to filial fear of
+God and hatred of sin for His sake. It has been held among the Roman
+Catholics that in the sacrament of penance attrition becomes contrition.
+
+
+
+
+ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1765-1838), English composer, the son of a coal
+merchant who had musical tastes, was born in London on the 23rd of
+November 1765. At the age of nine he became a chorister in the Chapel
+Royal, where he remained for five years. In 1783 he was sent to study
+abroad at the expense of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.),
+who had been favourably impressed by his skill at the harpsichord. After
+spending two years at Naples, Attwood proceeded to Vienna, where he
+became a favourite pupil of Mozart. On his return to London in 1787 he
+held for a short time an appointment as one of the chamber musicians to
+the prince of Wales. In 1796 he was chosen organist of St Paul's, and in
+the same year he was made composer to the Chapel Royal. His court
+connexion was further confirmed by his appointment as musical instructor
+to the duchess of York, and afterwards to the princess of Wales. For the
+coronation of George IV. he composed the anthem, "The King shall
+rejoice," a work of high merit. The king, who had neglected him for some
+years on account of his connexion with the princess of Wales, now
+restored him to favour, and in 1821 appointed him organist to his
+private chapel at Brighton. Soon after the institution of the Royal
+Academy of Music in 1823, Attwood was chosen one of the professors. He
+was also one of the original members of the Philharmonic Society,
+founded in 1813. He wrote the anthem, "O Lord, grant the King a Long
+Life," which was performed at the coronation of William IV., and he was
+composing a similar work for the coronation of Queen Victoria when he
+died at his house in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, on the 24th of March 1838. He
+was buried under the organ in St Paul's cathedral. His services and
+anthems were published in a collected form after his death by his pupil
+Walmisley. Of his secular compositions several songs and glees are well
+known and popular. The numerous operas which he composed in early life
+are now practically forgotten. Of his songs the most popular was "The
+Soldier's Dream," and the best of his glees were "In peace Love tunes
+the shepherd's reed," and "To all that breathe the air of Heaven."
+Attwood was a friend of Mendelssohn, for whom he professed an admiration
+at a time when the young German's talent was little appreciated by the
+majority of English musicians.
+
+
+
+
+ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1783-1856), English political reformer, was born at
+Halesowen, Worcestershire, on the 6th of October 1783. In 1800 he
+entered his father's banking business in Birmingham, where he was
+elected high bailiff in 1811. He took a leading part in the public life
+of the city, and became very popular with the artisan class. He is now
+remembered for his share in the movement which led to the carrying of
+the Reform Act of 1832. He was one of the founders, in January 1830, of
+the Political Union, branches of which were soon formed throughout
+England. Under his leadership vast crowds of working-men met
+periodically in the neighbourhood of Birmingham to demonstrate in favour
+of reform of the franchise, and Attwood used his power over the
+multitude to repress any action on their part which might savour of
+illegality. His successful exertions in favour of reform made him a
+popular hero all over the country, and he was presented with the freedom
+of the city of London. After the passing of the Reform Act in 1832 he
+was elected one of the members for the new borough of Birmingham, for
+which he sat till 1839. He failed in the House of Commons to maintain
+the reputation which he had made outside it, for in addition to an eager
+partisanship in favour of every ultra-democratic movement, he was
+wearisomely persistent in advocating his peculiar monetary theory. This
+theory, which became with him a monomania, was that the existing
+currency should be rectified in favour of state-regulated and
+inconvertible paper-money, and the adoption of a system for altering the
+standard of value as prices fluctuated. His waning influence with his
+constituents led him to retire from parliament in 1837, and, though
+invited to re-enter political life in 1843, he had by that time become a
+thoroughly spent force. He died at Great Malvern on the 6th of March
+1856.
+
+  His grandson, C.M. Wakefield, wrote his life "for private circulation"
+  (there is a copy in the British Museum), and his economic theories are
+  set forth in a little book, _Gemini_, by T.B. Wright and J. Harlow,
+  published in 1844.
+
+
+
+
+ATWOOD, GEORGE (1746-1807), English mathematician, was born in the early
+part of the year 1746. He entered Westminster school, and in 1759 was
+elected to a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in
+1769, with the rank of third wrangler and first Smith's prizeman.
+Subsequently he became a fellow and a tutor of the college, and in 1776
+was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In the year 1784 he
+left Cambridge, and soon afterwards received from William Pitt the
+office of a patent searcher of the customs, which required but little
+attendance, and enabled him to devote a considerable portion of his time
+to his special studies. He died in July 1807. Atwood's published works,
+exclusive of papers contributed to the _Philosophical Transactions_, for
+one of which he obtained the Copley medal, are as follows:--_Analysis of
+a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophy_
+(Cambridge, 1784); _Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of
+Bodies_ (Cambridge, 1784), which gives some interesting experiments, by
+means of which mechanical truths can be ocularly exhibited and
+demonstrated, and describes the machine, since called by Atwood's name,
+for verifying experimentally the laws of simple acceleration of motion;
+_Review of the Statutes and Ordinances of Assize which have been
+established in England from the 4th year of King John, 1202, to the 37th
+of his present Majesty_ (London, 1801), a work of some historical
+research; _Dissertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches_
+(London, 1801), with supplement, pt. i., 1801, pt. ii., 1804, an
+elaborate work, now completely superseded.
+
+
+
+
+AUBADE (a French word from _aube_, the dawn), the dawn-song of the
+troubadours of Provence, developed by the Minnesingers (q.v.) of Germany
+into the _Tagelied_, the song of the parting at dawn of lovers at the
+warning of the watchman. In France in modern times the term is applied
+to the performance of a military band in the early morning in honour of
+some distinguished person.
+
+
+
+
+AUBAGNE, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of
+Bouches-du-Rhone on the Huveaune, 11 m. E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop.
+(1906) 6039. The town carries on the manufacture of earthenware and
+pottery, leather, &c. and the cultivation of fruit and wine. There is a
+fountain to the memory of the statesman, F. Barthelemy (d. 1830), born
+at Aubagne.
+
+
+
+
+AUBE, a department of north-eastern France, bounded N. by the department
+of Marne, N.W. by Seine-et-Marne, W. by Yonne, S. by Yonne and
+Cote-d'Or, and E. by Haute-Marne; it was formed in 1790 from
+Basse-Champagne, and a small portion of Burgundy. Area, 2326 sq. m. Pop.
+(1906) 243,670. The department belongs to the Seine basin, and is
+watered chiefly by the Seine and the Aube. These rivers follow the
+general slope of the department, which is from south-east, where the
+Bois du Mont (1200 ft.), the highest point, is situated, to north-west.
+The southern and eastern districts are fertile and well wooded. The
+remainder of the department, with the exception of a more broken and
+picturesque district in the extreme north-west, forms part of the
+sterile and monotonous plain known as Champagne Pouilleuse. The climate
+is mild but damp. The annual rainfall over the greater part varies from
+24 to 28 in.; but in the extreme south-east it at times reaches a height
+of 36 in. Aube is an agricultural department; more than one third of its
+surface consists of arable land of which the chief products are wheat
+and oats, and next to them rye, barley and potatoes; vegetables are
+extensively cultivated in the valleys of the Seine and the Aube. The
+vine flourishes chiefly on the hills of the south-east; the wines of Les
+Riceys, Bar-sur-Aube, Bouilly and Laines-aux-Bois are most esteemed. The
+river valleys abound in natural pasture, and sainfoin, lucerne and other
+forage crops are largely grown; cattle-raising is an important source of
+wealth, and the cheeses of Troyes are well known. There are excellent
+nurseries and orchards in the neighbourhood of Troyes, Bar-sur-Seine,
+Mery-sur-Seine and Brienne. Chalk, from which _blanc de Troyes_ is
+manufactured, and clay are abundant; and there are peat workings and
+quarries of building-stone and limestone. The spinning and weaving of
+cotton and the manufacture of hosiery, of both of which Troyes is the
+centre, are the main industries of the department; there are also a
+large number of distilleries, tanneries, oil works, tile and brick
+works, flour-mills, saw-mills and dye-works. The Eastern railway has
+works at Romilly, and there are iron works at Clairvaux and wire-drawing
+works at Plaines; but owing to the absence of coal and iron mines, metal
+working is of small importance. The exports of Aube consist of timber,
+cereals, agricultural products, hosiery, wine, dressed pork, &c.; its
+imports include wool and raw cotton, coal and machinery, especially
+looms. The department is served by the Eastern railway, of which the
+main line to Belfort crosses it. The river Aube is navigable for 28 m.
+(from Arcis-sur-Aube to its confluence with the Seine); the Canal de la
+Haute-Seine extends beside the Seine from Bar-sur-Seine to Marcilly
+(just outside the department) a distance of 46 m.; below Marcilly the
+Seine is canalized.
+
+Aube is divided into 5 arrondissements with 26 cantons and 446 communes.
+It falls within the educational circumscription (_academie_) of Dijon
+and the military circumscription of the XX. army corps; its court of
+appeal is in Paris. It constitutes the diocese of Troyes and part of the
+archiepiscopal province of Sens. The capital of the department is
+Troyes; of the arrondissements the capitals are Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube,
+Arcis-sur-Aube, Bar-sur-Seine and Nogent-sur-Seine. The architecture of
+the department is chiefly displayed in its churches, many of which
+possess stained glass of the 16th century. Besides the cathedral and
+other churches of Troyes, those of Mussy-sur-Seine (13th century),
+Chaource (16th century) and Nogent-sur-Seine (15th and 16th centuries),
+are of note. The abbey buildings of Clairvaux are the type of the
+Cistercian abbey.
+
+
+
+
+AUBENAS, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Ardeche,
+19 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 3976 (town), 7064 (commune).
+Aubenas is beautifully situated on the slope of a hill, on the right
+bank of the Ardeche, but its streets generally are crooked and narrow.
+It has a castle of the 13th and 16th centuries, now occupied by several
+of the public institutions of the town. These include a tribunal and
+chamber of commerce, and a conditioning-house for silk. Iron and coal
+mines are worked in the vicinity. As the centre of the silk trade of
+southern France Aubenas is a place of considerable traffic. It has also
+a large silk spinning and weaving industry, and carries on tanning and
+various minor industries together with trade in silk. The district is
+rich in plantations of mulberries and olives.
+
+
+
+
+AUBER, DANIEL FRANCOIS ESPRIT (1782-1871), French musical composer, the
+son of a Paris printseller, was born at Caen in Normandy on the 29th of
+January 1782. Destined by his father to the pursuits of trade, he was
+allowed, nevertheless, to indulge his fondness for music, and learnt to
+play at an early age on several instruments, his first teacher being the
+Tirolean composer, I.A. Ladurner. Sent at the age of twenty to London to
+complete his business training, he was obliged to leave England in
+consequence of the breach of the treaty of Amiens (1804). He had already
+attempted musical composition, and at this period produced several
+_concertos pour basse_, in the manner of the violoncellist, Lamarre, in
+whose name they were published. The praise given to his concerto for the
+violin, which was played at the Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him
+to undertake the resetting of the old comic opera, _Julie_ (1811).
+Conscious by this time of the need of regular study of his chosen art,
+he placed himself under the severe training of Cherubini, by which the
+special qualities of the young composer were admirably developed. In
+1813 he made his _debut_ in an opera in one act, the _Sejour militaire_,
+the unfavourable reception of which put an end for some years to his
+attempts as composer. But the failure in business and death of his
+father, in 1819, compelled him once more to turn to music, and to make
+that which had been his pastime the serious employment of his life. He
+produced another opera, the _Testament et les billets-deux_ (1819),
+which was no better received than the former. But he persevered, and the
+next year was rewarded by the complete success of his _Bergere
+chatelaine_, an opera in three acts. This was the first in a long series
+of brilliant successes. In 1822 began his long association with A.E.
+Scribe, who shared with him, as librettist, the success and growing
+popularity of his compositions. The opera of _Leicester_, in which they
+first worked together (1823), is remarkable also as showing evidences of
+the influence of Rossini. But his own style was an individual one,
+marked by lightness and facility, sparkling vivacity, grace and
+elegance, clear and piquant melody--characteristically French. In _La
+Muette de Portici_, familiarly known as _Masaniello_, Auber achieved his
+greatest musical triumph. Produced at Paris in 1828, it rapidly became a
+European favourite, and its overture, songs and choruses were everywhere
+heard. The duet, "Amour sacre de la patrie," was welcomed like a new
+_Marseillaise_; sung by Nourrit at Brussels in 1830, it became the
+signal for the revolution which broke out there. Of Auber's remaining
+operas (about 50 in all) the more important are: _Le Macon_ (1825), _La
+Fiancee_ (1829), _Fra Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _Le Cheval de
+bronze_ (1835), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino noir_ (1837), _Le
+Lac des fees_ (1839), _Les Diamants de la couronne_ (1841), _Haydee_
+(1847), _Marco Spada_ (1853), _Manon Lescaut_ (1856), and _La Fiancee du
+roi des Garbes_ (1864). Official and other dignities testified the
+public appreciation of Auber's works. In 1829 he was elected member of
+the Institute, in 1830 he was named director of the court concerts, and
+in 1842, at the wish of Louis Philippe, he succeeded Cherubini as
+director of the Conservatoire. He was also a member of the Legion of
+Honour from 1825, and attained the rank of commander in 1847. Napoleon
+III. made Auber his Imperial Maitre de Chapelle in 1857.
+
+One of Auber's latest compositions was a march, written for the opening
+of the International Exhibition in London in 1862. His fascinating
+manners, his witty sayings, and his ever-ready kindness and beneficence
+won for him a secure place in the respect and love of his
+fellow-citizens. He remained in his old home during the German siege of
+Paris, 1870-71, but the miseries of the Communist war which followed
+sickened his heart, and he died in Paris on the 13th of May 1871.
+
+  See Adolph Kohut, "Auber," vol. xvii. of _Musiker Biographien_
+  (Leipzig, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+AUBERGINE (diminutive of Fr. _auberge_, a variant of _alberge_, a kind
+of peach), or EGG PLANT (_Solanum melongena_, var. _ovigerum_), a tender
+annual widely cultivated in the warmer parts of the earth, and in France
+and Italy, for the sake of its fruits, which are eaten as a vegetable.
+The seed should be sown early in February in a warm pit, where the
+plants are grown till shifted into 8-in. or 10-in. pots, in well-manured
+soil. Liquid manure should be given occasionally while the fruit is
+swelling; about four fruits are sufficient for one plant. The French
+growers sow them in a brisk heat in December, or early in January, and
+in March plant them out four or eight in a hot-bed with a bottom heat of
+from 60 deg. to 68 deg., the sashes being gradually more widely opened
+as the season advances, until at about the end of May they may be taken
+off. The two main branches which are allowed are pinched to induce
+laterals, but when the fruits are set all young shoots are taken off in
+order to increase their size. The best variety is the large purple,
+which produces oblong fruit, sometimes reaching 6 or 7 in. in length and
+10 or 12 in. in circumference. The fruit of the ordinary form almost
+exactly resembles the egg of the domestic fowl. It is also grown as an
+ornamental plant, for covering walls or trellises; especially the
+black-fruited kind.
+
+
+
+
+AUBERVILLIERS, or AUBERVILLIERS-LES-VERTUS, a town of northern France,
+in the department of Seine, on the canal St Denis, 2 m. from the right
+bank of the Seine and 1 m. N. of the fortifications of Paris. Pop.
+(1906) 33,358. Its manufactures include cardboard, glue, oils, colours,
+fertilizers, chemical products, perfumery, &c. During the middle ages
+and till modern times Aubervilliers was the resort of numerous pilgrims,
+who came to pay honour to Notre Dame des Vertus. In 1814 the locality
+was the scene of a stubborn combat between the French and the Allies.
+
+
+
+
+AUBIGNAC, FRANCOIS HEDELIN, ABBE D' (1604-1676), French author, was born
+at Paris on the 4th of August 1604. His father practised at the Paris
+bar, and his mother was a daughter of the great surgeon Ambroise Pare.
+Francois Hedelin was educated for his father's profession, but, after
+practising for some time at Nemours he abandoned law, took holy orders,
+and was appointed tutor to one of Richelieu's nephews, the duc de
+Fronsac. This patronage secured for him the abbey of Aubignac and of
+Mainac. The death of the duc de Fronsac in 1646 put an end to hopes of
+further preferment, and the Abbe d'Aubignac retired to Nemours,
+occupying himself with literature till his death on the 25th of July
+1676. He took an energetic share in the literary controversies of his
+time. Against Gilles Menage he wrote a _Terence justifie_ (1656); he
+laid claim to having originated the idea of the "_Carte de tendre_" of
+Mlle de Scudery's _Clelie_; and after being a professed admirer of
+Corneille he turned against him because he had neglected to mention the
+abbe in his _Discours sur le poeme dramatique_. He was the author of
+four tragedies: _La Cyminde_ (1642), _La Pucelle d'Orleans_ (1642),
+_Zenobie_ (1647) and _Le Martyre de Sainte Catherine_ (1650). _Zenobie_
+was written with the intention of affording a model in which the strict
+rules of the drama, as understood by the theorists, were observed. In
+the choice of subjects for his plays, he seems to have been guided by a
+desire to illustrate the various kinds of tragedy--patriotic, antique
+and religious. The dramatic authors whom he was in the habit of
+criticizing were not slow to take advantage of the opportunity for
+retaliation offered by the production of these mediocre plays. It is as
+a theorist that D'Aubignac still arrests attention. It has been proved
+that to Jean Chapelain belongs the credit of having been the first to
+establish as a practical law the convention of the unities that plays
+so large a part in the history of the French stage; but the laws of
+dramatic method and construction generally were codified by d'Aubignac
+in his _Pratique du theatre._ The book was only published in 1657, but
+had been begun at the desire of Richelieu as early as 1640. His
+_Conjectures academiques sur l'Iliade d'Homere_, which was not published
+until nearly forty years after his death, threw doubts on the existence
+of Homer, and anticipated in some sense the conclusions of Friedrich
+August Wolf in his _Prolegomena ad Homerum_ (1795).
+
+  The contents of the _Pratique du theatre_ are summarized by F.
+  Brunetiere in his notice of Aubignac in the _Grande Encydopedie._ See
+  also G. Saintsbury, _Hist. of Criticism_, bk. v., and H. Rigault,
+  _Hist. de la querelle des anciens et modernes._ (1859).
+
+
+
+
+AUBIGNE, CONSTANT D' [BARON DE SURINEAU] (c. 1584-1647), French
+adventurer, was the son of Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne, and the father of
+Madame de Maintenon. Born a Protestant, he became by turns Catholic or
+Protestant as it suited his interests. He betrayed the Protestants in
+1626, revealing to the court, after a voyage to England, the projects of
+the English upon La Rochelle. He was renounced by his father; then
+imprisoned by Richelieu's orders at Niort, where he was detained ten
+years. After having tried his fortunes in the Antilles, he died in
+Provence, leaving in destitution his wife, Jeanne de Cardillac, whom he
+had married in 1627. He had two children, Charles, father of the duchess
+of Noailles, and Francoise, known in history as Madame de Maintenon.
+
+  See T. Lavallee, _La Famille d'Aubigne et l'enfance de Madame de
+  Maintenon_ (Paris, 1863).
+
+
+
+
+AUBIGNE, JEAN HENRI MERLE D' (1794-1872), Swiss Protestant divine and
+historian, was born on the 16th of August 1794, at Eaux Vives, near
+Geneva. The ancestors of his father, Aime Robert Merle d'Aubigne
+(1755-1799), were French Protestant refugees. Jean Henri was destined by
+his parents to a commercial life; but at college he decided to be
+ordained. He was profoundly influenced by Robert Haldane, the Scottish
+missionary and preacher who visited Geneva. When in 1817 he went abroad
+to further his education, Germany was about to celebrate the
+tercentenary of the Reformation; and thus early he conceived the
+ambition to write the history of that great epoch. At Berlin he received
+stimulus from teachers so unlike as J.A.W. Neander and W.M.L. de Wette.
+After presiding for five years over the French Protestant church at
+Hamburg, he was, in 1823, called to become pastor of a congregation in
+Brussels and preacher to the court. He became also president of the
+consistory of the French and German Protestant churches. At the Belgian
+revolution of 1830 he thought it advisable to undertake pastoral work at
+home rather than to accept an educational post in the family of the
+Dutch king. The Evangelical Society had been founded with the idea of
+promoting evangelical Christianity in Geneva and elsewhere, but it was
+found that there was also needed a theological school for the training
+of pastors. On his return to Switzerland, d'Aubigne was invited to
+become professor of church history in an institution of the kind, and
+continued to labour in the cause of evangelical Protestantism. In him
+the Evangelical Alliance found a hearty promoter. He frequently visited
+England, was made a D.C.L. by Oxford University, and received civic
+honours from the city of Edinburgh. He died suddenly in 1872.
+
+His principal works are--_Discours sur l'etude de l'histoire de
+Christianisme_ (Geneva, 1832); _Le Lutheranisme et la Reforme_ (Paris,
+1844); _Germany, England and Scotland, or Recollections of a Swiss
+Pastor_ (London, 1848); _Trois siecles de lutte en Ecosse, ou deux rois
+et deux royaumes; Le Protecteur ou la republique d'Angleterre aux jours
+de Cromwell_ (Paris, 1848); _Le Concile et l'infaillibilile_ (1870);
+_Histoire de la Reformation au XVI^ieme siecle_ (Paris, 1835-1853; new
+ed:, 1861-1862, in 5 vols.); and _Histoire de la Reformation en Europe
+au temps de Calvin_ (8 vols., 1862-1877).
+
+The first portion of his _Histoire de la Reformation_, which was devoted
+to the earlier period of the movement in Germany, gave him at once a
+foremost place amongst modern French ecclesiastical historians, and was
+translated into most European tongues. The second portion, dealing with
+reform in the time of Calvin, was not less thorough, and had a subject
+hitherto less exhaustively treated, but it did not meet with the same
+success. This part of the subject, with which he was most competent to
+deal, was all but completed at the time of his death. Among his minor
+treatises, the most important are the vindication of the character and
+aims of Oliver Cromwell, and the sketch of the contendings of the Church
+of Scotland.
+
+Indefatigable in sifting original documents, Aubigne had amassed a
+wealth of authentic information; but his desire to give in all cases a
+full and graphic picture, assisted by a vivid imagination, betrayed him
+into excess of detail concerning minor events, and in a few cases into
+filling up a narrative by inference from later conditions. Moreover, in
+his profound sympathy with the Reformers, he too frequently becomes
+their apologist. But his work is a monument of painstaking sincerity,
+and brings us into direct contact with the spirit of the period.
+
+
+
+
+AUBIGNE, THEODORE AGRIPPA D' (1552-1630), French poet and historian, was
+born at St Maury, near Pons, in Saintonge, on the 8th of February 1552.
+His name Agrippa (_aegre partus_) was given him through his mother dying
+in childbirth. In his childhood he showed a great aptitude for
+languages; according to his own account he knew Latin, Greek and Hebrew
+at six years of age; and he had translated the _Crito_ of Plato before
+he was eleven. His father, a Huguenot who had been one of the
+conspirators of Amboise, strengthened his Protestant sympathies by
+showing him, while they were passing through that town on their way to
+Paris, the heads of the conspirators exposed upon the scaffold, and
+adjuring him not to spare his own head in order to avenge their death.
+After a brief residence he was obliged to flee from Paris to avoid
+persecution, but was captured and threatened with death. Escaping
+through the intervention of a friend, he went to Montargis. In his
+fourteenth year he was present at the siege of Orleans, at which his
+father was killed. His guardian sent him to Geneva, where he studied for
+a considerable time under the direction of Beza. In 1567 he made his
+escape from tutelage, and attached himself to the Huguenot army under
+the prince of Conde. Subsequently he joined Henry of Navarre, whom he
+succeeded in withdrawing from the corrupting influence of the house of
+Valois (1576), and to whom he rendered valuable service, both as a
+soldier and as a counsellor, in the wars that issued in his elevation to
+the throne as Henry IV. After a furious battle at Casteljaloux, and
+suffering from fever from his wounds, he wrote his _Tragiques_ (1571).
+He was in the battle of Coutras (1587), and at the siege of Paris
+(1590). His career at camp and court, however, was a somewhat chequered
+one, owing to the roughness of his manner and the keenness of his
+criticisms, which made him many enemies and severely tried the king's
+patience. In his _tragedie-ballet Circe_ (1576) he did not hesitate to
+indulge in the most outspoken sarcasm against the king and other members
+of the royal family. Though he more than once found it expedient to
+retire into private life he never entirely lost the favour of Henry, who
+made him governor of Maillezais. After the conversion of the king to
+Roman Catholicism, d'Aubigne remained true to the Huguenot cause, and a
+fearless advocate of the Huguenot interests. The first two volumes of
+the work by which he is best known, his _Histoire universelle depuis
+1550 jusqu'a l'an 1601_, appeared in 1616 and 1618 respectively. The
+third volume was published in 1619, but, being still more free and
+personal in its satire than those which had preceded it, it was
+immediately ordered to be burned by the common hangman. The work is a
+lively chronicle of the incidents of camp and court life, and forms a
+very valuable source for the history of France during the period it
+embraces. In September 1620 its author was compelled to take refuge in
+Geneva, where he found a secure retreat for the last ten years of his
+life, though the hatred of the French court showed itself in procuring a
+sentence of death to be recorded against him more than once. He devoted
+the period of his exile to study, and the superintendence of works for
+the fortifications of Bern and Basel which were designed as a material
+defence of the cause of Protestantism. He died at Geneva on the 29th of
+April 1630.
+
+  A complete edition of his works according to the original MSS. was
+  begun by E. Reaume and F. de Caussade (1879). It contains all the
+  literary works, the _Aventures du baron de Faeneste_ (1617), and the
+  _Memoires_ (6 vols., 1873-1892). The best edition of the _Histoire
+  universelle_ is by A. de Ruble. The _Memoires_ were edited by L.
+  Lalanne (1854).
+
+
+
+
+AUBIN, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron on the
+Enne, 30 m. N.W. of Rodez. In 1906 the urban population was 2229, the
+communal population 9986. Aubin is the centre of important coal-mines
+worked in the middle ages, and also has iron-mines, the product of which
+supplies iron works close to the town. Sheep-breeding is important in
+the vicinity. The church dates from the 12th century.
+
+
+
+
+AUBREY, JOHN (1626-1697), English antiquary, was born at Easton Pierse
+or Percy, near Malmesbury, Wiltshire, on the 12th of March 1626, his
+father being a country gentleman of considerable fortune. He was
+educated at the Malmesbury grammar school under Robert Latimer, who had
+numbered Thomas Hobbes among his earlier pupils, and at his
+schoolmaster's house Aubrey first met the philosopher about whom he was
+to leave so many curious and interesting details. He entered Trinity
+College, Oxford, in 1642, but his studies were interrupted by the Civil
+War. In 1646 he became a student of the Middle Temple, but was never
+called to the bar. He spent much of his time in the country, and in 1649
+he brought into notice the megalithic remains at Avebury. His father
+died in 1652, leaving to Aubrey large estates, and with them,
+unfortunately, complicated lawsuits. Aubrey, however, lived gaily, and
+used his means to gratify his passion for the company of celebrities and
+for every sort of knowledge to be gleaned about them. Anthony a Wood
+prophesied that he would one day break his neck while running downstairs
+after a retreating guest, in the hope of extracting a story from him. He
+took no active share in the political troubles of the time, but from his
+description of a meeting of the Rota Club, founded by James Harrington,
+the author of _Oceana_, he appears to have been a theorizing republican.
+His reminiscences on this subject date from the Restoration, and are
+probably softened by considerations of expediency. In 1663 he became a
+member of the Royal Society, and in the next year he met Joan Somner,
+"in an ill hour," he tells us. This connexion did not end in marriage,
+and a lawsuit with the lady complicated his already embarrassed affairs.
+He lost estate after estate, until in 1670 he parted with his last piece
+of property, Easton Pierse. From this time he was dependent on the
+hospitality of his numerous friends. In 1667 he had made the
+acquaintance of Anthony a Wood at Oxford, and when Wood began to gather
+materials for his invaluable _Athenae Oxonienses_, Aubrey offered to
+collect information for him. From time to time he forwarded memoranda to
+him, and in 1680 he began to promise the "Minutes for Lives," which Wood
+was to use at his discretion. He left the task of verification largely
+to Wood. As a hanger-on in great houses he had little time for
+systematic work, and he wrote the "Lives" in the early morning while his
+hosts were sleeping off the effects of the dissipation of the night
+before. He constantly leaves blanks for dates and facts, and many
+queries. He made no attempt at a fair copy, and, when fresh information
+occurred to him, inserted it at random. He made some distinction between
+hearsay and authentic information, but had no pretence to accuracy, his
+retentive memory being the chief authority. The principal charm of his
+"Minutes" lies in the amusing details he has to recount about his
+personages, and in the plainness and truthfulness that he permits
+himself in face of established reputations. In 1592 he complained
+bitterly that Wood had destroyed forty pages of his MS., probably
+because of the dangerous freedom of Aubrey's pen. Wood Was prosecuted
+eventually for insinuations against the judicial integrity of the earl
+of Clarendon. One of the two statements called in question was certainly
+founded on information provided by Aubrey. This perhaps explains the
+estrangement between the two antiquaries and the ungrateful account that
+Wood gives of the elder man's character. "He was a shiftless person,
+roving and magotic-headed, and sometimes little better than crased. And
+being exceedingly credulous, would stuff his many letters sent to A.W.
+with follies and misinformations, which sometimes would guide him into
+the paths of error."[1] In 1673 Aubrey began his "Perambulation" or
+"Survey" of the county of Surrey, which was the result of many years'
+labour in collecting inscriptions and traditions in the country. He
+began a "History of his Native District of Northern Wiltshire," but,
+feeling that he was too old to finish it as he would wish, he made over
+his material, about 1695, to Thomas Tanner, afterwards bishop of St
+Asaph. In the next year he published his only completed, though
+certainly not his most valuable work, the _Miscellanies_, a collection
+of stories on ghosts and dreams. He died at Oxford in June 1697, and was
+buried in the church of St Mary Magdalene.
+
+  Beside the works already mentioned, his papers included:
+  "Architectonica Sacra," notes on ecclesiastical antiquities; and "Life
+  of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury," which served as the basis of Dr
+  Blackburn's Latin life, and also of Wood's account. His survey of
+  Surrey was incorporated in R. Rawlinson's _Natural History and
+  Antiquities of Surrey_ (1719); his antiquarian notes on Wiltshire were
+  printed in _Wiltshire; the Topographical Collections of John Aubrey_,
+  corrected and enlarged by J.E. Jackson (Devizes, 1862); part of
+  another MS. on "The Natural History of Wiltshire" was printed by John
+  Britton in 1847 for the Wiltshire Topographical Society; the
+  _Miscellanies_ were edited in 1890 for the _Library of Old Authors_;
+  the "Minutes for Lives" were partially edited in 1813. A complete
+  transcript, _Brief Lives chiefly of Contemporaries set down by John
+  Aubrey between the Years 1669 and 1696_, was edited for the Clarendon
+  Press in 1898 by the Rev. Andrew Clark from the MSS. in the Bodleian,
+  Oxford.
+
+  See also John Britton, _Memoir of John Aubrey_ (1845); David Masson,
+  in the _British Quarterly Review_, July 1856; Emile Montegut, _Heures
+  de lecture d'un critique_ (1891); and a catalogue of Aubrey's
+  collections in _The Life and Times of Anthony Wood_ ..., by Andrew
+  Clark (Oxford, 1891-1900, vol. iv. pp. 191-193), which contains many
+  other references to Aubrey.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "Life of Anthony a Wood written by Himself" (_Athen. Oxon._, ed.
+    Bliss).
+
+
+
+
+AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Androscoggin county, Maine,
+U.S.A., on the Androscoggin river, opposite Lewiston (with which it
+practically forms an industrial unit), in the S.W. part of the state.
+Pop. (1890) 11,250; (1900) 12,951, of whom 2076 were foreign-born;
+(1910, census) 15,064. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Maine
+Central railways. The river furnishes abundant water-power, and the city
+ranked fourth in the state as a manufacturing centre in 1905. Boots and
+shoes are the principal products; in 1905 seven-tenths of the city's
+wage-earners were engaged in their manufacture, and Auburn's output
+($4,263,162 = 66.5% of the total factory product of the city) was
+one-third of that of the whole state. Other manufactures are butter,
+bread and other bakery products, cotton goods, furniture and leather.
+The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Auburn was first
+settled in 1786, and was incorporated in 1842, but the present charter
+dates only from 1869.
+
+
+
+
+AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A.,
+25 m. S.W. of Syracuse, on an outlet of Owasco Lake. Pop. (1890) 25,858;
+(1900) 30,345, of whom 5436 were foreign-born, 2084 being from Ireland
+and 1023 from England; (1910) 34,668. It is served by the Lehigh Valley
+and the New York Central & Hudson River railways, and by inter-urban
+electric lines. The city is attractively situated amidst a group of low
+hills in the heart of the lake country of western New York; the streets
+are wide, with a profusion of shade trees. Auburn has a city hall, the
+large Burtis Auditorium, the Auburn hospital, two orphan asylums, and
+the Seymour library in the Case Memorial building. There is a fine
+bronze statue of William H. Seward, who made his home here after 1823,
+and was buried in Fort Hill Cemetery. In Auburn are the Auburn (State)
+prison (1816), in connexion with which there is a women's prison; the
+Auburn Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), founded in 1819, chartered
+in 1820, and opened for students in 1821; the Robinson school for girls;
+and the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, for the education of
+working girls, with a building erected in 1907. The city owns its
+water-supply system, the water being pumped from Owasco Lake, about
+2-1/2 m. S.S.E. of the city. There is a good water-power, and the city
+has important manufacturing interests. The principal manufactures are
+cordage and twine, agricultural implements, engines, pianos, boots and
+shoes, cotton and woollen goods, carpets and rugs, rubber goods, flour
+and machinery. The total factory product in 1905 was valued at
+$13,420,863; of this $2,890,301 was the value of agricultural
+implements, in the manufacture of which Auburn ranked fifth among the
+cities of the United States. There are a number of grey and blue
+limestone quarries, one of which is owned and operated by the
+municipality.
+
+Settled soon after the close of the War of Independence, Auburn was laid
+out in 1793 by Captain John L. Hardenburgh, a veteran of the war, and
+for some years was known as Hardenburgh's Corners. In 1805, when it was
+made the county-seat, it was renamed Auburn. It was incorporated in
+1814, and was chartered as a city in 1848.
+
+  See C. Hawley, _Early Chapters of Cayuga History_ (Auburn, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+AUBURN (from the Low Lat. _alburnus_, whitish, light-coloured),
+ruddy-brown; the meaning has changed from the original one of
+brownish-white or light yellow (_citrinus_, in _Promptorium
+Parvulorum_), probably through the intensification of the idea of brown
+caused by the early spelling "abron" or "abrown."
+
+
+
+
+AUBUSSON, PIERRE D' (1423-1503), grand-master of the order of St John of
+Jerusalem, and a zealous opponent of the Turks, was born in 1423. He
+belonged to a noble French family, and early devoted himself to the
+career of a soldier in the service of the emperor Sigismund. Under the
+archduke Albert of Austria he took part in a campaign against the Turks,
+and on his return to France sided with the Armagnacs against the Swiss,
+greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of St Jacob in 1444. He
+then joined the order of the knights of Rhodes, and successfully
+conducted an expedition against the pirates of the Levant and an embassy
+to Charles VII. He soon rose to the most important offices in the order,
+and in 1476 was elected grand-master. It was the period of the conquests
+of Mahommed II., who, supreme in the East, now began to threaten Europe.
+In December 1479 a large Turkish fleet appeared in sight of Rhodes; a
+landing was effected, and a vigorous attack made upon the city. But in
+July of the next year, being reinforced from Spain, the knights forced
+the Mussulmans to retire, leaving behind them 9000 dead. The siege, in
+which d'Aubusson was seriously wounded, enhanced his renown throughout
+Europe. Mahommed was furious, and would have attacked the island again
+but for his death in 1481. His succession was disputed between his sons
+Bayezid and Jem. The latter, after his defeat by Bayezid, sought refuge
+at Rhodes under a safe-conduct from the grand-master and the council of
+the knights. What followed remains a stain on d'Aubusson's memory.
+Rhodes not being considered secure, Jem with his own consent was sent to
+France. Meanwhile, in spite of the safe-conduct, d'Aubusson accepted an
+annuity of 45,000 ducats from the sultan; in return for which he
+undertook to guard Jem in such a way as to prevent his design of
+appealing to the Christian powers to aid him against his brother. For
+six years Jem, in spite of frequent efforts to escape, was kept a close
+prisoner in various castles of the Rhodian order in France, until in
+1489 he was handed over to Pope Innocent VIII., who had been vying with
+the kings of Hungary and Naples for the possession of so valuable a
+political weapon. D'Aubusson's reward was a cardinal's hat (1489), and
+the power to confer all benefices connected with the order without the
+sanction of the papacy; the order of St John received the wealth of the
+suppressed orders of the Holy Sepulchre and St Lazarus. The remaining
+years of his life d'Aubusson spent in the attempt to restore discipline
+and zeal in his order, and to organize a grand international crusade
+against the Turks. The age of the Renaissance, with Alexander Borgia on
+the throne of St Peter, was, however, not favourable to such an
+enterprise; the death of Jem in 1495 had removed the most formidable
+weapon available against the sultan; and when in 1501 d'Aubusson led an
+expedition against Mytilene, dissensions among his motley host rendered
+it wholly abortive. The old man's last years were embittered by chagrin
+at his failure, which was hardly compensated by his success in
+extirpating Judaism in Rhodes, by expelling all adult Jews and forcibly
+baptizing their children. In the summer of 1503 he died.
+
+  See P. Bouhours, _Hist. de Pierre d'Aubusson_ (Paris, 1676; Hague,
+  1793; abridged ed. Bruges, 1887); G.E. Streck, _Pierre d'Aubusson,
+  Grossmeister_, &c. (Chemnitz, 1873); J.B. Bury in _Cambridge Mod.
+  Hist._ vol. i. p. 85, &c. (for relations with Jem).
+
+
+
+
+AUBUSSON, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Creuse, picturesquely situated on the river Creuse 24 m.
+S.E. of Gueret by rail. Pop. (1906) 6475. It has celebrated
+manufactories of carpets, &c., employing about 2000 workmen, the
+artistic standard of which is maintained by a national school of
+decorative arts, founded in 1869. Nothing certain is known as to the
+foundation of this industry, but it was in full activity at least as far
+back as 1531. From the 10th to the 13th century Aubusson was the centre
+of a viscounty, and the viscountess Marguerite, wife of Rainaud VI., was
+sung by many a troubadour. After the death of the viscount Guy II. (a
+little later than 1262) Aubusson was incorporated in the countship of La
+Marche by Hugh XII. of Lusignan, and shared in its fortunes. Louis XIV.
+revived the title of viscount of Aubusson in favour of Francois, first
+marshall de la Feuillade (1686). From the family of the old viscounts
+was descended Pierre d'Aubusson (q.v.). Admiral Sallandrouze de
+Lamornaix (1840-1902) belonged to a family of tapestry manufacturers
+established at Aubusson since the beginning of the 19th century.
+Aubusson was also the native place of the novelists Leonard Sylvain,
+Julien Sandeau and Alfred Assollant (1827-1886).
+
+  See Le Pere Anselme, _Hist. genealogique de la maison de France_, vol.
+  v. pp. 318 et seq.; P. Mignaton, _Hist. de la maison d'Aubusson_
+  (Paris, 1886); Cyprien Perathon, _Hist. d'Aubusson_ (Limoges, 1886).
+       (A. T.)
+
+
+
+
+AUCH, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Gers,
+55 m. W. of Toulouse on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 9294. Auch is
+built on the summit and sides of a hill at the foot of which flow the
+yellow waters of the Gers. It consists of a lower and upper quarter
+united in several places by flights of steps. The streets are in general
+steep and narrow, but there is a handsome promenade in the upper town,
+laid out in the 18th century by the _intendant_ Antoine Megret d'Etigny.
+Three bridges lead from the left to the right bank of the Gers, on which
+the suburb of Patte d'Oie is situated. The most interesting part of the
+town lies in the old quarter around the Place Salinis, a spacious
+terrace which commands an extensive view over the surrounding country.
+On its eastern side it communicates with the left bank of the river by a
+handsome series of steps; on its north side rises the cathedral of
+Sainte-Marie. This church, built from 1489 to 1662, belongs chiefly to
+the Gothic style, of which it is one of the finest examples in southern
+France. The facade, however, with its two square and somewhat heavy
+flanking towers dates from the 17th century, and is Greco-Roman in
+architecture. Sainte-Marie contains many artistic treasures, the chief
+of which are the magnificent stained-glass windows of the Renaissance
+which light the apsidal chapels, and the 113 choir-stalls of carved oak,
+also of Renaissance workmanship. The archbishop's palace adjoins the
+cathedral; it is a building of the 18th century with a Romanesque hall
+and a tower of the 14th century. Opposite the south side of the
+cathedral stands the lycee on the site of a former Jesuit college. Only
+scanty remains are left of the once celebrated abbey of St Orens. The
+ecclesiastical seminary contains an important library with a collection
+of manuscripts, and there is a public library in the Carmelite chapel, a
+building of the 17th century. The former palace of the _intendants_ of
+Gascony is now used as the _prefecture_. Auch is the seat of an
+archbishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of
+first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycee,
+training-colleges, a school of design, a branch of the Bank of France
+and an important lunatic asylum. The manufactures include agricultural
+implements, leather, vinegar and plaited sandals, and there is a trade
+in brandy, wine, cattle, poultry and wool; there are quarries of
+building-stone in the neighbourhood.
+
+Auch (Elimberris) was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe, the Ausci, and
+under the Roman domination was one of the most important cities in
+Gaul. In the 4th century this importance was increased by the foundation
+of its bishopric, and after the destruction of Eauze in the 9th century
+it became the metropolis of Novempopulana. Till 732, Auch stood on the
+right bank of the Gers, but in that year the ravages of the Saracens
+drove the inhabitants to take refuge on the left bank of the river,
+where a new city was formed. In the 10th century Count Bernard of
+Armagnac founded the Benedictine abbey of St Orens, the monks of which,
+till 1308, shared the jurisdiction over Auch with the archbishops--an
+arrangement which gave rise to constant strife. The counts of Armagnac
+possessed a castle in the city, which was the capital of Armagnac in the
+middle ages. During the Religious Wars of the 16th century Auch remained
+Catholic, except for a short occupation in 1569 by the Huguenots under
+Gabriel, count of Montgomery. In the 18th century it was capital of
+Gascony, and seat of a generality. Antoine Megret d'Etigny, intendant
+from 1751 to 1767, did much to improve the city and its commerce.
+
+
+
+
+AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL (1756-1822), British general, was born at New York
+in 1756, and served as a loyalist in the American War of Independence,
+being given an ensigncy in the royal army in 1777, and in 1778 a
+lieutenancy in the 45th Foot, without purchase. When his regiment
+returned to England after the war, having neither private means nor
+influence, he exchanged into the 52nd, in order to proceed to India. He
+took part in the last war against Hyder Ali; he was given a staff
+appointment by Lord Cornwallis in 1790, served in the operations against
+Tippoo Sahib, and continued in various staff appointments up to 1797,
+when he returned to England a brevet lieut.-colonel. In 1800 he was made
+lieut.-colonel and brevet colonel; and in the following year, as
+adjutant-general to Sir David Baird in Egypt, took a distinguished share
+in the march across the desert and the capture of Alexandria. On his
+return to England in 1803 he was knighted, and three years later he went
+out to the River Plate as a brigadier-general. Auchmuty was one of the
+few officers who came out of the disastrous Buenos Aires expedition of
+1806-7 with enhanced reputation. While General Whitelocke, the
+commander, was cashiered, Auchmuty was at once re-employed and promoted
+major-general, and was sent out in 1810 to command at Madras. In the
+following year he commanded the expedition organized for the conquest of
+Java, which the governor-general, Lord Minto, himself accompanied. The
+storming of the strongly fortified position of Meester Cornelis (28th
+August 1811), stubbornly defended by the Dutch garrison under General
+Janssens, practically achieved the conquest of the island, and after the
+action of Samarang (September 8th) Janssens surrendered. Auchmuty
+received the thanks of parliament and the order of K.C.B. (G.C.B. in
+1815), and in 1813, on his return home, was promoted to the rank of
+lieut.-general. In 1821 he became commander-in-chief in Ireland, and a
+member of the Irish privy council. He died suddenly on the 11th of
+August 1822.
+
+
+
+
+AUCHTERARDER (Gaelic, "upper high land"), a police burgh of Perthshire,
+Scotland, 13-3/4 m. S.W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901)
+2276. It is situated on Ruthven Water, a right-hand tributary of the
+Earn. The chief manufactures are those of tartans and other woollens,
+and of agricultural implements. At the beginning of the 13th century it
+obtained a charter from the earl of Strathearn, afterwards became a
+royal burgh for a period, and was represented in the Scottish
+parliament. Its castle, now ruinous, was built as a hunting-lodge for
+Malcolm Canmore, but of the abbey which it possessed as early as the
+reign of Alexander II. (1198-1249) no remains exist. The ancient church
+of St Mungo, now in ruins, was a building in the Norman or Early Pointed
+style. The town was almost entirely burned down by the earl of Mar in
+1716 during the abortive Jacobite rising. It was in connexion with this
+parish that the ecclesiastical dispute arose which led to the disruption
+in the Church of Scotland in 1843. The estate of Kincardine, 1 m. south,
+gives the title of earl of Kincardine to the duke of Montrose. The old
+castle, now in ruins, was dismantled in 1645 by the marquis of Argyll in
+retaliation for the destruction of Castle Campbell in Dollar Glen on the
+south side of the Ochils. The old ruined castle of Tullibardine, 2 m
+west of the burgh, once belonged to the Murrays of Tullibardine,
+ancestors of the duke of Atholl, who derives the title of marquis of
+Tullibardine from the estate. The ancient chapel adjoining, also
+ruinous, was a burial-place of the Murrays.
+
+
+
+
+AUCHTERMUCHTY (Gaelic, "the high ground of the wild sow"), a royal and
+police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, built on an elevation about 9 m. W.
+by S. of Cupar, with a station on a branch of the North British railway
+from Ladybank to Mawcarse Junction. Pop. 1387. The rapid Loverspool Burn
+divides the town. The principal industries include the weaving of linen
+and damasks, bleaching, distilling and malting. John Glas, founder of
+the sect known as Glassites or Sandemanians, was a native of the town. A
+mile and a half to the south-west is the village of Strathmiglo (pop.
+966), on the river Eden, with a linen factory and bleaching works.
+
+
+
+
+AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF (1784-1849), English statesman, was the
+second son of the 1st Baron Auckland. He completed his education at
+Oxford, and was admitted to the bar in 1809. His elder brother was
+drowned in the Thames in the following year; and in 1814, on the death
+of his father, he took his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland.
+He supported the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made
+president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In 1834 he held
+office for a few months as first lord of the admiralty, and in 1835 he
+was appointed governor-general of India. He proved himself to be a
+painstaking and laborious legislator, and devoted himself specially to
+the improvement of native schools, and the expansion of the commercial
+industry of the nation committed to his care. These useful labours were
+interrupted in 1838 by complications in Afghanistan, which excited the
+fears not only of the Anglo-Indian government but of the home
+authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war, and on the 1st
+of October 1838 published at Simla his famous manifesto dethroning Dost
+Mahommed. The early operations were crowned with success, and the
+governor-general received the title of earl of Auckland. But reverses
+followed quickly, and in the ensuing campaigns the British troops
+suffered the most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double
+mortification of seeing his policy a complete failure and of being
+superseded before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of 1841
+he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and returned to England
+in the following year. In 1846 he was made first lord of the admiralty,
+which office he held until his death, on the 1st of January 1849. He
+died unmarried, and the earldom became extinct, the barony (see below)
+passing to his brother Robert.
+
+  See S.J. Trotter, _The Earl of Auckland_ ("Rulers of India" series),
+  1893.
+
+
+
+
+AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, 1ST BARON (1745-1814), English statesman, son of
+Sir Robert Eden, 3rd Bart., of Windlestone Hall, Durham, and of Mary,
+daughter of William Davison, was born in 1745, educated at Eton and
+Christ Church, Oxford, and called to the bar at the Middle Temple in
+1768. In 1771 he published _Principles of Penal Law_, and was early
+recognized as an authority on commercial and economic questions, and in
+1772 he was appointed an under secretary of state. He represented New
+Woodstock in the parliaments of 1774 and 1780, and Heytesbury in those
+of 1784 and 1790. In 1776 he was appointed a commissioner on the board
+of trade and plantations. In 1778 he carried an act for the improvement
+of the treatment of prisoners, and accompanied the earl of Carlisle as a
+commissioner to North America on an unsuccessful mission to settle the
+disputes with the colonists. On his return in 1779 he published his
+widely read _Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle_, and in 1780 became
+chief secretary for Ireland. He was elected to the Irish House of
+Commons as member for Dungannon in 1781 and sworn of the Irish privy
+council, and while in Ireland established the National Bank. He advised
+the increase of the secret service fund, and was reputed, according to
+Lord Charlemont (a political opponent), as especially skilful in the
+arts of corruption and in overcoming political prejudices. He resigned
+in 1782, but in the following year he took office again as
+vice-treasurer of Ireland under the coalition ministry, which he had
+been instrumental in arranging, and was included in the privy council,
+resigning with the government in December. He opposed strongly Pitt's
+propositions for free trade between England and Ireland in 1785, but
+took office with Pitt as a member of the committee on trade and
+plantations, and negotiated in 1786 and 1787 Pitt's important commercial
+treaty with France, and agreements concerning the East India Companies
+and Holland. In 1787 he published his _History of New Holland_. Next
+year he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and after his return was
+created (September 1789) Baron Auckland in the Irish peerage. The same
+year he was sent on a mission to Holland, and represented English
+interests there with great zeal and prudence during the critical years
+of 1790 to 1793, obtaining the assistance of the Dutch fleet in 1790 on
+the menace of a war with Spain, signing the convention relating to the
+Netherlands the same year, and in 1793 attending the congress at
+Antwerp. He retired from the public service in the latter year, received
+a pension of L2300, and was created Baron Auckland of West Auckland,
+Durham, in the English peerage. During his retirement in the country at
+Beckenham, he continued his intimacy with Pitt, his nearest neighbour at
+Holwood, who at one time had thoughts of marrying his daughter; and with
+Pitt's sanction he published his _Remarks on the Apparent Cicumstances
+of the War_ in 1795, to prepare public opinion for a peace. In 1798 he
+was included in Pitt's government as joint postmaster-general, and
+supported strongly the income tax and the Irish Union, assisting in
+drawing up the act embodying the latter. In 1799 he brought in a bill to
+check adultery by preventing the marriage of the guilty parties, and the
+same year took a mischievous part in the cabal against Sir Ralph
+Abercromby. He severely criticized Pitt's resignation in 1801, from
+which he had endeavoured to dissuade him, and retained office under
+Addington. This terminated his friendship with Pitt, who excluded him
+from his administration in 1804 though he increased his pension.
+Auckland was included in Granville's ministry of "All the Talents" as
+president of the board of trade in 1806. He held the appointments of
+auditor and director of Greenwich hospital, recorder of Grantham, and
+chancellor of the Marischal College in Aberdeen. He died on the 28th of
+May 1814.
+
+He had married in 1776 Eleanor, sister of the first Lord Minto, and had
+a large family. Emily Eden (1797-1869), the novelist, was one of his
+daughters. On the death of his son George, 2nd baron and earl of
+Auckland (q.v.), the barony passed to the 1st baron's younger son Robert
+John (1790-1870), bishop of Bath and Wells, from whom the later barons
+were descended, and who was also the father of Sir Ashley Eden
+(1831-1887), lieutenant-governor of Bengal. The 1st baron had two
+distinguished brothers--Morton Eden (1752-1830), a diplomatist, who
+married Lady Elizabeth Henley, and in 1799 was created 1st Baron Henley
+(his family, from 1831, taking the name of Henley instead of Eden); and
+Sir Robert Eden, governor of Maryland, whose son, Sir Frederic Morton
+Eden (1766-1809), was a well-known economist.
+
+  Lord Auckland's _Journal and Correspondence_, published in 1861-1862,
+  throws much light on the political history of the time.
+
+
+
+
+AUCKLAND, a city and seaport on the east coast of North Island, New
+Zealand, in Eden county; capital of the province of its name, and the
+seat of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 37,736; including suburbs, 82,101. It is
+situated at the mouth of an arm of Hauraki Gulf, and is only 6 m.
+distant from the head of Manukau harbour on the western coast. The
+situation is extremely beautiful. The Hauraki Gulf, a great square inlet
+opening northward, is studded with islands of considerable elevation;
+Rangitoto, which protects the harbour, is a volcanic cone reaching
+nearly 1000 ft. The isthmus on which the town stands (which position has
+caused it to be likened to Corinth) can be crossed without surmounting
+any great elevation, and offers a feasible canal route. A number of
+small extinct volcanoes, however, appear in all directions. To the west
+the Titirangi hills exceed 1400 ft. Some of the volcanic soil is barren,
+but much of the district is clothed in luxuriant vegetation.
+
+Auckland harbour, one of the best in New Zealand, is approachable by the
+largest vessels at the lowest tide. There are two graving docks. Queen
+Street, the principal thoroughfare, leads inland from the main dock, and
+contains the majority of the public buildings. There is a small
+government house, standing in beautiful grounds, adjoining Albert Park,
+with plantations of oaks and pines. The government offices, art gallery
+and exchange, with St Mary's cathedral (Anglican), a building in a
+combination of native timbers, St Paul's and St Patrick's cathedral
+(Roman Catholic), are noteworthy buildings. The art gallery and free
+library contain excellent pictures, and valuable books and MSS.
+presented by Sir G. Grey. The museum contains one of the best existing
+collections of Maori art. There are an opera-house and an academy of
+music. The Auckland University College and the grammar school are the
+principal educational establishments. The parks are the Domain, with a
+botanical garden, the Albert Park near the harbour, with a bronze statue
+of Queen Victoria, the extensive grounds at One Tree Hill on the
+outskirts, and Victoria Park on Freeman's Bay. The principal
+thoroughfares are served by electric tramway. Of the suburbs, Newton,
+Parnell and Newmarket are in reality outlying parts of the town itself.
+Devonport, Birkenhead and Northcote are beautifully situated on the
+north shore of the inlet, and are served by steam-ferries. Several other
+residential suburbs lie among the hills on the mainland, such as Mount
+Albert, Mount Eden and Epsom. Onehunga is a small port on Manukau
+harbour, served by rail. In Parnell is the former residence of Bishop
+Selwyn, who, arriving in the colony in 1842, assisted to draw up the
+constitution of the Anglican church. There are many associations with
+his name in the neighbourhood. The prospect over the town and its
+environs from Mount Eden is justly famous. The hill is terraced with
+former native fortifications.
+
+Auckland has industries of sugar-refining, ship-building and paper-,
+rope- and brick-making, and timber is worked. The town was founded as
+capital of the colony in 1840 by Governor Hobson. There is communication
+both south and north by rail, and regular steamers serve the ports of
+the colony, the principal Pacific Islands, Australia, &c. From 1853 to
+1876 Auckland was the seat of the provincial government, and until 1865
+that of the central government, which was then transferred to
+Wellington. The first session of the general assembly took place here in
+1854. Auckland is under municipal government.
+
+
+
+
+AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1806 by
+Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler "Ocean," in 50 deg. 24' S., 166
+deg. 7' E. The islands, of volcanic origin, are very fertile, and are
+covered with forest. They were granted to the Messrs Enderby by the
+British government as a whaling station, but the establishment was
+abandoned in 1852. The islands belong politically to New Zealand.
+
+
+
+
+AUCTION PITCH, a card game which is a popular variation of All Fours
+(q.v.). The name is derived from the rule that the first card played, or
+_pitched_, is the trump suit, and that the eldest hand has the privilege
+of pitching it or of selling out to the highest bidder. A full pack is
+used, and the cards rank as in All Fours, namely from ace down to 2, ace
+being highest in cutting also. From four to seven may play, each player
+being provided with seven white counters, and also with red counters in
+case stakes are played for. Each player receives six cards in every
+deal, three at a time, no trump being turned. The object is to get rid
+of the white counters, one of which may be put into the pool either (1)
+for holding the highest trump played; (2) for having the lowest trump
+dealt to one; (3) for taking the Jack (knave) of trumps; or (4) for
+winning the _game_, namely the greatest number of pips that count. In
+case of a tie of pips no game is scored. If the eldest hand decides to
+pitch and not to sell out, he may do so, but is obliged to make four
+points or be set back that number. If he decides to sell, he says "I
+pass," and the player at his left bids for the privilege of pitching the
+trump or passes, &c. When a bid has been made the rest must pass or bid
+higher, and the eldest hand must either accept a bid or undertake to
+make as many points as the bidder. If no bid is made he pitches the
+trump himself, without the obligation of making anything. The first card
+played is the trump suit, the winner of the trick leading again. In
+trumps a player must follow suit if he can, and the same rule applies in
+plain suits, excepting that a trump may be played at any time ("follow
+suit or trump"). In play the highest card wins the trick unless trumped.
+When the hand is played out each player puts a white counter into the
+pool for every point won, and the first player to get rid of all his
+seven white counters wins the pool and takes from it all the red
+counters, which represent cash. This ends the game. In case two players
+count out during the same deal, the bidder has the first right to the
+pool, the rule being "bidder counts out first." If the two players who
+count out are neither of them bidder, then they go out in regular order,
+i.e. high first, then low, Jack and game. If a bidder fails to make his
+points he is set back that number. A revoke is punished by the offender
+being set back the number of points bid and forfeiting a red counter to
+the pool.
+
+
+
+
+AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS. An auction (Lat. _auctio_, increase) is a
+proceeding at which people are invited to compete for the purchase of
+property by successive offers of advancing sums. The advantages of
+conducting a sale in this way are obvious, and we naturally find that
+auctions are of great antiquity. Herodotus describes a custom which
+prevailed in Babylonian villages of disposing of the maidens in marriage
+by delivering them to the highest bidders in an assembly annually held
+for the purpose (Book i. 196). So also among the Romans the quaestor
+sold military booty and captives in war by auction--_sub hasta_--the
+spear being the symbol of quiritarian ownership. The familiarity of such
+proceedings is forcibly suggested by the conduct of the Praetorian Guard
+when Sulpicianus was treating for the imperial dignity after the murder
+of Pertinax. Apprehending that they would not obtain a sufficient price
+by private contract, the Praetorians proclaimed from their ramparts that
+the Roman world was to be disposed of by public auction to the best
+bidder. Thereupon Julian proceeded to the foot of the ramparts and
+outbid his competitor (Gibbon, vol. i. ch. v.). Though, however,
+auctions were undoubtedly common among the Romans both in public and
+private transactions, the rules whereby they were governed are by no
+means clearly enunciated in the _Corpus Juris Civilis_.
+
+In England the method of conducting auctions has varied. In some places
+it has been usual to set up an inch of lighted candle, the person making
+the last bid before the fall of the wick becoming the purchaser. By an
+act of William III. (1698), this method of sale was prescribed for goods
+and merchandise imported from the East Indies. Lord Eldon speaks of
+"candlestick biddings," where the several bidders did not know what the
+others had offered. A "dumb bidding" was the name given to a proceeding
+at which a price was put by the owner under a candlestick with a
+stipulation that no bidding should avail if not equal to it. In a "Dutch
+auction" property is offered at a certain price and then successively at
+lower prices until one is accepted.
+
+According to the practice now usual in England, a proposed auction is
+duly advertised, and a printed catalogue in the case of chattels, or
+particulars of sale in the case of land, together with conditions of
+sale, are circulated. Sometimes, in sales of goods, the conditions are
+merely suspended in the auction room. At the appointed time and place,
+the auctioneer, standing in a desk or rostrum, "puts up" the several
+lots in turn by inviting biddings from the company present. He announces
+the acceptance of the last bid by a tap with his hammer and so "knocks
+down" the lot to the person who has made it. Sometimes property is
+offered on lease to the highest bidder. "Roup" is the Scottish term for
+an auction. A bid in itself is only an offer, and may accordingly be
+retracted at any time before its acceptance by the fall of the hammer or
+otherwise. Puffing is unlawful. Unless a right to bid is expressly
+reserved on behalf of the vendor, he must neither bid himself nor employ
+any one else to bid. When a right to bid has been expressly reserved,
+the seller or any one person (but no more) on his behalf may bid at the
+auction. If it is simply announced that the sale is to be subject to a
+reserved or upset price, no bidding by or on behalf of the seller is
+permissible: it is only lawful to declare by some appropriate terms that
+the property is withdrawn. Where a sale is expressed to be without
+reserve, or where an upset price has been reached, the auctioneer must,
+after the lapse of a reasonable interval, accept the bid of the highest
+_bona fide_ bidder. By not doing so he would render the vendor liable in
+damages. The auctioneer must not make a pretence of receiving bids which
+are not in fact made, as it would be fraudulent to run up the price by
+such an artifice. A "knock-out" is a combination of persons to prevent
+competition between themselves at an auction by an arrangement that only
+one of their number shall bid, and that anything obtained by him shall
+be afterwards disposed of privately among themselves. Such a combination
+is not illegal. A "mock auction" is a proceeding at which persons
+conspire by artifice to make it appear, contrary to the fact, that a
+_bona fide_ sale is being conducted, and so attempt to induce the public
+to purchase articles at prices far above their value. Those who invite
+the public to enter the room where the supposed auction is proceeding,
+or otherwise endeavour to attract bidders, are called "barkers." A
+conspiracy to defraud in this way is an indictable offence.
+
+American law is in general the same as the English law with regard to
+auctions. As to bidding by the vendor, however, it is less stringent.
+For, though puffing or by-bidding, as it is often called, will, under
+both systems alike, render an auction sale voidable at the option of a
+purchaser when it amounts to fraud, the weight of authority in the
+United States is in favour of the view that an owner may, without
+notice, employ a person to bid for him, if he does so with no other
+purpose than to prevent a sacrifice of the property under a given price.
+
+By a charter of Henry VII., confirmed by Charles I., the business of
+selling by auction was confined to an officer called an _outroper_, and
+all other persons were prohibited from selling goods or merchandise by
+public claim or outcry (see Henry Blackstone's _Reports_, vol. ii. p.
+557). The only qualification now required by an auctioneer is a licence
+on which a duty of L10 has to be paid, and which must be renewed before
+the 5th of July in each year. A liability to a penalty of L100 is
+incurred by acting as an auctioneer without being duly licensed. The
+duty formerly imposed upon the purchase-money payable by virtue of a
+sale at auction was abolished by an act of 1845. An auctioneer is bound
+under a penalty of L20 to see that his full name and address are
+displayed before the commencement of an auction and during its
+continuance in the place where he conducts it. He is the agent of the
+vendor only, except in so far that, after he has knocked down a lot to
+the highest bidder, he has authority to affix the name of the latter to
+a memorandum of the transaction, so as to render the contract of sale
+enforceable where written evidence is necessary. An auctioneer does not,
+by merely announcing that a sale of certain articles will take place,
+render himself liable to those who, in consequence, attend at the time
+and place advertised, if the sale is not in fact proceeded with,
+provided he acts in good faith. One of the chief risks run by an
+auctioneer is that of being held liable for the conversion of goods
+which he has sold upon the instructions of a person whom he believed to
+be the owner, but who in fact had no right to dispose of them.
+
+The number of auctioneers' licences issued during the year ended the
+31st of March 1908 was in England 6639, in Scotland 760, and in Ireland
+839. A central organization having its headquarters in London, the
+Auctioneers' Institute of the United Kingdom, was founded in 1886, in
+order to elevate the status and further the interests of auctioneers,
+estate agents and valuers. It has nearly 2000 members.     (H. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+AUCUBA, the Japanese name for a small genus of the Dogwood order
+(Cornaceae). The familiar Japanese laurel of gardens and shrubberies is
+_Aucuba japonica_. It bears male and female flowers on distinct plants;
+the red berries often last till the next season's flowers appear. There
+are numerous varieties in cultivation, differing in the variegation of
+their leaves.
+
+
+
+
+AUDAEUS, or AUDIUS, a church reformer of the 4th century, by birth a
+Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from the Syrian clergy for
+his fearless censure of their irregular lives, and was expelled from the
+church, thereupon establishing an episcopal monastic community. He was
+afterwards banished into Scythia, where he worked successfully among the
+Goths, not living to see the destruction of his labours by Athanaric.
+The Audaeans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as the
+Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing to the
+Deity a human shape, an opinion which they appear to have founded on
+Genesis i. 26. Theodoret groundlessly accuses them of Manichean
+tendencies.
+
+  The main source of information is Epiphanius (_Haer._ 70).
+
+
+
+
+AUDE, a river of south-western France, rising in the eastern Pyrenees
+and flowing into the Golfe du Lion. Rising in a small lake a short
+distance east of the Puy de Carlitte, it soon takes a northerly
+direction and flows for many miles through deep gorges of great beauty
+as far as the plain of Axat. Beyond Axat its course again lies through
+defiles which become less profound as the river nears Carcassonne. Below
+that town it receives the waters of the Fresquel and turns abruptly
+east. From this point to its junction with the Cesse its course is
+parallel with that of the Canal du Midi. The river skirts the northern
+spurs of the Corbieres, some distance below which it is joined by the
+Orbieu and the Cesse. It then divides into two branches, the
+northernmost of which, the Aude proper, runs east and empties into the
+Mediterranean some 12 m. east-north-east of Narbonne, while the other
+branch, the Canal de la Robine, turning south, traverses that town,
+below which its course to the sea lies between two extensive lagoons,
+the Etang de Bages et de Sigean and the Etang de Gruissan. The Aude has
+a length of 140 m. and a basin 2061 sq. m. in extent. There is
+practically no traffic upon it.
+
+
+
+
+AUDE, a maritime department of southern France, formed in 1790 from part
+of the old province of Languedoc. Area, 2448 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 308,327.
+It is bounded E. by the Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Herault
+and Tarn, N.W. by Haute-Garonne, W. by Ariege, and S. by
+Pyrenees-Orientales. The department is traversed on its western boundary
+from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which unites the
+Pyrenees with the southern Cevennes; and its northern frontier is
+occupied by the Montagne Noire, the most westerly portion of the
+Cevennes. The Corbieres, a branch of the Pyrenees, run in a south-west
+and north-east direction along the southern district. The Aude (q.v.),
+its principal river, has almost its entire length in the department, and
+its lower course, together with its tributary the Fresquel, forms the
+dividing line between the Montagne Noire and the Pyrenean system.
+
+The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagoons, the chief of
+which are those of Bages et Sigean, Gruissan, Lapalme and Leucate. The
+climate is warm and dry, but often sudden in its alterations. The wind
+from the north-west, known as the _cers_, blows with great violence, and
+the sea-breeze is often laden with pestilential effluvia from the
+lagoons. The agriculture of the department is in a flourishing
+condition. The meadows are extensive and well watered, and are pastured
+by numerous flocks and herds. The grain produce, consisting mainly of
+wheat, oats, rye and Indian corn, exceeds the consumption, and the
+vineyards yield an abundant supply of both white and red wines, those of
+Limoux and the Narbonnais being most highly esteemed. Truffles are
+abundant. The olive and chestnut are the chief fruits. Mines of iron,
+manganese, and especially of mispickel, are worked, and there are
+stone-quarries and productive salt-marshes. Brewing, distilling,
+cooperage, iron-founding, hat-making and machine construction are
+carried on, and there are flour-mills, brick-works, saw-mills, sulphur
+refineries and leather and paper works. The formerly flourishing textile
+industries are now of small importance. The department imports coal,
+lime, stone, salt, raw sulphur, skins and timber and exports
+agricultural and mineral products, bricks and tiles, and other
+manufactured goods. It is served by the Southern railway. The Canal du
+Midi, following the courses of the Fresquel and the Aude, traverses it
+for 76 m.; and a branch, the Canal de la Robine, which passes through
+Narbonne to the sea, has a length of 24 m. The capital is Carcassonne,
+and the department is divided into the four arrondissements of
+Carcassonne, Limoux, Narbonne and Castelnaudary, with 31 cantons and 439
+communes. It belongs to the 16th military region, and to the academie
+(educational division) of Montpellier, where also is its court of
+appeal. It forms the diocese of Carcassonne, and part of the province of
+the archbishop of Toulouse. Carcassonne, Narbonne and Castelnaudary are
+the principal towns. At Alet, which has hot springs of some note, there
+are ruins of a fine Romanesque cathedral destroyed in the religious wars
+of the 16th century. The extensive buildings of the Cistercian abbey of
+Fontfroide, near Bizanet, include a Romanesque church, a cloister,
+dormitories and a refectory of the 12th century. A curious polygonal
+church of the 11th century at Rieux-Minervois, the abbey-church at St
+Papoul, with its graceful cloister of the 14th century, and the remains
+of the important abbey of St Hilaire, founded in the 6th century and
+rebuilt from the 12th to the 15th century, are also of antiquarian
+interest. Rennes-les-Bains has mineral springs of repute.
+
+
+
+
+AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1759-1800), French artist and naturalist, was
+born at Rochefort in 1759. He studied painting and drawing at Paris, and
+gained considerable reputation as a miniature-painter. Employed in
+preparing plates for the _Histoire des coleopteres_ of G.A. Olivier
+(1756-1814), he acquired a taste for natural history. In 1800 appeared
+his first original work, _L'Histoire naturelle des singes, des makis et
+des galeopitheques_, illustrated by sixty-two folio plates, drawn and
+engraved by himself. The colouring in these plates was unusually
+beautiful, and was applied by a method devised by himself. Audebert died
+in Paris in 1800, leaving complete materials for another great work,
+_Histoire des colibris, des oiseaux-mouches, des jacamars et des
+promerops_, which was published in 1802. Two hundred copies were printed
+in folio, one hundred in large quarto, and fifteen were printed with the
+whole text in letters of gold. Another work, left unfinished, was also
+published after the author's death, _L'Histoire des grimpereaux et des
+oiseaux de paradis_. The last two works also appeared together in two
+volumes, _Oiseaux dores ou a reflets metalliques_ (1802).
+
+
+
+
+AUDEFROI LE BATARD, French _trouvere_, flourished at the end of the 12th
+century and was born at Arras. Of his life nothing is known. The
+seigneur de Nesles, to whom some of his songs are addressed, is probably
+the chatelain of Bruges who joined the crusade of 1200. Audefroi was the
+author of at least five lyric romances: _Argentine, Belle Idoine, Belle
+Isabeau, Belle Emmelos_ and _Beatrix_. These romances follow older
+_chansons_ in subject, but the smoothness of the verse and beauty of
+detail hardly compensate for the spontaneity of the shorter form.
+
+  See A. Jeanroy, _Les Origines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen
+  age_ (Paris, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+AUDIENCE (from Lat. _audire_, to hear), the act or state of hearing, the
+term being therefore transferred to those who hear or listen, as in a
+theatre, at a concert or meeting. In a more technical sense, the term is
+applied to the right of access to the sovereign enjoyed by the peers of
+the realm individually and by the House of Commons collectively. More
+particularly it means the ceremony of the admission of ambassadors,
+envoys or others to an interview with a sovereign or an important
+official for the purpose of presenting their credentials. In France,
+_audience_ is the term applied to the sitting of a law court for hearing
+actions. In Spain, _audiencia_ is the name given to certain tribunals
+which try appeals from minor courts. The Spanish judges were originally
+known as _oidores_, hearers, from the Spanish _oir_, to hear; but they
+are now called _ministros_, or _magistrados togados_, robed judges, as
+the gown of the Spanish judge is called a _toga_. The _audiencia
+pretorial_, i.e. of the praetor, was a court in Spanish America from
+which there was no appeal to the viceroy, but only to the council of
+the Indies in Spain. It is not the custom in Spain to speak of
+_audiencias reales_, royal courts, but of the _audiencias del Reino_,
+courts of the kingdom.
+
+In England the _Audience-court_ was an ecclesiastical court, held by the
+archbishops of Canterbury and York, in which they once exercised a
+considerable part of their jurisdiction, dealing with such matters as
+they thought fit to reserve for their own hearing. It has been long
+disused and is now merged in the court of arches.
+
+
+
+
+AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDME ARMAND GASTON, DUC D' (1823-1905), French
+statesman, was the grand-nephew and adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis
+Pasquier. He was created duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council
+of state in 1846. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private
+life. Under the empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the
+legislature, but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly,
+and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the fall of
+Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different royalist
+parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused to give up the
+tricolour for the flag of the old _regime_, the project failed. Yet he
+retained the confidence of the chamber, and was its president in 1875
+when the constitutional laws were being drawn up. Nominated senator
+under the new constitution, he likewise was president of the senate from
+March 1876 to 1879 when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was
+less prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation and
+uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon from taking
+violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the French Academy, but
+never published anything.
+
+
+
+
+AUDIT and AUDITOR. An audit is the examination of the accounts kept by
+the financial officers of a state, public corporations and bodies, or
+private persons, and the certifying of their accuracy. In the United
+Kingdom the public accounts were audited from very early times, though,
+until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to
+1559 this duty was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially
+appointed, at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the
+auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314. But in
+1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing of the public
+accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the imprests. These
+officers were paid by fee and did their work by deputy, but as the
+results were thoroughly unsatisfactory the offices were abolished in
+1785. An audit board, consisting of five commissioners, was appointed in
+their place, but in order to concentrate under one authority the
+auditing of the accounts of the various departments, some of which had
+been audited separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit
+Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length the
+duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint a
+"comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to examine
+and verify the accounts prepared by the different departments of the
+public service. In examining accounts of the appropriation of the
+several supply grants, the comptroller and auditor-general "ascertains
+first whether the payments which the account department has charged to
+the grant are supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second,
+whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose or purposes
+for which such grant was intended to provide." The treasury may also
+submit certain other accounts to the audit of the comptroller-general.
+All public moneys payable to the exchequer (q.v.) are paid to the
+"account of His Majesty's exchequer" at the Bank of England, and daily
+returns of such payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly
+accounts of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared
+and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the
+consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances.
+
+In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is in the
+charge of the treasury department, under the supervision of the
+comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors, (1) for the
+treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the interior, (4) for the
+navy, (5) for the state, &c., (6) for the post office, as well as a
+register and assistant register, who keep all general receipt and
+expenditure ledgers; there are official auditors in most of the states
+and in many cities. In practically all European countries there is a
+department of the administration, charged with the auditing of the
+public accounts, as the _cour des comptes_ in France, the _Rechnungshof
+des deutschen Reiches_ in Germany, &c. All local boards, large cities,
+corporations, and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of
+examining and checking their accounts and looking after their
+expenditure. So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in
+connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building
+societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies,
+savings banks, &c., the word auditor is now almost synonymous with
+"skilled accountant," and his duties are discussed in the article
+ACCOUNTANTS.
+
+In Scotland there is an "auditor" who is an official of the court of
+session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who corresponds to
+the English taxing-master. In France there are legal officers, called
+auditors, attached to the _Conseil d'Etat_, whose duties consist in
+drawing up briefs and preparing documents. On the continent of Europe,
+lawyers skilled in military law are called "auditors" (see MILITARY
+LAW).
+
+Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman curia.
+The _auditores Rotae_ are the judges of the court of the Rota (so
+called, according to Hinschius, probably from the form of the panelling
+in the room where they originally met). These were originally
+ecclesiastics appointed to _hear_ particular questions in dispute and
+report to the pope, who retained the decision in his own hands. In the
+_Speculum juris_ of Durandus (published in 1272 and re-edited in 1287
+and 1291) the _auditores palatii domini papae_ are cited as permanent
+officials appointed to instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The
+court of the Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull
+_Romani Pontificis_ of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by this time
+had developed into a permanent tribunal to which the definitive decision
+of certain disputes, hitherto relegated to a commission of cardinals or
+to the pope himself, was assigned. From this time the powers of the
+auditores increased until the reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the
+creation of the congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended
+gradually to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It
+still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal
+curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges.
+They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have others
+conceded by successive popes, e.g. that of holding benefices in
+plurality, of non-residence, &c. When the pope says mass pontifically
+the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores must be in priest's or
+deacon's orders, and have always been selected--nominally at
+least--after severe tests as to their moral and intellectual
+qualifications. They are twelve in number, and, by the constitution of
+Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners; one French, one Spanish,
+one German and one Venetian; while the nomination of others was the
+privilege of certain, cities. No bishop, unless _in partibus_ (see
+BISHOP), may be an auditor. On the other hand, from the auditores, as
+the intellectual _elite_ of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature
+and the cardinalate are largely recruited. The _auditor camerae_
+(_uditore generale della reverenda camera apostolica_) is an official
+formerly charged with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull
+of Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all civil
+and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it from the
+papal territories. In addition he received the function of watching over
+the execution of all sentences passed by the curia. This was extended
+later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive function in respect of all
+papal bulls and briefs, wherever no special executor was named. This
+right was confirmed by Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still
+in principle issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function
+was at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to a
+prelate _locum tenens_, who also took over the auditor's jurisdiction in
+the papal states (Hinschius, _Kathol. Kirchenrecht_, i. 409, &c.).
+
+_Auditores_ (listeners), in the early Church, was another name. for
+catechumens (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+AUDLEY, or AUDELEY, SIR JAMES (c. 1316-1386), one of the original
+knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the eldest son of
+Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire. When the order of
+the Garter was founded, he was instituted as one of the first founders,
+and his stall in St George's chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the
+side of Edward, the Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in
+1346, and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When
+hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354 Sir James
+was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince, and earned a great
+reputation for valour. At the battle of Poitiers on the 19th of
+September 1356 he took his stand in front of the English army, and after
+fighting for a long time was severely wounded and carried from the
+fight. After the victory, the prince inquired for Sir James, who was
+brought to the royal tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest
+knight on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks.
+Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had attended him
+during the battle, and received from the prince a further pension of six
+hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of the leaders of an expedition into
+France, in 1360 he took the fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was
+present at Calais when peace was made between England and France in
+October 1360. He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great
+seneschal of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La
+Roche-sur-Yon by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at
+Fontenay-le-Comte, where he had gone to reside, and was buried at
+Poitiers.
+
+  See Jean Froissart, _Chronigues_, translated by T. Johnes (Hafod,
+  1810); G.F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_
+  (London, 1841).
+
+
+
+
+AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY, BARON (c. 1488-1544), lord chancellor of England,
+whose parentage is unknown, is believed to have studied at Buckingham
+College, Cambridge. He was educated for the law, entered the Middle
+Temple (becoming autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester,
+and was on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he was
+returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this constituency in
+subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom of the chamber, and became
+a member of Wolsey's household. On the fall of the latter in 1529, he
+was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker
+of the House of Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the
+Black or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the papal
+jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of the Commons to the
+king to complain of Bishop Fisher's speech against their proceedings. He
+interpreted the king's "moral" scruples to parliament concerning his
+marriage with Catherine, and made himself the instrument of the king in
+the attack upon the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy.
+In 1531 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant; and on
+the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded Sir Thomas More as
+lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed lord chancellor on the
+26th of January 1533. He supported the king's divorce from Catherine and
+the marriage with Anne Boleyn; and presided at the trial of Fisher and
+More in 1535, at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a
+conviction has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn
+and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate queen's
+execution, and recommended to parliament the new act of succession. In
+1537 he condemned to death as traitors the Lincolnshire and the
+Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November 1538 he was created Baron
+Audley of Walden; and soon afterwards presided as lord steward at the
+trials of Henry Pole, Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of
+Exeter. In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made
+himself the king's instrument in enforcing religious conformity, and in
+the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of April 1540 he was
+made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently managed the attainder of
+Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and the dissolution of Henry's marriage
+with Anne of Cleves. In 1542 he warmly supported the privileges of the
+Commons in the case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested and
+imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as usual by
+subservience to the court, which desired to secure a subsidy, and his
+opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has been questioned by
+good authority. He resigned the great seal on the 21st of April 1544,
+and died on the 30th, being buried at Saffron Walden, where he had
+prepared for himself a splendid tomb. He received several grants of
+monastic estates, including the priory of Christ Church in London and
+the abbey of Walden in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of
+Suffolk, built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 he
+re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambridge, under the
+new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in the statutes that his
+heirs, "the possessors of the late monastery of Walden," should be
+visitors of the college _in perpetuum_. _A Book of Orders for the Warre
+both by Sea and Land_ (Harleian MS. 297, f. 144) is attributed to his
+authorship. He married (1) Christina, daughter of Sir Thomas
+Barnardiston, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of
+Dorset, by whom he had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his
+death.
+
+
+
+
+AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR (1797-1841), French naturalist, was born at Paris
+on the 27th of April 1797. He began the study of law, but was diverted
+from it by his strong predilection for natural history, and entered the
+medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to P.A. Latreille
+(1762-1833) in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural
+history, and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of the
+Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November 1841. His
+principal work, _Histoire des insectes nuisibles a la vigne_ (1842), was
+completed after his death by Henry Milne-Edwards and Emile Blanchard.
+His papers mostly appeared in the _Annales des sciences naturelles_,
+which, with A.T. Brongniart and J.B.A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in
+the proceedings of the Societe Entomologique de France, of which he was
+one of the founders in 1832.
+
+
+
+
+AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and engravers. The first
+who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born
+1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude's great-grandson, who died in
+1772. The two most distinguished members of the family are Gerard and
+Jean.
+
+GERARD, or GIRARD, AUDRAN, the most celebrated French engraver, was the
+third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught
+the first principles of design and engraving by his father; and,
+following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself
+in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun "Constantine's
+Battle with Maxentius," his "Triumph," and the "Stoning of Stephen,"
+which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran in the
+very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set out for Rome,
+where he resided three years, and engraved several fine plates. That
+great patron of the arts, J.B. Colbert, was so struck with the beauty of
+Audran's works, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On
+his return he applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was
+appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great
+encouragement. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the
+Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun's
+"Battles of Alexander" are regarded as the best of his numerous works.
+"He was," says the Abbe Fontenay, "the most celebrated engraver that
+ever existed in the historical line. We have several subjects, which he
+engraved from his own designs, that manifested as much taste as
+character and facility. But in the 'Battles of Alexander' he surpassed
+even the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gerard published in 1683 a
+work entitled _Les Proportions du corps humain mesurees sur les plus
+belles figures de l'antiquite_.
+
+JEAN AUDRAN, nephew of Gerard, was born at Lyons in 1667. After having
+received instructions from his father, he went to Paris to perfect
+himself in the art of engraving under his uncle, next to whom he was the
+most distinguished member of his family. At the age of twenty his genius
+began to display itself in a surprising manner; and his subsequent
+success was such, that in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the
+king, Louis XIV., who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the
+Gobelins; and the following year he was made a member of the Royal
+Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the graver, and
+nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of this artist are those
+which appear not so pleasing to the eye at first sight. In these the
+etching constitutes a great part; and he has finished them in a bold,
+rough style. The "Rape of the Sabines," after Poussin, is considered his
+masterpiece.
+
+
+
+
+AUDRAN, EDMOND (1842-1901), French musical composer, was born at Lyons
+on the 11th of April 1842. He studied music at the Ecole Niedermeyer,
+where he won the prize for composition in 1859. Two years later he
+accepted the post of organist of the church of St Joseph at Marseilles.
+He made his first appearance as a dramatic composer at Marseilles with
+_L'Ours et le Pacha_ (1862), a musical version of one of Scribe's
+vaudevilles. This was followed by _La Chercheuse d'Esprit_ (1864), a
+comic opera, also produced at Marseilles. Audran wrote a funeral march
+on the death of Meyerbeer, which was performed with some success, and
+made various attempts to win fame as a writer of sacred music. He
+produced a mass (Marseilles, 1873), an oratorio, _La Sulamite_
+(Marseilles, 1876), and numerous minor works, but he is known almost
+entirely as a composer of the lighter forms of opera. His first Parisian
+success was made with _Les Noces d'Olivette_ (1879), a work which
+speedily found its way to London and (as _Olivette_) ran for more than a
+year at the Strand theatre (1880-1881). Audran's music has, in fact, met
+with as much favour in England as in France, and all save a few of his
+works have been given in a more or less adapted form in London theatres.
+Besides those already mentioned, the following have been the most
+undeniably successful of Audran's many comic operas: _Le Grand Mogol_
+(Marseilles, 1876; Paris, 1884; London, as _The Grand Mogul_, 1884), _La
+Mascotte_ (Paris, 1880; London, as _The Mascotte_, 1881), _Gillette de
+Narbonne_ (Paris, 1882; London, as _Gillette_, 1883), _La Cigale et la
+Fourmi_ (Paris, 1886; London, as _La Cigale_, 1890), _Miss Helyett_
+(Paris, 1890; London, as _Miss Decima_ 1891), _La Poupee_ (Paris, 1896;
+London, 1897). Audran was one of the best of the successors of
+Offenbach. He had little of Offenbach's humour, but his music is
+distinguished by an elegance and a refinement of manner which lift it
+above the level of opera bouffe to the confines of genuine opera
+comique. He was a fertile if not a very original melodist, and his
+orchestration is full of variety, without being obtrusive or vulgar.
+Many of his operas, _La Mascotte_ in particular, reveal a degree of
+musicianship which is rarely associated with the ephemeral productions
+of the lighter stage. He died in Paris on the 16th of August 1901.
+
+
+
+
+AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D' (c. 1305-1370), French soldier, was born at
+Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de Calais, near St Omer.
+Nothing is known of his career before 1332, when he is heard of at the
+court of the king of France. Between 1335 and 1342 he went three times
+to Scotland to aid King David Bruce in his wars. In 1342 he became
+captain for the king of France in Brittany; then he seems to have served
+in the household of the duke of Normandy, and in 1346, as one of the
+main defenders of Calais, was taken as a prisoner to England by Edward
+III. From 1349 he holds an important place in the military history of
+France, first as captain in Angouleme, and from June 1351, in succession
+to the lord of Beaujeu, as marshal of France. In March 1352 he was
+appointed lieutenant for the king in the territory between the Loire and
+the Dordogne, in June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy
+and the Boulonnais. It was Audrehem who arrested Charles the Bad, king
+of Navarre, and his partisans, at the banquet given by the dauphin at
+Rouen in 1356. At Poitiers he was one of those who advised King John to
+attack the English, and, charging in the front line of the French army,
+was slightly wounded and taken prisoner. From England he was several
+times given safe-conducts to France, and he took an active part in the
+negotiations for the treaty of Bretigny, recovering his liberty the same
+time as King John. In 1361, as the king's lieutenant in Languedoc, he
+prevented the free companies from seizing the castles, and negotiated
+the treaty with their chiefs under which they followed Henry, count of
+Trastamara (later Henry II. of Castile), into Spain. In 1365 he himself
+joined du Guesclin in the expedition to Spain, was taken prisoner with
+him by the Black Prince at the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable
+to pay his ransom until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was
+relieved of the office of marshal, being appointed bearer of the
+oriflamme, with a pension of 2000 livres. He was sent to Spain in 1370
+by Charles V., to urge his friend du Guesclin to return to France, and
+in spite of his age he took part in the battle of Pontvallain (December
+1370), but fell ill and died, probably at Saumur, in the latter part of
+December 1370.
+
+  See Emile Molinier, "Etude sur la vie d'Arnoul d'Audrehem, marechal de
+  France," in _Memoires presentes par divers savants a l'academie des
+  inscriptions et belles-lettres_, 2^e serie, iv. (1883).
+
+
+
+
+AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES (1780-1851), American naturalist, is said to have
+been born on the 5th of May 1780 in Louisiana, his father being a French
+naval officer and his mother a Spanish Creole. He was educated in Paris,
+where he had lessons from the painter, J.L. David. Returning to America
+in 1798 he settled on a farm near Philadelphia, and gave himself up to
+the study of natural history, and especially to drawing birds. In 1826
+he went to England in the hope of getting his drawings published, and by
+the following year he had obtained sufficient subscribers to enable him
+to begin the publication of his _Birds of America_, which on its
+completion in 1838 consisted of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055
+figures of birds the size of life. Cuvier called it "le plus magnifique
+monument que l'art ait encore eleve a la nature." The descriptive matter
+to accompany the plates appeared at Edinburgh in 5 vols. from 1831 to
+1839 under the title of _American Ornithological Biography._ During the
+publication of these works Audubon divided his time between Great
+Britain and America, devoting his leisure to expeditions to various
+parts of the United States and Canada for the purpose of collecting new
+material. In 1842 he bought an estate on the Hudson, now Audubon Park in
+New York City. In 1844 he published in America a popular octavo edition
+of his _Birds of America._ He also took up the preparation of a new
+work, _The Quadrupeds of America_, with the collaboration of John
+Bachman, the publication of which was begun in New York in 1846 and
+finished in 1853-1854. He died at New York on the 27th of January 1851.
+
+  See ORNITHOLOGY; also _Audubon and his Journals_ (1897), by his
+  grand-daughter Maria R. Audubon, with notes by Elliot Coues.
+
+
+
+
+AUE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, at the confluence of
+the Mulde and Schwarzwasser, 21 m. S.W. from Chemnitz on the railway to
+Adorf. It has a school of lace-making, foundries, and manufactures of
+machinery, tin-plate and cotton goods. Pop. (1905) 17,102.
+
+
+
+
+AUERBACH, BERTHOLD (1812-1882), German novelist, was born on the 28th of
+February 1812 at Nordstetten in the Wurttemberg Black Forest. His
+parents were Jews, and he was intended for the ministry; but after
+studying philosophy at Tubingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming
+estranged from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted
+himself to literature. He made a fortunate beginning in a romance on the
+life of Spinoza (1837), so interesting in itself, and so close in its
+adherence to fact, that it may be read with equal advantage as a novel
+or as a biography. _Dichter und Kaufmann_ followed in 1839, and a
+translation of Spinoza's works in 1841, when Auerbach turned to the
+class of fiction which has made him famous, the _Schwarzwalder
+Dorfgeschichten_ (1843), stories of peasant life in the Black Forest. In
+these, as well as in _Barfussele_ (1856), _Edelweiss_ (1861), and other
+novels of greater compass, he depicts the life of the south German
+peasant as "Jeremias Gotthelf" (Albrecht Bitzius) had painted the
+peasantry of Switzerland, but in a less realistic spirit. When this vein
+was exhausted Auerbach returned to his first phase as a philosophical
+novelist, producing _Auf der Hohe_ (1865), _Das Landhaus am Rhein_
+(1869), and other romances of profound speculative tendencies, turning
+on plots invented by himself. With the exception of _Auf der Hohe_,
+these works did not enjoy much popularity, and suffer from lack of form
+and concentration. Auerbach's fame continues to rest upon his
+_Dorfgeschichten_, although the celebrity of even these has been
+impaired by the growing demand for a more uncompromising realism.
+Auerbach died at Cannes on the 8th of February 1882.
+
+  The first collected edition of Auerbach's _Schriften_ appeared in 22
+  vols. in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895).
+  Auerbach's _Briefe an seinen Freund J. Auerbach_ (with a preface by F.
+  Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel, _B.
+  Auerbach_ (1882); and E. Lasker, _B. Auerbach, ein Gedenkblatt_
+  (1882).
+
+
+
+
+AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER, GRAF VON (1806-1876), Austrian poet, who
+wrote under the pseudonym of ANASTASIUS GRUN, was born on the 11th of
+April 1806, at Laibach, the capital of the Austrian duchy of Carniola,
+and was head of the Thurn-am-Hart branch of the Carniolan cadet line of
+the house of Auersperg. He received his university education first at
+Graz and then at Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he
+succeeded to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member of
+the estates of Carniola on the _Herrenbank_ of the diet at Laibach. Here
+he distinguished himself by his outspoken criticism of the Austrian
+government, leading the opposition of the duchy to the exactions of the
+central power. In 1832 the title of "imperial chamberlain" was conferred
+upon him, and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After
+the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of Laibach
+at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main, to which he
+tried in vain to persuade his Slovene compatriots to send
+representatives. After a few months, however, disgusted with the violent
+development of the revolution, he resigned his seat, and again retired
+into private life. In 1860 he was summoned to the remodelled _Reichsrat_
+by the emperor, who next year nominated him a life member of the
+Austrian upper house (_Herrenhaus_), where, while remaining a keen
+upholder of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism of
+Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one of the most
+intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of liberalism, in both
+political and religious matters, until his death at Graz on the 12th of
+September 1876.
+
+Count Auersperg's first publication, a collection of lyrics, _Blatter
+der Liebe_ (1830), showed little originality; but his second production,
+_Der letzte Ritter_ (1830), brought his genius to light. It celebrates
+the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maximilian I. (1493-1519) in a
+cycle of poems written in the strophic form of the _Nibelungenlied_. But
+Auersperg's fame rests almost exclusively on his political poetry; two
+collections entitled _Spaziergange eines Wiener Poeten_ (1831) and
+_Schutt_ (1835) created a sensation in Germany by their originality and
+bold liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely for
+their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification and
+powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German political poetry of
+1840-1848. His _Gedichte_ (1837), if anything, increased his reputation;
+his epics, _Die Nibelungen im Frack_ (1843) and _Der Pfaff vom
+Kahlenberg_ (1850), are characterized by a fine ironic humour. He also
+produced masterly translations of the popular Slovenic songs current in
+Carniola (_Volkslieder aus Krain_, 1850), and of the English poems
+relating to "Robin Hood" (1864).
+
+  Anastasius Grun's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published by L.A. Frankl in
+  5 vols. (Berlin, 1877); his _Briefwechsel mit L.A. Frankl_ (Berlin,
+  1897). A selection of his _Politische Reden und Schriften_ has been
+  published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics, _Anastasius
+  Grun_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+AUFIDENA, an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site of which is
+just north of the modern Alfedena,[1] Italy, a station on the railway
+between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the latter. Its remains are
+fully and accurately described by L. Mariani in _Monumenti dei Lincei_
+(1901), 225 seq.: cf. _Notizie degli scavi_, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516
+seq. The ancient city occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above
+sea-level (in the valley between were found the supposed remains of the
+later forum), and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile
+in length. A fortified outpost lay on a still higher hill to the north.
+Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one public
+building of the 5th century B.C. was excavated in 1901, and a small
+sanctuary in 1902), attention having been chiefly devoted to the
+necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs had already been examined in
+1908, though this number is conjectured to be only a sixteenth of the
+whole. They are all inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and
+date from the 7th to the 4th century B.C., falling into three
+classes--those without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone
+slabs, and those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered
+are preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we find
+Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road between Sulmo and
+Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangro, crossing the river
+by an ancient bridge some 5 m. to the north-east. Castel di Sangro has
+remains of ancient walls, but these are attributed to a road by Mariani,
+and in any case the fortified area there was quite small, only
+one-sixteenth the size of Aufidena. The attempted identification of
+Castel di Sangro with Aufidena must therefore be rejected, though we
+must allow that it was probably the Roman post station; the ancient
+city, since its capture by the Romans in the 3rd century B.C., having
+lost something of its importance.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Two churches here contain paintings of interest in the history of
+    Abruzzese art, and one of them, the Madonna del Campo, contained
+    fragments of a temple of considerable size.
+
+
+
+
+AUGEAS, or AUGEIAS, in Greek legend, a son of Helios, the sun-god, and
+king of the Epeians in Elis. He possessed an immense wealth of herds,
+including twelve bulls sacred to Helios, and white as swans. Eurystheus
+imposed upon Heracles the task of clearing out all his stalls unaided in
+one day. This he did by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through
+them. Augeas had promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this,
+alleging that Heracles had acted only in the service of Eurystheus.
+Heracles thereupon sent an army against him, and, though at first
+defeated, finally slew Augeas and his sons.
+
+  Apollodorus ii. 5, 7; Pindar, _Olympia_, xi, 24; Diodorus iv. 13;
+  Theocritus, _Idyll_ 25.
+
+
+
+
+AUGER (from the O. Eng. _nafu-gar_, nave-borer; the original initial n
+having been lost, as in "adder," through a confusion in the case of a
+preceding indefinite article), a tool for boring (q.v.) or drilling.
+
+
+
+
+AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES, duke of Castiglione (1757-1816),
+marshal of France, was born in Paris in a humble station of life. At the
+age of seventeen he enlisted in the carabineers and thereafter came into
+note as a duellist. Having drawn his sword upon an officer who insulted
+him, he fled from France and roamed about in the Levant. He served in
+the Russian army against the Turks; but afterwards escaped into Prussia
+and enlisted in the guards. Tiring of this, he deserted with several
+others and reached the Saxon frontier. Service in the Neapolitan army
+and a sojourn in Portugal filled up the years 1788-1791; but the events
+of the French Revolution brought him back to his native land. He served
+with credit against the Vendeans and then joined the troops opposing the
+Spaniards in the south. There he rose rapidly, becoming general of
+division on the 23rd of December 1793. His division distinguished itself
+even more when transferred to the army of Italy; and under Bonaparte he
+was largely instrumental in gaining the battle of Millesimo and in
+taking the castle of Cosseria and the camp of Ceva. At the battle of
+Lodi (May 10, 1796), the turning movement of Augereau and his division
+helped to decide the day. But it was at Castiglione that he rendered the
+most signal services. Marbot describes him as encouraging even Bonaparte
+himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle,
+and, though this is exaggerated, there is no doubt that Augereau largely
+decided the fortunes of those critical days. Bonaparte thus summed up
+his military qualities: "Has plenty of character, courage, firmness,
+activity; is inured to war; is well liked by the soldiery; is fortunate
+in his operations." In 1797 Bonaparte sent him to Paris to encourage the
+Jacobinical Directors, and it was Augereau and the troops led by him
+that coerced the "moderates" in the councils and carried through the
+_coup d'etat_ of 18 Fructidor (4th of September) 1797. He was then sent
+to lead the united French forces in Germany; but peace speedily ensued;
+and he bore a grudge against the Directors and Bonaparte for their
+treatment of him at that time. He took no part in the _coup d'etat_ of
+Brumaire 1799, and did not distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign
+which ensued. Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte's
+fortunes, he received a marshal's baton at the beginning of the Empire
+(May 19, 1804). In the campaign of 1805 he did good service around
+Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena (October 14, 1806) his corps
+distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell ill of a fever, and at the
+battle of Eylau he had to be supported on his horse, but directed the
+movements of his corps with his wonted bravery. His corps was almost
+annihilated and the marshal himself received a wound from which he never
+quite recovered. When transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes
+but tarnished his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 1812 in Russia and
+in the Saxon campaign of 1813 his conduct was little more than mediocre.
+Before the battle of Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19, 1813), Napoleon
+reproached him with not being the Augereau of Castiglione; to which he
+replied, "Give me back the old soldiers of Italy, and I will show you
+that I am." In 1814 he had command of the army of Lyons, and his
+slackness exposed him to the charge of having come to an understanding
+with the Austrian invaders. Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but,
+after reviling Napoleon, went over to him during the Hundred Days. The
+emperor repulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to France in
+1814. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne, deprived him of his
+military title and pension. He died at his estate of La Houssaye on the
+12th of June 1816. In person he was tall and commanding, but his loud
+and vulgar behaviour frequently betrayed the soldier of fortune.
+
+  As authorities consult: Kock's _Memoires de Massena_; Bouvier,
+  _Bonaparte en Italie_; Count A.F. Andreossi, _La Campagne sur le
+  Mein, 1800-1801_; Baron A. Ducasse, _Precis de la campagne de l'armee
+  de Lyon en 1814_; and the _Memoirs_ of Marbot.     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGHRIM, or AGHRIM, a small village in Co. Galway, Ireland, 4 m. W. by
+S. of Ballinasloe. It is rendered memorable by the decisive victory
+gained here on the 12th of July 1691 by the forces of William III. under
+General Ginkel, over those of James II. under the French general St
+Ruth, who fell in the fight. The Irish numbering 25,000, and strongly
+posted behind marshy ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance;
+but Ginkel having penetrated their line of defence, and their general
+being struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they were at
+length overcome and routed with terrible slaughter. The loss of the
+English did not exceed 700 killed and 1000 wounded; while the Irish, in
+their disastrous flight, lost about 7000 men, besides the whole material
+of the army. This defeat rendered the adherents of James in Ireland
+incapable of further efforts, and was speedily followed by the complete
+submission of the country.
+
+
+
+
+AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR EMILE (1820-1889), French dramatist, was born
+at Valence, Drome, on the 17th of September 1820. He was the grandson of
+Pigault Lebrun, and belonged to the well-to-do _bourgeoisie_ in
+principles and in thought as well as by actual birth. He received a good
+education and studied for the bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts
+and in verse, _La Cigue_, refused at the Theatre Francais, but produced
+with considerable success at the Odeon. This settled his career.
+Thenceforward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in
+collaboration with other writers--Jules Sandeau, Eugene-Marie Labiche,
+Ed. Foussier--he produced plays which were in their way eventful. _Le
+Fils de Giboyer_ (1862)--which was regarded as an attack on the clerical
+party in France, and was only brought out by the direct intervention of
+the emperor--caused some political excitement. His last comedy, _Les
+Fourchambault_, belongs to the year 1879. After that date he wrote no
+more, restrained by an honourable fear of producing inferior work. The
+Academy had long before, on the 31st of March 1857, elected him to be
+one of its members. He died in his house at Croissy on the 25th of
+October 1889. Such, in briefest outline, is the story of a life which
+Augier himself describes as "without incident"--a life in all senses
+honourable. Augier, with Dumas _fils_ and Sardou, may be said to have
+held the French stage during the Second Empire. The man respected
+himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side--for he did not
+disdain to be a teacher--has high qualities of rectitude and
+self-restraint. Uprightness of mind and of heart, generous honesty, as
+Jules Lemaitre well said, constituted the very soul of all his dramatic
+work. _L'Aventuriere_ (1848), the first of Augier's important works,
+already shows a deviation from romantic models; and in the _Mariage
+d'Olympe_ (1855) the courtesan is shown as she is, not glorified as in
+Dumas's _Dame aux Camelias_. In _Gabrielle_ (1849) the husband, not the
+lover, is the sympathetic, poetic character. In the _Lionnes pauvres_
+(1858) the wife who sells her favours comes under the lash. Greed of
+gold, social demoralization, ultramontanism, lust of power, these are
+satirized in _Les Effrontes_ (1861), _Le Fils de Giboyer_ (1862),
+_Contagion_, first announced under the title of _Le Baron d'Estrigaud_
+(1866), _Lions et renards_ (1869)--which, with _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_
+(1854), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, reach the
+high-water mark of Augier's art; in _Philiberte_ (1853) he produced a
+graceful and delicate drawing-room comedy; and in _Jean de Thommeray_,
+acted in 1873 after the great reverses of 1870, the regenerating note of
+patriotism rings high and clear. His last two dramas, _Madame Caverlet_
+(1876) and _Les Fourchambault_ (1879), are problem plays. But it would
+be unfair to suggest that Emile Augier was a preacher only. He was a
+moralist in the great sense, the sense in which the term can be applied
+to Moliere and the great dramatists--a moralist because of his large and
+sane outlook on life. Nor does the interest of his dramas depend on
+elaborate plot. It springs from character and its evolution. His men and
+women move as personality, that mysterious factor, dictates. They are
+real, several of them typical. Augier's first drama, _La Cigue_, belongs
+to a time (1844) when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost
+exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric
+outbursts of pure poetry. But his verse, if not that of a great poet,
+has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose dramas is
+admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large and effective
+wit. Perhaps it wanted these qualities to enlist laughter on his side in
+such a war as he waged against false passion and false sentiment.
+     (F. T. M.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGITE, an important member of the pyroxene (q.v.) group of rock-forming
+minerals. The name (from [Greek: augae], lustre) has at various times
+been used in different senses; it is now applied to aluminous pyroxenes
+of the monoclinic series which are dark-greenish, brownish or black in
+colour. Like the other pyroxenes it is characterized
+crystallographically by its distinct cleavages parallel to the
+prism-faces (M), the angle between which is 87 deg. A typical crystal is
+represented in fig. 1, whilst fig. 2 shows a crystal twinned on the
+orthopinacoid (r'). Such crystals, of short prismatic habit and black in
+colour, are common as phenocrysts in many basalts, and are hence known
+as "basaltic augite"; when the containing rock weathers to a clayey
+material the augite is left as black isolated crystals, and such
+specimens, usually from Bohemia, are represented in all mineral
+collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks, augite is also an
+important constituent of many other kinds of igneous rocks, and a rock
+composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite. It also occurs in
+metamorphic rocks; for example, in the crystalline limestones of the
+Fassathal in Tirol, where the variety known as fassaite is found as
+pistachio-green crystals resembling epidote in appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly of CaMgSi2O6,
+but it contains in addition alumina and ferric iron as (Mg, Fe") (Al,
+Fe"')2 SiO6; the acmite (NaFe"'Si2O6,) and jadeite (NaAlSi2O6)
+molecules are also sometimes present. Variations in the amount of iron
+in mixtures of these isomorphous molecules are accompanied by variations
+in the optical characters of the augite.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGMENT (Lat. _augere_, to increase), in Sanskrit and Greek grammar the
+vowel prefixed to indicate the past tenses of a verb; in Greek grammar
+it is called _syllabic_, when only the [epsilon] is prefixed;
+_temporal_, when it causes an initial vowel in the verb to become a
+diphthong or long vowel.
+
+
+
+
+AUGMENTATION, or enlargement, a term in heraldry for an addition to a
+coat of arms; in music, for the imitation in longer notes of an original
+theme; in biology, an addition to the normal number of parts; in Scots
+law, an increase of a minister's stipend by an action called "Process of
+Augmentation." The "Court of Augmentation" in Henry VIII.'s time was
+established to try cases affecting the suppression of monasteries, and
+was dissolved in Mary's reign.
+
+
+
+
+AUGSBURG, a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Bavaria, chief town of the district of Swabia. Pop. (1885) 65,905;
+(1900) 89,109; (1905) 93,882. It lies on a high plateau, 1500 ft. above
+the sea, between the rivers Wertach and Lech, which unite below the
+city, 39 m. W.N.W. from Munich, with which, as with Regensburg,
+Ingolstadt and Ulm, it is connected by main lines of railway. It
+consists of an upper and a lower town, the old Jakob suburb and various
+modern suburbs. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1703 and have
+since been converted into public promenades. Maximilian Street is
+remarkable for its breadth and architectural beauty. One of its most
+interesting edifices is the Fugger Haus, of which the entire front is
+painted in fresco. Among the public buildings of Augsburg most worthy of
+notice is the town-hall in Renaissance style, one of the finest in
+Germany, built by Elias Holl in 1616-1620. One of its rooms, called the
+"Golden Hall," from the profusion of its gilding, is 113 ft. long, 59
+broad and 53 high. The palace of the bishops, where the memorable
+Confession of Faith was presented to Charles V., is now used for
+government offices. Among the seventeen Reman Catholic churches and
+chapels, the cathedral, a basilica with two Romanesque towers, dates in
+its oldest portions from the 10th century. The church of St Ulrich and
+St Afra, built 1474-1500, is a Late Gothic edifice, with a nave of
+magnificent proportions and a tower 300 ft. high. The church stands on
+the spot where the first Christians of the district suffered martyrdom,
+and where a chapel was erected in the 6th century over the grave of St
+Afra. There are also a Protestant church, St Anne's, a school of arts, a
+polytechnic institution, a picture gallery in the former monastery of St
+Catherine, a museum, observatory, botanical gardens, an exchange,
+gymnasium, deaf-mute institution, orphan asylum, several remarkable
+fountains dating from the 16th century, &c. Augsburg is particularly
+well provided with special and technical schools. The newer buildings,
+all in the modern west quarter of the city, include law courts, a
+theatre, and a municipal library with 200,000 volumes. The "Fuggerei,"
+built in 1519 by the brothers Fugger, is a miniature town, with six
+streets or alleys, three gates and a church, and consists of a hundred
+and six small houses let to indigent Roman Catholic citizens at a
+nominal rent. The manufactures of Augsburg are of great importance. It
+is the chief seat of the textile industry in south Germany, and its
+cloth, cotton goods and linen manufactories employ about 10,000 hands.
+It is also noted for its bleach and dye works, its engine works,
+foundries, paper factories, and production of silk goods, watches,
+jewelry, mathematical instruments, leather, chemicals, &c. Augsburg is
+also the centre of the acetylene gas industry of Germany.
+Copper-engraving, for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried
+on; but printing, lithography and publishing have acquired a
+considerable development, one of the best-known Continental newspapers
+being the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ or _Augsburg Gazette_. On the opposite
+side of the river, which is here crossed by a bridge, lies the township
+of Lechhausen.
+
+Augsburg (the _Augusta Vindelicorum_ of the Romans) derives its name
+from the Roman emperor Augustus, who, on the conquest of Rhaetia by
+Drusus, established here a Roman colony about 14 B.C. In the 5th century
+it was sacked by the Huns, and afterwards came under the power of the
+Frankish kings. It was almost entirely destroyed in the war of
+Charlemagne against Tassilo III., duke of Bavaria; and after the
+dissolution and division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the
+dukes of Swabia. After this it rose rapidly into importance as a
+manufacturing and commercial town, becoming, after Nuremberg, the centre
+of the trade between Italy and the north of Europe; its merchant
+princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the Medici of Florence; but
+the alterations produced in the currents of trade by the discoveries of
+the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned a great decline. In 1276 it was
+raised to the rank of a free imperial city, which it retained, with many
+changes in its internal constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to
+the kingdom of Bavaria. Meanwhile, it was the scene of numerous events
+of historical importance. It was besieged and taken by Gustavus Adolphus
+in 1632, and in 1635 it surrendered to the imperial forces; in 1703 it
+was bombarded by the electoral prince of Bavaria, and forced to pay a
+contribution of 400,000 dollars; and in the war of 1803 it suffered
+severely. Of its conventions the most memorable are those which gave
+birth to the Augsburg confession (1530) and to the Augsburg alliance
+(1686).
+
+  See Wagenseil, _Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg_ (Augs., 1820-1822);
+  Werner, _Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg_ (1899); Roth, _Augsburg's
+  Reformationsgeschichte_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF, the most important Protestant statement of
+belief drawn up at the Reformation. In summoning a diet for April 1530,
+Charles V. offered a fair hearing to all religious parties in the
+Empire. Luther, Justus Jonas, Melanchthon and Johann Bugenhagen were
+appointed to draw up a statement of the Saxon position. These "Torgau
+Articles" (March 1530) tell merely why Saxony had abolished certain
+ecclesiastical abuses. Melanchthon, however, soon found that, owing to
+attacks by Johann Eck of Ingolstadt ("404 Articles"), Saxony must state
+its position in doctrinal matters as well. Taking the Articles of
+Marburg (see MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF) and of Schwabach as the point of
+departure, he repudiated all connexion with heretics condemned by the
+ancient church. On the 11th of May he sent the draft to Luther, who
+approved it, adding that he himself "could not tread so softly and
+gently." On the 23rd of June the Confession, originally intended as the
+statement of Electoral Saxony alone, was discussed and signed by a
+number of other Protestant princes and cities, and read before the diet
+on the 25th of June. Articles 1-21 attempt to show that the Evangelicals
+had deviated from current doctrine only in order to restore the pure and
+original teaching of the church. In spite of significant omissions (the
+sole authority of scripture; rejection of transubstantiation), the
+Confession contains nothing contradictory to Luther's position, and in
+its emphasis on justification by faith alone enunciates a cardinal
+concept of the Evangelical churches. Articles 22-28 describe and defend
+the reformation of various "abuses." On the 3rd of August, shorn of much
+of its original bitterness, the so-called _Confutatio pontificia_ was
+read; it well expresses the views approved in substance by the emperor
+and all the Catholic party. In answer, Melanchthon was ordered to
+prepare an Apology of the Confession, which the emperor refused to
+receive; so Melanchthon enlarged it and published the _editio princeps_
+of both Confession and Apology in 1531.
+
+  As he felt free to make slight changes, the first edition does not
+  represent the exact text of 1530; the edition of 1533 was further
+  improved, while that of 1540, rearranged and in part rewritten, is
+  known as the _Variata_. Dogmatic changes in this seem to have drawn
+  forth no protest from Luther or Brenz, so Melanchthon made fresh
+  alterations in 1542. Later, the _Variata_ of 1540 became the creed of
+  the Melanchthonians and even of the Crypto-calvinists; so the framers
+  of the Formula of Concord, promulgated in 1580, returned to the text
+  handed in at the Diet. By mistake they printed from a poor copy and
+  not from the original, from which their German text varies at over 450
+  places. Their Latin text, that of Melanchthon's _editio princeps_, is
+  more nearly accurate. The _textus receptus_ is that of the Formula of
+  Concord, the divergent Latin and German forms being equally binding.
+
+Acceptance of the Confession and Apology was made a condition of
+membership in the Schmalkalden League. The Wittenberg Concord (1536)
+and the Articles of Schmalkalden (1537) reaffirmed them. The Confession
+was the ultimate source of much of the Thirty-nine Articles. The
+Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognized no Protestants save
+adherents of the Confession; this was modified in 1648. To-day the
+_Invariata_ is of symbolical authority among Lutherans generally, while
+the _Variata_ is accepted by the Reformed churches of certain parts of
+Germany (see Lober, pp. 79-83.)
+
+  Editions of the received text: J.T. Muller, _Die symbolischen Bucher
+  der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche_ (10th ed., Gutersloh, 1907), with
+  a valuable historical introduction by Th. Kolde; Theodor Kolde, _Die
+  Augsburgische Konfession_ (Gotha, 1896), (contains also the Marburg,
+  Schwabach and Torgau Articles, the _Confutatio_ and the _Variata_ of
+  1540). For translations of these, as well as of Zwingli's Reckoning of
+  his Faith, and of the Tetrapolitan Confession, see H.E. Jacobs, _The
+  Book of Concord_ (Philadelphia, 1882-83). The texts submitted to the
+  emperor, lost before 1570, are reconstructed and compared with the
+  _textus receptus_ by P. Tschackert, _Die unveranderte Augsburgische
+  Konfession_ (Leipzig, 1901). For the genesis of the Confession, see
+  Th. Kolde, _Die alteste Redaktion der Augsburger Konfession_
+  (Gutersloh, 1906), also Kolde's article, "Augsburger Bekenntnis," in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed., vol. ii., Leipzig, 1897).
+  The standard commentary is still G.L. Plitt, _Einleitung in die
+  Augustana_ (Erlangen, 1867 ff.); compare also J. Ficker, _Die
+  Konfutation des Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses in ihrer ersten Gestalt_
+  (Leipzig, 1891); also A. Petzold, _Die Konfutation des
+  Vierstadtebekenntnisses_ (Leipzig, 1900). On its present use see G.
+  Lober, _Die im evangelischen Deutschland geltenden
+  Ordinationsverpflichtungen geschichtlich geordnet_ (Leipzig, 1905), 79
+  ff.     (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF, the name applied to the European war of
+1688-1697. The league of Augsburg was concluded on the 9th of July 1686
+by the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg and other princes, against
+the French. Spain, Sweden, England and other non-German states joined
+the league, and formed the Grand Alliance by the treaty of Vienna (July
+12, 1689). (See GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGURS, in ancient Rome, members of a religious college whose duty it
+was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices) of approval or
+disapproval sent by the gods in reference to any proposed undertaking.
+The _augures_ were originally called _auspices_, but, while _auspex_[1]
+fell into disuse and was replaced by _augur_, _auspicium_ was retained
+as the scientific term for the observation of signs.
+
+The early history of the college is obscure. Its institution has been
+attributed to Romulus or Numa. It probably consisted originally of three
+members, of whom the king himself was one. This number was doubled by
+Tarquinius Priscus, but in 300 B.C. it was only four, two places,
+according to Livy (x. 6), being vacant. The Ogulnian law in the same
+year increased the number to nine, five plebeian being added to the four
+patrician members. In the time of Sulla the number was fifteen, which
+was increased to sixteen by Julius Caesar. This number continued in
+imperial times; the college itself was certainly in existence as late as
+the 4th century. The office of augur, which was bestowed only upon
+persons of distinguished merit and was much sought after by reason of
+its political importance, was held for life. Vacancies were originally
+filled by co-optation, but by the Domitian law (104) the selection was
+made, by seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes chosen by lot, from
+candidates previously nominated by the college. The insignia of office
+were the _lituus_, a staff free from knots and bent at the top, and the
+_trabea_, a kind of toga with bright scarlet stripes and a purple
+border. The science of augury was contained in various written works,
+which were consulted as occasion arose: such were the _libri augurum_, a
+manual of augural ritual, and the _commentarii augurum_, a collection of
+decrees or answers given by the college to the senate in certain
+definite cases.
+
+The natural region to look to for signs of the will of Jupiter was the
+sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed by him as
+counsel to men. The latter, however, was the more difficult of
+interpretation, and upon it, therefore, mainly hinged the system of
+divination with which the augurs were occupied. It was the duty of the
+augur, before the auspices properly so called (those from the sky and
+from birds) were taken, to mark out with his staff the templum or
+consecrated space within which his observations were intended to be
+made. The method of procedure was as follows. At midnight, when the sky
+was clear and there was an absence of wind, the augur, in the presence
+of a magistrate, took up his position on a hill which afforded a wide
+view. After prayer and sacrifice, he marked out the templum both in the
+sky and on the ground and dedicated it. Within its limits he then
+pitched a tent, in which he sat down with covered head, asked the gods
+for a sign, and waited for an answer. As the augur looked south he had
+the east, the lucky quarter, on his left, and therefore signs on the
+left side were considered favourable, those on the right unfavourable.
+The practice was the reverse in Greece; the observers of signs looked
+towards the north, so that signs on the right were regarded as the
+favourable ones, and this is frequently adopted in the Roman poets. The
+augur afterwards announced the result of his observations in a set form
+of words, by which the magistrate was bound. Signs of the will of the
+gods were of two kinds, either in answer to a request (_auspicia
+impetrativa_), or incidental (_auspicia oblativa_). Of such signs there
+were five classes: (1) Signs in the sky (_caelestia auspicia_),
+consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning, but not excluding falling
+stars and other phenomena. Lightning from left to right was favourable,
+from right to left unfavourable; but on its mere appearance, in either
+direction, all business in the public assemblies was suspended for the
+day. Since the person charged to take the auspices for a certain day was
+constitutionally subject to no other authority who could test the truth
+or falsehood of his statement that he had observed lightning, this
+became a favourite device for putting off meetings of the public
+assembly. Restrictions were, however, imposed in later republican times.
+When a new consul, praetor or quaestor entered on his first day of
+office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of custom to
+report to him that lightning from the left had been seen. (2) Signs from
+birds (_signa ex avibus_), with reference to the direction of their
+flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other sounds. To the
+first class, called _alites_, belonged the eagle and the vulture; to the
+second, called _oscines_, the owl, the crow and the raven. The mere
+appearance of certain birds indicated good or ill luck, while others had
+a reference only to definite persons or events. In matters of ordinary
+life on which divine counsel was prayed for, it was usual to have
+recourse to this form of divination. For public affairs it was, by the
+time of Cicero, superseded by the fictitious observation of lightning.
+(3) Feeding of birds (_auspicia ex tripudiis_), which consisted in
+observing whether a bird--usually a fowl--on grain being thrown before
+it, let fall a particle from its mouth (_tripudium sollistimum_). If it
+did so, the will of the gods was in favour of the enterprise in
+question. The simplicity of this ceremony recommended it for very
+general use, particularly in the army when on service. The fowls were
+kept in cages by a servant, styled _pullarius_. In imperial times
+_decuriales pullarii_ are mentioned. (4) Signs from animals (_pedestria
+auspicia_, or _ex quadrupedibus_), i.e. observation of the course of,
+or sounds uttered by, quadrupeds and reptiles within a fixed space,
+corresponding to the observations of the flight of birds, but much less
+frequently employed. It had gone out of use by the time of Cicero. (5)
+Warnings (_signa ex diris_), consisting of all unusual phenomena, but
+chiefly such as boded ill. Being accidental in their occurrence, they
+belonged to the _auguria oblativa_, and their interpretation was not a
+matter for the augurs, unless occurring in the course of some public
+transaction, in which case they formed a divine veto against it.
+Otherwise, reference was made for an interpretation to the pontifices in
+olden times, afterwards frequently to the Sibylline books, or the
+Etruscan haruspices, when the incident was not already provided for by a
+rule, as, for example, that it was unlucky for a person leaving his
+house to meet a raven, that the sudden death of a person from epilepsy
+at a public meeting was a sign to break up the assembly.
+
+Among the other means of discovering the will of the gods were the
+casting of lots, oracles of Apollo (in the hands of the college _sacris
+faciundis_), but chiefly the examination of the entrails of animals
+slain for sacrifice (see OMEN). Anything abnormal found there was
+brought under the notice of the augurs, but usually the Etruscan
+haruspices were employed for this. The persons entitled to ask for an
+expression of the divine will on a public affair were the magistrates.
+To the highest offices, including all persons of consular and praetorian
+rank, belonged the right of taking _auspicia maxima_; to the inferior
+offices of aedile and quaestor, the _auspicia minora_; the differences
+between these, however, must have been small. The subjects for which
+_auspicia publica_ were always taken were the election of magistrates,
+their entering on office, the holding of a public assembly to pass
+decrees, the setting out of an army for war. They could only be taken in
+Rome itself; and in case of a commander having to renew his _auspicia_,
+he must either return to Rome or select a spot in the foreign country to
+represent the hearth of that city. The time for observing auspices was,
+as a rule, between midnight and dawn of the day fixed for any proposed
+undertaking. In military affairs this course was not always possible, as
+in the case of taking auspices before crossing a river. The founding of
+colonies, the beginning of a battle, the calling together an army, the
+sittings of the senate, decisions of peace or war, were occasions, not
+always but frequently, for taking auspices. The place where the ceremony
+was performed was not fixed, but selected with a view to the matter in
+hand. A spot being selected, the official charged to make the
+observation pitched his tent there some days before. A matter postponed
+through adverse signs from the gods could on the following or some
+future day be again brought forward for the auspices. If an error
+(_vitium_) occurred in the auspices, the augurs could, of their own
+accord or at the request of the senate, inform themselves of the
+circumstances, and decree upon it. A consul could refuse to accept their
+decree while he remained in office, but on retiring he could be
+prosecuted. _Auspicia oblativa_ referred mostly to the comitia. A
+magistrate was not bound to take notice of signs reported merely by a
+private person, but he could not overlook such a report from a brother
+magistrate. For example, if a quaestor on his entry to office observed
+lightning and announced it to the consul, the latter must delay the
+public assembly for the day.
+
+  On the subject generally, see A. Bouche-Leclercq, _Histoire de la
+  divination dans l'antiquite_ (1879), and his articles, with
+  bibliography, in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_,
+  also articles "Augures," "Auspicium," by Wissowa in Pauly's
+  _Realencyclopadie_ (II. pt. ii., 1896), and by L.C. Purser (and
+  others) in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd
+  ed., 1890). (See also DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY, &c.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There is no doubt that _auspex_ = _avi-spex_ ("observer of
+    birds"), but the derivation of _augur_ is still unsettled. The
+    following have been suggested: (1) _augur_ (or _augus_) is a
+    substantive originally meaning "increase" (related to _augustus_ as
+    _robur_ to _robustus_), then transferred to the priest as the giver
+    of increase or blessing; (2) = _avi-gur_, the second part of the word
+    pointing to (a) _garrire_, "chatter," or (b) _gerere_, the augur
+    being conceived as "carrying" or guiding the flight of the birds; (3)
+    from a lost verb _augo_ = "tell," "declare." It is now generally
+    agreed that the science of augury is of Italian, not Etruscan,
+    origin.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUST (originally _Sextilis_), the sixth month in the pre-Julian Roman
+year, which received its present name from the emperor Augustus. The
+preceding month, _Quintilis_, had been called "July" after Julius
+Caesar, and the emperor chose August to be rechristened in his own
+honour because his greatest good fortune had then happened. In that
+month he had been admitted to the consulate, had thrice celebrated a
+triumph, had received the allegiance of the soldiers stationed on the
+Janiculum, had concluded the civil wars, and had subdued Egypt. As July
+contained thirty-one days, and August only thirty, it was thought
+necessary to add another day to the latter month, in order that the
+month of Augustus might not be in any respect inferior to that of
+Julius.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA, a city and the county-seat of Richmond county, Georgia, U.S.A.,
+at the head of steamboat navigation on the Savannah river, 132 m. N.W.
+of Savannah by rail and 240 m. by river course. Pop. (1890) 33,300;
+(1900) 39,441, of whom 18,487 were negroes and only 995 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 41,040. Augusta is served by the Southern,
+the Augusta Southern (controlled by the Southern), the Atlantic Coast
+Line, the Charleston & Western Carolina (controlled by the Atlantic
+Coast Line), the Georgia and the Central of Georgia railways, by an
+electric line to Aiken, South Carolina, and by a line of steamers to
+Savannah. The city extends along the river bank for a distance of more
+than 3 m., and is connected by a bridge with Hamburg, and with North
+Augusta, South Carolina, two residential suburbs. Augusta is well known
+as a winter resort (mean winter temperature, 47 deg. F.), and there are
+many fine winter homes here of wealthy Northerners. There are good
+roads, stretching from Augusta for miles in almost every direction. In
+North Augusta there is a large hotel, and there is another in
+Summerville (pop. in 1910, 4361), 2-1/2 m. N.W., an attractive
+residential suburb and winter resort, in which there are a country club
+and a large United States arsenal, established in 1831. Broad Street is
+the principal thoroughfare of Augusta, and Greene Street, with a park in
+the centre and flanking rows of oaks and elms, is the finest residential
+street. Of historical interest is St Paul's church (Protestant
+Episcopal); the present building was erected in 1819 and is the third St
+Paul's church on the same site. The first church was "built by the
+gentlemen of Augusta" in 1750. In the crypt of the church General
+Leonidas Polk is buried; and in the churchyard are the graves of George
+Steptoe Washington, a nephew of George Washington, and of William
+Longstreet, the inventor. Among the city's principal buildings are the
+Federal building, the Richmond county court house, the Augusta orphan
+asylum, the city hospital, the Lamar hospital for negroes, and the
+buildings of Richmond Academy (incorporated in 1783), of the Academy of
+the Sacred Heart (for girls), of Paine's Institute (for negroes), of
+Houghton Institute, endowed in 1852 to be "free to all the children of
+Augusta," and of the medical school of the university of Georgia,
+founded in 1829, and a part of the university since 1873. A granite
+obelisk 50 ft. high was erected in 1861 as a memorial to the signers for
+Georgia of the Declaration of Independence; beneath it are buried Lyman
+Hall (1726-1790) and George Walton (1740-1804). There are two Italian
+marble monuments in honour of Confederate soldiers, and monuments to the
+Southern poets, Paul Hamilton Hayne and Richard Henry Wilde (1789-1847).
+
+In commerce and manufacturing, Augusta ranks second among the cities of
+Georgia. As a centre of trade for the "Cotton Belt," it has a large
+wholesale and retail business; and it is an important cotton market. The
+principal manufacture is cotton goods; among the other products are
+lumber, flour, cotton waste, cotton-seed oil and cake, ice, silk,
+boilers and engines, and general merchandise staples. Water-power for
+factories is secured by a system of "water-power canals" from a large
+dam across the Savannah, built in 1847 and enlarged in 1871; the
+principal canal, owned by the city, is so valuable as nearly to pay the
+interest on the municipal debt. In 1905 the value of the city's total
+factory product was $8,829,305, of which $3,832,009, or 43.4%, was the
+value of the cotton goods. The principal newspaper is the _Augusta
+Chronicle_, founded in 1785.
+
+Augusta was established in 1735-1736 by James Edward Oglethorpe, the
+founder of Georgia, and was named in honour of the princess of Wales.
+The Carolina colonists had a trading post in its vicinity before the
+settlement by Oglethorpe. The fort, built in 1736, was first named Fort
+Augusta, and in 1780, at the time of the British occupation, was
+enlarged and renamed Fort Cornwallis; its site is now marked by a
+Memorial Cross, erected by the Colonial Dames of Georgia in the
+churchyard of St Paul's. Tobacco was the principal agricultural product
+during the 18th century, and for its culture negro slaves were
+introduced from Carolina, before the restrictions of the Georgia
+Trustees on slavery were removed. During the colonial period several
+treaties with Indians were made at Augusta; by the most important, that
+of 1763, the Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, Cherokees and Catawbas agreed
+(in a meeting with the governors of North and South Carolina, Virginia
+and Georgia) to the terms of the treaty of Paris. At the opening of the
+American War of Independence, the majority of the people of Augusta were
+Loyalists. The town was taken by the British under Lieut.-Col. Archibald
+Campbell (1739-1791) in January 1779, but was evacuated a month later;
+it was the seat of government of Georgia for almost the entire period
+from the capture of Savannah in December 1778 until May 1780, and was
+then abandoned by the Patriots and was occupied chiefly by Loyalists
+under Lieut.-Col. Thomas Brown. In September 1780 a force of less than
+500 patriots under Col. Elijah Clarke marched against the town in three
+divisions, and while one division, attacking a neighbouring Indian camp,
+drew off most of the garrison, the other two divisions entered the town;
+but British reinforcements arrived before Brown could be dislodged from
+a building in which he had taken refuge, and Clarke was forced to
+withdraw. A stronger American force, under Lieut.-Col. Henry Lee,
+renewed the siege in May 1781 and gained possession on the 5th of June.
+From 1783 until 1795 Augusta was again the seat of the state government.
+It was the meeting-place of the Land Court which confiscated the
+property of the Loyalists of Georgia, and of the convention which
+ratified for Georgia the Constitution of the United States. In 1798 it
+was incorporated as a town, and in 1817 it was chartered as a city.
+Augusta was the home of the inventor, William Longstreet (1759-1814),
+who as early as 1788 received a patent from the state of Georgia for a
+steamboat, but met with no practical success until 1808; as early as
+1801 he had made experiments in the application of steam to cotton gins
+and saw-mills at Augusta. Near Augusta, on the site now occupied by the
+Eli Whitney Country Club, Eli Whitney is said to have first set up and
+operated his cotton gin; he is commemorated by a mural tablet in the
+court house. The establishment of a steamboat line to Savannah in 1817
+aided Augusta's rapid commercial development. There was a disastrous
+fire in 1829, an epidemic of yellow fever in 1839, and a flood in 1840,
+but the growth of the city was not seriously checked; the cotton
+receipts of 1846 were 212,019 bales, and in 1847 a cotton factory was
+built. During the Civil War Augusta was the seat of extensive military
+factories, the tall chimney of the Confederate powder mills still
+standing as a memorial. The economic development has, since the Civil
+War, been steady and continuous. An exposition was held in Augusta in
+1888, and another in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA, the capital of Maine, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Kennebec
+county, on the Kennebec river[1] (at the head of navigation), 44 m. from
+its mouth, 62 m. by rail N.E. of Portland, and 74 m. S.W. of Bangor.
+Pop. (1890) 10,527; (1900) 11,683, of whom 2131 were foreign-born;
+(1910, census) 13,211. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by
+several electric lines, and by steamboat lines to Portland, Boston and
+several other ports. It is built on a series of terraces, mostly on the
+west bank of the river, which is spanned here by a bridge 1100 ft. long.
+The state house, built of granite quarried in the vicinity, occupies a
+commanding site along the south border of the city, and in it is the
+state library. The Lithgow library is a city public library. Near the
+state house is the former residence of James G. Blaine. On the other
+side of the river, nearly opposite, is the Maine insane hospital. Among
+other prominent buildings are the court house, the post office and the
+city hall. In one of the parks is a soldiers' and sailors' monument. By
+means of a dam across the river, 17 ft. high and nearly 600 ft. long,
+good water-power is provided, and the city manufactures cotton goods,
+boots and shoes, paper, pulp and lumber. A leading industry is the
+printing and publishing of newspapers and periodicals, several of the
+periodicals published here having an enormous circulation. The total
+value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,886,833. Augusta occupies
+the site of the Indian village, Koussinoc, at which the Plymouth Colony
+established a trading post about 1628. In 1661 Plymouth sold its
+interests, and soon afterward the four purchasers abandoned the post. In
+1754, however, their heirs brought about the erection here of Fort
+Western, the main building of which is still standing at the east end of
+the bridge, opposite the city hall. Augusta was originally a part of the
+township of Hallowell (incorporated in 1771); in 1797 the north part of
+Hallowell was incorporated as a separate town and named Harrington; and
+later in the same year the name was changed to Augusta. It became the
+county-seat in 1799; was chosen by the Maine legislature as the capital
+of the state in 1827, but was not occupied as such until the completion
+of the state house in 1831; and was chartered as a city in 1849.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Kennebec was first explored to this point in 1607.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA, a seaport of the province of Syracuse, Sicily, 19 m. N. of it
+by rail. Pop. (1901) 16,402. It occupies a part of the former peninsula
+of Xiphonia, now a small island, connected with the mainland by a
+bridge. It was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in 1232, and almost
+entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1693, after which it was rebuilt.
+The castle is now a large prison. The fortified port, though
+unfrequented except as a naval harbour of refuge, is a very fine one.
+There are considerable saltworks at Augusta. To the south, on the left
+bank of the Molinello. 1-1/2 m. from its mouth, Sicel tombs and
+Christian catacombs, and farther up the river a cave village of the
+early middle ages, have been explored (_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1902, 411,
+631; _Romische Quartalschrift_, 1902, 205). Whether there was ever a
+town bearing the name Xiphonia is doubted by E.A. Freeman (_Hist. of
+Sic._ i. 583); cf., however, E. Pais, _Atakta_ (Pisa, 1891), 55, who
+attributes its foundation, under the name of Tauromenion (which it soon
+lost), to the Zancleans of Hybla (afterwards Megara Hyblaea).
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM, the chief town of the Ligurian tribe of the
+Bagienni, probably identical with the modern Bene Vagienna, on the upper
+course of the Tanaro, about 35 m. due south of Turin. The town retained
+its position as a tribal centre in the reorganization of Augustus, whose
+name it bears, and was erected on a systematic plan. Considerable
+remains of public buildings, constructed in concrete faced with small
+stones with bands of brick at intervals, an amphitheatre with a major
+axis of 390 ft. and a minor axis of 305 ft., a theatre with a stage 133
+ft. in length, and near it the foundations of what was probably a
+basilica, an open space (no doubt the forum), an aqueduct, baths, &c.,
+have been discovered by recent excavations, and also one of the city
+gates, flanked by two towers 22 ft. sq.
+
+  See G. Assandria and G. Vacchetta in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1894),
+  155; (1896), 215; (1897), 441; (1898), 299; (1900), 389; (1901), 413.
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTAN HISTORY, the name given to a collection of the biographies of
+the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus (A.D. 117-284). The work
+professes to have been written during the reigns of Diocletian and
+Constantine, and is to be regarded as the composition of six
+authors,--Aelius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius,
+Vulcacius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus--known as
+Scriptores Historiae Augustae, writers of Augustan history. It is
+generally agreed, however, that there is a large number of
+interpolations in the work, which are referred to the reign of
+Theodosius; and that the documents inserted in the lives are almost all
+forgeries. The more advanced school of critics holds that the names of
+the supposed authors are purely fictitious, as those of some of the
+authorities which they profess to quote certainly are. The lives, which
+(with few exceptions) are arranged in chronological order, are
+distributed as follows:--To Spartianus: the biographies of Hadrian,
+Aelius Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger,
+Caracallus, Geta (?); to Vulcacius Gallicanus: Avidius Cassius; to
+Capitolinus: Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Verus, Pertinax,
+Clodius Albinus, the two Maximins, the three Gordians, Maximus and
+Balbinus, Opilius Macrinus (?); to Lampridius: Commodus, Diadumenus,
+Elagabalus, Alexander Severus; to Pollio: the two Valerians, the
+Gallieni, the so-called Thirty Tyrants or Usurpers, Claudius (his lives
+of Philip, Decius, and Gallus being lost); to Vopiscus: Aurelian,
+Tacitus, Florian, Probus, the four tyrants (Firmus, Saturninus,
+Proculus, Bonosus), Carus, Numerian, Carinus.
+
+The importance of the Augustan history as a repertory of information is
+very considerable, but its literary pretensions are of the humblest
+order. The writers' standard was confessedly low. "My purpose," says
+Vopiscus, "has been to provide materials for persons more eloquent than
+I." Considering the perverted taste of the age, it is perhaps fortunate
+that the task fell into the hands of no showy declaimer who measured his
+success by his skill in making surface do duty for substance, but of
+homely, matter-of-fact scribes, whose sole concern was to record what
+they knew. Their narrative is unmethodical and inartificial; their style
+is tame and plebeian; their conception of biography is that of a
+collection of anecdotes; they have no notion of arrangement, no measure
+of proportion, and no criterion of discrimination between the important
+and the trivial; they are equally destitute of critical and of
+historical insight, unable to sift the authorities on which they rely,
+and unsuspicious of the stupendous social revolution comprised within
+the period which they undertake to describe. Their value, consequently,
+depends very much on that of the sources to which they happen to have
+recourse for any given period of history, and on the fidelity of their
+adherence to these when valuable. Marius Maximus and Aelius Junius
+Cordus, to whose qualifications they themselves bear no favourable
+testimony, were their chief authorities for the earlier lives of the
+series. Marius Maximus, who lived about 165-230, wrote biographies of
+the emperors, in continuation of those of Suetonius, from Nerva to
+Elagabalus; Junius Cordus dealt with the less-known emperors, perhaps
+down to Maximus and Balbinus. The earlier lives, however, contain a
+substratum of authentic historical fact, which recent critics have
+supposed to be derived from a lost work by a contemporary writer,
+described by one of these scholars as "the last great Roman historian."
+For the later lives the Scriptores were obliged to resort more largely
+to public records, and thus preserved matter of the highest importance,
+rescuing from oblivion many imperial rescripts and senatorial decrees,
+reports of official proceedings and speeches on public occasions, and a
+number of interesting and characteristic letters from various emperors.
+Their incidental allusions sometimes cast vivid though undesigned light
+on the circumstances of the age, and they have made large contributions
+to our knowledge of imperial jurisprudence in particular. Even their
+trivialities have their use; their endless anecdotes respecting the
+personal habits of the subjects of their biographies, if valueless to
+the historian, are most acceptable to the archaeologist, and not
+unimportant to the economist and moralist. Their errors and deficiencies
+may in part be ascribed to the contemporary neglect of history as a
+branch of instruction. Education was in the hands of rhetoricians and
+grammarians; historians were read for their style, not for their matter,
+and since the days of Tacitus, none had arisen worth a schoolmaster's
+notice. We thus find Vopiscus acknowledging that when he began to write
+the life of Aurelian, he was entirely misinformed respecting the
+latter's competitor Firmus, and implying that he would not have ventured
+on Aurelian himself if he had not had access to the MS. of the emperor's
+own diary in the Ulpian library. The writers' historical estimates are
+superficial and conventional, but report the verdict of public opinion
+with substantial accuracy. The only imputation on the integrity of any
+of them lies against Trebellius Pollio, who, addressing his work to a
+descendant of Claudius, the successor and probably the assassin of
+Gallienus, has dwelt upon the latter versatile sovereign's carelessness
+and extravagance without acknowledgment of the elastic though fitful
+energy he so frequently displayed in defence of the empire. The caution
+of Vopiscus's references to Diocletian cannot be made a reproach to him.
+
+No biographical particulars are recorded respecting any of these
+writers. From their acquaintance with Latin and Greek literature they
+must have been men of letters by profession, and very probably
+secretaries or librarians to persons of distinction. There seems no
+reason to accept Gibbon's contemptuous estimate of their social
+position. They appear particularly versed in law. Spartianus's reference
+to himself as "Diocletian's own" seems to indicate that he was a
+domestic in the imperial household. They address their patrons with
+deference, acknowledging their own deficiencies, and seem painfully
+conscious of the profession of literature having fallen upon evil days.
+
+  Editio princeps (Milan, 1475); Casaubon (1603) showed great critical
+  ability in his notes, but for want of a good MS. left the restoration
+  of the text to Salmasius (1620), whose notes are a most remarkable
+  monument of erudition, combined with acuteness in verbal criticism and
+  general vigour of intellect. Of recent years considerable attention
+  has been devoted by German scholars to the _History_, especially by
+  Peter, whose edition of the text in the Teubner series (2nd ed., 1884)
+  contains (praef. xxxv.-xxxvii.) a bibliography of works on the subject
+  preceding the publication of his own special treatise. The edition by
+  Jordan-Eyssenhardt (1863) should also be mentioned. Amongst the most
+  recent treatises on the subject are: A. Gemoll, _Die Scriptores
+  Historiae Augustae_ (1886); H. Peter, _Die Scriptores Historiae
+  Augustae_ (1892); G. Tropea, _Studi sugli Scriptores Historiae
+  Augustae_ (1899-1903); J.M. Heer, _Der historische Wert der Vita
+  Commodi in der Sammlung der Scriptores Historiae Augustae_ (1901); C.
+  Lecrivain, _Etudes sur l'histoire Auguste_ (1904); E. Kornemann,
+  _Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom_ (1905),
+  according to whom "the last great historian of Rome" is Lollius
+  Urbicus; O. Schulz, _Das Kaiserhaus der Antonine und der letzte
+  Historiker Roms_ (1907). On their style, see C. Paucker, _De
+  Latinitate Scriptorum Historiae Augustae_ (1870); special lexicon by
+  C. Lessing (1901-1906). An English translation is included in _The
+  Lives of the Roman Emperors_, by John Bernard (1698). See further
+  ROME: _History_ (anc. _ad fin._), section "Authorities"; M. Schanz,
+  _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_, iii. p. 69 (for Marius Maximus
+  and Junius Cordus), iv. p. 47; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman
+  Literature_ (Eng. tr.), S 392; H. Peter, bibliography from 1893 to
+  1905 in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, cxxix. (1907).
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM (mod. _Aosta_, q.v.), an ancient town of
+Italy in the district of the Salassi, founded by Augustus about 24 B.C.
+on the site of the camp of Varro Murena, who subdued this tribe in 25
+B.C., and settled with 3000 praetorians. Pliny calls it the last town of
+Italy on the north-west, and its position at the confluence of two
+rivers, at the end of the Great and Little St Bernard, gave it
+considerable military importance, which is vouched for by considerable
+remains of Roman buildings. The ancient town walls, enclosing a
+rectangle 793 by 624 yds., are still preserved almost in their entire
+extent. The walls are 21 ft. high. They are built of concrete faced with
+small blocks of stone, and at the bottom are nearly 9 ft. thick, and at
+the top 6 ft. There are towers at the angles of the _enceinte_, and
+others at intervals, and two at each of the four gates, making a total
+of twenty towers altogether. They are roughly 32 ft. square, and project
+14 ft. from the wall. The Torre del Pailleron on the south and the Torre
+del Leproso in the west are especially well preserved. The east and
+south gates exist (the latter, a double gate with three arches flanked
+by two towers, is the Porta Praetoria, and is especially fine), while
+the rectangular arrangement of the streets perpetuates the Roman plan,
+dividing the town into 16 blocks (_insulae_). The main road, 32 ft.
+wide, divides the city into two equal halves, running from east to west,
+an arrangement which makes it clear that the guarding of the road was
+the main _raison d'etre_ of the city. Some arcades of the amphitheatre
+(the diameters of which are 282 ft. and 239 ft.), and the south wall of
+the theatre are also preserved, the latter to a height of over 70 ft.,
+and a market-place some 300 ft. square, surrounded by storehouses on
+three sides with a temple in the centre, and two on the open (south)
+side, and the _thermae_, have been discovered. Outside the town is a
+handsome triumphal arch in honour of Augustus. About 5 m. to the west is
+a single-arched Roman bridge, the Pondel, which has a closed passage
+lighted by windows for foot passengers in winter, and above it an open
+footpath, both being about 3-1/2 ft. in width. There are considerable
+remains of the ancient road from Eporedia (mod. _Ivrea_) to Augusta
+Praetoria, up the Valle d' Aosta, which the modern railway follows,
+notably the Pont St Martin, with a single arch with a span of 116 ft.
+and a roadway 15 ft. wide, the cutting of Donnaz, and the Roman bridges
+of Chatillon (Pont St Vincent) and Aosta (Pont de Pierre), &c.
+
+  See C. Promis, _Le antichita di Aosta_ (Turin, 1862); E. Berard in
+  _Atti della Societa di Archeologia di Torino_, iii. 119 seq.; _Notizie
+  degli Scavi_, passim; A. d'Andrade, _Relazione dell' Ufficio Regionale
+  per la consenazione dei Monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria_
+  (Turin, 1899), 46 seq.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM (1772-1841), German theologian, born
+at Eschenberga, near Gotha, was of Jewish descent, his grandfather
+having been a converted rabbi. He was educated at the gymnasium at Gotha
+and the university of Jena. At Jena he studied oriental languages, of
+which he became professor there in 1803. Subsequently he became ordinary
+professor of theology (1812), and for a time rector, at Breslau. In 1819
+he was transferred to the university of Bonn, where he was made
+professor primarius. In 1828 he was appointed chief member of the
+consistorial council at Coblenz. Here he was afterwards made director of
+the consistory. He died at Coblenz in 1841. Augusti had little sympathy
+with the modern philosophical interpretations of dogma, and although he
+took up a position of free criticism with regard to the Biblical
+narratives, he held fast to the traditional faith. His works on theology
+(_Dogmengeschichte_, 1805; 4th ed., 1835) are simple statements of fact;
+they do not attempt a speculative treatment of their subjects. In 1809
+he published in conjunction with W.M.L. de Wette a new translation of
+the Old Testament. Mention should also be made of his _Grundriss einer
+historischkritischen Einleitung ins Alte Testament_ (1806), his
+_Exegetisches Handbuch des Alten Testaments_ (1797-1800), and his
+edition of _Die Apokryphen des A. T._ (1804). In addition to these, his
+most important writings are the _Denkwurdigkeiten aus der Christlichen
+Archaologie_, 12 vols. (1817-1831), a partially digested mass of
+materials, and the _Handbuch der Christ. Archaologie_, 3 vols.
+(1836-1837), which gives the substance of the larger work in a more
+compact and systematic form.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430), one of the four great fathers of the Latin
+Church. Augustinus--the _praenomen_ Aurelius is used indeed by his
+disciples Orosius and Prosper, and is found in the oldest Augustine
+MSS., but is not used by himself, nor in the letters addressed to
+him--was born at Tagaste, a town of Numidia, now Suk Ahras in
+Constantine, on the 13th of November 354. His father, Patricius, was a
+burgess of Tagaste and still a pagan at the time of his son's birth. His
+mother, Monica, was not only a Christian, but a woman of the most tender
+and devoted piety, whose beautiful faith and enthusiasm and patient
+prayer for both her husband and son (at length crowned with success in
+both cases) have made her a type of womanly saintliness for all ages.
+She early instructed her son in the faith and love of Jesus Christ, and
+for a time he seems to have been impressed by her teaching. Falling ill,
+he wished to be baptized; but when the danger was past, the rite was
+deferred and, in spite of his mother's admonitions and prayers,
+Augustine grew up without any profession of Christian piety or any
+devotion to Christian principles.
+
+Inheriting from his father a passionate nature, he formed while still a
+mere youth an irregular union with a girl, by whom he became the father
+of a son, whom in a fit of pious emotion he named Adeodatus ("by God
+given"), and to whom he was passionately attached. In his _Confessions_
+he afterwards described this period of his life in the blackest colours;
+for in the light of his conversion he saw behind him only shadows. Yet,
+whatever his youthful aberrations, Augustine was from the first an
+earnest student. His father, noticing his early promise, destined him
+for the brilliant and lucrative career of a rhetorician, for which he
+spared no expense in training him. Augustine studied at his native town
+and afterwards at Madaura and Carthage, especially devoting himself to
+the works of the Latin poets, many traces of his love for which are to
+be found in his writings. His acquaintance with Greek literature was
+much more limited, and, indeed, it has been doubted, though without
+sufficient reason, whether he could use the Greek scriptures in the
+original. Cicero's _Hortensius_, which he read in his nineteenth year,
+first awakened in his mind the spirit of speculation and the impulse
+towards the knowledge of the truth. But he passed from one phase of
+thought to another, unable to find satisfaction in any. Manichaeism,
+that mixed product of Zoroastrian and Christian-gnostic elements, first
+enthralled him. He became a fervent member of the sect, and was admitted
+into the class of _auditors_ or "hearers." Manichaeism seemed to him to
+solve the mysteries of the world, and of his own experiences by which he
+was perplexed. His insatiable imagination drew congenial food from the
+fanciful religious world of the Manichaeans, decked out as this was with
+the luxuriant wealth of Oriental myth. His strongly developed sense of a
+need of salvation sought satisfaction in the contest of the two
+principles of Good and Evil, and found peace, at least for the moment,
+in the conviction that the portions of light present in him would be
+freed from the darkness in which they were immersed. The ideal of
+chastity and self-restraint, which promised a foretaste of union with
+God, amazed him, bound as he was in the fetters of sensuality and for
+ever shaking at these fetters. But while his moral force was not
+sufficient for the attainment of this ideal, gradually everything else
+which Manichaeism seemed to offer him dissolved before his criticism.
+Increasingly occupied with the exact sciences, he learnt the
+incompatibility of the Manichaean astrology with the facts. More and
+more absorbed in the problems of psychology, he realized the
+insufficiency of dualism, which did not solve the ultimate questions but
+merely set them back. The Manichaean propaganda seemed to him
+invertebrate and lacking in force, and a discussion which he had with
+Faustus, a distinguished Manichaean bishop and controversialist, left
+him greatly disappointed.
+
+Meanwhile nine years had passed. Augustine, after finishing his studies,
+had returned to Tagaste, where he became a teacher of grammar. He must
+have been an excellent master, who knew how to influence the whole
+personality of his pupils. It was then that Alypius, who in the later
+stages of Augustine's life proved a true friend and companion, attached
+himself to him. He remained in his native town little more than a year,
+during which time he lived with his mother, who was comforted by the
+bishop for the estrangement of her son from the Catholic faith ("a son
+of so many tears cannot be lost": _Confess._ III. xii. S 21), comforted
+also, and above all, by the famous vision, which Augustine thus
+describes: "She saw herself standing on a certain wooden rule, and a
+shining youth coming towards her, cheerful and smiling upon her the
+while she grieved, and was consumed with grief: and when he had inquired
+of her the causes of her grief and daily tears (for the sake, as is
+their wont, of teaching, not of learning) and she had made answer that
+she was bewailing my perdition, he bade her be at ease, and advised her
+to look and observe, 'That where she was, there was I also.' And when
+she looked there, she saw me standing by her on the same rule"
+(_Confess._ III. xi.). Augustine now returned for a second time to
+Carthage, where he devoted himself zealously to work. Thence, probably
+in the spring of 383, he migrated to Rome. His Manichaean friends urged
+him to take this step, which was rendered easier by the licentious lives
+of the students at Carthage. His stay at Rome may have lasted about a
+year, no agreeable time for Augustine, since his patrons and friends
+belonged to just those Manichaean circles with which he had in the
+meantime entirely lost all intellectual touch. He, therefore, accepted
+an invitation from Milan, where the people were in search of a teacher
+of rhetoric.
+
+At Milan the conflict within his mind in search of truth still
+continued. It was now that he separated himself openly from the
+Manichaean sect. As a thinker he came entirely under the influence of
+the New Academy; he professed the Sceptic philosophy, without being able
+to find in it the final conclusion of wisdom. He was, however, not far
+from the decision. Two things determined his further development. He
+became acquainted with the Neo-Platonic philosophy; its monism replaced
+the dualism, its intellectualized world of ideas the materialism of
+Manichaeism. Here he found the admonition to seek for truth outside the
+material world, and from created things he learnt to recognize the
+invisible God; he attained the certainty that this God is, and is
+eternal, always the same, subject to change neither in his parts nor in
+his motions. And while thus Augustine's metaphysical convictions were
+being slowly remodelled, he met, in Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a man in
+whom complete worldly culture and the nobility of a ripe Christian
+personality were wonderfully united. He heard him preach; but at first
+it was the orator and not the contents of the sermons that enchained
+him. He sought an opportunity of conversation with him, but this was not
+easily found. Ambrose had no leisure for philosophic discussion. He was
+accessible to all who sought him, but never for a moment free from study
+or the cares of duty. Augustine, as he himself tells us, used to enter
+without being announced, as all persons might; but after staying for a
+while, afraid of interrupting him, he would depart again. He continued,
+however, to hear Ambrose preach, and gradually the gospel of divine
+truth and grace was received into his heart. He was busy with his friend
+Alypius in studying the Pauline epistles; certain words were driven home
+with irresistible force to his conscience. His struggle of mind became
+more and more intolerable, the thought of divine purity fighting in his
+heart with the love of the world and the flesh. That sensuality was his
+worst enemy he had long known. The mother of his child had accompanied
+him to Milan. When he became betrothed he dismissed her; but neither the
+pain of this parting nor consideration for his not yet marriageable
+bride prevented him from forming a fresh connexion of the same kind.
+Meanwhile, the determination to renounce the old life with its pleasures
+of sense, was ever being forced upon him with more and more
+distinctness. He then received a visit from a Christian compatriot named
+Pontitian, who told him about St Anthony and the monachism in Egypt, and
+also of a monastery near Milan. He was shaken to the depths when he
+learnt from Pontitian that two young officials, like himself betrothed,
+had suddenly formed a determination to turn their backs upon the life of
+the world. He could no longer bear to be inside the house; in terrible
+excitement he rushed into the garden; and now followed that scene which
+he himself in the _Confessions_ has described to us with such graphic
+realism. He flung himself under a fig tree, burst into a passion of
+weeping, and poured out his heart to God. Suddenly he seemed to hear a
+voice bidding him consult the divine oracle: "Take up and read, take up
+and read." He left off weeping, rose up, sought the volume where Alypius
+was sitting, and opening it read in silence the following passage from
+the Epistle to the Romans (xiii. 13, 14): "Not in rioting and
+drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and
+envying. But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for
+the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." He adds: "I had neither desire
+nor need to read further. As I finished the sentence, as though the
+light of peace had been poured into the heart, all the shadows of doubt
+dispersed. Thus hast Thou converted me to Thee, so as no longer to seek
+either for wife or other hope of the world, standing fast in that rule
+of faith in which Thou so many years before hadst revealed me to my
+mother" (_in qua me ante lot annos ei revelaveras: Confess_. VIII. xii.
+S 30).[1]
+
+The conversion of Augustine, as we have been accustomed to call this
+event, took place in the late summer of 386, a few weeks before the
+beginning of the vacation. The determination to give up his post was
+rendered easier by a chest-trouble which was not without danger, and
+which for months made him incapable of work. He withdrew with several
+companions to the country estate of Cassisiacum near Milan, which had
+been lent him by a friend, and announced himself to the bishop as a
+candidate for baptism. His religious opinions were still to some extent
+unformed, and even his habits by no means altogether such as his great
+change demanded. He mentions, for example, that during this time he
+broke himself of a habit of profane swearing, and in other ways sought
+to discipline his character and conduct for the reception of the sacred
+rite. He received baptism the Easter following, in his thirty-third
+year, and along with him his son Adeodatus and his friend Alypius were
+admitted to the Church. Monica, his mother, had rejoined him, and at
+length rejoiced in the fulfilment of her prayers. She died at Ostia,
+just as they were about to embark for Africa, her last hours being
+gladdened by his Christian sympathy. In the account of the conversation
+which he had with his mother before her end, in the narrative of her
+death and burial (_Confess_. IX. x.-xi., SS 23-28), Augustine's literary
+power is displayed at its highest.
+
+The plan of returning home, remained for the present unaccomplished.
+Augustine stayed for a year in Rome, occupied in literary work,
+particularly in controversy with Manichaeism. It was not until the
+autumn of 388 that he returned to Tagaste, probably still accompanied by
+his son, who, however, must have died shortly afterwards. With some
+friends, who joined him in devotion, he formed a small religious
+community, which looked to him as its head. Their mode of life was not
+formally monastic according to any special rule, but the experience of
+this time of seclusion was, no doubt, the basis of that monastic system
+which Augustine afterwards sketched and which derived its name from him
+(see AUGUSTINIANS). As may be imagined, the fame of such a convert in
+such a position soon spread, and invitations to a more active
+ecclesiastical life came to him from many quarters. He shrank from the
+responsibility, but his destiny was not to be avoided. After two and a
+half years spent in retirement he went to Hippo, to see a Christian
+friend, who desired to converse with him as to his design of quitting
+the world and devoting himself to a religious life. The Christian
+community there being in want of a presbyter and Augustine being present
+at the meeting, the people unanimously chose him and he was ordained to
+the presbyterate. A few years afterwards, 395 or 396, he was made
+coadjutor to the bishop, and finally became bishop of the see.
+
+Henceforth Augustine's life is filled up with his ecclesiastical
+labours, and is more marked by the series of his numerous writings and
+the great controversies in which they engaged him than by anything else.
+His life was spent in a perpetual strife. During the first half this had
+been against himself; but even when others stepped into his place, it
+always seems as though a part of Augustine himself were incarnate in
+them. Augustine had early distinguished himself as an author. He had
+written several philosophical treatises, and, as teacher of rhetoric at
+Carthage, he had composed a work _De pulchro et apto_, which is no
+longer extant. Whenat Cassisiacum he had combated the scepticism of the
+New Academy (_Contra Academicos_), had treated of the "blessed life"
+(_De Vita beata_), of the significance of evil in the order of the world
+(_De ordine_), of the means for the elucidation of spiritual truths
+(_Soliloquia_). Shortly before the time of his baptism, he was occupied
+with the question of the immortality of the soul (_De immortalitate
+animae_), and in Rome and at Tagaste he was still engaged with
+philosophical problems, as is evidenced by the writings _De quantitate
+animae_ and _De magistro_. In all these treatises is apparent the
+influence of the Neo-Platonic method of thought, which for him, as for
+so many others, had become the bridge to the Christian. While still in
+Rome, he began to come to a reckoning with the Manichaeans, and wrote
+two books on the morals of the Catholic Church and of the Manichaeans
+(_De moribus ecclesiae Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum libri
+duo_). For many years he pursued this controversy in a long series of
+writings, of which the most conspicuous is the elaborate reply to his
+old associate and disputant, Faustus of Mileve (_Contra Faustum
+Manichaeum_, A.D. 400). It was natural that the Manichaean heresy, which
+had so long enslaved his own mind, should have first exercised
+Augustine's great powers as a theological thinker and controversialist.
+He was able from his own experience to give force to his arguments for
+the unity of creation and of the spiritual life, and to strengthen the
+mind of the Christian Church in its last struggle with that dualistic
+spirit which had animated and moulded in succession so many forms of
+thought at variance with Christianity.
+
+But the time was one of almost universal ecclesiastical and intellectual
+excitement; and so powerful a mental activity as his was naturally drawn
+forth in all directions. Following his writings against the Manichaeans
+came those against the Donatists. The controversy was one which strongly
+interested him, involving as it did the whole question of the
+constitution of the Church and the idea of catholic order, to which the
+circumstances of the age gave special prominence. The Donatist
+controversy sprang out of the Diocletian persecution in the beginning of
+the century. A party in the Church of Carthage, fired with fanatic zeal
+on behalf of those who had courted martyrdom by resistance to the
+imperial mandates, resented deeply the appointment of a bishop of
+moderate opinions, whose consecration had been performed, they alleged,
+by a _traditor_, viz. a bishop who had "delivered" the holy scriptures
+to the magistrates. They set up, in consequence, a bishop of their own,
+of the name of Majorinus, succeeded in 315 by Donatus. The party made
+great pretensions to purity of discipline, and rapidly rose in popular
+favour, notwithstanding a decision given against them both by the bishop
+of Rome and by the emperor Cons tan tine. Augustine was strongly moved
+by the lawlessness of the party and launched forth a series of writings
+against them, the most important of which survive. Amongst these are
+"Seven Books on Baptism" (_De baptismo contra Donatistas_, c. A.D. 400)
+and a lengthy answer, in three books, to Petilian, bishop of Cirta, who
+was the most eminent theologian amongst the Donatist divines. At a later
+period, about 417, Augustine wrote a treatise concerning the correction
+of the Donatists (_De correctione Donatistarum_) "for the sake of
+those," he says in his _Retractations_, "who were not willing that the
+Donatists should be subjected to the correction of the imperial laws."
+In these writings, while vigorously maintaining the validity of the
+Church as it then stood in the Roman world, and the necessity for
+moderation in the exercise of church discipline, Augustine yet gave
+currency, in his zeal against the Donatists, to certain maxims as to the
+duty of the civil power to control schism, which were of evil omen, and
+have been productive of much disaster in the history of Christianity.
+
+The third controversy in which Augustine engaged was the most important,
+and the most intimately associated with his distinctive greatness as a
+theologian. As may be supposed, owing to the conflicts through which he
+had passed, the bishop of Hippo was intensely interested in what may be
+called the anthropological aspect of the great Christian idea of
+redemption. He had himself been brought out of darkness into "marvellous
+light," only by entering into the depths of his own soul, and finding,
+after many struggles, that there was no power but divine grace, as
+revealed in the life and death of the Son of God, which could bring rest
+to human weariness, or pardon and peace for human guilt. He had found
+human nature in his own case too weak and sinful to find any good for
+itself. In God alone he had found good. This deep sense of human
+sinfulness coloured all his theology, and gave to it at once its
+depth--its profound and sympathetic adaptation to all who feel the
+reality of sin--and that tinge of darkness and exaggeration which has as
+surely repelled others. When the expression "Augustinism" is used, it
+points especially to those opinions of the great teacher which were
+evoked in the Pelagian controversy, to which he devoted the most mature
+and powerful period of his life. His opponents in this controversy were
+Pelagius, from whom it derives its name, and Coelestius and Julianus,
+pupils of the former. Nothing is certainly known as to the home of
+Pelagius. Augustine calls him Brito, and so do Marius Mercator and
+Orosius. Jerome points to his Scottish descent, in such terms, however,
+as to leave it uncertain whether he was a native of Scotland or of
+Ireland. He was a man of blameless character, devoted to the reformation
+of society, full of that confidence in the natural impulses of humanity
+which often accompanies philanthropic enthusiasm. About the year 400 he
+came, no longer a young man, to Rome, where he lived for more than a
+decade, and soon made himself conspicuous by his activity and by his
+opinions. His pupil Coelestius, a lawyer of unknown origin, developed
+the views of his master with a more outspoken logic, and, while
+travelling with Pelagius in Africa, in the year 411, was at length
+arraigned before the bishop of Carthage for the following, amongst other
+heretical opinions:--(1) that Adam's sin was purely personal, and
+affected none but himself; (2) that each man, consequently, is born with
+powers as incorrupt as those of Adam, and only falls into sin under the
+force of temptation and evil example; (3) that children who die in
+infancy, being untainted by sin, are saved without baptism. Views such
+as these were obviously in conflict with the whole course of Augustine's
+experience, as well as with his interpretation of the catholic doctrine
+of the Church. And when his attention was drawn to them by the trial and
+excommunication of Coelestius, he undertook their refutation, first of
+all in three books on the punishment and forgiveness of sins and the
+baptism of infants (_De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo
+parvulorum_), addressed to his friend Marcellinus, in which he
+vindicated the necessity of baptism of infants because of original sin
+and the grace of God by which we are justified (_Retract._ ii. 23). This
+was in 412. In the same year he addressed a further treatise to the same
+Marcellinus on _The Spirit and the Letter_ (_De spiritu et littera_).
+Three years later he composed the treatises on _Nature and Grace_ (_De
+natura et gratia_) and the relation of the human to the divine
+righteousness (_De perfectione iustitiae hominis_). The controversy was
+continued during many years in no fewer than fifteen treatises. Upon no
+subject did Augustine bestow more of his intellectual strength, and in
+relation to no other have his views so deeply and permanently affected
+the course of Christian thought. Even those who most usually agree with
+his theological standpoint will hardly deny that, while he did much in
+these writings to vindicate divine truth and to expound the true
+relations of the divine and human, he also, here as elsewhere, was
+hurried into extreme expressions as to the absoluteness of divine grace
+and the extent of human corruption. Like his great disciple in a later
+age--Luther--Augustine was prone to emphasize the side of truth which he
+had most realized in his own experience, and, in contradistinction to
+the Pelagian exaltation of human nature, to depreciate its capabilities
+beyond measure.
+
+In addition to these controversial writings, which mark the great epochs
+of Augustine's life and ecclesiastical activity after his settlement as
+a bishop at Hippo, he was the author of other works, some of them better
+known and even more important. His great work, the most elaborate, and
+in some respects the most significant, that came from his pen, is _The
+City of God_ (_De civitate Dei_). It is designed as a great apologetic
+treatise in vindication of Christianity and the Christian Church,--the
+latter conceived as rising in the form of a new civic order on the
+crumbling ruins of the Roman empire,--but it is also, perhaps, the
+earliest contribution to the philosophy of history, as it is a repertory
+throughout of his cherished theological opinions. This work and his
+_Confessions_ are, probably, those by which he is best known, the one as
+the highest expression of his thought, and the other as the best
+monument of his living piety and Christian experience. _The City of God_
+was begun in 413, and continued to be issued in its several portions for
+a period of thirteen years, or till 426. The _Confessions_ were written
+shortly after he became a bishop, about 397, and give a vivid sketch of
+his early career. To the devout utterances and aspirations of a great
+soul they add the charm of personal disclosure, and have never ceased to
+excite admiration in all spirits of kindred piety. Something of this
+charm also belongs to the _Retractations_, that remarkable work in which
+Augustine, in 427, towards the end of his life, held as it were a review
+of his literary activity, in order to improve what was erroneous and to
+make clear what was doubtful in it. His systematic treatise on _The
+Trinity_ (_De Trinitate_) which extends to fifteen books and occupied
+him for nearly thirty years, must not be passed over. This important
+work, unlike most of his dogmatic writings, was not provoked by any
+special controversial emergency, but grew up silently during this long
+period in the author's mind. This has given it something more of
+completeness and organic arrangement than is usual with Augustine, if it
+has also led him into the prolonged discussion of various analogies,
+more curious than apt in their bearing on the doctrine which he
+expounds. Brief and concise is the presentation of the Catholic doctrine
+in the compendium, which, about 421, he wrote at the request of a Roman
+layman named Laurentius (_Encheiridion, sive de fide spe et caritate_).
+In spite of its title, the compendious work on Christian doctrine (_De
+doctrina Christiana_), begun as early as 393, but only finished in 426,
+does not belong to the dogmatic writings. It is a sort of Biblical
+hermeneutic, in which homiletic questions are also dealt with. His
+catechetical principles Augustine developed in the charming writing _De
+catechizandis rudibus_ (c. 400). A large number of tractates are devoted
+to moral and theological problems (_Contra mendacium_, c. 420; _De bono
+conjugali_, 401, &c.). A widespread influence was exercised by the
+treatise _De opere monachorum_ (c. 400), in which, on the ground of
+Holy Scripture, manual work was demanded of monks. Of less importance
+than the remaining works are the numerous exegetical writings, among
+which the commentary on the Gospel of St John deserves a special
+mention. These have a value owing to Augustine's appreciation of the
+deeper spiritual meaning of scripture, but hardly for their exegetical
+qualities. His _Letters_ are full of interest owing to the light they
+throw on many questions in the ecclesiastical history of the time, and
+owing to his relations with such contemporary theologians as Jerome.
+They have, however, neither the liveliness nor the varied interest of
+the letters of Jerome himself. As a preacher Augustine was of great
+importance. We still possess almost four hundred sermons which may be
+ascribed to him with certainty. Many others only pass under his
+celebrated name.
+
+The closing years of the great bishop were full of sorrow. The Vandals,
+who had been gradually enclosing the Roman empire, appeared before the
+gates of Hippo, and laid siege to it. Augustine was ill with his last
+illness, and could only pray for his fellow-citizens. He passed away
+during the siege, on the 28th of August 430, at the age of seventy-five,
+and thus was spared the indignity of seeing the city in the hands of the
+enemy.
+
+The character of Augustine, both as a man and as a theologian, has been
+briefly indicated in the course of our sketch. None can deny the
+greatness of Augustine's soul--his enthusiasm, his unceasing search
+after truth, his affectionate disposition, his ardour, his
+self-devotion. And even those who may doubt the soundness of his
+dogmatic conclusions, cannot but acknowledge the depth of his spiritual
+convictions, and the logical force and penetration with which he handled
+the most difficult questions, thus weaving all the elements of his
+experience and of his profound scriptural knowledge into a great system
+of Christian thought. Of the four great Fathers of the Church he was
+admittedly the greatest--more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual
+father, more original and systematic than Jerome, his correspondent, and
+intellectually far more distinguished than Gregory the Great, his pupil
+on the papal throne. The theological position and influence of Augustine
+may be said to be unrivalled. No single name has ever exercised such
+power over the Christian Church, and no one mind ever made so deep an
+impression upon Christian thought. In him scholastics and mystics, popes
+and the opponents of the papal supremacy, have seen their champion. He
+was the fulcrum on which Luther rested the thoughts by which he sought
+to lift the past of the Church out of the rut; yet the judgment of
+Catholics still proclaims the ideas of Augustine as the only sound basis
+of philosophy.
+
+  The best complete edition of Augustine's works is that of the
+  Maurines, in 11 vols. fol. published at Paris, 1679-1700, and
+  reprinted in Migne's _Patrologie_ (Paris, 1841-1842). Of the new
+  critical edition in the _Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum
+  Latinorum_, issued by the Vienna Academy, thirteen volumes had been
+  published in 1908, including the _Confessions_, the _Retractations_,
+  _De civitate Dei_, and a number of exegetical and of dogmatic
+  polemical works, together with a portion of the _Letters_. An English
+  translation of nearly the whole of Augustine's writings will be found
+  in the _Select Library of the Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the
+  Christian Church_ (series 1, Buffalo, 1886, &c.). Tillemont, in his
+  _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire ecclesiastique des VI premiers
+  siecles_, has devoted a quarto volume (vol. xiii.) to Augustine's life
+  and writings. The most complete monographs are those on the Catholic
+  side by Kloth (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1839-1840, 3 vols.) and J.J.F.
+  Poujoulat (7th ed., Paris, 1886, 2 vols.), and on the Protestant side
+  by Bindemann (Berlin, Leipzig, Greifswald, 1844-1869, 3 vols,). There
+  are interesting sketches, from quite different points of view, by von
+  Hertling, _Augustinus_ (2nd ed., Mainz, 1904), and Joseph McCabe, _St
+  Augustine and His Age_ (London, 1902). See also Nourrisson, _La
+  Philosophie de St Augustin_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1866, 2 vols.); H.A.
+  Naville, _St Augustin, etude sur la developpement de sa pensee jusqu'a
+  l'epoque de son ordination_ (Geneva, 1872); Dorner, _Augustinus_
+  (Berlin, 1873); Reuter, _Augustinische Studien_ (Gotha, 1886); F.
+  Scheel, _Die Anschauung Augustins uber Christi Person und Werk_
+  (Tubingen, 1901); A. Hatzfeld, _Saint Augustin_ (6th ed., Paris,
+  1902); G. von Hertling, _Augustin_ (Mainz, 1902); A. Egger, _Der
+  heilige Augustinus_ (Kempten, 1904); J.N. Espenberger, _Die Elemente
+  der Erbsunde nach Augustin und der Fruhscholastik_ (Mainz, 1905); S.
+  Angus, _The Sources of the First Ten Books of Augustine's De Civitate
+  Dei_ (Princeton, 1906); and the more modern text-books of the history
+  of dogma, especially Harnack.     (G. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The reference is to the vision described above.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c. 613), first archbishop of Canterbury, occupied a
+position of authority in the monastery of St Andrew at Rome, when
+Gregory I. summoned him to lead a mission to England in A.D. 596. The
+apprehensions of Augustine's followers caused him to return to Rome, but
+the pope furnished him with letters of commendation and encouraged him
+to proceed. He landed in Thanet in A.D. 597, and was favourably received
+by Aethelberht, king of Kent, who granted a dwelling-place for the monks
+in Canterbury, and allowed them liberty to preach. Augustine first made
+use of the ancient church of St Martin at Canterbury, which before his
+arrival had been the oratory of the Queen Berhta and her confessor
+Liudhard. Aethelberht upon his conversion employed all his influence in
+support of the mission. In 601 Augustine received the pallium from
+Gregory and was given authority over the Celtic churches in Britain, as
+well as all future bishops consecrated in English territory, including
+York. Authority over the see of York was not, however, to descend to
+Augustine's successors. In 603 he consecrated Christ Church, Canterbury,
+and built the monastery of SS. Peter and Paul, afterwards known as St
+Augustine's. At the conference of Augustine's Oak he endeavoured in vain
+to bring over the Celtic church to the observance of the Roman Easter.
+He afterwards consecrated Mellitus and Justus to the sees of London and
+Rochester respectively. The date of his death is not recorded by Bede,
+but MS. F of the Saxon Chronicle puts it in 614, and the _Annales
+Monasterienses_ in 612.
+
+  See Bede, _Eccl. Hist._ (ed. by Plummer), i. 23-ii. 3.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINIAN CANONS, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church,
+called also Austin Canons, Canons Regular, and in England Black Canons,
+because their cassock and mantle were black, though they wore a white
+surplice: elsewhere the colour of the habit varied considerably.
+
+The canons regular (see CANON) grew out of the earlier institute of
+canonical life, in consequence of the urgent exhortations of the Lateran
+Synod of 1059. The clergy of some cathedrals (in England, Carlisle), and
+of a great number of collegiate churches all over western Europe,
+responded to the appeal; and the need of a rule of life suited to the
+new regime produced, towards the end of the 11th century, the so-called
+Rule of St Augustine (see AUGUSTINIANS). This Rule was widely adopted by
+the canons regular, who also began to bind themselves by the vows of
+poverty, obedience and chastity. In the 12th century this discipline
+became universal among them; and so arose the order of Augustinian
+canons as a religious order in the strict sense of the word. They
+resembled the monks in so far as they lived in community and took
+religious vows; but their state of life remained essentially clerical,
+and as clerics their duty was to undertake the pastoral care and serve
+the parish churches in their patronage. They were bound to the choral
+celebration of the divine office, and in its general tenor their manner
+of life differed little from that of monks.
+
+Their houses, at first without bonds between them, soon tended to draw
+together and coalesce into congregations with corporate organization and
+codes of constitutions supplementary to the Rule. The popes encouraged
+these centralizing tendencies; and in 1339 Benedict XII. organized the
+Augustinian canons on the same general lines as those laid down for the
+Benedictines, by a system of provincial chapters and visitations.
+
+Some thirty congregations of canons regular of St Augustine are
+numbered. The most important were: (1) the Lateran canons, formed soon
+after the synod of 1059, by the clergy of the Lateran Basilica; (2)
+Congregation of St Victor in Paris, c. 1100, remarkable for the
+theological and mystical school of Hugh, Richard and Adam of St Victor;
+(3) Gilbertines (see GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST); (4) Windesheim
+Congregation, c. 1400, in the Netherlands and over north and central
+Germany (see GROOT, GERHARD), to which belonged Thomas a Kempis; (5)
+Congregation of Ste Genevieve in Paris, a reform c. 1630. During the
+later middle ages the houses of these various congregations of canons
+regular spread all over Europe and became extraordinarily numerous. They
+underwent the natural and inevitable vicissitudes of all orders, having
+their periods of depression and degeneracy, and again of revival and
+reform. The book of Johann Busch, himself a canon of Windesheim, _De
+Reformatione monasteriorum_, shows that in the 15th century grave
+relaxation had crept into many monasteries of Augustinian canons in
+north Germany, and the efforts at reform were only partially successful.
+The Reformation, the religious wars and the Revolution have swept away
+nearly all the canons regular, but some of their houses in Austria still
+exist in their medieval splendour. In England there were as many as 200
+houses of Augustinian canons, and 60 of them were among the "greater
+monasteries" suppressed in 1538-1540 (for list see Tables in F.A.
+Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The first foundation was Holy
+Trinity, Aldgate, by Queen Maud, in 1108; Carlisle was an English
+cathedral of Augustinian canons. In Ireland the order was even more
+numerous, Christ Church, Dublin, being one of their houses. Three houses
+of the Lateran canons were established in England towards the close of
+the 19th century. Most of the congregations of Augustinian canons had
+convents of nuns, called canonesses; many such exist to this day.
+
+  See the works of Amort and Du Molinet, mentioned under CANON. Vol. ii.
+  of Helyot's _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792) is devoted to canons
+  regular of all kinds. The information is epitomized by Max Heimbucher,
+  _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), SS 54-60, where copious
+  references to the literature of the subject are supplied. See also
+  Otto Zockler, _Askese und Monchtum_, ii. (1897), p. 422; and Wetzer
+  und Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Canonici Regulares" and
+  "Canonissae." For England see J.W. Clark, _Observances in use at the
+  Augustinian Priory at Barnwell_ (1897); and an article in _Journal of
+  Theological Studies_ (v.) by Scott Holmes.     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS, or FRIARS, a religious order in the Roman Catholic
+Church, sometimes called (but improperly) Black Friars (see FRIARS). In
+the first half of the 13th century there were in central Italy various
+small congregations of hermits living according to different rules. The
+need of co-ordinating and organizing these hermits induced the popes
+towards 1250 to unite into one body a number of these congregations, so
+as to form a single religious order, living according to the Rule of St
+Augustine, and called the Order of Augustinian Hermits, or simply the
+Augustinian Order. Special constitutions were drawn up for its
+government, on the same lines as the Dominicans and other mendicants--a
+general elected by chapter, provincials to rule in the different
+countries, with assistants, definitors and visitors. For this reason,
+and because almost from the beginning the term "hermits" became a
+misnomer (for they abandoned the deserts and lived conventually in
+towns), they ranked among the friars, and became the fourth of the
+mendicant orders. The observance and manner of life was, relatively to
+those times, mild, meat being allowed four days in the week. The habit
+is black. The institute spread rapidly all over western Europe, so that
+it eventually came to have forty provinces and 2000 friaries with some
+30,000 members. In England there were not more than about 30 houses (see
+Tables in F.A. Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The reaction against
+the inevitable tendencies towards mitigation and relaxation led to a
+number of reforms that produced upwards of twenty different
+congregations within the order, each governed by a vicar-general, who
+was subject to the general of the order. Some of these congregations
+went in the matter of austerity beyond the original idea of the
+institute; and so in the 16th century there arose in Spain, Italy and
+France, Discalced or Barefooted Hermits of St Augustine, who provided in
+each province one house wherein a strictly eremitical life might be led
+by such as desired it.
+
+About 1500 a great attempt at a reform of this kind was set on foot
+among the Augustinian Hermits of northern Germany, and they were formed
+into a separate congregation independent of the general. It was from
+this congregation that Luther went forth, and great numbers of the
+German Augustinian Hermits, among them Wenceslaus Link the provincial,
+followed him and embraced the Reformation, so that the congregation was
+dissolved in 1526.
+
+The Reformation and later revolutions have destroyed most of the houses
+of Augustinian Hermits, so that now only about a hundred exist in
+various parts of Europe and America; in Ireland they are relatively
+numerous, having survived the penal times. The Augustinian school of
+theology (Noris, Berti) was formed among the Hermits. There have been
+many convents of Augustinian Hermitesses, chiefly in the Barefooted
+congregations; such convents exist still in Europe and North America,
+devoted to education and hospital work. There have also been numerous
+congregations of Augustinian Tertiaries, both men and women, connected
+with the order and engaged on charitable works of every kind (see
+TERTIARIES).
+
+  See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), iii.; Max Heimbucher,
+  _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), S 61-65; Wetzer und Welte,
+  _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Augustiner"; Herzog,
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), art. "Augustiner." The chief book on the
+  subject is Th. Kolde, _Die deutschen Augustiner-Kongregationen_
+  (1879).     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTINIANS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a generic name for religious
+orders that follow the so-called "Rule of St Augustine." The chief of
+these orders are:--Augustinian Canons (q.v.), Augustinian Hermits (q.v.)
+or Friars, Premonstratensians (q.v.), Trinitarians (q.v.), Gilbertines
+(see GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST). The following orders, though not
+called Augustinians, also have St Augustine's Rule as the basis of their
+life: Dominicans, Servites, Our Lady of Ransom, Hieronymites,
+Assumptionsts and many others; also orders of women: Brigittines,
+Ursulines, Visitation nuns and a vast number of congregations of women,
+spread over the Old and New Worlds, devoted to education and charitable
+works of all kinds.
+
+  See Helyot, _Ordres religieux_ (1792), vols. ii., iii., iv.; Max
+  Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), S 66-85; Wetzer und
+  Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_, i., 1665-1667.
+
+St Augustine never wrote a Rule, properly so called; but _Ep._ 211
+(_al._ 109) is a long letter of practical advice to a community of nuns,
+on their daily life; and _Serm._ 355, 356 describe the common life he
+led along with his clerics in Hippo. When in the second half of the 11th
+century the clergy of a great number of collegiate churches were
+undertaking to live a substantially monastic form of life (see CANON),
+it was natural that they should look back to this classical model for
+clerics living in community. And so attention was directed to St
+Augustine's writings on community life; and out of them, and spurious
+writings attributed to him, were compiled towards the close of the 11th
+century three Rules, the "First" and "Second" being mere fragments, but
+the "Third" a substantive rule of life in 45 sections, often grouped in
+twelve chapters. This Third Rule is the one known as "the Rule of St
+Augustine." Being confined to fundamental principles without entering
+into details, it has proved itself admirably suited to form the
+foundation of the religious life of the most varied orders and
+congregations, and since the 12th century it has proved more prolific
+than the Benedictine Rule. In an uncritical age it was attributed to St
+Augustine himself, and Augustinians, especially the canons, put forward
+fantastic claims to antiquity, asserting unbroken continuity, not merely
+from St Augustine, but from Christ and the Apostles.
+
+  The three Rules are printed in Dugdale, _Monasticon_ (ed. 1846), vi.
+  42; and in Holsten-Brockie, _Codex Regularum_, ii. 121. For the
+  literature see Otto Zockler, _Askese und Monchtum_ (1897), pp. 347,
+  354.     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTOWO, a city of Russian Poland, in the government of Suwalki, 20 m.
+S. of the town of that name, on a canal (65 m.) connecting the Vistula
+with the Niemen. It was founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. (Augustus), and
+is laid out in a very regular manner, with a spacious market-place. It
+carries on a large trade in cattle and horses, and manufactures linen
+and huckaback. Pop. (1897) 12,746.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS (a name[1] derived from Lat. _augeo_, increase, i.e. venerable,
+majestic, Gr. [Greek: Sebastos]), the title given by the Roman senate,
+on the 17th of January 27 B.C., to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (63
+B.C.-A.D. 14), or as he was originally designated, Gaius Octavius, in
+recognition of his eminent services to the state (_Mon. Anc._ 34), and
+borne by him as the first of the Roman emperors. The title was adopted
+by all the succeeding Caesars or emperors of Rome long after they had
+ceased to be connected by blood with the first Augustus.
+
+Gaius Octavius was born in Rome on the 23rd of September 63 B.C., the
+year of Cicero's consulship and of Catiline's conspiracy. He came of a
+family of good standing, long settled at Velitrae (Velletri), but his
+father was the first of the family to obtain a curule magistracy at Rome
+and senatorial dignity. His mother, however, was Atia, daughter of
+Julia, the wife of M. Atius Balbus, and sister of Julius Caesar, and it
+was this connexion with the great dictator which determined his career.
+In his fifth year (58 B.C.) his father died; about a year later his
+mother remarried, and the young Octavius passed under her care to that
+of his stepfather, L. Marcius Philippus. At the age of twelve (51 B.C.)
+he delivered the customary funeral panegyric on his grandmother Julia,
+his first public appearance. On the 18th of October 48 (or ? 47) B.C. he
+assumed the "toga virilis" and was elected into the pontifical college,
+an exceptional honour which he no doubt owed to his great-uncle, now
+dictator and master of Rome. In 46 B.C. he shared in the glory of
+Caesar's African triumph, and in 45 he was made a patrician by the
+senate, and designated as one of Caesar's "masters of the horse" for the
+next year. In the autumn of 45, Caesar, who was planning his Parthian
+campaign, sent his nephew to study quietly at the Greek colony of
+Apollonia, in Illyria. Here the news of Caesar's murder reached him and
+he crossed to Italy. On landing he learnt that Caesar had made him his
+heir and adopted him into the Julian gens, whereby he acquired the
+designation of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. The inheritance was a
+perilous one; his mother and others would have dissuaded him from
+accepting it, but he, confident in his abilities, declared at once that
+he would undertake its obligations, and discharge the sums bequeathed by
+the dictator to the Roman people. Mark Antony had possessed himself of
+Caesar's papers and effects, and made light of his young nephew's
+pretensions. Brutus and Cassius paid him little regard, and dispersed to
+their respective provinces. Cicero, much charmed at the attitude of
+Antonius, hoped to make use of him, and flattered him to the utmost,
+with the expectation, however, of getting rid of him as soon as he had
+served his purpose. Octavianus conducted himself with consummate
+adroitness, making use of all competitors for power, but assisting none.
+Considerable forces attached themselves to him. The senate, when it
+armed the consuls against Antonius, called upon him for assistance; and
+he took part in the campaign in which Antonius was defeated at Mutina
+(43 B.C.). The soldiers of Octavianus demanded the consulship for him,
+and the senate, though now much alarmed, could not prevent his election.
+He now effected a coalition with Antonius and Lepidus, and on the 27th
+of November 43 B.C. the three were formally appointed a triumvirate for
+the reconstitution of the commonwealth for five years. They divided the
+western provinces among them, the east being held for the republic by
+Brutus and Cassius. They drew up a list of proscribed citizens, and
+caused the assassination of three hundred senators and two thousand
+knights. They further confiscated the territories of many cities
+throughout Italy, and divided them among their soldiers. Cicero was
+murdered at the demand of Antonius. The remnant of the republican party
+took refuge either with Brutus and Cassius in the East, or with Sextus
+Pompeius, who had made himself master of the seas.
+
+Octavianus and Antonius crossed the Adriatic in 42 B.C. to reduce the
+last defenders of the republic. Brutus and Cassius were defeated, and
+fell at the battle of Philippi. War soon broke out between the victors,
+the chief incident of which was the siege and capture by famine of
+Perusia, and the alleged sacrifice of three hundred of its defenders by
+the young Caesar at the altar of his uncle. But peace was again made
+between them (40 B.C.). Antonius married Octavia, his rival's sister,
+and took for himself the eastern half of the empire, leaving the west to
+Caesar. Lepidus was reduced to the single province of Africa. Meanwhile
+Sextus Pompeius made himself formidable by cutting off the supplies of
+grain from Rome. The triumvirs were obliged to concede to him the
+islands in the western Mediterranean. But Octavianus could not allow the
+capital to be kept in alarm for its daily sustenance. He picked a
+quarrel with Sextus, and when his colleagues failed to support him,
+undertook to attack him alone. Antonius, indeed, came at last to his
+aid, in return for military assistance in the campaign he meditated in
+the East. But Octavianus was well served by the commander of his fleet,
+M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Sextus was completely routed, and driven into
+Asia, where he perished soon afterwards (36 B.C.). Lepidus was an object
+of contempt to all parties, and Octavianus and Antonius remained to
+fight for supreme power.
+
+The five years (36-31 B.C.) which preceded the decisive encounter
+between the two rivals were wasted by Antony in fruitless campaigns, and
+in a dalliance with Cleopatra which shocked Roman sentiment. By Octavian
+they were employed in strengthening his hold on the West, and his claim
+to be regarded as the one possible saviour of Rome and Roman
+civilization. His marriage with Livia (38 B.C.) placed by his side a
+sagacious counsellor and a loyal ally, whose services were probably as
+great as even those of his trusted friend Marcus Agrippa. With their
+help he set himself to win the confidence of a public still inclined to
+distrust the author of the proscriptions of 43 B.C. Brigandage was
+suppressed in Italy, and the safety of the Italian frontiers secured
+against the raids of Alpine tribes on the north-west and of Illyrians on
+the east, while Rome was purified and beautified, largely with the help
+of Agrippa (aedile in 33 B.C.). Meanwhile, indignation at Antony's
+un-Roman excesses, and alarm at Cleopatra's rumoured schemes of founding
+a Greco-Oriental empire, were rapidly increasing. In 32 B.C. Antony's
+repudiation of his wife Octavia, sister of Octavian, and the discovery
+of his will, with its clear proofs of Cleopatra's dangerous ascendancy,
+brought matters to a climax, and war was declared, not indeed against
+Antony, but against Cleopatra.
+
+The decisive battle was fought on the 2nd of September 31 B.C. at Actium
+on the Epirot coast, and resulted in the almost total destruction of
+Antony's fleet and the surrender of his land forces. Not quite a year
+later (Aug. 1, 30 B.C.) followed the capture of Alexandria and the
+deaths by their own hands of Antony and Cleopatra. On the 11th of
+January 29 B.C. the restoration of peace was marked by the closing of
+the temple of Janus for the first time for 200 years. In the summer
+Octavian returned to Italy, and in August celebrated a three days'
+triumph. He was welcomed, not as a successful combatant in a civil war,
+but as the man who had vindicated the sovereignty of Rome against its
+assailants, as the saviour of the republic and of his fellow-citizens,
+above all as the restorer of peace.
+
+He was now, to quote his own words, "master of all things," and the
+Roman world looked to him for some permanent settlement of the
+distracted empire. His first task was the re-establishment of a regular
+and constitutional government, such as had not existed since Julius
+Caesar crossed the Rubicon twenty years before. To this task he devoted
+the next eighteen months (Aug. 29-Jan. 27 B.C.). In the article on ROME:
+_History_ (q.v.), his achievements are described in detail, and only a
+brief summary need be given here. The "principate," to give the new form
+of government its most appropriate name, was a compromise thoroughly
+characteristic of the combination of tenacity of purpose with cautious
+respect for forms and conventions which distinguished its author. The
+republic was restored; senate, magistrates and assembly resumed their
+ancient functions; and the public life of Rome began to run once more in
+the familiar grooves. The triumvirate with its irregularities and
+excesses was at an end. The controlling authority, which Octavian
+himself wielded, could not indeed be safely dispensed with. But
+henceforward he was to exercise it under constitutional forms and
+limitations, and with the express sanction of the senate and people.
+Octavian was legally invested for a period of ten years with the
+government of the important frontier provinces, with the sole command of
+the military and naval forces of the state, and the exclusive control of
+its foreign relations. At home it was understood that he would year by
+year be elected consul, and enjoy the powers and pre-eminence attached
+to the chief magistracy of the Roman state. Thus the republic was
+restored under the presidency and patronage of its "first citizen"
+(_princeps civitatis_).
+
+In acknowledgment of this happy settlement and of his other services
+further honours were conferred upon Octavian. On the 13th of January 27
+B.C., the birthday of the restored republic, he was awarded the civic
+crown to be placed over the door of his house, in token that he had
+saved his fellow-citizens and restored the Republic. Four days later
+(Jan. 17) the senate conferred upon him the cognomen of Augustus.
+
+But it was not only the machinery of government in Rome that needed
+repair. Twenty years of civil war and confusion had disorganized the
+empire, and the strong hand of Augustus, as he must now be called,
+could alone restore confidence and order. Towards the end of 27 B.C. he
+left Rome for Gaul, and from that date until October 19 B.C. he was
+mainly occupied with the reorganization of the provinces and of the
+provincial administration, first of all in the West and then in the
+East. It was during his stay in Asia (20 B.C.) that the Parthian king
+Phraates voluntarily restored the Roman prisoners and standards taken at
+Carrhae (53 B.C.), a welcome tribute to the respect inspired by
+Augustus, and a happy augury for the future. In October 19 B.C. he
+returned to Rome, and the senate ordered that the day of his return
+(Oct. 12) should thenceforward be observed as a public holiday. The
+period of ten years for which his _imperium_ had been granted him was
+nearly ended, and though much remained to be done, very much had been
+accomplished. The pacification of northern Spain by the subjugation of
+the Astures and Cantabri, the settlement of the wide territories added
+to the empire by Julius Caesar in Gaul--the "New Gaul," or the
+"long-haired Gaul" (Gallia Comata) as it was called by way of
+distinction from the old province of Gallia Narbonensis (see GAUL)--and
+the re-establishment of Roman authority over the kings and princes of
+the Near East, were achievements which fully justified the acclamations
+of senate and people.
+
+In 18 B.C. Augustus's _imperium_ was renewed for five years, and his
+tried friend Marcus Agrippa, now his son-in-law, was associated with him
+as a colleague. From October of 19 B.C. till the middle of 16 B.C.
+Augustus's main attention was given to Rome and to domestic reform, and
+to this period belong such measures as the Julian law "as to the
+marriage of the orders." In June of 17 B.C. the opening of the new and
+better age, which he had worked to bring about, was marked by the
+celebration in Rome of the Secular games. The chief actors in the
+ceremony were Augustus himself and his colleague Agrippa,--while, as the
+extant record tells us, the processional hymn, chanted by youths and
+maidens first before the new temple of Apollo on the Palatine and then
+before the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, was composed by Horace. The
+hymn, the well-known _Carmen Saeculare_, gives fervent expression to the
+prevalent emotions of joy and gratitude.
+
+In the next year (16 B.C.), however, Augustus was suddenly called away
+from Rome to deal with a problem which engrossed much of his attention
+for the next twenty-five years. The defeat of Marcus Lollius, the legate
+commanding on the Rhine, by a horde of German invaders, seems to have
+determined Augustus to take in hand the whole question of the frontiers
+of the empire towards the north, and the effective protection of Gaul
+and Italy. The work was entrusted to Augustus's step-sons Tiberius and
+Drusus. The first step was the annexation of Noricum and Raetia (16-15
+B.C.), which brought under Roman control the mountainous district
+through which the direct routes lay from North Italy to the upper waters
+of the Rhine and the Danube. East of Noricum Tiberius reduced to order
+for the time the restless tribes of Pannonia, and probably established a
+military post at Carnuntum on the Danube. To Drusus fell the more
+ambitious task of advancing the Roman frontier line from the Rhine to
+the Elbe, a work which occupied him until his death in Germany in 9 B.C.
+In 13 B.C. Augustus had returned to Rome; his return, and the conclusion
+of his second period of rule, were commemorated by the erection of one
+of the most beautiful monuments of the Augustan age, the Ara Pacis
+Augustae (see ROMAN ART, Pl. II, III). His _imperium_ was renewed, again
+for five years, and in 12 B.C., on the death of his former
+fellow-triumvir Lepidus, he was elected Pontifex Maximus. But this third
+period of his imperium brought with it losses which Augustus must have
+keenly felt. Only a few months after his reappointment as Augustus's
+colleague, Marcus Agrippa, his trusted friend since boyhood, died. As
+was fully his due, his funeral oration was pronounced by Augustus, and
+he was buried in the mausoleum near the Tiber built by Augustus for
+himself and his family. Three years later his brilliant step-son Drusus
+died on his way back from a campaign in Germany, in which he had reached
+the Elbe. Finally in 8 B.C. he lost the comrade who next to Agrippa had
+been the most intimate friend and counsellor of his early manhood, Gaius
+Cilnius Maecenas, the patron of Virgil and Horace.
+
+For the moment Augustus turned, almost of necessity, to his surviving
+step-son. Tiberius was associated with him as Agrippa had been in the
+tribunician power, was married against his will to Julia, and sent to
+complete his brother Drusus's work in Germany (7-6 B.C.). But Tiberius
+was only his step-son, and, with all his great qualities, was never a
+very lovable man. On the other hand, the two sons of Agrippa and Julia,
+Gaius and Lucius, were of his own blood and evidently dear to him. Both
+had been adopted by Augustus (178. c.). In 6 B.C. Tiberius, who had just
+received the tribunician power, was transferred from Germany to the
+East, where the situation in Armenia demanded attention. His sudden
+withdrawal to Rhodes has been variously explained, but, in part at
+least, it was probably due to the plain indications which Augustus now
+gave of his wish that the young Caesars should be regarded as his heirs.
+The elder, Gaius, now fifteen years old (5 B.C.), was formally
+introduced to the people as consul-designate by Augustus himself, who
+for this purpose resumed the consulship (12th) which he had dropped
+since 23 B.C., and was authorized to take part in the deliberations of
+the senate. Three years later (2 B.C.) Augustus, now consul for the 13th
+and last time, paid a similar compliment to the younger brother Lucius.
+In 1 B.C. Gaius was given proconsular imperium, and sent to re-establish
+order in Armenia, and a few years afterwards (A.D. 2) Lucius was sent to
+Spain, apparently to take command of the legions there. But the fates
+were unkind; Lucius fell sick and died at Marseilles on his way out, and
+in the next year (A.D. 3) Gaius, wounded by an obscure hand in Armenia,
+started reluctantly for home, only to die in Lycia. Tiberius alone was
+left, and Augustus, at once accepting facts, formally and finally
+declared him to be his colleague and destined successor (A.D. 4) and
+adopted him as his son.
+
+The interest of the last ten years of Augustus's life centres in the
+events occurring on the northern frontier. The difficult task of
+bringing the German tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe under Roman
+rule, commenced by Drusus in 13 B.C., had on his death been continued by
+Tiberius (9-6 B.C.). During Tiberius's retirement in Rhodes no decisive
+progress was made, but in A.D. 4 operations on a large scale were
+resumed. From Velleius Paterculus, who himself served in the war, we
+learn that in the first campaign Roman authority was restored over the
+tribes between the Rhine and the Weser, and that the Roman forces,
+instead of returning as usual to their headquarters on the Rhine, went
+into winter-quarters near the source of the Lippe. In the next year
+(A.D. 5) the Elbe was reached by the troops, while the fleet, after a
+hazardous voyage, arrived at the mouth of the same river and sailed some
+way up it. Both feats are deservedly commemorated by Augustus himself in
+the Ancyran monument. To complete the conquest of Germany and to connect
+the frontier with the line of the Danube, it seemed that only one thing
+remained to be done, to break the power of the Marcomanni and their king
+Maroboduus. In the spring of A.D. 6 preparations were made for this
+final achievement; the territory of the Marcomanni (now Bohemia) was to
+be invaded simultaneously by two columns. One, starting apparently from
+the headquarters of the army of Upper Germany at Mainz, was to advance
+by way of the Black Forest and attack Maroboduus on the west; the other,
+led by Tiberius himself, was to start from the new military base at
+Carnuntum on the Danube and operate from the south-east.
+
+But the attack was never delivered, for at this moment, in the rear of
+Tiberius, the whole of Pannonia and Dalmatia burst into a blaze of
+insurrection. The crisis is pronounced by Suetonius to have been more
+serious than any which had confronted Rome since the Hannibalic war, for
+it was not merely the loss of a province but the invasion of Italy that
+was threatened, and Augustus openly declared in the senate that the
+insurgents might be before Rome in ten days. He himself moved to
+Ariminum to be nearer the seat of war, recruiting was vigorously carried
+on in Rome and Italy, and legions were summoned from Moesia and even
+from Asia. In the end, and not including the Thracian cavalry of King
+Rhoemetalces, a force of 15 legions with an equal number of auxiliaries
+was employed. Even so the task of putting down the insurrection was
+difficult enough, and it was not until late in the summer of A.D. 9,
+after three years of fighting, that Germanicus, who had been sent to
+assist Tiberius, ended the war by the capture of Andetrium in Dalmatia.
+
+Five days later the news reached Rome of the disaster to Varus and his
+legions, in the heart of what was to have been the new province of
+Germany beyond the Rhine. The disaster was avowedly due entirely to
+Varus's incapacity and vanity, and might no doubt have been repaired by
+leaders of the calibre of Tiberius and Germanicus. Augustus, however,
+was now seventy-two, the Dalmatian outbreak had severely tried his
+nerve, and now for the second time in three years the fates seemed to
+pronounce clearly against a further prosecution of his long-cherished
+scheme of a Roman Germany reaching to the Elbe.
+
+All that was immediately necessary was done. Recruiting was pressed
+forward in Rome, and first Tiberius and then Germanicus were despatched
+to the Rhine. But the German leaders were too prudent to risk defeat,
+and the Roman generals devoted their attention mainly to strengthening
+the line of the Rhine.
+
+The defeat of Varus, and the tacit abandonment of the plans of expansion
+begun twenty-five years before, are almost the last events of importance
+in the long principate of Augustus. The last five years of his life
+(A.D. 10-14) were untroubled by war or disaster. Augustus was ageing
+fast, and was more and more disinclined to appear personally in the
+senate or in public. Yet in A.D. 13 he consented, reluctantly we are
+told, to yet one more renewal of his _imperium_ for ten years,
+stipulating, however, that his step-son Tiberius, himself now over
+fifty, should be associated with himself on equal terms in the
+administration of the empire. Early in the same year (January 16, A.D.
+13) the last triumph of his principate was celebrated. Tiberius was now
+in Rome, the command on the Rhine having been given to Germanicus, who
+went out to it immediately after his consulship (A.D. 12), and the time
+had come to celebrate the Dalmatian and Pannonian triumph, which the
+defeat of Varus had postponed. Augustus witnessed the triumphal
+procession, and Tiberius, as it turned from the Forum to ascend the
+Capitol, halted, descended from his triumphal car, and did reverence to
+his adopted father.
+
+One last public appearance Augustus made in Rome. During A.D. 13 he and
+Tiberius conducted a census of Roman citizens, the third taken by his
+orders; the first having been in 28 B.C. at the very outset of his rule.
+The business of the census lasted over into the next year, but on the
+11th of May, A.D. 14, before a great crowd in the Campus Martius,
+Augustus took part in the solemn concluding ceremony of burying away out
+of sight the old age and inaugurating the new. The ceremony had been
+full of significance in 28 B.C., and now more than forty years later it
+was given a pathetic interest by Augustus himself. When the tablets
+containing the vows to be offered for the welfare of the state during
+the next lustrum were handed to him, he left the duty of reciting them
+to Tiberius, saying that he would not take vows which he was never
+destined to perform.
+
+It was apparently at the end of June or early in July that Augustus left
+Rome on his last journey. Travelling by road to Astura (Torre Astura) at
+the southern point of the little bay of Antium, he sailed thence to
+Capri and to Naples. On his way at Puteoli, the passengers and crew of a
+ship just come from Alexandria cheered the old man by their spontaneous
+homage, declaring, as they poured libations, that to him they owed life,
+safe passage on the seas, freedom and fortune.
+
+At Naples, in spite of increasing disease, he bravely sat out a
+gymnastic contest held in his honour, and then accompanied Tiberius as
+far as Beneventum on his way to Brundusium and Illyricum. On his return
+he was forced by illness to stop at Nola, his father's old home.
+Tiberius was hastily recalled and had a last confidential talk on
+affairs of state. Thenceforward, says Suetonius, he gave no more thought
+to such great affairs. He bade farewell to his friends, inquired after
+the health of Drusus's daughter who was ill, and then quietly expired in
+the arms of the wife who for more than fifty years had been his most
+intimate and trusted guide and counsellor, and to whom his last words
+were an exhortation to "live mindful of our wedded life." He died on the
+19th of August, A.D. 14, in the same room in which his father had died
+before him, and on the anniversary of his entrance upon his first
+consulship fifty-seven years before (43 B.C.). The corpse was carried to
+Rome in slow procession along the Appian Way. On the day of the funeral
+it was borne to the Campus Martius on the shoulders of senators and
+there burnt. The ashes were reverently collected by Livia, and placed in
+the mausoleum by the Tiber which her husband had built for himself and
+his family. The last act was the formal decree of the senate by which
+Augustus, like his father Julius before him, was added to the number of
+the gods recognized by the Roman state.
+
+If we except writers like Voltaire who could see in Augustus only the
+man who had destroyed the old republic and extinguished political
+liberty, the verdict of posterity on Augustus has varied just in
+proportion as his critics have fixed their attention, mainly, on the
+means by which he rose to power, or the use which he made of the power
+when acquired. The lines of argument followed respectively by friendly
+and hostile contemporaries immediately after his death (Tac. _Ann_. i.
+9, 10) have been followed by later writers with little change. But of
+late years, our increasing mistrust of the current gossip about him, and
+our increased knowledge of the magnitude of what he actually
+accomplished, have conspicuously influenced the judgments passed upon
+him. We allow the faults and crimes of his early manhood, his cruelties
+and deceptions, his readiness to sacrifice everything that came between
+him and the end he had in view. On the other hand, a careful study of
+what he achieved between the years 38 B.C., when he married Livia, and
+his death in A.D. 14, is now held to give him a claim to rank, not
+merely as an astute and successful intriguer, or an accomplished
+political actor, but as one of the world's great men, a statesman who
+conceived and carried through a scheme of political reconstruction which
+kept the empire together, secured peace and tranquillity, and preserved
+civilization for more than two centuries.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive work on Augustus and his age is
+  that of V. Gardthausen, _Augustus und seine Zeit_ (2 vols., Leipzig,
+  1891-1904), which deals with all aspects of Augustus's life, vol. ii.
+  consisting of elaborate critical and bibliographical notes. See also
+  histories of Rome generally, and among special works:--E.S.
+  Shuckburgh, _Augustus_ (London, 1903; reviewed by F.T. Richards in
+  _Class. Rev._ vol. xviii.), containing the text of the _Monumentum
+  Ancyranum_ (see also Gardthausen, book xiii.); J.B. Firth, _Augustus
+  Caesar_ (London, 1903), in "Heroes of the Nations" series; O. Seeck,
+  "Kaiser Augustus" (_Monographien zur Weltgeschichte_, xvii., 1902),
+  nine essays on special problems, e.g. the campaigns of Mutina, Perusia
+  and against Sextus Pompeius, "das Augustische Zeitalter"; A. Dumeril,
+  "Auguste et la fondation de l'empire romain," in the _Annales de la
+  Fac. des lett. de Bordeaux_ (1890); a suggestive monograph on the
+  reforms of Augustus in relation to the decrease of population is Jules
+  Ferlet's _L'Abaissement de la natalite a Rome_ (Paris, 1902).
+       (H. F. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] On the name see Neumann, in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie f.
+    cl. alterth._, s.v. 2374.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS I. (1526-1586), elector of Saxony, was the younger son of
+Henry, duke of Saxony, and consequently belonged to the Albertine branch
+of the Wettin family. Born at Freiberg on the 31st of July 1526, and
+brought up as a Lutheran, he received a good education and studied at
+the university of Leipzig. When Duke Henry died in 1541 he decreed that
+his lands should be divided equally between his two sons, but as his
+bequest was contrary to law, it was not carried out, and the dukedom
+passed almost intact to his elder son, Maurice. Augustus, however,
+remained on friendly terms with his brother, and to further his policy
+spent some time at the court of the German king, Ferdinand I., in
+Vienna. In 1544 Maurice secured the appointment of his brother as
+administrator of the bishopric of Merseburg; but Augustus was very
+extravagant and was soon compelled to return to the Saxon court at
+Dresden. Augustus supported his brother during the war of the league of
+Schmalkalden, and in the policy which culminated in the transfer of the
+Saxon electorate from John Frederick I., the head of the Ernestine
+branch of the Wettin family, to Maurice. On the 7th of October 1548
+Augustus was married at Torgau to Anna, daughter of Christian III., king
+of Denmark, and took up his residence at Weissenfels. But he soon
+desired a more imposing establishment. The result was that Maurice made
+more generous provision for his brother, who acted as regent of Saxony
+in 1552 during the absence of the elector. Augustus was on a visit to
+Denmark when by Maurice's death in July 1553 he became elector of
+Saxony.
+
+The first care of the new elector was to come to terms with John
+Frederick, and to strengthen his own hold upon the electoral position.
+This object was secured by a treaty made at Naumburg in February 1554,
+when, in return for the grant of Altenburg and other lands, John
+Frederick recognized Augustus as elector of Saxony. The elector,
+however, was continually haunted by the fear that the Ernestines would
+attempt to deprive him of the coveted dignity, and his policy both in
+Saxony and in Germany was coloured by this fear. In imperial politics
+Augustus acted upon two main principles: to cultivate the friendship of
+the Habsburgs, and to maintain peace between the contending religious
+parties. To this policy may be traced his share in bringing about the
+religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, his tortuous conduct at the diet of
+Augsburg eleven years later, and his reluctance to break entirely with
+the Calvinists. On one occasion only did he waver in his allegiance to
+the Habsburgs. In 1568 a marriage was arranged between John Casimir, son
+of the elector palatine, Frederick III., and Elizabeth, a daughter of
+Augustus, and for a time it seemed possible that the Saxon elector would
+support his son-in-law in his attempts to aid the revolting inhabitants
+of the Netherlands. Augustus also entered into communication with the
+Huguenots; but his aversion to foreign complications prevailed, and the
+incipient friendship with the elector palatine soon gave way to serious
+dislike. Although a sturdy Lutheran the elector hoped at one time to
+unite the Protestants, on whom he continually urged the necessity of
+giving no cause of offence to their opponents, and he favoured the
+movement to get rid of the clause in the peace of Augsburg concerning
+ecclesiastical reservation, which was offensive to many Protestants. His
+moderation, however, prevented him from joining those who were prepared
+to take strong measures to attain this end, and he refused to jeopardize
+the concessions already won.
+
+The hostility between the Albertines and the Ernestines gave serious
+trouble to Augustus. A preacher named Matthias Flacius held an
+influential position in ducal Saxony, and taught a form of Lutheranism
+different from that taught in electoral Saxony. This breach was widened
+when Flacius began to make personal attacks on Augustus, to prophesy his
+speedy downfall, and to incite Duke John Frederick to make an effort to
+recover his rightful position. Associated with Flacius was a knight,
+William of Grumbach, who, not satisfied with words only, made inroads
+into electoral Saxony and sought the aid of foreign powers in his plan
+to depose Augustus. After some delay Grumbach and his protector, John
+Frederick, were placed under the imperial ban, and Augustus was
+entrusted with its execution. His campaign in 1567 was short and
+successful. John Frederick surrendered, and passed his time in prison
+until his death in 1595; Grumbach was taken and executed; and the
+position of the elector was made quite secure.
+
+The form of Lutheranism taught in electoral Saxony was that of
+Melanchthon, and many of its teachers and adherents, who were afterwards
+called Crypto-Calvinists, were favoured by the elector. When Augustus,
+freed from the fear of an attack by the Ernestines, became gradually
+estranged from the elector palatine and the Calvinists, he seemed to
+have looked with suspicion upon the Crypto-Calvinists, who did not
+preach the pure doctrines of Luther. Spurred on by his wife the matter
+reached a climax in 1574, when letters were discovered, which, while
+revealing a hope to bring over Augustus to Calvinism, cast some
+aspersions upon the elector and his wife. Augustus ordered the leaders
+of the Crypto-Calvinists to be seized, and they were tortured and
+imprisoned. A strict form of Lutheranism was declared binding upon all
+the inhabitants of Saxony, and many persons were banished from the
+country. In 1576 he made a serious but unsuccessful attempt to unite the
+Protestants upon the basis of some articles drawn up at Tolgau, which
+inculcated a strict form of Lutheranism. The change in Saxony, however,
+made no difference to the attitude of Augustus on imperial questions. In
+1576 he opposed the proposal of the Protestant princes to make a grant
+for the Turkish War conditional upon the abolition of the clause
+concerning ecclesiastical reservation, and he continued to support the
+Habsburgs.
+
+Much of the elector's time was devoted to extending his territories. In
+1573 he became guardian to the two sons of John William, duke of
+Saxe-Weimar, and in this capacity was able to add part of the county of
+Henneberg to electoral Saxony. His command of money enabled him to take
+advantage of the poverty of his neighbours, and in this way he secured
+Vogtland and the county of Mansfeld. In 1555 he had appointed one of his
+nominees to the bishopric of Meissen, in 1561 he had secured the
+election of his son Alexander as bishop of Merseburg, and three years
+later as bishop of Naumburg; and when this prince died in 1565 these
+bishoprics came under the direct rule of Augustus.
+
+As a ruler of Saxony Augustus was economical and enlightened. He
+favoured trade by encouraging Flemish emigrants to settle in the
+country, by improving the roads, regulating the coinage and establishing
+the first posts. He was specially interested in benefiting agriculture,
+and added several fine buildings to the city of Dresden. His laws were
+numerous and comprehensive. The constitution of 1572 was his work, and
+by these laws the church, the universities and the police were
+regulated, the administration of justice was improved, and the raising
+of taxes placed upon a better footing (see SAXONY).
+
+In October 1585 the electress Anna died, and a few weeks later Augustus
+married Agnes Hedwig, a daughter of Joachim Ernest, prince of Anhalt.
+His own death took place at Dresden on the 21st of January 1586, and he
+was buried at Freiberg. By his first wife he had fifteen children, but
+only four of these survived him, among whom was his successor, the
+elector Christian I. (1560-1591). Augustus was a covetous, cruel and
+superstitious man, but these qualities were redeemed by his political
+caution and his wise methods of government. He wrote a small work on
+agriculture entitled _Kunstlich Obstund Gartenbuchlein_.
+
+  See C.W. Bottiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte Sachsens_, Band ii.
+  (Gotha, 1870); M. Ritter, _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der
+  Gegenreformation_, Band i. (Stuttgart, 1890); R. Calinich, _Kampf und
+  Untergang des Melanchthonismus in Kursachsen_ (Leipzig, 1866); J.
+  Falke, _Geschichte des Kurfursten August in volkswirtschaftlicher
+  Beziehung_ (Leipzig, 1868); J. Janssen, _Geschichte des Deutschen
+  Volks seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters_ (Freiburg, 1885-1894); W.
+  Wenck, _Kurfurst Moritz und Herzog August_ (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS II., king of Poland, and, as FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I., elector of
+Saxony (1670-1733), second son of John George III., elector of Saxony,
+was born at Dresden on the 12th of May 1670. He was well educated, spent
+some years in travel and in fighting against France, and on account of
+his immense strength was known as "the Strong." On the death of his
+brother, John George IV., in 1694, he became elector of Saxony, and in
+1695 and 1696 led the imperial troops against the Turks, but without
+very much success. When John Sobieski died in 1696, Augustus was a
+candidate for the Polish throne, and in order to further his chances
+became a Roman Catholic, a step which was strongly resented in Saxony.
+By a lavish expenditure of money, and by his promptness in entering the
+country, he secured his election and coronation in September 1697, and
+his principal rival F.L. de Bourbon, prince of Conti, abandoned the
+contest and returned to France. Augustus continued the war against the
+Turks for a time, and being anxious to extend his influence and to find
+a pretext for retaining the Saxon troops in Poland, made an alliance in
+1699 with Russia and Denmark against Charles XII. of Sweden. The Poles
+would not assist, and at the head of the Saxons Augustus invaded
+Livonia, but for various causes the campaign was not a success, and in
+July 1702 he was defeated by Charles at Klissow. Augustus was then
+deposed in Poland, and after holding Warsaw for a short time he fled to
+Saxony. The alliance with Russia was renewed and in reply Charles
+invaded Saxony in 1706, and compelled the elector to sign the treaty of
+Altranstadt in September of that year, to recognize Stanislaus
+Leszczynski as his successor in Poland, and to abandon the Russian
+alliance. During the War of the Spanish Succession, Augustus fought with
+the imperialists in the Netherlands, but after the defeat of Charles
+XII. at Poltawa in July 1709, he turned his attention to the recovery of
+Poland. Declaring the treaty of Altranstadt void and renewing his
+alliance with Russia and Denmark, he quickly recovered the Polish crown.
+He then attacked Swedish Pomerania. He was handicapped by the mutual
+jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle broke out in Poland
+which was only ended when the king promised to limit the number of his
+army in that country to 18,000 men. Peace was made with Sweden in
+December 1719 at Stockholm after the death of Charles XII., and Augustus
+was recognized as king of Poland. His remaining years were spent in
+futile plans to make Poland a hereditary monarchy, to weaken the power
+of the Saxon nobles, and to gain territory for his sons in various parts
+of Europe. He was a man of extravagant and luxurious tastes, and,
+although he greatly improved the city of Dresden, he cannot be called a
+good ruler. He sought to govern Saxony in an absolute fashion, and, in
+spite of his declaration that his conversion to Roman Catholicism was
+personal only, assisted the spread of the teachings of Rome. His wife
+was Christine Eberhardine, a member of the Hohenzollern family, who left
+him when he became a Roman Catholic, and died in 1727. Augustus died at
+Warsaw on the 1st of February 1733, leaving a son Frederick Augustus,
+who succeeded him in Poland and Saxony, and many illegitimate children,
+among whom was the famous general, Maurice of Saxony, known as Marshal
+Saxe (q.v.).
+
+  See Otwikowski, _History of Poland under Augustus II._ (Cracow, 1849);
+  F. Forster, _Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im achtzehnten
+  Jahrhtmdert_ (Potsdam, 1839); Jarochowski, _History of Augustus II._
+  (Posen, 1856-1874); C.W. Bottiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte des
+  Kurstaates und Konigreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, 1867-1873).
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS III., king of Poland, and, as FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II., elector
+of Saxony (1696-1763), the only legitimate son of Augustus II. ("the
+Strong"), was born at Dresden on the 17th of October 1696. Educated as a
+Protestant, he followed his father's example by joining the Roman
+Catholic Church in 1712, although his conversion was not made public
+until 1717. In August 1719 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the
+emperor Joseph I., and seems to have taken very little part in public
+affairs until he became elector of Saxony on his father's death in
+February 1733. He was then a candidate for the Polish crown; and having
+purchased the support of the emperor Charles VI. by assenting to the
+Pragmatic Sanction, and that of the czarina Anne by recognizing the
+claim of Russia to Courland, he was elected king of Poland in October
+1733. Aided by the Russians, his troops drove Stanislaus Leszczynski
+from Poland; Augustus was crowned at Cracow in January 1734, and was
+generally recognized as king at Warsaw in June 1736. On the death of
+Charles VI. in October 1740, Augustus was among the enemies of his
+daughter Maria Theresa, and, as a son-in-law of the emperor Joseph I.,
+claimed a portion of the Habsburg territories. In 1742, however, he was
+induced to transfer his support to Maria Theresa, and his troops took
+part in the struggle against Frederick the Great during the Silesian
+wars, and again when the Seven Years' War began in 1756. Saxony was in
+that year attacked by the Prussians, and with so much success that not
+only was the Saxon army forced to capitulate at Pirna in October, but
+the elector, who fled to Warsaw, made no attempt to recover Saxony,
+which remained under the dominion of Frederick. When the treaty of
+Hubertsburg was concluded in February 1763, he returned to Saxony, where
+he died on the 5th of October 1763. He left five sons, the eldest of
+whom was his successor in Saxony, Frederick Christian; and five
+daughters, one of whom was the wife of Louis, the dauphin of France, and
+mother of Louis XVI. Another daughter was the wife of Charles III., king
+of Spain, but she predeceased her father. Augustus, who showed neither
+talent nor inclination for government, was content to leave Poland under
+the influence of Russia, and Saxony to the rule of his ministers. He
+took great interest in music and painting, and added to the collection
+of art treasures at Dresden.
+
+  See C.W. Bottiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte des Kurstaates und
+  Konigreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, 1867-1873); R. Ropell, _Polen um die
+  Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (Gotha, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUSBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 10
+m. E. from Dresden, close to Radeberg, in a pleasant valley. Pop. 900.
+It has five saline chalybeate springs, used both for drinking and
+bathing, and specific in feminine disorders, rheumatism, paralysis and
+neuralgia. The spa is largely frequented in summer and has agreeable
+public rooms and gardens.
+
+
+
+
+AUK, a name commonly given to several species of sea-fowl. A special
+interest attaches to the great auk (_Alca impennis_), owing to its
+recent extinction and the value of its eggs to collectors. (See
+GAREFOWL; also GUILLEMOT, PUFFIN, RAZORBILL.)
+
+
+
+
+AULARD, FRANCOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE (1849-   ), French historian, was born
+at Montbron in Charente in 1849. Having obtained the degree of doctor of
+letters in 1877 with a Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French
+one upon Giacomo Leopardi (whose works he subsequently translated into
+French), he made a study of parliamentary oratory during the French
+Revolution, and published two volumes upon _Les Orateurs de la
+constituante_ (1882) and upon _Les Orateurs de la legislative et de la
+convention_ (1885). With these works, which were reprinted in 1905, he
+entered a fresh field, where he soon became an acknowledged master.
+Applying to the study of the French Revolution the rules of historical
+criticism which had produced such rich results in the study of ancient
+and medieval history, he devoted himself to profound research in the
+archives, and to the publication of numerous most important
+contributions to the political, administrative and moral history of that
+marvellous period. Appointed professor of the history of the French
+Revolution at the Sorbonne, he formed the minds of students who in their
+turn have done valuable work. To him we owe the _Recueil des actes du
+comite de salut public_ (vol. i., 1889; vol. xvi., 1904); _La Societe
+des Jacobins; recueil de documents pour l'histoire du club des Jacobins
+de Paris_ (6 vols., 1889-1897); and _Paris pendant la reaction
+thermidorienne et sous le directoire, recueil de documents pour
+l'histoire de l'esprit public a Paris_ (5 vols., 1898-1902), which was
+followed by an analogous collection for Paris sous le consulat (2 vols.,
+1903-1904). For the Societe de l'Histoire de la Revolution Francaise,
+which brought out under his supervision an important periodical
+publication called _La Revolution francaise_, he produced the _Registre
+des deliberations du consulat provisoire_ (1894), and _L'Etat de la
+France en l'an VIII et en l'an IX_, with the reports of the prefects
+(1897), besides editing various works or memoirs written by men of the
+Revolution, such as J.C. Bailleul, Chaumette, Fournier (called the
+American), Herault de Sechelles, and Louvet de Couvrai. But these large
+collections of documents are not his entire output. Besides a little
+pamphlet upon Danton, he has written a _Histoire politique de la
+Revolution francaise_ (1901), and a number of articles which have been
+collected in volumes under the title _Etudes et lecons sur la Revolution
+francaise_ (5 vols., 1893-1908). In a volume entitled _Taine, historien
+de la Revolution francaise_ (1908), Aulard has submitted the method of
+the eminent philosopher to a criticism, severe, perhaps even unjust, but
+certainly well-informed. This is, as it were, the "manifesto" of the new
+school of criticism applied to the political and social history of the
+Revolution (see _Les Annales Revolutionnaires_, June 1908).
+
+  See A. Mathiez, "M. Aulard, historien et professeur," in the _Revue de
+  la Revolution francaise_ (July 1908).     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+AULIC COUNCIL (_Reichshofrat_), an organ of the Holy Roman Empire,
+originally intended for executive work, but acting chiefly as a
+judicature, which worked from 1497 to 1806. In the early middle ages
+the emperor had already his _consiliarii_; but his council was a
+fluctuating body of personal advisers. In the 14th century there first
+arose an official council, with permanent and paid members, many of whom
+were legists. Its business was largely executive, and it formed
+something of a ministry; but it had also to deal with petitions
+addressed to the king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme court of
+judicature. It was thus parallel to the king's council, or _concilium
+continuum_, of medieval England; while by its side, during the 15th
+century, stood the _Kammergericht_, composed of the legal members of the
+council, in much the same way as the Star Chamber stood beside the
+English council. But the real history of the Aulic Council, as that term
+was understood in the later days of the Empire, begins with Maximilian
+I. in 1497-1498. In these years Maximilian created three organs
+(apparently following the precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in
+the Netherlands)--a _Hofrat_, a _Hofkammer_ for finance, and a
+_Hofkanzlei._ Primarily intended for the hereditary dominions of
+Maximilian, these bodies were also intended for the whole Empire; and
+the _Hofrat_ was to deal with "all and every business which may flow in
+from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king's hereditary
+principalities." It was thus to be the supreme executive and judicial
+organ, discharging all business except that of finance and the drafting
+of documents; and it was intended to serve Maximilian as a _point
+d'appui_ for the monarchy against the system of oligarchical committees,
+instituted by Berthold, archbishop of Mainz. But it was difficult to
+work such a body both for the Empire and for the hereditary
+principalities; and under Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire
+alone (_circ._ 1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from
+its cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its composition and powers
+were fixed by the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. (1) It consisted of
+about 20 members--a president, a vice-president, the vice-chancellor of
+the Empire, and some 18 other members. These came partly from the Empire
+at large, partly (and in greater numbers) from the hereditary lands of
+the emperor. There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors
+of civil law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council
+followed the person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed at
+Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its members, whose
+office terminated with his life--an arrangement which made the council
+more dependent than it should have been on the emperor's will. (2) Its
+powers were nominally both executive and judicial. (a) Its executive
+powers were small: it gradually lost everything except the formal
+business of investiture with imperial fiefs and the confirmation of
+charters, its other powers being taken over by the _Geheimrate._ These
+_Geheimrate_, a narrow body of secret counsellors, had already become a
+determinate _concilium_ by 1527; and though at first only concerned with
+foreign affairs, they acquired, from the middle of the 16th century
+onwards, the power of dealing with imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic
+Council. (b) In its judicial aspect, the Aulic Council, exercising the
+emperor's judicial powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it
+were, to the old _Kammergericht_, had exclusive cognizance of matters
+relating to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals
+of the Empire, imperial charters, Italian affairs, and cases "reserved"
+for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic Council was a
+competitor for judicial work with the Imperial Chamber[1]
+(_Reichskammergericht_, a tribunal dating from the great diet of Worms
+of 1495: see under IMPERIAL CHAMBER). It was determined in 1648 that the
+one of these two judicial authorities which first dealt with a case
+should alone have competence to pursue it. An appeal lay from the
+decision of the council to the emperor, and judgment on appeal was given
+by those members of the council who had not joined in the original
+decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by members of
+the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could deal with cases of
+outlawry, except to prepare such cases for the decision of the diet.
+To-day the archives of the Aulic Council are in Vienna, though parts of
+its records have been given to the German states which they concern.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R. Schroder, _Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_
+  (Leipzig, 1904), gives the main facts; S. Adler, _Die Organisation der
+  Centralverwaltung unter Maximilian I._ (Leipzig, 1886), deals with
+  Maximilian's reorganization of the Council; and J. St. Putter,
+  _Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des Teutschen
+  Reichs_ (Gottingen, 1798-1799), may be consulted for its development
+  and later form.     (E. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, with its
+    members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public court of
+    the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of the Empire.
+
+
+
+
+AULIE-ATA, a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province of Syr-darya,
+152 m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at the western end of the
+Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft. The inhabitants are mostly
+Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle, horses and hides. Pop. (1897)
+12,006.
+
+
+
+
+AULIS, an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated on a rocky
+peninsula between two bays, near the modern village of Vathy, about 3 m.
+S. of Chalcis. Its fame was due to the tradition that it was the
+starting-place of the Greek fleet before the Trojan War, the scene of
+the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The temple of Artemis was still to be seen
+in the time of Pausanias.
+
+
+
+
+AULNOY (or AUNOY), MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE,
+BARONNE D' (c. 1650-1705), French author, was born about 1650 at
+Barneville near Bourg-Achard (Eure). She was the niece of Marie Bruneau
+des Loges, the friend of Malherbe and of J.G. de Balzac, who was called
+the "tenth Muse." She married on the 8th of March 1666 Francois de la
+Motte, a gentleman in the service of Cesar, duc de Vendome, who became
+Baron d'Aulnoy in 1654. With her mother, who by a second marriage had
+become marquise de Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high
+treason against her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two
+women saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they went
+(February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed to return to
+France in reward for secret services rendered to the government. Mme.
+d'Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of January 1705. She wrote fairy
+tales, _Contes nouvelles ou les Fees a la mode_ (3 vols., 1698), in the
+manner of Charles Perrault. This collection (24 tales) included
+_L'Oiseau bleu, Finette Cendron, La Chatte blanche_ and others. The
+originals of most of her admirable tales are to be found in the
+_Pentamerone_ (1637) of Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are:
+_L'Histoire d'Hippolyte, comte de Duglas_ (1690), a romance in the style
+of Madame de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model; _Memoires de
+la cour d'Espagne_ (1679-1681); and a _Relation du voyage d'Espagne_
+(1690 or 1691) in the form of letters, edited in 1874-1876 as _La Cour
+et la ville de Madrid_ by Mme. B. Carey; _Histoire de Jean de Bourbon_
+(1692); _Memoires sur la cour de France_ (1692); _Memoires de la cour
+d'Angleterre_ (1695). Her historical writings are partly borrowed from
+existing records, to which she adds much that must be regarded as
+fiction, and some vivid descriptions of contemporary manners.
+
+  The _Diverting Works of the Countess d'Anois_, including some
+  extremely untrustworthy "Memoirs of her own life," were printed in
+  London in 1707. _The Fairy Tales of Madame d'Aulnoy_, with an
+  introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For
+  biographical particulars see M. de Lescure's introduction to the
+  _Contes des Fees_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+AULOS (Gr. [Greek: aulos]; Lat. _tibia_; Egyptian hieroglyphic, _Ma-it_;
+medieval equivalents, _shalm, chalumeau, schalmei, hautbois_), in Greek
+antiquities, a class of wood-wind instruments with single or with double
+reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical or conical bore, thus
+corresponding to both oboe and clarinet. In its widest acceptation the
+_aulos_ was a generic term for instruments consisting of a tube in which
+the air column was set in vibration either directly by the lips of the
+performer, or through the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or
+a double reed. Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (_syrinx polycalamus_,[1]
+[Greek: syrinx polykalamos]) were sometimes called auloi ([Greek:
+auloi]). The aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which,
+by gradual assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe,
+reached the stage at which it became known as the _Tyrrhenian aulos_
+(Pollux iv. 70) or the _hydraulos_, according to the method of
+compressing the wind supply (see ORGAN: _Early History_; and SYRINX).
+The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during the best classical
+period had a cylindrical bore ([Greek: koilia]) like that of the modern
+clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic properties of the stopped pipe,
+whether the air column was set in vibration by means of a single or of a
+double reed, for the mouthpiece does not affect the harmonic series.[2]
+To the acoustic properties of open or stopped pipes are due those
+essential differences which underlie the classification of modern wind
+instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone one octave
+lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding length, and
+overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the third above the
+second octave of the fundamental tone, i.e. the odd numbers of the
+series; whereas the open pipe gives the whole series of harmonics, the
+octave, the twelfth, the double octave, and the third above it, &c.
+
+To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its compass, the
+stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the side of the pipe, at
+appropriate distances from each other, and from the end of the pipe,
+whereas the open pipe requires but six. The acoustic properties of the
+open pipe can only be secured in combination with a reed mouthpiece by
+making the bore conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps
+assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their indebtedness
+to the Greeks in matters relating to musical instruments, and more
+especially to the cithara and aulos) understood the acoustic principle
+utilized to-day in making wind instruments, that a hole of small
+diameter nearer the mouthpiece may be substituted for one of greater
+diameter in the theoretically correct position. This is demonstrated by
+the 4th-century grammarian Macrobius, who says (_Comm. in Somn. Scip._
+ii. 4, 5): "Nec secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis
+inflantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino
+proximis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per
+angusta" (see BASSOON). Aristotle gives directions for boring holes in
+the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe of cylindrical bore
+(_Probl_. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but three or four holes; to
+Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of having increased this number
+(Pollux iv. 80). Pronomus, the musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th
+century B.C.), further improved the aulos by making it possible to play
+on one pair of instruments the three musical scales in use at his time,
+the Dorian, the Phrygian, and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate
+pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5;
+Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass of a tenth
+in order to produce the fundamental octave in each.
+
+There are two ways in which this increased compass might have been
+obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes and covering up those
+not required, (2) by means of contrivances for lowering the pitch of
+individual notes as required. We have evidence that both means were
+known to the Greeks and Romans. The simplest device for closing holes
+not in use was a band of metal left free to slide round the pipe, and
+having a hole bored through it corresponding in diameter with the hole
+in the pipe. Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases
+prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings of metal.
+The line on fig. 1 between r and s is thought to have been one of these
+rings.
+
+Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the bone, in such
+a manner that only one could be exposed at a time. This is clearly shown
+in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments of an aulos from the museum at
+Candia, for which the writer is greatly indebted to Professor John L.
+Myres, by whom measured drawings were made from the instrument in 1893.
+These highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5), seem
+to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad pipes in the
+Castellani collection at the British Museum, illustrated below; they are
+constructed like modern flutes, but played by means of a reed inserted
+into the lateral embouchure.
+
+In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represented the
+bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 joining the broken end of No. 2 at l;
+there being a possible fit at the other end at s with a in No. 4 (the
+drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed for parts 3 and 4),
+and No. 5 joining on to No. 4 at k.
+
+According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a pair of pipes in
+the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same construction as the one in
+Candia. In the drawing, the shape and relative position of the holes _on
+the circumference_ is approximate only, but their position lengthways is
+measured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of the Fragments of an _Aulos_ (Candia
+Mus.).
+
+(From a drawing by Prof. John L. Myres.)
+
+  a, Triple wrapping of bronze as well as slide.
+  b, Slide with hole.
+  c, Slides with two holes not uncovered together.
+  d, Slides with two holes not uncovered together, one hole at back.
+  e, Slide.
+  f, Slide missing.
+  g, Slide missing, scars of slide holes.
+  h, Slide.
+  i and j, Slide.
+  k, Socket.
+  l, Male half of joint.
+  m, n, o, Slides, the top hole being in the slide only.
+  p and q, Slides, with two holes; the small hole shown is in the
+      pipe, there being a corresponding hole in the slide at the back.
+  r, Bronze covering (and slide?).
+  s, Male joint.
+  t, The wavy line shows the extreme length of fragment.
+  u, 13 mm. inside diameter, 14 mm. outside diameter.
+  w, Engraved lines and conical form of bronze covering.
+  x, Wavy line shows extreme length of fragment.
+  y, Stopped end of pipe with engraved lines.
+
+    The line between r and s is either a turned ring or part of bronze
+    cover. The double lines to the right of t are engraved lines.]
+
+Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from Pompeii[3] (fig. 2),
+as well as on two pipes belonging to the Castellani collection (fig. 4)
+and on one from Halicarnassus, in the British Museum. In order to enable
+the performer to use these bands conveniently, a contrivance such as a
+little ring, a horn or a hook termed keras (Greek: keras) was attached
+to the band.[4]
+
+Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets which
+probably originally contained _kerata_. Pollux (iv. 80) mentions that
+Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the range of the aulos, made
+lateral channels for the air ([Greek: plagiai hodoi]). These consisted
+of tubes inserted into the holes in the bands for the purpose of
+lengthening the column of air, and lowering individual notes at will,
+the sound being then produced at the extremity of the tube, instead of
+at the surface of the pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes
+in the slides of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of
+these tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modern crook
+or piston.[5] The mouthpiece of the aulos was called _zeugos_ ([Greek:
+zeugos]),[6] the reed tongue _glossa_[7] or _glotta_ ([Greek: glossa] or
+[Greek: glotta]), and the socket into which the reed was fixed
+_glottis_[8] ([Greek: glottis]).
+
+The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest form of
+mouthpiece; the word _zeugos_, moreover, signifies a pair of like
+things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting the probability
+that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece was used by the
+Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it with the as-it or arghoul
+(q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Roman Ivory Aulos found at Pompeii (Naples
+Mus.), showing slides and rings.
+
+(Drawn from a photo by Brogi.)]
+
+The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii (fig. 3) has all
+the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having, on the side not
+shown, the lay on which to fix a single or beating reed.[9] It may,
+however, have been the cap of a covered reed, or even a whistle
+mouthpiece in which the lip does not show in the photograph. It is
+difficult to form a conclusion without seeing the real instrument. On a
+mosaic of Monnus in Treves[10] is represented an aulos which also
+appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece.
+
+The upper part of the aulos, as in the Pompeian pipes, frequently had
+the form of a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped bulb, respectively
+identified as the _holmos_ ([Greek: holmos]) and the _hypholmion_
+([Greek: hypholmion]), the support of the _holmos_. An explanation of
+the original nature and construction of the bulb and flaring cup, so
+familiar in the various representations of the aulos, and in the real
+instruments found in Pompeii, is provided by an ancient Egyptian flute
+belonging to the collection of G. Maspero, illustrated and described by
+Victor Loret.[11] Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouthpiece of the
+instrument, and describes its construction; it consists of a piece of
+reed of larger diameter than that of the flute, and eight centimetres
+long; this reed has been forcibly compressed a little more than half way
+down by means of a ligature of twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6
+mm. to 4 mm. The end of the pipe, covered by rows of waxed thread, fits
+into the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was also bound by waxed
+thread exactly as in the Elgin pipe at the British Museum, described
+below. There is no indication of the manner in which the pipe was
+sounded, and Loret assumes that there was once a whistle or flageolet
+mouthpiece. To the present writer, however, it seems probable that the
+constricted diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which
+the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case at least,
+the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated in the upper bulb or
+air-chamber. This simple contrivance was probably also employed in the
+earliest Greek pipes, and was later copied and elaborated in wood, bone
+or metal, the upper bulb being made shorter and developing into the
+flaring cup, in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the
+mouth. During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken
+directly into the mouth[12] and not enclosed in an air-chamber. The two
+pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped the holes and
+turned the bands by means of the [Greek: phorbeia] (Lat. _capistrum_), a
+bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having holes through which the
+reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth of the performer; the _phorbeia_
+also relieved the pressure of the breath on the cheeks and lips,[13]
+which is felt more especially by performers on oboe and bassoon at the
+present day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Beak mouthpiece. Found at Pompeii (Naples Mus.).
+
+(From a photo by Brogi.)]
+
+In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to the Elgin collection at the
+British Museum, one of the bulbs, partly broken, but preserved in the
+same case as the pipes, was fastened to the pipes by means of waxed
+thread, the indented lines being still visible on the rim of the bulb.
+The aulos was kept in a case called _sybene_[14] ([Greek: sybaenae]) or
+_aulotheke_[15] ([Greek: aulothaekae]), and the little bag or case in
+which the delicate reeds were carried was known by the name of
+_glottokomeion_[15] ([Greek: glottokomeion]).[16] Two Egyptian flute
+cases are extant, one in the Louvre,[17] and the other in the museum at
+Leiden. The latter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical in shape, with
+a stopper of the same wood; there is no legend or design upon it. The
+case contained seven pipes, five pieces of reed without bore or holes,
+and three pieces of straw suitable for making double-reed
+mouthpieces.[18]
+
+Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of pipes as
+over three octaves:--"For doubtless we should find an interval greater
+than the above mentioned three octaves between the highest note of the
+soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest note of the bass-clarinet
+(aulos); and again between the highest note of a clarinet player
+performing with the speaker open, and the lowest note of a clarinet
+player performing with the speaker closed."[19]
+
+This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to the full
+range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves from
+[Illustration: low "E" below the staff, bass clef] to [Illustration:
+high "F-sharp" on the fifth-stave, treble clef]. It is evident that the
+ancient Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of the
+harmonics. Proclus (_Comm. in Alcibiad._ chap. 68) states that from each
+hole of the pipe at least three tones could be produced. Moreover,
+classic writers maintain that if the performer press the _zeugos_ or the
+_glottai_ of the pipes, a sharper tone is produced.[20] This is exactly
+how a performer on a modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher
+harmonics of the instrument.[21] The small bore of the aulos in
+comparison to its length facilitated the production of the harmonics
+(cf. Zamminer p. 218), as does also the use of a small hole near the
+mouthpiece, called in Greek _syrinx_ ([Greek: syrinx]) and in the modern
+clarinet the "speaker," which when open enables the performer to
+overblow with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamental tones.
+To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University is due the credit of having
+identified the _syrinx_ of the aulos with the speaker of the
+clarinet.[22] This assumption is doubtless correct, and is supported by
+classical grammarians,[23] who state that the _syrinx_ was one of the
+holes of the aulos. It renders quite clear certain passages in
+Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch, and a scholion to Pindar's 12th
+_Pythian_, which before were difficult to understand (see SYRINX).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Plagiaulos. Castellani Collection (Maenad
+Pipes), British Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Ancient Greek Double Pipes. Elgin Collection,
+British Museum.]
+
+The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties enumerated by
+Pollux (_Onomast._ iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus (iv. 76 et seq.). They
+fall into two distinct classes, the single and the double pipes. There
+were three principal single pipes, the _monaulos_, the _plagiaulos_ and
+the _syrinx monocalamos_. The double pipes were used by the great
+musicians of ancient Greece, and notably at the musical contests at
+Delphi, and what has been said above concerning the construction of the
+aulos refers mainly to the double pipes. The _monaulos_, a single pipe
+of Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been played
+from the end by means of a reed, may have been the archetype of the oboe
+or clarinet. The _plagiaulos photinx_ or _tibia obliqua_, invented by
+the Libyans (Pollux iv. 74), or, according to Pliny (vii. 204), by Midas
+of Phrygia, was held like the modern flute, but was played by means of a
+mouthpiece containing a reed. Three of the existing pipes at the British
+Museum (the two in the Castellani collection, and the pipe from
+Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The mouthpiece projects from the
+side of the pipe and communicates with the main bore by means of a
+slanting passage; the end nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the
+modern flute; in the latter, however, the embouchure is not closed by
+the lips when playing, and therefore the flute has the acoustic
+properties of the open pipe, whereas the _plagiaulos_ having a reed
+mouthpiece gave the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double pipes existed
+in five sizes according to pitch, in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a
+treatise on the construction of the auloi ([Greek: Peri aulon
+traeseos]), unfortunately not extant,[24] divides them thus:--
+
+(1) _Parthenioi auloi_ ([Greek: parthenioi auloi]), the maiden's
+_auloi_, corresponding to the soprano compass.
+
+(2) _Paidikoi auloi_ ([Greek: paidikoi auloi]), the boy's pipes or alto
+_auloi_, used to accompany boys' songs and also in double pairs at
+feasts.
+
+(3) _Kitharisterioi auloi_ ([Greek: kitharistaerioi auloi]), used to
+accompany the cithara.
+
+(4) _Teleioi auloi_, the perfect aulos, or tenor's pipes; also known as
+the _pythic auloi_ ([Greek: pythikoi auloi]); used for the paeans and
+for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was the _pythic
+auloi_ and the _kitharisterioi auloi_ more especially which were
+provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the harmonic
+notes (see SYRINX).
+
+(5) _Hyperteleioi auloi_ ([Greek: hyperteleioi auloi]) or _andreioi
+auloi_ ([Greek: andreioi ayloi]) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi.
+
+The Phrygian pipes or _auloi Elymoi_[25] were made of box-wood and were
+tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but differed from all others
+in that the two pipes were unequal in length and in the diameter of
+their bores;[26] sometimes one of the pipes was curved upwards and
+terminated in a horn bell;[27] they seem to have had a conical bore, if
+representations on monuments are to be trusted. We may conclude that the
+archetype of the oboe with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks;
+it was frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appears on many
+has-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments. For illustrations see
+Wilhelm Froehner, _Les Musees de France_, pl. iii., "Marsyas playing the
+double pipes." There the bore is decidedly conical in the ratio of at
+least 1:4 between the mouthpiece and the end of the instrument; the vase
+is Roman, from the south of France. See also _Bulletino della
+Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma_, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd
+series, pl. vii. and p. 119 et seq., "Le Nozze di Elena e Paride," from
+a bas-relief in the monastery of S. Antonio on the Esquiline; Wilhelm
+Zahn, _Die schonsten Ornamente und die merkwurdigsten Gemalde aus
+Pompeji, Herkulaneum und Stabiae_ (German and French), vol. iii., pl. 43
+and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859).
+
+  For further information on the aulos, consult Albert A. Howard, "The
+  Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv., 1893; Francois A. Gevaert,
+  _Histoire de la musique dans l'antiquite_, vol. ii. p. 273 et seq.;
+  Carl von Jan's article "Flote" in August Baumeister's _Denkmaler des
+  klassischen Altertums_ (Munich, 1884-1888), vol. i.; Dr Hugo Riemann,
+  _Handbuch der Musikgeschichte_, Bd. I.T. 1, pp. 93-112 (Leipzig,
+  1904); Caspar Bartholinus, _De Tibiis Veterum_ (Amsterdam, 1779).
+       (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Pollux, _Onom._ iv. 69.
+
+  [2] See Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und musikalischen Instrumente
+    in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik_ (Giessen, 1855), p.
+    305.
+
+  [3] These pipes were discovered during the excavations in 1867, and
+    are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductions and
+    descriptions of them are given in "The Aulos or Tibia," by Albert A.
+    Howard, _Harvard Studies_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. ii. and pp.
+    48-55.
+
+  [4] For illustrations of _auloi_ provided with these contrivances,
+    see illustration (fig. 2) of an aulos from Pompeii; a relief in
+    Vatican, No. 535; Helbig's _Wandgemalde_, Nos. 56, 69, 730, 765, &c.
+
+  [5] For illustrations of [Greek: hodoi] showing the holes at the ends
+    of the tubes, see _Description des marbres antiques du Musee
+    Campana_, by H. d'Escamps, pl. 25; Wilhelm Froehner's _Catalogue of
+    the Louvre_, No. 378; Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188; Albert A.
+    Howard, "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, 1893),
+    pl. 1, No. 1.
+
+  [6] For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and
+    mouthpiece were made see Theophrastus, _Hist. Plant._ iv. 11.
+
+  [7] Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle, _H.A._ 6, 10, 9, &c.
+
+  [8] Lucian, _Harm._ 1.
+
+  [9] Cf. article MOUTHPIECE.
+
+  [10] See _Antike Denkmaler_, Deutsches archaol. Inst., Berlin, 1891,
+    vol. i. pi. 49.
+
+  [11] See "Les Flutes egyptiennes antiques," _Journal asiatique_, 8th
+    ser. vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 212-215.
+
+  [12] See Aristotle, _De Audib._ p. 802 b, 18, and p. 804a; Festus,
+    ed. Mueller, p. 116.
+
+  [13] See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann,
+    _Gesch. d. Musik_, Bd. i. T. 1, p. 111 (Leipzig, 1904).
+
+  [14] Pollux, _Onomasticon_, vii. 153.
+
+  [15] Hesychius.
+
+  [16] Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153, x. 153-154; A.A. Howard, op. cit. pp.
+    26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given in _Denkmaler des
+    klassischen Altertums_, by August Baumeister, vol. i. p. 554, fig.
+    591.
+
+  [17] Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case
+    ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double
+    pipe. See E. de Rouge, _Notice sommaire des monuments egyptiens
+    exposes dans les galeries du Louvre_, p. 87.
+
+  [18] See Victor Loret, "Les Flutes egyptiennes antiques," in _Journal
+    asiatique_, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 199, 200 and 201 (note), pp.
+    207, 211 and 217, and Conrad Leemans, _Description raisonnee des
+    monuments egyptiens du Musee d'Antiquites de Leyde_, p. 132, No. 489;
+    contents of case Nos. 474-488.
+
+  [19] Aristoxenus, _Harm._ bk. i. 20 and 21, H.S. Macran's edition
+    with translation (Oxford, 1902), p. 179.
+
+  [20] Aristotle, _De audib._ p. 804a; Porphyry, ed. Wallis, p. 249;
+    _ibid._ p. 252.
+
+  [21] Zamminer, _op. cit._ p. 301.
+
+  [22] _Op. cit._ p. 32-35.
+
+  [23] See _Etymologicum magnum_ (Augsburg. 1848), s.v. "Syrinx."
+
+  [24] See Athenaeus xiv. 634, who quotes from Didymus.
+
+  [25] Pollux iv. 74.
+
+  [26] Servius _ad Aen._ ix. 615.
+
+  [27] Tibullus ii. 85; Virg. _Aen._ xi. 735; Ovid, _Met._ iii. 533,
+    _Ex Ponto_ i. 1. 39.
+
+
+
+
+AUMALE, HENRI EUGENE PHILIPPE LOUIS D'ORLEANS, DUC D' (1822-1897),
+French prince and statesman, fifth son of Louis Philippe, duke of
+Orleans, afterwards king of the French, and of Marie Amelie, princess of
+the Two Sicilies, was born at Paris on the 16th of January 1822. While
+still young he inherited a large fortune from the prince de Conde.
+Brought up by his parents with great simplicity, he was educated at the
+college of Henri IV., on leaving which at the age of seventeen he
+entered the army with the rank of a captain of infantry. He
+distinguished himself during the conquest of Algeria, and was appointed
+governor of that colony, in which capacity he received the submission of
+the amir Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to
+England and busied himself with historical and military studies,
+replying in 1861 by a _Letter upon the History of France_ to Prince
+Napoleon's violent attacks upon the house of Orleans. On the outbreak of
+the Franco-Prussian War he volunteered for service in the French army,
+but his offer was declined. Elected deputy for the Oise department, he
+returned to France, and succeeded to the _fauteuil_ of the comte de
+Montalembert in the French Academy. In March 1872 he resumed his place
+in the army as general of division; and in 1873 he presided over the
+court-martial which condemned Marshal Bazaine to death. About this
+period, being appointed commandant of the VII. army corps at Besancon,
+he retired from political life, and in 1879 became inspector-general of
+the army. By the act of exception passed in 1883 all members of families
+that had reigned in France serving in the army were deprived of their
+military positions; consequently the duc d'Aumale was placed on the
+unemployed supernumerary list. Subsequently, in 1886, another law was
+promulgated which expelled from French territory the heads of former
+reigning families, and provided that henceforward all members of those
+families should be disqualified for any public position or function, and
+for election to any public body. The duc d'Aumale protested
+energetically, and was himself expelled. By his will of the 3rd of June
+1884, however, he had bequeathed to the Institute of France his
+Chantilly estate, with all the art-collection he had gathered there.
+This generosity led the government to withdraw the decree of exile, and
+the duke returned to France in 1889. He died at Zucco in Sicily on the
+7th of May 1897. Of his marriage, contracted in 1844 with his first
+cousin, Caroline de Bourbon, daughter of the prince of Salerno, were
+born two sons: the prince de Conde (d. 1866), and the due de Guise (d.
+1872). The due d'Aumale's principal literary work was an _Histoire des
+princes de Conde_, which he left unfinished.
+
+  See Georges Picot, _M. le duc d'Aumale_ (Paris, 1898); Ernest Daudet,
+  _Le duc d'Aumale_ (Paris, 1898).     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+AUMALE, a town of northern France, in the department of
+Seine-Inferieure, on the left bank of the Bresle, 47 m. N.E. of Rouen on
+the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 1999. The church is an interesting
+building of the 16th and 17th centuries, and has a portal attributed to
+Jean Goujon. The town has glass and steel works.
+
+The territory of Aumale (Albemarle, Aubemale, Aumerle; Lat. _Alba
+Marla_) in Normandy, a dependency of the archbishopric of Rouen, was
+granted to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the Conqueror,
+who founded the first line of counts of Aumale. Hawise (Hadwide, Havoise
+or Avoie), countess of Aumale, after the death of her first husband
+William de Mandeville, earl of Essex (d. 1189), married William des
+Forts (de Fors, or de Fortz; Lat. de Fortibus), a military adventurer
+who had been one of the commanders of the fleet under Richard I. during
+his first crusade. He died in 1195, and his widow married Baldwin de
+Betun, who became count of Aumale in her right. He died in 1213, and in
+1214 William de Fortibus, son of Hawise by her second husband, was
+confirmed by King John in all his mother's lands. Meanwhile, however,
+the territory of Aumale shared the fate of the rest of Normandy, and was
+annexed to the French crown by King Philip Augustus; but the title of
+earl of Albemarle, derived from it, continued to be borne in England by
+William de Fortibus, and was passed on to his heirs (see ALBEMARLE).
+Aumale itself was conferred by Philip Augustus as an appanage on his son
+Philip. It was subsequently granted by Louis VIII. to Simon, count of
+Dammartin, whose daughter, Jeanne, countess of Dammartin, transferred
+it, together with the countship of Ponthieu, to the house of Castile, by
+her marriage with Ferdinand III., king of Castile, called the Saint
+(1238). It then remained in the possession of a branch of her
+descendants bearing the name of Ponthieu, until it passed to the house
+of Harcourt on the marriage of Blanche of Ponthieu with John, count of
+Harcourt (1340). Marie d'Harcourt (d. 1476), heiress of Aumale, married
+Anthony of Lorraine, count of Vaudemont, and Aumale was created a duchy
+in the peerage of France for Claude and Francis of Lorraine in 1547. By
+the marriage of Anne of Lorraine with the duke of Nemours in 1618 the
+duchy of Aumale passed to the house of Savoy-Nemours. In 1686 Marie
+Jeanne Baptiste, duchess of Nemours and of Aumale, and wife of Charles
+Emmanuel II., duke of Savoy, sold Aumale to Louis XIV., who gave it to
+his natural son, the duke of Maine. After the death of that prince, the
+dukedom devolved upon his brother, the count of Toulouse, subsequently
+passing to the latter's son, the duke of Penthievre, whose daughter
+married the duke of Orleans. Since the reign of Louis Philippe, king of
+the French, the title of duke of Aumale has been borne by a son of the
+duke of Orleans.
+
+
+
+
+AUMONT, the name of a family which played an important part in French
+history. The origin of the name is uncertain, but it has usually been
+derived from Aumont, now a small commune in the department of the Somme.
+The family was of great antiquity, a Jean, sire d'Aumont, having
+accompanied Louis IX. on crusade. It was already powerful in the 14th
+century, and during the English wars of that period its members fought
+in the armies of the kings of France. Towards the end of the century,
+the family took the part of the dukes of Burgundy, but returned to the
+side of France on the death of Charles the Bold. Jean d'Aumont,
+lieutenant-general to the king of France in the government of Burgundy,
+rendered important services to Louis XII. and Francis I. Another Jean
+d'Aumont (d. 1595), a marshal of France and knight of the order of the
+Holy Ghost since its institution in 1578, fought against the Huguenots
+under the last of the Valois kings; but he was among the first to
+recognize Henry IV., and was appointed governor of Champagne and of
+Brittany, where he had to fight against the League. His grandson Antoine
+(1601-1669) was also a marshal of France (1651), governor of Paris
+(1662), duke and peer (1665). Louis Marie Augustin, duc d'Aumont
+(1709-1782), was a celebrated collector of works of art. Louis Marie
+Celeste d'Aumont, due de Piennes, afterwards duc d'Aumont (1762-1831),
+emigrated during the Revolution and served in the army of the royalists,
+as also in the Swedish army. During the Hundred Days he effected a
+descent upon Normandy in the Bourbon interest, and succeeded in
+capturing Bayeux and Caen.
+
+
+
+
+AUNCEL (from the Anglo-Fr. _auncelle_, a confused derivation from
+_l'auncelle_, Ital. _lancella_, a little balance), a balance formerly
+used in England; now, in dialectical use, a term for the weighing of
+meat by hand instead of by scales.
+
+
+
+
+AUNDH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay,
+ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs. Its area is 447 sq. m.; its
+population was 63,921 in 1901, showing a decrease of 2% in the decade.
+Estimated revenue L9422. The chief, whose title is Pant Pratinidhi, is a
+Brahman by caste. The state has suffered severely from plague. The town
+of Aundh is situated 26 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. about 3500.
+
+
+
+
+AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD (1287-1345), commonly known as RICHARD DE BURY,
+English bibliophile, writer and bishop, was born near Bury St Edmunds,
+Suffolk, on the 24th of January 1287. He was the son of Sir Richard
+Aungervyle, who was descended from one of William the Conqueror's
+soldiers, settled in Leicestershire, where the family came into
+possession of the manor of Willoughby. His education was undertaken by
+his uncle, John de Willoughby, and after leaving the grammar school of
+his native place he was sent to Oxford, where he is said to have
+distinguished himself in philosophy and theology. John Pits[1] says, but
+apparently without authority, that he became a Benedictine monk. He was
+made tutor to Prince Edward of Windsor (afterwards Edward III.), and,
+according to Dibdin, inspired him with some of his own love of books. He
+was mixed up with the sordid intrigues which preceded the deposition of
+Edward II., and supplied Queen Isabella and Mortimer in Paris with money
+in 1325 from the revenues of Guienne, of which province he was
+treasurer. For some time he had to hide in Paris from the officers sent
+by Edward II. to apprehend him. On the accession of Edward III. his
+services were rewarded by rapid promotion. He was cofferer to the king,
+treasurer of the wardrobe and afterwards clerk of the privy seal. The
+king, moreover, repeatedly recommended him to the pope, and twice sent
+him, in 1330 and 1333, as ambassador to the papal court, then in exile
+at Avignon. On the first of these visits he made the acquaintance of a
+fellow bibliophile in Petrarch, who records his impression (_Epist.
+Famil._ lib. iii. Ep. 1) of the Englishman as "not ignorant of
+literature and ... from his youth up curious beyond belief of hidden
+things." He asked him for information about Thule, but Aungervyle, who
+promised information when he should once more be at home among his
+books, never sent any answer, in spite of repeated enquiries. The pope,
+John XXII., made him his principal chaplain, and presented him with a
+rochet in earnest of the first vacant bishopric in England.
+
+During his absence from England he was made (1333) dean of Wells. In
+September of the same year the see of Durham fell vacant, and the king
+overruled the choice of the monks, who had elected and actually
+installed their sub-prior, Robert de Graystanes, in favour of
+Aungervyle. In February 1334 he was made lord treasurer, an appointment
+he exchanged later in the year for that of lord chancellor. This charge
+he resigned in the next year, and, after making arrangements for the
+protection of his northern diocese from an expected inroad of the Scots,
+he proceeded in July 1336 to France to attempt a settlement of the
+claims in dispute between Edward and Philip. In the next year he served
+on three commissions for the defence of the northern counties. In June
+1338 he was once more sent abroad to secure peace, but within a month of
+his appointment Edward himself landed in Flanders to procure allies for
+his approaching campaign. Aungervyle accompanied him to Coblenz to his
+meeting with the emperor Louis IV., and in the next year was sent to
+England to raise money. This seems to have been his last visit to the
+continent. In 1340 and 1342 he was again engaged in trying to negotiate
+peace with the Scots, but from this time his life appears to have passed
+quietly in the care of his diocese and in the accumulation of a library.
+
+He sent far and wide in search of manuscripts, rescuing many treasures
+from the charge of ignorant and neglectful monks. "No dearness of
+price," he says, "ought to hinder a man from the buying of books, if he
+has the money demanded for them, unless it be to withstand the malice of
+the seller or to await a more favourable opportunity of buying." It is
+to be supposed that Richard de Bury sometimes brought undue pressure to
+bear on the owners, for it is recorded that an abbot of St Albans bribed
+him to secure his influence for the house by four valuable books, and
+that de Bury, who procured certain coveted privileges for the monastery,
+bought from him thirty-two other books, for fifty pieces of silver, far
+less than their normal price. The record of his passion for books, his
+_Philobiblon_, was completed on his fifty-eighth birthday, the 24th of
+January 1345, and he died on the 14th of April (May, according to Adam
+Murimuth) of that year. He gives an account (chapter viii.) of the
+unwearied efforts made by himself and his agents to collect books. In
+the eighteenth chapter he records his intention of founding a hall at
+Oxford, and in connexion with it a library of which his books were to
+form the nucleus. He even details the rules to be observed for the
+lending and care of the books, and he had already taken the preliminary
+steps for the foundation. The bishop died, however, in great poverty,
+and it seems likely that his collection was dispersed immediately after
+his death. But the traditional account is that the books were sent to
+the Durham Benedictines at Oxford, and that on the dissolution of the
+foundation by Henry VIII. they were divided between Duke Humphrey of
+Gloucester's library, Balliol College and Dr George Owen. Only two of
+the volumes are known to be in existence; one is a copy of John of
+Salisbury's works in the British Museum, and the other some theological
+treatises by Anselm and others in the Bodleian.
+
+The chief authority for the bishop's life is William de Chambre (printed
+in Wharton's _Anglia Sacra_, 1691, and in _Historiae Dunelmensis
+scriptores tres_, Surtees Soc. 1839), who describes him as an amiable
+and excellent man, charitable in his diocese, and the liberal patron of
+many learned men, among these being Thomas Bradwardine, afterwards
+archbishop of Canterbury, Richard Fitzralph, afterwards archbishop of
+Armagh, the enemy of the mendicant orders, Walter Burley, who translated
+Aristotle, John Mauduit the astronomer, Robert Holkot and Richard de
+Kilvington. John Bale[2] and Pits[3] mention other works of his,
+_Epistolae Familiares_ and _Orationes ad Principes_. The opening words
+of the _Philobiblon_ and the _Epistolae_ as given by Bale represent
+those of the _Philobiblon_ and its prologue, so that he apparently made
+two books out of one treatise. It is possible that the _Orationes_ may
+represent a letter book of Richard de Bury's, entitled _Liber
+Epistolaris quondam domini Ricardi de Bury, Episcopi Dunelmensis_, now
+in the possession of Lord Harlech. This MS., the contents of which are
+fully catalogued in the Fourth Report (1874) of the Historical MSS.
+Commission (Appendix, pp. 379-397), contains numerous letters from
+various popes, from the king, a correspondence dealing with the affairs
+of the university of Oxford, another with the province of Gascony,
+beside some harangues and letters evidently kept as models to be used on
+various occasions.
+
+It has often been asserted that the _Philobiblon_ itself was not written
+by Richard de Bury at all, but by Robert Holkot. This assertion is
+supported by the fact that in seven of the extant MSS. of _Philobiblon_
+it is ascribed to Holkot in an introductory note, in these or slightly
+varying terms: _Incipit prologus in philobiblon ricardi dunelmensis
+episcopi que libru composuit Robertus holcote de ordine predicalorum sub
+nomine dicti episcopi_. The Paris MS. has simply _Philobiblon olchoti
+anglici_, and does not contain the usual concluding note of the date
+when the book was completed by Richard. As a great part of the charm of
+the book lies in the unconscious record of the collector's own
+character, the establishment of Holkot's authorship would materially
+alter its value. A notice of Richard de Bury by his contemporary Adam
+Murimuth (_Continuatio Chronicarum_, Rolls Series, 1889, p. 171) gives a
+less favourable account of him than does William de Chambre, asserting
+that he was only moderately learned, but desired to be regarded as a
+great scholar.
+
+  The original Latin text was printed at Cologne (1473), Spires (1483),
+  Paris (1500), Oxford (1598 and 1599), &c. It was first translated into
+  English by J.B. Inglis in 1832, and into French by Hippolyte Cocheris
+  in 1856. The best translation is that by Mr E.C. Thomas, accompanying
+  the Latin text, with full biographical and bibliographical
+  introductions (1888). Other editions are in the _King's Classics_
+  (1902) and for the Grolier Club (New York, 1889, ed. A.W. West).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _De Ill. Angl. Script._ (1619, p. 467).
+
+  [2] _Script. Ill. Maj. Brit._ cent. v. No. 69.
+
+  [3] _De Ill. Angl. Script._ (1619, p. 468).
+
+
+
+
+AUNT SALLY, the English name for a game popular at fairs, race-courses
+and summer resorts. It consists in throwing hard balls, of wood or
+leather-covered yarn, at puppets dressed to represent different
+characters, originally a grotesque female figure called "Aunt Sally,"
+with the object of smashing a clay pipe which is inserted either in the
+mouth or forehead of the puppet. In France the game is popular under the
+name _jeu de massacre_. In a variation of the pastime the mark consists
+of a living person's head thrust through a hole in a sheet of canvas. In
+case of a hit a second shy is allowed, or a small prize is given.
+
+
+
+
+AURA (from the Gr. for "breath" or "breeze"), a term used in old days to
+denote a supposed ethereal emanation from a volatile substance; applied
+later to the "electrical aura," or air-current caused by electrical
+discharge; in epilepsy (q.v.) to one of its premonitory symptoms; and
+in spiritualism to a mysterious light associated with the presence of
+spirit-forms. See also AUREOLA.
+
+
+
+
+AURANGABAD, or AURUNGABAD, a city of India, in the dominions of the
+nizam of Hyderabad, north-west division, situated 138 m. from Poona, 207
+from Bombay via Poona, and 270 from Hyderabad on the river Kaum. It
+gives its name to a district. It was founded in 1610, under the name of
+Fatchnagar, by Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian, who had risen from the
+condition of a slave to great influence. Subsequently it became the
+capital of the Mogul conquests in the south of India. Aurangzeb, who
+erected here a mausoleum to his wife which has been compared to the Taj
+at Agra, made the city the seat of his government during his viceroyalty
+of the Deccan, and gave it the name of Aurangabad. It thus grew into the
+principal city of an extensive province of the same name, stretching
+westward to the sea, and comprehending nearly the whole of the territory
+now comprised within the northern division of the presidency of Bombay.
+Aurangabad long continued to be the capital of the succession of
+potentates bearing the modern title of nizam, after those chiefs became
+independent of Delhi. They abandoned it subsequently, and transferred
+their capital to Hyderabad, when the town at once began to decline.
+Aurangabad is a railway station on the Hyderabad-Godavari line, 435 m.
+from Bombay. In 1901 the population, with military cantonments, was
+36,837, showing an increase of 8% in the decade. It has a cotton mill.
+
+The district of Aurangabad has an area of 6172 sq. m. The population in
+1901 was 721,407. It contains the famous caves of Ajanta, and also the
+battlefield of Assaye.
+
+
+
+
+AURANGZEB (1618-1707), one of the greatest of the Mogul emperors of
+Hindustan, was the third son of Shah Jahan, and was born in November
+1618. His original name, Mahommed, was changed by his father, with whom
+he was a favourite, into Aurangzeb, meaning ornament of the throne, and
+at a later time he assumed the additional titles of Mohi-eddin, reviver
+of religion, and Alam-gir, conqueror of the world. At a very early age,
+and throughout his whole life, he manifested profound religious feeling
+perhaps instilled into him in the course of his education under some of
+the strictest Mahommedan doctors. He was employed, while very young, in
+some of his father's expeditions into the country beyond the Indus, gave
+promise of considerable military talents, and was appointed to the
+command of an army directed against the Uzbegs. In this campaign he was
+not completely successful, and soon after was transferred to the army
+engaged in the Deccan. Here he gained several victories, and in
+conjunction with the famous general, Mir Jumla, who had deserted from
+the king of Golconda, he seized and plundered the town of Hyderabad,
+which belonged to that monarch. His father's express orders prevented
+Aurangzeb from following up this success, and, not long after, the
+sudden and alarming illness of Shah Jahan turned his thoughts in another
+direction. Of Shah Jahan's four sons, the eldest, Dara, a brave and
+honourable prince, but disliked by the Mussulmans on account of his
+liberality of thought, had a natural right to the throne. Accordingly,
+on the illness of his father, he at once seized the reins of government
+and established himself at Delhi. The second son, Shuja, governor of
+Bengal, a dissolute and sensual prince, was dissatisfied, and raised an
+army to dispute the throne with Dara. The keen eye of Aurangzeb saw in
+this conjuncture of events a favourable opportunity for realising his
+own ambitious schemes. His religious exercises and temperate habits gave
+him, in popular estimation, a great superiority over his brothers, but
+he was too politic to put forward his claims openly. He made overtures
+to his younger brother Murad, governor of Gujarat, representing that
+neither of their elder brothers was worthy of the kingdom, that he
+himself had no temporal ambition, and desired only to place a fit
+monarch on the throne, and then to devote himself to religious exercises
+and make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He therefore proposed to unite his
+forces to those of Murad, who would thus have no difficulty in making
+himself master of the empire while the two elder brothers were divided
+by their own strife. Murad was completely deceived by these crafty
+representations, and at once accepted the offer. Their united armies
+then moved northward. Meanwhile Shah Jahan had recovered, and though
+Dara resigned the crown he had seized, the other brothers professed not
+to believe in their father's recovery, and still pressed on. Shuja was
+defeated by Dara's son, but the imperial forces under Jaswant Singh were
+completely routed by the united armies of Aurangzeb and Murad. Dara in
+person took the field against his brothers, but was defeated and
+compelled to fly. Aurangzeb then, by a clever stroke of policy, seized
+the person of his father, and threw him into confinement, in which he
+was kept for the remaining eight years of his life. Murad was soon
+removed by assassination, and the way being thus cleared, Aurangzeb,
+with affected reluctance, ascended the throne in August 1658. He quickly
+freed himself from all other competitors for the imperial power. Dara,
+who again invaded Gujarat, was defeated and closely pursued, and was
+given up by the native chief with whom he had taken refuge. He was
+brought up to Delhi, exhibited to the people, and assassinated. Shuja,
+who had been a second time defeated near Allahabad, was attacked by the
+imperial forces under Mir Jumla and Mahommed, Aurangzeb's eldest son,
+who, however, deserted and joined his uncle. Shuja was defeated and fled
+to Arakan, where he perished; Mahommed was captured, thrown into the
+fortress of Gwalior, and died after seven years' confinement. No similar
+contest disturbed Aurangzeb's long reign of forty-six years, which has
+been celebrated, though with doubtful justice, as the most brilliant
+period of the history of Hindustan. The empire certainly was wealthy and
+of enormous extent, for there were successively added to it the rich
+kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda, but it was internally decaying and
+ready to crumble away before the first vigorous assault. Two causes
+principally had tended to weaken the Mogul power. The one was the
+intense bigotry and intolerant policy of Aurangzeb, which had alienated
+the Hindus and roused the fierce animosity of the haughty Rajputs. The
+other was the rise and rapid growth of the Mahratta power. Under their
+able leader, Sivaji, these daring freebooters plundered in every
+direction, nor could all Aurangzeb's efforts avail to subdue them. For
+the last twenty-six years of his life Aurangzeb was engaged in wars in
+the Deccan, and never set foot in his own capital. At the close of the
+long contest the Mogul power was weaker, the Mahratta stronger than at
+first. Still the personal ability and influence of the emperor were
+sufficient to keep his realms intact during his own life. His last years
+were embittered by remorse, by gloomy forebodings, and by constant
+suspicion, for he had always been in the habit of employing a system of
+espionage, and only then experienced its evil effects. He died on the
+3rd of March 1707 at Ahmadnagar, while engaged on an extensive but
+unfortunate expedition against the Mahrattas.
+
+  See Lane-Poole, _Aurangzib_, "Rulers of India" series (1893).
+
+
+
+
+AURAY, a town of France near the mouth of the Auray river, in the
+department of Morbihan, 12 m. W. of Vannes on the railway between that
+town and Lorient. Pop. (1906) 5241. Its port, which is formed by the
+channel of the river and divides the town into two parts, is frequented
+by coasting and fishing vessels. The principal buildings are the church
+of St Esprit (13th century) now secularized; the Renaissance church of
+St Gildas; the town-hall (18th century); and, at a short distance from
+the town, the Carthusian monastery, now a deaf and dumb institute, on
+the site of the battle of 1364, at which Charles of Blois was defeated
+by John of Montfort (see BRITTANY: _History_). Adjoining the Chartreuse
+is a small chapel in which are preserved the bones of the Royalists
+captured by the Republicans in a battle fought near the spot in 1795. In
+the neighbourhood is the church of Sainte Anne d'Auray, one of the
+principal places of pilgrimage in Brittany. Auray is one of the chief
+centres in France for oyster-breeding, and carries on boat-building and
+sardine-fishing.
+
+
+
+
+AURELIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, the date of the construction
+of which is unknown. It ran from Rome to Alsium, where it reached the
+sea, and thence along the south-west coast of Italy, perhaps originally
+only as far as Cosa, and was later extended to Vada Volaterrana, and in
+109 B.C. to Genua and Dertona by means of the Via Aemilia, though a
+coast road as far as Genua at least must have existed long before. The
+name is applied in the Antonine Itinerary to these extensions, and even
+to the prolongation to Aries. Its line is in the main closely followed
+by the modern coast highroad; cf., however, for the section between Cosa
+and Populonia, O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des Oslerr. arch. Instituts_,
+vii. (1904), 54.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+AURELIAN [LUCIUS DOMITIUS AURELIANUS], one of the greatest of the Roman
+soldier emperors, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia between A.D. 212-214.
+He was of humble origin, but nothing definite is known of his family. He
+had always shown great enthusiasm for a military career, and so
+distinguished himself in the campaigns in which he took part that on one
+occasion he received a public vote of thanks. At the same time he was
+proclaimed consul elect, and adopted by Ulpius Crinitus, military
+governor of Illyria and Thrace. On the death of the emperor Claudius II.
+Gothicus (270), Aurelian was proclaimed his successor with the universal
+approval of the soldiers. His first task was to continue the war which
+had been begun by Claudius against the Goths. He drove them out of
+Moesia across the Danube, where he left them in possession of Dacia,
+which he did not think himself able to retain; the name was transferred
+to Moesia, which was then called Dacia Aureliani. The chronology,
+however, of Aurelian's reign is very confused, and the abandonment of
+Dacia is placed by some authorities towards its close. He next entered
+upon campaigns against the Juthungi, Alamanni, and other Germanic
+tribes, over whom, after a severe defeat which was said to have
+imperilled the very existence of the empire, he at length obtained a
+complete victory. Having thus secured the Rhine and Danube frontiers, he
+turned his energies towards the east, and in 271 set out on his
+expedition against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra (q.v.). At the same time he
+crushed two pretenders to the throne--Firmus and Tetricus. Firmus, a
+wealthy merchant of Seleucia, had proclaimed himself emperor of Egypt.
+Aurelian, who was at the time in Mesopotamia, hastened thither, and
+ordered him to be seized and put to death. Tetricus, who had been
+proclaimed emperor in the west after the death of Gallienus, and left
+undisturbed by Claudius II., still ruled over Gaul, Spain and Britain. A
+decisive battle was fought near the modern Chalons, in which Tetricus
+was defeated. The restoration of the unity of the empire was thus
+complete. In 274 a brilliant triumph, adorned by the persons of Zenobia
+and Tetricus, was celebrated at Rome.
+
+Aurelian now turned his attention to the internal affairs of the empire.
+He introduced sumptuary laws; relieved the poor by distributions of
+bread and meat, proceeded with great severity against informers and
+embezzlers; began the construction of various public works and
+buildings; and proclaimed a general amnesty for political crimes. The
+restoration and enlargement of the walls of Rome, commenced by him, was
+not completed till the reign of Probus. An attempt to restore the
+standard of the coinage is said to have caused a revolt of the workmen
+and officials connected with the mint, which was only put down with the
+loss of 7000 soldiers. It has been suggested that this was really an
+attempt at revolution incited by the senate and praetorian guards, the
+opportunity being found in disturbances resulting from opposition to the
+attempted reform, which by themselves could hardly have assumed such
+serious proportions. Aurelian's restless spirit was not long able to
+endure a life of inaction in the city. Towards the end of 274, he
+started on an expedition against the Persians, halting in Thrace by the
+way. While on the march between Heracleia and Byzantium, at the
+beginning of the following year, he was assassinated through the
+treachery of his secretary Eros, who, in order to escape the discovery
+of his own irregularities, incited certain officers against the emperor
+by showing them a forged list, on which their names appeared as marked
+out for death.
+
+Aurelian well deserved the title of restorer of the empire, and it must
+be remembered that he lived in an age when severity was absolutely
+necessary. He was a great soldier and a rigid but just disciplinarian.
+In more favourable circumstances he would have been a great
+administrator. He displayed a fondness for pomp and show on public
+occasions; he was the first Roman emperor to wear the diadem, and
+assumed the title of Lord and God on medals.
+
+  The chief authority for the events of Aurelian's reign is his life by
+  Vopiscus, one of the writers of the "Augustan History"; it is founded
+  on Greek memoirs and certain journals deposited in the Ulpian library
+  at Rome. See L. Homo, _Le Regne de l'empereur Aurelien_ (1904), and
+  Groag's art. in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, v. 1347 foll.
+
+
+
+
+AURELIANUS, CAELIUS, a physician of Sicca in Numidia, who probably
+flourished in the 5th century A.D., although some place him two or even
+three centuries earlier. In favour of the later date is the nature of
+his Latin, which shows a strong tendency to the Romance, and the
+similarity of his language to that of Cassius Felix, also an African
+medical writer, who about 450 wrote a short treatise, chiefly based on
+Galen. We possess a translation by Aurelianus of two works of Soranus of
+Ephesus (2nd century), the chief of the "methodist" school of medicine,
+on chronic and acute maladies--_Tardae_ or _Chronicae Passiones_, in
+five, and _Celeres_ or _Acutae Passiones_ in three books. The
+translation, which is especially valuable since the original has been
+lost, shows that Soranus possessed considerable practical skill in the
+diagnosis of ordinary and even of exceptional diseases. It is also
+important as containing numerous references to the methods of earlier
+medical authorities. We also possess considerable fragments of his
+_Medicinales Responsiones_, also adapted from Soranus, a general
+treatise on medicine in the form of question and answer; it deals with
+rules of health (_salutaria praecepta_) and the pathology of internal
+diseases (ed. Rose, _Anecdota Graeca et Latina_, ii., 1870). Where it is
+possible to compare Aurelianus's translation with the original--as in a
+fragment of his Gynaecia with Soranus's [Greek: Peri gynaikeion
+Pathon]--it is found that it is literal, but abridged. There is
+apparently no MS. of the treatises in existence. (Editions: Amman, 1709;
+Haller, 1774.)
+
+
+
+
+AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN BAPTISTE D' (1804-1877), French
+general, was born at Malzieu, Lozere, on the 9th of January 1804. He was
+educated at St Cyr, and entered the army as sub-lieutenant of foot in
+1824. He served with distinction in Algeria between 1841 and 1848,
+becoming lieut.-colonel and an officer of the Legion of Honour; took
+part in the Roman campaigns of 1848 and 1849, and was made colonel. He
+served as general of brigade throughout the Crimean War of 1854-56,
+being promoted general of division and commander of the Legion of
+Honour. During the campaign in Lombardy in 1859 he commanded at
+Marseilles, and superintended the despatch of men and stores to the seat
+of war, and for his services he was made a grand officer of the Legion
+of Honour. Placed on the reserve list in 1869, he was recalled to the
+Marseilles command on the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870-71.
+After the first capture of Orleans by the Germans, he was appointed by
+the Government of National Defence, in November 1870, to the command of
+the Army of the Loire. He was at first very successful against von der
+Tann-Rathsamhausen, winning the battle of Coulmiers and compelling the
+Germans to evacuate Orleans, but the capitulation of Metz had set free
+additional German troops to oppose him, and, after his defeat at Beaune
+la Rolande and subsequent unsuccessful fighting near Orleans, resulting
+in its recapture by the Germans in December, Aurelle retreated into the
+Sologne and was superseded. After the armistice he was elected to the
+National Assembly by the departments both of Allier and Gironde. He sat
+for Allier and was one of the fifteen officers chosen to assist in the
+peace negotiations. He was decorated with the grand cross of the Legion
+of Honour, and was given the command at Bordeaux, but retired in 1872.
+Elected a life senator in 1875, he supported the monarchical majority of
+1876. He died at Versailles on the 17th of December 1877. He was the
+author of _La Premiere Armee de la Loire_, published in 1872.
+
+
+
+
+AUREOLA, AUREOLE (diminutive of Lat. _aura_, air), the radiance of
+luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages, is represented
+as surrounding the whole figure. In the earliest periods of Christian
+art this splendour was confined to the figures of the persons of the
+Godhead, but it was afterwards extended to the Virgin Mary and to
+several of the saints. The aureola, when enveloping the whole body, is
+generally oval or elliptical in form, but is occasionally circular or
+quatrefoil. When it is merely a luminous disk round the head, it is
+called specifically a _nimbus_, while the combination of nimbus and
+aureole is called a _glory_. The strict distinction between nimbus and
+aureole is not commonly maintained, and the latter term is most
+frequently used to denote the radiance round the heads of saints, angels
+or persons of the Godhead. The _nimbus_ in Christian art appeared first
+in the 5th century, but practically the same device was known still
+earlier, though its history is obscure, in non-Christian art. Thus
+(though earlier Indian and Bactrian coins do not show it) it is found
+with the gods on some of the coins of the Indian kings Kanishka,
+Huvishka and Vasudeva, 58 B.C. to A.D. 41 (Gardner's _Cat. of Coins of
+Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India_, Brit. Mus. 1886, plates
+26-29). And its use has been traced through the Egyptians to the Greeks
+and Romans, representations of Trajan (arch of Constantine) and
+Antoninus Pius (reverse of a medal) being found with it. In the circular
+form it constitutes a natural and even primitive use of the idea of a
+crown, modified by an equally simple idea of the emanation of light from
+the head of a superior being, or by the meteorological phenomenon of a
+halo. The probability is that all later associations with the symbol
+refer back to an early astrological origin (cf. MITHRAS), the person so
+glorified being identified with the sun and represented in the sun's
+image; so the aureole is the _Hvareno_ of Mazdaism. From this early
+astrological use the form of "glory" or "nimbus" has been adapted or
+inherited under new beliefs.
+
+
+
+
+AURICH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, chief
+town of the district of East Friesland, on the Ems-Jade canal, 18 m.
+N.W. from Emden by rail. Pop. (1900) 6013. It is built in the Dutch
+style, and lies in a sandy but fertile plain, surrounded by pleasant
+promenades which have taken the place of the old fortifications. It has
+a palace, formerly the residence of the counts of East Friesland and now
+used as government offices, a Roman Catholic and two Protestant
+churches, a gymnasium, and four libraries. There are breweries and
+small manufactories of paper and tobacco. Close by is the
+_Upstallsboom_, the hill of oath and liberty, where every year at
+Whitsuntide representatives of the seven Frisian coast lands assembled
+to deliberate.
+
+  See Wiarda, _Bruchstucke zur Geschichte der Stadt Aurich_ (Emden,
+  1835).
+
+
+
+
+AURICLE (from Lat. diminutive of _auris_, ear), the external ear in
+animals, or an analogous part in plants, &c. From a supposed resemblance
+to the ear of a dog, the term was applied to the upper cavities of the
+heart. The adjective "auricular" is more specially used in the phrase
+"auricular confession" (see CONFESSION), i.e. private.
+
+
+
+
+AURICULA (_Primula auricula_), an Alpine plant, which has been an inmate
+of British gardens for about three hundred years, and is still prized by
+florists as a favourite spring flower. It loves a cool soil and shady
+situation. The florists' varieties are grown in rich composts, for the
+preparation of which numberless receipts have been given; but many of
+the old nostrums are now exploded, and a more rational treatment has
+taken their place. Thus Mr Douglas writes (_Hardy Florists' Flowers_):--
+
+  "There is no mystery, as some suppose, about the potting, any more
+  than there is about the potting material. The compost should consist
+  of turfy loam four parts, leaf-mould one part, sharp river or silver
+  sand one part, and a few bits of broken charcoal mixed with it. The
+  pots to be used should be from 3 to 4-1/2 in. in diameter, inside
+  measure; about 1 in. of potsherds should be placed in the bottom of
+  each pot, and over this some fibrous turf, from which the fine
+  particles of earth have been removed. The old soil should be shaken
+  from the roots of the plants to be potted; and before potting cut off,
+  if necessary, a portion of the main root. In potting press the soil
+  rather firmly around the roots."
+
+Auriculas are best grown in a cold frame mounted on legs about 2 ft.
+from the ground, and provided with hinged sashes. A graduated stage
+formed of wood battens 6 in. broad, with a rise of 2 in., should be
+fixed so as to take each one row of pots, with the plants standing at
+about 15 in. from the glass; the spaces between the shelves should be
+closed, while the top board of the back and the front should be hinged
+so as to be let down when desired for ventilation, the sashes, too,
+being movable for the same purpose, and also to afford facilities for
+examining and attending to the plants. This frame should face the north
+from May to October, and south in winter. No protection will be needed
+except in very severe frosts, when two or three thicknesses of garden
+mats may be thrown over the glass, and allowed to remain on until the
+soil is thawed, should it become frozen.
+
+Auriculas may be propagated from seed, which is to be sown as soon as
+ripe, in July or August, in boxes, kept under cover, and exposed only to
+the rays of the morning sun. When seed has been saved from the finer
+sorts, the operation is one of considerable nicety, as it not
+unfrequently happens that the best seedlings are at first exceedingly
+weak. They generally flower in the second or third year, a few good
+sorts being all that can be expected from a large sowing. The
+established varieties are increased by taking off the offshoots, an
+operation performed at the time of potting in July or the beginning of
+August. But some varieties are very shy in producing offsets.
+
+The original of the auricula is a hardy perennial herb, of dwarf habit,
+bearing dull yellowish blossoms. This and the commoner forms raised from
+seed, as well as one or two double forms, are interesting hardy border
+flowers. The choice florists' varieties are divided into five
+classes:--the _green-edged_, with the margins of the flowers green; the
+_grey-edged_, with the green margins powdered with meal so as to appear
+to be coloured grey; the _white-edged_, with the mealy powder so dense
+as to cover the green; the _selfs_, which have none of the green
+variegation of margin seen in the foregoing, but are of some distinct
+colour, as purple, maroon, &c., but have, like the preceding, a white
+paste surrounding the eye; and the _alpines_, which resemble the selfs
+in not having any green marginal variegation, but differ in having a
+yellow centre more or less dense. The individual flowers of the first
+three groups of florists' auriculas show four distinct circles:--first
+the eye or tube, which should have the stamens lying in it, but
+sometimes has the pin-headed stigma instead, which is a defect; second,
+the paste or circle of pure white surrounding the eye; third, the body
+colour, a circle of some dark tint, as maroon or violet, which feathers
+out more or less towards the edge, but is the more perfect the less it
+is so feathered, and is quite faulty if it breaks through to the outer
+circle; fourth, the margin, which is green or grey or white. These
+circles should be about equal in width and clearly defined, and the
+nearer they are to this standard the more perfect is the flower. In the
+group of selfs the conditions are the same, except that there is no
+margin, and consequently the body colour, which should be uniform in
+tone, extends to the edge. In the alpines there should be no paste or
+white surrounding the eye, but this space should be either golden-yellow
+or creamy-yellow, which makes two subdivisions in this group; and the
+body colour is more or less distinctly shaded, the edges being of a
+paler hue. There is besides a group of laced alpines, in which a
+distinct and regular border of colour surrounds each of the marginal
+lobes.
+
+The following is a selection of the best varieties cultivated in 1909:--
+
+  _Green-edged._--Abbe Liszt, Abraham Barker, Shirley Hibberd, Prince
+  Charming, Mrs Henwood.
+
+  _Grey-edged._--Amy Robsart, George Lightbody, Marmion, Olympus, George
+  Rudd, Richard Headly.
+
+  _White-edged._--Acme, Conservative, Heather Bell, Mrs Dodson, Rachel,
+  Smiling Beauty.
+
+  _Selfs._--Andrew Miller, Gerald, Mikado, Mrs Phillips, Mrs Potts,
+  Harrison Weir.
+
+  _Alpines._--Argus, Dean Hole, Duke of York, Firefly, Flora Mclvor, Mrs
+  Douglas, Mrs Markham, Perfection, Phyllis, Rosy Morn, The Bride,
+  Teviotdale.
+
+
+
+
+AURIFABER (the latinized form of Goldschmidt), a surname borne by three
+prominent men of the Reformation period in Germany.
+
+1. ANDREAS (1514-1559) was a physician of some repute, but through his
+influence with Albert of Brandenburg, last grand-master of the Teutonic
+order, and first Protestant duke of Prussia, became an outstanding
+figure in the controversy associated with Andreas Osiander (q.v.) whose
+daughter he had married.
+
+2. JOANNES (Vratislaviensis; 1517-1568), the younger brother of Andreas,
+was born at Breslau on the 30th of January 1517, and educated at
+Wittenberg, where he formed a close and lasting friendship with
+Melanchthon. After graduating in 1538 he spent twelve years as _docent_
+at the university, and having then received his doctorate of divinity,
+was appointed professor of divinity and pastor of the church of St
+Nicholas at Rostock. He distinguished himself by his conciliatory
+disposition, earned the special confidence of Duke John Albert of
+Mecklenburg, and took a leading part in 1552 in drawing up the
+constitution of the Mecklenburg church. He also settled some religious
+disputes in the town of Lubeck. In 1553 Duke Albert of Prussia, anxious
+to heal the differences in the Prussian church caused by the discussion
+of Osiander's doctrines, invited him to Konigsberg, and in the following
+year appointed him professor of divinity and president of the Samland
+diocese. Joannes, however, found it impossible to conciliate all
+parties, and in 1565 returned to Breslau, where, in 1567, he became
+pastor in the church of St Elizabeth and inspector of the Lutheran
+churches and schools. He died on the 19th of October 1568.
+
+3. JOANNES (Vinariensis; 1519-1575), was born in the county of Mansfeldt
+in 1519. He studied at Wittenberg where he heard the lectures of Luther,
+and afterwards became tutor to Count Mansfeldt. In the war of 1544-45 he
+accompanied the army as field-preacher, and then lived with Luther as
+his _famulus_ or private secretary, being present at his death in 1546.
+In the following year he spent six months in prison with John Frederick,
+elector of Saxony, who had been captured by the emperor, Charles V. He
+held for some years the office of court-preacher at Weimar, but owing to
+theological disputes was compelled to resign this office in 1561. In
+1566 he was appointed to the Lutheran church at Erfurt, and there
+remained till his death in November 1575. Besides taking a share in the
+first collected or Jena edition of Luther's works (1556), Aurifaber
+sought out and published at Eisleben in 1564-1565 several writings not
+included in that edition. He also published Luther's _Letters_ (1556,
+1565), and _Table Talk_ (1566). This popular work, which has given him
+most of his fame, is unfortunately but a second or third hand
+compilation.
+
+  See G. Kawerau's art. in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk. fur prot.
+  Theologie_, and the literature there cited.
+
+
+
+
+AURIGA (the "charioteer" or "waggoner"), in astronomy, a constellation
+of the northern hemisphere, found in the catalogues of Eudoxus (4th
+century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). It was symbolized by the
+Greeks as an old man in a more or less sitting posture, with a goat and
+her kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right. The ancient Greeks
+associated this constellation with many myths. Some assume it to be
+Erichthonius, son of Athena and Hephaestus, who was translated to the
+skies by Zeus on account of his invention of chariots or coaches. Others
+assume it to be Myrtilus, a son of Hermes and Clytic, and charioteer to
+Oenomaus, who was placed in the heavens by Hermes. Another myth has it
+to be Olenus, a son of Hephaestus, and father of Aega and Helice, two
+nymphs who nursed Zeus. Ptolemy catalogued fourteen stars, Tycho Brahe
+twenty-seven, and Hevelius forty in this constellation. Interesting
+stars are: [alpha] _Aurigae_ or _Capella_ (the goat), one of the
+brightest stars in the heavens, determined by Newall and Campbell to be
+a spectroscopic binary; [beta] _Aurigae_, a star of the second magnitude
+also a spectroscopic binary; [epsilon] _Aurigae_, an irregularly
+variable star; and _Nova Aurigae_, a "new" star discovered by Anderson
+in 1892, and afterwards found on a photographic plate exposed at Harvard
+in December 1891. Several fine star clusters also appear in this
+constellation.
+
+
+
+
+AURILLAC, a town of central France, capital of the department of Cantal,
+140 m. N.N.E. of Toulouse, on the Orleans railway between Figeac and
+Murat. Pop. (1906) 14,097. Aurillac stands on the right bank of the
+Jordanne, and is dominated from the north-west by the Roc Castanet,
+crowned by the castle of St Etienne, the keep of which dates from the
+11th century. Its streets are narrow and uninteresting, with the
+exception of one which contains, among other old houses, that known as
+the Maison des Consuls, a Gothic building of the 16th century, decorated
+with sculptured stone-work. Aurillac owes its origin to an abbey founded
+in the 9th century by St Geraud, and the abbey-church, rebuilt in the
+17th century in the Gothic style, is the chief building in the town. The
+former college, which dates from the 17th century, is now occupied by a
+museum and a library. There is a statue of Pope Silvester II., born near
+Aurillac in 930 and educated in the abbey, which soon afterwards became
+one of the most famous schools of France. Aurillac is the seat of a
+prefect, and its public institutions include tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycee, training-colleges and a
+branch of the Bank of France. The chief manufactures are wooden shoes
+and umbrellas, and there is trade in cheese and in the cattle and horses
+reared in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+AURISPA, GIOVANNI (c. 1370-1459), one of the learned Italians of the
+15th century, who did so much to promote the revival of the study of
+Greek in Italy, was born at Noto in Sicily. In 1418 he visited
+Constantinople, where he remained for some years, perfecting his
+knowledge of Greek and searching for ancient MSS. His efforts were
+rewarded by the acquisition of some 250 MSS., with which he returned to
+Venice. Here he is said to have been obliged to pawn his treasures for
+50 gold florins to provide for his immediate wants. Cosimo de' Medici,
+hearing of his embarrassment, redeemed the MSS. and summoned the owner
+to Florence. In 1438, at the council of Basel, Aurispa attracted the
+attention of Pope Eugenius IV., who made him his secretary; he held a
+similar position under Nicholas V., who presented him to two lucrative
+abbacies. He died at Ferrara. Considering his long life and reputation
+Aurispa produced little: Latin translations of the commentary of
+Hierocles on the golden verses of Pythagoras (1474) and of _Philisci
+Consolatoria ad Ciceronem_ from Dio Cassius (not published till 1510);
+and, according to Gesner, a translation of the works of Archimedes.
+Aurispa's reputation rests upon the extensive collection of MSS. copied
+and distributed by him, and his persistent efforts to revive and promote
+the study of ancient literature.
+
+
+
+
+AUROCHS (from Lat. _urus_, the wild ox, and "ox") or URUS, the name of
+the extinct wild ox of Europe (_Bos taurus primigenius_), which after
+the disappearance of that animal became transferred to the bison.
+According to the German Freiherr von Herberstein (1486-1566), in his
+_Moscovia_, of which an Italian translation was published at Venice in
+1550, the aurochs survived in Poland (and probably also in Hungary)
+during the latter middle ages. In this work appear woodcuts--rude but
+characteristic and unmistakable--of two distinct types of European wild
+cattle; one the aurochs, or ur, and the other the bison. As Herberstein
+had travelled in Poland, it is probable that he had seen both species
+alive, and the drawings were most likely executed under his own
+direction. It has indeed been suggested that the figure of the aurochs
+was taken from a domesticated ox, but this is a mistaken idea. Not the
+least important feature of the work of Herberstein is the application of
+the name aurochs to the wild ox, as distinct from the bison. The
+locality where aurochs survived in Herberstein's time was the forest of
+Jaktozowka, situated about 55 kilometres west-south-west of Warsaw, in
+the provinces of Bolemow and Sochaczew. From other evidence it appears
+that the last aurochs was killed in this forest in the year 1627.
+Herberstein describes the colour of the aurochs as black, and this is
+confirmed by another old picture of the animal. Gesner's figure of the
+aurochs, or as he calls it "thur," given in the _Icones_ to his _History
+of Animals_, was probably adapted from Herberstein's. It may be added
+that an ancient gold goblet depicts the hunting and taming of the wild
+aurochs.
+
+As a wild animal, then, the aurochs appears to have ceased to exist in
+the early part of the 17th century; but as a species it survives, for
+the majority of the domesticated breeds of European cattle are its
+descendants, all diminished in point of size, and some departing more
+widely from the original type than others. Aurochs' calves were in all
+probability captured by the early inhabitants of Britain and the
+continent and tamed; and from these, with perhaps an occasional blending
+of wild blood, are descended most European breeds of cattle.
+
+Much misconception, however, has prevailed as to which breeds are the
+nearest to the ancestral wild stock. At one time this position was
+supposed to be occupied by the white half-wild cattle of Chillingham and
+other British parks. These white breeds are, however, partial albinos;
+and such semi-albinos are always the result of domestication and could
+not have arisen in the wild state. Moreover, park-cattle display
+evidence of their descent from dark-coloured breeds by the retention of
+red or black ears and brown or black muzzles. In the Chillingham cattle
+the ears are generally red, although sometimes black, and the muzzle is
+brown; while in the breed at Cadzow Chase Lanarkshire, both ears and
+muzzle are black, and there are usually flecks of black on the head and
+forequarters. It is further significant that, in the Chillingham herd,
+dark-coloured calves, which are weeded out, make their appearance from
+time to time.
+
+A very ancient British breed is the black Pembroke; and when this breed
+tends to albinism, the ears and muzzle, and more rarely the fetlocks,
+remain completely black, or very dark grey, although the colour
+elsewhere is whitish, more or less flecked and blotched with pale grey.
+In the shape and curvature of the horns, which at first incline outwards
+and forwards, and then bend somewhat upwards and inwards, this breed of
+cattle resembles the aurochs and the (by comparison) dwarfed
+park-breeds. Moreover, in both the Pembroke and the park-breeds the
+horns are light-coloured with black tips.
+
+Evidence as to the affinity between these breeds is afforded by the fact
+that a breed of cattle very similar to that at Chillingham was found in
+Wales in the 10th century; these cattle being white with red ears.
+Individuals of this race survived till at least 1850 in Pembroke, where
+they were at one time kept perfectly pure as a part of the regular
+farm-stock. Until a period comparatively recent, they were relatively
+numerous, and were driven in droves to the pasturages of the Severn and
+the neighbouring markets. Their whole essential characters are the same
+as those of the cattle at Chillingham. Their horns are white, tipped
+with black, and extended and turned upwards in the manner distinctive of
+the park-breed. The inside of the ears and the muzzle are black, and the
+feet are black to the fetlock joint. The skin is unctuous and of a
+deep-toned yellow colour. Individuals of the race were sometimes born
+entirely black, and then were not to be distinguished from the common
+Pembroke cattle of the mountains.
+
+It is thus evident that park-cattle are an albino offshoot from the
+ancient Pembroke black breed, which, from their soft and well-oiled
+skins, are evidently natives of a humid climate, such as that of the
+forests in which dwelt the wild aurochs. This disposes of a theory that
+they are descendants of a white sacrificial breed introduced into
+Britain by the ancient Romans.
+
+The Pembroke and park-cattle are, however, by no means the sole
+descendants of the aurochs, the black Spanish fighting-bulls claiming a
+similar descent. This breed shows a light-coloured line along the spine,
+which was characteristic of the aurochs. It has also been suggested that
+the Swiss Siemental cattle are nearly related to the aurochs. The latter
+was a gigantic animal, especially during the Pleistocene period; the
+skulls and limb-bones discovered in the brick-earths and gravels of the
+Thames valley and many other parts of England having belonged to animals
+that probably stood six feet at the shoulder.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+AURORA (perhaps through a form _ausosa_ from Sansk. _ush_, to burn; the
+common idea of "brightness" suggests a connexion with _aurum_, gold),
+the Roman goddess of the dawn, corresponding to the Greek goddess Eos.
+According to Hesiod (_Theog_. 271) she was the daughter of the Titan
+Hyperion and Thea (or Euryphassa), and sister of Helios and Selene. By
+the Titan Astraeus, she was the mother of the winds Zephyrus, Notus and
+Boreas, of Hesperus and the stars. Homer represents her as rising every
+morning from the couch of Tithonus (by whom she was the mother of
+Emathion and Memnon), and drawn out of the east in a chariot by the
+horses Lampus and Phaethon to carry light to gods and men (_Odyssey_,
+xxiii. 253); in Homer, she abandons her course when the sun is fully
+risen (or at the latest at mid-day, _Iliad_, ix. 66), but in later
+literature she accompanies the sun all day and thus becomes the goddess
+of the daylight. From the roseate shafts of light which herald the dawn,
+she bears in Homer the epithet "rosy-fingered." The conception of a
+dawn-goddess is common in primitive religions, especially in the Vedic
+mythology, where the deity Usas is closely parallel to the Greco-Roman;
+see Paul Regnaud, _Le Rig-Veda_ in _Annales du musee Guimet_, vol. i. c.
+6 (Paris, 1892). She is also represented as the lover of the hunter
+Orion (_Odyssey_, v. 121), the representative of the constellation that
+disappears at the flush of dawn, and the youthful hunter Cephalus, by
+whom she was the mother of Phaethon (Apollodorus iii. 14. 3). In works
+of art, Eos is represented as a young woman, fully clothed, walking fast
+with a youth in her arms; or rising from the sea in a chariot drawn by
+winged horses; sometimes, as the goddess who dispenses the dews of the
+morning, she has a pitcher in each hand. In the fresco-painting by Guido
+Reni in the Rospigliosi palace at Rome, Aurora is represented strewing
+flowers before the chariot of the sun. Metaphorically the word Aurora
+was used (e.g. Virg. _Aen_. viii. 686, vii. 606) for the East generally.
+
+
+
+
+AURORA, a city of Kane county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the
+state, on the Fox river, about 37 m. W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 19,688;
+(1900) 24,147, of whom 5075 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,807. Aurora is
+served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western,
+the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern, and the Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota
+railways, and is connected with Chicago by an electric line. The city
+has a soldiers' memorial hall, erected by popular subscription, and a
+Carnegie library. Aurora is an important manufacturing centre; among its
+manufactures are railway cars--the shops of the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy railway being here--flour and cotton, carriages, hardware
+specialties, corsets, suspenders, stoves and silver-plate. In 1905 the
+city's factory products were valued at $7,329,028, an increase of 30% in
+5 years. The municipality owns and operates the water-works and
+electric-lighting plants. The first settlement in the vicinity of Aurora
+was made in 1834. In 1845 the village of East Aurora was incorporated,
+and West Aurora was incorporated nine years later. In 1853 the two
+villages were united under a city charter, which was superseded by a
+revised charter in 1887.
+
+
+
+
+AURORA, a city of Lawrence county, Missouri, U.S.A., 275 m. S.W. of St
+Louis, on the St Louis & San Francisco, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain
+& Southern railways. Pop.(1890) 3482; (1900) 6191; (1910) 4148. It is
+situated near a lead and zinc mining region, where surface lead was
+discovered in 1873 and systematic mining began in 1887; among the cities
+of the state it is second to Joplin in mineral importance, and has large
+iron-works and flour-mills; mining machinery also is manufactured.
+Farming and fruit-growing are carried on in the surrounding country, and
+Aurora is the place from which the products are shipped. Aurora was
+platted in 1870 and was chartered as a city in 1886.
+
+
+
+
+AURORA, a village of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A., on Cayuga Lake, 16
+m. S.W. of Auburn. Pop. (1905) 623; (1910) 493. It is served by the
+Lehigh Valley railway. Aurora is a beautiful place and a popular summer
+resort, but it is best known as the seat of Wells College, a
+non-sectarian college for women, founded in 1868 by Henry Wells
+(1805-1878), of the Wells Fargo Express Company, and liberally endowed
+by Edwin B. Morgan (1806-1881), also connected with the same company,
+and by others. At Aurora are also the Somes school (a preparatory school
+for boys), founded in 1798 and until 1904 known as the Cayuga Lake
+Academy, and the Wells school (a preparatory school for girls). The
+village has a public library. Aurora was settled in 1789 chiefly by
+residents of New England, and was incorporated in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+AURORA POLARIS (_Aurora Borealis_ and _Australis_, Polar Light, Northern
+Lights), a natural phenomenon which occurs in many forms, some of great
+beauty.
+
+1. _Forms._--Various schemes of classification have been proposed, but
+none has met with universal acceptance; the following are at least the
+principal types. (1) _Arcs._ These most commonly resemble segments of
+circles, but are not infrequently elliptical or irregular in outline.
+The ends of arcs frequently extend to the horizon, but often one or both
+ends stop short of this. Several arcs may be visible at the same time.
+Usually the under or concave edge of the arc is the more clearly
+defined, and adjacent to it the sky often seems darker than elsewhere.
+It is rather a disputed point whether this dark segment--through which
+starlight has been seen to pass--represents a real atmospheric condition
+or is merely a contrast effect. (2) _Bands._ These may be nearly
+straight and regular in outline, as if broken portions of arcs;
+frequently they are ribbon-like serpentine forms showing numerous
+sinuosities. (3) _Rays._ Frequently an arc or band is visibly composed
+of innumerable short rays separated by distinctly less luminous
+intervals. These rays are more or less perpendicular to the arc or band;
+sometimes they are very approximately parallel to one another, on other
+occasions they converge towards a point. Longer rays often show an
+independent existence. Not infrequently rays extend from the upper edge
+of an arc towards the zenith. Combinations of rays sometimes resemble a
+luminous fan, or a series of fans, or part of a hollow luminous
+cylinder. Rays often alter suddenly in length, seeming to stretch down
+towards the horizon or mount towards the zenith. This accounts for the
+description of aurora as "Merry Dancers." (4) _Curtains or Draperies._
+This form is rare except in Arctic regions, where it is sometimes fairly
+frequent. It is one of the most imposing forms. As a rule the higher
+portion is visibly made up of rays, the light tending to become more
+continuous towards the lower edge; the combination suggests a connected
+whole, like a curtain whose alternate portions are in light and shade.
+The curtain often shows several conspicuous folds, and the lower edge
+often resembles frilled drapery. At several stations in Greenland
+auroral curtains have been observed when passing right overhead to
+narrow to a thin luminous streak, exactly as a vertical sheet of light
+would seem to do to one passing underneath it. (5) _Corona_. A fully
+developed corona is perhaps the finest form of aurora. As the name
+implies, there is a sort of crown of light surrounding a comparatively
+or wholly dark centre. Farther from the centre the ray structure is
+usually prominent. The rays may lie very close together, or may be
+widely separated from one another. (6) _Patches_. During some displays,
+auroral light appears in irregular areas or patches, which sometimes
+bear a very close resemblance to illuminated detached clouds. (7)
+_Diffused Aurora_. Sometimes a large part of the sky shows a diffuse
+illumination, which, though brighter in some parts than others,
+possesses no definite outlines. How far the different forms indicate
+real difference in the nature of the phenomenon, and how far they are
+determined by the position of the observer, it is difficult to say. Not
+infrequently several different forms are visible at the same time.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+2. _Isochasms._--Aurora is seldom observed in low latitudes. In the
+southern hemisphere there is comparatively little inhabited land in high
+latitudes and observational data are few; thus little is known as to how
+the frequency varies with latitude and longitude. Even in the northern
+hemisphere there are large areas in the Arctic about which little is
+known. H. Fritz (2) has, however, drawn a series of curves which are
+believed to give a good general idea of the relative frequency of aurora
+throughout the northern hemisphere. Fritz' curves, shown in the
+illustration, are termed isochasms, from the Greek word employed by
+Aristotle to denote aurora. Points on the same curve are supposed to
+have the same average number of auroras in the year, and this average
+number is shown adjacent to the curve. Starting from the equator and
+travelling northwards we find in the extreme south of Spain an average
+of only one aurora in ten years. In the north of France the average
+rises to five a year; in the north of Ireland to thirty a year; a little
+to the north of the Shetlands to one hundred a year. Between the
+Shetlands and Iceland we cross the curve of maximum frequency, and
+farther north the frequency diminishes. The curve of maximum frequency
+forms a slightly irregular oval, whose centre, the auroral pole, is
+according to Fritz at about 81 deg. N. lat., 70 deg. W. long. Isochasms
+reach a good deal farther south in America than in Europe. In other
+words, auroras are much more numerous in the southern parts of Canada
+and in the United States than in the same latitudes of Europe.
+
+3. _Annual Variation._--Table I. shows the annual variation observed in
+the frequency of aurora. It has been compiled from several authorities,
+especially Joseph Lovering (4) and Sophus Tromholt (5). The monthly
+figures denote the percentages of the total number seen in the year. The
+stations are arranged in order of latitude. Individual places are first
+considered, then a few large areas.
+
+The Godthaab data in Table I. are essentially those given by Prof. A.
+Paulsen (6) as observed by Kleinschmidt in the winters of 1865 to 1882,
+supplemented by Lovering's data for summer. Starting at the extreme
+north, we have a simple period with a well-marked maximum at midwinter,
+and no auroras during several months at midsummer. This applies to
+Hammerfest, Jakobshavn, Godthaab and the most northern division of
+Scandinavia. The next division of Scandinavia shows a transition stage.
+To the south of this in Europe the single maximum at mid-winter is
+replaced by two maxima, somewhere about the equinoxes.
+
+  4. In considering what is the real significance of the great
+  difference apparent in Table I. between higher and middle latitudes, a
+  primary consideration is that aurora is seldom seen until the sun is
+  some degrees below the horizon. There is no reason to suppose that the
+  physical causes whose effects we see as aurora are in existence only
+  when aurora is visible. Until means are devised for detecting aurora
+  during bright sunshine, our knowledge as to the hour at which these
+  causes are most frequently or most powerfully in operation must remain
+  incomplete. But it can hardly be doubted that the differences apparent
+  in Table I. are largely due to the influence of sunlight. In high
+  latitudes for several months in summer it is never dark, and
+  consequently a total absence of visible aurora is practically
+  inevitable. Some idea of this influence can be derived from figures
+  obtained by the Swedish International Expedition of 1882-1883 at Cape
+  Thorsden, Spitsbergen, lat. 78 deg. 28' N. (7). The original gives the
+  relative frequency of aurora for each degree of depression of the sun
+  below the horizon, assuming the effect of twilight to be nil (i.e. the
+  relative frequency to be 100) when the depression is 18.5 deg. or more.
+  The following are a selection of the figures:--
+
+    Angle of depression  4.5 deg.  7.5 deg.  10.5 deg.  12.5 deg.  15.5 deg.
+    Relative frequency   0.3       9.3       44.9       74.5       95.9.
+
+  These figures are not wholly free from uncertainties, arising from
+  true diurnal and annual variations in the frequency, but they give a
+  good general idea of the influence of twilight.
+
+  If sunlight and twilight were the sole cause of the apparent annual
+  variation, the frequency would have a simple period, with a maximum at
+  midwinter and a minimum at midsummer. This is what is actually shown
+  by the most northern stations and districts in Table I. When we come,
+  however, below 65 deg. lat. in Europe the frequency near the equinoxes
+  rises above that at midwinter, and we have a distinct double period,
+  with a principal minimum at midsummer and a secondary minimum at
+  midwinter. In southern Europe--where, however, auroras are too few to
+  give smooth results in a limited number of years--in southern Canada,
+  and in the United States, the difference between the winter and summer
+  months is much reduced. Whether there is any real difference between
+  high and mean latitudes in the annual frequency of the causes rendered
+  visible by aurora, it is difficult to say. The Scandinavian data, from
+  the wealth of observations, are probably the most representative, and
+  even in the most northern district of Scandinavia the smallness of the
+  excess of the frequencies in December and January over those in March
+  and October suggests that some influence tending to create maxima at
+  the equinoxes has largely counterbalanced the influence of sunlight
+  and twilight in reducing the frequency at these seasons.
+
+  5. _Fourier Analysis._--With a view to more minute examination, the
+  annual frequency can be expressed in Fourier series, whose terms
+  represent waves, whose periods are 12, 6, 4, 3, &c. months. This has
+  been done by Lovering (4) for thirty-five stations. The nature of the
+  results will best be explained by reference to the formula given by
+  Lovering as a mean from all the stations considered, viz.:--
+
+    8.33 + 3.03 sin(30t + 100 deg. 52') + 2.53 sin(60t + 309 deg. 5')
+         + 0.16 sin(90t + 213 deg. 31') + 0.56 sin(120t + 162 deg. 45')
+         + 0.27 sin(150t + 32 deg. 38').
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+    FIG. 1--TWO TYPES OF AURORAL ARCS.
+
+    FIG. 2--TWO TYPES OF AURORAL RAYS.
+
+    (From the _Internationale Polarforschung_, 1882-1883, by permission
+    of the _Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, Vienna.)]
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+    FIG. 3--AURORAL BANDS.
+
+    FIG. 4--AURORAL CURTAIN BELOW AN ARC.
+
+    FIG. 5.--AURORAL CORONA.]
+
+
+    TABLE I.--_Annual Frequency (Relative)._
+
+    +-----------------+--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |      Place.     |   Latitude.  | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May  | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
+    +-----------------+--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |                 |     deg.     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+    | Hammerfest      |     70-1/2   | 20.9 | 17.6 |  8.8 |  0   |  0   |  0   |  0   |  0   |  4.4 |  9.9 | 17.6 | 20.9 |
+    | Jakobshavn      |     69       | 14.6 | 13.0 |  9.2 |  .5  |  0   |  0   |  0   |  0   |  9.2 | 15.1 | 18.4 | 20.0 |
+    | Godthaab        |     64       | 15.5 | 12.4 |  9.7 |  4.9 |  0   |  0   |  0   |  1.2 |  8.7 | 13.3 | 17.0 | 17.4 |
+    | St Petersburg   |     60       |  6.5 |  9.1 | 16.8 | 13.8 |  3.5 |  1.2 |  1.4 |  5.9 | 13.8 | 13.1 |  7.6 |  7.3 |
+    | Christiania     |     60       |  8.6 | 11.4 | 14.0 | 11.2 |  0.6 |  0   |  0.2 |  6.5 | 14.6 | 12.2 | 10.3 | 10.3 |
+    | Upsala          |     60       |  8.4 | 12.9 | 14.9 |  7.4 |  0.7 |  0.2 |  0.4 |  7.1 | 12.4 | 14.3 | 10.7 | 10.7 |
+    | Stockholm       |     59       |  7.6 | 10.0 | 14.7 | 16.4    3.8 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  5.6 | 12.9 | 11.4 | 10.0 |  7.3 |
+    | Edinburgh       |     56       |  9.6 | 12.6 | 14.0 |  9.5 |  3.4 |  0.0 |  1.7 |  6.0 | 12.6 | 13.5 | 11.8 |  5.2 |
+    | Berlin          |     52-1/2   |  7.6 | 10.8 | 16.4 | 15.5 | 11.4 |  0.6 |  2.9 |  2.9 |  6.5 | 13.2 |  8.5 |  4.1 |
+    | London          |     51-1/2   |  8.6 | 10.5 | 10.2 | 10.7 |  4.0 |  1.1 |  1.9 |  5.6 | 14.5 | 16.9 |  9.6 |  6.4 |
+    | Quebec          |     47       |  3.6 | 14.8 |  8.3 | 14.2 |  4.1 |  5.9 |  7.7 |  5.9 | 11.2 | 12.4 |  7.7 |  4.1 |
+    | Toronto         |     43-1/2   |  5.4 |  9.5 |  8.7 | 11.8 |  9.0 |  6.2 |  8.0 |  6.4 |  8.5 | 11.1 |  8.7 |  6.7 |
+    | Cambridge, Mass.|     42-1/2   |  5.1 |  8.2 | 11.8 | 10.2 |  6.4 |  5.1 | 10.3 |  8.5 | 13.3 |  9.2 |  6.8 |  5.1 |
+    | New Haven, Conn.|    41-1/2    |  7.7 |  7.3 |  8.9 |  8.2 |  7.6 |  5.7 |  8.9 |  8.1 | 11.9 |  7.6 | 10.6 |  7.5 |
+    | Scandinavia     | N. of 68-1/2 | 16.4 | 13.8 | 14.8 |  1.6 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  0.4 |  7.8 | 15.1 | 14.4 | 15.7 |
+    |      "          | 68-1/2  to 65| 15.3 | 14.6 | 13.7 |  2.9 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  1.1 |  9.7 | 14.6 | 14.0 | 14.1 |
+    |      "          | 65 to 61-1/2 | 13.2 | 12.3 | 14.5 |  5.4 |  0.2 |  0.0 |  0.0 |  2.8 | 13.1 | 14.2 | 12.8 | 11.5 |
+    |      "          | 61-1/2  to 58|  9.5 | 11.2 | 13.5 | 10.9 |  1.3 |  0.1 |  0.4 |  5.7 | 13.6 | 13.8 | 10.4 |  9.6 |
+    |      "          |   S. of 58   |  8.2 | 11.9 | 12.6 | 13.3 |  1.5 |  0.1 |  0.6 |  4.9 | 14.9 | 13.5 | 10.3 |  8.2 |
+    | New York State  | 45 to 40-1/2 |  6.3 |  7.4 |  9.1 | 11.0 |  7.4 |  6.6 |  8.8 | 10.4 | 11.7 |  9.7 |  6.2 |  5.4 |
+    +-----------------+--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  The total number of auroras in the year is taken as 100, and t denotes
+  the time, in months, that has elapsed since the middle of January.
+  Putting t=0, 1, &c., in succession, we get the percentages of the
+  total number of auroras which occur in January, February, and so on.
+  The first periodic term has a period of twelve, the second of six
+  months, and similarly for the others. The first periodic term is
+  largest when t X 30 deg. + 100 deg. 52' = 450 deg. This makes t = 11.6
+  months after the middle of January, otherwise the 3rd of January,
+  approximately. The 6-month term has the earliest of its two equal
+  maxima about the 26th of March. These two are much the most important
+  of the periodic terms. The angles 100 deg. 52', 309 deg. 5', &c., are
+  known as the phase angles of the respective periodic terms, while
+  3.03, 2.53, &c., are the corresponding amplitudes. Table II. gives a
+  selection of Lovering's results. The stations are arranged according
+  to latitude.
+
+
+    TABLE II.
+
+    +----------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+    |                      | Annual Term. | 6-Month Term.| 4-Month Term.|
+    |       Station.       +-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
+    |                      |  Amp. |Phase.|  Amp. |Phase.|  Amp. |Phase.|
+    +----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
+    |                      |       | deg. |       | deg. |       | deg. |
+    | Jakobshavn           | 10.40 |  123 |  1.13 |  206 |  1.41 |  333 |
+    | Godthaab             |  8.21 |  111 |  1.54 |  316 |  0.64 |  335 |
+    | St Petersburg        |  2.81 |   96 |  5.99 |  309 |  0.57 |  208 |
+    | Christiania          |  4.83 |  116 |  4.99 |  317 |  0.76 |  189 |
+    | Upsala               |  5.41 |  119 |  4.57 |  322 |  0.86 |  296 |
+    | Stockholm            |  3.68 |   91 |  5.80 |  303 |  1.31 |  180 |
+    | Makerstown (Scotland)|  5.79 |  102 |  4.47 |  310 |  2.00 |  342 |
+    | Great Britain        |  3.87 |  126 |  4.24 |  287 |  0.40 |   73 |
+    | Toronto              |  0.18 |   12 |  2.13 |  260 |  0.52 |  305 |
+    | Cambridge, Mass.     |  1.02 |  262 |  2.84 |  339 |  1.28 |  253 |
+    | New Haven, Conn.     |  0.99 |  183 |  1.02 |  313 |  0.57 |  197 |
+    | New York State       |  1.34 |  264 |  2.29 |  325 |  0.54 |  157 |
+    +----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
+
+  Speaking generally, the annual term diminishes in importance as we
+  travel south. North of 55 deg. in Europe its phase angle seems fairly
+  constant, not differing very much from the value 110 deg. in
+  Lovering's general formula. The 6-month term is small, in the two most
+  northern stations, but south of 60 deg. N. lat. it is on the whole the
+  most important term. Excluding Jakobshavn, the phase angles in the
+  6-month term vary wonderfully little, and approach the value 309 deg.
+  in Lovering's general formula. North of lat. 50 deg. the 4-month term
+  is, as a rule, comparatively unimportant, but in the American stations
+  its relative importance is increased. The phase angle, however, varies
+  so much as to suggest that the term mainly represents local causes or
+  observational uncertainties. Lovering's general formula suggests that
+  the 4-month term is really less important than the 3-month term, but
+  he gives no data for the latter at individual stations.
+
+  6. Sunlight is not the only disturbing cause in estimates of auroral
+  frequency. An idea of the disturbing influence of cloud may be derived
+  from some interesting results from the Cape Thorsden (7) observations.
+  These show how the frequency of visible auroras diminished as cloud
+  increased from 0 (sky quite clear) to 10 (sky wholly overcast).
+
+  Grouping the results, we have:
+
+    Amount of cloud        0    1 to 3    4 to 6    7 to 9    10
+    Relative frequency   100      82        57        46       8
+
+  Out of a total of 1714 hours during which the sky was wholly overcast
+  the Swedish expedition saw auroras on 17, occurring on 14 separate
+  days, whereas 226 hours of aurora would have occurred out of an equal
+  number of hours with the sky quite clear. The figures being based on
+  only one season's observations are somewhat irregular. Smoothing them,
+  Carlheim-Gyllenskold gives f = 100' - 7.3c as the most probable linear
+  relation between c, the amount of cloud, and f, the frequency,
+  assuming the latter to be 100 when there is no cloud.
+
+7. _Diurnal Variation._--The apparent daily period at most stations is
+largely determined by the influence of daylight on the visibility. It is
+only during winter and in high latitudes that we can hope to ascertain
+anything directly as to the real diurnal variation of the causes whose
+influence is visible at night as aurora. Table III. gives particulars of
+the number of occasions when aurora was seen at each hour of the
+twenty-four during three expeditions in high latitudes when a special
+outlook was kept.
+
+The data under A refer to Cape Thorsden (78 deg. 28' N. lat., 15 deg.
+42' E. long.), those under B to Jan Mayen (8) (71 deg. 0' N. lat., 8
+deg. 28' W. long.), both for the winter of 1882-1883. The data under C
+are given by H. Arctowski (9) for the "Belgica" Expedition in 1898. They
+may be regarded as applying approximately to the mean position of the
+"Belgica," or 70-1/2 deg. S. lat., 86-1/2 deg. W. long. The method of
+counting frequencies was fairly alike, at least in the case of A and B,
+but in comparing the different stations the data should be regarded as
+relative rather than absolute. The Jan Mayen data refer really to
+Gottingen mean time, but this was only twenty-three minutes late on
+local time. In calculating the percentages of forenoon and afternoon
+occurrences half the entries under noon and midnight were assigned to
+each half of the day. Even at Cape Thorsden, the sun at midwinter is
+only 11 deg. below the horizon at noon, and its effect on the visibility
+is thus not wholly negligible. The influence of daylight is presumably
+the principal cause of the difference between the phenomena during
+November, December and January at Cape Thorsden and Jan Mayen, for in
+the equinoctial months the results from these two stations are closely
+similar. Whilst daylight is the principal cause of the diurnal
+inequality, it is not the only cause, otherwise there would be as many
+auroras in the morning (forenoon) as in the evening (afternoon). The
+number seen in the evening is, however, according to Table III.,
+considerably in excess at all seasons. Taking the whole winter, the
+percentage seen in the evening was the same for the "Belgica" as for Jan
+Mayen, i.e. for practically the same latitudes South and North. At Cape
+Thorsden from November to January there seems a distinct double period,
+with minima near noon and midnight. The other months at Cape Thorsden
+show a single maximum and minimum, the former before midnight. The same
+phenomenon appears at Jan Mayen especially in November, December and
+January, and it is the normal state of matters in temperate latitudes,
+where the frequency is usually greatest between 8 and 10 P.M. An excess
+of evening over morning occurrences is also the rule, and it is not
+infrequently more pronounced than in Table III. Thus at Tasiusak (65
+deg. 37' N. lat., 37 deg. 33' W. long.) the Danish Arctic Expedition
+(10) of 1904 found seventy-five out of every hundred occurrences to take
+place before midnight.
+
+
+  TABLE III.--_Diurnal Variation._
+
+  +-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+
+  |             |           |           |Feb., Mar.,|Sep. to Mar. (N. Lat.).|
+  |    Hour.    |    Dec.   |Nov. & Jan.|Sep. & Oct.|Mar. to Sep. (S. Lat.).|
+  |             +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+  |             |  A  |  B  |  A  |  B  |  A  |  B  |   A   |   B   |   C   |
+  +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+  |       1     |  14 |   7 |  14 |   8 |  27 |  23 |   55  |   38  |   24  |
+  |       2     |  10 |   6 |  15 |   6 |  20 |  25 |   45  |   37  |   23  |
+  |       3     |   9 |   4 |  15 |   5 |  15 |  21 |   39  |   30  |   10  |
+  |       4     |  10 |   5 |  21 |   7 |  14 |  18 |   45  |   30  |    4  |
+  |       5     |  13 |   5 |  20 |   3 |  10 |  10 |   43  |   18  |    2  |
+  |       6     |  11 |   3 |  15 |   4 |   2 |   3 |   28  |   10  |    1  |
+  |       7     |   9 |   2 |  13 |   3 |   1 |   2 |   23  |    7  |    0  |
+  |       8     |   5 |   1 |   6 |   1 |   0 |   0 |   11  |    2  |    0  |
+  |       9     |   7 |   2 |   9 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   16  |    2  |    0  |
+  |      10     |  10 |   0 |   5 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   15  |    0  |    0  |
+  |      11     |   9 |   0 |   6 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   15  |    0  |    0  |
+  |     Noon    |  10 |   0 |   4 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   14  |    0  |    0  |
+  |       1     |  10 |   0 |   6 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   16  |    0  |    0  |
+  |       2     |  14 |   0 |  10 |   0 |   0 |   0 |   24  |    0  |    0  |
+  |       3     |  18 |   1 |  20 |   3 |   0 |   0 |   38  |    4  |    0  |
+  |       4     |  16 |   7 |  19 |   7 |   1 |   1 |   36  |   15  |    0  |
+  |       5     |  12 |  11 |  22 |  10 |   5 |   2 |   39  |   23  |    3  |
+  |       6     |  14 |  10 |  21 |  16 |   8 |   5 |   43  |   31  |    3  |
+  |       7     |  16 |  13 |  23 |  16 |  20 |   9 |   59  |   38  |   14  |
+  |       8     |  15 |  12 |  22 |  18 |  24 |  24 |   61  |   54  |   25  |
+  |       9     |  14 |  15 |  18 |  17 |  27 |  28 |   59  |   60  |   31  |
+  |      10     |  12 |  15 |  19 |  15 |  31 |  25 |   62  |   55  |   29  |
+  |      11     |  10 |  12 |  18 |  17 |  33 |  26 |   61  |   55  |   26  |
+  |   Midnight  |   9 |   9 |  13 |  11 |  28 |  22 |   50  |   42  |   26  |
+  +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+  | Totals      | 277 | 140 | 354 | 167 | 266 | 244 |  897  |  551  |  221  |
+  +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+  |Percentages--|     |     |     |     |     |     |       |       |       |
+  | Forenoon    |  42 |  28 |  42 |  25 |  39 |  46 |   41  |   35  |   35  |
+  | Afternoon   |  58 |  72 |  58 |  75 |  61 |  54 |   59  |   65  |   65  |
+  +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  8. The preceding remarks relate to auroras as a whole; the different
+  forms differ considerably in their diurnal variation. Arcs, bands and,
+  generally speaking, the more regular and persistent forms, show their
+  greatest frequencies earlier in the night than rays or patches. Table
+  IV. shows the percentages of e. (evening) and m. (morning) occurrences
+  of the principal forms as recorded by the Arctic observers at Cape
+  Thorsden, Jan Mayen and Tasiusak.
+
+
+    TABLE IV.
+
+    +----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                |   Arcs.   |  Bands.   |   Rays.   |  Patches. |
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                |  e. |  m. |  e. |  m. |  e. |  m. |  e. |  m. |
+    |                +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Cape Thorsden. |  76 |  24 |  66 |  34 |  52 |  48 |  51 |  49 |
+    | Jan Mayen.     |  78 |  22 |  68 |  32 |  60 |  40 |  60 |  40 |
+    | Tasiusak       |  85 |  15 |  85 |  15 |  65 |  35 |  62 |  38 |
+    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  At Cape Thorsden diffused auroral light had percentages e. 65, m. 35,
+  practically identical with those for bands. At Tasiusak, 8 P.M. was
+  the hour of most frequent occurrence for arcs and bands, whereas
+  patches had their maximum frequency at 11 P.M. and rays at midnight.
+
+9. _Lunar and other Periods._--The action of moonlight necessarily gives
+rise to a true lunar period in the visibility of aurora. The extent to
+which it renders aurora invisible depends, however, so much on the
+natural brightness of the aurora--which depends on the time and the
+place--and on the sharpness of the outlook kept, that it is difficult to
+gauge it. Ekholm and Arrhenius (11) claim to have established the
+existence of a true tropical lunar period of 27-32 days, and also of a
+26-day period, or, as they make it, a 25.929-day period. A 26-day period
+has also been derived by J. Liznar (12), after an elaborate allowance
+for the disturbing effects of moonlight from the observations in
+1882-1883 at Bossekop, Fort Rae and Jan Mayen. Neither of these periods
+is universally conceded. The connexion between aurora and earth magnetic
+disturbances renders it practically certain that if a 26-day or similar
+period exists in the one phenomenon it exists also in the other, and of
+the two terrestrial magnetism (q.v.) is probably the element least
+affected by external complications, such as the action of moonlight.
+
+10. _Sun-spot Connexion._--The frequency of auroral displays is much
+greater in some years than others. At most places the variation in the
+frequency has shown a general similarity to that of sun-spots. Table V.
+gives contemporaneous data for the frequency of sun-spots and of auroras
+seen in Scandinavia. The sun-spot data prior to 1902 are from A.
+Wolfer's table in the _Met. Zeitschrift_ for 1902, p. 195; the more
+recent data are from his quarterly lists. All are observed frequencies,
+derived after Wolf's method; maxima and minima are in heavy type.
+
+The auroral data are from Table E of Tromholt's catalogue (5), with
+certain modifications. In Tromholt's yearly data the year commences with
+July. This being inconvenient for comparison with sun-spots, use was
+made of his monthly values to obtain corresponding data for years
+commencing with January. The Tromholt-Schroeter data for Scandinavia as
+a whole commenced with 1761; the figures for earlier years were obtained
+by multiplying the data for Sweden by 1.356, the factor being derived by
+comparing the figures for Sweden alone and for the whole of Scandinavia
+from July 1761 to June 1783.
+
+In a general way Table V. warrants the conclusion that years of many
+sun-spots are years of many auroras, and years of few sun-spots years of
+few auroras; but it does not disclose any very definite relationship
+between the two frequencies. The maxima and minima in the two phenomena
+in a good many cases are not found in the same years. On the other hand,
+there is absolute coincidence in a number of cases, some of them very
+striking, as for instance the remarkably low minima of 1810 and 1823.
+
+  11. During the period 1764 to 1872 there have been ten years of
+  maximum, and ten of minimum, in sun-spot frequency. Taking the three
+  years of greatest frequency at each maximum, and the three years of
+  least frequency at each minimum, we get thirty years of many and
+  thirty of few sun-spots. Also we can split the period into an earlier
+  half, 1764 to 1817, and a later half, 1818 to 1872, containing
+  respectively the earlier five and the later five of the above groups
+  of sun-spot maximum and minimum years. The annual means derived from
+  the whole group, and the two sub-groups, of years of many and few
+  sun-spots are as follows:--
+
+    +-----------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
+    |                 |     1764-1872.   |    1764-1817.    |    1818-1872.    |
+    |    Years of     +--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+    |                 | Spots. | Auroras.| Spots. | Auroras.| Spots. | Auroras.|
+    +-----------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+    | Many sun-spots. |  93.4  |   99.9  |  86.7  |   70.7  | 100.1  |  129.1  |
+    | Few     "       |  13.4  |   61.5  |  13.6  |   51.6  |  13.1  |   71.3  |
+    +-----------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+
+  In each case the excess of auroras in the group of years of many
+  sun-spots is decided, but the results from the two sub-periods do not
+  harmonize closely. The mean sun-spot frequency for the group of years
+  of few sun-spots is almost exactly the same for the two sub-periods,
+  but the auroral frequency for the later group is nearly 40% in excess
+  of that for the earlier, and even exceeds the auroral frequency in
+  the years of many sun-spots in the earlier sub-period. This
+  inconsistency, though startling at first sight, is probably more
+  apparent than real. It is almost certainly due in large measure to a
+  progressive change in one or both of the units of frequency. In the
+  case of sun-spots, A. Schuster (13) has compared J.R. Wolf and A.
+  Wolfer's frequencies with data obtained by other observers for areas
+  of sun-spots, and his figures show unquestionably that the unit in one
+  or other set of data must have varied appreciably from time to time.
+  Wolf and Wolfer have, however, aimed persistently at securing a
+  definite standard, and there are several reasons for believing that
+  the change of unit has been in the auroral rather than the sun-spot
+  frequency. R. Rubenson (14), from whom Tromholt derives his data for
+  Sweden, seems to accept this view, assigning the apparent increase in
+  auroral frequency since 1860 to the institution by the state of
+  meteorological stations in 1859, and to the increased interest taken
+  in the subject since 1865 by the university of Upsala. The figures
+  themselves in Table V. certainly point to this conclusion, unless we
+  are prepared to believe that auroras have increased enormously in
+  number. If, for instance, we compare the first and the last three
+  11-year cycles for which Table V. gives complete data, we obtain as
+  yearly means:--
+
+    1749-1781    Sun-spots 56.4   Auroras  77.5
+    1844-1876        "     55.8      "    112.2
+
+  The mean sun-spot frequencies in the two periods differ by only 1%,
+  but the auroral frequency in the later period is 45% in excess of that
+  in the earlier.
+
+  The above figures would be almost conclusive if it were not for the
+  conspicuous differences that exist between the mean sun-spot
+  frequencies for different 11-year periods. Schuster, who has
+  considered the matter very fully, has found evidence of the existence
+  of other periods--notably 8.4 and 4.8 years--in addition to the
+  recognized period of 11.125 years, and he regards the difference
+  between the maxima in successive 11-year periods as due at least
+  partly to an overlapping of maxima from the several periodic terms.
+  This cannot, however, account for all the fluctuations observed in
+  sun-spot frequencies, unless other considerably longer periods exist.
+  There has been at least one 33-year period during which the mean value
+  of sun-spot frequency has been exceptionally low, and, as we shall
+  see, there was a corresponding remarkable scarcity of auroras. The
+  period in question may be regarded as extending from 1794 to 1826
+  inclusive. Comparing it with the two adjacent periods of thirty-three
+  years, we obtain the following for the mean annual frequencies:--
+
+    +-----------------+------------+----------+
+    | 33-Year Period. | Sun-spots. | Auroras. |
+    +-----------------+------------+----------+
+    |    1761-1793    |    65.6    |   76.1   |
+    |    1794-1826    |    20.3    |   39.5   |
+    |    1827-1859    |    56.1    |   84.4   |
+    +-----------------+------------+----------+
+
+  12. The association of high auroral and sun-spot frequencies shown in
+  Table V. is not peculiar to Scandinavia. It is shown, for instance, in
+  Loomis's auroral data, which are based on observations at a variety of
+  European and American stations (_Ency. Brit._ 9th ed. art.
+  METEOROLOGY, Table XXVIII.). It does not seem, however, to apply
+  universally. Thus at Godthaab we have, according to Adam Paulsen (15),
+  comparing 3-year periods of few and many sun-spots:--
+
+    +----------------+----------------+--------------+
+    | 3-Year Period. | Total Sun-spot | Total Nights |
+    |                |   Frequency.   |  of Aurora.  |
+    +----------------+----------------+--------------+
+    |   1865-1868    |       48       |     274      |
+    |   1869-1872    |      339       |     138      |
+    |   1876-1879    |       23       |     273      |
+    +----------------+----------------+--------------+
+
+  The years start in the autumn, and 1865-1868 includes the three
+  winters of 1865 to '66, '66 to '67, and '67 to '68. Paulsen also gives
+  data from two other stations in Greenland, viz. Ivigtut (1869 to 1879)
+  and Jakobshavn (1873 to 1879), which show the same phenomenon as at
+  Godthaab in a prominent fashion. Greenland lies to the north of
+  Fritz's curve of maximum auroral frequency, and the suggestion has
+  been made that the zone of maximum frequency expands to the south as
+  sun-spots increase, and contracts again as they diminish, the number
+  of auroras at a given station increasing or diminishing as the zone of
+  maximum frequency approaches to or recedes from it. This theory,
+  however, does not seem to fit all the facts and stands in want of
+  confirmation.
+
+
+    TABLE V.
+
+    +-------+----------------------++-------+----------------------+
+    |       |      Frequency.      ||       |      Frequency.      |
+    | Year. +----------------------++ Year. +----------------------+
+    |       | Sun-spot. | Auroral. ||       | Sun-spot. | Auroral. |
+    +-------+-----------+----------++-------+-----------+----------+
+    | 1749  |   80.9    |    103   || 1829  |   67.0    |     93   |
+    | 1750  |   83.4    |    134   || 1830  |   71.0    |    132   |
+    | 1751  |   47.7    |     53   || 1831  |   47.8    |     89   |
+    | 1752  |   47.8    |    111   || 1832  |   27.5    |     54   |
+    | 1753  |   30.7    |     96   || 1833  |    8.5    |     79   |
+    | 1754  |   12.2    |     65   || 1834  |   13.2    |     81   |
+    | 1755  |    9.6    |     34   || 1835  |   56.9    |     58   |
+    | 1756  |   10.2    |     60   || 1836  |  121.5    |     98   |
+    | 1757  |   32.4    |     83   || 1837  |  138.3    |    137   |
+    | 1758  |   47.6    |     80   || 1838  |  103.2    |    159   |
+    | 1759  |   54.0    |    113   || 1839  |   85.8    |    165   |
+    | 1760  |   62.9    |     86   || 1840  |   63.2    |     82   |
+    | 1761  |   85.9    |    124   || 1841  |   36.8    |     75   |
+    | 1762  |   61.2    |    114   || 1842  |   24.2    |     91   |
+    | 1763  |   45.1    |     89   || 1843  |   10.7    |     66   |
+    | 1764  |   36.4    |    107   || 1844  |   15.0    |     81   |
+    | 1765  |   20.9    |     76   || 1845  |   40.1    |     26   |
+    | 1766  |   11.4    |     51   || 1846  |   61.5    |     50   |
+    | 1767  |   37.8    |     68   || 1847  |   98.5    |     63   |
+    | 1768  |   69.8    |     80   || 1848  |  124.3    |    107   |
+    | 1769  |  106.1    |     89   || 1849  |   95.9    |    131   |
+    | 1770  |  100.8    |     83   || 1850  |   66.5    |     95   |
+    | 1771  |   81.6    |     62   || 1851  |   64.5    |     60   |
+    | 1772  |   66.5    |     38   || 1852  |   54.2    |     92   |
+    | 1773  |   34.8    |     58   || 1853  |   39.0    |     65   |
+    | 1774  |   30.6    |     98   || 1854  |   20.6    |     64   |
+    | 1775  |    7.0    |     33   || 1855  |    6.7    |     49   |
+    | 1776  |   19.8    |     17   || 1856  |    4.3    |     46   |
+    | 1777  |   92.5    |     64   || 1857  |   22.8    |     38   |
+    | 1778  |  154.4    |     59   || 1858  |   54.8    |     88   |
+    | 1779  |  125.9    |     60   || 1859  |   93.8    |    131   |
+    | 1780  |   84.8    |     67   || 1860  |   95.7    |    119   |
+    | 1781  |   68.1    |    103   || 1861  |   77.2    |    127   |
+    | 1782  |   38.5    |     67   || 1862  |   59.1    |    135   |
+    | 1783  |   22.8    |     70   || 1863  |   44.0    |    135   |
+    | 1784  |   10.2    |     78   || 1864  |   47.0    |    124   |
+    | 1785  |   24.1    |     83   || 1865  |   30.5    |    119   |
+    | 1786  |   82.9    |    136   || 1866  |   16.3    |    130   |
+    | 1787  |  132.0    |    115   || 1867  |    7.3    |    127   |
+    | 1788  |  130.9    |     97   || 1868  |   37.3    |    144   |
+    | 1789  |  118.1    |     89   || 1869  |   73.9    |    160   |
+    | 1790  |   89.9    |     90   || 1870  |  139.1    |    195   |
+    | 1791  |   66.6    |     54   || 1871  |  111.2    |    185   |
+    | 1792  |   60.0    |     64   || 1872  |  101.7    |    200   |
+    | 1793  |   46.9    |     29   || 1873  |   66.3    |    189   |
+    | 1794  |   41.0    |     37   || 1874  |   44.7    |    158   |
+    | 1795  |   21.3    |     34   || 1875  |   17.1    |    133   |
+    | 1796  |   16.0    |     37   || 1876  |   11.3    |    137   |
+    | 1797  |    6.4    |     61   || 1877  |   12.3    |    126   |
+    | 1798  |    4.1    |     35   || 1878  |    3.4    |    ..    |
+    | 1799  |    6.8    |     28   || 1879  |    6.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1800  |   14.5    |     30   || 1880  |   32.3    |    ..    |
+    | 1801  |   34.0    |     34   || 1881  |   54.3    |    ..    |
+    | 1802  |   45.0    |     65   || 1882  |   59.7    |    ..    |
+    | 1803  |   43.1    |     73   || 1883  |   63.7    |    ..    |
+    | 1804  |   47.5    |    101   || 1884  |   63.5    |    ..    |
+    | 1805  |   42.2    |     85   || 1885  |   52.2    |    ..    |
+    | 1806  |   28.1    |     62   || 1886  |   25.4    |    ..    |
+    | 1807  |   10.1    |     42   || 1887  |   13.1    |    ..    |
+    | 1808  |    8.1    |     20   || 1888  |    6.8    |    ..    |
+    | 1809  |    2.5    |     20   || 1889  |    6.3    |    ..    |
+    | 1810  |    0.0    |      4   || 1890  |    7.1    |    ..    |
+    | 1811  |    1.4    |     13   || 1891  |   35.6    |    ..    |
+    | 1812  |    5.0    |     11   || 1892  |   73.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1813  |   12.2    |     18   || 1893  |   84.9    |    ..    |
+    | 1814  |   13.9    |     17   || 1894  |   78.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1815  |   35.4    |     10   || 1895  |   64.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1816  |   45.8    |     33   || 1896  |   41.8    |    ..    |
+    | 1817  |   41.1    |     60   || 1897  |   26.2    |    ..    |
+    | 1818  |   30.4    |     74   || 1898  |   26.7    |    ..    |
+    | 1819  |   23.9    |     43   || 1899  |   12.1    |    ..    |
+    | 1820  |   15.7    |     62   || 1900  |    9.5    |    ..    |
+    | 1821  |    6.6    |     37   || 1901  |    2.7    |    ..    |
+    | 1822  |    4.0    |     33   || 1902  |    5.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1823  |    1.8    |     13   || 1903  |   24.4    |    ..    |
+    | 1824  |    8.5    |     14   || 1904  |   42.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1825  |   16.6    |     40   || 1905  |   62.8    |    ..    |
+    | 1826  |   36.3    |     58   || 1906  |   53.8    |    ..    |
+    | 1827  |   49.7    |     79   || 1907  |   62.0    |    ..    |
+    | 1828  |   62.5    |     60   || 1908  |   48.5    |    ..    |
+    +-------+-----------+----------++-------+-----------+----------+
+
+13. _Auroral Meridian._--It is a common belief that the summit of an
+auroral arc is to be looked for in the observer's magnetic meridian. On
+any theory it would be rather extraordinary if this were invariably
+true. In temperate latitudes auroral arcs are seldom near the zenith,
+and there is reason to believe them at very great heights. In high
+latitudes the average height is probably less, but the direction in
+which the magnetic needle points changes rapidly with change of
+latitude and longitude, and has a large diurnal variation. Thus there
+must in general be a difference between the observer's magnetic
+meridian--answering to the mean position of the magnetic needle at his
+station--and the direction the needle would have at a given hour, if
+undisturbed by the aurora, at any spot where the phenomena which the
+observer sees as aurora exist.
+
+  Very elaborate observations have been made during several Arctic
+  expeditions of the azimuths of the summits of auroral arcs. At Cape
+  Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth derived from 371 arcs was
+  24 deg. 12' W., or 11 deg. 27' to the W. of the magnetic meridian. As
+  to the azimuths in individual cases, 130 differed from the mean by
+  less than 10 deg., 118 by from 10 deg. to 20 deg., 82 by from 20 deg.
+  to 30 deg., 21 by from 30 deg. to 40 deg., 14 by from 40 deg. to 50
+  deg.; in six cases the departure exceeded 50 deg., and in one case it
+  exceeded 70 deg. Also, whilst the mean azimuths deduced from the
+  observations between 6 A.M. and noon, between noon and 6 P.M., and
+  between 6 P.M. and midnight, were closely alike, their united mean
+  being 22.4 deg. W. of N. (or E. of S.), the mean derived from the 113
+  arcs observed between midnight and 6 A.M. was 47.8 deg. W. At Jan
+  Mayen (8) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth of the summit of the arcs was
+  28.8 deg. W. of N., thus approaching much more closely to the magnetic
+  meridian 29.9 deg. W. As to individual azimuths, 113 lay within 10
+  deg. of the mean, 37 differed by from 10 deg. to 20 deg., 18 by from
+  20 deg. to 30 deg., 6 by from 30 deg. to 40 deg., whilst 6 differed by
+  over 40 deg. Azimuths were also measured at Jan Mayen for 338 auroral
+  bands, the mean being 22.0 deg. W., or 7.9 deg. to the east of the
+  magnetic meridian. Combining the results from arcs and bands,
+  Carlheim-Gyllenskold gives the "anomaly" of the auroral meridian at
+  Jan Mayen as 5.7 deg. E. At the British Polar station of 1882, Fort
+  Rae (62 deg. 23' N. lat., 115 deg. 44' W. long.), he makes it 15.7
+  deg. W. At Godthaab in 1882-1883 the auroral anomaly was, according to
+  Paulsen, 15.5 deg. E., the magnetic meridian lying 57.6 deg. W. of the
+  astronomical.
+
+14. _Auroral Zenith._--Another auroral direction having apparently a
+close relation to terrestrial magnetism is the imaginary line drawn to
+the eye of an observer from the centre of the corona--i.e. the point to
+which the auroral rays converge. This seems in general to be nearly
+coincident with the direction of the dipping needle.
+
+  Thus at Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 the mean of a considerable
+  number of observations made the angle between the two directions only
+  1 deg. 7', the magnetic inclination being 80 deg. 35', whilst the
+  coronal centre had an altitude of 79 deg. 55' and lay somewhat to the
+  west of the magnetic meridian. Even smaller mean values have been
+  found for the angle between the auroral and magnetic "zeniths"--as the
+  two directions have been called--e.g. 0 deg. 50' at Bossekop (16) in
+  1838-1839, and 0 deg. 7' at Treurenberg (17) (79 deg. 55' N. lat., 16
+  deg. 51' E. long.) in 1899-1900.
+
+15. _Relations to Magnetic Storms._--That there is an intimate connexion
+between aurora when visible in temperate latitudes and terrestrial
+magnetism is hardly open to doubt. A bright aurora visible over a large
+part of Europe seems always accompanied by a magnetic storm and earth
+currents, and the largest magnetic storms and the most conspicuous
+auroral displays have occurred simultaneously. Noteworthy examples are
+afforded by the auroras and magnetic storms of August 28-29 and
+September 1-2, 1859; February 4, 1872; February 13-14 and August 12,
+1892; September 9, 1898; and October 31, 1903. On some of these
+occasions aurora was brilliant in both the northern and southern
+hemispheres, whilst magnetic disturbances were experienced the whole
+world over. In high latitudes, however, where both auroras and magnetic
+storms are most numerous, the connexion between them is much less
+uniform. Arctic observers, both Danish and British, have repeatedly
+reported displays of aurora unaccompanied by any special magnetic
+disturbance. This has been more especially the case when the auroral
+light has been of a diffused character, showing only minor variability.
+When there has been much apparent movement, and brilliant changes of
+colour in the aurora, magnetic disturbance has nearly always accompanied
+it. In the Arctic, auroral displays seem sometimes to be very local, and
+this may be the explanation. On the other hand, Arctic observers have
+reported an apparent connexion of a particularly definite character.
+According to Paulsen (18), during the Ryder expedition in 1891-1892, the
+following phenomenon was seen at least twenty times by Lieut. Vedel at
+Scoresby Sound (70 deg. 27' N. lat., 26 deg. 10' W. long.). An auroral
+curtain travelling with considerable velocity would approach from the
+south, pass right overhead and retire to the north. As the curtain
+approached, the compass needle always deviated to the west, oscillated
+as the curtain passed the zenith, and then deviated to the east. The
+behaviour of the needle, as Paulsen points out, is exactly what it
+should be if the space occupied by the auroral curtain were traversed by
+electric currents directed upwards from the ground. The Danish observers
+at Tasiusak (10) in 1898-1899 observed this phenomenon occasionally in a
+slightly altered form. At Tasiusak the auroral curtain after reaching
+the zenith usually retired in the direction from which it had come. The
+direction in which the compass needle deviated was west or east,
+according as the curtain approached from the south or the north; as the
+curtain retired the deviation eventually diminished.
+
+  Kr. Birkeland (19). who has made a special study of magnetic
+  disturbances in the Arctic, proceeding on the hypothesis that they
+  arise from electric currents in the atmosphere, and who has thence
+  attempted to deduce the position and intensity of these currents,
+  asserts that whilst in the case of many storms the data were
+  insufficient, when it was possible to fix the position of the mean
+  line of flow of the hypothetical current relatively to an auroral arc,
+  he invariably found the directions coincident or nearly so.
+
+16. In the northern hemisphere to the south of the zone of greatest
+frequency, the part of the sky in which aurora most generally appears is
+the magnetic north. In higher latitudes auroras are most often seen in
+the south. The relative frequency in the two positions seems to vary
+with the hour, the type of aurora, probably with the season of the year,
+and possibly with the position of the year in the sun-spot cycle.
+
+  At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882-1883, out of 177 arcs whose position was
+  accurately determined, 44 were seen in the north, their summits
+  averaging 38.5 deg. above the northern horizon; 88 were seen in the
+  south, their average altitude above the southern horizon being 33.5
+  deg.; while 45 were in the zenith. At Tasiusak (10) in 1898-1899 the
+  magnetic directions of the principal types were noted separately. The
+  results are given in Table VI.
+
+
+  TABLE VI.
+
+  +--------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
+  | Direc- |        Absolute Number for each Type.        | Percentage |
+  |  tion. +-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+  from all  |
+  |        | Arcs. | Bands. | Curtains. | Rays. | Patches.|   Types.   |
+  +--------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+------------+
+  |   N.   |   9   |   16   |     5     |  15   |    4    |     10     |
+  |  N.E.  |   9   |   13   |     2     |  20   |    4    |      9     |
+  |   E.   |   3   |   11   |     2     |  26   |    3    |      9     |
+  |  S.E.  |   5   |    6   |     1     |  10   |    7    |      6     |
+  |   S.   |  45   |   43   |     1     |  16   |   15    |     24     |
+  |  S.W.  |   9   |    9   |     2     |  12   |   13    |      9     |
+  |   W.   |   3   |   11   |     2     |  22   |    6    |      9     |
+  |  N.W.  |   2   |    8   |     2     |   8   |    5    |      5     |
+  +--------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+------------+
+
+Table VI. accounts for only 81% of the total displays; of the remainder
+15% appeared in the zenith, while 4% covered the whole sky. Auroral
+displays generally cover a considerable area, and are constantly
+changing, so the figures are necessarily somewhat rough. But clearly,
+whilst the arcs and bands, and to a lesser extent the patches, showed a
+marked preference for the magnetic meridian, the rays showed no such
+preference.
+
+  At Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 auroras as a whole were divided into
+  those seen in the north and those seen in the south. The variation
+  throughout the twenty-four hours in the percentage seen in the south
+  was as follows:--
+
+    +--------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |  Hour. | 0-3. | 3-6. | 6-9. | 9-12. |
+    +--------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |  A.M.  |  69  |  55  |  44  |   35  |
+    |  P.M.  |  55  |  70  |  65  |   65  |
+    +--------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+  The mean from the whole twenty-four hours is sixty-three. Between 3
+  A.M. and 3 P.M. the percentage of auroras seen in the south thus
+  appears decidedly below the mean.
+
+  17. The following data for the apparent angular width of arcs were
+  obtained at Cape Thorsden, the arcs being grouped according to the
+  height of the lower edge above the horizon. Group I. contained thirty
+  arcs whose altitudes did not exceed 11 deg. 45'; Group II. thirty arcs
+  whose altitudes lay between 12 deg. and 35 deg.; and Group III, thirty
+  arcs whose altitudes lay between 36 deg. and 80 deg.
+
+    +-----------------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |      Group.     |    I.    |    II.   |   III.   |
+    +-----------------+----------+----------+----------+
+    | Greatest width  |11.5 deg. |12.0 deg. | 21.0 deg.|
+    | Least      "    | 1.0 deg. | 0.75 deg.|  2.0 deg.|
+    | Mean       "    | 3.45 deg.| 4.6 deg. |  6.9 deg.|
+    +-----------------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  There is here a distinct tendency for the width to increase with the
+  altitude. At the same time, arcs near the horizon often appeared wider
+  than others near the zenith. Furthermore, Gyllenskold says that when
+  arcs mounted, as they not infrequently did, from the horizon, their
+  apparent width might go on increasing right up to the zenith, or it
+  might increase until an altitude of about 45 deg. was reached and then
+  diminish, appearing much reduced when the zenith was reached. Of
+  course the phenomenon might be due to actual change in the arc, but it
+  is at least consistent with the view that arcs are of two kinds, one
+  form constituting a layer of no great vertical depth but considerable
+  real horizontal width, the other form having little horizontal width
+  but considerable vertical depth, and resembling to some extent an
+  auroral curtain.
+
+  18. According to numerous observations made at Cape Thorsden, the
+  apparent angular velocity of arcs increases on the average with their
+  altitude. Dividing the whole number of arcs, 156, whose angular
+  velocities were measured into three numerically equal groups,
+  according to their altitude, the following were the results in minutes
+  of arc per second of time (or degrees per minute of time):--
+
+    +-------------------+---------+---------+----------+------+
+    |      Group.       |    I.   |    II.  |   III.   | All. |
+    +-------------------+---------+---------+----------+------+
+    | Mean altitude     |10.5 deg.|34.6 deg.| 72.3 deg.|  ..  |
+    | Greatest velocity | 4.81    | 15.12   |109.09    |  ..  |
+    | Mean velocity     | 0.48    | 2.42    |  8.67    | 3.86 |
+    +-------------------+---------+---------+----------+------+
+
+  Each group contained auroras which appeared stationary. The intervals
+  to which the velocities referred were usually from five to ten
+  minutes, but varied widely. The velocity 109.09 was much the largest
+  observed, the next being 52.38; both were from observations lasting
+  under half a minute.
+
+  19. In 1882-1883 the direction of motion of arcs was from north to
+  south in 62% of the cases at Jan Mayen, and in 58% of the cases at
+  Cape Thorsden. This seems the more common direction in the northern
+  hemisphere, at least for stations to the south of the zone of maximum
+  frequency, but a considerable preponderance of movements towards the
+  north was observed in Franz Joseph Land by the Austrian Expedition of
+  1872-1874. The apparent motion of arcs is sometimes of a complicated
+  character. One end only, for example, may appear to move, as if
+  rotating round the other; or the two ends may move in opposite
+  directions, as if the arc were rotating about a vertical axis through
+  its summit.
+
+20. _Height._--If an auroral arc represented a definite self-luminous
+portion of space of small transverse dimensions at a uniform height
+above the ground, its height could be accurately determined by
+observations made with theodolites at the two ends of a measured base,
+provided the base were not too short compared to the height. If a very
+long base is taken, it becomes increasingly open to doubt whether the
+portions of space emitting auroral light to the observers at the two
+ends are the same. There is also difficulty in ensuring that the
+observations shall be simultaneous, an important matter especially when
+the apparent velocity is considerable. If the base is short, definite
+results can hardly be hoped for unless the height is very moderate.
+Amongst the best-known theodolite determinations of height are those
+made at Bossekop in Norway by the French Expedition of 1838-1839 (16)
+and the Norwegian Expedition of 1882-1883, and those made in the latter
+year by the Swedes at Cape Thorsden and the Danes at Godthaab. At
+Bossekop and Cape Thorsden there were a considerable proportion of
+negative or impossible parallaxes. Much the most consistent results were
+those obtained at Godthaab by Paulsen (15). The base was 5.8 km. (about
+3-1/2 miles) long, the ends being in the same magnetic meridian, on
+opposite sides of a fiord, and observations were confined to this
+meridian, strict simultaneity being secured by signals. Heights were
+calculated only when the observed parallax exceeded 1 deg., but this
+happened in three-fourths of the cases. The calculated heights--all
+referring to the lowest border of the aurora--varied from 0.6 to 67.8
+km. (about 0.4 to 42 m.), the average being about 20 km. (12 m.).
+Regular arcs were selected in most cases, but the lowest height obtained
+was for a collection of rays forming a curtain which was actually
+situated between the two stations.
+
+  In 1885 Messrs Garde and Eherlin made similar observations at
+  Nanortalik near Cape Farewell in Greenland, but using a base of only
+  1250 metres (about 3/4 m.). Their results were very similar to
+  Paulsen's. On one occasion twelve observations, extending over half an
+  hour, were made on a single arc, the calculated heights varying in a
+  fairly regular fashion from 1.6 to 12.9 km. (about 1 to 8 m.). The
+  calculated horizontal distances of this arc varied between 5 and 24
+  km. (about 3 and 15 m.), the motion being sometimes towards, sometimes
+  away from the observers, but not apparently exceeding 3 km. (nearly 2
+  m.) per minute. Heights of arcs have often been calculated from the
+  apparent altitudes at stations widely apart in Europe or America. The
+  heights calculated in this way for the under surface of the arc, have
+  usually exceeded 100 m.; some have been much in excess of this figure.
+  None of the results so obtained can be accepted without reserve, but
+  there are several reasons for believing that the average height in
+  Greenland is much below that in lower latitudes. Heights have been
+  calculated in various less direct ways, by observing for instance the
+  angular altitude of the summit of an arc and the angular interval
+  between its extremities, and then making some assumption such as that
+  the portion visible to an observer may be treated as a circle whose
+  centre lies over the so-called auroral pole. The mean height
+  calculated at Arctic stations, where careful observations have been
+  made, in this or analogous ways, has varied from 58 km. (about 36 m.)
+  at Cape Thorsden (Gyllenskold) to 227 km. (about 141 m.) at Bossekop
+  (Bravais). The height has also been calculated on the hypothesis that
+  auroral light has its source where the atmospheric pressure is similar
+  to that at which most brilliancy is observed when electric discharges
+  pass in vacuum tubes. Estimates on this basis have suggested heights
+  of the order of 50 km. (about 31 m.). There are, of course, many
+  uncertainties, as the conditions of discharge in the free atmosphere
+  may differ widely from those in glass vessels. If the Godthaab
+  observations can be trusted, auroral discharges must often occur
+  within a few miles of the earth's surface in Arctic regions. In
+  confirmation of this view reference may be made to a number of
+  instances where observers--e.g. General Sabine, Sir John Franklin,
+  Prof. Selim Lemstrom, Dr David Walker (at Fort Kennedy in 1858-1859),
+  Captain Parry (Fort Bowen, 1825) and others--have seen aurora below
+  the clouds or between themselves and mountains. One or two instances
+  of this kind have even been described in Scotland. Prof. Cleveland
+  Abbe (20) has given a full historical account of the subject to which
+  reference may be made for further details.
+
+  21. _Brightness._--In auroral displays the brightness often varies
+  greatly over the illuminated area and changes rapidly. Estimates of
+  the intensity of the light have been based on various arbitrary
+  scales, such for instance as the size of type which the observer can
+  read at a given distance. The estimate depends in the case of reading
+  type on the general illumination. In other cases scales have been
+  employed which make the result mainly depend on the brightest part of
+  the display. At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882-1883 a scale was employed
+  running from 1, taken as corresponding to the brightness of the milky
+  way, to 4, corresponding to full moonlight. The following is an
+  analysis of the results obtained, showing the number of times the
+  different grades were reached:--
+
+    +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+
+    |  Scale of  |  1.  |  2.  |  3.  |  4.  |    Mean    |
+    | Intensity. |      |      |      |      | Intensity. |
+    +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+
+    | Arcs       |  27  |  53  |  13  |   1  |    1.87    |
+    | Bands      |  46  |  83  |  49  |  22  |    2.24    |
+    | Rays       |  30  | 116  | 138  |  28  |    2.21    |
+    | Corona     |   3  |  14  |  12  |  12  |    2.81    |
+    +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+
+
+  On one or two occasions at Jan Mayen auroral light is described as
+  making the full moon look like an ordinary gas jet in presence of
+  electric light, whilst rays could be seen crossing and brighter than
+  the moon's disk. Such extremely bright auroras seem very rare,
+  however, even in the Arctic. There is a general tendency for both
+  bands and rays to appear brightest at their lowest parts; arcs seldom
+  appear as bright at their summits as nearer the horizon. It is not
+  unusual for arcs and bands to look as if pulses or waves of light were
+  travelling along them; also the direction in which these pulses travel
+  does not seem to be wholly arbitrary. Movements to the east were twice
+  as numerous at Jan Mayen and thrice as numerous at Traurenberg as
+  movements to the west. In some cases changes of intensity take place
+  round the auroral zenith, simulating the effect that would be produced
+  by a cyclonic rotation of luminous matter. In the case of isolated
+  patches the intensity often waxes and wanes as if a search-light were
+  being thrown on and turned off.
+
+22. _Colour._--The ordinary colour of aurora is white, usually with a
+distinct yellow tint in the brighter forms, but silvery white when the
+light is faint. When the light is intense and changing rapidly, red is
+not infrequently present, especially towards the lower edge. Under these
+circumstances, green is also sometimes visible, especially towards the
+zenith. Thus a bright auroral ray may seem red towards the foot and
+green at its summit, with yellow intervening. In some cases the green
+may be only a contrast effect. Other colours, e.g. violet, have
+occasionally been noticed but are unusual.
+
+23. _Spectrum._--The spectrum of aurora consists of a number of lines.
+Numerous measurements have been made of the wave-lengths of the
+brightest. One line, in the yellow green, is so dominant optically as
+often to be described as the auroral line. Its wave-length is probably
+very near 5571 tenth-metres, and it is very close to, if not absolutely
+coincident with, a prominent line in the spectrum of krypton. This line
+is so characteristic that its presence or absence is the usual criterion
+for deciding whether an atmospheric light is aurora. The Swedish
+Expedition (17) of 1899-1902, engaged in measuring an arc of the meridian
+in Spitsbergen, were unusually well provided spectrographically, and
+succeeded in taking photographs of aurora in conjunction with artificial
+lines--chiefly of hydrogen--which led to results claiming exceptional
+accuracy. In the spectrograms three auroral rays--including the principal
+one mentioned above--were pre-eminent. For the two shorter wave-lengths,
+for whose measurement he claims the highest precision, the observer, J.
+Westman, gives the values 4276.4 and 3913.5. In addition, he assigns
+wave-lengths for 156 other auroral lines between wave-lengths 5205 and
+3513. The following table gives the wave-lengths of the photographically
+brightest of these, retaining four significant figures in place of
+Westman's five.
+
+
+  TABLE VII.
+
+  +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |  4830  |  4489  |  4329  |  3997  |  3861  |
+  |  4709  |  4420  |  4242  |  3986  |  3804  |
+  |  4699  |  4371  |  4230  |  3947  |  3793  |
+  |  4661  |  4356  |  4225  |  3937  |  3704  |
+  |  4560  |  4344  |  4078  |  3880  |  3607  |
+  |  4550  |  4337  |  4067  |  3876  |  3589  |
+  +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+There are a number of optically bright lines of longer wave-length. For
+the principal of these Angot (1) gives the following wave-lengths (unit
+1 [mu][mu] or 1 X 10^(-9) metre):--630, 578, 566, 535, 523, 500.
+
+Out of a total of 146 auroral lines, with wave-lengths longer than 3684
+tenth-metres, Westman identifies 82 with oxygen or nitrogen lines at the
+negative pole in vacuum discharges. Amongst the lines thus identified
+are the two principal auroral lines having wave-lengths 4276.4 and
+3913.5. The interval considered by Westman contains at least 300 oxygen
+and nitrogen lines, so that approximate coincidence with a number of
+auroral lines was almost inevitable, and an appreciable number of the
+coincidences may be accidental. E.C.C. Baly (21), making use of the
+observations of the Russian expedition in Spitsbergen in 1899, accepts
+as the wave-lengths of the three principal auroral lines 5570, 4276 and
+3912; and he identifies all three and ten other auroral lines ranging
+between 5570 and 3707 with krypton lines measured by himself. In
+addition to these, he mentions other auroral lines as very probably
+krypton lines, but in their case the wave-lengths which he quotes from
+Paulsen (22) are given to only three significant figures, so that the
+identification is more uncertain. The majority of the krypton lines
+which Baly identifies with auroral lines require for their production a
+Leyden jar and spark gap.
+
+  If, as is now generally believed, aurora represents some form of
+  electrical discharge, it is only reasonable to suppose that the
+  auroral lines arise from atmospheric gases. The conditions, however,
+  as regards pressure and temperature under which the hypothetical
+  discharges take place must vary greatly in different auroras, or even
+  sometimes in different parts of the same aurora. Further, auroras are
+  often possessed of rapid motion, so that conceivably spectral lines
+  may receive small displacements in accordance with Doppler's
+  principle. Thus the differences in the wave-lengths of presumably the
+  same lines as measured by different Arctic observers may be only
+  partly due to unfavourable observational conditions. Many of the
+  auroral lines seen in any single aurora are exceedingly faint, so that
+  even their relative positions are difficult to settle with high
+  precision.
+
+  24. Whether or not auroral displays are ever accompanied by a
+  characteristic sound is a disputed question. If sound waves originate
+  at the seat of auroral displays they seem hardly likely to be audible
+  on the earth, unless the aurora comes very low and great stillness
+  prevails. It is thus to the Arctic one looks for evidence. According
+  to Captain H.P. Dawson (26), in charge of the British Polar Station at
+  Fort Rae in 1882-1883, "The Indians and _voyageurs_ of the Hudson Bay
+  Company, who often pass their nights in the open, say that it [sound]
+  is not uncommon ... there can be no doubt that distinct sound does
+  occasionally accompany certain displays of aurora." On the one
+  occasion when Captain Dawson says he heard it himself, "the sound was
+  like the swishing of a whip or the noise produced by a sharp squall of
+  wind in the upper rigging of a ship, and as the aurora brightened and
+  faded so did the sound which accompanied it." If under these
+  conditions the sound was really due to the aurora, the latter, as
+  Captain Dawson himself remarks, must have been pretty close.
+
+  25. Usually the electric potential near the ground is positive
+  compared to the earth and increases with the height (see ATMOSPHERIC
+  ELECTRICITY). Several Arctic observers, however, especially Paulsen
+  (18) have observed a diminution of positive potential, or even a
+  change to negative, for which they could suggest no explanation except
+  the presence of a bright aurora. Other Arctic observers have failed to
+  find any trace of this phenomenon. If it exists, it is presumably
+  confined to cases when the auroral discharge comes unusually low.
+
+  26. _Artificial Phenomena resembling Aurora._--At Sodankyla, the
+  station occupied by the Finnish Arctic Expedition of 1882-1883, Selim
+  Lemstrom and Biese (23) described and gave drawings of optical
+  phenomena which they believed to be artificially produced aurora. A
+  number of metallic points, supported on insulators, were connected by
+  wires enclosing several hundred square metres on the top of a hill.
+  Sometimes a Holtz machine was employed, but even without it
+  illumination resembling aurora was seen on several occasions,
+  extending apparently to a considerable height. In the laboratory, Kr.
+  Birkeland (19) has produced phenomena bearing a striking resemblance
+  to several forms of aurora. His apparatus consists of a vacuum vessel
+  containing a magnetic sphere--intended to represent the earth--and the
+  phenomena are produced by sending electric discharges through the
+  vessel.
+
+  27. _Theories._--A great variety of theories have been advanced to
+  account for aurora. All or nearly all the most recent regard it as
+  some form of electrical discharge. Birkeland (19) supposes the
+  ultimate cause to be cathode rays emanating from the sun; C. Nordmann
+  (24) replaces the cathode rays by Hertzian waves; while Svante
+  Arrhenius (25) believes that negatively charged particles are driven
+  through the sun's atmosphere by the Maxwell-Bartoli repulsion of light
+  and reach the earth's atmosphere. For the size and density of
+  particles which he considers most likely, Arrhenius calculates the
+  time required to travel from the sun as forty-six hours. By modifying
+  the hypothesis as to the size and density, times appreciably longer or
+  shorter than the above would be obtained. Cathode rays usually have a
+  velocity about a tenth that of light, but in exceptional cases it may
+  approach a third of that of light. Hertzian waves have the velocity of
+  light itself. On either Birkeland's or Nordmann's theory, the electric
+  impulse from the sun acts indirectly by creating secondary cathode
+  rays in the earth's atmosphere, or ionizing it so that discharges due
+  to natural differences of potential are immensely facilitated. The
+  ionized condition must be supposed to last to a greater or less extent
+  for a good many hours to account for aurora being seen throughout the
+  whole night. The fact that at most places the morning shows a marked
+  decay of auroral frequency and intensity as compared to the evening,
+  the maximum preceding midnight by several hours, is certainly
+  favourable to theories which postulate ionization of the atmosphere by
+  some cause or other emanating from the sun.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The following works are numbered according to the
+  references in the text:--(1) A. Angot, _Les Aurores polaires_ (Paris,
+  1895); (2) H. Fritz, _Das Polarlicht_ (Leipzig, 1881); (3) Svante
+  August Arrhenius, _Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik_; (4) Joseph
+  Lovering, "On the Periodicity of the Aurora Borealis," _Mem. American
+  Acad._ vol. x. (1868); (5) Sophus Tromholt, _Catalog der in Norwegen
+  bis Juni 1878 beobachteten Nordlichter_; (6) _Observations
+  internationales polaires_ (1882-1883), _Expedition Danoise_, tome i.
+  "Aurores boreales"; (7) Carlheim-Gyllenskold, "Aurores boreales" in
+  _Observations faites au Cap Thorsden Spitzberg par l'expedition
+  suedoise_, tome ii. 1; (8) "Die Osterreichische Polar Station Jan
+  Mayen" in _Die Internationale Polarforschung_, 1882-1883, Bd. ii.
+  Abth. 1; (9) Henryk Arctowski, "Aurores australes" in _Expedition
+  antarctique belge ... Voyage du S. Y. "Belgica"_; (10) G.C. Amdrup,
+  _Observations ... faites par l'expedition danoise_; H. Ravn,
+  _Observations de l'aurore boreale de Tasiusak_; (11) _K. Sven.
+  Vet.-Akad. Hand_. Bd. 31, Nos. 2, 3, &c.; (12) _Sitz. d. k. Akad. d.
+  Wiss._ (Vienna), Math. Naturw. Classe, Bd. xcvii. Abth. iia, 1888;
+  (13) _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1906, lxxvii. A, 141; (14) _Kongl. Sven.
+  Vet.-Akad. Hand._ Bd. 15, No. 5, Bd. 18, No. 1; (15) _Bull. Acad. Roy.
+  Danoise_, 1889, p. 67; (16) _Voyages ... pendant les annees 1838, 1839
+  et 1840 sur ... la Recherche_, "Aurores boreales," by MM. Lottin,
+  Bravais, &c.; (17) _Missions scientifiques ... au Spitzberg ... en
+  1899-1902, Mission suedoise_, tome ii. VIII^e Section, C. "Aurores
+  boreales"; (18) _Bull. Acad. R. des Sciences de Danemark_, 1894, p.
+  148; (19) Kr. Birkeland, _Expedition norvegienne 1899-1900 pour
+  l'etude des aurores boreales_ (Christiania, 1901); (20) _Terrestrial
+  Magnetism_, vol. iii. (1898), pp. 5, 53, 149; (21) _Astrophysical
+  Journal_, 1904, xix. p. 187; (22) _Rapports presentes au Congres
+  International de Physique reuni a Paris_, 1900, iii. 438; (23)
+  _Expedition polaire finlandaise_ (1882-1884), tome iii.; (24) Charles
+  Nordmann, _Theses presentees a la Faculte des Sciences de Paris_
+  (1903); (25) _Terrestrial Magnetism_, vol. 10, 1905, p. 1; (26)
+  _Observations of the International Polar Expeditions 1882-1883 Fort
+  Rae_ ... by Capt. H.P. Dawson, R.A.     (C. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+AURUNCI, the name given by the Romans to a tribe which in historical
+times occupied only a strip of coast on either side of the Mons Massicus
+between the Volturnus and the Liris, although it must at an earlier
+period have extended over a considerably wider area. Their own name for
+themselves in the 4th century B.C. was _Ausones_, and in Greek writers
+we find the name _Ausonia_ applied to Latium and Campania (see Strabo v.
+p. 247; Aristotle, _Pol._ iv. (vii.) 10; Dion. Hal. i. 72), while in the
+Augustan poets (e.g. Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 795) it is used as one of
+many synonyms for Italy. In history the tribe appears only for a brief
+space, from 340 to 295 B.C. (Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. pp. 451, 463, 465),
+and their struggle with the Romans ended in complete extermination;
+their territory was parcelled out between the Latin colonies of Cales
+(Livy viii. 16) and Suessa Aurunca (_id._ ix. 28) which took the place
+of an older town called _Ausona_ (_id._ ix. 25; viii. 15), and the
+maritime colonies Sinuessa (the older _Vescia_) and Minturnae (both in
+295 B.C., Livy x. 21). The coin formerly attributed to Suessa Aurunca on
+the strength of its supposed legend _Aurunkud_ has now been certainly
+referred to Naples (see R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, 145, and
+_Verner's law in Italy_, p. 78, where the change of s to r is
+explained as probably due to the Latin conquest). Seeing that the tribe
+was blotted out at the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., we can
+scarcely wonder that no record of its speech survives; but its
+geographical situation and the frequency of the _co_-suffix in that
+strip of coast (besides _Aurunci_ itself we have the names _Vescia_,
+_Mons Massicus_, _Marica_, _Glanica_ and _Caedicii_; see _Italic
+Dialects_, pp. 283 f.) rank them beyond doubt with their neighbours the
+Volsci (q.v.).     (R. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+AUSCULTATION (from Lat. _auscultare_, to listen), a term in medicine,
+applied to the method employed by physicians for determining, by the
+sense of hearing, the condition of certain internal organs. The ancient
+physicians appear to have practised a kind of auscultation, by which
+they were able to detect the presence of air or fluids in the cavities
+of the chest and abdomen. Still no general application of this method of
+investigation was resorted to, or was indeed possible, till the advance
+of the study of anatomy led to correct ideas regarding the locality,
+structure and uses of the various organs of the body, and the
+alterations produced in them by disease. In 1761 Leopold Auenbrugger
+(1722-1809), a Viennese physician, published his _Inventum Novum_,
+describing the art of percussion in reference more especially to
+diseases of the chest. This consisted in tapping with the fingers the
+surface of the body, so as to elicit sounds by which the comparative
+resonance of the subjacent parts or organs might be estimated.
+Auenbrugger's method attracted but little attention till the French
+physician J.N. Corvisart (1755-1828) in 1808 demonstrated its great
+practical importance, and then its employment in the diagnosis of
+affections of the chest soon became general. Percussion was originally
+practised in the manner above mentioned (_immediate percussion_), but
+subsequently the method of _mediate percussion_ was introduced by P.A.
+Piorry (1794-1879). It is accomplished by placing upon the spot to be
+examined some solid substance, upon which the percussion strokes are
+made with the fingers. For this purpose a thin oval piece of ivory
+(called a _pleximeter_, or stroke-measurer) may be used, with a small
+hammer; but one or more fingers of the left hand applied flat upon the
+part answer equally well, and this is the method which most physicians
+adopt. Percussion must be regarded as a necessary part of auscultation,
+particularly in relation to the examination of the chest; for the
+physician who has made himself acquainted with the normal condition of
+that part of the body in reference to percussion is thus able to
+recognize by the ear alterations of resonance produced by disease. But
+percussion alone, however important in diagnosis, could manifestly
+convey only limited and imperfect information, for it could never
+indicate the nature or extent of functional disturbance.
+
+In 1819 the distinguished French physician R.T.H. Laennec (1781-1826)
+published his _Traite de L'auscultation mediate_, embodying the present
+methods of auscultatory examination, and venturing definite conclusions
+based on years of his own study. He also invented the stethoscope
+([Greek: staethos], the breast, and [Greek: skopein], to examine). Since
+then many men have widened the scope of auscultation, notably Skoda,
+Wintrich, A. Geigel, Th. Weber and Gerhardt. According to Laennec the
+essential of a good stethoscope was its capability of intensifying the
+tone vibrations. But since his time the opinion of experts on this
+matter has somewhat changed, and there are now two definite schools. The
+first and older condemns the resonating stethoscope, maintaining that
+the tones are bound to be altered; the second and younger school warmly
+advocates its use. In America, more than elsewhere, there is a type of
+phonendoscope much used by the younger men, which has the advantage that
+it can be used when the older type of instrument fails, viz. when the
+patient is recumbent and too ill to be moved. By slipping it beneath the
+patient's back a fairly accurate idea of the breathing over the bases of
+the lungs behind can often be obtained.
+
+Stethoscopes have been made of many forms and materials. They usually
+consist of a hollow stem of wood, hard rubber or metal, with an enlarged
+tip slightly funnel-shaped at one end, and an ear-plate with a hole in
+the middle, fastened perpendicularly to the other end. To enable the
+instrument to be more conveniently carried, the ear-plate can be
+unscrewed from the tube. The length of the stem of the instrument is of
+minor importance, but its bore should be as nearly as possible that of
+the entrance of the external ear. A flexible stethoscope in general use
+both in England and America transmits the sound from a funnel through
+tubes to the ears of the observer. This is the common form of a binaural
+resonating stethoscope. It is convenient and gives a loud tone, but is
+condemned by the older school, who say that the resonance is confusing,
+and that the slightest movement in handling gives rise to perplexing
+murmurs. Nevertheless, it is this form of instrument which has by far
+the greatest vogue. It is probable, however, that the most skilled
+physicians of all find a special use in each form, the monaural
+non-resonating type being more sensitive to high-pitched sounds, and of
+greater assistance in differentiating the sounds and murmurs of the
+heart, the ordinary binaural form being more useful in examining the
+lungs and other organs. In using the stethoscope, it must be applied
+very carefully, so that the edge of the funnel makes an air-tight
+connexion with the skin, and in the monaural form the ear must be but
+lightly applied to the ear-plate, not pressing heavily on the patient.
+
+The numerous diseases affecting the lungs can now be recognized and
+discriminated from each other with a precision which, but for
+auscultation and the stethoscope, would have been altogether
+unattainable. The same holds good in the case of the heart, whose varied
+and often complex forms of disease can, by auscultation, be identified
+with striking accuracy. But in addition to these its main uses,
+auscultation is found to render great assistance in the investigation of
+many obscure internal affections, such as aneurysms and certain diseases
+of the oesophagus and stomach. To the accoucheur the stethoscope yields
+valuable aid in the detection of some forms of uterine tumours, and
+especially in the diagnosis of pregnancy--the only evidence now accepted
+as absolutely diagnostic of that condition being the hearing of the
+foetal heart sounds.
+
+
+
+
+AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS (c. 310-395), Roman poet and rhetorician, was
+born at Burdigala [_Bordeaux_]. He received an excellent education,
+especially in grammar and rhetoric, but confesses that his progress in
+Greek was unsatisfactory. Having completed his studies, he practised for
+some time as an advocate, but his inclination lay in the direction of
+teaching. He set up (in 334) a school of rhetoric in his native place,
+which was largely attended, his most famous pupil being Paulinus,
+afterwards bishop of Nola. After thirty years of this work, he was
+summoned by Valentinian to the imperial court, to undertake the
+education of Gratian, the heir-apparent. The prince always entertained
+the greatest regard for his tutor, and after his accession bestowed upon
+him the highest titles and honours, culminating in the consulship (379).
+After the murder of Gratian (383), Ausonius retired to his estates near
+Burdigala. He appears to have been a (not very enthusiastic) convert to
+Christianity. He died about 395.
+
+His most important extant works are: in prose, _Gratiarum Actio_, an
+address of thanks to Gratian for his elevation to the consulship;
+_Periochae_, summaries of the books of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_; and
+one or two _epistolae_; in verse, _Epigrammata_, including several free
+translations from the Greek Anthology; _Ephemeris_, the occupations of
+a day; _Parentalia_ and _Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium_, on
+deceased relatives and literary friends; _Epitaphia_, chiefly on the
+Trojan heroes; _Caesares_, memorial verses on the Roman emperors from
+Julius Caesar to Elagabalus; _Ordo Nobilium Urbium_, short poems on
+famous cities; _Ludus Septem Sapientum_, speeches delivered by the Seven
+Sages of Greece; _Idyllia_, of which the best-known are the _Mosella_, a
+descriptive poem on the Moselle, and the infamous _Cento Nuptialis_. We
+may also mention _Cupido Cruciatus_, Cupid on the cross;
+_Technopaegion_, a literary trifle consisting of a collection of verses
+ending in monosyllables; _Eclogarum Liber_, on astronomical and
+astrological subjects; _Epistolae_, including letters to Paulinus and
+Symmachus; lastly, _Praefatiunculae_, three poetical epistles, one to
+the emperor Theodosius. Ausonius was rather a man of letters than a
+poet; his wide reading supplied him with material for a great variety of
+subjects, but his works exhibit no traces of a true poetic spirit; even
+his versification, though ingenious, is frequently defective.
+
+  There are no MSS. containing the whole of Ausonius's works. Editio
+  princeps, 1472; editions by Scaliger 1575, Souchay 1730, Schenkl 1883,
+  Peiper 1886; cf. _Mosella_, Bocking 1845, de la Ville de Mirmont
+  (critical edition with translation) 1889, and _De Ausonii Mosella_,
+  1892, Hosius 1894. See Deydou, _Un Poete bordelais_ (1868); Everat,
+  _De Ausonii Operibus_ (1885); Jullian, _Ausone et Bordeaux_ (1893); C.
+  Verrier and R. de Courmont, _Les Epigrammes d'Ausone_ (translation
+  with bibliography, 1905); R. Pichon, _Les Derviers Ecrivains profanes_
+  (1907).
+
+
+
+
+AUSSIG (Czech _Ousti nad Labem_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 68 m. N.
+of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 37,255, mostly German. It is situated in
+a mountainous district, at the confluence of the Biela and the Elbe,
+and, besides being an active river port, is an important junction of the
+northern Bohemian railways. Aussig has important industries in
+chemicals, textiles, glass and boat-building, and carries on an active
+trade in coal from the neighbouring mines, stone and stoneware, corn,
+fruit and wood. It was the birthplace of the painter, Raphael Mengs
+(1728-1779). Aussig is mentioned as a trading centre as early as 993. It
+was made a city by Ottokar II. in the latter part of the 13th century.
+In 1423 it was pledged by King Sigismund to the elector Frederick of
+Meissen, who occupied it with a Saxon garrison. In 1426 it was besieged
+by the Hussites, who on the 16th of June, though only 25,000 strong,
+defeated a German army of 70,000, which had been sent to its relief,
+with great slaughter. The town was stormed and sacked next day. After
+lying waste for three years, it was rebuilt in 1429. It suffered much
+during the Thirty Years' and Seven Years' Wars, and in 1830 it had only
+1400 inhabitants. Not far from Aussig is the village of Kulm, where, on
+the 29th and 30th of August 1813, a battle took place between the French
+under Vandamme and an allied army of Austrians, Prussians and Russians.
+The French were defeated, and Vandamme surrendered with his army of
+10,000 men.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817), English novelist, was born on the 16th of
+December 1775 at the parsonage of Steventon, in Hampshire, a village of
+which her father, the Rev. George Austen, was rector. She was the
+youngest of seven children. Her mother was Cassandra Leigh, niece of
+Theophilus Leigh, a dry humorist, and for fifty years master of Balliol,
+Oxford. The life of no woman of genius could have been more uneventful
+than Miss Austen's. She did not marry, and she never left home except on
+short visits, chiefly to Bath. Her first sixteen years were spent in the
+rectory at Steventon, where she began early to trifle with her pen,
+always jestingly, for family entertainment. In 1801 the Austens moved to
+Bath, where Mr Austen died in 1805, leaving only Mrs Austen, Jane and
+her sister Cassandra, to whom she was always deeply attached, to keep up
+the home; his sons were out in the world, the two in the navy, Francis
+William and Charles, subsequently rising to admiral's rank. In 1805 the
+Austen ladies moved to Southampton, and in 1809 to Chawton, near Alton,
+in Hampshire, and there Jane Austen remained till 1817, the year of her
+death, which occurred at Winchester, on July 18th, as a memorial window
+in the cathedral testifies.
+
+During her placid life Miss Austen never allowed her literary work to
+interfere with her domestic duties: sewing much and admirably, keeping
+house, writing many letters and reading aloud. Though, however, her days
+were quiet and her area circumscribed, she saw enough of middle-class
+provincial society to find a basis on which her dramatic and humorous
+faculties might build, and such was her power of searching observation
+and her sympathetic imagination that there are not in English fiction
+more faithful representations of the life she knew than we possess in
+her novels. She had no predecessors in this genre. Miss Austen's "little
+bit (two inches wide) of ivory" on which she worked "with so fine a
+brush"--her own phrases--was her own invention.
+
+Her best-known, if not her best work, _Pride and Prejudice_, was also
+her first. It was written between October 1796 and August 1797,
+although, such was the blindness of publishers, not issued until 1813,
+two years after _Sense and Sensibility_, which was written, on an old
+scenario called "Eleanor and Marianne," in 1797 and 1798. Miss Austen's
+inability to find a publisher for these stories, and for _Northanger
+Abbey_, written in 1798 (although it is true that she sold that MS. in
+1803 for L10 to a Bath bookseller, only, however, to see it locked away
+in a safe for some years, to be gladly resold to her later), seems to
+have damped her ardour; for there is no evidence that between 1798 and
+1809 she wrote anything but the fragment called "The Watsons," after
+which year she began to revise her early work for the press. Her other
+three books belong to a later date--_Mansfield Park_, _Emma_ and
+_Persuasion_ being written between 1811 and 1816. The years of
+publication were _Sense and Sensibility_, 1811; _Pride and Prejudice_,
+1813; _Mansfield Park_, 1814; and _Emma_, 1816--all in their author's
+lifetime. _Persuasion_ and _Northanger Abbey_ were published
+posthumously in 1818. All were anonymous, agreeably to their author's
+retiring disposition.
+
+Although _Pride and Prejudice_ is the novel which in the mind of the
+public is most intimately associated with Miss Austen's name, both
+_Mansfield Park_ and _Emma_ are finer achievements--at once riper and
+richer and more elaborate. But the fact that _Pride and Prejudice_ is
+more single-minded, that the love story of Elizabeth Bennet and D'Arcy
+is not only _of_ the book but _is_ the book (whereas the love story of
+Emma and Mr Knightley and Fanny Price and Edmund Bertram have parallel
+streams), has given _Pride and Prejudice_ its popularity above the
+others among readers who are more interested by the course of romance
+than by the exposition of character. Entirely satisfactory as is _Pride
+and Prejudice_ so far as it goes, it is, however, thin beside the
+niceness of analysis of motives in _Emma_ and the wonderful management
+of two housefuls of young lovers that is exhibited in _Mansfield Park_.
+
+It has been generally agreed by the best critics that Miss Austen has
+never been approached in her own domain. No one indeed has attempted any
+close rivalry. No other novelist has so concerned herself or himself
+with the trivial daily comedy of small provincial family life,
+disdaining equally the assistance offered by passion, crime and
+religion. Whatever Miss Austen may have thought privately of these
+favourite ingredients of fiction, she disregarded all alike when she
+took her pen in hand. Her interest was in life's little perplexities of
+emotion and conduct; her gaze was steadily ironical. The most untoward
+event in any of her books is Louisa's fall from the Cobb at Lyme Regis,
+in _Persuasion_; the most abandoned, Maria's elopement with Crawford, in
+_Mansfield Park_. In pure ironical humour Miss Austen's only peer among
+novelists is George Meredith, and indeed _Emma_ may be said to be her
+_Egoist_, or the _Egoist_ his _Emma_. But irony and fidelity to the fact
+alone would not have carried her down the ages. To these gifts she
+allied a perfect sense of dramatic progression and an admirably lucid
+and flowing prose style which makes her stories the easiest reading.
+
+Recognition came to Miss Austen slowly. It was not until quite recent
+times that to read her became a necessity of culture. But she is now
+firmly established as an English classic, standing far above Miss Burney
+(Madame d'Arblay) and Miss Edgeworth, who in her day were the popular
+women novelists of real life, while Mrs Radcliffe and "Monk" Lewis,
+whose supernatural fancies' _Northanger Abbey_ was written in part to
+ridicule, are no longer anything but names. Although, however, she has
+become only lately a household word, Miss Austen had always her
+panegyrists among the best intellects--such as Coleridge, Tennyson,
+Macaulay, Scott, Sydney Smith, Disraeli and Archbishop Whately, the last
+of whom may be said to have been her discoverer. Macaulay, whose
+adoration of Miss Austen's genius was almost idolatrous, considered
+_Mansfield Park_ her greatest feat; but many critics give the palm to
+_Emma_. Disraeli read _Pride and Prejudice_ seventeen times. Scott's
+testimony is often quoted: "That young lady had a talent for describing
+the involvements, feelings and characters of ordinary life which is to
+me the most wonderful I have ever met with. The big bow-wow I can do
+myself like any one going; but the exquisite touch which renders
+commonplace things and characters interesting from the truth of the
+description and the sentiment is denied to me."
+
+  Many monographs on Miss Austen have been written, in addition to the
+  authorized _Life_ by her nephew J.E. Austen Leigh in 1870, and the
+  collection of her _Letters_ edited by Lord Brabourne in 1884. The
+  chief books on her and around her are _Jane Austen_, by S.F. Malden
+  (1889); _Jane Austen_, by Goldwin Smith (1890); _Jane Austen: Her
+  Contemporaries and Herself_, by W.H. Pollock; _Jane Austen: Her Homes
+  and Her Friends_, by Constance Hill (1902); _Jane Austen and Her
+  Times_, by G.E. Mitton (1905); _Jane Austen's Sailor Brothers_, by J
+  H. and E.C. Hubback (1906); and the essay on her in Lady Richmond
+  (Thackeray) Ritchie's _Book of Sibyls_ (1883).     (E. V. L.)
+
+
+
+
+AUSTERLITZ (Czech _Slavkov_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 15 m.
+E.S.E. of Brunn by rail. Pop. (1900) 3145, mostly Czech. It contains a
+magnificent palace belonging to the prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, and a
+beautiful church.
+
+[Illustration: (map of Austerlitz battle site)]
+
+The great battle in which the French under Napoleon I. defeated the
+Austrians and Russians on the 2nd of December 1805, was fought in the
+country to the west of Austerlitz, the position of Napoleon's left wing
+being almost equi-distant from Brunn and from Austerlitz. The wooded
+hills to the northward throw out to the south and south-west long spurs,
+between which are the low valleys of several rivers and brooks. The
+scene of the most important fighting was the Pratzen plateau. The famous
+"lakes" in the southern part of the field were artificial ponds, which
+have long since been drained. On the west or Brunn side of the Goldbach
+is another and lower ridge, which formed in the battle the first
+position of the French right and centre. On the other wing is the mass
+of hills from which the spurs and streams descend: here the Olmutz-Brunn
+road passes. The road from Brunn to Vienna, Napoleon's presumed line of
+retreat, runs in a southerly direction, and near the village of Raigern
+(3 m. west of Monitz) is very close to the extreme right of the French
+position, a fact which had a great influence on the course of the
+battle. (The course of events which led to the action is described under
+NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) Napoleon, falling back before the advance of the
+allied Austrians and Russians from Olmutz, bivouacked west of the
+Goldbach, whilst the allies, holding, near Austerlitz, the junction of
+the roads from Olmutz and from Hungary, formed up in the valleys east of
+the Pratzen heights. The cavalry of both sides remained inactive,
+Napoleon's by express order, the enemy's seemingly from mere negligence,
+since they had 177 squadrons at their disposal. Napoleon, having
+determined to fight, as usual called up every available battalion; the
+splendid III. corps of Davout only arrived upon the field after a heavy
+march, late on the night of December 1st. The plan of the allies was to
+attack Napoleon's right, and to cut him off from Vienna, and their
+advanced guard began, before dark on the 1st of December, to skirmish
+towards Telnitz. At that moment Napoleon was in the midst of his troops,
+thousands of whom had made their bivouac-straw into torches in his
+honour. The glare of these seemed to the allies to betoken the familiar
+device of lighting fires previous to a retreat, and thus confirmed them
+in the impression which Napoleon's calculated timidity had given. Thus
+encouraged, those who desired an immediate battle soon gained the upper
+hand in the councils of the tsar and the emperor Francis. The attack
+orders for the 2nd of December (drawn up by the Austrian general
+Weyrother, and explained by him to a council of superior officers, of
+whom some were hostile, the greater part indifferent, and the chief
+Russian member, General Kutusov, asleep) gave the five columns and the
+reserve, into which the Austro-Russian army was organized, the following
+tasks: the first and second (Russians) to move south-westward behind the
+Pratzen ridge towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz; the third (Russian) to
+cross the southern end of the plateau, and come into line on the right
+of the first two; the fourth (Austrians and Russians under Kolowrat) on
+the right of the third to advance towards Kobelnitz. An Austrian
+advanced guard preceded the 1st and 2nd columns. Farther still on the
+right the 5th column (cavalry under Prince John of Liechtenstein) was to
+hold the northern part of the plateau, south of the Brunn-Olmutz road;
+across the road itself was the corps of Prince Bagration, and in rear of
+Liechtenstein's corps was the reserve (Russians under the grand-duke
+Constantine). Thus, the farther the four main columns penetrated into
+the French right wing, the wider would the gap become between Bagration
+and Kolowrat, and Liechtenstein's squadrons could not form a serious
+obstacle to a heavy attack of Napoleon's centre. The whole plan was
+based upon defective information and preconceived ideas; it has gone
+down to history as a classical example of bad generalship, and its
+author Weyrother, who was perhaps nothing worse than a pedant, as a
+charlatan.
+
+Napoleon, on the other hand, with the exact knowledge of the powers of
+his men, which was the secret of his generalship, entrusted nearly half
+of his line of battle to a division (Legrand's) of Soult's corps, which
+was to be supported by Davout, some of whose brigades had marched, from
+Vienna, 90 m. in forty-eight hours. But the ground which this thin line
+was to hold against three columns of the enemy was marshy and densely
+intersected by obstacles, and the III. corps was the best in the _Grande
+Armee_, while its leader was perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon's
+marshals. The rest of the army formed in the centre and left. "Whilst
+they march to turn my right," said Napoleon in the inspiriting
+proclamation which he issued on the eve of the battle, "they present me
+their flank," and the great counterstroke was to be delivered against
+the Pratzen heights by the French centre. This was composed of Soult's
+corps, with Bernadotte's in second line. On the left, around the hill
+called by the French the Santon (which was fortified) was Lannes' corps,
+supported by the cavalry reserve under Murat. The general reserve
+consisted of the Guard and Oudinot's grenadiers.
+
+The attack of the allies was begun by the first three columns, which
+moved down from their bivouacs behind the Pratzen plateau before dawn on
+the 2nd, towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz. The Austrian advanced guard
+engaged at daybreak, and the French in Telnitz made a vigorous defence;
+both parties were reinforced, and Legrand drew upon himself, in
+fulfilling his mission, the whole weight of the allied attack. The
+contest was long and doubtful, but the Russians gradually drove back
+Legrand and a part of Davout's corps; numerous attacks both of infantry
+and cavalry were made, and by the successive arrival of reinforcements
+each side in turn received fresh impetus. Finally, at about 10 A.M., the
+allies were in possession of the villages on the Goldbach from Sokolnitz
+southwards, and Davout's line of battle had reformed more than a mile to
+rearward, still, however, maintaining touch with the French centre on
+the Goldbach at Kobelnitz. Between the two lines the fighting continued
+almost to the close of the battle. With 12,500 men of all arms the
+Marshal held in front of him over 40,000 of the enemy.
+
+In the centre, the defective arrangements of the allied staff had
+delayed the 4th column (Kolowrat), the line of march of which was
+crossed by Liechtenstein's cavalry moving in the opposite direction. The
+objective of this column was Kobelnitz, and the two emperors and Kutusov
+accompanied it. The delay had, however, opened a gap between Kolowrat
+and the 3rd column on his left; and towards this gap, and the denuded
+Pratzen plateau, Napoleon sent forward St Hilaire's division of Soult's
+corps for the decisive attack. Kutusov was pursuing this march to the
+south-west when he was surprised by the swift advance of Soult's men on
+the plateau itself. Napoleon had here double the force of the allies;
+Kutusov, however, displayed great energy, changed front to his right and
+called up his reserves. The French did not win the plateau without a
+severe struggle. St Hilaire's (the right centre) division was fiercely
+engaged by Kolowrat's column, General Miloradovich opposed the left
+centre attack under Vandamme, but the French leaders were two of the
+best fighting generals in their army. The rearmost troops of the Russian
+2nd column, not yet committed to the fight on the Goldbach, made a bold
+counter stroke against St Hilaire's right flank, but were repulsed, and
+Soult now turned to relieve the pressure on Davout by attacking
+Sokolnitz. The Russians in Sokolnitz surrendered, an opportune cavalry
+charge further discomfited the allied left, and the Pratzen plateau was
+now in full possession of the French. Even the Russian Guard failed to
+shake Vandamme's hold. In the meanwhile Lannes and Murat had been
+engaged in the defence of the Santon. Here the allied leaders displayed
+the greatest vigour, but they were unable to drive back the French. The
+cavalry charges in this quarter are celebrated in the history of the
+mounted arm; and Kellermann, the hero of Marengo, won fresh laurels
+against the cavalry of Liechtenstein's command. The French not only held
+their ground, but steadily advanced and eventually forced back the
+allies on Austerlitz, thereby barring their retreat on Olmutz. The last
+serious attempt of the allies in the centre led to some of the hardest
+fighting of the day; the Russian Imperial Guard under the grand-duke
+Constantine pressed closely upon St Hilaire and Vandamme on the plateau,
+and only gave way when the French Guard and the Grenadiers came into
+action. After the "Chevalier Guards" had been routed by Marshal
+Bessieres and the Guard cavalry, the allies had no more hope of victory;
+orders had already been sent to Buxhowden, who commanded the three
+columns engaged against Davout, to retreat on Austerlitz. No further
+attempt was made on the plateau, which was held by the French from
+Pratzen to the Olmutz road. The allied army was cut in two, and the last
+confused struggle of the three Russian columns on the Goldbach was one
+for liberty only. The fighting in Telnitz was perhaps the hardest of the
+whole battle, but the inevitable retreat, every part of which was now
+under the fire of the French on the plateau, was terribly costly. Soult
+now barred the way to Austerlitz, and the allies turned southward
+towards Satschan. As they retreated, the ice of the Satschan pond was
+broken up by the French artillery, and many of the fugitives were
+drowned. In the twelve hours from 7 A.M. to nightfall, the 65,000 French
+troops had lost 6800 men, or about 10%; the allies (82,500 engaged) had
+12,200 killed and wounded, and left in the enemy's hands 15,000
+prisoners (many wounded) and 133 guns.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, ALFRED (1835- ), English poet-laureate, was born at Headingley,
+near Leeds, on the 30th of May 1835. His father, Joseph Austin, was a
+merchant of the city of Leeds; his mother, a sister of Joseph Locke,
+M.P. for Honiton. Mr Austin was educated at Stonyhurst, Oscott, and
+London University, where he graduated in 1853. He was called to the bar
+four years later, and practised as a barrister for a short time; but in
+1861, after two comparatively false starts in poetry and fiction, he
+made his first noteworthy appearance as a writer with a satire called
+_The Season_, which contained incisive lines, and was marked by some
+promise both in wit and observation. In 1870 he published a volume of
+criticism, _The Poetry of the Period_, which was again conceived in a
+spirit of satirical invective, and attacked Tennyson, Browning, Matthew
+Arnold and Swinburne in no half-hearted fashion. The book aroused some
+discussion at the time, but its judgments were extremely uncritical. In
+1881 Mr Austin returned to verse with a tragedy, _Savonarola_, to which
+he added _Soliloquies_ in 1882, _Prince Lucifer_ in 1887, _England's
+Darling_ in 1896, _The Conversion of Winckelmann_ in 1897, &c. A keen
+Conservative in politics, for several years he edited _The National
+Review_, and wrote leading articles for _The Standard_. On Tennyson's
+death in 1892 it was felt that none of the then living poets, except
+Swinburne or William Morris, who were outside consideration on other
+grounds, was of sufficient distinction to succeed to the laurel crown,
+and for several years no new poet-laureate was nominated. In the
+interval the claims of one writer and another were much canvassed, but
+eventually, in 1896, Mr Austin was appointed. As poet-laureate, his
+occasional verses did not escape adverse criticism; his hasty poem in
+praise of the Jameson Raid in 1896 being a notable instance. The most
+effective characteristic of Mr Austin's poetry, as of the best of his
+prose, is a genuine and intimate love of nature. His prose idylls, _The
+Garden that I love_ and _In Veronica's Garden_, are full of a pleasant,
+open-air flavour, which is also the outstanding feature of his _English
+Lyrics_. His lyrical poems are wanting in spontaneity and individuality,
+but many of them possess a simple, orderly charm, as of an English
+country lane. He has, indeed, a true love of England, sometimes not
+without a suspicion of insularity, but always fresh and ingenuous. A
+drama by him, _Flodden Field_, was acted at His Majesty's theatre in
+1903.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, JOHN (1790-1859), English jurist, was born on the 3rd of March
+1790. His father was the owner of flour mills at Ipswich and in the
+neighbourhood, and was in good circumstances. John was the eldest of
+five brothers. One of his brothers, Charles (1799-1874), obtained great
+distinction at the bar. John Austin entered the army at a very early
+age; he is said to have been only sixteen. He served with his regiment
+under Lord William Bentinck in Malta and Sicily. He seems to have liked
+his profession, and to have joined in the amusements and even in the
+follies of his brother officers. Yet it appears from a journal kept by
+him at the time that he occupied himself with studies of a far more
+serious kind than is common amongst young officers in the army. He notes
+having read in the course of one year Dugald Stewart's _Philosophical
+Essays_, Drummond's _Academical Questions_, Enfield's _History of
+Philosophy_, and Mitford's _History of Greece_, and upon all of these he
+makes observations which disclose much thought and a capacity for
+criticism which must have come from extensive reading elsewhere. The
+prevailing note of this journal is one of bitter self-depreciation. He
+says in it that the retrospect of the past year (1811) "has hardly given
+rise to one single feeling of satisfaction," and farther on he says that
+"indolence, always the prominent vice of my character," has "assumed
+over me an empire I almost despair of shaking off." It is difficult to
+believe that a man only just of age, whose serious reading consisted of
+such books, and who (as appears from the same journal) was in the habit
+of turning to the classics as an alternative, could have deserved the
+reproach of indolence.
+
+In 1812, he resigned his commission in the army, and returned home. He
+then began to read law in the chambers of a barrister. He was called to
+the bar in the year 1818, and joined the Norfolk circuit, but he never
+obtained any large practice, and he finally retired from the bar in
+1825. In 1819 he married Sarah Taylor (see AUSTIN, SARAH).
+
+Although Austin had failed to attain success at the bar it was not long
+before he had an opportunity of exercising his abilities and in a manner
+peculiarly suited to his particular turn of mind. In 1826 a number of
+eminent men were engaged in the foundation of University College, and it
+was determined to establish in it a chair of jurisprudence. This chair
+was offered to Austin and he agreed to accept it. As he was not called
+upon to begin his lectures immediately, he resolved to proceed to
+Germany in order to prepare himself for his duties by studying the
+method of legal teaching pursued at German universities. He resided
+first at Heidelberg, and afterwards at Bonn, where he lived on terms of
+intimacy with such distinguished lawyers as Savigny and K.J.A.
+Mittermaier; and such eminent men of letters as Niebuhr, Brandis,
+Schlegel and A.W. Heffter. He began lecturing in 1828, and at first was
+not without encouragement. His class was a peculiarly brilliant one. It
+included a number of men who afterwards became eminent in law, politics
+and philosophy--Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Charles Buller, Charles
+Villiers, Sir Samuel Romilly and his brother Lord Romilly, Edward Strutt
+afterwards Lord Belper, Sir William Erie and John Stuart Mill were all
+members of his class. All of these have left on record expressions of
+the profound admiration which the lectures excited in the minds of those
+who heard them. But the members of his class, though exceptional in
+quality, were few in number, and as there was no fixed salary attached
+to the professorship, Austin could not afford to remain in London, and
+in 1832 he resigned. In that year he published his _Province of
+Jurisprudence determined_, being the first ten of his delivered lectures
+compressed into six.
+
+There is ample testimony that Austin's lectures were very highly
+appreciated by those who heard them. Their one fault was that they were
+over-elaborated. In his desire to avoid ambiguity, he repeats his
+explanations and qualifications to an extent which must have tired his
+hearers. Nevertheless the lectures excited an admiration which almost
+amounted to enthusiasm. Nor was Austin's influence confined to his
+lectures. Sir William Erle says in a letter written to him in 1844, "The
+interchange of mind with you in the days of Lincoln's Inn I regard as a
+deeply important event in my life, and I ever remember your friendship
+with thankfulness and affection." John Stuart Mill, whose views on
+political subjects were entirely opposed to those of Austin, spoke of
+him after his death as the man "to whom he (Mill) had been
+intellectually and morally most indebted," and he expressed the opinion
+"that few men had contributed more by their individual influence, and
+their conversation, to the formation and growth of the most active minds
+of the generation."
+
+In 1833 a royal commission was issued to draw up a digest of criminal
+law and procedure. Of this commission Austin was a member. The first
+report was signed by all the commissioners, and was presented in June
+1834. Nevertheless it appears from some notes made at the time that
+Austin, though he thought it his duty to sign the report, strongly
+objected to some passages which it contained. It is pretty obvious from
+the nature of these objections that nothing would have satisfied him
+short of a complete recasting of the criminal law, whereas what the
+commissioners were ordered to produce was not a code but a digest.
+Probably Austin felt, as Mr Justice Wills felt some years later, that
+the anomalies which a code would remove would "choke a digest."
+
+In 1834 the benchers of the Inner Temple appointed Austin to give
+lectures on the "General Principles of Jurisprudence and International
+Law." He delivered a few lectures in the spring of that year, but in
+June the course was by order of the benchers suspended on account of the
+smallness of the attendance, and it was never resumed. He then went to
+live with his wife and only child Lucie (afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon) at
+Boulogne. Here he remained for about a year and a half. He then accepted
+an appointment offered him by Sir James Stephen to go as royal
+commissioner to Malta in conjunction with Mr (afterward Sir George)
+Cornewall Lewis, to inquire into the nature and extent of the grievances
+of which the natives of that island complained.
+
+The Austins remained in Malta until July 1838. After their return they
+lived a good deal abroad, and in 1844 they settled in Paris, where they
+remained until driven out of France by the revolution of 1848. They then
+took a house at Weybridge, and there Austin remained until his death in
+December 1859. He was urged by his friends to publish a second edition
+of the _Province of Jurisprudence_, which was then out of print, and he
+went so far as to allow a prospectus to be issued by Mr Murray of an
+extended work on "The Principles and Relations of Jurisprudence and
+Ethics." But nothing came of it.
+
+In 1842 Austin published in the _Edinburgh Review_ an attack upon
+Friedrich List's system of trade protection (_Das nationale System der
+politischen Okonomie_). And in 1859 he published a pamphlet entitled "A
+Plea for the Constitution." This was occasioned by the publication of
+Lord Grey's essay on "Parliamentary Government." Its main object was to
+show that the consequences to be anticipated from Parliamentary Reform
+were all of them either impossible of realization or mischievous. He
+thought any attempt on the part of the poorer classes to improve their
+position was barred by the inexorable laws of political economy; and
+that if they obtained power they would only use it to plunder the rich;
+whilst, on the other hand, he seems not to have had any suspicion that
+the "proprietary class" were likely to disregard the interests of the
+poor. He thinks that political power is safest in the hands of those
+possessed of hereditary or acquired property; and that without property
+even intelligence and knowledge afford no presumption of political
+capacity. Undoubtedly Austin was a utilitarian in the Benthamite sense,
+and remained so to the end of his life. It must be remembered that
+Bentham's sole and immutable test of human action was the greatest
+happiness of the greatest number. This is a principle which an
+aristocrat may adopt if he chooses, no less than a democrat; an
+individualist no less than a socialist; and there is nothing in the
+"Plea for the Constitution" which contravenes this. But Austin thought,
+and in this no doubt he differed from Bentham, that the mass of the
+people did not know their own interests so well as "an aristocracy of
+independent gentlemen" who might be trusted to provide for the wants of
+all classes alike.
+
+Austin's position as a jurist is much more difficult to estimate. Twice
+his influence appeared likely to produce some impression upon English
+law, but upon both occasions it lasted only a short time, and never
+extended very far. The men whom he influenced were very eminent, but in
+numbers they were few. As a rule, students for the bar never at any time
+paid any attention to his teaching. The first published lectures were
+almost forgotten when Mr (afterwards Sir Henry) Maine was appointed to
+lecture on jurisprudence at the Inner Temple. Both in his private and
+public lectures Maine constantly urged upon his hearers the importance
+of Austin's analytical inquiries into the meaning of legal terms. He
+used to say that it was Austin's inquiries which had made a philosophy
+of law possible. Undoubtedly Maine's influence revived for a short time
+the interest in Austin's teaching. Maine was lecturing about the time of
+Austin's death, and in 1861 Mrs Austin published a second edition of the
+_Province of Jurisprudence_, and this was followed soon after by two
+volumes which contained in addition in a fragmentary form the remaining
+lectures delivered at University College and other notes (_Lectures on
+Jurisprudence; or The Philosophy of Positive Law_).
+
+It cannot be said that Austin's views of jurisprudence have had, as yet,
+any visible influence whatever on the study of English law. But if we
+consider what it was that Austin endeavoured to teach, it can hardly be
+said that the subject is one which a lawyer can with impunity neglect.
+He proposes to distinguish law from morals; to explain the notions
+which have been entertained of duty, right, liberty, injury, punishment
+and redress; and their connexion with, and relations to, sovereignty; to
+examine the distinction between rights _in rem_ and rights _in
+personam_, and between rights _ex contractu_ and rights _ex delicto_;
+and further to determine the meaning of such terms as right, obligation,
+injury, sanction, person, thing, act and forbearance. These are some of
+the terms, notions and distinctions which Austin endeavoured to explain.
+They are daily in the mouth of every practising lawyer. The only portion
+of Austin's work which has attracted much attention of recent years is
+his conception of sovereignty, and his dictum that all laws properly so
+called must be considered as sanctioned expressly or tacitly by the
+sovereign. This has been indignantly denied. It has been considered
+enough to justify this denial to point out that there are in existence
+states where the seat of sovereignty, and the ultimate source of law,
+cannot be accurately indicated. But this criticism is entirely
+misplaced; for as pointed out by Maine (_Early History of Institutions_,
+Lecture xii.), in an elaborate discussion of Austin's views, which in
+the main he accepts, what Austin was engaged upon was not an inquiry
+into the nature of sovereignty as it is found to exist, but an inquiry
+into what was the connexion between the various forms of political
+superiority. And this inquiry was undertaken in order to enable him to
+distinguish the province of jurisprudence properly so called from the
+province of morality; an inquiry which was hopeless unless the connexion
+just stated was clearly conceived. Austin's views of sovereignty,
+therefore, was an abstraction, useless it is true for some purposes, but
+by no means useless for others. "There is," as Maine says, "not the
+smallest necessity for accepting all the conclusions of these great
+writers (i.e. Bentham and Austin) with implicit deference, but there
+is the strongest necessity for knowing what these conclusions are. They
+are indispensable, if for no other object, for the purpose of clearing
+the head." These last words exactly express the work which Austin set
+himself to do. It was to clear his own head, and the heads of his
+hearers, that he laboured so hard. As Austin once said of himself, his
+special vocation was that of untying intellectual knots. The
+disentangling of classifications and distinctions, the separation of
+real from accidental distinctions, the analysis of ideas confusedly
+apprehended, these (as has been truly said) were the characteristics of
+Austin's work which specially distinguished him. Austin thought that
+this somewhat irksome task was a necessary preliminary both to the study
+of law as a science, and to the production of a code. It is a curious
+reflection that whilst the lectures in which these inquiries were begun
+(though not completed) excited the admiration of his contemporaries,
+hardly any one now thinks such inquiries worth pursuing.
+
+  The _Lectures on Jurisprudence_ were reviewed by J.S. Mill in the
+  _Edinburgh Review_ of October 1863, and this review is republished in
+  Mill's _Dissertations and Discussions_, vol. 3, p. 206. Professor
+  Jethro Brown has published (1906) an edition of Austin's earlier
+  lectures, in which they are stated in an abbreviated form. There is a
+  sketch of his life by his widow in the preface to the _Lectures on
+  Jurisprudence_, which she published after his death.     (W. Ma.)
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867), English author, was born in 1793, the
+daughter of John Taylor (d. 1826), a wool-stapler and a member of the
+well-known Taylor family of Norwich. Her great grandfather, Dr John
+Taylor (1694-1761), had been pastor of the Presbyterian church there,
+and wrote a once famous polemical work on _The Scripture Doctrine of
+Original Sin_ (1738), which called forth celebrated treatises by
+Jonathan Edwards on _Original Sin_. Her mother, Susannah Cook, was an
+exceedingly clever woman who transmitted both her beauty and her talent
+to her daughter. Their friends included Dr Alderson and his daughter Mrs
+Opie, Henry Crabbe Robinson, the Gurneys and Sir James Mackintosh. Sarah
+Taylor married in 1820 John Austin (q.v.). They lived in Queen Square,
+Westminster, where Mrs. Austin, whose tastes, unlike her husband's, were
+extremely sociable, gathered round her a large circle, Jeremy Bentham,
+James Mill and the Grotes being especially intimate. She received many
+Italian exiles, who found a real friend in her. In 1821 was born her
+only child, Lucie, afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon. Mrs. Austin never
+attempted any considerable original work, contenting herself chiefly
+with translations, of which the most important are the _History of the
+Reformation in Germany_ and the _History of the Popes_ (1840), from the
+German of Leopold von Ranke, _Report on the State of Public Instruction
+in Prussia_ (1834) from the French of V. Cousin, and F.W. Carove's _The
+Story without an End_ (1864). After her husband's death in 1859 she
+edited his _Lectures on Jurisprudence_. She also edited the _Memoirs of
+Sydney Smith_ (1855) and Lady Duff-Gordon's _Letters from Egypt_ (1865).
+She died at Weybridge on the 8th of August 1867.
+
+  See _Three Generations of Englishwomen_ (1888), by her grand-daughter,
+  Mrs Janet Ross.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836), American pioneer, was born in
+Austinville, Wythe county, Virginia, on the 3rd of November 1793. He was
+the son of Moses Austin (1767-1821), a native of Durham, Connecticut,
+who in 1820 obtained from Mexico a grant of land for an American colony
+in Texas, but died before he could carry out his project. The son was
+educated in New London, Connecticut, and at Transylvania University,
+Lexington, Kentucky, and settled in Missouri, where he was a member of
+the territorial legislature from 1813 to 1819. In 1819 he removed to
+Arkansas Territory, where he was appointed a circuit judge. After his
+father's death he obtained a confirmation of the Texas grants from the
+newly established Mexican government, and in 1821-1823 he established a
+colony of several hundred American families on the Brazos river, the
+principal town being named, in his honour, San Felipe de Austin. He was
+a firm defender of the rights of the Americans in Texas, and in 1833 he
+was sent to the city of Mexico to present a petition from a convention
+in Texas praying for the erection of a separate state government. While
+there, despairing of success for his petition, he wrote home
+recommending the organization of a state without waiting for the consent
+of the Mexican congress. This letter falling into the hands of the
+Mexican government, Austin, while returning home, was arrested at
+Saltillo, carried as a prisoner back to Mexico, and imprisoned for a
+year without trial. Returning to Texas in 1835, he found the Texans in
+armed revolt against Mexican rule, and was chosen commander-in-chief of
+the revolutionary forces, but after failing to take San Antonio he
+resigned the command, for which he had never considered himself fitted,
+and in November 1835 went to the United States as a commissioner to
+secure loans and supplies, and to learn the position the United States
+authorities would be likely to take in the event of a declaration of
+Texan independence. He succeeded in raising large sums, and received
+assurances that satisfied him that Americans would look with great
+favour on an independent Texas. Returning to Texas in the summer of
+1836, he became a candidate, rather reluctantly, for the presidency of
+the newly established republic of Texas, but was defeated by Samuel
+Houston, under whom he was secretary of state until his sudden death on
+the 7th of December 1836.
+
+  See _A Comprehensive History of Texas_, edited by D.G. Wooten (2
+  vols., Dallas, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, a city and the county-seat of Mower county, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
+on the Red Cedar river and Turtle creek, (by rail) 105 m. S. of
+Minneapolis and 100 m. from St Paul. Pop. (1900) 5474; (1905, state
+census) 6489 (913 foreign-born); (1910, U.S. census) 6960. It is served
+by the Chicago Great Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
+railways. Austin is the seat of the Southern Minnesota Normal College
+and Austin School of Commerce (1896), and has a Carnegie library, court
+house and city hall. It is a market for livestock, and for dairy and
+farm products, and has slaughtering and packing establishments, flour
+mills, creameries and cheese factories, canning and preserving
+factories, carriage works, a flax fibre mill and grain elevators. Brick,
+tile, sewer-pipe, and hydraulic cement are manufactured, and there are
+railway repair shops. A valuable water-power is utilized for
+manufacturing purposes. Fresh-water pearls of considerable value and
+beauty are found in the Red Cedar river. The city owns and operates its
+own water-supply system and electric-lighting plant. Austin was settled
+in 1855, was incorporated as a village in 1868, and was chartered as a
+city in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTIN, the capital of Texas, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Travis
+county, on the N. bank of the Colorado river, near the centre of the
+state and about 145 m. W.N.W. of Houston. Pop. (1890) 14,575; (1900)
+22,258, of whom 5822 were negroes; (1910 census) 29,860. Austin is
+served by the Houston & Texas Central, the International & Great
+Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. The city is built
+on high bluffs 40-120 ft. above the river, which is spanned here by a
+bridge, built in 1874. The Texas State Capitol, a handsome building of
+red Texas granite, with a dome 318 ft. high, cost more than $3,500,000,
+and stands in a square in the centre of the city. It was built
+(1881-1888) by Chicago capitalists in exchange for a land grant of
+3,000,000 acres. It is in the form of a Greek cross, with an extreme
+length of 556.5 ft. and an extreme width of 288.8 ft. Next to the
+National Capitol at Washington, it is the largest capitol building in
+the United States, and it is said to be one of the ten largest buildings
+in the world. Austin is the seat of the University of Texas (opened in
+1883; co-educational); the medical department of the state university is
+at Galveston, and the departments in Austin are the college of arts,
+department of education, department of engineering, department of law,
+school of pharmacy, and school of nursing. The government of the
+university is vested in a board of eight regents nominated by the
+governor and appointed with the advice and consent of the state senate.
+At Austin are also state institutions and asylums for the insane, the
+blind, the coloured deaf and blind; the state school for the deaf and
+dumb; the state Confederate home; the Confederate woman's home (1907;
+for wives and widows of Confederate soldiers and sailors), maintained by
+the Daughters of the Confederacy; St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic,
+under the supervision of the Sisters of the Holy Cross, founded 1875,
+chartered 1886); St Edward's College (Roman Catholic, chartered 1885);
+the Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary (Presbyterian Church,
+South), opened in 1902 by the Synod of Texas, and after 1905 partly
+controlled by the Synod of Arkansas; Tillotson College (a negro school
+under Congregational control, founded by the American Missionary
+Association, chartered in 1877, and opened in 1881), and Samuel Huston
+College (for negroes; Methodist Episcopal; opened in 1900 and named in
+honour of an Iowan benefactor). The principal newspapers of Austin are
+the _Statesman_ (Democratic, established in 1871), a morning paper, and
+the _Tribune_ (Democratic, established in 1891), an evening paper. The
+_Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society_ is published here.
+Austin is the principal trade and jobbing centre for central and western
+Texas, is an important market for livestock, cotton, grain and wool, and
+has extensive manufactories of flour, cotton-seed oil, leather goods,
+lumber and wooden ware; the value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$1,569,353, being 105.2% more than in 1900. The city owns and operates
+its water-supply system. In 1890-1893 one of the largest dams in the
+world, an immense structure of granite masonry, 1200 ft. long. 60-70 ft.
+high, and 18 to 66 ft. thick, was constructed across the Colorado river
+2 m. above the city for the purpose of supplying water and power,
+creating a reservoir (Lake M'Donald) about 30 m. long. Freshets in the
+spring of 1900, however, undermined the wall, and on the 7th of April
+the dam broke with a resulting loss of several lives and about
+$1,000,000 worth of property. The rebuilding of the dam was projected in
+1907. Austin was first settled in 1838 and was named Waterloo, but in
+1839, when it was chosen as the site of the capital of the Republic of
+Texas, it was renamed in honour of Stephen F. Austin, one of its
+founders. Under the influence of General Sam Houston the capital was for
+a time in 1842-1845 removed from Austin to Houston, but in 1845 an
+ordinance was passed making Austin the capital, and it remained the
+state capital after Texas entered the Union, although Huntsville and
+Tehuacana Springs in 1850 and Houston in 1872 attempted in popular
+elections to be chosen in its place. The first Anglo-American settlement
+in Texas, established on the Brazos river in 1823 by members of the
+Austin colony, was San Felipe de Austin now San Felipe. In 1909 Austin
+adopted a commission form of government.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTRALASIA, a term used by English geographers in a sense nearly
+synonymous with the Oceania of continental writers. It thus comprises
+all the insular groups which extend almost continuously from the
+south-eastern extremity of Asia to more than half-way across the
+Pacific. Its chief divisions are Malaysia with the Philippines;
+Australia with Tasmania and New Zealand; Melanesia, that is, New Guinea,
+New Britain, New Ireland, Admiralty, the Solomons, New Hebrides, Santa
+Cruz, Fiji, Loyalties and New Caledonia; Micronesia, that is, the
+Ladrones, Pelew and Carolines, with the Marshall and Gilbert groups;
+lastly, Polynesia, that is, Samoa, Tonga, Cook, Tahiti, the Marquesas,
+Ellice, Hawaii and all intervening clusters. The term is so far
+justified in that it harmonizes better than Oceania did with the names
+of the other continents, and also embodies the two essential facts that
+it is a south-eastern extension of Asia, and that its central and most
+important division is the great island-continent of Australia. In a more
+restricted sense the term Australasia corresponds to the large division
+including Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.
+
+  See _Australasia_, 2 vols. Stanford Compendium Series, new issue
+  (London, 1907-1908).
+
+
+
+
+AUSTRALIA, the only continent entirely in the southern hemisphere. It
+lies between 10 deg. 39' and 39 deg. 11-1/2' S., and between 113 deg. 5'
+and 153 deg. 16' E. Its greatest length is 2400 m. from east to west,
+and the greatest breadth 1971 m. from north to south. The area is,
+approximately, 2,946,691 sq. m., with a coast line measuring about 8850
+m. This is equal to 1 m. to each 333 sq. m. of land, the smallest
+proportion of coast shown by any of the continents.
+
+
+PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
+
+  General character.
+
+_Physiography._--The salient features of the Australian continent are
+its compact outline, the absence of navigable rivers communicating with
+the interior, the absence of active volcanoes or snow-capped mountains,
+its isolation from other lands, and its antiquity. Some of the most
+profound changes that have taken place on this globe occurred in
+Mesozoic times, and a great portion of Australia was already dry land
+when vast tracts of Europe and Asia were submerged; in this sense,
+therefore, Australia has been rightly referred to as one of the oldest
+existing land surfaces. It has been described as at once the largest
+island and the smallest continent on the globe. The general contours
+exemplify the law of geographers in regard to continents, viz. as to
+their having a high border around a depressed interior, and the highest
+mountains on the side of the greatest ocean. On the N. Australia is
+bounded by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait; on the E.
+by the Pacific Ocean; on the S. by Bass Strait and the Southern Ocean;
+and on the W. by the Indian Ocean. It stands up from the ocean depths in
+three fairly well-marked terraces. The basal plain of these terraces is
+the bed of the ocean, which on the Pacific side has an average depth of
+15,000 ft. From this profound foundation rise Australia, New Guinea and
+Melanesia, in varying slopes. The first ledge rising from the ocean
+floor has a depth averaging 8000 ft. below sea-level. The outer edge of
+this ledge is roughly parallel to the coast of Western Australia, and
+more than 150 m. from the land. Round the Australian Bight it continues
+parallel to the coast, until south of Spencer Gulf (the basal ledge
+still averaging 8000 ft. in depth) it sweeps southwards to lat. 55 deg.,
+and forms a submarine promontory 1000 m. long. The edge of the abysmal
+area comes close to the eastern coasts of Tasmania and New South Wales,
+approaching to within 60 m. of Cape Howe. The terrace closest to the
+land, known as the continental shelf, has an average depth of 600 ft.,
+and connects Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania in one unbroken sweep.
+Compared with other continents, the Australian continental shelf is
+extremely narrow, and there are points on the eastern coast where the
+land plunges down to oceanic depths with an abruptness rarely
+paralleled. Off the Queensland coast the shelf broadens, its outer edge
+being lined by the seaward face of the Great Barrier Reef. From Torres
+Strait to Dampier Land the shelf spreads out, and connects Australia
+with New Guinea and the Malay Archipelago. An elongation of the shelf to
+the south joins Tasmania with the mainland. The vertical relief of the
+land above the ocean is a very important factor in determining the
+climate as well as the distribution of the fauna and flora of a
+continent.
+
+  The land mass of Australia rises to a mean height much less than that
+  of any other continent; and the chief mountain systems are parallel
+  to, and not far from, the coast-line. Thus, taking the continent as a
+  whole, it may be described as a plateau, fringed by a low-lying
+  well-watered coast, with a depressed, and for the most part arid,
+  interior. A great plain, covering quite 500,000 sq. m., occupies a
+  position a little to the east of a meridional line bisecting the
+  continent, and south of the 22nd degree, but portions of it stretch
+  upwards to the low-lying country south of the Gulf of Carpentaria. The
+  contour of the continent in latitude 30 deg. 5' is as follows:--a short
+  strip of coastal plain; then a sharp incline rising to a mountain
+  range 4000 ft. above sea-level, at a distance of 40 m. from the coast.
+  From this a gently-sloping plateau extends to almost due north of
+  Spencer Gulf, at which point its height has fallen almost to
+  sea-level. Then there is a gentle rise to the low steppes, 500 to 1000
+  ft. above sea-level. A further gentle rise in the high steppes leads
+  to the mountains of the West Australian coast, and another strip of
+  low-lying coastal land to the sea.
+
+  With a circumference of 8000 m. Australia presents a contour
+  wonderfully devoid of inlets from the sea except on its northern
+  shores, where the coast-line is largely indented. The Gulf of
+  Carpentaria, situated in the north, is enclosed on the east by the
+  projection of Cape York, and on the west by Arnheim Land, and forms
+  the principal bay on the whole coast, measuring about 6 deg. of long.
+  by 6 deg. of lat. Farther to the west, Van Diemen's Gulf, though much
+  smaller, forms a better-protected bay, having Melville Island between
+  it and the ocean; while beyond this, Queen's Channel and Cambridge
+  Gulf form inlets about 14 deg. 50' S. On the north-west of the
+  continent the coast-line is much broken, the chief indentations being
+  Admiralty Gulf, Collier Bay and King Sound, on the shores of Tasman
+  Land. Western Australia, again, is not favoured with many inlets,
+  Exmouth Gulf and Shark's Bay being the only bays of any size. The same
+  remark may be made of the rest of the sea-board; for, with the
+  exception of Spencer Gulf, the Gulf of St Vincent and Port Phillip on
+  the south, and Moreton Bay, Hervey Bay and Broad Sound on the east,
+  the coast-line is singularly uniform. There are, however, numerous
+  spacious harbours, especially on the eastern coast, which are referred
+  to in the detailed articles dealing with the different states. The
+  Great Barrier Reef forms the prominent feature off the north-east
+  coast of Australia; its extent from north to south is 1200 m., and it
+  is therefore the greatest of all coral reefs. The channel between the
+  reef and the coast is in places 70 m. wide and 400 ft. deep. There are
+  a few clear openings in the outer rampart which the reef presents to
+  the ocean. These are opposite to the large estuaries of the Queensland
+  rivers, and might be thought to have been caused by fresh water from
+  the land. The breaks are, however, some 30 to 90 m. away from land and
+  more probably were caused by subsidence; the old river-channels known
+  to exist below sea-level, as well as the former land connexion with
+  New Guinea, seem to point to the conditions assumed in Darwin's
+  well-known subsidence theory, and any facts that appear to be
+  inconsistent with the theory of a steady and prolonged subsidence are
+  explainable by the assumption of a slight upheaval.
+
+  With the exception of Tasmania there are no important islands
+  belonging geographically to Australia, for New Guinea, Timor and other
+  islands of the East Indian archipelago, though not removed any great
+  distance from the continent, do not belong to its system. On the east
+  coast there are a few small and unimportant islands. In Bass Strait
+  are Flinders Island, about 800 sq. m. in area, Clarke Island, and a
+  few other small islands. Kangaroo Island, at the entrance of St
+  Vincent Gulf, is one of the largest islands on the Australian coast,
+  measuring 80 m. from east to west with an average width of 20 m.
+  Numerous small islands lie off the western coast, but none has any
+  commercial importance. On the north coast are Melville and Bathurst
+  Islands; the former, which is 75 m. long and 38 m. broad, is fertile
+  and well watered. These islands are opposite Port Darwin, and to the
+  westward of the large inlet known as Van Diemen's Gulf. In the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria are numerous islands, the largest bearing the Dutch name
+  of Groote Eylandt.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  Along the full length of the eastern coast extends a succession of
+  mountain chains. The vast Cordillera of the Great Dividing Range
+  originates in the south-eastern corner of the continent, and runs
+  parallel with and close to the eastern shore, through the states of
+  Victoria and New South Wales, right up to the far-distant York
+  Peninsula in Queensland. In Victoria the greatest elevation is reached
+  in the peaks of Mount Bogong (6508 ft.) and Mount Feathertop (6303
+  ft.), both of which lie north of the Dividing Range; in the main range
+  Mount Hotham (6100 ft.) and Mount Cobberas (6025 ft.) are the highest
+  summits. In New South Wales, but close to the Victorian border, are
+  found the loftiest peaks of Australia, Mount Kosciusco and Mount
+  Townsend, rising to heights of 7328 and 7260 ft. respectively. The
+  range is here called the Muniong, but farther north it receives the
+  name of Monaro Range; the latter has a much reduced altitude, its
+  average being only about 2000 ft. As the tableland runs northward it
+  decreases both in height and width, until it narrows to a few miles
+  only, with an elevation of scarcely 1500 ft.; under the name of the
+  Blue Mountains the plateau widens again and increases in altitude, the
+  chief peaks being Mount Clarence (4000 ft.), Mount Victoria (3525
+  ft.), and Mount Hay (3270 ft.). The Dividing Range decreases north of
+  the Blue Mountains, until as a mere ridge it divides the waters of the
+  coastal rivers from those flowing to the Darling. The mass widens out
+  once more in the Liverpool Range, where the highest peak, Mount Oxley,
+  reaches 4500 ft., and farther north, in the New England Range, Ben
+  Lomond reaches an elevation of 5000 ft. Near the Queensland border,
+  Mount Lindsay, in the Macpherson Range, rises to a height of 5500 ft.
+  In the latitude of Brisbane the chain swerves inland; no other peak
+  north of this reaches higher than Mount Bartle Frere in the Bellenden
+  Ker Range (5438 ft.). The Southern Ocean system of the Victorian
+  Dividing Range hardly attains to the dignity of high mountains. An
+  eastern system in South Australia touches at a few points a height of
+  3000 ft.; and the Stirling Range, belonging to the south-western
+  system of South Australia, reaches to 2340 ft. There are no mountains
+  behind the Great Australian Bight. On the west the Darling Range faces
+  the Indian Ocean, and extends from Point D'Entrecasteaux to the
+  Murchison river. North of the Murchison, Mount Augustus and Mount
+  Bruce, with their connecting highlands, cut off the coastal drainage
+  from the interior; but no point on the north-west coast reaches a
+  greater altitude than 4000 ft. Several minor ranges, the topography of
+  which is little known, extend from Cambridge Gulf, behind a very much
+  broken coast-line, to Limmen Bight on the Gulf of Carpentaria. Nothing
+  is more remarkable than the contrast between the aspect of the coastal
+  ranges on the north-east and on the south-east of the continent. The
+  higher Australian peaks in the south-east look just what they are, the
+  worn and denuded stumps of mountains, standing for untold ages above
+  the sea. Their shoulders are lifted high above the tree-line. Their
+  summits stand out gaunt and lonely in an unbroken solitude. Having
+  left the tree-line far behind him, nothing is visible to the traveller
+  for miles around but barren peaks and torn crags in indescribable
+  confusion. A verdure of herbage clothes the valleys that have been
+  scooped from the summits downwards. But there are no perpetual
+  snow-fields, no glaciers creep down these valleys, and no alpine
+  hamlets ever appear to break the monotony. The mountains of the
+  north-east, on the contrary, are clothed to their summits with a rich
+  and varied flora. Naked crags, when they do appear, lift themselves
+  from a sea of green, and a tropical vegetation, quite Malaysian in
+  character, covers everything.
+
+  The absence of active volcanoes in Australia is a state of things, in
+  a geological sense, quite new to the continent. Some of the volcanoes
+  of the western districts of Victoria have been in eruption probably
+  subsequent to the advent of the black-fellow. In some instances the
+  cones are quite intact, and the beds of ash and scoriae are as yet
+  almost unaffected by denuding agencies. Late in the Tertiary period
+  vast sheets of lava poured from many points of the Great Dividing
+  Range of eastern Australia. But it is notable that all recent volcanic
+  action was confined to a wide belt parallel to the coast. No evidences
+  of recent lava flows can be found in the interior over the great
+  alluvial plain, the Lower, or the Higher Steppes. Nor has the
+  continent, as a whole, in recent times been subjected to any violent
+  earth tremors; though in 1873, to the north of Lake Amadeus, in
+  central Australia, Ernest Giles records the occurrence of earthquake
+  shocks violent enough to dislodge considerable rock masses.
+
+  Australia possesses one mountain which, though not a volcano, is a
+  "burning mountain." This is Mount Wingen, situated in a spur of the
+  Liverpool Range and close to the town of Scone. Its fires are not
+  volcanic, but result from the combustion of coal some distance
+  underground, giving off much smoke and steam; geologists estimate that
+  the burning has been going on for at least 800 years.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  The coastal belt of Australia is everywhere well watered, with the
+  exception of the country around the Great Australian Bight and Spencer
+  Gulf. Flowing into the Pacific Ocean on the east coast there are some
+  fine rivers, but the majority have short and rapid courses. In
+  Queensland a succession of rivers falls into the Pacific from Cape
+  York to the southern boundary of the state. The Burdekin is the finest
+  of these, draining an area of 53,500 sq. m., and emptying into Upstart
+  Bay; it receives numerous tributaries in its course, and carries a
+  large body of fresh water even in the driest seasons. The Fitzroy
+  river is the second in point of size; it drains an area of 55,600 sq.
+  m., and receives several tributary streams during its course to Keppel
+  Bay. The Brisbane river, falling into Moreton Bay, is important
+  chiefly from the fact that the city of Brisbane is situated on its
+  banks. In New South Wales there are several important rivers, the
+  largest of which is the Hunter, draining 11,000 sq. m., and having a
+  course of 200 m. Taking them from north to south, the principal rivers
+  are the Richmond, Clarence, Macleay, Hastings, Manning, Hunter,
+  Hawkesbury and Shoalhaven. The Snowy river has the greater part of its
+  course in New South Wales, but its mouth and the last 120 m. are in
+  Victoria. The other rivers worth mentioning are the Yarra, entering
+  the sea at Port Phillip, Hopkins and Glenelg. The Murray (q.v.), the
+  greatest river of Australia, debouches into Lake Alexandrina, and
+  thence into the sea at Encounter Bay in South Australia. There are no
+  other rivers of importance in South Australia, but the Torrens and the
+  Gawler may be mentioned. Westward of South Australia, on the shores of
+  the Australian Bight, there is a stretch of country 300 m. in length
+  unpierced by any streams, large or small, but west of the bight,
+  towards Cape Leeuwin, some small rivers enter the sea. The south-west
+  coast is watered by a few streams, but none of any size; amongst these
+  is the Swan, upon which Perth, the capital of Western Australia, is
+  built. Between the Swan and North-West Cape the principal rivers are
+  the Greenough, Murchison and Gascoyne; on the north-west coast, the
+  Ashburton, Fortescue and De Grey; and in the Kimberley district, the
+  Fitzroy, Panton, Prince Regent and the Ord. In the Northern Territory
+  are several fine rivers. The Victoria river is navigable for large
+  vessels for a distance of about 43 m. from the sea, and small vessels
+  may ascend for another 80 m. The Fitzmaurice, discharging into the
+  estuary of the Victoria, is also a large stream. The Daly, which in
+  its upper course is called the Katherine, is navigable for a
+  considerable distance, and small vessels are able to ascend over 100
+  m. The Adelaide, discharging into Adam Bay, has been navigated by
+  large vessels for about 38 m., and small vessels ascend still farther.
+  The South Alligator river, flowing into Van Diemen's Gulf, is also a
+  fine stream, navigable for over 30 m. by large vessels; the East
+  Alligator river, falling into the same gulf, has been navigated for 40
+  m. Besides those mentioned, there are a number of smaller rivers
+  discharging on the north coast, and on the west shore of the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria the Roper river discharges itself into Limmen Bight. The
+  Roper is a magnificent stream, navigable for about 75 or 80 m. by
+  vessels of the largest tonnage, and light draught vessels can ascend
+  20 m. farther. Along the portion of the south shore of the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria which belongs to Queensland and the east coast, many large
+  rivers discharge their waters, amongst them the Norman, Flinders,
+  Leichhardt, Albert and Gregory on the southern shore, and the Batavia,
+  Archer, Coleman, Mitchell, Staaten and Gilbert on the eastern shore.
+  The rivers flowing into the Gulf of Carpentaria, as well as those in
+  the Northern Territory, drain country which is subject to regular
+  monsoonal rains, and have the general characteristics of sub-tropical
+  rivers.
+
+  The network of streams forming the tributaries of the Darling and
+  Murray system give an idea of a well-watered country. The so-called
+  rivers have a strong flow only after heavy rains, and some of them do
+  not ever reach the main drainage line. Flood waters disappear often
+  within a distance of a few miles, being absorbed by porous soil,
+  stretches of sand, and sometimes by the underlying bed-rocks. In many
+  cases the rivers as they approach the main stream break up into
+  numerous branches, or spread their waters over vast flats. This is
+  especially the case with the tributaries of the Darling on its left
+  bank, where in seasons of great rains these rivers overspread their
+  banks and flood the flat country for miles around and thus reach the
+  main stream. Lieutenant John Oxley went down the Lachlan (1817) during
+  one of these periods of flood, and the great plains appeared to him to
+  be the fringe of a vast inland sea. As a matter of fact, they are an
+  alluvial deposit spread out by the same flood waters. The great rivers
+  of Australia, draining inland, carve out valleys, dissolve limestone,
+  and spread out their deposit over the plains when the waters become
+  too sluggish to bear their burden farther. From a geological
+  standpoint, the Great Australian Plain and the fertile valley of the
+  Nile have had a similar origin. Taking the Lachlan as one type of
+  Australian river, we find it takes its rise amongst the precipitous
+  and almost unexplored valleys of the Great Dividing Range. With the
+  help of its tributaries it acts as a denuding agent for 14,000 sq. m.
+  of country, and carries its burden of sediment westwards. A point is
+  reached about 200 m. from the Dividing Range, where the river ceases
+  to act as a denuding agent, and the area of deposition begins, at a
+  level of 250 ft. above the sea, but before the waters can reach the
+  ocean they have still to travel about 1000 m.
+
+  The Darling is reckoned amongst the longest rivers in the world, for
+  it is navigable, part of the year, from Walgett to its confluence with
+  the Murray, 1758 m., and then to the sea, a further distance of 587
+  m.--making in all 2345 m. of navigable water. But this gives no
+  correct idea of the true character of the Darling, for it can hardly
+  be said to drain its own watershed. From the sources of its various
+  tributaries to the town of Bourke, the river may be described as
+  draining a watershed. But from Bourke to the sea, 550 m. in a direct
+  line, the river gives rather than receives water from the country it
+  flows through.
+
+  The annual rainfall and the area of the catchment afford no measure
+  whatever as to the size of a river in the interior of Australia. The
+  discharge of the Darling river at Bourke does not amount to more than
+  10% of the rainfall over the country which it drains. It was this
+  remarkable fact which first led to the idea that, as the rainfall
+  could not be accounted for either by evaporation or by the river
+  discharge, much of the 90% unaccounted for must sink into the ground,
+  and in part be absorbed by some underlying bed-rock. All Australian
+  rivers, except the Murray and the Murrumbidgee, depend entirely and
+  directly on the rainfall. They are flooded after rain, and in seasons
+  of drought many of them, especially the tributaries of the Darling,
+  become chains of ponds. Springs which would equalize the discharge of
+  rivers by continuing to pour water into their beds after the rainy
+  season has passed seem entirely absent in the interior. Nor are there
+  any snowfields to feed rivers, as in the other continents. More
+  remarkable still, over large tracts of country the water seems
+  disposed to flow away from, rather than to, the river-beds. As the
+  low-lying plains are altogether an alluvial deposit, the coarser
+  sediments accumulate in the regions where the river first overflows
+  its banks to spread out over the plains. The country nearest the river
+  receiving the heaviest deposit becomes in this way the highest ground,
+  and so continues until a "break-away" occurs, when a new river-bed is
+  formed, and the same process of deposition and accumulation is
+  repeated. As the general level of the country is raised by successive
+  alluvial deposits, the more ancient river-beds become buried, but
+  being still connected with the newer rivers at some point or other,
+  they continue to absorb water. This underground network of old
+  river-beds underlying the great alluvial plains must be filled to
+  repletion before flood waters will flow over the surface. It is not
+  surprising, therefore, that comparatively little of the rainfall over
+  the vast extent of the great central plain ever reaches the sea by way
+  of the river systems; indeed these systems as usually shown on the
+  maps leave a false impression as to the actual condition of things.
+
+
+    Steppes.
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  The great alluvial plain is one of Australia's most notable inland
+  features; its extent is upwards of 500,000 sq. m., lying east of 135
+  deg. W. and extending right across the continent from the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria to the Murray river. The interior of the continent west of
+  135 deg. and north of the Musgrave ranges is usually termed by
+  geographers the Australian Steppes. It is entirely different in all
+  essential features from the great alluvial plains. Its prevailing
+  aspect is characterized by flat and terraced hills, capped by desert
+  sandstone, with stone-covered flats stretching over long distances.
+  The country round Lake Eyre, where some of the land is actually below
+  sea-level, comes under this heading. The higher steppes, as far as
+  they are known, consist of Ordovician and Cambrian rocks, with an
+  average elevation of 1500 to 3000 ft. above sea-level. Over this
+  country water-courses are shown on maps. These run in wet seasons, but
+  in every instance for a short distance only, and sooner or later they
+  are lost in sand-hills, where their waters disappear and a line of
+  stunted gum-trees (_Eucalyptus rostrata_) is all that is present to
+  indicate that there may be even a soakage to mark the abandoned
+  course. The steppes cover a surface of 400,000 sq. m., and from this
+  vast expanse not a drop of the scanty rainfall reaches the sea; there
+  is no leading drainage system and there are no rivers. Another notable
+  feature of the interior is the so-called lake area, a district
+  stretching to the north of Spencer Gulf. These lakes are expanses of
+  brackish waters that spread or contract as the season is one of
+  drought or rain. In seasons of drought they are hardly more than
+  swamps and mud flats, which for a time may become a grassy plain, or
+  desolate coast encrusted with salt. The country around is the
+  dreariest imaginable, the surface is a dead level, there is no heavy
+  timber and practically no settlement. Lake Torrens, the largest of
+  these depressions, sometimes forms a sheet of water 100 m. in length.
+  To the north again stretches Lake Eyre, and to the west Lake Gairdner.
+  Some of these lake-beds are at or slightly below sea-level, so that a
+  very slight depression of the land to the south of them would connect
+  much of the interior with the Southern Ocean.     (T. A. C.)
+
+  _Geology._--The states of Australia are divided by natural boundaries,
+  which separate geographical areas having different characters, owing,
+  mainly, to their different geological structures. Hence the general
+  stratigraphical geology can be most conveniently summarized for each
+  state separately, dealing here with the geological history of
+  Australia as a whole. Australia is essentially the fragment of a great
+  plateau land of Archean rocks. It consists in the main of an Archean
+  block or "coign," which still occupies nearly the whole of the western
+  half of the continent, outcrops in north-eastern Queensland, forms the
+  foundation of southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria, and is
+  exposed in western Victoria, in Tasmania, and in the western flank of
+  the Southern Alps of New Zealand. These areas of Archean rocks were
+  doubtless once continuous. But they have been separated by the
+  foundering of the Coral Sea and the Tasman Sea, which divided the
+  continent of Australia from the islands of the Australasian festoon;
+  and the foundering of the band across Australia, from the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria, through western Queensland and western New South Wales,
+  to the lower basin of the Murray, has separated the Archean areas of
+  eastern and western Australia. The breaking up of the old Archean
+  foundation block began in Cambrian and Ordovician times. A narrow
+  Cambrian sea must have extended across central Australia from the
+  Kimberley Goldfield in the north-west, through Tempe Downs and the
+  Macdonnell chain in central Australia, to the South Australian
+  highlands, central Victoria at Mansfield, and northern Tasmania.
+  Cambrian rocks occur in each of these districts, and they are best
+  developed in the South Australian highlands, where they include a long
+  belt of contemporary glacial deposits. Marine Ordovician rocks were
+  deposited along the same general course. They are best developed in
+  the Macdonnell chain in central Australia and in Victoria, where the
+  fullest sequence is known; while they also extended north-eastward
+  from Victoria into New South Wales, where, as yet, no Cambrian rocks
+  have been found. The Silurian system was marked by the retreat of the
+  sea from central Australia; but the sea still covered a band across
+  Victoria, from the coast to the Murray basin, passing to the east of
+  Melbourne. This Silurian sea was less extensive than the Ordovician in
+  Victoria; but it appears to have been wider in New South Wales and in
+  Queensland. The best Silurian sequence is in New South Wales. Silurian
+  rocks are well developed in western Tasmania, and the Silurian sea
+  must have washed the south-western corner of the continent, if the
+  rocks of the Stirling Range be rightly identified as of this age.
+
+  [Illustration: Geological map of Australia.]
+
+  The Devonian system includes a complex series of deposits, which are
+  of most interest in eastern Australia. This period was marked by
+  intense earth movements, which affected the whole of the east
+  Australian highlands. The Lower Devonian beds are in the main
+  terrestrial, or coarse littoral deposits, and volcanic rocks. The
+  Middle Devonian was marked by the same great transgression as in
+  Europe and America; it produced inland seas, extending into Victoria,
+  New South Wales and Queensland, in which were deposited limestones
+  with a rich coral fauna. The Upper Devonian was a period of marine
+  retreat; the crustal disturbances of the Lower Devonian were renewed
+  and great quartz-pebble beaches were formed on the rising shore lines,
+  producing the West Coast Range conglomerates of Tasmania, and the
+  similar rocks to the south-east of Mansfield in Victoria. Intrusions
+  of granitic _massifs_ in the Devonian period formed the primitive
+  mountain axis of Victoria, which extends east and west across the
+  state and forms the nucleus of the Victorian highlands. Similar
+  granitic intrusions occurred in New South Wales and Queensland, and
+  built up a mountain chain, which ran north and south across the
+  continent; its worn-down stumps now form the east Australian
+  highlands.
+
+  The Carboniferous period began with a marine transgression, enabling
+  limestones to form in Tasmania and New South Wales; and at the same
+  time the sea first got in along the western edge of the western
+  plateau, depositing the Carboniferous rocks of the Gascoyne basin and
+  the coastal plain of north-western Australia. The Upper Carboniferous
+  period was in the main terrestrial, and during it were laid down the
+  coal-seams of New South Wales; they are best developed in the basin of
+  the Hunter river, and they extend southward, covered by Mesozoic
+  deposits, beyond Sydney. The Coal Measures become narrower in the
+  south, until, owing to the eastward projection of the highlands, the
+  Lower Palaeozoic rocks reach the coast. The coal-seams must have been
+  formed in well-watered, lowland forests, at the foot of a high
+  mountain range, built up by the Devonian earth movements. The
+  mountains both in Victoria and New South Wales were snow-capped, and
+  glaciers flowed down their flanks and laid down Carboniferous glacial
+  deposits, which are still preserved in basins that flank the mountain
+  ranges, such as the famous conglomerates of Bacchus Marsh, Heathcote
+  and the Loddon valley in Victoria, and of Branxton and other
+  localities in New South Wales. The age of the glacial deposits is
+  later than the _Glossopteris_ flora and occurs early in the time of
+  the _Gangamopteris_ flora. Kitson's work in Tasmania shows that there
+  also the glacial beds may be correlated with the lower or Greta Coal
+  Measures of New South Wales.
+
+  The Permian deposits are best developed in New South Wales and
+  Tasmania, where their characters show the continuation of the
+  Carboniferous conditions. The Mesozoic begins with a Triassic land
+  period in the mainland of Australia; while the islands of the
+  Australasian festoon contain the Triassic marine limestones, which
+  fringe the whole of the Pacific. The Triassic beds are best known in
+  New South Wales, where round Sydney they include a series of
+  sandstones and shales. They also occur in northern Tasmania.
+
+  The Jurassic system is represented by two types. In Victoria,
+  Tasmania, northern New South Wales and Queensland, there are Jurassic
+  terrestrial deposits, containing the coal seams of Victoria, of the
+  Clarence basin of north-eastern New South Wales, and of the Ipswich
+  series in Queensland; the same beds range far inland on the western
+  slopes of the east Australian highlands in New South Wales and
+  Queensland and they occur, with coal-seams, at Leigh's Creek, at the
+  northern foot of the South Australian highlands. They are also
+  preserved in basins on the western plateau, as shown by brown coal
+  deposits passed through in the Lake Phillipson bore. The second and
+  marine type of the Jurassics occurs in Western Australia, on the
+  coastal plain skirting the western foot of the western plateau.
+
+  The Cretaceous period was initiated by the subsidence of a large area
+  to the south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, whereby a Lower Cretaceous
+  sea spread southward, across western Queensland, western New South
+  Wales and the north-eastern districts of South Australia. In this sea
+  were laid down the shales of the Rolling Downs formation. The sea does
+  not appear to have extended completely across Australia, breaking it
+  into halves, for a projection from the Archean plateau of Western
+  Australia extended as far east as the South Australian highlands, and
+  thence probably continued eastward, till it joined the Victorian
+  highlands. The Cretaceous sea gradually receded and the plains of the
+  Rolling Downs formation formed on its floor were covered by the
+  sub-aerial and lacustrine deposits of the Desert Sandstone.
+
+  The Kainozoic period opened with fresh earth movements, the most
+  striking evidence of which are the volcanic outbreaks all round the
+  Australian coasts. These movements in the south-east formed the Great
+  Valley of Victoria, which traverses nearly the whole of the state
+  between the Victorian highlands to the north, and the Jurassic
+  sandstones of the Otway Ranges and the hills of south Gippsland. In
+  this valley were laid down, either in Eocene or Oligocene times, a
+  great series of lake beds and thick accumulations of brown coal.
+  Similar deposits, of approximately the same age, occur in Tasmania and
+  New Zealand; and at about the same time there began the Kainozoic
+  volcanic period of Australasia. The first eruptions piled up huge
+  domes of lavas rich in soda, including the geburite-dacites and
+  solvsbergites of Mount Macedon in Victoria, and the kenyte and
+  tephrite domes of Dunedin, in New Zealand. These rocks were followed
+  by the outpouring of the extensive older basalts in the Great Valley
+  of Victoria and on the highlands of eastern Victoria, and also in New
+  South Wales and Queensland. Then followed a marine transgression along
+  most of the southern coast of Australia. The sea encroached far on the
+  land from the Great Australian Bight and there formed the limestones
+  of the Nullarbor Plains. The sea extended up the Murray basin into the
+  western plains of New South Wales. Farther east the sea was
+  interrupted by the still existing land-connexion between Tasmania and
+  Victoria; but beyond it, the marine deposits are found again, fringing
+  the coasts of eastern Gippsland and Croajingolong. These marine
+  deposits are not found anywhere along the eastern coast of Australia;
+  but they occur, and reach about the same height above sea-level, in
+  New Guinea, and are widely developed in New Zealand. No doubt eastern
+  Australia then extended far out into the Tasman Sea. The great
+  monoclinal fold which formed the eastern face of the east Australian
+  highlands, west of Sydney, is of later age. After this marine period
+  was brought to a close the sea retreated. Tasmania and Victoria were
+  separated by the foundering of Bass Strait, and at the same time the
+  formation of the rift valley of Spencer Gulf, and Lake Torrens,
+  isolated the South Australian highlands from the Eyre Peninsula and
+  the Westralian plateau. Earth movements are still taking place both
+  along Bass Strait and the Great Valley of South Australia, and
+  apparently along the whole length of the southern coast of Australia.
+
+  _The Flowing Wells of Central Australia._--The clays of the Rolling
+  Downs formation overlie a series of sands and drifts, saturated with
+  water under high pressure, which discharges at the surface as a
+  flowing well, when a borehole pierces the impermeable cover. The first
+  of these wells was opened at Kallara in the west of New South Wales in
+  1880. In 1882, Dr W.L. Jack concluded that western Queensland might be
+  a deep artesian basin. The Blackhall bore, put down at his advice from
+  1885 to 1888, reached a water-bearing layer at the depth of 1645 ft.
+  and discharged 291,000 gallons a day. It was the first of the deep
+  artesian wells of the continent. As the plains on the Rolling Downs
+  formation are mostly waterless, the discovery of this deep reservoir
+  of water has been of great aid in the development of central
+  Australia. In Queensland to the 30th of June 1904, 973 wells had been
+  sunk, of which 596 were flowing wells, and the total flow was
+  62,635,722 cub. ft. a day. The deepest well is that at Whitewood, 5046
+  ft. deep. In New South Wales by the 30th of June 1903, the government
+  had put down 101 bores producing 66 flowing wells and 22 sub-artesian
+  wells, with a total discharge of 54,000,000 gallons a day; and there
+  were also 144 successful private wells. In South Australia there are
+  38 deep bores, from 20 of which there is a flow of 6,250,000 gallons a
+  day.
+
+  The wells were first called artesian in the belief that the ascent of
+  the water in them was due to the hydrostatic pressure of water at a
+  higher level in the Queensland hills. The well-water was supposed to
+  have percolated underground, through the Blythesdale Braystone, which
+  outcrops in patches on the eastern edge of the Rolling Downs
+  formation. But the Blythesdale Braystone is a small local formation,
+  unable to supply all the wells that have been sunk; and many of the
+  wells derive their water from the Jurassic shales and mudstones. The
+  difference in level between the outcrop of the assumed eastern intake
+  and of the wells is often so small, in comparison with their distance
+  apart, that the friction would completely sop up the whole of the
+  available hydrostatic head. Many of the well-waters contain gases;
+  thus the town of Roma is lighted by natural gas which escapes from its
+  well. The chemical characters of the well-waters, the irregular
+  distribution of the water-pressure, the distribution of the
+  underground thermal gradients, and the occurrence in some of the wells
+  of a tidal rise and fall of a varying period, are facts which are not
+  explained on the simple hydrostatic theory. J.W. Gregory has
+  maintained (_Dead Heart of Australia_, 1906, pp. 273-341) that the
+  ascent of water in these wells is due to the tension of the included
+  gases and the pressure of overlying sheets of rocks, and that some of
+  the water is of plutonic origin.[1]     (J. W. G.)
+
+_Climate._--The Australian continent, extending over 28 deg. of
+latitude, might be expected to show a considerable diversity of climate.
+In reality, however, it experiences fewer climatic variations than the
+other great continents, owing to its distance (28 deg.) from the
+Antarctic circle and (11 deg.) from the equator. There is, besides, a
+powerful determining cause in the uniform character and undivided extent
+of its dry interior. The plains and steppes already described lie either
+within or close to the tropics. They present to the fierce play of the
+sun almost a level surface, so that during the day that surface becomes
+intensely heated and at night gives off its heat by radiation.
+Ordinarily the alternate expansion and contraction of the atmosphere
+which takes place under such circumstances would draw in a supply of
+moisture from the ocean, but the heated interior, covering some 900,000
+sq. m., is so immense, that the moist air from the ocean does not come
+in sufficient supply, nor are there mountain chains to intercept the
+clouds which from time to time are formed; so that two-fifths of
+Australia, comprising a region stretching from the Australian Bight to
+20 deg. S. and from 117 deg. to 142 deg. E., receives less than an
+average of 10 in. of rain throughout the year, and a considerable
+portion of this region has less than 5 in. No part of Victoria and very
+little of Queensland and New South Wales lie within this area. The rest
+of the continent may be considered as well watered. The north-west
+coast, particularly the portions north of Cambridge Gulf and the shores
+of the Gulf of Carpentaria, are favoured with an annual visitation of
+the monsoon from December to March, penetrating as far as 500 m. into
+the continent, and sweeping sometimes across western and southern
+Queensland to the northern interior of New South Wales. It is this
+tropical downpour that fills and floods the rivers flowing into Lake
+Eyre and those falling into the Darling on its right bank. The whole of
+the east coast of the continent is well watered. From Cape York almost
+to the tropic of Capricorn the rainfall exceeds 50 in. and ranges to
+over 70 in. At Brisbane the fall is 50 in., and portions of the New
+South Wales coast receive a like quantity, but speaking generally the
+fall is from 30 in. to 40 in. The southern shores of the continent
+receive much less rain. From Cape Howe to Melbourne the fall may be
+taken at from 30 in. to 40 in., Melbourne itself having an average of
+25.6 in. West of Port Phillip the fall is less, averaging 20 in. to 30
+in., diminishing greatly away from the coast. Along the shores of
+Encounter Bay and St Vincent and Spencer Gulfs, the precipitation ranges
+from 10 to 20 in., the yearly rainfall at Adelaide is a little less than
+21 in., while the head of Spencer Gulf is within the 5 to 10 in.
+district. The rest of the southern coast west as far as 124 deg. E.,
+with the exception of the southern projection of Eyre Peninsula, which
+receives from 10 to 20 in., belongs to the district with from 5 to 10
+in. annual rainfall. The south-western angle of the continent, bounded
+by a line drawn diagonally from Jurien river to Cape Riche, has an
+average of from 30 to 40 in. annual rainfall, diminishing to about 20 to
+30 in. in the country along the diagonal line. The remainder of the
+south and west coast from 124 deg. E. to York Sound in the Kimberley
+district for a distance of some 150 m. inland has a fall ranging from 10
+to 20 in. The 10 to 20 in. rainfall band circles across the continent
+through the middle of the Northern Territory, embraces the entire centre
+and south-west of Queensland, with the exception of the extreme
+south-western angle of the state, and includes the whole of the interior
+of New South Wales to a line about 200 m. from the coast, as well as the
+western and northern portions of Victoria and South Australia south of
+the Murray.
+
+  The area of Australia subject to a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in. is
+  843,000 sq. m. On the seaward side of this area in the north and east
+  is the 20 to 30 in. annual rainfall area, and still nearer the sea are
+  the exceptionally well-watered districts. The following table shows
+  the area of the rainfall zones in square miles:--
+
+                           Rainfall Area
+       Rainfall.             in sq. m.
+
+     Under 10 inches         1,219,600
+     10 to 20   "              843,100
+     20 to 30   "              399,900
+     30 to 40   "              225,700
+     40 to 50   "              140,300
+     50 to 60   "               47,900
+     60 to 70   "               56,100
+     Over 70    "               14,100
+                             ---------
+                    Total    2,946,700
+
+  The tropic of Capricorn divides Australia into two parts. Of these the
+  northern or intertropical portion contains 1,145,000 sq. m.,
+  comprising half of Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the
+  north-western divisions of Western Australia. The whole of New South
+  Wales, Victoria and South Australia proper, half of Queensland, and
+  more than half of Western Australia, comprising 1,801,700 sq. m., are
+  without the tropics. In a region so extensive very great varieties of
+  climate are naturally to be expected, but it may be stated as a
+  general law that the climate of Australia is milder than that of
+  corresponding lands in the northern hemisphere. During July, which is
+  the coldest month in southern latitudes, one-half of Australia has a
+  mean temperature ranging from 45 deg. to 61 deg., and the other half
+  from 62 deg. to 80 deg. The following are the areas subject to the
+  various average temperatures during the month referred to:--
+
+        Temperature              Area
+           Fahr.               in sq. m.
+
+      45 deg.-50 deg.           18,800
+      50 deg.-55 deg.          506,300
+      55 deg.-60 deg.          681,800
+      60 deg.-65 deg.          834,400
+      65 deg.-70 deg.          515,000
+      70 deg.-75 deg.          275,900
+      75 deg.-80 deg.           24,500
+
+  The temperature in December ranges from 60 deg. to above 95 deg.
+  Fahr., half of Australia having a mean temperature below 84 deg.
+  Dividing the land into zones of average summer temperature, the
+  following are the areas which would fall to each:--
+
+        Temperature              Area
+           Fahr.               in sq. m.
+
+      60 deg.-65 deg.           67,800
+      65 deg.-70 deg.           63,700
+      70 deg.-75 deg.          352,300
+      75 deg.-80 deg.          439,200
+      80 deg.-85 deg.          733,600
+      85 deg.-90 deg.          570,600
+      90 deg.-95 deg.          584,100
+      95 deg. and over         135,400
+
+  Judging from the figures just given, it must be conceded that a
+  considerable area of the continent is not adapted for colonization by
+  European races. The region with a mean summer temperature in excess of
+  95 deg. Fahr. is the interior of the Northern Territory north of the
+  20th parallel; and the whole of the country, excepting the seaboard,
+  lying between the meridians of 120 deg. and 140 deg., and north of the
+  25th parallel, has a mean temperature in excess of 90 deg. Fahr.
+
+
+    Queensland.
+
+  The area of Australia is so large that the characteristics of its
+  climate will not be understood without reference to the individual
+  states. About one-half of the colony of Queensland lies in the
+  tropics, the remaining area lying between the tropic and 29 deg. S.
+  The temperature, however, has a daily range less than that of other
+  countries under the same isothermal lines. This circumstance is due to
+  the sea-breezes, which blow with great regularity, and temper what
+  would otherwise be an excessive heat. The hot winds which prevail
+  during the summer in some of the other colonies are unknown in
+  Queensland. Of course, in a territory of such large extent there are
+  many varieties of climate, and the heat is greater along the coast
+  than on the elevated lands of the interior. In the northern parts of
+  the colony the high temperature is very trying to persons of European
+  descent. The mean temperature at Brisbane, during December, January
+  and February, is about 76 deg., while during the months of June, July
+  and August it averages about 60 deg. Brisbane, however, is situated
+  near the extreme southern end of the colony, and its average
+  temperature is considerably less than that of many of the towns
+  farther north. Thus the winter in Rockhampton averages nearly 65 deg.,
+  while the summer heat rises almost to 85 deg.; and at Townsville and
+  Normanton the average temperature is still higher. The average
+  rainfall along the coast is high, especially in the north, where it
+  ranges from 60 to 70 in. per annum, and along a strip of country south
+  from Cape Melville to Rockingham Bay the average rainfall exceeds 70
+  in. At Brisbane the rainfall is about 50 in., taking an average of
+  forty years. A large area of the interior is watered to the extent of
+  20 to 30 in. per annum, but in the west and south, more remote than
+  from 250 to 300 m., there is a rainfall of less than 20 in.
+
+
+    New South Wales.
+
+  Climatically, New South Wales is divided into three marked divisions.
+  The coastal region has an average summer temperature ranging from 78
+  deg. in the north to 67 deg. in the south, with a winter temperature
+  of from 59 deg. to 52 deg. Taking the district generally, the
+  difference between the mean summer and mean winter temperatures may be
+  set down as averaging not more than 20 deg., a range smaller than is
+  found in most other parts of the world. Sydney, situated in latitude
+  33 deg. 51' S., has a mean temperature of 62.9 deg. Fahr., which
+  corresponds with that of Barcelona in Spain and of Toulon in France,
+  the former of these being in latitude 41 deg. 22' N. and the latter in
+  43 deg. 7' N. At Sydney the mean summer temperature is 70.8 deg.
+  Fahr., and that of winter 53.9 deg. The range is thus 16.9 deg. Fahr.
+  At Naples, where the mean temperature for the year is about the same
+  as at Sydney, the summer temperature reaches a mean of 74.4 deg., and
+  the mean of winter is 47.6 deg., with a range 26.8 deg. The mean
+  temperature of Sydney for a long series of years was spring 62 deg.,
+  summer 71 deg., autumn 64 deg., winter 54 deg.
+
+  Passing from the coast to the tableland, a distinct climatic region is
+  entered. Cooma, with a mean summer temperature of 65.4 deg., and a
+  mean winter temperature of 41.4 deg., may be taken as illustrative of
+  the climate of the southern tableland, and Armidale of the northern.
+  The yearly average temperature of the latter is scarcely 65.5 deg.,
+  while the summer only reaches 67.7 deg., and the winter falls to 44.4
+  deg.
+
+  The climatic conditions of the western districts of the state are
+  entirely different from those of the other two regions. The summer is
+  hot, but on the whole the climate is very healthy. The town of Bourke,
+  lying on the upper Darling, may be taken as an example of many of the
+  interior districts, and illustrates peculiarly well the defects as
+  well as the excellencies of the climate of the whole region. Bourke
+  has exactly the same latitude as Cairo, yet its mean summer
+  temperature is 1.3 deg. less, and its mean annual temperature 4 deg.
+  less than that of the Egyptian city. New Orleans, also on the same
+  parallel, is 4 deg. hotter in summer. As regards winter temperature
+  Bourke leaves little to be desired. The mean winter reading of the
+  thermometer is 54.7, and accompanied as this is by clear skies and an
+  absence of snow, the season is both pleasant and invigorating. The
+  rainfall of New South Wales ranges from an annual average of 64 in. at
+  various points on the northern coast, and at Kiandra in the Monaro
+  district, to 9 in. at Milparinka in the trans-Darling district. The
+  coastal districts average about 42 in. per annum, the tablelands 32
+  in., and the western interior has an average as low as 20 in. At
+  Sydney, the average rainfall, since observations were commenced, has
+  been 50 in.
+
+
+    Victoria.
+
+  The climate of Victoria does not differ greatly from that of New South
+  Wales. The heat, however, is generally less intense in summer, and the
+  cold greater in winter. Melbourne, which stands in latitude 37 deg.
+  50' S., has a mean temperature of 57.3 deg., and therefore corresponds
+  with Washington in the United States, Madrid, Lisbon and Messina. The
+  difference between summer and winter is, however, less at Melbourne
+  than at any of the places mentioned, the result of a long series of
+  observations being spring 57 deg., summer 65.3 deg., autumn 58.7 deg.,
+  and winter 49.2 deg. The highest recorded temperature in the shade at
+  Melbourne is 110.7 deg., and the lowest 27 deg., but it is rare for
+  the summer heat to exceed 85 deg., or for the winter temperature in
+  the daytime to fall below 40 deg. Ballarat, the second city of
+  Victoria, lies above 100 m. west from Melbourne at a height of 1400
+  ft. above sea-level. It has a minimum temperature of 29 deg., and a
+  maximum of 104.5 deg., the average yearly mean being 54.1 deg. The
+  rainfall of Melbourne averages 25.58 in., the mean number of rainy
+  days being 131.
+
+
+    South Australia.
+
+  South Australia proper extends over 26 degrees of latitude, and
+  naturally presents considerable variations of climate. The coldest
+  months are June, July and August, during which the temperature is very
+  agreeable, averaging 53.6 deg., 51.7 deg., and 54 deg. in those months
+  respectively. On the plains slight frosts occur occasionally, and ice
+  is sometimes seen on the highlands. In summer the sun has great
+  power, and the temperature reaches 100 deg. in the shade, with hot
+  winds blowing from the interior. The weather on the whole is
+  remarkably dry. At Adelaide there are on an average 120 rainy days per
+  annum, with a mean rainfall of 20-88 in. The country is naturally very
+  healthful, as evidence of which may be mentioned that no great
+  epidemic has ever visited the state.
+
+
+    Western Australia.
+
+  Western Australia has practically only two seasons, the winter or wet
+  season, which commences in April and ends in October, and the summer
+  or dry season, which comprises the remainder of the Year. During the
+  wet season frequent and heavy rains fall, and thunderstorms, with
+  sharp showers, occur in the summer, especially on the north-west
+  coast, which is sometimes visited by hurricanes of great violence. In
+  the southern and early-settled parts of the state the mean temperature
+  is about 64 deg., but in the more northern portions the heat is
+  excessive, though the dryness of the atmosphere makes it preferable to
+  moist tropical climates. The average rainfall at Perth is 33 in. per
+  annum.
+
+  The climate of the Northern Territory is extremely not, except on the
+  elevated tablelands; altogether, the temperature of this part of the
+  continent is very similar to that of northern Queensland, and the
+  climate is not favourable to Europeans. The rainfall in the extreme
+  north, especially in January and February, is very heavy, and the
+  annual average along the coast is about 63 in. The whole of the
+  peninsula north of 15 deg. S. has a rainfall considerably exceeding 40
+  in. This region is backed by a belt of about 100 m. wide, in which the
+  rainfall is from 30 to 40 in., from which inwards the rainfall
+  gradually declines until between Central Mount Stuart and Macdonnell
+  ranges it falls to between 5 and 10 in.
+
+_Fauna and Flora._--The origin of the fauna and flora of Australia has
+attracted considerable attention. Much accumulated evidence, biological
+and geological, has pointed to a southern extension of India, an eastern
+extension of South Africa, and a western extension of Australia into the
+Indian Ocean. The comparative richness of proteaceous plants in Western
+Australia and South Africa first suggested a common source for these
+primitive types. Dr H.O. Forbes drew attention to a certain community
+amongst birds and other vertebrates, invertebrates, and amongst plants,
+on all the lands stretching towards the south pole. A theory was
+therefore propounded that these known types were all derived from a
+continent which has been named Antarctica. The supposed continent
+extended across the south pole, practically joining Australia and South
+America. Just as we have evidence of a former mild climate in the arctic
+regions, so a similar mild climate has been postulated for Antarctica.
+Modern naturalists consider that many of the problems of Australia's
+remarkable fauna and flora can be best explained by the following
+hypothesis:--The region now covered by the antarctic ice-cap was in
+early Tertiary times favoured by a mild climate; here lay an antarctic
+continent or archipelago. From an area corresponding to what is now
+South America there entered a fauna and flora, which, after undergoing
+modification, passed by way of Tasmania to Australia. These immigrants
+then developed, with some exceptions, into the present Australian flora
+and fauna. This theory has advanced from the position of a disparaged
+heresy to acceptance by leading thinkers. The discovery as fossil, in
+South America, of primitive or ancestral forms of marsupials has given
+it much support. One of these, _Prothylacinus_, is regarded as the
+forerunner of the marsupial wolf of Tasmania. An interesting link
+between divergent marsupial families, still living in Ecuador, the
+_Coenolestes_, is another discovery of recent years. On the Australian
+side the fact that Tasmania is richest in marsupial types indicates the
+gate by which they entered. It is not to be supposed that this antarctic
+element, to which Professor Tate has applied the name _Euronotian_,
+entered a desert barren of all life. Previous to its arrival Australia
+doubtless possessed considerable vegetation and a scanty fauna, chiefly
+invertebrate. At a comparatively recent date Australia received its
+third and newest constituent. The islands of Torres Strait have been
+shown to be the denuded remnant of a former extension of Cape York
+peninsula in North Queensland. Previous to the existence of the strait,
+and across its site, there poured into Australia a wealth of Papuan
+forms. Along the Pacific slope of the Queensland Cordillera these found
+in soil and climate a congenial home. Among the plants the wild banana,
+pepper, orange and mangosteen, rhododendron, epiphytic orchids and the
+palm; among mammals the bats and rats; among birds the cassowary and
+rifle birds; and among reptiles the crocodile and tree snakes,
+characterize this element. The numerous facts, geological, geographical
+and biological, which when linked together lend great support to this
+theory, have been well worked out in Australia by Mr Charles Hedley of
+the Australian Museum, Sydney.
+
+
+    Fauna.
+
+  The zoology of Australia and Tasmania presents a very conspicuous
+  point of difference from that of other regions of the globe, in the
+  prevalence of non-placental mammalia. The vast majority of the
+  mammalia are provided with an organ in the uterus, by which, before
+  the birth of their young, a vascular connexion is maintained between
+  the embryo and the parent animal. There are two orders, the
+  Marsupialia and the Monotremata, which do not possess this organ; both
+  these are found in Australia, to which region indeed they are not
+  absolutely confined.
+
+  The geographical limits of the marsupials are very interesting. The
+  opossums of America are marsupials, though not showing anomalies as
+  great as kangaroos and bandicoots (in their feet), and _Myrmecobius_
+  (in the number of teeth). Except the opossums, no single living
+  marsupial is known outside the Australian zoological region. The forms
+  of life characteristic of India and the Malay peninsula come down to
+  the island of Bali. Bali is separated from Lombok by a strait not more
+  than 15 m. wide. Yet this narrow belt of water is the boundary line
+  between the Australasian and the Indian regions. The zoological
+  boundary passing through the Bali Strait is called "Wallace's line,"
+  after the eminent naturalist who was its discoverer. He showed that
+  not only as regards beasts, but also as regards birds, these regions
+  are thus sharply limited. Australia, he pointed out, has no
+  woodpeckers and no pheasants, which are widely-spread Indian birds.
+  Instead of these it has mound-making turkeys, honey-suckers, cockatoos
+  and brush-tongued lories, all of which are found nowhere else in the
+  world.
+
+  The marsupials constitute two-thirds of all the Australian species of
+  mammals. It is the well-known peculiarity of this order that the
+  female has a pouch or fold of skin upon her abdomen, in which she can
+  place the young for suckling within reach of her teats. The opossum of
+  America is the only species out of Australasia which is thus provided.
+  Australia is inhabited by at least 110 different species of
+  marsupials, which is about two-thirds of the known species; these have
+  been arranged in five tribes, according to the food they eat, viz.,
+  the grass-eaters (kangaroos), the root-eaters (wombats), the
+  insect-eaters (bandicoots), the flesh-eaters (native cats and rats),
+  and the fruit-eaters (phalangers).
+
+  The kangaroo (_Macropus_) lives in droves in the open grassy plains.
+  Several smaller forms of the same general appearance are known as
+  wallabies, and are common everywhere. The kangaroo and most of its
+  congeners show an extraordinary disproportion of the hind limbs to the
+  fore part of the body. The rock wallabies again have short tarsi of
+  the hind legs, with a long pliable tail for climbing, like that of the
+  tree kangaroo of New Guinea, or that of the jerboa. Of the larger
+  kangaroos, which attain a weight of 200 lb. and more, eight species
+  are named, only one of which is found in Western Australia. Fossil
+  bones of extinct kangaroo species are met with; these kangaroos must
+  have been of enormous size, twice or thrice that of any species now
+  living.
+
+  There are some twenty smaller species in Australia and Tasmania,
+  besides the rock wallabies and the hare kangaroos; these last are
+  wonderfully swift, making clear jumps 8 or 10 ft. high. Other
+  terrestrial marsupials are the wombat (_Phascolomys_), a large,
+  clumsy, burrowing animal, not unlike a pig, which attains a weight of
+  from 60 to 100 lb.; the bandicoot (_Perameles_), a rat-like creature
+  whose depredations annoy the agriculturist; the native cat
+  (_Dasyurus_), noted robber of the poultry yard; the Tasmanian wolf
+  (_Thylacinus_), which preys on large game; and the recently discovered
+  _Notoryctes_, a small animal which burrows like a mole in the desert
+  of the interior. Arboreal species include the well-known opossums
+  (_Phalanger_); the extraordinary tree-kangaroo of the Queensland
+  tropics; the flying squirrel, which expands a membrane between the
+  legs and arms, and by its aid makes long sailing jumps from tree to
+  tree; and the native bear (_Phascolarctos_), an animal with no
+  affinities to the bear, and having a long soft fur and no tail.
+
+  The _Myrmecobius_ of Western Australia is a bushy-tailed ant-eater
+  about the size of a squirrel, and from its lineage and structure of
+  more than passing interest. It is, Mivart remarks, a survival of a
+  very ancient state of things. It had ancestors in a flourishing
+  condition during the Secondary epoch. Its congeners even then lived in
+  England, as is proved by the fact that their relics have been found in
+  the Stonesfield oolitic rocks, the deposition of which is separated
+  from that which gave rise to the Paris Tertiary strata by an abyss of
+  past time which we cannot venture to express even in thousands of
+  years.
+
+  We pass on to the other curious order of non-placental mammals, that
+  of the Monotremata, so called from the structure of their organs of
+  evacuation with a single orifice, as in birds. Their abdominal bones
+  are like those of the marsupials; and they are furnished with pouches
+  for their young, but have no teats, the milk being distilled into
+  their pouches from the mammary glands. Australia and Tasmania possess
+  two animals of this order--the echidna, or spiny ant-eater (hairy in
+  Tasmania), and the _Platypus anatinus_, the duckbilled water mole,
+  otherwise named the _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_. This odd animal is
+  provided with a bill or beak, which is not, like that of a bird,
+  affixed to the skeleton, but is merely attached to the skin and
+  muscles.
+
+  Australia has no apes, monkeys or baboons, and no ruminant beasts. The
+  comparatively few indigenous placental mammals, besides the dingo or
+  wild dog--which, however, may have come from the islands north of this
+  continent--are of the bat tribe and of the rodent or rat tribe. There
+  are four species of large fruit-eating bats, called flying foxes,
+  twenty of insect-eating bats, above twenty of land-rats, and five of
+  water-rats. The sea produces three different seals, which often ascend
+  rivers from the coast, and can live in lagoons of fresh water; many
+  cetaceans, besides the "right whale" and sperm whale; and the dugong,
+  found on the northern shores, which yields a valuable medicinal oil.
+
+  The birds of Australia in their number and variety of species may be
+  deemed some compensation for its poverty of mammals; yet it will not
+  stand comparison in this respect with regions of Africa and South
+  America in the same latitudes. The black swan was thought remarkable
+  when discovered, as belying an old Latin proverb. There is also a
+  white eagle. The vulture is wanting. Sixty species of parrots, some of
+  them very handsome, are found in Australia. The emu corresponds with
+  the African and Arabian ostrich, the rhea of South America, and the
+  cassowary of the Moluccas and New Guinea. In New Zealand this group is
+  represented by the apteryx, as it formerly was by the gigantic moa,
+  the remains of which have been found likewise in Queensland. The
+  graceful _Menura superba_, or lyre-bird, with its tail feathers spread
+  in the shape of a lyre, is a very characteristic form. The
+  mound-raising megapodes, the bower-building satin-birds, and several
+  others, display peculiar habits. The honey-eaters present a great
+  diversity of plumage. There are also many kinds of game birds,
+  pigeons, ducks, geese, plovers and quails. The ornithology of New
+  South Wales and Queensland is more varied and interesting than that of
+  the other provinces.
+
+  As for reptiles, Australia has a few tortoises, all of one family, and
+  not of great size. The "leathery turtle," which is herbivorous, and
+  yields abundance of oil, has been caught at sea off the Illawarra
+  coast so large as 9 ft. in length. The saurians or lizards are
+  numerous, chiefly on dry sandy or rocky ground in the tropical region.
+  The great crocodile of Queensland has been known to attain a length of
+  30 ft.; there is a smaller one about 6 ft. in length to be met with in
+  the shallow lagoons of the interior of the Northern Territory. Lizards
+  occur in great profusion and variety. The monitor, or fork-tongued
+  lizard, which burrows in the earth, climbs and swims, is said to grow
+  to a length of 8 to 9 ft. This species and many others do not extend
+  to Tasmania. The monitor is popularly known as the goanna, a name
+  derived from the iguana, an entirely different animal. There are about
+  twenty kinds of night-lizards, and many which hibernate. One species
+  can utter a cry when pained or alarmed, and the tall-standing frilled
+  lizard can lift its forelegs, and squat or hop like a kangaroo. There
+  is also the _Moloch horridus_ of South and Western Australia, covered
+  with tubercles bearing large spines, which give it a very strange
+  aspect. This and some other lizards have power to change their colour,
+  not only from light to dark, but over some portions of their bodies,
+  from yellow to grey or red. Frogs of many kinds are plentiful, the
+  brilliant green frogs being especially conspicuous and noisy.
+  Australia is rich in snakes, and has more than a hundred different
+  kinds. Most of these are venomous, but all are not equally dreaded.
+  Five rather common species are certainly deadly--the death adder, the
+  brown, the black, the superb and the tiger snakes. During the colder
+  months these reptiles remain in a torpid state. No certain cure has
+  been or is likely to be discovered for their poison, but in less
+  serious cases strychnine has been used with advantage. In tropical
+  waters a sea snake is found, which, though very poisonous, rarely
+  bites. Among the inoffensive species are counted the graceful green
+  "tree snake," which pursues frogs, birds and lizards to the topmost
+  branches of the forest; also several species of pythons, the commonest
+  of which is known as the carpet snake. These great reptiles may attain
+  a length of 10 ft.; they feed on small animals which they crush to
+  death in their folds.
+
+  The Australian seas are inhabited by many fishes of the same genera as
+  exist in the southern parts of Asia and Africa. Of those peculiar to
+  Australian waters may be mentioned the arripis, represented by what is
+  called among the colonists a salmon trout. A very fine freshwater fish
+  is the Murray cod, which sometimes weighs 100 lb.; and the golden
+  perch, found in the same river, has rare beauty of colour. Among the
+  sea fish, the schnapper is of great value as an article of food, and
+  its weight comes up to 50 lb. This is the _Pagrus unicolor_, of the
+  family of _Sparidae_, which includes also the bream. Its colours are
+  beautiful, pink and red with a silvery gloss; but the male as it grows
+  old takes on a singular deformity of the head, with a swelling in the
+  shape of a monstrous human-like nose. These fish frequent rocky shoals
+  off the eastern coast and are caught in numbers outside Port Jackson
+  for the Sydney market. Two species of mackerel, differing somewhat
+  from the European species, are also caught on the coasts. The
+  so-called red garnet, a pretty fish, with hues of carmine and blue
+  stripes on its head, is much esteemed for the table. The _Trigla
+  polyommata_, or flying garnet, is a greater beauty, with its body of
+  crimson and silver, and its large pectoral fins, spread like wings, of
+  a rich green, bordered with purple, and relieved by a black and white
+  spot. Whiting, mullet, gar-fish, rock cod and many others known by
+  local names, are in the lists of edible fishes belonging to New South
+  Wales and Victoria. Oysters abound on the eastern coast, and on the
+  shelving banks of a vast extent of the northern coast the pearl oyster
+  is the source of a considerable industry.
+
+  Two existing fishes may be mentioned as ranking in interest with the
+  _Myrmecobius_ (ant-eater) in the eyes of the naturalist. These are the
+  _Ceratodus Forsteri_ and the Port Jackson shark. The "mud-fish" of
+  Queensland (_Ceratodus Forsteri_) belongs to an ancient order of
+  fishes--the Dipnoi, only a few species of which have survived from
+  past geological periods. The Dipnoi show a distinct transition between
+  fishes and amphibia. So far the mud-fish has been found only in the
+  Mary and the Burnett rivers. Hardly of less scientific interest is the
+  Port Jackson shark (_Heterodontus_). It is a harmless helmeted
+  ground-shark, living on molluscs, and almost the sole survivor of a
+  genus abundant in the Secondary rocks of Europe.
+
+
+    Flora.
+
+  The eastern parts of Australia are very much richer both in their
+  botany and in their zoology than any of the other parts. This is due
+  in part to the different physical conditions there prevailing and in
+  part to the invasion of the north-eastern portion of the continent by
+  a number of plants characteristically Melanesian. This element was
+  introduced via Torres Strait, and spread down the Queensland coast to
+  portions of the New South Wales littoral, and also round the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria, but has never been able to obtain a hold in the more arid
+  interior. It has so completely obliterated the original flora, that a
+  Queensland coast jungle is almost an exact replication of what may be
+  seen on the opposite shores of the straits, in New Guinea. This wealth
+  of plant life is confined to the littoral and the coastal valleys, but
+  the central valleys and the plateaux have, if not a varied flora, a
+  considerable wealth of timber trees in every way superior to the flora
+  inland in the same latitudes. In the interior there is little change
+  in the general aspect of the vegetation, from the Australian Bight to
+  the region of Carpentaria, where the exotic element begins. Behind the
+  luxuriant jungles of the sub-tropical coast, once over the main range,
+  we find the purely Australian flora with its apparent sameness and
+  sombre dulness. Physical surroundings rather than latitude determine
+  the character of the flora. The contour lines showing the heights
+  above sea-level are the directions along which species spread to form
+  zones. Putting aside the exotic vegetation of the north and east
+  coast-line, the Australian bush gains its peculiar character from the
+  prevalence of the so-called gum-trees (_Eucalyptus_) and the acacias,
+  of which last there are 300 species, but the eucalypts above all are
+  everywhere. Dwarfed eucalypts fringe the tree-limit on Mount
+  Kosciusco, and the soakages in the parched interior are indicated by a
+  line of the same trees, stunted and straggling. Over the vast
+  continent from Wilson's Promontory to Cape York, north, south, east
+  and west--where anything can grow--there will be found a gum-tree. The
+  eucalypts are remarkable for the oil secreted in their leaves, and the
+  large quantity of astringent resin of their bark. This resinous
+  exudation (Kino) somewhat resembles gum, hence the name "gum" tree. It
+  will not dissolve in water as gums do, but it is soluble in alcohol,
+  as resin usually is. Many of the gum-trees throw off their bark, so
+  that it hangs in long dry strips from the trunk and branches, a
+  feature familiar in "bush" pictures. The bark, resin and "oils" of the
+  eucalyptus are well known as commercial products. As early as 1866,
+  tannic acid, gallic acid, wood spirit, acetic acid, essential oil and
+  eucalyptol were produced from various species of eucalyptus, and
+  researches made by Australian chemists, notably by Messrs. Baker and
+  Smith of the Sydney Technical College, have brought to light many
+  other valuable products likely to prove of commercial value. The genus
+  _Eucalyptus_ numbers more than 150 species, and provides some of the
+  most durable timbers known. The iron-bark of the eastern coast uplands
+  is well known (_Eucalyptus sideroxylon_), and is so called from the
+  hardness of the wood, the bark not being remarkable except for its
+  rugged and blackened aspect. Samples of this timber have been studied
+  after forty-three years' immersion in sea-water. Portions most liable
+  to destruction, those parts between the tide marks, were found
+  perfectly sound, and showed no signs of the ravages of marine
+  organisms. Other valuable timber trees of the eastern portion of the
+  continent are the blackbutt, tallow-wood, spotted gum, red gum,
+  mahogany, and blue gum, eucalyptus; and the turpentine (_Syncarpia
+  laurifolia_), which has proved to be more resistant to the attacks of
+  teredo than any other timber and is largely used in wharf construction
+  in infested waters. There are also several extremely valuable soft
+  timbers, the principal being red cedar (_Cedrela Toona_), silky oak
+  (_Grevillea robusta_), beech and a variety of teak, with several
+  important species of pine. The red gum forests of the Murray valley
+  and the pine forests bordering the Great Plains are important and
+  valuable. In Western Australia there are extensive forests of
+  hardwood, principally jarrah (_Eucalyptus marginata_), a very durable
+  timber; 14,000 sq. m. of country are covered with this species. Jarrah
+  timber is nearly impervious to the attacks of the teredo, and there is
+  good evidence to show that, exposed to wear and weather, or placed
+  under the soil, or used as submarine piles, the wood remained intact
+  after nearly fifty years' trial. The following figures show the high
+  density of Australian timber:--
+
+      Australian       Specific
+       timber.         gravity.
+
+    Jarrah              1.12
+    Grey iron-bark      1.18
+    Red iron-bark       1.22
+    Forest oak          1.21
+    Tallow wood         1.23
+    Mahogany            1.20
+    Grey gum             .917
+    Red gum              .995
+
+      European         Specific
+       timber.         gravity.
+    Ash                  .753
+    Beech                .690
+    Chestnut             .535
+    British oak          .99
+
+  The resistance to breaking or rupture of Australian timber is very
+  high; grey iron-bark with a specific gravity of 1.18 has a modulus of
+  rupture of 17,900 lb. per sq. in. compared with 11,800 lb. for British
+  oak with a specific gravity of .69 to .99. No Australian timber in the
+  foregoing list has a less modulus than 13,100 lb. per sq. in.
+
+  Various "scrubs" characterize the interior, differing very widely from
+  the coastal scrubs. "Mallee" scrub occupies large tracts of South
+  Australia and Victoria, covering probably an extent of 16,000 sq. m.
+  The mallee is a species of eucalyptus growing 12 to 14 ft. high. The
+  tree breaks into thin stems close to the ground, and these branch
+  again and again, the leaves being developed umbrella-fashion on the
+  outer branches. The mallee scrub appears like a forest of dried osier,
+  growing so close that it is not always easy to ride through it. Hardly
+  a leaf is visible to the height of one's head; but above, a crown of
+  thick leather-like leaves shuts out the sunlight. The ground below is
+  perfectly bare, and there is no water. Nothing could add to the
+  sterility and the monotony of these mallee scrubs. "Mulga" scrub is a
+  somewhat similar thicket, covering large areas. The tree in this
+  instance is one of the acacias, a genus distributed through all parts
+  of the continent. Some species have rather elegant blossoms, known to
+  the settlers as "wattle." They serve admirably to break the sombre and
+  monotonous aspect of the Australian vegetation. Two species of acacia
+  are remarkable for the delicate and violet-like perfume of their
+  wood--myall and yarran. The majority of the species of _Acacia_ are
+  edible and serve as reserve fodder for sheep and cattle. In the
+  alluvial portions of the interior salsolaceous plants--saltbush,
+  bluebush, cottonbush--are invaluable to the pastoralist, and to their
+  presence the pre-eminence of Australia as a wool-producing country is
+  largely due.
+
+  Grasses and herbage in great variety constitute the most valuable
+  element of Australian flora from the commercial point of view. The
+  herbage for the most part grows with marvellous rapidity after a
+  spring or autumn shower and forms a natural shelter for the more
+  stable growth of nutritious grasses.
+
+  Under the system of grazing practised throughout Australia it is
+  customary to allow sheep, cattle and horses to run at large all the
+  year round within enormous enclosures and to depend entirely upon the
+  natural growth of grass for their subsistence. Proteaceous plants,
+  although not exclusively Australian, are exceedingly characteristic of
+  Australian scenery, and are counted amongst the oldest flowering
+  plants of the world. The order is easily distinguished by the hard,
+  dry, woody texture of the leaves and the dehiscent fruits. They are
+  found in New Zealand and also in New Caledonia, their greatest
+  developments being on the south-west of the Australian continent.
+  Proteaceae are found also in Tierra del Fuego and Chile. They are also
+  abundant in South Africa, where the order forms the most conspicuous
+  feature of vegetation. The range in species is very limited, no one
+  being common to eastern and western Australia. The chief genera are
+  banksia (_honeysuckle_), and hakea (_needle bush_).
+
+  The Moreton Bay pine (_Araucaria Cunninghamii_) is reckoned amongst
+  the giants of the forest. The genus is associated with one long
+  extinct in Europe. Moreton Bay pine is chiefly known by the utility of
+  its wood. Another species, _A. Bidwillii_, or the bunya-bunya,
+  afforded food in its nut-like seeds to the aborigines. A most
+  remarkable form of vegetation in the north-west is the gouty-stemmed
+  tree (_Adansonia Gregorii_), one of the Malvaceae. It is related
+  closely to the famous baobab of tropical Africa. The "grass-tree"
+  (_Xanthorrhoea_), of the uplands and coast regions, is peculiarly
+  Australian in its aspect. It is seen as a clump of wire-like leaves, a
+  few feet in diameter, surrounding a stem, hardly thicker than a
+  walking-stick, rising to a height of 10 or 12 ft. This terminates in a
+  long spike thickly studded with white blossoms. The grass-tree gives
+  as distinct a character to an Australian picture as the agave and
+  cactus do to the Mexican landscape. With these might be associated the
+  gigantic lily of Queensland (_Nymphaea gigantea_), the leaves of which
+  float on water, and are quite 18 in. across. There is also a gigantic
+  lily (_Doryanthes excelsa_) which grows to a height of 15 feet. The
+  "flame tree" is a most conspicuous feature of an Illawarra landscape,
+  the largest racemes of crimson red suggesting the name. The waratah or
+  native tulip, the magnificent flowering head of which, with the
+  kangaroo, is symbolic of the country, is one of the Proteaceae. The
+  natives were accustomed to suck its tubular flowers for the honey they
+  contained. The "nardoo" seed, on which the aborigines sometimes
+  contrived to exist, is a creeping plant, growing plentifully in swamps
+  and shallow pools, and belongs to the natural order of Marsileaceae.
+  The spore-cases remain after the plant is dried up and withered. These
+  are collected by the natives, and are known over most of the continent
+  as nardoo.
+
+  No speculation of hypothesis has been propounded to account
+  satisfactorily for the origin of the Australian flora. As a step
+  towards such hypothesis it has been noted that the Antarctic, the
+  South African, and the Australian floras have many types in common.
+  There is also to a limited extent a European element present. One
+  thing is certain, that there is in Australia a flora that is a remnant
+  of a vegetation once widely distributed. Heer has described such
+  Australian genera as Banksia, Eucalyptus, _Grevillea_ and _Hakea_ from
+  the Miocene of Switzerland. Another point agreed upon is that the
+  Australian flora is one of vast antiquity. There are genera so far
+  removed from every living genus that many connecting links must have
+  become extinct. The region extending round the south-western extremity
+  of the continent has a peculiarly characteristic assemblage of typical
+  Australian forms, notably a great abundance of the Proteaceae. This
+  flora, isolated by arid country from the rest of the continent, has
+  evidently derived its plant life from an outside source, probably from
+  lands no longer existing.
+
+
+POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
+
+_Population._[2]--The Australian people are mainly of British origin,
+only 3-1/4% of the population of European descent being of non-British
+race. It is certain that the aborigines (see the section on Aborigines
+below) are very much less numerous than when the country was first
+colonized, but their present numbers can be given for only a few of the
+states. At the census of 1901, 48,248 aborigines were enumerated, of
+whom 7434 were in New South Wales, 652 in Victoria, 27,123 in South
+Australia, and 6212 in Western Australia. The assertion by the
+Queensland authorities that there are 50,000 aborigines in that state is
+a crude estimate, and may be far wide of the truth. In South Australia
+and the Northern Territory a large number are outside the bounds of
+settlement, and it is probable that they are as numerous there as in
+Queensland. The census of Western Australia included only those
+aborigines in the employment of the colonists; and as a large part of
+this, the greatest of the Australian states, is as yet unexplored, it
+may be presumed that the aborigines enumerated were very far short of
+the whole number of persons of that race in the state. Taking all things
+into consideration, the aboriginal population of the continent may be
+set down at something like 180,000. Chinese, numbering about 30,000, are
+chiefly found in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, and the Northern
+Territory. Of Japanese there were 3500, of Hindu and Sinhalese 4600,
+according to recent computation, but the policy of the Commonwealth is
+adverse to further immigration of other than whites. South Sea Islanders
+and other coloured races, numbering probably about 15,000, were in 1906
+to be found principally in Queensland, but further immigration of
+Pacific Islanders to Australia is now restricted, and the majority of
+those in the country in 1906 were deported by the middle of 1907.
+
+At the close of 1906 the population of Australia was approximately
+4,120,000, exclusive of aborigines. The increase of population since
+1871 was as follows: 1871, 1,668,377; 1881, 2,252,617; 1891, 3,183,237;
+1901, 3,773,248. The expansion has been due mainly to the natural
+increase; that is, by reason of excess of births over deaths.
+Immigration to Australia has been very slight since 1891, owing
+originally to the stoppage of progress consequent on the bank crisis of
+1893, and, subsequently, to the disinclination of several of the state
+governments towards immigration and their failure to provide for the
+welfare of immigrants on their arrival. During 1906 a more rational view
+of the value of immigration was adopted by the various state governments
+and by the federal government, and immigration to Australia is now
+systematically encouraged. Australia's gain of population by
+immigration,--i.e. the excess of the inward over the outward movement
+of a population--since the discovery of gold in 1851, arranged in ten
+years periods, was
+
+  1852-1861      520,713
+  1862-1871      188,158
+  1872-1881      223,326
+  1882-1891      374,097
+  1892-1901        2,377
+
+During the five years following the last year of the foregoing table,
+there was practically no increase in population by immigration.
+
+The birth rate averages 26.28 per thousand of the population and the
+death rate 12.28, showing a net increase of 14 per thousand by reason of
+the excess of births over deaths. The marriage rate varies as in other
+countries from year to year according to the degree of prosperity
+prevailing. In the five years 1881-1888 the rate was 8.08 marriages
+(16.1 persons) per thousand of the population, declining to 6.51 in
+1891-1895; in recent years there has been a considerable improvement,
+and the Australian marriage rate may be quoted as ranging between 6.75
+and 7.25. The death rate of Australia is much below that of European
+countries and is steadily declining. During the twenty years preceding
+the census of 1901 there was a fall in the death rate of 3.4 per
+thousand, of which, however, 1 per thousand is attributable to the
+decline in the birth rate, the balance being attributable to improved
+sanitary conditions.
+
+_Territorial Divisions._--Australia is politically divided into five
+states, which with the island of Tasmania form the Commonwealth of
+Australia. The area of the various states is as follows:
+
+                         Sq. m.
+  New South Wales       310,700
+  Victoria               87,884
+  Queensland            668,497
+  South Australia       903,690
+  Western Australia     975,920
+                      ---------
+                      2,946,691
+  Tasmania               26,215
+                      =========
+  Commonwealth        2,972,906
+
+To the area of the Commonwealth shown in the table might be added that
+of New Guinea, 90,000 sq. m.; this would bring the area of the territory
+controlled by the Commonwealth to 3,062,906 sq. m. The distribution of
+population at the close of 1906 (4,118,000) was New South Wales
+1,530,000, Victoria 1,223,000, Queensland 534,000, South Australia
+381,000, Western Australia 270,000, Tasmania 180,000. The rate of
+increase since the previous census was 1.5% per annum, varying from 0.31
+in Victoria to 2.06 in New South Wales and 6.9 in Western Australia.
+
+Australia contains four cities whose population exceeds 100,000, and
+fifteen with over 10,000. The principal cities and towns are Sydney
+(pop. 530,000), Newcastle, Broken Hill, Parramatta, Goulburn, Maitland,
+Bathurst, Orange, Lithgow, Tamworth, Grafton, Wagga and Albury, in New
+South Wales; Melbourne (pop. 511,900), Ballarat, Bendigo, Geelong,
+Eaglehawk, Warrnambool, Castlemaine, and Stawell in Victoria; Brisbane
+(pop. 128,000), Rockhampton, Maryborough, Townsville, Gympie, Ipswich,
+and Toowoomba in Queensland; Adelaide (pop. about 175,000), Port
+Adelaide and Port Pirie in South Australia; Perth (pop. 56,000),
+Fremantle, and Kalgoorlie in Western Australia; and Hobart (pop. 35,500)
+and Launceston in Tasmania.
+
+_Defence._--Up to the end of the 19th century, little was thought of any
+locally-raised or locally-provided defensive forces, the mother-country
+being relied upon. But the Transvaal War of 1899-1902, to which
+Australia sent 6310 volunteers (principally mounted rifles), and the
+gradual increase of military sentiment, brought the question more to the
+front, and more and more attention was given to making Australian
+defence a matter of local concern. Naval defence in any case remained
+primarily a question for the Imperial navy, and by agreement (1903, for
+ten years) between the British government and the governments of the
+Commonwealth (contributing an annual subsidy of L200,000) and of New
+Zealand (L40,000), an efficient fleet patrolled the Australasian waters,
+Sydney, its headquarters, being ranked as a first-class naval station.
+Under the agreement a royal naval reserve was maintained, three of the
+Imperial vessels provided being utilized as drill ships for crews
+recruited from the Australian states. At the end of 1908 the strength of
+the naval forces under the Commonwealth defence department was:
+permanent, 217, naval militia, 1016; the estimated expenditure for
+1908-1909 being L63,531. In 1908-1909 a movement began for the
+establishment by Australia of a local flotilla of torpedo-boat
+destroyers, to be controlled by the Commonwealth in peace time, but
+subject to the orders of the British admiralty in war time, though not
+to be removed from the Australian coast without the sanction of the
+Commonwealth; and by 1909 three such vessels had been ordered in England
+preparatory to building others in Australia. The military establishment
+at the beginning of 1909 was represented by a small permanent force of
+about 1400, a militia strength of about 17,000, and some 6000
+volunteers, besides 50,000 members of rifle clubs and 30,000 cadets; the
+expenditure being (estimate, 1908-1909) L623,946. But a reorganization
+of the military forces, on the basis of obligatory national training,
+was already contemplated, though the first Bill introduced for this
+purpose by Mr Deakin's government (Sept. 1908) was dropped, and in 1909
+the subject was still under discussion.
+
+_Religion._--There is no state church in Australia, nor is the teaching
+of religion in any way subsidized by the state. The Church of England
+claims as adherents 39% of the population, and the Roman Catholic Church
+22%; next in numerical strength are the Wesleyans and other Methodists,
+numbering 12%, the various branches of the Presbyterians 11%,
+Congregationalists 2%, and Baptists 2%. These proportions varied very
+little between 1881 and 1906, and may be taken as accurately
+representing the present strength of the various Christian
+denominations. Churches of all denominations are liberally supported
+throughout the states, and the residents of every settlement, however
+small, have their places of worship erected and maintained by their own
+contributions.
+
+_Instruction._--Education is very widely distributed, and in every state
+it is compulsory for children of school ages to attend school. The
+statutory ages differ in the various states; in New South Wales and
+Western Australia it is from 6 to 13 years inclusive, in Victoria 6 to
+12 years, in Queensland 6 to 11 years, and in South Australia 7 to 12
+years inclusive. Religious instruction is not imparted by the state-paid
+teachers in any state, though in certain states persons duly authorized
+by the religious organizations are allowed to give religious instruction
+to children of their own denomination where the parents' consent has
+been obtained. According to the returns for 1905 there were 7292 state
+schools, with 15,628 teachers and 648,927 pupils, and the average
+attendance of scholars was 446,000. Besides state schools there were
+2145 private schools, with 7825 teachers and 137,000 scholars, the
+average number of scholars in attendance being 120,000. The census of
+1901 showed that about 83% of the whole population and more than 91% of
+the population over five years of age could read and write. There was,
+therefore, a residue of 9% of illiterates, most of whom were not born in
+Australia. The marriage registers furnish another test of education. In
+1905 only ten persons in every thousand married were unable to sign
+their names, thus proving that the number of illiterate adults of
+Australian birth is very small.
+
+Instruction at state schools is either free or at merely nominal cost,
+and high schools, technical colleges and agricultural colleges are
+maintained by appropriations from the general revenues of the states.
+There are also numerous grammar schools and other private schools.
+Universities have been established at Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and
+Hobart, and are well equipped and numerously attended; they are in part
+supported by grants from the public funds and in part by private
+endowments and the fees paid by students. The number of students
+attending lectures is about 2500 and the annual income a little over
+L100,000. The cost of public instruction in Australia averages about
+11s. 4d. per inhabitant, and the cost per scholar in average attendance
+at state schools is L4:13:9.
+
+_Pastoral and Agricultural Industries._--The continent is essentially a
+pastoral one, and the products of the flocks and herds constitute the
+chief element in the wealth of Australia. Practically the whole of the
+territory between the 145 deg. meridian and the Great Dividing Range, as
+well as extensive tracts in the south and west, are a natural sheep
+pasture with climatic conditions and indigenous vegetation pre-eminently
+adapted for the growth of wool of the highest quality. Numerically the
+flocks of Australia represent one-sixth of the world's sheep, and in
+just over half a century (1851-1905) the exports of Australian wool
+alone reached the value of L650,000,000. During the same period, owing
+to the efforts of pastoralists to improve their flocks, there was a
+gradual increase in the weight of wool produced per sheep from 3-1/4 lb.
+to an average of over 7 lb. The cattle and horse-breeding industries are
+of minor importance as compared with wool-growing, but nevertheless
+represent a great source of wealth, with vast possibilities of expansion
+in the over-sea trade. The perfection of refrigeration in over-sea
+carriage, which has done so much to extend the markets for Australian
+beef and mutton, has also furthered the expansion of dairying, there
+being an annual output of over 160 million lb. of butter, valued at
+L6,000,000; of this about 64 million lb., valued at L2,500,000, is
+exported annually to British markets.
+
+Next to the pastoral industry, agriculture is the principal source of
+Australian wealth. At the close of 1905 the area devoted to tillage was
+9,365,000 acres, the area utilized for the production of breadstuffs
+being 6,270,000 acres or over two-thirds of the whole extent of
+cultivation. At first wheat was cultivated solely in the coastal
+country, but experience has shown that the staple cereal can be most
+successfully grown over almost any portion of the arable lands within
+the 20 to 40 in. rainfall areas. The value of Australian wheat and flour
+exported in 1905 was L5,500,000.
+
+Other important crops grown are--maize, 324,000 acres; oats, 493,000
+acres; other grains, 160,000 acres; hay, 1,367,000 acres; potatoes,
+119,000 acres; sugar-cane, 141,000 acres; vines, 65,000 acres; and other
+crops, 422,000 acres. The chief wheat lands are in Victoria, South
+Australia and New South Wales; the yield averages about 9 bushels to the
+acre; this low average is due to the endeavour of settlers on new lands
+to cultivate larger areas than their resources can effectively deal
+with; the introduction of scientific farming should almost double the
+yield. Maize and sugar-cane are grown in New South Wales and Queensland.
+The vine is cultivated in all the states, but chiefly in South
+Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. Australia produces abundant
+quantities and nearly all varieties of fruits; but the kinds exported
+are chiefly oranges, pineapples, bananas and apples. Tobacco thrives
+well in New South Wales and Victoria, but kinds suitable for exportation
+are not largely grown. Compared with the principal countries of the
+world, Australia does not take a high position in regard to the gross
+value of the produce of its tillage, the standard of cultivation being
+for the most part low and without regard to maximum returns, but in
+value per inhabitant it compares fairly well; indeed, some of the states
+show averages which surpass those of many of the leading agricultural
+countries. For 1905 the total value of agricultural produce estimated at
+the place of production was L18,750,000 sterling, or about L4:13:4 per
+inhabitant.
+
+_Timber Industry._--Although the timbers of commercial value are
+confined practically to the eastern and a portion of the western coastal
+belt and a few inland tracts of Australia, they constitute an important
+national asset. The early settlement of heavily timbered country was
+characterized by wanton destruction of vast quantities of magnificent
+timber; but this waste is a thing of the past, and under the pressure of
+a demand for sound timber both for local use and for exportation, the
+various governments are doing much to conserve the state forests. In
+Western Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland there are
+many hundreds of well-equipped saw-mills affording employment to about
+5000 men. The export of timber is in ordinary years valued at a million
+sterling and the total production at L2,250,000.
+
+_Fisheries._--Excellent fish of many varieties abound in the Australian
+seas and in many of the rivers. In several of the states, fish have been
+introduced successfully from other countries. Trout may now be taken in
+many of the mountain streams. At one time whaling was an important
+industry on the coasts of New South Wales and Tasmania, and afterwards
+on the Western Australian coasts. The industry gravitated to New
+Zealand, and finally died out, chiefly through the wasteful practice of
+killing the calves to secure the capture of the mothers. Of late years
+whaling has again attracted attention, and a small number of vessels
+prosecute the industry during the season. The only source of maritime
+wealth that is now being sufficiently exploited to be regarded as an
+industry is the gathering of pearl-oysters from the beds off the
+northern and north-western coasts of the continent. In Queensland waters
+there are about 300 vessels, and on the Western Australian coast about
+450 licensed craft engaged in the industry, the annual value of
+pearl-shell and pearls raised being nearly half a million sterling.
+Owing to the depletion of some of the more accessible banks, and to
+difficulties in connexion with the employment of coloured crews, many of
+the vessels have now gone farther afield. As the pearl-oyster is
+remarkably prolific, it is considered by experts that within a few years
+of their abandonment by fishing fleets the denuded banks will become as
+abundantly stocked as ever.
+
+
+  Gold.
+
+_Mineral Production._--Australia is one of the great gold producers of
+the world, and its yield in 1905 was about L16,000,000 sterling, or
+one-fourth of the gold output of the world; and the total value of its
+mineral production was approximately L25,000,000. Gold is found
+throughout Australia, and the present prosperity of the states is
+largely due to the discoveries of this metal, the development of other
+industries being, in a country of varied resources, a natural sequence
+to the acquisition of mineral treasure. From the date of its first
+discovery, up to the close of 1905, gold to the value of L460,000,000
+sterling has been obtained in Australia. Victoria, in a period of
+fifty-four years, contributed about L273,000,000 to this total, and is
+still a large producer, its annual yield being about 800,000 oz., 29,000
+men being engaged in the search for the precious metal. Queensland's
+annual output is between 750,000 and 800,000 oz.; the number of men
+engaged in gold-mining is 10,000. In New South Wales the greatest
+production was in 1852, soon after the first discovery of the precious
+metal, when the output was valued at L2,660,946; the production in 1905
+was about 270,000 oz., valued at L1,150,000. For many years Western
+Australia was considered to be destitute of mineral deposits of any
+value, but it is now known that a rich belt of mineral country extends
+from north to south. The first important discovery was made in 1882,
+when gold was found in the Kimberley district; but it was not until a
+few years later that this rich and extensive area was developed. In 1887
+gold was found in Yilgarn, about 200 m. east of Perth. This was the
+first of the many rich discoveries in the same district which have made
+Western Australia the chief gold-producer of the Australian group. In
+1907 there were eighteen goldfields in the state, and it was estimated
+that over 30,000 miners were actively engaged in the search for gold. In
+1905 the production amounted to 1,983,000 oz., valued at L8,300,000.
+Tasmania is a gold producer to the extent of about 70,000 or 80,000 oz.
+a year, valued at L300,000; South Australia produces about 30,000 oz.
+
+Gold is obtained chiefly from quartz reefs, but there are still some
+important alluvial deposits being worked. The greatest development of
+quartz reefing is found in Victoria, some of the mines being of great
+depth. There are eight mines in the Bendigo district over 3000 ft. deep,
+and fourteen over 2500 ft. deep. In the Victoria mine a depth of 3750
+ft. has been reached, and in Lazarus mine 3424 ft. In the Ballarat
+district a depth of 2520 ft. has been reached in the South Star mine. In
+Queensland there is one mine 3156 ft. deep, and several others exceed
+2000 ft. in depth. A considerable number of men are engaged in the
+various states on alluvial fields, in hydraulic sluicing, and dredging
+is now adopted for the winning of gold in river deposits. So far this
+form of winning is chiefly carried on in New South Wales, where there
+are about fifty gold-dredging plants in successful operation. Over
+70,000 men are employed in the gold-mining industry, more than
+two-thirds of them being engaged in quartz mining.
+
+
+    Silver.
+
+  Silver has been discovered in all the states, either alone or in the
+  form of sulphides, antimonial and arsenical ores, chloride, bromide,
+  iodide and chloro-bromide of silver, and argentiferous lead ores, the
+  largest deposits of the metal being found in the last-mentioned form.
+  The leading silver mines are in New South Wales, the returns from the
+  other states being comparatively insignificant. The fields of New
+  South Wales have proved to be of immense value, the yield of silver
+  and lead during 1905 being L2,500,000, and the total output to the end
+  of the year named over L40,000,000. The Broken Hill field, which was
+  discovered in 1883, extends over 2500 sq. m. of country, and has
+  developed into one of the principal mining centres of the world. It is
+  situated beyond the river Darling, and close to the boundary between
+  New South Wales and South Australia. The lodes occur in Silurian
+  metamorphic micaceous schists, intruded by granite, porphyry and
+  diorite, and traversed by numerous quartz reefs, some of which are
+  gold-bearing. The Broken Hill lode is the largest yet discovered. It
+  varies in width from 10 ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several
+  miles. Although indications of silver abound in all the other states,
+  no fields of great importance have yet been discovered. Up to the end
+  of 1904 Australia had produced silver to the value of L45,000,000. At
+  Broken Hill mines about 11,000 miners are employed.
+
+
+    Copper.
+
+  Copper is known to exist in all the states, and has been mined
+  extensively in South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and
+  Tasmania. The low quotations which ruled for a number of years had a
+  depressing effect upon the industry, and many mines once profitably
+  worked were temporarily closed, but in 1906 there was a general
+  revival. The discovery of copper had a marked effect on the fortunes
+  of South Australia at a time when the young colony was surrounded by
+  difficulties. The first important mine, the Kapunda, was opened up in
+  1842. It is estimated that at one time 2000 tons were produced
+  annually, but the mine was closed in 1879. In 1845 the celebrated
+  Burra Burra mine was discovered. This mine proved to be very rich, and
+  paid L800,000 in dividends to the original owners. For a number of
+  years, however, the mine has been suffered to remain untouched, as the
+  deposits originally worked were found to be depicted. For many years
+  the average output was from 10,000 to 13,000 tons of ore, yielding
+  from 22 to 23% of copper. For the period of thirty years during which
+  the mine was worked the production of ore amounted to 234,648 tons,
+  equal to 51,622 tons of copper, valued at L4,749,924. The Wallaroo and
+  Moonta mines, discovered in 1860 and 1861, proved to be even more
+  valuable than the Burra Burra, the Moonta mines employing at one time
+  upwards of 1600 hands. The dividends paid by these mines amounted to
+  about L1,750,000 sterling. The satisfactory price obtained during
+  recent years has enabled renewed attention to be paid to copper mining
+  in South Australia, and the production of the metal in 1905 was valued
+  at L470,324. The principal deposits of copper in New South Wales are
+  found in the central part of the state between the Macquarie, Darling
+  and Bogan rivers. Deposits have also been found in the New England and
+  southern districts, as well as at Broken Hill, showing that the
+  mineral is widely distributed throughout the state. The more important
+  mines are those of Cobar, where the Great Cobar mine produces annually
+  nearly 4000 tons of refined copper. In northern Queensland copper is
+  found throughout the Cloncurry district, in the upper basin of the
+  Star river, and the Herberton district. The returns from the copper
+  fields in the state are at present a little over half a million
+  sterling per annum, and would be still greater if it were not for the
+  lack of suitable fuel for smelting purposes, which renders the
+  economical treatment of the ore difficult; the development of the
+  mines is also retarded by the want of easy and cheaper communication
+  with the coast. In Western Australia copper deposits have been worked
+  for some years. Very rich lodes of the metal have been found in the
+  Northampton, Murchison and Champion Bay districts, and also in the
+  country to the south of these districts on the Irwin river. Tasmania
+  is now the largest copper-producing state of the Commonwealth; in 1905
+  the output was over L672,010 and in earlier years even larger. The
+  chief mines belong to the Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co., and are
+  situated on the west side of the island with an outlet by rail to
+  Strahan on the west coast. The total value of copper produced in
+  Australia up to the end of 1905 was L42,500,000 sterling, L24,500,000
+  having been obtained in South Australia, L7,500,000 in New South
+  Wales, L6,400,000 in Tasmania and over L3,500,000 in Queensland.
+
+
+    Tin.
+
+  Tin was known to exist in Australia from the first years of
+  colonization. The wealth of Queensland and the Northern Territory in
+  this mineral, according to the reports of Dr Jack, late Government
+  geologist of the former state, and the late Rev. J.E. Tenison-Woods,
+  appears to be very great. The most important tin-mines in Queensland
+  are in the Herberton district, south-west of Cairns; at Cooktown, on
+  the Annan and Bloomfield rivers; and at Stanthorpe, on the border of
+  New South Wales. Herberton and Stanthorpe have produced more than
+  three-fourths of the total production of the state. Towards the close
+  of the 19th century the production greatly decreased in consequence of
+  the low price of the metal, but in 1899 a stimulus was given to the
+  industry, and since then the production has increased very
+  considerably, the output for 1905 being valued at L989,627. In New
+  South Wales lode tin occurs principally in the granite and stream tin
+  under the basaltic country in the extreme north of the state, at
+  Tenterfield, Emmaville, Tingha, and in other districts of New England.
+  The metal has also been discovered in the Barrier ranges, and many
+  other places. The value of the output in 1905 was L226,110. The yield
+  of tin in Victoria is very small, and until lately no fields of
+  importance have been discovered; but towards the latter end of 1899
+  extensive deposits were reported to exist in the Gippsland
+  district--at Omeo and Tarwin. In South Australia tin-mining is
+  unimportant. In Western Australia the production from the tin-fields
+  at Greenbushes and elsewhere was valued at L87,000. Tasmania during
+  the last few years has attained the foremost position in the
+  production of tin, the annual output now being about L363,000. The
+  total value of tin produced in Australia is nearly a million sterling
+  per annum, and the total production to the end of 1905 was
+  L22,500,000, of which Tasmania produced about 40%, New South Wales
+  one-third, Queensland a little more than a fourth.
+
+
+    Iron.
+
+  Iron is distributed throughput Australia, but for want of capital for
+  developing the fields this industry has not progressed. In New South
+  Wales there are, together with coal and limestone in unlimited supply,
+  important deposits of rich iron ores suitable for smelting purposes;
+  and for the manufacture of steel of certain descriptions abundance of
+  manganese, chrome and tungsten ores are available. The most extensive
+  fields are in the Mittagong, Wallerawang and Rylstone districts, which
+  are roughly estimated to contain in the aggregate 12,944,000 tons of
+  ore, containing 5,853,000 tons of metallic iron. Extensive deposits,
+  which are being developed successfully, occur in Tasmania, it being
+  estimated that there are, within easy shipping facilities, 17,000,000
+  tons of ore. Magnetite, or magnetic iron, the richest of all iron
+  ores, is found in abundance near Wallerawang in New South Wales. The
+  proximity of coal-beds now being worked should accelerate the
+  development of the iron deposits, which, on an average, contain 41% of
+  metal. Magnetite occurs in great abundance in Western Australia,
+  together with haematite, which would be of enormous value if cheap
+  labour were available. Goethite, limonite and haematite are found in
+  New South Wales, at the junction of the Hawkesbury sandstone formation
+  and the Wianamatta shale, near Nattai, and are enhanced in their value
+  by their proximity to coal-beds. Near Lithgow extensive deposits of
+  limonite, or clay-band ore, are interbedded with coal. Some samples of
+  ore, coal and limestone, obtained in the Mittagong district, with
+  pig-iron and castings manufactured therefrom, were exhibited at the
+  Mining Exhibition in London and obtained a first award.
+
+
+    Other Minerals.
+
+  Antimony is widely diffused throughout Australia, and is sometimes
+  found associated with gold. In New South Wales the principal centre of
+  this industry is Hillgrove, near Armidale, where the Eleanora Mine,
+  one of the richest in the state, is situated. The ore is also worked
+  for gold. In Victoria the production of antimony gave employment in
+  1890 to 238 miners, but owing to the low price of the metal,
+  production has almost ceased. In Queensland the fields were all
+  showing development in 1891, when the output exhibited a very large
+  increase compared with that of former years; but, as in the case of
+  Victoria, the production of the metal seems to have ceased. Good lodes
+  of stibnite (sulphide of antimony) have been found near Roebourne in
+  Western Australia, but no attempt has yet been made to work them.
+
+  Bismuth is known to exist in all the Australian states, but up to the
+  present time it has been mined for only in three states, viz. New
+  South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania. It is usually
+  found in association with tin and other minerals. The principal mine
+  in New South Wales is situated at Kingsgate, in the New England
+  district, where the mineral is generally associated with molybdenum
+  and gold.
+
+  Manganese probably exists in all the states, deposits having been
+  found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia,
+  the richest specimens being found in New South Wales. Little, however,
+  has been done to utilize the deposits, the demands of the colonial
+  markets being extremely limited. The ore generally occurs in the form
+  of oxides, manganite and pyrolusite, and contains a high percentage of
+  sesquioxide of manganese.
+
+  Platinum and the allied compound metal iridosmine have been found in
+  New South Wales, but so far in inconsiderable quantities. Iridosmine
+  occurs commonly with gold or tin in alluvial drifts.
+
+  The rare element tellurium has been discovered in New South Wales at
+  Bingara and other parts of the northern districts, as well as at
+  Tarana, on the western line, though at present in such minute
+  quantities as would not repay the cost of working. At many of the
+  mines at Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, large quantities of ores of
+  telluride of gold have been found in the lode formations.
+
+  Lead is found in all the Australian states, but is worked only when
+  associated with silver. In Western Australia the lead occurs in the
+  form of sulphides and carbonates of great richness, but the quantity
+  of silver mixed with it is very small. The lodes are most frequently
+  of great size, containing huge masses of galena, and so little gangue
+  that the ore can very easily be dressed to 83 or 84%. The association
+  of this metal with silver in the Broken Hill mines of New South Wales
+  adds very greatly to the value of the product.
+
+  Mercury is found in New South Wales and Queensland. In New South
+  Wales, in the form of cinnabar, it has been discovered on the
+  Cudgegong river, near Rylstone, and it also occurs at Bingara,
+  Solferino, Yulgilbar and Cooma. In the last-named place the assays of
+  ore yielded 22% of mercury.
+
+  Titanium, in the minerals known as octahedrite and brookite, is found
+  in alluvial deposits in New South Wales, in conjunction with diamonds.
+
+  Wolfram (tungstate of iron and manganese) occurs in some of the
+  states, notably in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland.
+  Scheelite, another mineral of tungsten, is also found in Queensland.
+  Molybdenum, in the form of molybdenite (sulphide of molybdenum), is
+  found in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, associated in the
+  parent state with tin and bismuth in quartz reefs.
+
+  Zinc ores, in the several varieties of carbonates, silicates, oxide,
+  sulphide and sulphate of zinc, have been found in several of the
+  Australian states but have attracted little attention except in New
+  South Wales, where special efforts are being made successfully to
+  produce a high-grade zinc concentrate from the sulphide ores. Several
+  companies are devoting all their energies to zinc extraction, and the
+  output is now equal to about 5% of the world's production.
+
+  Nickel, so abundant in the island of New Caledonia, has up to the
+  present been found in none of the Australian states except Queensland
+  and Tasmania. Few attempts, however, have been made to prospect
+  systematically for this valuable mineral.
+
+  Cobalt occurs in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, and
+  efforts have been made in the former state to treat the ore, the metal
+  having a high commercial value; but the market is small, and no
+  attempt has been made up to 1907 to produce it on any large scale. The
+  manganese ores of the Bathurst district of New South Wales often
+  contain a small percentage of cobalt--sufficient, indeed, to warrant
+  further attempts to work them. In New South Wales chromium is found in
+  the northern portion of the state, in the Clarence and Tamworth
+  districts and also near Gundagai. It is usually associated with
+  serpentine. In the Gundagai district the industry was rapidly becoming
+  a valuable one, but the low price of chrome has greatly restricted the
+  output. Chromium has been discovered in Tasmania also.
+
+  Arsenic, in its well-known and beautiful forms, orpiment and realgar,
+  is found in New South Wales and Victoria. It usually occurs in
+  association with other minerals in veins.
+
+
+    Fuel.
+
+  The Australian states have been bountifully supplied with mineral
+  fuel. Five distinct varieties of black coal, of well-characterized
+  types, may be distinguished, and these, with the two extremes of brown
+  coal or lignite and anthracite, form a perfectly continuous series.
+  Brown coal, or lignite, occurs principally in Victoria. Attempts have
+  frequently been made to use the mineral for ordinary fuel purposes,
+  but its inferior quality has prevented its general use. Black coal
+  forms one of the principal resources of New South Wales; and in the
+  other states the deposits of this valuable mineral are being rapidly
+  developed. Coal of a very fair description was discovered in the basin
+  of the Irwin river, in Western Australia, as far back as the year
+  1846. It has been ascertained from recent explorations that the area
+  of carboniferous formation in that state extends from the Irwin
+  northwards to the Gascoyne river, about 300 m., and probably all the
+  way to the Kimberley district. The most important discovery of coal in
+  the state, so far, is that made in the bed of the Collie river, near
+  Bunbury, to the south of Perth. The coal has been treated and found to
+  be of good quality, and there are grounds for supposing that there are
+  250,000,000 tons in the field. Dr Jack, late government geologist of
+  Queensland, considers the extent of the coal-fields of that state to
+  be practically unlimited, and is of opinion that the carboniferous
+  formations extend to a considerable distance under the Great Western
+  Plains. It is roughly estimated that the Coal Measures at present
+  practically explored extend over an area of about 24,000 sq. m.
+  Coal-mining is an established industry in Queensland, and is
+  progressing satisfactorily. The mines, however, are situated too far
+  from the coast to permit of serious competition with Newcastle in an
+  export trade, and the output is practically restricted to supplying
+  local requirements. The coal-fields of New South Wales are situated in
+  three distinct regions--the northern, southern and western districts.
+  The first of these comprises chiefly the mines of the Hunter river
+  districts; the second includes the Illawarra district, and, generally,
+  the coastal regions to the south of Sydney, together with Berrima, on
+  the tableland; and the third consists of the mountainous regions on
+  the Great Western railway and extends as far as Dubbo. The total area
+  of the Carboniferous strata of New South Wales is estimated at 23,950
+  sq. m. The seams vary in thickness. One of the richest has been found
+  at Greta in the Hunter river district; it contains an average
+  thickness of 41 ft. of clean coal, and the quantity underlying each
+  acre of ground has been computed to be 63,700 tons. The coal mines of
+  New South Wales give employment to 14,000 persons, and the annual
+  production is over 6,600,000 tons. Black coal has been discovered in
+  Victoria, and about 250,000 tons are now being raised. The principal
+  collieries in the state are the Outtrim Howitt, the Coal Creek
+  Proprietary and the Jumbunna. In South Australia, at Leigh's Creek,
+  north of Port Augusta, coal-beds have been discovered. The quantity of
+  coal extracted annually in Australia had in 1906 reached 7,497,000
+  tons.
+
+  Kerosene shale (torbanite) is found in several parts of New South
+  Wales. It is a species of cannel coal, somewhat similar to the Boghead
+  mineral of Scotland, but yielding a much larger percentage of volatile
+  hydro-carbon than the Scottish mineral. The richest quality yields
+  about 100 to 130 gallons of crude oil per ton, or 17,000 to 18,000
+  cub. ft. of gas, with an illuminating power of 35 to 40 sperm candles,
+  when gas only is extracted from the shale.
+
+  Large deposits of alum occur close to the village of Bulladelah, 30 m.
+  from Port Stephens, New South Wales. It is said to yield well, and a
+  quantity of the manufactured alum is sent to Sydney for local
+  consumption. Marble is found in many parts of New South Wales and
+  South Australia. Kaolin, fire-clays and brick-clays are common to all
+  the states. Except in the vicinity of cities and townships, however,
+  little use has been made of the abundant deposits of clay. Kaolin, or
+  porcelain clay, although capable of application to commercial
+  purposes, has not as yet been utilized to any extent, although found
+  in several places in New South Wales and in Western Australia.
+
+  Asbestos has been found in New South Wales in the Gundagai Bathurst
+  and Broken Hill districts--in the last-mentioned district in
+  considerable quantities. Several specimens of very fair quality have
+  also been met with in Western Australia.
+
+
+    Gems.
+
+  Many descriptions of gems and gem stones have been discovered in
+  various parts of the Australian states, but systematic search has been
+  made principally for the diamond and the noble opal. Diamonds are
+  found in all the states; but only in New South Wales have any attempts
+  been made to work the diamond drifts. The best of the New South Wales
+  diamonds are harder and much whiter than the South African diamonds,
+  and are classified as on a par with the best Brazilian gems, but no
+  large specimens have yet been found. The finest opal known is obtained
+  in the Upper Cretaceous formation at White Cliffs, near Wilcannia, New
+  South Wales, and at these mines about 700 men find constant
+  employment. Other precious stones, including the sapphire, emerald,
+  oriental emerald, ruby, opal, amethyst, garnet, chrysolite, topaz,
+  cairngorm, onyx, zircon, &c., have been found in the gold and tin
+  bearing drifts and river gravels in numerous localities throughout the
+  states. The sapphire is found in all the states, principally in the
+  neighbourhood of Beechworth, Victoria. The oriental topaz has been
+  found in New South Wales. Oriental amethysts also have been found in
+  that state, and the ruby has been found in Queensland, as well as in
+  New South Wales. Turquoises have been found near Wangaratta, in
+  Victoria, and mining operations are being carried on in that state.
+  Chrysoberyls have been found in New South Wales; spinel rubies in New
+  South Wales and Victoria; and white topaz in all the states.
+  Chalcedony, carnelian, onyx and cat's eyes are found in New South
+  Wales; and it is probable that they are also to be met with in the
+  other states, particularly in Queensland. Zircon, tourmaline, garnet
+  and other precious stones of little commercial value are found
+  throughout Australia.
+
+_Commerce._--The number of vessels engaged in the over-sea trade of
+Australia in 1905 was 2112, viz. 1050 steamers, with a tonnage of
+2,629,000, and 1062 sailers, tonnage 1,090,000; the total of both
+classes was 3,719,000 tons. The nationality of the tonnage was, British
+2,771,000, including Australian 288,000, and foreign 948,000. The
+destination of the shipping was, to British ports 2,360,000 tons, and to
+foreign ports 1,350,000 tons. The value of the external trade was
+L95,188,000, viz. L38,347,000 imports, and L56,841,000 exports. The
+imports represent L9:11:6 per inhabitant and the exports L14:4:2, with a
+total trade of L23:15:8. The import trade is divided between the United
+Kingdom and possessions and foreign countries as follows:--United
+Kingdom L23,074,000, British possessions L5,384,000, and foreign states
+L9,889,000, while the destination of the exports is, United Kingdom
+L26,703,000, British possessions L12,519,000, and foreign countries
+L17,619,000. The United Kingdom in 1905 sent 60% of the imports taken by
+Australia, compared with 26% from foreign countries, and 14% from
+British possessions; of Australian imports the United Kingdom takes 47%,
+foreign countries 31% and British possessions 22%. In normal years (that
+is to say, when there is no large movement of capital) the exports of
+Australia exceed the imports by some L15,300,000. This sum represents
+the interest payable on government loans placed outside Australia,
+mainly in England, and the income from British and other capital
+invested in the country; the former may be estimated at L7,300,000 and
+the latter L8,000,000 per annum. The principal items of export are wool,
+skins, tallow, frozen mutton, chilled beef, preserved meats, butter and
+other articles of pastoral produce, timber, wheat, flour and fruits,
+gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and other metals. In 1905 the value of
+the wool export regained the L20,000,000 level, and with the rapid
+recovery of the numerical strength of the flocks, great improvements in
+the quality and weight of fleeces, this item is likely to show permanent
+advancement. The exports of breadstuffs--chiefly to the United
+Kingdom--exceed six millions per annum, butter two and a half millions,
+and minerals of all kinds, except gold, six millions. Gold is exported
+in large quantities from Australia. The total gold production of the
+country is from L14,500,000 to L16,000,000, and as not more than
+three-quarters of a million are required to strengthen existing local
+stocks, the balance is usually available for export, and the average
+export of the precious metal during the ten years, 1896-1905, was
+L12,500,000 per annum. The chief articles of import are apparel and
+textiles, machinery and hardware, stimulants, narcotics, explosives,
+bags and sacks, books and paper, oils and tea.
+
+Lines of steamers connect Australia with London and other British ports,
+with Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Japan, China, India, San
+Francisco, Vancouver, New York and Montevideo, several important lines
+being subsidized by the countries to which they belong, notably Germany,
+France and Japan.
+
+_Railways._--Almost the whole of the railway lines in Australia are the
+property of the state governments, and have been constructed and
+equipped wholly by borrowed capital. There were on the 30th of June
+1905, 15,000 m. open for traffic, upon which nearly L135,000,000 had
+been expended.
+
+  The railways are of different gauges, the standard narrow gauge of 4
+  ft. 8-1/2 in. prevailing only in New South Wales; in Victoria the
+  gauge is 5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia 5 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. 6 in.,
+  and in the other states 3 ft. 6 in. Taking the year 1905, the gross
+  earnings amounted to L11,892,262; the working expenses, exclusive of
+  interest, L7,443,546; and the net earnings L4,448,716; the latter
+  figure represents 3.31% upon the capital expended upon construction
+  and equipment; in the subsequent year still better results were
+  obtained. In several of the states, New South Wales and South
+  Australia proper, the railways yield more than the interest paid by
+  the government on the money borrowed for their construction. The
+  earnings per train-mile vary greatly; but for all the lines the
+  average is 7s. 1d., and the working expenses about 4s. 5d., making the
+  net earnings 2s. 8d. per train-mile. The ratio of receipts from
+  coaching traffic to total receipts is about 41%, which is somewhat
+  less than in the United Kingdom; but the proportion varies greatly
+  amongst the states themselves, the more densely populated states
+  approaching most nearly to the British standard. The tonnage of goods
+  carried amounts to about 16,000,000 tons, or 4 tons per inhabitant,
+  which must be considered fairly large, especially as no great
+  proportion of the tonnage consists of minerals on which there is
+  usually a low freightage. Excluding coal lines and other lines not
+  open to general traffic, the length of railways in private hands is
+  only 382 m. or about 2-1/2% of the total mileage open. Of this length,
+  277 m. are in Western Australia. The divergence of policy of that
+  state from that pursued by the other states was caused by the
+  inability of the government to construct lines, when the extension of
+  the railway system was urgently needed in the interests of settlement.
+  Private enterprise was, therefore, encouraged by liberal grants of
+  land to undertake the work of construction; but the changed conditions
+  of the state have now altered the state policy, and the government
+  have already acquired one of the two trunk lines constructed by
+  private enterprise, and it is not likely that any further concessions
+  in regard to railway construction will be granted to private persons.
+
+  _Posts and Telegraphs._--The postal and telegraphic facilities offered
+  by the various states are very considerable. There are some 6686
+  post-offices throughout the Commonwealth, or about one office to every
+  600 persons. The letters carried amount to about 80 per head, the
+  newspapers to 32 per head and the packets to 15 per head. The length
+  of telegraph lines in use is 46,300 m., and the length of wire nearly
+  three times that distance. In 1905 there were about 11,000,000
+  telegraphic messages sent, which gives an average of 2.7 messages per
+  inhabitant. The postal services and the telegraphs are administered by
+  the federal government.
+
+  _Banking._--Depositors in savings banks represent about twenty-nine in
+  every hundred persons, and in 1906 the sum deposited amounted to
+  L37,205,000 in the names of 1,152,000 persons. In ordinary banks the
+  deposits amounted to L106,625,000, so that the total deposits stood at
+  L143,830,000, equivalent to the very large sum of L34, 18s. per
+  inhabitant. The coin and bullion held by the banks varies between 20
+  and 24 millions sterling and the note circulation is almost stationary
+  at about 3-1/4 millions.
+
+  _Public Finance._--Australian public finance requires to be treated
+  under the separate headings of Commonwealth and states finance. Under
+  the Constitution Act the Commonwealth is given the control of the
+  postal and telegraph departments, public defence and several other
+  services, as well as the power of levying customs and excise duties;
+  its powers of taxation are unrestricted, but so far no taxes have been
+  imposed other than those just mentioned. The Commonwealth is empowered
+  to retain one-fourth of the net revenue from customs and excise, the
+  balance must be handed back to the states. This arrangement was to
+  last until 1910. Including the total receipts derived from the
+  customs, the Commonwealth revenue, during the year 1906, was made up
+  as follows:--
+
+    Customs and excise        L8,999,485
+    Posts, telegraphs, &c.     2,824,182
+    Other revenue                 55,676
+                             -----------
+                             L11,879,343
+
+  The return made to the states was L7,385,731, so that the actual
+  revenue disposed of by the Commonwealth was less by that amount, or
+  L4,493,612. The expenditure was distributed as follows:--
+
+    Customs collection          L261,864
+    Posts, telegraphs, &c.     2,774,804
+    Defence                      949,286
+    Other expenditure            508,887
+                               ---------
+                   Total      L4,494,841
+
+  The states have the same powers of taxation as the Commonwealth except
+  in regard to customs and excise, over which the Commonwealth has
+  exclusive power, but the states are the owners of the crown lands, and
+  the revenues derived from this source form an important part of their
+  income. The states have a total revenue, from sources apart from the
+  Commonwealth, of L23,820,439, and if to this be added the return of
+  customs duties made by the federal government, the total revenue is
+  L31,206,170. Although the financial operations of the Commonwealth and
+  the states are quite distinct, a statement of the total revenue of the
+  Australian Commonwealth and states is not without interest as showing
+  the weight of taxation and the different sources from which revenue is
+  obtained. For 1906 the respective revenues were:--
+
+    Commonwealth                          L11,879,343
+    States                                 23,820,439
+                                          -----------
+                                          L35,699,782
+                                          ===========
+    Direct taxation                        L3,200,000
+    Indirect taxation; customs and excise   8,999,485
+    Land revenue                            3,500,000
+    Post-office and telegraphs              2,824,182
+    Railways, &c.                          13,650,000
+    Other service                           3,526,115
+
+  The revenue from direct taxation is equal to 15s. 10d. per inhabitant,
+  from indirect taxation L2:4:6, and the total revenue from all sources
+  L35,699,782, equal to L8:16:2 per inhabitant. The federal government
+  has no public debt, but each of the six states has contracted debts
+  which aggregate L237,000,000, equal to about L58, 8s. per inhabitant.
+  The bulk of this indebtedness has been contracted for the purpose of
+  constructing railways, tramways, water-supplies, and other
+  revenue-producing works and services, and it is estimated that only 8%
+  of the total indebtedness can be set down for unproductive services.
+
+  Information regarding Australian state finance will be found under the
+  heading of each state.     (T. A. C.)
+
+
+ABORIGINES
+
+The origin of the natives of Australia presents a difficult problem. The
+chief difficulty in deciding their ethnical relations is their
+remarkable physical difference from the neighbouring peoples. And if one
+turns from physical criteria to their manners and customs it is only to
+find fresh evidence of their isolation. While their neighbours, the
+Malays, Papuans and Polynesians, all cultivate the soil, and build
+substantial huts and houses, the Australian natives do neither. Pottery,
+common to Malays and Papuans, the bows and arrows of the latter, and the
+elaborate canoes of all three races, are unknown to the Australians.
+They then must be considered as representing an extremely primitive type
+of mankind, and it is necessary to look far afield for their prehistoric
+home.
+
+
+  Origin.
+
+Wherever they came from, there is abundant evidence that their first
+occupation of the Australian continent must have been at a time so
+remote as to permit of no traditions. No record, no folk tales, as in
+the case of the Maoris of New Zealand, of their migration, are preserved
+by the Australians. True, there are legends and tales of tribal
+migrations and early tribal history, but nothing, as A.W. Howitt points
+out, which can be twisted into referring even indirectly to their first
+arrival. It is almost incredible there should be none, if the date of
+their arrival is to be reckoned as only dating back some centuries.
+Again, while they differ physically from neighbouring races, while there
+is practically nothing in common between them and the Malays, the
+Polynesians, or the Papuan Melanesians, they agree in type so closely
+among themselves that they must be regarded as forming one race. Yet it
+is noteworthy that the languages of their several tribes are different.
+The occurrence of a large number of common roots proves them to be
+derived from one source, but the great variety of dialects--sometimes
+unintelligible between tribes separated by only a few miles--cannot be
+explained except by supposing a vast period to have elapsed since their
+first settlement. There is evidence in the languages, too, which
+supports the physical separation from their New Zealand neighbours and,
+therefore, from the Polynesian family of races. The numerals in use were
+limited. In some tribes there were only three in use, in most four. For
+the number "five" a word meaning "many" was employed. This linguistic
+poverty proves that the Australian tongue has no affinity to the
+Polynesian group of languages, where denary enumeration prevails: the
+nearest Polynesians, the Maoris, counting in thousands. Further evidence
+of the antiquity of Australian man is to be found in the strict
+observance of tribal boundaries, which would seem to show that the
+tribes must have been settled a long time in one place.
+
+A further difficulty is created by a consideration of the Tasmanian
+people, extinct since 1876. For the Tasmanians in many ways closely
+approximated to the Papuan type. They had coarse, short, woolly hair and
+Papuan features. They clearly had no racial affinities with the
+Australians. They did not possess the boomerang or woomerah, and they
+had no boats. When they were discovered, a mere raft of reeds in which
+they could scarcely venture a mile from shore was their only means of
+navigation. Yet while the Tasmanians are so distinctly separated in
+physique and customs from the Australians, the fauna and flora of
+Tasmania and Australia prove that at one time the two formed one
+continent, and it would take an enormous time for the formation of Bass
+Strait. How did the Tasmanians with their Papuan affinities get so far
+south on a continent inhabited by a race so differing from Papuans? Did
+they get to Tasmania before or after its separation from the main
+continent? If before, why were they only found in the south? It would
+have been reasonable to expect to find them sporadically all over
+Australia. If after, how did they get there at all? For it is impossible
+to accept the theory of one writer that they sailed or rowed round the
+continent--a journey requiring enormous maritime skill, which, according
+to the theory, they must have promptly lost.
+
+Four points are clear: (1) the Australians represent a distinct race;
+(2) they have no kinsfolk among the neighbouring races; (3) they have
+occupied the continent for a very long period; (4) it would seem that
+the Tasmanians must represent a still earlier occupation of Australia,
+perhaps before the Bass Strait existed.
+
+Several theories have been propounded by ethnologists. An attempt has
+been made to show that the Australians have close affinities with the
+African negro peoples, and certain resemblances in language and in
+customs have been relied on. Sorcery, the scars raised on the body, the
+knocking out of teeth, circumcision and rules as to marriage have been
+quoted; but many such customs are found among savage peoples far distant
+from each other and entirely unrelated. The alleged language
+similarities have broken down on close examination. A.R. Wallace is of
+the opinion that the Australians "are really of Caucasian type and are
+more nearly allied to ourselves than to the civilized Japanese or the
+brave and intelligent Zulus." He finds near kinsmen for them in the
+Ainus of Japan, the Khmers and Chams of Cambodia and among some of the
+Micronesian islanders who, in spite of much crossing, still exhibit
+marked Caucasic types. He regards the Australians as representing the
+lowest and most primitive examples of this primitive Caucasic type, and
+he urges that they must have arrived in Australia at a time when their
+ancestors had no pottery, knew no agriculture, domesticated no animals,
+had no houses and used no bows and arrows. This theory has been
+supported by the investigations of Dr Klaatsch, of the university of
+Heidelberg, who would, however, date Australian ancestry still farther
+back, for his studies on the spot have convinced him that the
+Australians are "a generalized, not a specialized, type of
+humanity--that is to say, they are a very primitive people, with more of
+the common undeveloped characteristics of man, and less of the qualities
+of the specialized races of civilization." Dr Klaatsch's view is that
+they are survivals of a primitive race which inhabited a vast Antarctic
+continent of which South America, South Africa and Australia once formed
+a part, as evidenced by the identity of many species of birds and fish.
+He urges that the similarities of some of the primitive races of India
+and Africa to the aborigines of Australia are indications that they were
+peopled from one common stock. This theory, plausible and attractive as
+it is, and fitting in, as it does, with the acknowledged primitive
+character of the Australian blackfellow, overlooks, nevertheless, the
+Tasmanian difficulty. Why should a Papuan type be found in what was
+certainly once a portion of the Australian continent? The theory which
+meets this difficulty is that which has in its favour the greatest
+weight of evidence, viz. that the continent was first inhabited by a
+Papuan type of man who made his way thither from Flores and Timor, New
+Guinea and the Coral Sea. That in days so remote as to be undateable, a
+Dravidian people driven from their primitive home in the hills of the
+Indian Deccan made their way south via Ceylon (where they may to-day be
+regarded as represented by the Veddahs) and eventually sailed and
+drifted in their bark boats to the western and north-western shores of
+Australia. It is difficult to believe that they at first arrived in such
+numbers as at once to overwhelm the Papuan population. There were
+probably several migrations. What seems certain, if this theory is
+adopted, is that they did at last accumulate to an extent which
+permitted of their mastering the former occupiers of the soil, who were
+probably in very scattered and defenceless communities.
+
+In the slow process of time they drove them into the most southerly
+corner of Australia, just as the Saxons drove the Celts into Cornwall
+and the Welsh hills. Even if this Dravidian invasion is put subsequent
+to the Bass Strait forming, even if one allows the probability of much
+crossing between the two races at first, in time the hostilities would
+be renewed. With their earliest settlements on the north-north-west
+coasts, the Dravidians would probably tend to spread out north,
+north-east and east, and a southerly line of retreat would be the most
+natural one for the Papuans.[3] When at last they were driven to the
+Strait they would drift over on rafts or in clumsy shallops; being
+thereafter left in peace to concentrate their race, then possibly only
+in an approximately pure state, in the island to which the Dravidians
+would not take the trouble to follow them, and where they would have
+centuries in which once more to fix their racial type and emphasize over
+again those differences, perhaps temporarily marred by crossing, which
+were found to exist on the arrival of the Whites.
+
+This Indo-Aryan origin for the Australian blackfellows is borne out by
+their physique. In spite of their savagery they are admitted by those
+who have studied them to be far removed from the low or Simian type of
+man. Dr Charles Pickering (1805-1878), who studied the Australians on
+the spot, writes: "Strange as it may appear, I would refer to an
+Australian as the finest model of the human proportions I have ever met;
+in muscular development combining perfect symmetry, activity and
+strength, while his head might have compared with the antique bust of a
+philosopher." Huxley concluded, from descriptions, that "the Deccan
+tribes are indistinguishable from the Australian races." Sir W.W. Hunter
+states that the Dravidian tribes were driven southwards in Hindustan,
+and that the grammatical relations of their dialects are "expressed by
+suffixes," which is true as to the Australian languages. He states that
+Bishop Caldwell,[4] whom he calls "the great missionary scholar of the
+Dravidian tongue," showed that the south and western Australian tribes
+use almost the same words for "I, thou, he, we, you, as the Dravidian
+fishermen on the Madras coast." When in addition to all this it is found
+that physically the Dravidians resemble the Australians; that the
+boomerang is known among the wild tribes of the Deccan alone (with the
+doubtful exception of ancient Egypt) of all parts of the world except
+Australia, and that the Australian canoes are like those of the
+Dravidian coast tribes, it seems reasonable enough to assume that the
+Australian natives are Dravidians, exiled in remote times from
+Hindustan, though when their migration took place and how they traversed
+the Indian Ocean must remain questions to which, by their very nature,
+there can be no satisfactory answer.
+
+The low stage of culture of the Australians when they reached their new
+home is thus accounted for, but their stagnation is remarkable, because
+they must have been frequently in contact with more civilized peoples.
+In the north of Australia there are traces of Malay and Papuan blood.
+That a far more advanced race had at one time a settlement on the
+north-west coast is indicated by the cave-paintings and sculptures
+discovered by Sir George Grey. In caves of the valley of the Glenelg
+river, north-west Australia, about 60 m. inland and 20 m. south of
+Prince Regent's river, are representations of human heads and bodies,
+apparently of females clothed to the armpits, but all the faces are
+without any indication of mouths. The heads are surrounded with a kind
+of head-dress or halo and one wears a necklace. They are drawn in red,
+blue and yellow. The figures are almost life-size. Rough sculptures,
+too, were found, and two large square mounds formed of loose stones, and
+yet perfect parallelograms in outline, placed due east and west. In the
+same district Sir George Grey noticed among the blackfellows people he
+describes as "almost white." On the Gascoyne river, too, were seen
+natives of an olive colour, quite good-looking; and in the neighbourhood
+of Sydney rock-carvings have been also found. All this points to a
+temporary occupation by a race at a far higher stage of culture than any
+known Australians, who were certainly never capable of executing even
+the crude works of art described.
+
+
+  Physique.
+
+Physically the typical Australian is the equal of the average European
+in height, but is inferior in muscular development, the legs and arms
+being of a leanness which is often emphasized by an abnormal corpulence.
+The bones are delicately formed, and there is the lack of calf usual in
+black races. The skull is abnormally thick and the cerebral capacity
+small. The head is long and somewhat narrow, the forehead broad and
+receding, with overhanging brows, the eyes sunken, large and black, the
+nose thick and very broad at the nostrils. The mouth is large and the
+lips thick but not protuberant. The teeth are large, white and strong.
+In old age they appear much ground down; particularly is this the case
+with women, who chew the different kinds of fibres, of which they make
+nets and bags. The lower jaw is heavy; the cheekbones somewhat high, and
+the chin small and receding. The neck is thicker and shorter than that
+of most Europeans. The colour of the skin is a deep copper or chocolate,
+never sooty black. When born, the Australian baby is of a much lighter
+colour than its parents and remains so for about a week. The hair is
+long, black or very dark auburn, wavy and sometimes curly, but never
+woolly, and the men have luxuriant beards and whiskers, often of an
+auburn tint, while the whole body inclines to hairiness. On the Balonne
+river, Queensland, Baron Mikluho Maclay found a group of hairless
+natives. The head hair is usually matted with grease and dirt, but when
+clean is fine and glossy. The skin gives out an objectionable odour,
+owing to the habit of anointing the body with fish-oils, but the true
+fetor of the negro is lacking in the Australian. The voices of the
+blackfellows are musical. Their mental faculties, though inferior to
+those of the Polynesian race, are not contemptible. They have much
+acuteness of perception for the relations of individual objects, but
+little power of generalization. No word exists in their language for
+such general terms as tree, bird or fish; yet they have invented a name
+for every species of vegetable and animal they know. The grammatical
+structure of some north Australian languages has a considerable degree
+of refinement. The verb presents a variety of conjugations, expressing
+nearly all the moods and tenses of the Greek. There is a dual, as well
+as a plural form in the declension of verbs, nouns, pronouns and
+adjectives. The distinction of genders is not marked, except in proper
+names of men and women. All parts of speech, except adverbs, are
+declined by terminational inflections. There are words for the
+elementary numbers, one, two, three; but "four" is usually expressed by
+"two-two." They have no idea of decimals. The number and diversity of
+separate languages is bewildering.
+
+
+  Character.
+
+In disposition the Australians are a bright, laughter-loving folk, but
+they are treacherous, untruthful and hold human life cheaply. They have
+no great physical courage. They are mentally in the condition of
+children. None of them has an idea of what the West calls morality,
+except the simple one of right or wrong arising out of property. A wife
+will be beaten without mercy for unfaithfulness to her husband, but the
+same wife will have had to submit to the first-night promiscuity, a
+widespread revel which Roth shows is a regular custom in
+north-west-central Queensland. A husband claims his wife as his absolute
+property, but he has no scruple in handing her over for a time to
+another man. There is, however, no proof that anything like community of
+women or unlimited promiscuity exists anywhere. It would be wrong,
+however, to conclude that moral considerations have led up to this state
+of things. Of sexual morality, in the everyday sense of the word, there
+is none. In his treatment of women the aboriginal may be ranked lower
+than even the Fuegians. Yet the Australian is capable of strong
+affections, and the blind (of whom there have always been a great
+number) are cared for, and are often the best fed in a tribe.
+
+
+  Manners.
+
+The Australians when first discovered were found to be living in almost
+a prehistoric simplicity. Their food was the meat they killed in the
+chase, or seeds and roots, grubs or reptiles. They never, in any
+situation, cultivated the soil for any kind of food-crop. They never
+reared any kind of cattle, or kept any domesticated animal except the
+dog, which probably came over with them in their canoes. They nowhere
+built permanent dwellings, but contented themselves with mere hovels for
+temporary shelter. They neither manufactured nor possessed any chattels
+beyond such articles of clothing, weapons, ornaments and utensils as
+they might carry on their persons, or in the family store-bag for daily
+use. In most districts both sexes are entirely nude. Sometimes in the
+south during the cold season they wear a cloak of skin or matting,
+fastened with a skewer, but open on the right-hand side.
+
+When going through the bush they sometimes wear an apron of skins, for
+protection merely. No headgear is worn, except sometimes a net to
+confine the hair, a bunch of feathers, or the tails of small animals.
+The breast or back, of both sexes, is usually tattooed, or rather,
+scored with rows of hideous raised scars, produced by deep gashes made
+at puberty. Their dwellings for the most part are either bowers, formed
+of the branches of trees, or hovels of piled logs, loosely covered with
+grass or bark, which they can erect in an hour, wherever they encamp.
+But some huts of a more substantial form were seen by Captain Matthew
+Flinders on the south-east coast in 1799, and by Captain King and Sir T.
+Mitchell on the north-east, where they no longer appear. The ingenuity
+of the race is mostly exhibited in the manufacture of their weapons of
+warfare and the chase. While the use of the bow and arrow does not seem
+to have occurred to them, the spear and axe are in general use, commonly
+made of hard-wood; the hatchets of stone, and the javelins pointed with
+stone or bone. The characteristic weapon of the Australian is the
+boomerang (q.v.). Their nets, made by women, either of the tendons of
+animals or the fibres of plants, will catch and hold the kangaroo or the
+emu, or the very large fish of Australian rivers. Canoes of bent bark,
+for the inland waters, are hastily prepared at need; but the inlets and
+straits of the north-eastern sea-coast are navigated by larger canoes
+and rafts of a better construction. As to food, they are omnivorous. In
+central Queensland and elsewhere, snakes, both venomous and harmless,
+are eaten, the head being first carefully smashed to pulp with a stone.
+
+
+  Tribal organization.
+
+The tribal organization of the Australians was based on that of the
+family. There were no hereditary or formally elected chiefs, nor was
+there any vestige of monarchy. The affairs of a tribe were ruled by a
+council of men past middle age. Each tribe occupied a recognized
+territory, averaging perhaps a dozen square miles, and used a common
+dialect. This district was subdivided between the chief heads of
+families. Each family, or family group, had a dual organization which
+has been termed (1) the Social, (2) the Local. The first was
+matriarchal, inheritance being reckoned through the mother. No
+territorial association was needed. All belonged to the same totem or
+totemic class, and might be scattered throughout the tribe, though
+subject to the same marriage laws. The second was patriarchal and of a
+strictly territorial nature. A family or group of families had the same
+hunting-ground, which was seldom changed, and descended through the
+males. Thus, the sons inherited their fathers' hunting-ground, but bore
+their mothers' name and therewith the right to certain women for wives.
+The Social or matriarchal took precedence of the Local or patriarchal
+organization. In many cases it arranged the assemblies and ceremonial of
+the tribe; it regulated marriage, descent and relationship; it ordered
+blood feuds, it prescribed the rites of hospitality and so on.
+Nevertheless the Local side of tribal life in time tended to overwhelm
+the Social and to organize the tribe irrespective of matriarchy, and
+inclined towards hereditary chieftainship.
+
+The most intricate and stringent rules existed as to marriage within and
+without the totemic inter-marrying classes. There is said to be but one
+exception to the rule that marriage must be contracted outside the totem
+name. This exception was discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen among
+the Arunta of central Australia, some allied septs, and their nearest
+neighbours to the north, the Kaitish. This tribe may legally marry
+within the totem, but always avoids such unions. Even in casual amours
+these class laws were invariably observed, and the young man or woman
+who defied them was punished, he with death, she with spearing or
+beating. At the death of a man, his widows passed to his brother of the
+same totem class. Such a system gave to the elder men of a tribe a
+predominant position, and generally respect was shown to the aged. Laws
+and penalties in protection of property were enforced by the tribe.
+Thus, among some tribes of Western Australia the penalty for abducting
+another's wife was to stand with leg extended while each male of the
+tribe stuck his spear into it. Laws, however, did not protect the women,
+who were the mere chattels of their lords. Stringent rules, too,
+governed the food of women and the youth of both sexes, and it was only
+after initiation that boys were allowed to eat of all the game the
+forest provided. In every case of death from disease or unknown causes
+sorcery was suspected and an inquest held, at which the corpse was asked
+by each relative in succession the name of the murderer. This formality
+having been gone through, the flight of the first bird which passed over
+the body was watched, the direction being regarded as that in which the
+sorcerer must be sought. Sometimes the nearest relative sleeps with his
+head on the corpse, in the belief that he will dream of the murderer.
+The most sacred duty an Australian had to perform was the avenging of
+the death of a kinsman, and he was the object of constant taunts and
+insults till he had done so. Cannibalism was almost universal, either in
+the case of enemies killed in battle or when animal food was scarce. In
+the Luritcha tribe it was customary when a child was in weak health to
+kill a younger and healthy one and feed the weakling on its flesh.
+Cannibalism seems also to have sometimes been in the nature of a funeral
+observance, in honour of the deceased, of whom the relatives reverently
+ate portions.
+
+
+  Religion.
+
+They had no special forms of religious worship, and no idols. The
+evidence on the question of whether they believed in a Supreme Being is
+very contradictory. Messrs Spencer and Gillen appear to think that such
+rudimentary idea of an All-Father as has, it is thought, been detected
+among the blackfellows is an exotic growth fostered by contact with
+missionaries. A.W. Howitt and Dr Roth appear to have satisfied
+themselves of a belief, common to most tribes, in a mythic being (he has
+different names in different tribes) having some of the attributes of a
+Supreme Deity. But Mr Howitt finds in this being "no trace of a divine
+nature, though under favourable conditions the beliefs might have
+developed into an actual religion." Other authorities suggest that it is
+going much too far to deny the existence of religion altogether, and
+instance as proof of the divinity of the supra-normal anthropomorphic
+beings of the Baiame class, the fact that the Yuin and cognate tribes
+dance around the image of Daramulun (their equivalent of Baiame) and the
+medicine men "invocate his name." A good deal perhaps depends on each
+observer's view of what religion really is. The Australians believed in
+spirits, generally of an evil nature, and had vague notions of an
+after-life. The only idea of a god known to be entertained by them seems
+to be that of the Euahlayi and Kamilaori tribe, Baiame, a gigantic old
+man lying asleep for ages, with his head resting on his arm, which is
+deep in the sand. He is expected one day to awake and eat up the world.
+Researches go to show that Baiame has his counterpart in other tribes,
+the myth varying greatly in detail. But the Australians are
+distinguished by possessing elaborate initiatory ceremonies.
+Circumcision of one or two kinds was usual in the north and south, but
+not in Western Australia or on the Murray river. In South Australia boys
+had to undergo three stages of initiation in a place which women were
+forbidden to approach. At about ten they were covered with blood from
+head to foot, several elder men bleeding themselves for the purpose. At
+about twelve or fourteen circumcision took place and (or sometimes as an
+alternative on the east coast) a front tooth was knocked out, to the
+accompaniment of the booming of the bullroarer (q.v.). At the age of
+puberty the lad was tattooed or scarred with gashes cut in back,
+shoulders, arms and chest, and the septum of the nose was pierced. The
+gashes varied in patterns for the different tribes. Girls, too, were
+scarred at puberty and had teeth knocked out, &c. The ceremonies--known
+to the Whites under the native generic term for initiatory rites,
+_Bora_,--were much the same throughout Australia. Polygamy was rare, due
+possibly to the scarcity of women.[5] Infanticide was universally
+recognized. The mode of disposing of the dead varied. Among some tribes
+a circular grave was dug and the body placed in it with its face towards
+the east, and a high mound covered with bark or thatch raised over it.
+In New South Wales the body is often burned and the ashes buried. On the
+Lower Murray the body is placed on a platform of sticks and left to
+decay. Young children are often not buried for months, but are carried
+about by their mothers. At the funeral of men there is much mourning,
+the female relatives cutting or tearing their hair off and plastering
+their faces with clay, but for women no public ceremonies took place.
+
+The numbers of the native Australians are steadily diminishing. It was
+estimated that when first visited by Europeans the native population
+did not much exceed 200,000. A remnant of the race exists in each of the
+provinces, while a few tribes still wander over the interior.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Dr A.W. Howitt, _The Native Tribes of South-east
+  Australia_ (1904) and _On the Organization of Australian Tribes_
+  (1889); G.T. Bettany, _The Red, Brown and Black Men of Australia_
+  (1890); B. Spencer and F.J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
+  Australia_ (1899); _The Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London,
+  1904); E.M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (3 vols., 1886-1887); G.W.
+  Rusden, _History of Australia_ (1897); _Australasia_, British Empire
+  Series (Kegan Paul & Co., 1900); A.R. Wallace, _Australasia_ (1880,
+  new ed., 2 vols., 1893-1895); Rev. Lorimer Fison and Dr A.W. Howitt,
+  _Kamilaroi and Kurnai, Group Marriage and Relationship_ (Melbourne,
+  1880); H. Ling Roth, _Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane, 1897); Carl
+  Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_ (1889); Walter E. Roth, _Ethnological
+  Studies among the North-west-central Queensland Aborigines_ (London,
+  1897); Mrs K. Langloh Parker, _Euahlayi Tribes_ (1905); F.J. Gillen,
+  _Notes on Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Macdonnell
+  Ranges belonging to the Arunta Tribe_; J.E. Frazer, "The Beginnings of
+  Religion and Totemism among the Australian Aborigines," _Fortnightly
+  Review_, July 1905; N.W. Thomas, _Native Tribes of Australia_ (1907).
+       (C. Ar.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+1. _The Discovery of Australia_.
+
+It is impossible to say who were the first discoverers of Australia,
+although there is evidence that the Chinese had some knowledge of the
+continent so far back as the 13th century. The Malays, also, would seem
+to have been acquainted with the northern coast; while Marco Polo, who
+visited the East at the close of the 13th century, makes reference to
+the reputed existence of a great southern continent. There is in
+existence a map, dedicated to Henry VIII. of England, on which a large
+southern land is shown, and the tradition of a Terra Australis appears
+to have been current for a long period before it enters into authentic
+history.
+
+In 1503 a French navigator named Binot Paulmyer, sieur de Gonneville,
+was blown out of his course, and landed on a large island, which was
+claimed to be the great southern land of tradition, although Flinders
+and other authorities are inclined to think that it must have been
+Madagascar. Some French authorities confidently put forward a claim that
+Guillaume le Testu, of Provence, sighted the continent in 1531. The
+Portuguese also advance claims to be the first discoverers of Australia,
+but so far the evidence cannot be said to establish their pretensions.
+As early as 1597 the Dutch historian, Wytfliet, describes the Australis
+Terra as the most southern of all lands, and proceeds to give some
+circumstantial particulars respecting its geographical relation to New
+Guinea, venturing the opinion that, were it thoroughly explored, it
+would be regarded as a fifth part of the world.
+
+
+  De Torres.
+
+Early in the 17th century Philip III. of Spain sent out an expedition
+from Callao, in Peru, for the purpose of searching for a southern
+continent. The little fleet comprised three vessels, with the Portuguese
+pilot, De Quiros, as navigator, and De Torres as admiral or military
+commander. They left Callao on the 21st of December 1605, and in the
+following year discovered the island now known as Espiritu Santo, one of
+the New Hebrides group, which De Quiros, under the impression that it
+was indeed the land of which he was in search, named _La Austrialia del
+Espiritu Santo_. Sickness and discontent led to a mutiny on De Quiros'
+vessel, and the crew, overpowering their officers during the night,
+forced the captain to navigate his ship to Mexico. Thus, abandoned by
+his consort, De Torres, compelled to bear up for the Philippines to
+refit, discovered and sailed through the strait that bears his name, and
+may even have caught a glimpse of the northern coast of the Australian
+continent. His discovery was not, however, made known until 1792, when
+Dalrymple rescued his name from oblivion, bestowing it upon the passage
+which separates New Guinea from Australia. De Quiros returned to Spain
+to re-engage in the work of petitioning the king to despatch an
+expedition for the purpose of prosecuting the discovery of the Terra
+Australis. He was finally successful in his petitions, but died before
+accomplishing his work, and was buried in an unknown grave in Panama,
+never being privileged to set his foot upon the continent the discovery
+of which was the inspiration of his life.
+
+
+  Dutch discoverers.
+
+During the same year in which De Torres sailed through the strait
+destined to make him famous, a little Dutch vessel called the "Duyfken,"
+or "Dove," set sail from Bantam, in Java, on a voyage of discovery. This
+ship entered the Gulf of Carpentaria, and sailed south as far as Cape
+Keerweer, or Turn-again. Here some of the crew landed, but, being
+attacked by natives, made no attempt to explore the country. In 1616
+Dirk Hartog discovered the island bearing his name. In 1622 the
+"Leeuwin," or "Lioness," made some discoveries on the south-west coast;
+and during the following year the yachts "Pera" and "Arnheim" explored
+the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Arnheim Land, a portion of the
+Northern Territory, still appears on many maps as a memento of this
+voyage. Among other early Dutch discoverers were Edel; Pool, in 1629, in
+the Gulf of Carpentaria; Nuyts, in the "Guide Zeepaard," along the
+southern coast, which he called, after himself, Nuyts Land; De Witt; and
+Pelsaert, in the "Batavia." Pelsaert was wrecked on Houtman's Abrolhos;
+his crew mutinied, and he and his party suffered greatly from want of
+water. The record of his voyage is interesting from the fact that he was
+the first to carry back to Europe an authentic account of the western
+coast of Australia, which he described in any but favourable terms. It
+is to Dutch navigators in the early portion of the 17th century that we
+owe the first really authentic accounts of the western coast and
+adjacent islands, and in many instances the names given by these
+mariners to prominent physical features are still retained. By 1665 the
+Dutch possessed rough charts of almost the whole of the western
+littoral, while to the mainland itself they had given the name of New
+Holland. Of the Dutch discoverers, Pelsaert was the only one who made
+any detailed observations of the character of the country inland, and it
+may here be remarked that his journal contains the first notice and
+description of the kangaroo that has come down to us.
+
+In 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman sailed on a voyage of discovery from
+Batavia, the headquarters of the governor and council of the Dutch East
+Indies, under whose auspices the expedition was undertaken. He was
+furnished with a yacht, the "Heemskirk," and a fly-boat, the "Zeehaen"
+(or "Sea Hen"), under the command of Captain Jerrit Jansen. He left
+Batavia on what has been designated by Dutch historians the "Happy
+Voyage," on the 14th of August 1642. After a visit to the Mauritius,
+then a Dutch possession, Tasman bore away to the south-east, and on the
+24th of November sighted the western coast of the land which he named
+Van Diemen's Land, in honour of the governor under whose directions he
+was acting. The honour was later transferred to the discoverer himself,
+and the island is now known as Tasmania. Tasman doubled the southern
+extremity of Van Diemen's Land and explored the east coast for some
+distance. The ceremony of hoisting a flag and taking possession of the
+country in the name of the government of the Netherlands was actually
+performed, but the description of the wildness of the country, and of
+the fabulous giants by which Tasman's sailors believed it to be
+inhabited, deterred the Dutch from occupying the island, and by the
+international principle of "non-user" it passed from their hands.
+Resuming his voyage in an easterly direction, Tasman sighted the west
+coast of the South Island of New Zealand on the 13th of December of the
+same year, and describes the coast-line as consisting of "high
+mountainous country."
+
+
+  Dampier.
+
+The first English navigator to sight the Australian continent was
+William Dampier, who made a visit to these shores in 1688, as supercargo
+of the "Cygnet," a trader whose crew had turned buccaneers. On his
+return to England he published an account of his voyage, which resulted
+in his being sent out in the "Roebuck" in 1699 to prosecute his
+discoveries further. To him we owe the exploration of the coast for
+about 900 m.--from Shark's Bay to Dampier's Archipelago, and thence to
+Roebuck Bay. He appears to have landed in several places in search of
+water. His account of the country was quite as unfavourable as
+Pelsaert's. He described it as barren and sterile, and almost devoid of
+animals, the only one of any importance somewhat resembling a raccoon--a
+strange creature, which advanced by great bounds or leaps instead of
+walking, using only its hind legs, and covering 12 or 15 ft. at a time.
+The reference is, of course, to the kangaroo, which Pelsaert had also
+remarked and quaintly described some sixty years previously.
+
+During the interval elapsing between Dampier's two voyages, an accident
+led to the closer examination of the coasts of Western Australia by the
+Dutch. In 1684 a vessel had sailed from Holland for the Dutch
+possessions in the East Indies, and after rounding the Cape of Good
+Hope, she was never again heard of. Some twelve years afterwards the
+East India Company fitted out an expedition under the leadership of
+Commander William de Vlamingh, with the object of searching for any
+traces of the lost vessel on the western shores of New Holland. Towards
+the close of the year 1696 this expedition reached the island of
+Rottnest, which was thoroughly explored, and early the following year a
+landing party discovered and named the Swan river. The vessels then
+proceeded northward without finding any traces of the object of their
+search, but, at the same time, making fairly accurate charts of the
+coast-line.
+
+
+  Cook.
+
+The great voyage of Captain James Cook, in 1769-1770, was primarily
+undertaken for the purposes of observing the transit of Venus, but he
+was also expressly commissioned to ascertain "whether the unexplored
+part of the southern hemisphere be only an immense mass of water, or
+contain another continent." H.M.S. "Endeavour," the vessel fitted out
+for the voyage, was a small craft of 370 tons, carrying twenty-two guns,
+and built originally for a collier, with a view rather to strength than
+to speed. Chosen by Cook himself, she was renamed the "Endeavour," in
+allusion to the great work which her commander was setting out to
+achieve. Mr Charles Green was commissioned to conduct the astronomical
+observations, and Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander were appointed
+botanists to the expedition. After successfully observing the transit
+from the island of Tahiti, or Otaheite, as Cook wrote it, the
+"Endeavour's" head was turned south, and then north-west, beating about
+the Pacific in search of the eastern coast of the great continent whose
+western shores had been so long known to the Dutch. On the 6th of
+October 1769 the coast of New Zealand was sighted, and two days later
+Cook cast anchor in Poverty Bay, so named from the inhospitality and
+hostility of the natives.
+
+After voyaging westward for nearly three weeks, Cook, on the 19th of
+April 1770, sighted the eastern coast of Australia at a point which he
+named after his lieutenant, who discovered it, Point Hicks, and which
+modern geographers identify with Cape Everard.
+
+The "Endeavour" then coasted northward, and after passing and naming
+Mount Dromedary, the Pigeon House, Point Upright, Cape St George and Red
+Point, Botany Bay was discovered on the 28th of April 1770, and as it
+appeared to offer a suitable anchorage, the "Endeavour" entered the bay
+and dropped anchor. The ship brought-to opposite a group of natives, who
+were cooking over a fire. The great navigator and his crew, unacquainted
+with the character of the Australian aborigines, were not a little
+astonished that these natives took no notice of them or their
+proceedings. Even the splash of the anchor in the water, and the noise
+of the cable running out through the hawse-hole, in no way disturbed
+them at their occupation, or caused them to evince the slightest
+curiosity. But as the captain of the "Endeavour" ordered out the pinnace
+and prepared to land, the natives threw off their nonchalance; for on
+the boat approaching the shore, two men, each armed with a bundle of
+spears, presented themselves on a projecting rock and made threatening
+signs to the strangers. It is interesting to note that the ingenious
+_wommera_, or throw-stick, which is peculiar to Australia, was first
+observed on this occasion. As the men were evidently determined to
+oppose any attempt at landing, a musket was discharged between them, in
+the hope that they would be frightened by the noise, but it produced no
+effect beyond causing one of them to drop his bundle of spears, of
+which, however, he immediately repossessed himself, and with his comrade
+resumed the same menacing attitude. At last one cast a stone towards the
+boat, which earned him a charge of small shot in the leg. Nothing
+daunted, the two ran back into the bush, and presently returned
+furnished with shields made of bark, with which to protect themselves
+from the firearms of the crew. Such intrepidity is certainly worthy of
+passing notice. Unlike the American Indians, who supposed Columbus and
+his crew to be supernatural beings, and their ships in some way endowed
+with life, and were thrown into convulsions of terror by the first
+discharge of firearms which they witnessed, these Australians were
+neither excited to wonder by the ship nor overawed by the superior
+number and unknown weapons of the strangers. Cook examined the bay in
+the pinnace, and landed several times; but by no endeavour could he
+induce the natives to hold any friendly communication with him. The
+well-known circumstance of the great variety of new plants here
+obtained, from which Botany Bay derives its name, should not be passed
+over. Before quitting the bay the ceremony was performed of hoisting the
+Union Jack, first on the south shore, and then near the north head,
+formal possession of the territory being thus taken for the British
+crown. During the sojourn in Botany Bay the crew had to perform the
+painful duty of burying a comrade--a seaman named Forby Sutherland, who
+was in all probability the first British subject whose body was
+committed to Australian soil.
+
+After leaving Botany Bay, Cook sailed northward. He saw and named Port
+Jackson, but forbore to enter the finest natural harbour in Australia.
+Broken Bay and other inlets, and several headlands, were also seen and
+named, but the vessel did not come to an anchor till Moreton Bay was
+reached, although the wind prevented Cook from entering this harbour.
+Still sailing northward, taking notes as he proceeded for a rough chart
+of the coast, and landing at Bustard and Keppel Bays and the Bay of
+Inlets, Cook passed over 1300 m. without the occurrence of any event
+worthy of being chronicled, till suddenly one night at ten o'clock the
+water was found to shoal, without any sign of breakers or land. While
+Cook was speculating on the cause of this phenomenon, and was in the act
+of ordering out the boats to take soundings, the "Endeavour" struck
+heavily, and fell over so much that the guns, spare cables, and other
+heavy gear had at once to be thrown overboard to lighten the ship. As
+day broke, attempts were made to float the vessel off with the morning
+tide; but these were unsuccessful. The water was rising so rapidly in
+the hold that with four pumps constantly going the crew could hardly
+keep it in check. At length one of the midshipmen suggested the device
+of "fothering," which he had seen practised in the West Indies. This
+consists of passing a sail, attached to cords, and charged with oakum,
+wool, and other materials, under the vessel's keel, in such a manner
+that the suction of the leak may draw the canvas into the aperture, and
+thus partially stop the vent. This was performed with great success, and
+the vessel was floated off with the evening tide. The land was soon
+after made near the mouth of a small stream, which Cook called, after
+the ship, the Endeavour river. A headland close by he named Cape
+Tribulation. The ship was steered into the river, and there careened and
+thoroughly repaired. Cook having completed the survey of the east coast,
+to which he gave the name of New South Wales, sighted and named Cape
+York, the northernmost point of Australia, and took final possession of
+his discoveries northward from 38 deg. S. to 10-1/2 deg. S., on a spot
+which he named Possession Island, thence returning to England by way of
+Torres Straits and the Indian Ocean.
+
+The great navigator's second voyage, undertaken in 1772, with the
+"Resolution" and the "Adventure," is of less importance. The vessels
+became separated, and both at different times visited New Zealand.
+Captain Tobias Furneaux, in the "Adventure," also found his way to Storm
+Bay in Tasmania. In 1777, while on his way to search for a north-east
+passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Cook again touched at
+the coast of Tasmania and New Zealand.
+
+On his first voyage, in 1770, Cook had some grounds for the belief that
+Van Diemen's Land, as Tasmania was then called, was a separate island.
+The observations of Captain Furneaux, however, did not strengthen this
+belief, and when making his final voyage, the great navigator appears to
+have definitely concluded that it was part of the mainland of Australia.
+This continued to be the opinion of geographers until 1798, when Bass
+discovered the strait which bears his name. The next recorded expedition
+is a memorable one in the annals of Australian history--the despatch of
+a British colony to the shores of Botany Bay. The fleet sailed in May
+1787, and arrived off the Australian coast early in the following
+January.
+
+
+2. _Inland Exploration._
+
+For a period of twenty-five years after the first establishment of a
+British settlement in Australia, the colonists were only acquainted with
+the country along the coast extending northwards about 70 m. from Sydney
+and about a like distance to the south and shut in to the west by the
+Blue Mountain range, forming a narrow strip not more than 50 m. wide at
+its broadest part.
+
+
+  Oxley.
+
+The Blue Mountains attain a height of between 3000 and 4000 ft. only,
+but they are intersected with precipitous ravines 1500 ft. deep, which
+baffled every effort to reach the interior until in 1813, when a summer
+of severe drought had made it of vital importance to find new pastures,
+three of the colonists, Messrs Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth, more
+fortunate than their predecessors in exploration, after crossing the
+Nepean river at Emu Plains and ascending the Dividing Range, were able
+to reach a position enabling them to obtain a view of the grassy valley
+of the Fish river, which lies on the farther side of the Dividing Range.
+The western descent of the mountains appeared to the explorers
+comparatively easy, and they returned to report their discovery. A line
+of road was constructed across the mountains as far as the Macquarie
+river by the surveyor, Mr Evans, and the town of Bathurst laid out. This
+marks the beginning of the occupation of the interior of the continent.
+Some small expeditions were made from Bathurst, resulting in the
+discovery of the Lachlan, and in 1816 the first of the great exploration
+expeditions of Australia was fitted out under Lieutenant Oxley, R.N.
+Oxley was accompanied by Mr Evans and Mr Allan Cunningham the botanist,
+and the object of his expedition was to trace the course of the Lachlan
+in a westerly direction. Oxley traced the river until it lost itself in
+the swamps east of 147 deg. E., then crossing the river he traversed the
+country between the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee as far as 34 deg. S. and
+144 deg. 30' E. On his return journey Oxley again crossed the Lachlan
+about 160 m., measured along the river, below the point where he left it
+on his journey south. Continuing in a north-easterly direction Oxley
+struck the Macquarie river at a place he called Wellington, and from
+this place in the following year he organized a second expedition in
+hopes of discovering an inland sea. He was, however, disappointed in
+this, as after descending the course of the Macquarie below Mount
+Harris, he found that the river ended in an immense swamp overgrown with
+reeds. Oxley now turned aside--led by Mr Evans's report of the country
+eastward--crossed the Arbuthnot range, and traversing the Liverpool
+Plains, and ascending the Peel and Cockburn rivers to the Blue
+Mountains, gained sight of the open sea, which he reached at Port
+Macquarie. A valuable extension of geographical knowledge had been
+gained by this circuitous journey of more than 800 m. Yet its result was
+a disappointment to those who had looked for means of inland navigation
+by the Macquarie river, and by its supposed issue in a mediterranean
+sea.
+
+During the next two or three years public attention was occupied with
+Captain King's maritime explorations of the north-west coast in three
+successive voyages, and by explorations of Western Australia in 1821.
+These steps were followed by the foundation of a settlement on Melville
+Island, in the extreme north, which, however, was soon abandoned. In
+1823 Lieutenant Oxley proceeded to Moreton Bay and Port Curtis, the
+first place 500 m., the other 690 m. north of Sydney, to choose the site
+of a new penal establishment. From a shipwrecked English sailor he met
+with, who had lived with the savages, he heard of the river Brisbane.
+About the same time, in the opposite direction, south-west of Sydney, a
+large extent of the interior was revealed. Messrs Hamilton Hume and
+Hovell set out from Lake George, crossed the Murrumbidgee, and, after
+following the river for a short distance, struck south, skirting the
+foothills of what are now known as the Australian Alps until they
+reached a fine river, which was called the Hume after the leader's
+father. Crossing the Murray at Albury, the explorers, bearing to the
+south-west, skirted the western shore of Port Philip and reached the
+sea-coast near where the town of Geelong now stands. In 1827 and the two
+following years, Cunningham prosecuted instructive explorations on both
+sides of the Liverpool range, between the upper waters of the Hunter and
+those of the Peel and other tributaries of the Brisbane north of New
+South Wales. Some of his discoveries, including those of Pandora's Pass
+and the Darling Downs, were of great practical utility.
+
+
+  Darling.
+
+By this time much had thus been done to obtain an acquaintance with the
+eastern parts of the Australian continent, although the problem of what
+could become of the large rivers flowing north-west and south-west into
+the interior was still unsolved. With a view to determine this question,
+Governor Sir Ralph Darling, in the year 1828, sent out the expedition
+under Captain Charles Sturt, who, proceeding first to the marshes at the
+end of the Macquarie river, found his progress checked by the dense mass
+of reeds in that quarter. He therefore turned westward, and struck a
+large river, with many affluents, to which he gave the name of the
+Darling. This river, flowing from north-east to south-west, drains the
+marshes in which the Macquarie and other streams from the south appeared
+to be lost. The course of the Murrumbidgee, a deep and rapid river, was
+followed by the same eminent explorer in his second expedition in 1831
+with a more satisfactory result. He travelled on this occasion nearly
+2000 m., and discovered that both the Murrumbidgee, carrying with it the
+waters of the Lachlan morass, and likewise the Darling, from a more
+northerly region, finally joined another and larger river. This stream,
+the Murray, in the upper part of its course runs in a north-westerly
+direction, but afterwards turning southwards, almost at a right angle,
+expands into Lake Alexandrina on the south coast, about 60 m. south-east
+of the town of Adelaide, and finally enters the sea at Encounter Bay in
+E. long. 139 deg.
+
+
+  Mitchell.
+
+After gaining a practical solution of the problem of the destination of
+the westward-flowing rivers, Sir Thomas Mitchell, in 1833, led an
+expedition northward to the upper branches of the Darling; the party met
+with a sad disaster in the death of Richard Cunningham, brother of the
+eminent botanist, who was murdered by the blacks near the Bogan river.
+The expedition reached the Darling on the 25th of May 1833, and after
+establishing a depot at Fort Bourke, Mitchell traced the Darling
+southwards for 300 m. until he was certain the river was identical with
+that reported by Sturt as joining the Murray about 142 deg. E.
+
+
+  Eyre.
+
+Meantime, from the new colony of Adelaide, South Australia, on the
+shores of Gulf St Vincent, a series of adventurous journeys to the north
+and to the west was begun by Mr Eyre, who explored a country very
+difficult of access. In 1840 he performed a feat of extraordinary
+personal daring, travelling all the way along the barren sea-coast of
+the Great Australian Bight, from Spencer Gulf to King George Sound. Eyre
+also explored the interior north of the head of Spencer Gulf, where he
+was misled, however, by appearances to form an erroneous theory about
+the water-surfaces named Lake Torrens. It was left to the veteran
+explorer, Sturt, to achieve the arduous enterprise of penetrating from
+the Darling northward to the very centre of the continent. This was in
+1845, the route lying for the most part over a stony desert, where the
+heat (reaching 131 deg. Fahr.), with scorching winds, caused much
+suffering to the party. The most northerly point reached by Sturt on
+this occasion was about S. lat. 24 deg. 25'.
+
+[Illustration: Map: Australia]
+
+
+  Leichhardt.
+
+A military station having been fixed by the British government at Port
+Victoria, on the coast of Arnheim Land, for the protection of
+shipwrecked mariners on the north coast, it was thought desirable to
+find an overland route between this settlement and Moreton Bay, in what
+then was the northern portion of New South Wales, now called Queensland.
+This was the object of Dr Leichhardt's expedition in 1844, which
+proceeded first along the banks of the Dawson and the Mackenzie,
+tributaries of the Fitzroy river, in Queensland. It thence passed
+farther north to the Burdekin, ascending to the source of that river,
+and turned westward across a table-land, from which there was an easy
+descent to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Skirting the low shores of this
+gulf, all the way round its upper half to the Roper, Leichhardt crossed
+Arnheim Land to the Alligator river, which he descended to the western
+shore of the peninsula, and arrived at Port Victoria, otherwise Port
+Essington, after a journey of 3000 m., performed within a year and three
+months. In 1847 Leichhardt undertook a much more formidable task, that
+of crossing the entire continent from east to west. His starting-point
+was on the Fitzroy Downs, north of the river Condamine, in Queensland,
+between the 26th and 27th degrees of S. latitude. But this eminent
+explorer had not proceeded far into the interior before he met his
+death, his last despatch dating from the Cogoon, 3rd of April 1848. In
+the same region, from 1845 to 1847, Sir Thomas Mitchell and Mr E.B.
+Kennedy explored the northern tributaries of the Darling, and a river in
+S. lat. 24 deg., named the Barcoo or Victoria, which flows to the
+south-west. This river was more thoroughly examined by Mr A.C. Gregory
+in 1858. Mr Kennedy lost his life in 1848, being killed by the natives
+while attempting to explore the peninsula of Cape York, from Rockingham
+Bay to Weymouth Bay.
+
+Among the performances of less renown, but of much practical utility in
+surveying and opening new paths through the country, we may mention that
+of Captain Banister, showing the way across the southern part of Western
+Australia, from Swan river to King George Sound, and that of Messrs
+Robinson and G.H. Haydon in 1844, making good the route from Port
+Phillip to Gipps' Land with loaded drays, through a dense tangled scrub,
+which had been described by Strzelecki as his worst obstacle. Again, in
+Western Australia there were the explorations of the Arrowsmith, the
+Murchison, the Gascoyne, and the Ashburton rivers, by Captain Grey, Mr
+Roe, Governor Fitzgerald, Mr R. Austin, and the brothers Gregory, whose
+discoveries have great importance from a geographical point of view.
+
+
+  Stuart.
+
+These local researches, and the more comprehensive attempts of
+Leichhardt and Mitchell to solve the chief problems of Australian
+geography, must yield in importance to the grand achievement of Mr
+Stuart in 1862. The first of his tours independently performed, in 1858
+and 1859, were around the South Australian lakes, namely, Lake Torrens,
+Lake Eyre and Lake Gairdner. These waters had been erroneously taken for
+parts of one vast horse-shoe or sickle shaped lake, only some 20 m.
+broad, believed to encircle a large portion of the inland country, with
+drainage at one end by a marsh into Spencer Gulf. The mistake, shown in
+all the old maps of Australia, had originated in a curious optical
+illusion. When Mr Eyre viewed the country from Mount Deception in 1840,
+looking between Lake Torrens and the lake which now bears his own name,
+the refraction of light from the glittering crust of salt that covers a
+large space of stony or sandy ground produced an appearance of water.
+The error was discovered, after eighteen years, by the explorations of
+Mr Babbage and Major Warburton in 1858, while Mr Stuart, about the same
+time, gained a more complete knowledge of the same district.
+
+A reward of L10,000 having been offered by the legislature of South
+Australia to the first man who should traverse the whole continent from
+south to north, starting from the city of Adelaide, Mr Stuart resolved
+to make the attempt. He started in March 1860, passing Lake Torrens and
+Lake Eyre, beyond which he found a pleasant, fertile country till he
+crossed the Macdonnell range of mountains, just under the line of the
+tropic of Capricorn. On the 23rd of April he reached a mountain in S.
+lat. nearly 22 deg., and E. long. nearly 134 deg., which is the most
+central marked point of the Australian continent, and has been named
+Central Mount Stuart. Mr Stuart did not finish his task on this
+occasion, on account of indisposition and other causes. But the 18th
+degree of latitude had been reached, where the watershed divided the
+rivers of the Gulf of Carpentaria from the Victoria river, flowing
+towards the north-west coast. He had also proved that the interior of
+Australia was not a stony desert, like the region visited by Sturt in
+1845. On the first day of the next year, 1861, Mr Stuart again started
+for a second attempt to cross the continent, which occupied him eight
+months. He failed, however, to advance farther than one geographical
+degree north of the point reached in 1860, his progress being arrested
+by dense scrubs and the want of water.
+
+
+  Burke and Wills.
+
+Meanwhile, in the province of Victoria, by means of a fund subscribed
+among the colonists and a grant by the legislature, the ill-fated
+expedition of Messrs Burke and Wills was started. It made for the Barcoo
+(Cooper's Creek), with a view to reach the Gulf of Carpentaria by a
+northerly course midway between Sturt's track to the west and
+Leichhardt's to the east. The leading men of the party were Mr Robert
+O'Hara Burke, an officer of police, and Mr William John Wills, of the
+Melbourne observatory. Leaving the main body of his party at Menindie on
+the Darling under a man named Wright, Burke, with seven men, five horses
+and sixteen camels, pushed on for Cooper's Creek, the understanding
+being that Wright should follow him in easy stages to the depot proposed
+to be there established. Wright frittered away his time in the district
+beyond the Darling and did not attempt to follow the party to Cooper's
+Creek, and Burke, tired of waiting, determined to push on. Accordingly,
+dividing his party, leaving at the depot four men and taking with him
+Wills and two men, King and Gray, with a horse and six camels, he left
+Cooper's Creek on the 16th of December and crossed the desert traversed
+by Sturt fifteen years before. They got on in spite of great
+difficulties, past the McKinlay range of mountains, S. lat. 21 deg. and
+22 deg., and then reached the Flinders river, which flows into the head
+of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Here, without actually standing on the
+sea-beach of the northern shore, they met the tidal waters of the sea.
+On the 23rd of February 1861 they commenced the return journey, having
+in effect accomplished the feat of crossing the Australian continent.
+Gray, who had fallen ill, died on the 16th of April. Five days later,
+Burke, Wills and King had repassed the desert to the place on Cooper's
+Creek (the Barcoo, S. lat. 27 deg. 40', E. long. 140 deg. 30'), where
+they had left the depot, with the rest of the expedition. Here they
+experienced a cruel disappointment. The depot was abandoned; the men in
+charge had quitted the place the same day, believing that Burke and
+those with him were lost. The men who had thus abandoned the depot
+rejoined the main body of the expedition under Wright, who at length
+moved to Cooper's Creek, and, incredible to relate, neglected to search
+for the missing explorers. Burke, Wills and King, when they found
+themselves so fearfully left alone and unprovided in the wilderness,
+wandered about in that district till near the end of June. They
+subsisted miserably on the bounty of some natives, and partly by feeding
+on the seeds of a plant called nardoo. At last both Wills and Burke died
+of starvation. King, the sole survivor, was saved by meeting the
+friendly blacks, and was found alive in September by Mr A.W. Howitt's
+party, sent on purpose to find and relieve that of Burke.
+
+Four other parties, besides Howitt's, were sent out that year from
+different Australian provinces. Three of them, respectively commanded by
+Mr Walker, Mr Landsborough, and Mr Norman, sailed to the north, where
+the latter two landed on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, while Mr
+Walker marched inland from Rockhampton. The fourth party, under Mr J.
+McKinlay, from Adelaide, made for the Barcoo by way of Lake Torrens. By
+these means, the unknown region of Mid Australia was simultaneously
+entered from the north, south, east and west, and important additions
+were made to geographical knowledge Landsborough crossed the entire
+continent from north to south. between February and June 1862; and
+McKinlay, from south to north, before the end of August in that year.
+The interior of New South Wales and Queensland, all that lies east of
+the 140th degree of longitude, was examined. The Barcoo or Cooper's
+Creek and its tributary streams were traced from the Queensland
+mountains, holding a south-westerly course to Lake Eyre in South
+Australia; the Flinders, the Gilbert, the Gregory, and other northern
+rivers watering the country towards the Gulf of Carpentaria were also
+explored. These valuable additions to Australian geography were gained
+through humane efforts to relieve the lost explorers. The bodies of
+Burke and Wills were recovered and brought to Melbourne for a solemn
+public funeral, and a noble monument has been erected to their honour.
+
+Mr Stuart, in 1862, made his third and final attempt to traverse the
+continent from Adelaide along a central line, which, inclining a little
+westward, reaches the north coast of Arnheim Land, opposite Melville
+Island. He started in January, and on the 7th of April reached the
+farthest northern point, near S. lat. 17 deg., where he had turned back
+in May of the preceding year. He then pushed on, through a very thick
+forest, with scarcely any water, till he came to the streams which
+supply the Roper, a river flowing into the western part of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria. Having crossed a table-land of sandstone which divides
+these streams from those running to the western shores of Arnheim Land,
+Mr Stuart, in the month of July, passed down what is called the Adelaide
+river of north Australia. Thus he came at length to stand on the verge
+of the Indian Ocean; "gazing upon it," a writer has said, "with as much
+delight as Balboa, when he crossed the Isthmus of Darien from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific." The line crossing Australia which was thus
+explored has since been occupied by the electric telegraph connecting
+Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and other Australian cities with London.
+
+
+  Gosse.
+
+  Warburton.
+
+A third part, at least, of the interior of the whole continent, between
+the central line of Stuart and the known parts of Western Australia,
+from about 120 deg. to 134 deg. E. long., an extent of half a million
+square miles, still remained a blank in the map. But the two expeditions
+of 1873, conducted by William Christie Gosse (1842-1881), afterwards
+deputy surveyor-general for South Australia, and Colonel (then Major)
+Egerton Warburton, made a beginning in the exploration of this _terra
+incognita_ west of the central telegraph route. That line of more than
+1800 m., having its southern extremity at the head of Spencer Gulf, its
+northern at Port Darwin, in Arnheim Land, passes Central Mount Stuart,
+in the middle of the continent, S. lat. 22 deg., E. long. 134 deg. Mr
+Gosse, with men and horses provided by the South Australian government,
+started on the 21st of April from the telegraph station 50 m. south of
+Central Mount Stuart, to strike into Western Australia. He passed the
+Reynolds range and Lake Amadeus in that direction, but was compelled to
+turn south, where he found a tract of well-watered grassy land. A
+singular rock of conglomerate, 2 m. long, 1 m. wide, and 1100 ft. high,
+with a spring of water in its centre, struck his attention. The country
+was mostly poor and barren, sandy hillocks, with scanty growth of
+spinifex. Mr Gosse, having travelled above 600 m., and getting to 26
+deg. 32' S. and 127 deg. E., two degrees within the Western Australian
+boundary, was forced to return. Meantime a more successful attempt to
+reach the western coast from the centre of Australia was made by Major
+Warburton, with thirty camels, provided by Mr (afterwards Sir) T. Elder,
+of South Australia. Leaving the telegraph line at Alice Springs (23 deg.
+40' S., 133 deg. 14' E.), 1120 m. north of Adelaide city, Warburton
+succeeded in making his way to the De Grey river, Western Australia.
+Overland routes had now been found possible, though scarcely convenient
+for traffic, between all the widely separated Australian provinces. In
+northern Queensland, also, there were several explorations about this
+period, with results of some interest. That performed by Mr W. Hann,
+with Messrs Warner, Tate and Taylor, in 1873, related to the country
+north of the Kirchner range, watered by the Lynd, the Mitchell, the
+Walsh and the Palmer rivers, on the east side of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria. The coasting expedition of Mr G. Elphinstone Dalrymple,
+with Messrs Hill and Johnstone, finishing in December 1873, effected a
+valuable survey of the inlets and navigable rivers in the Cape York
+Peninsula.
+
+
+  Forrest.
+
+  Giles.
+
+Of the several attempts to cross Western Australia, even Major
+Warburton's expedition, the most successful, had failed in the important
+particular of determining the nature of the country through which it
+passed. Major Warburton had virtually raced across from the Macdonnell
+range in South Australia to the headwaters of the Oakover river on the
+north-west coast, without allowing himself sufficient time to note the
+characteristics of the country. The next important expedition was
+differently conducted. John (afterwards Sir John) Forrest was despatched
+by the Perth government with general instructions to obtain information
+regarding the immense tract of country out of which flow the rivers
+falling into the sea on the northern and western shores of Western
+Australia. Leaving Yewin, a small settlement about lat. 28 deg. S.,
+long. 116 deg. E., Forrest travelled north-east to the Murchison river,
+and followed the course of that river to the Robinson ranges; thence his
+course lay generally eastward along the 26th parallel. Forrest and his
+party safely crossed the entire extent of Western Australia, and
+entering South Australia struck the overland telegraph line at Peake
+station, and, after resting, journeyed south to Adelaide. Forrest
+traversed seventeen degrees of desert in five months, a very wonderful
+achievement, more especially as he was able to give a full report of the
+country through which he passed. His report destroyed all hope that
+pastoral settlement would extend to the spinifex region; and the main
+object of subsequent explorers was to determine the extent of the desert
+in the direction of north and south. Ernest Giles made several attempts
+to cross the Central Australian Desert, but it was not until his third
+attempt that he was successful. His journey ranks almost with Forrest's
+in the importance of its results and the success with which the
+appalling difficulties of the journey were overcome. Through the
+generosity of Sir Thomas Elder, of Adelaide, Giles's expedition was
+equipped with camels. It started on the 23rd of May 1875 from Port
+Augusta. Working westerly along the line of the 30th parallel, Giles
+reached Perth in about five months. After resting in Perth for a short
+time, he commenced the return journey, which was made for the most part
+between the 24th and 25th parallels, and again successfully traversed
+the desert, reaching the overland telegraph line in about seven months.
+Giles's journeys added greatly to our knowledge of the characteristics
+of Western and South Australia, and he was able to bear out the common
+opinion that the interior of Australia west of 132 deg. E. long, is a
+sandy and waterless waste, entirely unfit for settlement.
+
+
+  Recent explorers.
+
+The list of explorers since 1875 is a long one; but after Forrest's and
+Giles's expeditions the main object ceased to be the discovery of
+pastoral country: a new zest had been added to the cause of exploration,
+and most of the smaller expeditions concerned themselves with the search
+for gold. Amongst the more important explorations may be ranked those of
+Tietkins in 1889, of Lindsay in 1891, of Wells in 1896, of Hubbe in
+1896, and of the Hon. David Carnegie in 1896-97. Lindsay's expedition,
+which was fitted out by Sir Thomas Elder, the generous patron of
+Australian exploration, entered Western Australia about the 26th
+parallel south lat., on the line of route taken by Forrest in 1874. From
+this point the explorer worked in a south-westerly direction to Queen
+Victoria Springs, where he struck the track of Giles's expedition of
+1875. From the Springs the expedition went north-west and made a useful
+examination of the country lying between 119 deg. and 115 deg. meridians
+and between 26 deg. and 28 deg. S. lat. Wells's expedition started from
+a base about 122 deg. 20' E. and 25 deg. 54' S., and worked northward to
+the Joanna Springs, situated on the tropic of Capricorn and near the
+124th meridian. From the springs the journey was continued along the
+same meridian to the Fitzroy river. The country passed through was
+mostly of a forbidding character, except where the Kimberley district
+was entered, and the expedition suffered even more than the usual
+hardships. The establishment of the gold-fields, with their large
+population, caused great interest to be taken in the discovery of
+practicable stock routes, especially from South Australia in the east,
+and from Kimberley district in the north. Alive to the importance of the
+trade, the South Australian government despatched Hubbe from Oodnadatta
+to Coolgardie. He successfully accomplished his journey, but had to
+report that there was no practicable route for cattle between the two
+districts.
+
+One of the most successful expeditions which traversed Western Australia
+was that led and equipped by the Hon. David Carnegie, which started in
+July 1896, and travelled north-easterly until it reached Alexander
+Spring; then turning northward, it traversed the country between Wells's
+track of 1896 and the South Australian border. The expedition
+encountered very many hardships, but successfully reached Hall Creek in
+the Kimberley district. After a few months' rest it started on the
+return journey, following Sturt Creek until its termination in Gregory's
+Salt Sea, and then keeping parallel with the South Australian border as
+far as Lake Macdonald. Rounding that lake the expedition moved
+south-west and reached the settled districts in August 1897. The
+distance travelled was 5000 m., and the actual time employed was eight
+months. This expedition put an end to the hope, so long entertained,
+that it was possible to obtain a direct and practicable route for stock
+between Kimberley and Coolgardie gold-fields; and it also proved that,
+with the possible exception of small isolated patches, the desert
+traversed contained no auriferous country.
+
+It may be said that exploration on a large scale is now at an end; there
+remain only the spaces, nowhere very extensive, between the tracks of
+the old explorers yet to be examined, and these are chiefly in the
+Northern Territory and in Western Australia north of the tropic of
+Capricorn. The search for gold and the quest for unoccupied pasturage
+daily diminish the extent of these areas.
+
+
+3. _Political History._
+
+  Early colonization.
+
+Of the six Australian states, New South Wales is the oldest. It was in
+1788, eighteen years after Captain Cook explored the east coast, that
+Port Jackson was founded as a penal station for criminals from England;
+and the settlement retained that character, more or less, during the
+subsequent fifty years, transportation being virtually suspended in
+1839. The colony, however, from 1821 had made a fair start in free
+industrial progress. By this time, too, several of the other provinces
+had come into existence. Van Diemen's Land, now called Tasmania, had
+been occupied as early as 1803. It was an auxiliary penal station under
+New South Wales till in 1825 it became a separate government. From this
+island, ten years later, parties crossed Bass Strait to Port Phillip,
+where a new settlement was shortly established, forming till 1851 a part
+of New South Wales, but now the state of Victoria. In 1827 and 1829, an
+English company endeavoured to plant a settlement at the Swan river, and
+this, added to a small military station established in 1825 at King
+George Sound, constituted Western Australia. On the shores of the Gulf
+St Vincent, again, from 1835 to 1837, South Australia was created by
+another joint-stock company, as an experiment in the Wakefield scheme of
+colonization. Such were the political component parts of British
+Australia up to 1839. The early history, therefore, of New South Wales
+is peculiar to itself. Unlike the other mainland provinces, it was at
+first held and used chiefly for the reception of British convicts. When
+that system was abolished, the social conditions of New South Wales,
+Victoria, and South Australia became more equal. Previous to the gold
+discoveries of 1851 they may be included, from 1839, in a general
+summary view.
+
+
+  Rise of New South Wales.
+
+The first British governors at Sydney, from 1788, ruled with despotic
+power. They were naval or military officers in command of the garrison,
+the convicts and the few free settlers. The duty was performed by such
+men as Captain Arthur Phillip, Captain Hunter, and others. In the twelve
+years' rule of General Macquarie, closing with 1821, the colony made a
+substantial advance. By means of bond labour roads and bridges were
+constructed, and a route opened into the interior beyond the Blue
+Mountains. A population of 30,000, three-fourths of them convicts,
+formed the infant commonwealth, whose attention was soon directed to the
+profitable trade of rearing fine wool sheep, first commenced by Captain
+John McArthur in 1803. During the next ten years, 1821-1831, Sir Thomas
+Brisbane and Sir Ralph Darling, two generals of the army, being
+successively governors, the colony increased, and eventually succeeded
+in obtaining the advantages of a representative institution, by means of
+a legislative council. Then came General Sir Richard Bourke, whose wise
+and liberal administration proved most beneficial. New South Wales
+became prosperous and attractive to emigrants with capital. Its
+enterprising ambition was encouraged by taking fresh country north and
+south. In the latter direction, explored by Mitchell in 1834 and 1836,
+lay Australia Felix, now Victoria, including the well-watered,
+thickly-wooded country of Gipps' Land.
+
+
+  Growth of Victoria.
+
+This district, then called Port Phillip, in the time of Governor Sir
+George Gipps, 1838-1846, was growing fast into a position claiming
+independence. Melbourne, which began with a few huts on the banks of the
+Yarra-Yarra in 1835, was in 1840 a busy town of 6000 inhabitants, the
+population of the whole district, with the towns of Geelong and
+Portland, reaching 12,850; while its import trade amounted to L204,000,
+and its exports to L138,000. Such was the growth of infant Victoria in
+five years; that of Adelaide or South Australia, in the same period, was
+nearly equal to it. At Melbourne there was a deputy governor, Mr
+Latrobe, under Sir George-Gipps at Sydney. Adelaide had its own
+governors, first Captain Hindmarsh, next Colonel Gawler, and then
+Captain George Grey. Western Australia progressed but slowly, with less
+than 4000 inhabitants altogether, under Governors Stirling and Hutt.
+
+
+  Discovery of gold.
+
+The general advancement of Australia, to the era of the gold-mining, had
+been satisfactory, in spite of a severe commercial crisis, from 1841 to
+1843, caused by extravagant land speculations and inflated prices.
+Victoria produced already more wool than New South Wales, the aggregate
+produce of Australia in 1852 being 45,000,000 lb.; and South Australia,
+between 1842 and this date, had opened most valuable mines of copper.
+The population of New South Wales in 1851 was 190,000; that of Victoria,
+77,000; and that of South Australia about the same. At Summerhill Creek,
+20 m. north of Bathurst, in the Macquarie plains, gold was discovered,
+in February 1851, by Mr E. Hargraves, a gold-miner from California. The
+intelligence was made known in April or May; and then began a rush of
+thousands,--men leaving their former employments in the bush or in the
+towns to search for the ore so greatly coveted in all ages. In August it
+was found at Andersen's Creek, near Melbourne; a few weeks later the
+great Ballarat gold-field, 80 m. west of that city, was opened; and
+after that, Bendigo to the north. Not only in these lucky provinces, New
+South Wales and Victoria, where the auriferous deposits were revealed,
+but in every British colony of Australasia, all ordinary industry was
+left for the one exciting pursuit. The copper mines of South Australia
+were for the time deserted, while Tasmania and New Zealand lost many
+inhabitants, who emigrated to the more promising country. The
+disturbance of social, industrial and commercial affairs, during the
+first two or three years of the gold era, was very great. Immigrants
+from Europe, and to some extent from North America and China, poured
+into Melbourne, where the arrivals in 1852 averaged 2000 persons in a
+week. The population of Victoria was doubled in the first twelvemonth of
+the gold fever, and the value of imports and exports was multiplied
+tenfold between 1851 and 1853. The colony of Victoria was constituted a
+separate province in July 1851, Mr Latrobe being appointed governor,
+followed by Sir Charles Hotham and Sir Henry Barkly in succession.
+
+
+  Responsible government.
+
+The separation of the northern part of eastern Australia, under the
+name of Queensland, from the original province of New South Wales, took
+place in 1859. At that time the district contained about 25,000
+inhabitants; and in the first six years its population was quadrupled
+and its trade trebled. At the beginning of 1860, when the excitement of
+the gold discoveries was wearing off, five of the states had received
+from the home government the boon of responsible government, and were in
+a position to work out the problem of their position without external
+interference; it was not, however, until 1890 that Western Australia was
+placed in a similar position. After the establishment of responsible
+government the main questions at issue were the secular as opposed to
+the religious system of public instruction, protection as opposed to a
+revenue tariff, vote by ballot, adult suffrage, abolition of
+transportation and assignment of convicts, and free selection of lands
+before survey; these, and indeed all the great questions upon which the
+country was divided, were settled within twenty years of the granting of
+self-government.[6] With the disposal of these important problems,
+politics in Australia became a struggle for office between men whose
+political principles were very much alike, and the tenure of power
+enjoyed by the various governments did not depend upon the principles of
+administration so much as upon the personal fitness of the head of the
+ministry, and the acceptability of his ministry to the members of the
+more popular branch of the legislature.
+
+
+  General Australian problems.
+
+The two most striking political events in the modern history of
+Australia, as a whole, apart from the readiness it has shown to remain a
+part of the British empire (q.v.), and to develop along Imperial
+lines, are the advent of the Labour party and the establishment of
+federation. As regards the last mentioned it may be said that it was
+accomplished from within, there being no real external necessity for the
+union of the states. Leading politicians have in all the states felt the
+cramping effects of mere domestic legislation, albeit on the proper
+direction of such legislation depends the well-being of the people; and
+to this sense of the limitations of local politics was due, as much as
+to anything else, the movement towards federation.
+
+
+  Agrarian legislation.
+
+Before coming, however, to the history of federation, and the evolution
+of the Labour party, we must refer briefly to some other questions which
+have been of general interest in Australia. Taking the states as a
+whole, agrarian legislation has been the most important subject that has
+engrossed the attention of their parliaments, and every state has been
+more or less engaged in tinkering with its land laws. The main object of
+all such legislation is to secure the residence of the owners on the
+land. The object of settlers, however, in a great many, perhaps in the
+majority of instances, is to dispose of their holdings as soon as
+possible after the requirements of the law have been complied with, and
+to avoid permanent settlement. This has greatly facilitated the
+formation of large estates devoted chiefly to grazing purposes, contrary
+to the policy of the legislature, which has everywhere sought to
+encourage tillage, or tillage joined to stock-rearing, and to discourage
+large holdings. The importance of the land question is so great that it
+is hardly an exaggeration to say that it is usual for every parliament
+of Australia to have before it a proposal to alter or amend its land
+laws. Since 1870 there have been five radical changes made in New South
+Wales. In Victoria the law has been altered five times, and in
+Queensland and South Australia seven times.
+
+
+  Immigration question.
+
+The prevention or regulation of the immigration of coloured races has
+also claimed a great share of parliamentary attention. The agitation
+against the influx of Chinese commenced very soon after the gold
+discoveries, the European miners objecting strongly to the presence of
+these aliens upon the diggings. The allegations made concerning the
+Chinese really amounted to a charge of undue industry. The Chinese were
+hard-working and had the usual fortune attending those who work hard.
+They spent little on drink or with the storekeepers, and were,
+therefore, by no means popular. As early as 1860 there had been
+disturbances of a serious character, and the Chinese were chased off the
+goldfields of New South Wales, serious riots occurring at Lambing Flat,
+on the Burrangong goldfield. The Chinese difficulty, so far as the
+mining population was concerned, was solved by the exhaustion of the
+extensive alluvial deposits; the miners' prejudice against the race,
+however, still exists, though they are no longer serious competitors,
+and the laws of some of the states forbid any Chinese to engage in
+mining without the express authority in writing of the minister of
+mines. The nearness of China to Australia has always appeared to the
+Australian democracy as a menace to the integrity of the white
+settlements; and at the many conferences of representatives from the
+various states, called to discuss matters of general concern, the
+Chinese question has always held a prominent place, but the absence of
+any federal authority had made common action difficult. In 1888 the last
+important conference on the Chinese question was held in Sydney and
+attended by delegates from all the states. Previously to the meeting of
+the conference there had been a great deal of discussion in regard to
+the influx of Chinese, and such influx was on all sides agreed to be a
+growing danger. The conference, therefore, merely expressed the public
+sentiment when it resolved that, although it was not advisable to
+prohibit altogether this class of immigration, it was necessary in the
+public interests that the number of Chinese privileged to land should be
+so limited as to prevent the people of that race from ever becoming an
+important element in the community. In conformity with this
+determination the various state legislatures enacted new laws or amended
+the existing laws to cope with the difficulty; these remained until they
+were in effect superseded by Commonwealth legislation. The objection to
+admitting immigrants was not only to the Chinese, but extended to all
+Asiatics; but as a large proportion of the persons whose entrance into
+the colonies it was desired to stop were British subjects, and the
+Imperial government refused to sanction any measure directly prohibiting
+in plain terms the movement of British subjects from one part of the
+empire to another, resort was made to indirect legislation; this was the
+more advisable, as the rise of the Japanese power in the East and the
+alliance of that country with Great Britain rendered it necessary to pay
+attention to the susceptibilities of a powerful nation whose subjects
+might be affected by restrictive laws. Eventually the difficulty was
+overcome by the device of an educational test based on the provisions of
+an act in operation in Natal. It was provided that a person was to be
+prohibited from landing in Australia who failed to write in any
+prescribed language fifty words dictated to him by the commonwealth
+officer supervising immigration. The efficacy of this legislation is in
+its administration, the language in which coloured aliens are usually
+tested being European. The agitation against the Chinese covered a space
+of over fifty years, a long period in the history of a young country,
+and was promoted and kept alive almost entirely by the trades unions,
+and the restriction acts were the first legislative triumph of the
+Labour party, albeit that party was not at the time directly represented
+in parliament.
+
+
+  Bank crisis of 1893.
+
+One of the most notable events in the modern history of Australia
+occurred shortly after the great strike of 1890. This was what is
+ordinarily termed the bank crisis of 1893. Although this crisis followed
+on the great strike, the crisis of two things had no real connexion, the
+crisis being the natural result of events long anterior to 1890. The
+effects of the crisis were mainly felt in the three eastern states,
+Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia
+being affected chiefly by reason of the fact of their intimate financial
+connexion with the eastern states. The approach of the crisis was
+heralded by many signs. Deposits were shifted from bank to bank, there
+were small runs on several of the savings banks guaranteed by the
+government, mortgagees required additional security from their debtors,
+bankruptcies became frequent, and some of the banks began to accumulate
+gold against the evil day. The building societies and financial
+institutions in receipt of deposits, or so many of them as were on an
+unsound footing, failed at an early period of the depression, so also
+did the weaker banks. There was distrust in the minds of the depositors,
+especially those whose holdings were small, and most of the banks were,
+at a very early period, subjected to the strain of repaying a large
+proportion of their deposits as they fell due. For a time the money so
+withdrawn was hoarded, but after a while it found its way back again
+into the banks. The crisis was by no means a sudden crash, and even when
+the failures began to take place they were spread over a period of
+sixteen weeks.
+
+The first noticeable effect of the crisis was a great scarcity of
+employment. Much capital was locked up in the failed banks, and was
+therefore not available for distribution amongst wage-earners. Wages
+fell precipitately, as also did rents. There was an almost entire
+cessation of building, and a large number of houses in the chief cities
+remained untenanted, the occupants moving to lodgings and more than one
+family living in a single house. Credit became greatly restricted, and
+all descriptions of speculative enterprise came to an end. The consuming
+power of the population was greatly diminished, and in the year
+following the crisis the imports into Australia from abroad diminished
+by four and three-quarter millions. In fact, everywhere the demand for
+goods, especially of those for domestic consumption, fell away; and
+there was a reduction in the average number of persons employed in the
+manufacturing industries to the extent of more than 20%. The lack of
+employment in factories naturally affected the coal mining industry, and
+indeed every industry in the states, except those connected with the
+export trade, was severely affected. During the crisis banks having a
+paid-up capital and reserves of L5,000,000 and deposits of L53,000,000
+closed their doors. Most of these, however, reopened for business before
+many weeks. The crisis was felt in the large cities more keenly than in
+the country districts, and in Melbourne more severely than in any other
+capital. The change of fortune proved disastrous to many families,
+previously to all appearances in opulent circumstances, but by all
+classes alike their reverses were borne with the greatest bravery. In
+its ultimate effects the crisis was by no means evil. Its true meaning
+was not lost upon a business community that had had twenty years of
+almost unchecked prosperity. It required the chastening of adversity to
+teach it a salutary lesson, and a few years after, when the first
+effects of the crisis had passed away, business was on a much sounder
+footing than had been the case for very many years. One of the first
+results was to put trade on a sound basis and to abolish most of the
+abuses of the credit system, but the most striking effect of the crisis
+was the attention which was almost immediately directed to productive
+pursuits. Agriculture everywhere expanded, the mining industry revived,
+and, if it had not been for the low prices of staple products, the
+visible effects of the crisis would have passed away within a very few
+years.
+
+
+  Drought of 1902.
+
+Another matter which deserves attention was the great drought which
+culminated in the year 1902. For some years previously the pastoral
+industry had been declining and the number of sheep and cattle in
+Australia had greatly diminished, but the year 1902 was one of veritable
+drought. The failure of the crops was almost universal and large numbers
+of sheep and cattle perished for want of food. The truth is,
+pastoralists for the most part carried on their industry trusting very
+greatly to luck, not making any special provisions against the
+vicissitudes of the seasons. Enormous quantities of natural hay were
+allowed every year to rot or be destroyed by bush fires, and the
+bountiful provision made by nature to carry them over the seasons of dry
+weather absolutely neglected; so that when the destructive season of
+1902 fell upon them, over a large area of territory there was no food
+for the stock. The year 1903 proved most bountiful, and in a few years
+all trace of the disastrous drought of 1902 passed away. But beyond this
+the pastoralist learnt most effectually the lesson that, in a country
+like Australia, provision must be made for the occasional season when
+the rainfall is entirely inadequate to the wants of the farmer and the
+pastoralist.
+
+
+  Federation.
+
+The question of federation was not lost sight of by the framers of the
+original constitution which was bestowed upon New South Wales. In the
+report of the committee of the legislative council appointed in 1852 to
+prepare a constitution for that colony, the following passage
+occurs:--"One of the most prominent legislative measures required by the
+colony, and the colonies of the Australian group generally, is the
+establishment at once of a general assembly, to make laws in relation to
+those intercolonial questions that have arisen or may hereafter arise
+among them. The questions which would claim the exercise of such a
+jurisdiction appear to be (1) intercolonial tariffs and the coasting
+trade; (2) railways, roads, canals, and other such works running through
+any two of the colonies; (3) beacons and lighthouses on the coast; (4)
+intercolonial gold regulations; (5) postage between the said colonies;
+(6) a general court of appeal from the courts of such colonies; (7) a
+power to legislate on all other subjects which may be submitted to them
+by addresses from the legislative councils and assemblies of the
+colonies, and to appropriate to any of the above-mentioned objects the
+necessary sums of money, to be raised by a percentage on the revenues of
+all the colonies interested." This wise recommendation received very
+scant attention, and it was not until the necessities of the colonies
+forced them to it that an attempt was made to do what the framers of the
+original constitution suggested. Federation at no time actually dropped
+out of sight, but it was not until thirty-five years later that any
+practical steps were taken towards its accomplishment. Meanwhile a sort
+of makeshift was devised, and the Imperial parliament passed a measure
+permitting the formation of a federal council, to which any colony that
+felt inclined to join could send delegates. Of the seven colonies New
+South Wales and New Zealand stood aloof from the council, and from the
+beginning it was therefore shorn of a large share of the prestige that
+would have attached to a body speaking and acting on behalf of a united
+Australia. The council had also a fatal defect in its constitution. It
+was merely a deliberative body, having no executive functions and
+possessing no control of funds or other means to put its legislation in
+force. Its existence was well-nigh forgotten by the people of Australia
+until the occurrence of its biennial meetings, and even then but slight
+interest was taken in its proceedings. The council held eight meetings,
+at which many matters of intercolonial interest were discussed. The last
+occasion of its being called together was in 1899, when the council met
+in Melbourne. In 1889 an important step towards federation was taken by
+Sir Henry Parkes. The occasion was the report of Major-General Edwards
+on the defences of Australia, and Sir Henry addressed the other premiers
+on the desirability of a federal union for purposes of defence. The
+immediate result was a conference at Parliament House, Melbourne, of
+representatives from each of the seven colonies. This conference adopted
+an address to the queen expressing its loyalty and attachment, and
+submitting certain resolutions which affirmed the desirability of an
+early union, under the crown, of the Australasian colonies, on
+principles just to all, and provided that the remoter Australasian
+colonies should be entitled to admission upon terms to be afterwards
+agreed upon, and that steps should be taken for the appointment of
+delegates to a national Australasian convention, to consider and report
+upon an adequate scheme for a federal convention. In accordance with the
+understanding arrived at, the various Australasian parliaments appointed
+delegates to attend a national convention to be held in Sydney, and on
+the 2nd March 1891 the convention held its first meeting. Sir Henry
+Parkes was elected president, and he moved a series of resolutions
+embodying the principles necessary to establish, on an enduring
+foundation, the structure of a federal government. These resolutions
+were slightly altered by the conference, and were adopted in the
+following form:--
+
+  1. The powers and rights of existing colonies to remain intact, except
+  as regards such powers as it may be necessary to hand over to the
+  Federal government.
+
+  2. No alteration to be made in states without the consent of the
+  legislatures of such states, as well as of the federal parliament.
+
+  3. Trade between the federated colonies to be absolutely free.
+
+  4. Power to impose customs and excise duties to be in the Federal
+  government and parliament.
+
+  5. Military and naval defence forces to be under one command.
+
+  6. The federal constitution to make provision to enable each state to
+  make amendments in the constitution if necessary for the purposes of
+  federation.
+
+Other formal resolutions were also agreed to, and on the 31st of March
+Sir Samuel Griffith, as chairman of the committee on constitutional
+machinery, brought up a draft Constitution Bill, which was carefully
+considered by the convention in committee of the whole and adopted on
+the 9th of April, when the convention was formally dissolved. The bill,
+however, fell absolutely dead, not because it was not a good bill, but
+because the movement out of which it arose had not popular initiative,
+and therefore failed to reach the popular imagination.
+
+Although the bill drawn up by the convention of 1891 was not received by
+the people with any show of interest, the federation movement did not
+die out; on the contrary, it had many enthusiastic advocates, especially
+in the colony of Victoria. In 1894 an unofficial convention was held at
+Corowa, at which the cause of federation was strenuously advocated, but
+it was not until 1895 that the movement obtained new life, by reason of
+the proposals adopted at a meeting of premiers convened by Mr G.H. Reid
+of New South Wales. At this meeting all the colonies except New Zealand
+were represented, and it was agreed that the parliament of each colony
+should be asked to pass a bill enabling the people to choose ten persons
+to represent the colony on a federal convention; the work of such
+convention being the framing of a federal constitution to be submitted
+to the people for approval by means of the referendum. During the year
+1896 Enabling Acts were passed by New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania,
+South Australia and Western Australia, and delegates were elected by
+popular vote in all the colonies named except Western Australia, where
+the delegates were chosen by parliament. The convention met in Adelaide
+on the 22nd of March 1897, and, after drafting a bill for the
+consideration of the various parliaments, adjourned until the 2nd of
+September. On that date the delegates reassembled in Sydney, and debated
+the bill in the light of the suggestions made by the legislatures of the
+federating colonies. In the course of the proceedings it was announced
+that Queensland desired to come within the proposed union; and in view
+of this development, and in order to give further opportunity for the
+consideration of the bill, the convention again adjourned. The third and
+final session was opened in Melbourne on the 20th of January 1898, but
+Queensland was still unrepresented; and, after further consideration,
+the draft bill was finally adopted on the 16th of March and remitted to
+the various colonies for submission to the people.
+
+The constitution was accepted by Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania
+by popular acclamation, but in New South Wales very great opposition was
+shown, the main points of objection being the financial provisions,
+equal representation in the Senate, and the difficulty in the way of the
+larger states securing an amendment of the constitution in the event of
+a conflict with the smaller states. As far as the other colonies were
+concerned, it was evident that the bill was safe, and public attention
+throughout Australia was fixed on New South Wales, where a fierce
+political contest was raging, which it was recognized would decide the
+fate of the measure for the time being. The fear was as to whether the
+statutory number of 80,000 votes necessary for the acceptance of the
+bill would be reached. This fear proved to be well founded, for the
+result of the referendum in New South Wales showed 71,595 votes in
+favour of the bill and 66,228 against it, and it was accordingly lost.
+In Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, on the other hand, the bill
+was accepted by triumphant majorities. Western Australia did not put it
+to the vote, as the Enabling Act of that colony only provided for
+joining a federation of which New South Wales should form a part. The
+existence of such a strong opposition to the bill in the mother colony
+convinced even its most zealous advocates that some changes would have
+to be made in the constitution before it could be accepted by the
+people; consequently, although the general election in New South Wales,
+held six or seven weeks later, was fought on the federal issue, yet the
+opposing parties seemed to occupy somewhat the same ground, and the
+question narrowed itself down to one as to which party should be
+entrusted with the negotiations to be conducted on behalf of the colony,
+with a view to securing a modification of the objectionable features of
+the bill. The new parliament decided to adopt the procedure of again
+sending the premier, Mr Reid, into conference, armed with a series of
+resolutions affirming its desire to bring about the completion of
+federal union, but asking the other colonies to agree to the
+reconsideration of the provisions which were most generally objected to
+in New South Wales. The other colonies interested were anxious to bring
+the matter to a speedy termination, and readily agreed to this course of
+procedure. Accordingly a premiers' conference was held in Melbourne at
+the end of January 1899, at which Queensland was for the first time
+represented. At this conference a compromise was effected, something was
+conceded to the claims of New South Wales, but the main principles of
+the bill remained intact. The bill as amended was submitted to the
+electors of each colony and again triumphantly carried in Victoria,
+South Australia and Tasmania. In New South Wales and Queensland there
+were still a large number of persons opposed to the measure, which was
+nevertheless carried in both colonies. New South Wales having decided in
+favour of federation, the way was clear for a decision on the part of
+Western Australia. The Enabling Bill passed the various stages in the
+parliament of that colony, and the question was then adopted by
+referendum.
+
+In accordance with this general verdict of all the states, the colonial
+draft bill was submitted to the imperial government for legislation as
+an imperial act; and six delegates were sent to England to explain the
+measure and to pilot it through the cabinet and parliament. A bill was
+presented to the British parliament which embodied and established, with
+such variations as had been accepted on behalf of Australia by the
+delegates, the constitution agreed to at the premiers' conference of
+1899 and speedily became law. Under this act, which was dated the 9th of
+July 1900, a proclamation was issued on the 17th of September of the
+same year, declaring that, on and after the 1st of January 1901, the
+people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland,
+Tasmania and Western Australia should be united in a federal
+commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth of Australia.
+
+
+    Provisions of the Act of 1900.
+
+  The six colonies entering the Commonwealth were denominated original
+  states, and new states might be admitted, or might be formed by
+  separation from or union of two or more states or parts of states; and
+  territories (as distinguished from states) might be taken over and
+  governed under the legislative power of the Commonwealth. The
+  legislative power is vested in a federal parliament, consisting of the
+  sovereign, a senate, and a house of representatives, the sovereign
+  being represented by a governor-general. The Senate was to consist of
+  the same number of members (not less than six) for each state, the
+  term of service being six years, but subject to an arrangement that
+  half the number would retire every three years. The House of
+  Representatives was to consist of members chosen in the different
+  states in numbers proportioned to their population, but never fewer
+  than five. The first House of Representatives was to contain
+  seventy-five members. For elections to the Senate the governors of
+  states, and for general elections of the House of Representatives the
+  governor-general, would cause writs to be issued. The Senate would
+  choose its own president, and the House of Representatives its
+  speaker; each house would make its own rules of procedure; in each,
+  one-third of the number of members would form a quorum; the members of
+  each must take oath, or make affirmation of allegiance; and all alike
+  would receive an allowance of L400 a year. The legislative powers of
+  the parliament have a wide range, many matters being transferred to it
+  from the colonial parliaments. The more important subjects with which
+  it deals are trade, shipping and railways; taxation, bounties, the
+  borrowing of money on the credit of the Commonwealth; the postal and
+  telegraphic services; defence, census and statistics; currency,
+  coinage, banking, bankruptcy; weights and measures; copyright, patents
+  and trade marks; marriage and divorce; immigration and emigration;
+  conciliation and arbitration in industrial disputes. Bills imposing
+  taxation or appropriating revenue must not originate in the Senate,
+  and neither taxation bills nor bills appropriating revenue for the
+  annual service of the government may be amended in the Senate, but the
+  Senate may return such bills to the House of Representatives with a
+  request for their amendment. Appropriation laws must not deal with
+  other matters. Taxation laws must deal with only one subject of
+  taxation; but customs and excise duties may, respectively, be dealt
+  with together. Votes for the appropriation of the revenue shall not
+  pass unless recommended by the governor-general. The constitution
+  provides means for the settlement of disputes between the houses, and
+  requires the assent of the sovereign to all laws. The executive power
+  is vested in the governor-general, assisted by an executive council
+  appointed by himself. He has command of the army and navy, and
+  appoints federal ministers and judges. The ministers are members of
+  the executive council, and must be, or within three months of their
+  appointment must become, members of the parliament. The judicial
+  powers are vested in a high court and other federal courts, and the
+  federal judges hold office for life or during good behaviour. The High
+  Court has appellate jurisdiction in cases from other federal courts
+  and from the supreme courts of the states, and it has original
+  jurisdiction in matters arising under laws made by the federal
+  parliament, in disputes between states, or residents in different
+  states, and in matters affecting the representatives of foreign
+  powers. Special provisions were made respecting appeals from the High
+  Court to the sovereign in council. The constitution set forth
+  elaborate arrangements for the administration of finance and trade
+  during the transition period following the transference of departments
+  to the Commonwealth. Within two years uniform customs duties were to
+  be imposed; thereafter the parliament of the Commonwealth had
+  exclusive power to impose customs and excise duties, or to grant
+  bounties; and trade within the Commonwealth was to be absolutely free.
+  Exceptions were made permitting the states to grant bounties on mining
+  and (with the consent of the parliament) on exports of produce or
+  manufactures--Western Australia being for a time partially exempted
+  from the prohibition to impose import duties.
+
+  The constitution, parliament and laws of each state, subject to the
+  federal constitution, retained their authority; state rights were
+  carefully safeguarded, and an inter-state commission was given powers
+  of adjudication and of administration of the laws relating to trade,
+  transport and other matters. Provision was made for necessary
+  alteration of the constitution of the Commonwealth, but so that no
+  alteration could be effected unless the question had been directly
+  submitted to, and the change accepted by the electorate in the states.
+  The seat of government was to be within New South Wales, not less than
+  100 m. distant from Sydney, and of an area not less than 100 sq. m.
+  Until other provision was made, the governor-general was to have a
+  salary of L10,000, paid by the Commonwealth. Respecting the salaries
+  of the governors of states, the constitution made no provision.
+
+The choice of governor-general of the new Commonwealth fell upon Lord
+Hopetoun (afterwards Lord Linlithgow), who had won golden opinions as
+governor of Victoria a few years before; Mr (afterwards Sir Edmund)
+Barton, who had taken the lead among the Australian delegates, became
+first prime minister; and the Commonwealth was inaugurated at the
+opening of 1901. The first parliament under the constitution was elected
+on the 29th and 30th of March 1901, and was opened by the prince of
+Wales on the 9th of May following. In October 1908 the Yass-Canberra
+district, near the town of Yass, N.S.W., was at length selected by both
+federal houses to contain the future federal capital.
+
+
+  Labour movement.
+
+  The Great Strike of 1890.
+
+The Labour movement in Australia may be traced back to the early days
+when transportation was in vogue, and the free immigrant and the
+time-expired convict objected to the competition of the bond labourer.
+The great object of these early struggles being attained, Labour
+directed its attention mainly to securing shorter hours. It was aided
+very materially by the dearth of workers consequent on the gold
+discoveries, when every man could command his own price. When the
+excitement consequent on the gold finds had subsided, there was a
+considerable reaction against the claims of Labour, and this was greatly
+helped by the congested state of the labour market; but the principle of
+an eight-hours day made progress, and was conceded in several trades. In
+the early years of the 'seventies the colonies entered upon an era of
+well-being, and for about twelve years every man, willing to work and
+capable of exerting himself, readily found employment. The Labour unions
+were able to secure in these years many concessions both as to hours and
+wages. In 1873 there was an important rise in wages, in the following
+year there was a further advance, and another in 1876; but in 1877 wages
+fell back a little, though not below the rate of 1874. In 1882 there was
+a very important advance in wages; carpenters received 11s. a day,
+bricklayers 12s. 6d., stone-masons 11s. 6d., plasterers 12s., painters
+11s., blacksmiths 10s., and navvies and general labourers 8s., and work
+was very plentiful. For five years these high wages ruled; but in 1886
+there was a sharp fall, though wages still remained very good. In 1888
+there was an advance, and again in 1889. In 1890 matters were on the eve
+of a great change and wages fell, in most cases to a point 20% below the
+rates of 1885. During the whole period from 1873 onwards, prices, other
+than of labour, were steadily tending downwards, so that the cost of
+living in 1890 was much below that of 1873. Taking everything into
+consideration the reduction was, perhaps, not less than 20%, so that,
+though the nominal or money wages in 1873 and 1890 were the same, the
+actual wages were much higher in the latter year. Much of the
+improvement in the lot of the wage-earners has been due to the Labour
+organizations, yet so late as 1881 these organizations were of so little
+account, politically, that when the law relating to trades unions was
+passed in New South Wales, the English law was followed, and it was
+simply enacted that the purposes of any trades union shall not be deemed
+unlawful (so as to render a member liable to criminal prosecution for
+conspiracy or otherwise) merely by reason that they are in restraint of
+trade. After the year 1884 Labour troubles became very frequent, the New
+South Wales coal miners in particular being at war with the colliery
+owners during the greater part of the six years intervening between then
+and what is called the Great Strike. The strong downward tendency of
+prices made a reduction of wages imperative; but the labouring classes
+failed to recognize any such necessity, and strongly resented any
+reductions proposed by employers. It was hard indeed for a carter
+drawing coal to a gasworks to recognize the necessity which compelled a
+reduction in his wages because wool had fallen 20%. Nor were other
+labourers, more nearly connected with the producing interests, satisfied
+with a reduction of wages because produce had fallen in price all round.
+Up to 1889 wages held their ground, although work had become more
+difficult to obtain, and some industries were being carried on without
+any profit. It was at such an inopportune time that the most extensive
+combination of Labour yet brought into action against capital formulated
+its demands. It is possible that the London dockers' strike was not
+without its influence on the minds of the Australian Labour leaders.
+That strike had been liberally helped by the Australian unions, and it
+was confidently predicted that, as the Australian workers were more
+effectively organized than the English unions, a corresponding success
+would result from their course of action. A strike of the Newcastle
+miners, after lasting twenty-nine weeks, came to an end in January 1890,
+and throughout the rest of the year there was great unrest in Labour
+circles. On the 6th of September the silver mines closed down, and a
+week later a conference of employers issued a manifesto which was met
+next day by a counter-manifesto of the Intercolonial Labour Conference,
+and almost immediately afterwards by the calling out of 40,000 men. The
+time chosen for the strike was the height of the wool season, when a
+cessation of work would be attended with the maximum of inconvenience.
+Sydney was the centre of the disturbance, and the city was in a state of
+industrial siege, feeling running to dangerous extremes. Riotous scenes
+occurred both in Sydney and on the coal-fields, and a large number of
+special constables were sworn in by the government. Towards the end of
+October 20,000 shearers were called out, and many other trades,
+principally concerned with the handling or shipping of wool, joined the
+ranks of the strikers, with the result that the maritime and pastoral
+industries throughout the whole of Australia were most injuriously
+disturbed. The Great Strike terminated early in November 1890, the
+employers gaining a decisive victory. The colonies were, however, to
+have other and bitter experiences of strikes before Labour recognized
+that of all means for settling industrial disputes strikes are, on the
+whole, the most disastrous that it can adopt. The strikes of the years
+1890 and 1892 are just as important on account of their political
+consequences as from the direct gains or losses involved.
+
+
+  Political consequences.
+
+As one result of the strike of 1890 a movement was set afoot by a number
+of enthusiasts, more visionary than practical, that has resulted in a
+measure of more or less disaster. This was the planting of a colony of
+communistic Australians in South America. After much negotiation the
+leader, Mr William Lane, a Brisbane journalist, decided on Paraguay, and
+he tramped across the continent, preaching a new crusade, and gathering
+in funds and recruits in his progress. On the 16th of July 1893 the
+first little army of "New Australians" left Sydney in the "Royal Tar,"
+which arrived at Montevideo on the 31st of August. Other consignments of
+intending settlers in "New Australia" followed; but though the
+settlement is still in existence it has completely failed to realize the
+impracticable ideals of its original members. The Queensland government
+assisted some of the disillusioned to escape from the paradise which
+proved a prison; some managed to get away on their own account; and
+those that have remained have split into as many settlements almost as
+there are settlers. Another effect of the Great Strike was in a more
+practical direction. New South Wales was the first country which
+endeavoured to settle its labour grievances through the ballot-box and
+to send a great party to parliament as the direct representation of
+Labour, pledged to obtain through legislation what it was unable to
+obtain by strikes and physical force. The principle of one-man one-vote
+had been persistently advocated without arousing any special
+parliamentary or public enthusiasm until the meeting of the Federal
+Convention in 1891. The convention was attended by Sir George Grey, who
+was publicly welcomed to the colony by New Zealanders resident in
+Sydney, and by other admirers, and his reception was an absolute
+ovation. He eloquently and persistently advocated the principle of
+one-man one-vote as the bed-rock of all democratic reform. This
+subsequently formed the first plank of the Labour platform. Several
+attempts had been made by individuals belonging to the Labour party to
+enter the New South Wales parliament, but it was not until 1891 that the
+occurrence of a general election gave the party the looked-for
+opportunity for concerted action. The results of the election came as a
+complete surprise to the majority of the community. The Labour party
+captured 35 seats out of a House of 125 members; and as the old parties
+almost equally divided the remaining seats, and a fusion was impossible,
+the Labour representatives dominated the situation. It was not long,
+however, before the party itself became divided on the fiscal question;
+and a Protectionist government coming into power, about half the Labour
+members gave it consistent support and enabled it to maintain office for
+about three years, the party as a political unit being thus destroyed.
+The events of these three years taught the Labour leaders that a
+parliamentary party was of little practical influence unless it was able
+to cast on all important occasions a solid vote, and to meet the case a
+new method was devised. The party therefore determined that they would
+refuse to support any person standing in the Labour interests who
+refused to pledge himself to vote on all occasions in such way as the
+majority of the party might decide to be expedient. This was called the
+"solidarity pledge," and, united under its sanction, what was left of
+the Labour party contested the general election of 1894. The result was
+a defeat, their numbers being reduced from 35 to 19; but a signal
+triumph was won for solidarity. Very few of the members who refused to
+take the pledge were returned and the adherents of the united party were
+able to accomplish more with their reduced number than under the old
+conditions.
+
+  The two features of the Labour party in New South Wales are its
+  detachment from other parties and the control of the caucus. The
+  caucus, which is the natural corollary of the detachment, determines
+  by majority the vote of the whole of the members of the party,
+  independence of action being allowed on minor questions only. So far
+  the party has refrained from formal alliance with the other great
+  parties of the state. It supports the government as the power alone
+  capable of promoting legislation, but its support is given only so
+  long as the measures of the government are consistent with the Labour
+  policy. This position the Labour party has been able to maintain with
+  great success, owing to the circumstance that the other parties have
+  been almost equally balanced.
+
+
+  Parliamentary Labour party.
+
+The movement towards forming a parliamentary Labour party was not
+confined to New South Wales; on the contrary, it was common to all the
+states, having its origin in the failure of the Great Strike of 1890.
+The experience of the party was also much the same as in New South
+Wales, but its greatest triumphs were achieved in South Australia. The
+Labour party has been in power in Queensland, Western Australia and
+South Australia, and has, on many occasions, decided the fate of the
+government on a critical division in all the states except Tasmania and
+Victoria. Different ideals dominate the party in the different states.
+The one ideal which has just been described represents the Labour party
+from the New South Wales standpoint. The only qualification worth
+mentioning is the signing of the pledge of solidarity. The other ideal,
+typified by the South Australian party, differs from this in one
+important respect. To the Labour party in that state are admitted only
+persons who have worked for their living at manual labour, and this
+qualification of being an actual worker is one that was strongly
+insisted upon at the formation of the party and strictly adhered to,
+although the temptation to break away from it and accept as candidates
+persons of superior education and position has been very great. On the
+formation of the Commonwealth a Labour party was established in the
+federal houses. It comprises one-third of the representation in the
+House of Representatives, and perhaps a still larger proportion in the
+Senate. The party is, however, formed on a broader basis than the state
+parties, the solidarity pledge extends only to votes upon which the fate
+of a government depends. Naturally, however, as the ideals of the
+members of the party are the same, the members of the Labour party will
+be generally found voting together on all important divisions, the chief
+exception being with regard to free trade or protection. The Labour
+party held power in the Commonwealth for a short period, and has had the
+balance of power in its hands ever since the formation of the
+Commonwealth. (T. A. C.)
+
+
+  Recent legislation.
+
+Australian legislation in the closing years of the 19th century and the
+first decade of the 20th bore the most evident traces of the Labour
+party's influence. In all the colonies a complete departure from
+principles laid down by the leading political economists of the 19th
+century was made when acts were passed subjecting every branch of
+domestic industry to the control of specially constituted tribunals,
+which were empowered among other important functions to fix the minimum
+rate of wages to be paid to all grades of workmen. (See also the
+articles ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION; TRADE UNIONS; LABOUR
+LEGISLATION.)
+
+
+    Victoria.
+
+  Victoria was the pioneer in factory legislation, the first Victorian
+  act of that character dating from 1873. In 1884 a royal commission,
+  appointed two years earlier to inquire into the conditions of
+  employment in the colony and certain allegations of "sweating" that
+  had then recently been made, reported that:--"The most effective mode
+  of bringing about industrial co-operation and mutual sympathy between
+  employers and employed, and thus obviating labour conflicts in the
+  future, is by the establishment of courts of conciliation in Victoria,
+  whose procedure and awards shall have the sanction and authority of
+  law." This report led to the passing of a number of acts which,
+  proving ineffectual, were followed by the Factories and Shops Act of
+  1896, passed by the ministry of Mr (afterwards Sir Alexander) Peacock.
+  This measure, together with several subsequent amending acts, of which
+  the most important became law in 1903, 1905 and 1907, forms a complete
+  industrial code in which the principle of state regulation of wages is
+  recognized and established. Its central enactment was to bring into
+  existence (1) "Special Boards," consisting of an equal number of
+  representatives of employers and workmen respectively in any trade,
+  under the presidency of an independent chairman, and (2) a Court of
+  Industrial Appeals. A special board may be formed at the request of
+  any union of employers or of workmen, or on the initiative of the
+  Labour department. After hearing evidence, which may be given on oath,
+  the special board issues a "determination," fixing the minimum rate of
+  wages to be paid to various classes of workers of both sexes and
+  different ages in the trade covered by the determination, including
+  apprentices; and specifying the number of hours per week for which
+  such wages are payable, with the rates for overtime when those hours
+  are exceeded. The determination is then gazetted, and it becomes
+  operative over a specified area, which varies in different cases, on a
+  date fixed by the board. Either party, or the minister for Labour, may
+  refer a determination to the court of industrial appeals, and the
+  court, in the event of a special board failing to make a
+  determination, may itself be called upon to frame one. The general
+  administration of the Factories and Shops Acts, to which the special
+  boards owe their being, is vested in a chief inspector of factories,
+  subject to the control of the minister of Labour in matters of policy.
+  Before the end of 1906 fifty-two separate trades in Victoria had
+  obtained special boards, by whose determinations their operations were
+  controlled.
+
+
+    South Australia.
+
+  A similar system was introduced into South Australia by an act passed
+  in 1900 amending the Factory Act of 1894, which was the first
+  legislation of the sort passed in that state.
+
+
+    Queensland.
+
+  In Queensland, where the earliest factory legislation dates from 1896,
+  keen parliamentary conflict raged round the proposal in 1907 to
+  introduce the special boards system for fixing wages. More than one
+  change of government occurred before the bill became law in April
+  1908.
+
+
+    New South Wales.
+
+  In New South Wales, whose example was followed by Western Australia,
+  the machinery adopted for fixing the statutory rate of wages was of a
+  somewhat different type. The model followed in these two states was
+  not Victoria but New Zealand, where an Industrial Conciliation and
+  Arbitration Act was passed in 1894. A similar measure, under the
+  guidance of the attorney-general, the Hon. B.R. Wise, was carried
+  after much opposition in New South Wales in 1901, to remain in force
+  till the 30th of June 1908. By it an arbitration court was instituted,
+  consisting of a president and assessors representing the employers'
+  unions and the workers' unions respectively; in any trade in which a
+  dispute occurs, any union of workmen or employers registered under the
+  act was given the right to bring the matter before the arbitration
+  court, and if the court makes an award, an application may be made to
+  it to make the award a "common rule," which thereupon becomes binding
+  over the trade affected, wherever the act applies. The award of the
+  court is thus the equivalent of the determination of a special board
+  in Victoria, and deals with the same questions, the most important of
+  which are the minimum rates of wages and the number of working hours
+  per week. The act contained stringent provisions forbidding strikes;
+  but in this respect it failed to effect its purpose, several strikes
+  occurring in the years following its enactment, in which there were
+  direct refusals to obey awards.
+
+
+    Western Australia.
+
+  In the years 1900 and 1902 acts were passed in Western Australia still
+  more closely modelled on the New Zealand act than was the
+  above-mentioned statute in New South Wales. Unlike the latter, they
+  reproduced the institution of district conciliation boards in addition
+  to the arbitration court; but these boards were a failure here as they
+  were in New Zealand, and after 1903 they fell into disuse. In Western
+  Australia, too, the act failed to prevent strikes taking place. In
+  1907 a serious strike occurred in the timber trade, attended by all
+  the usual accompaniments, except actual disorder, of an industrial
+  conflict.
+
+
+    Federal Arbitration Act of 1904.
+
+  In all this legislation one of the most hotly contested points was
+  whether the arbitration court should be given power to lay it down
+  that workers who were members of a trade union should be employed in
+  preference to non-unionists. This power was given to the tribunal in
+  New South Wales, but was withheld in Western Australia. It was the
+  same question that formed the chief subject of debate over the Federal
+  Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which, after causing the defeat of
+  more than one ministry, passed through the Commonwealth parliament in
+  1904. It was eventually compromised by giving the power, but only with
+  safeguarding conditions, to the Federal arbitration court. This
+  tribunal differs from similar courts in the states inasmuch as it
+  consists of a single member, called the "president," an officer
+  appointed by the governor-general from among the justices of the High
+  Court of Australia. The president has the power to appoint assessors
+  to advise him on technical points; and considerable powers of
+  devolution of authority for the purpose of inquiry and report are
+  conferred upon the court, the main object of which is to secure
+  settlement by conciliatory methods. The distinctive object of the
+  Federal Act, as defined in the measure itself, is to provide machinery
+  for dealing with industrial disputes extending beyond any one state,
+  examples of which were furnished by the first two important cases
+  submitted to the court--the one concerning the merchant marine of
+  Australia, and the other the sheep shearers, both of which were heard
+  in 1907. An additional duty was thrown on the Federal arbitration
+  court by the Customs and Excise Tariff Acts of 1906, in which were
+  embodied the principles known as the "New Protection." By the Customs
+  Act the duty was raised on imported agricultural implements, while as
+  a safeguard to the consumer the maximum prices for the retail of the
+  goods were fixed. In order to provide a similar protection for the
+  artisans employed in the protected industries, an excise duty was
+  imposed on the home-produced articles, which was to be remitted in
+  favour of manufacturers who could show that they paid "fair and
+  reasonable" wages, and complied with certain other conditions for the
+  benefit of their workmen. The chief authority for determining whether
+  these conditions are satisfied or not is the Federal arbitration
+  court.
+
+
+    Old age pensions.
+
+  The same period that saw this legislation adopted was also marked by
+  the establishment of old age pensions in the three eastern states, and
+  also in the Commonwealth. By the Federal Act, passed in the session of
+  1908, a pension of ten shillings a week was granted to persons of
+  either sex over sixty-five years of age, or to persons over sixty who
+  are incapacitated from earning a living. The Commonwealth legislation
+  thus made provision for the aged poor in the three states which up to
+  1908 had not accepted the principle of old age pensions, and also for
+  those who, owing to their having resided in more than one state, were
+  debarred from receiving pension in any.
+
+
+  Tariff.
+
+An important work of the Commonwealth parliament was the passing of a
+uniform tariff to supersede the six separate tariffs in force at the
+establishment of the Commonwealth, but many other important measures
+were considered and some passed into law. During the first six years of
+federation there were five ministries; the tenure of office under the
+three-yearly system was naturally uncertain, and this uncertainty was
+reflected in the proposals of whatever ministry was in office. The great
+task of adjusting the financial business of the Commonwealth on a
+permanent basis was one of very great difficulty, as the apparent
+interests of the states and of the Commonwealth were opposed. Up till
+1908 it had been generally assumed that the constitution required the
+treasurer of the Commonwealth to hand over to the states month by month
+whatever surplus funds remained in his hands. But in July 1908 a Surplus
+Revenue Act was passed which was based on a different interpretation of
+the constitution. Under this act the appropriation of these surplus
+funds to certain trust purposes in the Federal treasury is held to be
+equivalent to payment to the states. The money thus obtained was
+appropriated in part to naval defence and harbours, and in part to the
+provision of old age pensions under the Federal Old Age Pension Act of
+1908. The act was strongly opposed by the government of Queensland, and
+the question was raised as to whether it was based on a true
+interpretation of the constitution. The chief external interest,
+however, of the new financial policy of the Commonwealth lay in its
+relation towards the empire as a whole. At the Imperial Conference in
+London in 1907 Mr Deakin, the Commonwealth premier, was the leading
+advocate of colonial preference with a view to imperial commercial
+union; and though no reciprocal arrangement was favoured by the Liberal
+cabinet, who temporarily spoke for the United Kingdom, the colonial
+representatives were all agreed in urging such a policy, and found the
+Opposition (the Unionist party) in England prepared to adopt it as part
+of Mr Chamberlain's tariff reform movement. In spite of the official
+rebuff received from the mother-country, the Australian ministry, in
+drawing up the new Federal tariff, gave a substantial preference to
+British imports, and thus showed their willingness to go farther. (See
+the article BRITISH EMPIRE.)     (R. J. M.)
+
+  GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For Physical Geography: Barton, _Australian
+  Physiography_ (Brisbane, 1895); Wall, _Physical Geography of
+  Australia_ (Melbourne, 1883); Taylor, _Geography of New South Wales_
+  (Sydney, 1898); Saville Kent, _The Great Barrier Reef of Australia_
+  (London, 1893); A. Agassiz, _Visit to the Barrier Reef_ (Cambridge,
+  Mass., 1899); J.P. Thomson, _The Physical Geography of Australia_
+  (Smithsonian Report, Washington, 1898); J.W. Gregory, _The Dead Heart
+  of Australia_. For Flora: Maiden, _Useful Native Plants of Australia_
+  (Sydney, 1889); Bentham and Mueller, _Flora Australiensis_ (London,
+  1863-1878); Fitzgerald, _Australian Orchids_ (Sydney, 1870-1890);
+  Mueller, _Census of Australian Plants_ (Melbourne, 1889). For Fauna:
+  Forbes, "The Chatham Islands; their Relation to a former Southern
+  Continent," _Geographical Journal_, vol. ii. (1893); Hedley,
+  "Surviving Refugees in Austral Lands of Ancient Antarctic Life,"
+  _Royal Society N.S. Wales_, 1895; "The Relation of the Fauna and Flora
+  of Australia to those of New Zealand," _Nat. Science_ (1893);
+  Tenison-Woods, _The Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales_ (Sydney,
+  1883); Ogilvy, _Catalogue of Australian Mammals_ (Sydney, 1892);
+  Aflalo, _Natural History of Australia_ (London, 1896); Flower and
+  Lydekker, _Mammals, Living and Extinct_ (London, 1891); J. Douglas
+  Ogilby, _Catalogue of the Fishes of New South Wales_, 4to (Sydney,
+  1886). For Statistics and Miscellanea: T.A. Coghlan, _A Statistical
+  Account of the Seven Colonies of Australasia_, 8vo (Sydney, 1904); G.
+  Collingridge, _The Discovery of Australia_ (Sydney, 1895); W. Epps,
+  _The Land Systems of Australia_, 8vo (London, 1894); Ernest Favenc,
+  _The History of Australasian Exploration_, royal 8vo (Sydney, 1885);
+  R.R. Garraa, _The Coming Commonwealth: a Handbook of Federal
+  Government_ (Sydney, 1897); George William Rusden, _History of
+  Australia_, 3 vols. 8vo (London, 1883); K. Schmeisser, _The Goldfields
+  of Australasia_, 2 vols. (London, 1899); G.F. Scott, _The Romance of
+  Australian Exploring_ (London, 1899); H. de R. Walker, _Australasian
+  Democracy_ (London, 1897); William Westgarth, _Half a Century of
+  Australian Progress_ (London, 1899); T.A. Coghlan and T.T. Ewing,
+  _Progress of Australia in the 19th Century_; G.P. Tregarthen,
+  _Commonwealth of Australia_; Ida Lee, _Early Days of Australia_; W.P.
+  Reeves, _State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand_; A. Metin,
+  _La Socialisme sans doctrine_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The literature of the geology of Australia is enumerated, to
+    1884, in the bibliography by Etheridge and Jack. A general summary of
+    the stratigraphical geology was given by R. Tate, _Rep. Austral.
+    Assoc. Adv. Sci._ vol. v. (1893), pp. 1-69. References to the chief
+    sources of information regarding the states is given under each of
+    them. A geological map of the whole continent, on the scale of 50 m.
+    to the inch, was compiled by A. Everett, and issued in 1887 in six
+    sheets, by the Geological Survey of Victoria.
+
+  [2] The statistical portion of this article includes Tasmania, which
+    is a member of the Australian Commonwealth.
+
+  [3] In his _Discoveries in Central Australia_, E.T. Eyre has
+    ingeniously attempted to reconstruct the routes taken by the
+    Australians in their advance across the continent. He has relied,
+    however, in his efforts to link the tribes together, too much on the
+    prevalence or absence of such customs as circumcision--always very
+    treacherous evidences--to allow of his hypothetical distribution
+    being regarded very seriously. The migrations must have always been
+    dependent upon physical difficulties, such as waterless tracts or
+    mountain barriers. They were probably not definite massed movements,
+    such as would permit of the survival of distinctive lines of custom
+    between tribe and tribe; but rather spasmodic movements, sometimes of
+    tribes or of groups, sometimes only of families or even couples, the
+    first caused by tribal wars, the second to escape punishment for some
+    offence against tribal law, such as the defiance of the rules as to
+    clan-marriages.
+
+  [4] _The Languages of India_ (1875).
+
+  [5] The existence of "Group Marriage" is a much-controverted point.
+    This custom, which has been defined as the invasion of actual
+    marriage by allotting permanent paramours, is confined to a special
+    set of tribes.
+
+  [6] Australia, it may be noted, has woman's suffrage in all the
+    states (Victoria, the last, adopting it in November 1908), and for
+    the federal assembly.
+
+
+
+
+AUSTRASIA. The word _Austria_ signifies the realm of the east (Ger. _Ost
+Reich_). In Gregory of Tours this word is still used vaguely, but the
+sense of it is gradually defined, and finally the name of _Austria_ or
+_Austrasia_ was given to the easternmost part of the Frankish kingdom.
+It usually had Metz for its capital, and the inhabitants of the kingdom
+were known as the _Austrasii_. Retrospectively, later historians have
+given this name to the kingdom of Theuderich I. (511-534), of his son
+Theudebert (534-548), and of his grandson Theudebald (548-555); then,
+after the death of Clotaire I., to the kingdom of Sigebert (561-575),
+and of his son Childebert (575-597). They have even tried to interpret
+the long struggle between Fredegond and Brunhilda as a rivalry between
+the two kings of Neustria and Austrasia. When these two words are at
+last found in the texts in their precise signification, Austrasia is
+applied to that part of the Frankish kingdom which Clotaire II.
+entrusted to his son Dagobert, subject to the guardianship of Pippin and
+Arnulf (623-629), and which Dagobert in his turn handed on to his son
+Sigebert (634-639), under the guardianship of Cunibert, bishop of
+Cologne, and Ansegisel, mayor of the palace. After the death of
+Dagobert, Austrasia and Neustria almost always had separate kings, with
+their own mayors of the palace, and then there arose a real rivalry
+between these two provinces, which ended in the triumph of Austrasia.
+The Austrasian mayors of the palace succeeded in enforcing their
+authority in the western as well as in the eastern part, and in
+re-establishing to their own advantage the unity of the Frankish
+kingdom. The mayor Pippin the Short was even powerful enough to take the
+title of king over the whole.
+
+At the time of Charlemagne, the word Austrasia underwent a change of
+meaning and became synonymous with _Francia orientalis_, and was applied
+to the Frankish dominions beyond the Rhine (Franconia). This Franconia
+was in 843 included in the kingdom of Louis the German, and was then
+increased by the addition of the territories of Mainz, Spires and Worms,
+on the right bank of the river.
+
+  See A. Huguenin, _Histoire du royaume merovingien d'Austrasie_ (Paris,
+  1857); Aug. Digot, _Histoire du royaume d'Austrasie_, 4 vols. (Nancy,
+  1863); L. Drapeyron, _Essai sur l'origine, le developpement et les
+  resultats de la lutte entre la Neustrie et l'Austrasie_ (Paris, 1867);
+  Auguste Longnon, _Atlas historique_, 1st and 2nd parts.     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+
+
+AUSTRIA. (Ger. _Osterreich_), a country of central Europe, bounded E. by
+Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic Sea and Italy, W. by
+Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German empire (Bavaria), and N. by
+the German empire (Saxony and Prussia) and Russia. It has an area of
+115,533 sq. m., or about twice the size of England and Wales together.
+Austria is one of the states which constitute the Austro-Hungarian
+(Habsburg) monarchy (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_), and is also called
+Cisleithania, from the fact that it contains the portion of that
+monarchy which lies to the west of the river Leitha. Austria does not
+form a geographical unity, and the constituent parts of this empire
+belong to different geographical regions. Thus, Tirol, Styria and
+Carinthia belong, like Switzerland, to the system of the Alps, but these
+provinces together with those lying in the basin of the Danube form,
+nevertheless, a compact stretch of country. On the other hand Galicia,
+extending on the eastern side of the Carpathians, belongs to the great
+plain of Russia; Bohemia stretches far into the body of Germany; while
+Dalmatia, which is quite separated from the other provinces, belongs to
+the Balkan Peninsula.
+
+  _Coasts._--Austria has amongst all the great European countries the
+  most continental character, in so far as its frontiers are mostly
+  land-frontiers, only about one-tenth of them being coast-land. The
+  Adriatic coast, which stretches for a distance of about 1000 m., is
+  greatly indented. The Gulf of Trieste on the west, and the Gulf of
+  Fiume or Quarnero on the east, include between them the peninsula of
+  Istria, which has many sheltered bays. In the Gulf of Quarnero are the
+  Quarnero islands, of which the most important are Cherso, Veglia and
+  Lussin. The coast west of the mouth of the Isonzo is fringed by
+  lagoons, and has the same character as the Venetian coast, while the
+  Gulf of Trieste and the Istrian peninsula have a steep coast with many
+  bays and safe harbours. The principal ports are Trieste, Capodistria,
+  Pirano, Parenzo, Rovigno and Pola, the great naval harbour and arsenal
+  of Austria. The coast of Dalmatia also possesses many safe bays, the
+  principal being those of Zara, Cattaro and Ragusa, but in some places
+  it is very steep and inaccessible. On the other hand a string of
+  islands extends along this coast, which offer many safe and easily
+  accessible places of anchorage to ships during the fierce winter gales
+  which rage in the Adriatic. The principal are Pago, Pasman, Isola
+  Lunga and Isola Incoronata, Brazza, Lesina, Curzola and Meleda.
+
+  The political divisions of Austria correspond, for the most part, so
+  closely to natural physical divisions that the detailed account of the
+  physical features, natural resources and the movement of the
+  population has been given under those separate headings. In this
+  general article the geography of Austria--physical, economical and
+  political--has been treated in its broad aspects, and those points
+  insisted upon which give an adequate idea of the country as a whole.
+
+  _Mountains._--Austria is the most mountainous country of Europe after
+  Switzerland, and about four-fifths of its entire area is more than 600
+  ft. above the level of the sea. The mountains of Austria belong to
+  three different mountain systems, namely, the Alps (q.v.), the
+  Carpathians (q.v.), and the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains. The Danube,
+  which is the principal river of Austria, divides the Alpine region,
+  which occupies the whole country lying at its south, from the
+  Bohemian-Moravian Mountains and their offshoots lying at its north;
+  while the valleys of the March and the Oder separate the last-named
+  mountains from the Carpathians. Of the three principal divisions of
+  the Alps--the western, the central and the eastern Alps--Austria is
+  traversed by several groups of the central Alps, while the eastern
+  Alps lie entirely within its territory. The eastern Alps are continued
+  by the Karst mountains, which in their turn are continued by the
+  Dinaric Alps, which stretch through Croatia and Dalmatia. The second
+  great mountain-system of Austria, the Carpathians, occupy its eastern
+  and north-eastern portions, and stretch in the form of an arch through
+  Moravia, Silesia, Galicia and Bukovina, forming the frontier towards
+  Hungary, within which territory they principally extend. Finally, the
+  Bohemian-Moravian Mountains, which enclose Bohemia and Moravia, and
+  form the so-called quadrilateral of Bohemia, constitute the link of
+  the Austrian mountain-system with the hilly region (the
+  _Mittelgebirge_) of central Europe. Only a little over 25% of the area
+  of Austria is occupied by plains. The largest is the plain of Galicia,
+  which is part of the extensive Sarmatic plain; while in the south,
+  along the Isonzo, Austria comprises a small part of the
+  Lombardo-Venetian plain. Several smaller plains are found along the
+  Danube, as the Tulner Becken in Lower Austria, and the Wiener Becken,
+  the plain on which the capital is situated; to the north of the Danube
+  this plain is called the Marchfeld, and is continued under the name of
+  the Marchebene into Moravia as far north as Olmutz. Along the other
+  principal rivers there are also plains of more or less magnitude, some
+  of them possessing tracts of very fertile soil.
+
+  _Rivers._--Austria possesses a fairly great number of rivers, pretty
+  equally distributed amongst its crown lands, with the exception of
+  Istria and the Karst region, where there is a great scarcity of even
+  the smallest rivers. The principal rivers are: the Danube, the
+  Dniester, the Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine and the Adige or
+  Etsch. As the highlands of Austria form part of the great watershed of
+  Europe, which divides the waters flowing northward into the North Sea
+  or the Baltic from those flowing southward or eastward into the
+  Mediterranean or the Black Sea, its rivers flow in three different
+  directions--northward, southward and eastward. With the exception of
+  the small streams belonging to it which fall into the Adriatic, all
+  its rivers have their mouths in other countries, and its principal
+  river, the Danube, has also its source in another country. When it
+  enters Austria at the gorge of Passau, where it receives the Inn, a
+  river which has as large a body of water as itself, the Danube is
+  already navigable. Till it leaves the country at Hainburg, just before
+  Pressburg, its banks are pretty closely hemmed by the Alps, and the
+  river passes through a succession of narrow defiles. But the finest
+  part of its whole course, as regards the picturesqueness of the
+  scenery on its banks, is between Linz and Vienna. Where it enters
+  Austria the Danube is 898 ft. above the level of the sea, and where it
+  leaves it is only 400 ft.; it has thus a fall within the country of
+  498 ft., and is at first a very rapid stream, becoming latterly much
+  slower. The Danube has in Austria a course of 234 m., and it drains an
+  area of 50,377 sq. m. Its principal affluents in Austria, besides the
+  Inn, are the Traun, the Enns and the March. The Dniester, which, like
+  the Danube, flows into the Black Sea, has its source in the
+  Carpathians in Eastern Galicia, and pursues a very winding course
+  towards the south-east, passing into Russia. It has in Austria a
+  course of 370 m. of which 300 are navigable, and drains an area of
+  12,000 sq. m. The Vistula and the Oder both fall into the Baltic. The
+  former rises in Moravia, flows first north through Austrian Silesia,
+  then takes an easterly direction along the borders of Prussian
+  Silesia, and afterwards a north-easterly, separating Galicia from
+  Russian Poland, and leaving Austria not far from Sandomir. Its course
+  in Austria is 240 m., draining an area of 15,500 sq. m. It is
+  navigable for nearly 200 m., and its principal affluents are the
+  Dunajec, the San and the Bug. The Oder has also its source in Moravia,
+  flows first east and then north-east through Austrian Silesia into
+  Prussia. Its length within the Austrian territory is only about 55 m.,
+  no part of which is navigable. The only river of this country which
+  flows into the North Sea is the Elbe. It has its source in the
+  Riesengebirge, not far from the Schneekoppe, flows first south, then
+  west, and afterwards north-west through Bohemia, and then enters
+  Saxony. Its principal affluents are the Adler, Iser and Eger, and,
+  most important of all, the Moldau. The Elbe has a course within the
+  Austrian dominions of 185 m., for about 65 of which it is navigable.
+  It drains an area of upwards of 21,000 sq. m. The Rhine, though
+  scarcely to be reckoned a river of the country, flows for about 25 m.
+  of its course between it and Switzerland. The principal river of
+  Austria which falls into the Adriatic is the Adige or Etsch. It rises
+  in the mountains of Tirol, flows south, then east, and afterwards
+  south, into the plains of Lombardy. It has in Austria a course of 138
+  m., and drains an area of 4266 sq. m. Its principal affluent is the
+  Eisak. Of the streams which have their course entirely within the
+  country, and fall into the Adriatic, the principal is the Isonzo, 75
+  m. in length, but navigable only for a short distance from its mouth.
+
+  _Lakes._--Austria does not possess any great lakes; but has numerous
+  small mountain lakes situated in the Alpine region, the most renowned
+  for the beauty of their situation being found in Salzburg,
+  Salzkammergut, Tirol and Carinthia. There should also be mentioned the
+  periodical lakes situated in the Karst region, the largest of them
+  being the Lake of Zirknitz. The numerous and large marshes, found now
+  mostly in Galicia and Dalmatia, have been greatly reduced in the other
+  provinces through the canalization of the rivers, and other works of
+  sanitation.
+
+  _Mineral Springs._--No other European country equals Austria in the
+  number and value of its mineral springs. They are mostly to be found
+  in Bohemia, and are amongst the most frequented watering-places in the
+  world. The most important are, the alkaline springs of Carlsbad,
+  Marienbad, Franzensbad and Bilin; the alkaline acidulated waters of
+  Giesshubel, largely used as table waters; the iron springs of
+  Marienbad, Franzensbad and of Pyrawarth in Lower Austria; the bitter
+  waters of Pullna, Saidschitz and Sedlitz; the saline waters of Ischl
+  and of Aussee in Styria; the iodine waters of Hall in Upper Austria;
+  the different waters of Gastein; and lastly the thermal waters of
+  Teplitz-Schonau, Johannisbad, and of Romerbad in Styria. Altogether
+  there are reckoned to exist over 1500 mineral springs, of which many
+  are not used.     (O. Br.)
+
+  _Geology._--The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is traversed by the great
+  belt of folded beds which constitutes the Alps and the Carpathians; a
+  secondary branch proceeding from the main belt runs along the Adriatic
+  coast and forms the Julian and Dinaric Alps. In the space which is
+  thus enclosed, lies the Tertiary basin of the Hungarian plain; and
+  outside the belt, on the northern side, is a region which,
+  geologically, is composite, but has uniformly resisted the Carpathian
+  folding. In the neighbourhood of Vienna a gap in the folded belt--the
+  gap between the Alps and the Carpathians--has formed a connexion
+  between these two regions since the early part of the Miocene period.
+  On its outer or convex side the folded belt is clearly defined by a
+  depression which is generally filled by modern deposits. Beyond this,
+  in Russia and Galicia, lies an extensive plateau, much of which is
+  covered by flat-lying Miocene and Pliocene beds; but in the deep
+  valleys of the Dniester and its tributaries the ancient rocks which
+  form the foundation of the plateau are laid bare. Archaean granite is
+  thus exposed at Yampol and other places in Russia, and this is
+  followed towards the west by Silurian and Devonian beds in regular
+  succession--the Devonian being of the Old Red Sandstone type
+  characteristic of the British Isles and of Northern Russia.
+  Throughout, the dip is very low and the beds are unaffected by the
+  Carpathian folds, the strike being nearly from north to south. After
+  Devonian times the region seems to have been dry land until the
+  commencement of the Upper Cretaceous period, when it was overspread by
+  the Cenomanian sea, and the deposits of that sea lie flat upon the
+  older sediments.
+
+  Some 25 or 30 m. of undulating country separate the Dniester from the
+  margin of the Carpathian chain, and in this space the Palaeozoic floor
+  sinks far beneath the surface, so that not even the deep-cut valley of
+  the Pruth exposes any beds of older date than Miocene. Towards the
+  north-west, also, the Palaeozoic foundation falls beneath an
+  increasing thickness of Cretaceous beds and lies buried far below the
+  surface. At Lemberg a boring 1650 ft. in depth did not reach the base
+  of the Senonian. West of Cracow the Cretaceous beds are underlaid by
+  Jurassic and Triassic deposits, the general dip being eastward. It is
+  not till Silesia that the Palaeozoic formations again rise to the
+  surface. Here is the margin, often concealed by very modern deposits,
+  of the great mass of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks which forms nearly
+  the whole of Bohemia and Moravia. The Palaeozoic beds no longer lie
+  flat and undisturbed, as in the Polish plain. They are faulted and
+  folded. But the folds are altogether independent of those of the
+  Carpathians; they are of much earlier date, and are commonly different
+  in direction. The principal biding took place towards the close of the
+  Carboniferous period, and the _massif_ is a fragment of an ancient
+  mountain chain, the _Variscische Gebirge_ of E. Suess, which in
+  Permian and Triassic times stretched across the European area from
+  west to east.
+
+  In Bohemia and Moravia the whole of the beds from the Cambrian to the
+  Lower Carboniferous are of marine origin; but after the Carboniferous
+  period the area appears to have been dry land until the beginning of
+  the Upper Cretaceous period, when the sea again spread over it. The
+  deposits of this sea are now visible in the large basin of Upper
+  Cretaceous beds which stretches from Dresden southeastward through
+  Bohemia. Since the close of the Cretaceous period the Bohemian
+  _massif_ has remained above the sea; but the depression which lies
+  immediately outside the Carpathian chain has at times been covered by
+  an arm of the sea and at other times has been occupied by a chain of
+  salt lakes, to which the salt deposits of Wieliczka and numerous brine
+  springs owe their origin.
+
+  [Illustration: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.]
+
+  The large area which is enclosed within the curve of the Carpathians
+  is for the most part covered by loess, alluvium and other modern
+  deposits, but Miocene and Pliocene beds appear around its borders. In
+  the hilly region of western Transylvania a large mass of more ancient
+  rocks is exposed; the Carboniferous system and all the Mesozoic
+  systems have been recognized here, and granite and volcanic rocks
+  occur. In the middle of Hungary a line of hills rises above the plain,
+  striking from the Platten See towards the north-east, where it merges
+  into the inner girdle of the Carpathian chain. These hills are largely
+  formed of volcanic rocks of late Tertiary age; but near the Platten
+  See Triassic beds of Alpine type are well developed. The Tertiary
+  eruptions were not confined to this line of hills. They were most
+  extensive along the inner border of the Carpathians, and they occurred
+  also in the north of Bohemia. Most of the eruptions took place during
+  the Miocene and Pliocene periods.
+
+  The mineral wealth of Austria is very great. The older rocks are in
+  many places peculiarly rich in metalliferous ores of all kinds.
+  Amongst them may be mentioned the silver-bearing lead ores of
+  Erzgebirge and of Pribram in Bohemia; the iron ores of Styria and
+  Bukovina; and the iron, copper, cobalt and nickel of the districts of
+  Zips and Gomor. The famous cinnabar and mercury mines of Idria in
+  Carniola are in Triassic beds; and the gold and silver of northern
+  Hungary and of Transylvania are associated with the Tertiary volcanic
+  rocks. The Carboniferous coal-fields of Silesia and Bohemia are of the
+  greatest importance; while Jurassic coal is worked at Steyerdorf and
+  Funfkirchen in Hungary, and lignite at many places in the Tertiary
+  beds. The great salt mines of Galicia are in Miocene deposits; but
+  salt is also worked largely in the Trias of the Alps. (See also ALPS;
+  CARPATHIANS; HUNGARY and TIROL.)     (P. La.)
+
+  _Climate._--The climate of Austria, in consequence of its great
+  extent, and the great differences in the elevation of its surface, is
+  very various. It is usual to divide it into three distinct zones. The
+  most southern extends to 46 deg. N. lat., and includes Dalmatia and
+  the country along the coast, together with the southern portions of
+  Tirol and Carinthia. Here the seasons are mild and equable, the
+  winters are short (snow seldom falling), and the summers last for five
+  months. The vine and maize are everywhere cultivated, as well as
+  olives and other southern products. In the south of Dalmatia tropical
+  plants flourish in the open air. The central zone lies between 46 deg.
+  and 49 deg. N. lat., and includes Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg,
+  Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Central and Northern Tirol, Southern
+  Moravia and a part of Bohemia. The seasons are more marked here than
+  in the preceding. The winters are longer and more severe, and the
+  summers are hotter. The vine and maize are cultivated in favourable
+  situations, and wheat and other kinds of grain are generally grown.
+  The northern zone embraces the territory lying north of 49 deg. N.
+  lat., comprising Bohemia, Northern Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. The
+  winters are here long and cold; the vine and maize are no longer
+  cultivated, the principal crops being wheat, barley, oats, rye, hemp
+  and flax. The mean annual temperature ranges from about 59 deg. in the
+  south to 48 deg. in the north. In some parts of the country, however,
+  it is as low as 46 deg. 40' and even 36 deg. In Vienna the average
+  annual temperature is 50 deg., the highest temperature being 94 deg.,
+  the lowest 2 deg. Fahr. In general the eastern part of the country
+  receives less rain than the western. In the south the rains prevail
+  chiefly in spring and autumn, and in the north and central parts
+  during summer. Storms are frequent in the region of the south Alps and
+  along the coast. In some parts in the vicinity of the Alps the
+  rainfall is excessive, sometimes exceeding 60 in. It is less among the
+  Carpathians, where it usually varies from 30 to 40 in. In other parts
+  the rainfall usually averages from 20 to 24 in.
+
+  _Flora._--From the varied character of its climate and soil the
+  vegetable productions of Austria are very diverse. It has floras of
+  the plains, the hills and the mountains; an alpine flora, and an
+  arctic flora; a flora of marshes, and a flora of steppes; floras
+  peculiar to the clay, the chalk, the sandstone and the slate
+  formations. The number of different species is estimated at 12,000, of
+  which one-third are phanerogamous, or flowering plants, and two-thirds
+  cryptogamous, or flowerless. The crown land of Lower Austria far
+  surpasses in this respect the other divisions of the country, having
+  about four-ninths of the whole, and not less than 1700 species of
+  flowering plants. As stated above, Austria is a very mountainous
+  country and the mountains are frequently covered with vegetation to a
+  great elevation. At the base are found vines and maize; on the lower
+  slopes are green pastures, or wheat, barley and other kinds of corn;
+  above are often forests of oak, ash, elm, &c.; and still higher the
+  yew and the fir may be seen braving the climatic conditions. Corn
+  grows to between 3400 and 4500 ft. above the level of the sea, the
+  forests extend to 5600 or 6400 ft., and the line of perpetual snow is
+  from 7800 to 8200 ft.
+
+  _Fauna._--The animal kingdom embraces, besides the usual domestic
+  animals (as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, asses, &c.), wild
+  boars, deer, wild goats, hares, &c.; also bears, wolves, lynxes,
+  foxes, wild cats, jackals, otters, beavers, polecats, martens, weasels
+  and the like. Eagles and hawks are common, and many kinds of singing
+  birds. The rivers and lakes abound in different kinds of fish, which
+  are also plentiful on the sea-coast. Among the insects the bee and the
+  silkworm are the most useful. The leech forms an article of trade. In
+  all there are 90 different species of mammals, 248 species of birds,
+  377 of fishes and more than 13,000 of insects.
+
+  _Divisions._--Austria is composed of seventeen "lands," called also
+  "crown lands." Of these, three--namely, Bohemia, Galicia and
+  Lodomeria, and Dalmatia--are kingdoms; two--Lower and Upper
+  Austria--archduchies; six--Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola,
+  Silesia and Bukovina--duchies; two--Gorz-Gradisca and
+  Tirol--countships of princely rank (_gefurstete Grafschaften_);
+  two--Moravia and Istria--margraviates (march counties). Vorarlberg
+  bears the title simply of "land." Trieste, with its district, is a
+  town treated as a special crown land. For administrative purposes
+  Trieste, with Gorz-Gradisca and Istria, constituting the Kustenland
+  (the Coast land) and Tirol and Vorarlberg, are each comprehended as
+  one administrative territory. The remaining lands constitute each an
+  administrative territory by itself.
+
+_Population._--Austria had in 1900 a population of 26,107,304
+inhabitants,[1] which is equivalent to 226 inhabitants per sq. m. As
+seen from the table below, the density of the population is unequal in
+the various crown lands. The most thickly populated province is Lower
+Austria; the Alpine provinces are sparsely populated, while Salzburg is
+the most thinly populated crown land of Austria. As regards sex, for
+every 1000 men there were 1035 women, the female element being the most
+numerous in every crown land, except the Kustenland, Bukovina and
+Dalmatia. Compared with the census returns of 1890, the population shows
+an increase of 2,211,891, or 9.3% of the total population. The increase
+between the preceding census returns of 1880 and 1890 was of 1,750,093
+inhabitants, or 7.9% of the total population. A very important factor in
+the movement of the population is the large over-sea emigration, mostly
+to the United States of America, which has grown very much during the
+last quarter of the 19th century, and which shows a tendency to become
+still larger. Between 1891 and 1900 the number of over-sea emigrants was
+387,770 persons. The movement of the population shown in the other vital
+statistics--births, marriages, deaths--are mostly satisfactory, and show
+a steady and normal progress. The annual rate per thousand of population
+in 1900 was: births, 37.0; still-births, 1.1; deaths, 25.2; marriages,
+8.2. The only unsatisfactory points are the great number of illegitimate
+births, and the high infant mortality. Of the total population of
+Austria 14,009,233 were scattered in 26,321 rural communities with less
+than 2000 inhabitants; while the remainder was distributed in 1742
+communities with a population of 2000-5000; in 260 communities with a
+population of 5000-10,000; in 96 towns with a population of
+10,000-20,000; in 41 towns with a population of 20,000-50,000; in 6
+towns with a population of 50,000-100,000; and in 6 towns with a
+population of over 100,000 inhabitants. The principal towns of Austria
+are Vienna (1,662,269), Prague (460,849), Trieste (132,879), Lemberg
+(159,618), Graz (138,370), Brunn (108,944), Cracow (91,310), Czernowitz
+(67,622), Pilsen (68,292) and Linz (58,778).
+
+  +-----------------+----------+-------------------------+------------+
+  |                 |          |                         | Density of |
+  |  Administrative | Areas in |        Population.      | Population |
+  |   Territories.  |  Square  +------------+------------+ per sq. m. |
+  |                 |  Miles.  |    1890.   |    1900.   |  in 1900.  |
+  +-----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+  | AUSTRIA--       |
+  |   Lower Austria |   7,654  |  2,661,799 |  3,100,493 |    405     |
+  |   Upper Austria |   4,617  |    785,831 |    809,918 |    175     |
+  |   Salzburg      |   2,757  |    173,510 |    193,247 |     69     |
+  |   Styria        |   8,642  |  1,282,708 |  1,350,058 |    156     |
+  |   Carinthia     |   3,992  |    361,008 |    367,344 |     91     |
+  |   Carniola      |   3,844  |    498,958 |    508,348 |    132     |
+  |   Kustenland    |   3,074  |    695,384 |    755,183 |    245     |
+  |   Tirol and     |          |            |            |            |
+  |     Vorarlberg  |  11,287  |    928,769 |    979,878 |     86     |
+  |   Bohemia       |  19,997  |  5,843,094 |  6,318,280 |    315     |
+  |   Moravia       |   8,555  |  2,276,870 |  2,435,081 |    284     |
+  |   Silesia       |   1,981  |    605,649 |    680,529 |    342     |
+  |   Galicia       |  30,212  |  6,607,816 |  7,295,538 |    241     |
+  |   Bukovina      |   4,022  |    646,591 |    729,921 |    181     |
+  |   Dalmatia      |   4,923  |    527,426 |    591,597 |    120     |
+  |                 +----------+------------+------------+------------+
+  |       Total     | 115,533  | 23,895,413 | 26,107,304 |    226     |
+  +-----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+[Illustration: Austria-Hungary Distribution of Races.]
+
+_Races._--From an ethnographical point of view Austria contains a
+diversity of races; in fact no other European state contains within its
+borders so many nationalities as the Austrian empire. The three
+principal races of Europe--the Latin, the Teutonic and the Slavonic--are
+all represented in Austria. The Slavonic race, numbering 15,690,000, is
+numerically the principal race in Austria, but as it is divided into a
+number of peoples, differing from one another in language, religion,
+culture, customs and historical traditions, it does not possess a
+national unity. Besides, these various nationalities are geographically
+separated from one another by other races, and are divided into two
+groups. The northern group includes the Czechs, the Moravians, the
+Slovaks, the Ruthenians and the Poles; while the southern group contains
+the Slovenes, the Servians and the Croats. Just as their historical
+traditions are different, so are also the aspirations of these various
+peoples of the Slavonic race different, and the rivalries between them,
+as for instance between the Poles and the Ruthenians, have prevented
+them from enjoying the full political advantage due to their number. The
+Germans, numbering 9,171,614, constitute the most numerous nationality
+in Austria, and have played and still play the principal role in the
+political life of the country. The Germans are in a relative majority
+over the other peoples in the empire, their language is the vehicle of
+communication between all the other peoples both in official life and in
+the press; they are in a relatively more advanced state of culture, and
+they are spread over every part of the empire. Historically they have
+contributed most to the foundation and to the development of the
+Austrian monarchy, and think that for all the above-mentioned reasons
+they are entitled to the principal position amongst the various
+nationalities of Austria. The Latin race is represented by the Italians,
+Ladini and Rumanians.
+
+  The following table gives the numbers of different nationalities, as
+  determined by the languages spoken by them in 1900:--
+
+    Germans               9,171,614
+    Czechs and Slovaks    5,955,397
+    Poles                 4,252,483
+    Ruthenians            3,381,570
+    Slovenes              1,192,780
+    Italians and Ladini     727,102
+    Servians and Croats     711,380
+    Rumanians               230,963
+    Magyars                   9,516
+
+  The Germans occupy exclusively Upper Austria, Salzburg, Vorarlberg,
+  and, to a large extent, Lower Austria; then the north and central part
+  of Styria, the north and western part of Carinthia, and the north and
+  central part of Tirol. In Bohemia they are concentrated round the
+  borders, in the vicinity of the mountains, and they form nearly half
+  the population of Silesia; besides they are found in every part of the
+  monarchy. The Czechs occupy the central and eastern parts of Bohemia,
+  the greatest part of Moravia and a part of Silesia. The Poles are
+  concentrated in western Galicia, and in a part of Silesia; the
+  Ruthenians in eastern Galicia and a part of Bukovina; the Slovenes in
+  Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca, Istria, the south of Styria, and the
+  Trieste territory. The Servians and Croats are found in Istria and
+  Dalmatia; the Italians and Ladini in southern Tirol, Gorz and
+  Gradisca, Trieste, the coast of Istria, and in the towns of Dalmatia;
+  while the Rumanians live mostly in Bukovina.
+
+  _Agriculture._--Notwithstanding the great industrial progress made by
+  Austria during the last quarter of the 19th century, agriculture still
+  forms the most important source of revenue of its inhabitants. In 1900
+  over 50% of the total population of Austria derived their income from
+  agricultural pursuits. The soil is generally fertile, although there
+  is a great difference in the productivity of the various crown-lands
+  owing to their geographical situation. The productive land of Austria
+  covers 69,519,953 acres, or 93.8% of the total area, which is
+  74,102,001 acres; to this must be added 0.4 of lakes and fishponds,
+  making a total of 94.2% of productive area. The remainder is
+  unproductive, or used for other, not agricultural purposes. The area
+  of the productive land has been steadily increasing--it was estimated
+  to cover about 89% in 1875,--and great improvements in the
+  agricultural methods have also been introduced. Of the whole
+  productive area of Austria, 37.6% is laid out in arable land; 34.6% in
+  woods; 25.2% in pastures and meadows; 1.3% in gardens, 0.9% in
+  vineyards; and 0.4% in lakes, marshes and ponds. The provinces having
+  the largest proportion of arable land are Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia
+  and Lower Austria. The principal products are wheat, rye, barley,
+  oats, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, and cattle turnip. The produce of
+  the ploughed land does not, on the whole, suffice for the home
+  requirements. Large quantities in particular of wheat and maize are
+  imported from Hungary for home consumption. Only barley and oats are
+  usually reaped in quantity for export. The provinces which have the
+  lowest proportion of arable land are Tirol and Salzburg. Besides these
+  principal crops, other crops of considerable magnitude are: buckwheat
+  in Styria, Galicia, Carniola and Carinthia; rape and rape-seed in
+  Bohemia and Galicia, poppy in Moravia and Silesia; flax in Bohemia,
+  Moravia, Styria and Galicia; hemp in Galicia, chicory in Bohemia;
+  tobacco, which is a state monopoly, in Galicia, Bukovina, Dalmatia and
+  Tirol; fuller's thistle in Upper Austria and Styria; hops in Bohemia,
+  including the celebrated hops round Saaz, in Galicia and Moravia; rice
+  in the Kustenland; and cabbage in Bohemia, Galicia, Lower Austria and
+  Styria. The principal garden products are kitchen vegetables and
+  fruit, of which large quantities are exported. The best fruit
+  districts are in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Styria. Certain
+  districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tirol
+  for apples, Bohemia for plums, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates and
+  olives. The chestnut, olive and mulberry trees are common in the
+  south--chiefly in Dalmatia, the Kustenland and Tirol; while in the
+  south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit.
+
+  The vineyards of Austria covered in 1901 an area of 626,044 acres, the
+  provinces with the largest proportion of vineyards being Dalmatia, the
+  Kustenland, Lower Austria, Styria and Moravia. The wines of Dalmatia
+  are mostly sweet wines, and not suitable to be kept for long periods,
+  while those of the other provinces are not so sweet, but improve with
+  age.
+
+  _Forests._--The forests occupy just a little over one-third of the
+  whole productive area of Austria, and cover 24,157,709 acres. In the
+  forests tall timber predominates to the extent of 85%, and consists of
+  conifers much more than of green or leaved trees, in the proportion of
+  seventy against fifteen out of the 85% of the total forests laid out
+  in tall timber. Exceptions are the forest lands of the Karst region,
+  where medium-sized trees and underwood occupy 80%, and of Dalmatia,
+  where underwood occupies 92.6% of the whole forest land. The Alpine
+  region is well wooded, and amongst the other provinces Bukovina is the
+  most densely wooded, having 43.2% of its area under forests, while
+  Galicia with 25.9% is the most thinly-wooded crown-land of Austria.
+  The forests are chiefly composed of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and
+  the like, and constitute one of the great sources of wealth of the
+  country. Forestry is carried on in a thoroughly scientific manner.
+  Large works of afforestation have been undertaken in Carinthia,
+  Carniola and Tirol with a view of checking the periodical inundations,
+  while similar works have been successfully carried out in the Karst
+  region.
+
+  _Landed Property._--Of the whole territory of the state, 74,102,001
+  acres, about 29%, is appropriated to large landed estates; 71% is
+  disposed of in medium and smaller properties. Large landed property is
+  most strongly represented in Bukovina, where it absorbs 46% of the
+  whole territory, and in Salzburg, Galicia, Silesia and Bohemia. To the
+  state belongs 4-1/2% of the total territory. The Church, the
+  communities, and the corporations are also in possession of large
+  areas of land; 4% (speaking roundly) of the territory of Austria is
+  held on the tenure of _fidei-commissum_. Of the entire property in
+  large landed estates, 59% is laid out in woods; of the property in
+  _fidei-commissum_, 66% is woodland; of the entire forest land, about
+  10% is the property of the state; 14.5% is communal property; and 3.8%
+  is the property of the Church. The whole of the territory in large
+  landed estates includes 52% of the entire forest land. The forest land
+  held under _fidei-commissum_ amounts to over 9% of the entire forest
+  land.
+
+  _Live Stock._--Although richly endowed by nature, Austria cannot be
+  said to be remarkable as a cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except in
+  certain districts of the Alpine region, where this branch of human
+  activity is carried on under excellent conditions, there is much room
+  for improvement. The amount of live stock is registered every ten
+  years along with the census of the population.
+
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                 |   1880.   |   1890.   |   1900.   |
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Horses          | 1,463,282 | 1,548,197 | 1,711,077 |
+    | Mules and asses |    49,618 |    57,952 |    66,638 |
+    | Cattle          | 8,584,077 | 8,643,936 | 9,506,626 |
+    | Goats           | 1,006,675 | 1,035,832 | 1,015,682 |
+    | Sheep           | 3,841,340 | 3,186,787 | 2,621,026 |
+    | Pigs            | 2,721,541 | 3,549,700 | 4,682,734 |
+    | Beehives        |   926,312 |   920,640 |   996,139 |
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  Austria is distinguished for the number and superiority of its horses,
+  for the improvements of which numerous studs exist all over the
+  country. All kinds of horses are represented from the heaviest to the
+  lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful horses
+  are found in Bukovina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg; those of
+  Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tirol and Upper Austria are also famous.
+  In Dalmatia, the Kustenland and Southern Tirol, horses are less
+  numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure take their place. The
+  finest cattle are to be found in the Alpine region; of the Austrian
+  provinces, Salzburg and Upper Austria contain the largest proportion
+  of cattle. The number of sheep has greatly diminished, but much has
+  been done in the way of improving the breeds, more particularly in
+  Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Upper and Lower Austria. The main object
+  has been the improvement of the wool, and with this object the merino
+  and other fine-woolled breeds have been introduced. Goats abound
+  mostly in Dalmatia, Bohemia and Tirol. The rearing of pigs is carried
+  on most largely in Styria, Bohemia, Galicia and Upper and Lower
+  Austria. Bees are extensively kept in Carinthia, Carniola, Lower
+  Austria and Galicia. The silk-worm is reared more particularly in
+  Southern Tirol and in the Kustenland, and the average annual yield is
+  5,000,000 lb. of cocoons. In the Alpine region dairy-farming has
+  attained a great degree of development, and large quantities of
+  butter and cheese are annually produced. Altogether, the rearing of
+  cattle, with all its actual shortcomings, constitutes a great source
+  of revenue, and yields a certain amount for export.
+
+  _Fisheries._--The fisheries of Austria are very extensive, and are
+  divided into river, lake and sea fisheries. The numerous rivers of
+  Austria swarm with a great variety of fishes. The lake fisheries are
+  mostly pursued in Bohemia, where pisciculture is an art of old
+  standing, and largely developed. The sea fisheries on the coast of
+  Dalmatia and of the Kustenland constitute an important source of
+  wealth to the inhabitants of these provinces. About 4000 vessels, with
+  a number of over 16,000 fishermen are employed, and the average annual
+  catch realizes L240,000.
+
+  In the mountainous regions of Austria game is plentiful, and
+  constitutes a large source of income.
+
+  _Minerals._--In the extent and variety of its mineral resources
+  Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. With the exception
+  of platinum, it possesses every useful metal; thus, besides the noble
+  metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less richness
+  in iron, copper, lead and tin. Rich deposits of coal, both pit coal
+  and brown coal are to be found, as well as extensive basins of
+  petroleum, and large deposits of salt. In smaller quantities are found
+  zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth, chromium,
+  uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite and asphalt. There are also
+  marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain-earth, potter's clay, and
+  precious stones. It is therefore natural that mining operations should
+  have been carried out in Austria from the earliest times, as, for
+  instance, the salt mines of Hallstatt in Upper Austria, which had
+  already been worked during the Celtic and Romanic period. Famous
+  through the middle ages were also the works, especially for the
+  extraction of gold and silver, carried out in Bohemia and Moravia,
+  whose early mining regulations, for instance those of Iglau, were
+  adopted in other countries. But the great industrial development of
+  the 19th century, with its growing necessity for fuel, has brought
+  about the exploitation of the rich coal-fields of the country, and
+  to-day the coal mines yield the heaviest output of any mineral
+  products. To instance the rapid growth in the extraction of coal, it
+  is worth mentioning that in 1825 its output was about 150,000 tons; in
+  1875, or only after half a century, the output has become 100 times
+  greater, namely, over 15,000,000 tons; while in 1900 it was 32,500,000
+  tons. Coal is found in nearly every province of Austria, with the
+  exception of Salzburg and Bukovina, but the richest coal-fields are in
+  Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Moravia and Carniola in the order named.
+  Iron ores are found more or less in all the crown-lands except Upper
+  Austria, the Kustenland and Dalmatia, but it is most plentiful in
+  Styria, Carinthia, Bohemia and Moravia. Gold and silver ores are found
+  in Bohemia, Salzburg and Tirol. Quicksilver is found at Idria in
+  Carniola, which after Almaden in Spain is the richest mine in Europe.
+  Lead is extracted in Carinthia and Bohemia, while the only mines for
+  tin in the whole of Austria are in Bohemia. Zinc is mostly found in
+  Galicia, Tirol and Bohemia, and copper is extracted in Tirol, Moravia
+  and Salzburg. Petroleum is found in Galicia, where ozocerite is also
+  raised. Rock-salt is extracted in Galicia, while brine-salt is
+  produced in Salzburg, Salzkammergut and Tirol. Graphite is extracted
+  in Bohemia, Moravia, Styria and Lower Austria. Uranium, bismuth and
+  antimony are dug out in Bohemia, while procelain earth is found in
+  Bohemia and Moravia. White, red, black and variously-coloured marbles
+  exist in the Alps, particularly in Tirol and Salzburg; quartz,
+  felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, and asbestos are found in various
+  parts; and among precious stones may be specially mentioned the
+  Bohemian garnets. The total value of the mines and foundry products
+  throughout Austria in 1875 was L5,000,000. The number of persons
+  employed in the mines and in the smelting and casting works in the
+  same year was 94,019. The total value of the mining products
+  throughout Austria in 1902 was L10,500,000, and the value of the
+  product of the foundries was L3,795,000. Of this amount L3,150,000
+  represents the value of the iron: raw steel and pig iron. The increase
+  in the value of the mining products during the period 1892-1902 was
+  40%; and the increase in the product of the furnaces in the same
+  period was 35%. The number of persons employed in 1902 in mining was
+  140,890; in smelting works 7148; and in the extraction of salt, 7963.
+  The value of the chief mining products of Austria in 1903 was: Brown
+  coal (21,808,583 tons), L4,182,516; coal (12,145,000 tons),
+  L4,059,807; iron ores (1,688,960 tons), L615,273; lead ores, L135,965;
+  silver ores, L119,637; quicksilver ores, L92,049; graphite, L78,437;
+  tin ores, L78,275; copper ores, L22,119; manganese ores, L5368; gold
+  ores, L4407; asphalt, L2250; alum and vitriol slate, L992. The
+  production of petroleum was 660,000 tons, and of salt 340,000 tons.
+  The value of the principal products of the smelting furnaces in 1903
+  was: Iron (955,543 tons), L2,970,866; coke, L862,137; zinc (metallic),
+  L174,344; silver, L141,594; copper, L57,542; sulphuric acid, L8488;
+  copper vitriol, L5710; mineral colours, L5565; lead, L5067; tin,
+  L4566; gold, L878; iron vitriol, L603; litharge, L384; quicksilver,
+  L218; coal briquettes, L92,000.
+
+  _Industry._--The manufactures of Austria were much developed during
+  the last quarter of the 19th century, although Austria as a whole
+  cannot be said to be an industrial country. Austria possesses many
+  favourable conditions for a great industrial activity. It possesses an
+  abundance of raw materials, of fuel--both mineral and wood,--of metals
+  and minerals, in fact all the necessaries for a great and nourishing
+  industry; and the rivers can easily be utilized as producers of motive
+  power. It is besides densely populated, and has an adequate supply of
+  cheap labour, while the undeveloped industries of the Balkan states
+  also offer a ready market for its products. The glass manufacture in
+  Bohemia is very old, and has kept up its leading position in the
+  markets of the world up to the present day. Industrial activity is
+  greatly developed in Bohemia, Lower Austria, Silesia, Moravia and
+  Vorarlberg, while in Dalmatia and Bukovina it is almost non-existent.
+  The principal branches of manufactures are, the textile industry, the
+  metallurgic industries; brewing and distilling; leather, paper and
+  sugar; glass, porcelain and earthenware; chemicals; and scientific and
+  musical instruments.
+
+  The textile industry in all its branches--cotton, woollen, linen,
+  silk, flax and hemp--is mostly concentrated in Bohemia, Moravia,
+  Silesia and Lower Austria. It is an old industry, and one which has
+  made great progress since 1875. Thus the number of mechanical looms
+  increased more than threefold during this period, and numbered in 1902
+  about 120,000. In the same year the number of spindles at work was
+  about 3,100,000. Austria had in 1902, 21,837 textile factories with
+  337,514 workmen. The principal seat of the manufacture of cotton goods
+  is in northern Bohemia, from the Eger to Reichenberg, which can be
+  considered as the Lancashire of Austria, Lower Austria between the
+  Wiener Wald and the Leitha, and in Vorarlberg. Woollen goods are
+  manufactured in the above places, and besides in Moravia, at Brunn and
+  at Iglau; in Silesia; and at Biala in Galicia. Vienna is also
+  distinguished for its manufacture of shawls. The coarser kind of
+  woollen goods are manufactured all over the country, principally in
+  the people's houses as a home industry. The most important places for
+  the linen industry are in Bohemia at Trautenau; in Moravia and
+  Silesia, while the commoner kinds of linen are mostly produced as a
+  home industry by the peasants in the above-mentioned crown-lands. The
+  manufacture of ribbons, embroidery and lace, the two latter being
+  carried on principally as a house industry in Vorarlberg and in the
+  Bohemian Erzgebirge, also thrives. The industry in stitched stuffs is
+  especially developed in northern Bohemia. Ready-made men's clothes and
+  oriental caps (fezes) are produced on a large scale in Bohemia and
+  Moravia. The manufacture of silk goods is mainly carried on in Vienna,
+  while the spinning of silk has its principal seat in southern Tirol,
+  and to a smaller extent in the Kustenland.
+
+  The metallurgic industry forms one of the most important branches of
+  industry, because iron ore of excellent quality is extracted annually
+  in great quantities. The principal seats of the iron and steel
+  manufactures are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower
+  Austria, Styria and Carinthia, which contain extensive iron-works. The
+  most important manufactured products are cutlery, firearms, files,
+  wire, nails, tin-plates, scythes, sickles, steel pens, needles, rails,
+  iron furniture, drains, and kitchen utensils. A famous place for its
+  iron manufacture is Steyr in Upper Austria. The manufacture of
+  machinery, for industrial and agricultural purposes, and of railway
+  engines is mainly concentrated in Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Prague,
+  Brunn and Trieste; while the production of rolling stock for railways
+  is carried on in Vienna, Prague and Graz. Ship-building yards for
+  sea-vessels are at Trieste and Pola; while for river-vessels the
+  largest yards are at Linz. Among other metal manufactures, the
+  principal are copper works at Brixlegg and other places in Tirol, and
+  in Galicia, tin and lead in Bohemia, and metallic alloys, especially
+  _Packfong_ or German silver, an alloy of nickel and copper, at
+  Berndorf in Lower Austria. The precious metals, gold and silver, are
+  principally worked in the larger towns, particularly at Vienna and
+  Prague. Vienna is also the principal seat for scientific and surgical
+  instruments. In the manufacture of musical instruments Austria takes a
+  leading part amongst European states, the principal places of
+  production being Vienna, Prague, Koniggratz, Graslitz and Schonbach.
+
+  The glass manufacture is one of the oldest industries in Austria, and
+  is mainly concentrated in Bohemia. Its products are of the best
+  quality, and rule the markets of the world. In the manufacture of
+  earthenwares Austria plays also a leading part, and the porcelain
+  industry round Carlsbad and in the Eger district in Bohemia has a
+  world-wide reputation. The leather industry is widely extended, and is
+  principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia and Moravia. Vienna
+  and Prague are great centres for the boot and shoe trade, and the
+  gloves manufactured in these towns enjoy a great reputation. The
+  manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country, and is
+  very varied. In Vienna and other large towns the production of
+  ornamental furniture has attained a great development. The industry in
+  paper has also assumed great proportions, its principal seats being in
+  Bohemia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria. Of food-stuffs, besides
+  milling, and other flour products, the principal industry is the
+  manufacture of sugar from beet-root. The sugar industry is almost
+  exclusively carried on in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. It
+  has attained such large proportions that large districts in those
+  provinces have been converted from wheat-growing districts into fields
+  for the cultivation of beet-root. Brewing is extensively carried on,
+  and the beer produced is of a good quality. The largest brewing
+  establishment is at Schwechat near Vienna, and large breweries are
+  also found at Pilsen and Budweiss in Bohemia, whose products enjoy a
+  great reputation abroad. There were in Austria 1341 breweries, which
+  produced 422,993,120 gallons of beer. in 1902-1903. Distilling is
+  carried on on a large scale in Galicia, Bukovina, Bohemia, Moravia and
+  Lower Austria; the number of distilleries being 1257, which produced
+  30,435,812 gallons of spirit. Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs
+  are made in Dalmatia and Moravia. The manufacture as well as the
+  growth of tobacco is a government monopoly, which has 30 tobacco
+  factories with over 40,000 work-people, the largest establishment
+  being at Hainburg in Lower Austria. Other important branches of
+  industry are the manufacture of chemicals, in Vienna and in Bohemia;
+  petroleum refineries in Galicia, and the extraction of various
+  petroleum products; the manufacture of buttons; printing,
+  lithographing, engraving, and map-making, especially in Vienna, &c.
+
+  In 1900 the various manufacturing industries employed in Austria
+  3,138,800 persons, of whom 2,264,871 were workmen and 103,854 were
+  labourers. Including families and domestic servants, a little over
+  7,000,000 were dependent on industry for their livelihood.
+
+  _Commerce._--Austria forms together with Hungary one customs and
+  commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade are
+  given under AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Owing to its situation, the bulk of the
+  Austrian trade is carried on the railways and on the inland navigable
+  rivers. Only a small portion is sea-borne trade, while the commercial
+  interchange between the provinces lying on the Adriatic coast is very
+  small.
+
+  _Commercial Navy._--The commercial sea navy of Austria, excluding
+  small coasting vessels and fishing-boats, consisted in 1900 of 154
+  vessels, with a tonnage of 198,322 tons, of which 123 vessels with a
+  tonnage of 183,949 were steamers. The greatest navigation company is
+  the Austrian Lloyd in Trieste, which in 1900 employed 70 steamers of
+  165,430 tons. During 1900 the total tonnage of vessels engaged in the
+  foreign trade, which entered all the Austrian ports, was 1,448,764
+  tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 888,707 under foreign flags;
+  the total tonnage of vessels cleared during the same period was
+  1,503,532 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 866,591 under
+  foreign flags.
+
+_Government._--Austria is a parliamentary or constitutional (limited)
+monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of emperor. The succession to
+the throne is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture, in the male
+line of the house of Habsburg-Lothringen; and failing this, in the
+female line. The monarch must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church.
+The emperor of Austria is also king of Hungary, but except for having
+the same monarch and a few common affairs (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY), the two
+states are quite independent of one another. The emperor has the supreme
+command over the armed forces of the country, has the right to confer
+degrees of nobility, and has the prerogatives of pardon for criminals.
+He is the head of the executive power, and shares the legislative power
+with the Reichsrat; and justice is administered in his name. The
+constitution of Austria is based upon the following statutes:--(1) the
+Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the
+19th of April 1713, which regulated the succession to the throne; (2)
+the Pragmatic Patent of the emperor Francis II. of the 1st of August
+1804, by which he took the title of Emperor of Austria; (3) the Diploma
+of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 20th of October 1860, by which
+the constitutional form of government was introduced; (4) the Diploma of
+the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 26th of February 1861, by which the
+provincial diets were created; (5) the six fundamental laws of the 21st
+of December 1867, which contain the exposition and guarantee of the
+civil and political rights of the citizen, the organization of justice,
+the organization and method of election for the Reichsrat, &c.
+
+The executive power is vested in the council of ministers, at whose head
+is the minister-president. There are eight ministries, namely, the
+ministry of the interior, of national defence, of worship and
+instruction, of finance, of commerce, of agriculture, of justice, and of
+railways. There are, further, two ministries, without portfolio, for
+Galicia and Bohemia. The civil administration in the different provinces
+is carried out by governors or stadtholders (_Statthalter_), to whom are
+subordinate the heads of the 347 districts in which Austria was divided
+in 1900, and of the 33 towns with special statute, i.e. of the towns
+which have also the management of the civil administration. Local
+self-government of the provinces, districts and communities is also
+granted, and is exercised by various elective bodies. Thus, the
+autonomous provincial administration is discharged by the provincial
+committees elected by the local diets; and the affairs of the
+communities are discharged by an elected communal council.
+
+The legislative power for all the kingdoms and lands which constitute
+Austria is vested in the Reichsrat. It consists of two Houses: an Upper
+House (the _Herrenhaus_), and a Lower House (the _Abgeordnetenhaus_).
+The Upper House is composed of (1) princes of the imperial house, who
+are of age (14 in 1907); (2) of the members of the large landed
+nobility, to which the emperor had conferred this right, and which is
+hereditary in their family (78 in 1907); (3) of 9 archbishops and 8
+prince-bishops; and (4) of life members nominated by the emperor for
+distinguished services (170 in 1907). The Lower House has undergone
+considerable changes since its creation in 1861, by the various
+modifications of the electoral laws passed in 1867, 1873, 1892, 1896 and
+1907. The general spirit of those modifications was to broaden the
+electoral basis, and to extend the franchise to a larger number of
+citizens. The law of the 26th of January 1907 granted universal
+franchise to Austrian male citizens over twenty-four years of age, who
+have resided for a year in the place of election. The Lower House
+consists of 516 members, elected for a period of six years. The members
+receive payment for their services, as well as an indemnity for
+travelling expenses. A bill to become law must pass through both Houses,
+and must receive the sanction of the emperor. The emperor is bound to
+summon the Reichsrat annually.
+
+According to the imperial Diploma of the 26th February 1861, local diets
+have been created for the legislation of matters of local interest.
+These provincial parliaments are 17 in number, and their membership
+varies from 22 members, which compose the diet of Gorz and Gradisca to
+the 242 members which constitute that of Bohemia. They assemble annually
+and are composed of members elected for a period of six years, and of
+members _ex-officio_, namely, the archbishops and bishops of the
+respective provinces, and the rector of the local university.
+
+  _Religion._--Religious toleration was secured throughout the Habsburg
+  dominions by the patent of the 13th of October 1781, but Protestants
+  were not given full civil rights until the issue of the
+  _Protestantenpatent_ of the 8th of April 1861, after the promulgation
+  of the imperial constitution of the 26th of February. The principle
+  underlying this and all subsequent acts is the guarantee to all
+  religious bodies _recognized by law_ of freedom of worship, the
+  management of their own affairs, and the undisturbed possession and
+  disposal of their property. Though all the churches are, in a sense,
+  "established," the Roman Catholic Church, to which the sovereign must
+  belong, is the state religion. The reigning house, however, though
+  strongly attached to the Roman faith, has always resisted the extreme
+  claims of the papacy, an attitude which in Joseph II.'s time resulted,
+  under the influence of Febronianism (q.v.), in what was practically
+  a national schism. Thus the emperor retains the right to tax church
+  property, to nominate bishops, and to prohibit the circulation of
+  papal bulls without his permission. By the concordat of August 18,
+  1855, this traditional attitude was to some extent reversed; but this
+  agreement soon became a dead letter and was formally denounced by the
+  Austrian government after the promulgation of the dogma of papal
+  infallibility.
+
+  Of the population of Austria in 1900, 23,796,814 (91%) were Roman
+  Catholics, including 3,134,439 uniate Greeks and 2096 uniate
+  Armenians. There were 12,937 Old Catholics, in scattered communities,
+  606,764 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, mainly in Bukovina and
+  Dalmatia, and 698 Armenians, also mainly in Bukovina. The Protestants,
+  who in the 16th century comprised 90% of the population, are now only
+  1.9%. In 1900, 365,505 of them were returned as belonging to the
+  Augsburg Confession (Lutheran), 128,557 to the Helvetic (Reformed).
+  Other Christian Confessions in Austria are Herrnhuters (Moravian
+  Brethren) in Bohemia, Mennonites in Galicia, Lippovanians (akin to the
+  Russian Skoptsi) in Bukovina, and Anglicans. The Jews compose 4.7% of
+  the population, and are strongest in Galicia, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
+  Moravia and Bukovina. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into eight
+  provinces, seven of the Latin rite--Vienna, Prague, Lemberg, Salzburg,
+  Olmutz, Gorz and Zara--with 23 bishoprics, and one of the Greek rite
+  (Lemberg), with two bishoprics. The Armenian bishopric of Lemberg and
+  the Austrian part of the archdiocese of Breslau are under the
+  immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. The Greek Orthodox Church has
+  one archbishopric (at Czernowitz) and two bishoprics. There are 559
+  communities of the Jewish religion (253 in Galicia, and 255 in
+  Bohemia). In 1900 there were, belonging to the Roman Catholic Church,
+  541 monasteries with 7775 monks, and 877 convents with 19,194 nuns;
+  while the Greek Orthodox Church had 14 monasteries with 85 members.
+  The Evangelical Church, according to the constitution granted by
+  imperial decree on the 9th of April 1861 (modified by those of January
+  6, 1866 and December 9, 1891) is organized on a territorial basis,
+  being administered by 10 superintendents, who are, in their turn,
+  subject to the Supreme Church Council (_K.K. Oberkirchenrat_) at
+  Vienna, the emperor as sovereign being technically head of the Church.
+  The small Anglican community at Trieste is under the jurisdiction of
+  the Evangelical superintendent of Vienna.
+
+  _Education._--The system of elementary schools dates from the time of
+  Maria Theresa; the present organization was introduced by the
+  education law of May 14, 1869 (amended in 1883). By this law the
+  control of the schools, hitherto in the hands of the Church, was
+  assumed by the state, every local community being bound to erect and
+  maintain public elementary schools. These are divided into
+  _Volksschulen_ (national or primary schools) and _Burgerschulen_
+  (higher elementary schools). Attendance is obligatory on all from the
+  age of six to fourteen (in some provinces six to twelve). Religious
+  instruction is given by the parish priest, but in large schools a
+  special grant is made or a teacher _ad hoc_ appointed in the higher
+  classes (law of June 17, 1888). Private schools are also allowed
+  which, if fulfilling the legal requirements, may be accorded the
+  validity of public primary schools. The language of instruction is
+  that of the nationality prevalent in the district. In about 40% of the
+  schools the instruction is given in German; in 26% in Czech; in 28% in
+  other Slavonic languages, and in the remainder in Italian, Rumanian or
+  Magyar. In 1903 there were in Austria 20,268 elementary schools with
+  78,025 teachers, frequented by 3,618,837 pupils, which compares
+  favourably with the figures of the year 1875, when there were 14,257
+  elementary schools with 27,677 teachers, frequented by 2,050,808
+  pupils. About 88% of the children who are of school age actually
+  attend school, but in some provinces like Upper Austria and Salzburg
+  nearly the full 100 attend, while in the eastern parts of the monarchy
+  the percentage is much lower. In 1900 62% of the total population of
+  Austria could read and write, and 2.9% could only read. In the number
+  of illiterates are included children under seven years of age. For the
+  training of teachers of elementary schools there were in 1900 54
+  institutions for masters and 38 for mistresses. In these training
+  colleges, as also in the secondary or "middle" schools
+  (_Mittelschulen_), religious instruction is also in the hands of the
+  Roman Catholic Church; but, by the law of June 20, 1870, the state
+  must provide for such teaching in the event of the Protestant pupils
+  numbering 20 or upwards (the school authorities usually refuse to take
+  more than 19 Protestants in consequence).
+
+  Besides the elementary schools three other groups of educational
+  establishments exist in Austria: "middle" schools (_Mittelschulen_);
+  "high" schools (_Hochschulen_); professional and technical schools
+  (_Fachlehranstalten_ and _Gewerbeschulen_). The "middle" schools
+  include the classical schools (_Gymnasien_), "modern" schools with
+  some Latin teaching (_Realgymnasien_), and modern schools simply
+  (Realschulen)--In 1903 there were 202 _Gymnasien_, 19 _Realgymnasien_
+  and 117 _Realschulen_, with 7121 teachers and 111,012 scholars. The
+  "high" schools include the universities and the technical high schools
+  (_Technische Hochschulen_). Of state universities there are
+  eight:--Vienna, Gratz, Innsbruck, Prague (German), and Czernowitz, in
+  which German is the language of instruction; Prague (Bohemian) with
+  Czech; and Cracow and Lemberg with Polish as the language of
+  instruction. Each university has four faculties--theology, law and
+  political science, medicine, and philosophy. In Czernowitz, however,
+  the faculty of medicine is wanting. Since 1905 an Italian faculty of
+  law has been added to the university of Innsbruck. The theological
+  faculties are all Roman Catholic, except Czernowitz, where the
+  theological faculty is Orthodox Eastern. All the universities are
+  maintained by the state. The number of professors and lecturers was
+  about 1596 in 1903; while the number of students was 17,498.
+
+  _Justice._--The judicial authorities in Austria are:--(1) the county
+  courts, 963 in number; (2) the provincial and district courts, 74 in
+  number, to which are attached the jury courts,--both these courts are
+  courts of first instance; (3) the higher provincial courts, 9 in
+  number, namely, at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbruck, Zara, Prague,
+  Brunn Cracow and Lemberg; these are the cours of appeal from the lower
+  courts, and have the supervision of the criminal courts in their
+  jurisdiction; (4) the supreme court of justice and court of cassation
+  in Vienna. The judicial organization is independent of the executive
+  power. There are also special courts for commercial, industrial,
+  shipping, military and other matters. There is also the court of the
+  Empire at Vienna, which has the power to decide in case of conflict
+  between different authorities.
+
+  _Finance._--The growth of the Austrian budget, is shown by the
+  following figures:--
+
+    +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    |             |     1885    |     1895    |     1900    |     1905    |
+    +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    | Expenditure | L44,121,600 | L55,396,916 | L66,003,494 | L74,013,000 |
+    | Revenue     | L43,714,666 | L57,446,091 | L66,020,475 | L74,079,000 |
+    +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, indirect taxes, customs
+  duties, post and telegraph and post-office savings banks receipts,
+  railway receipts, and profits or royalties on forests, domains and
+  mining. The direct taxes are divided into two groups, real and
+  personal; the former include the land tax and house-rent tax, and the
+  latter the personal income tax, tax on salaries, tax on commercial and
+  industrial establishments, tax on all business with properly audited
+  accounts (like the limited liability companies), and tax on
+  investments. The principal indirect taxes are the tobacco monopoly,
+  stamps and fees, excise duties on sugar, alcohol and beer, the salt
+  monopoly, excise duty on mineral oil, and excise duty on meat and
+  cattle for slaughtering.
+
+  The national debt of Austria is divided into two groups, a general
+  national debt, incurred jointly by the two halves of the
+  Austro-Hungarian monarchy for common affairs, and is therefore jointly
+  borne by both parts, and a separate debt owed only by Austria alone.
+  The following table shows the growth of the Austrian debt in millions
+  sterling:--
+
+    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+    |  1885  |  1890  |  1895  |  1900  |  1905  |
+    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+    |   45.  |  88.23 | 119.60 | 140.68 | 167.91 |
+    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+  At the close of 1903 the debt of Austria was L156,724,000, an increase
+  since 1900 of L16,044,000. This large increase is due to the great
+  expenditure on public works, as railways, navigable canals, harbour
+  works, &c., started by the Austrian government since 1900.
+
+  _Railways._--As regards internal communications, Austria is provided
+  with an extensive network of railways, the industrial provinces being
+  specially favoured. This has been accomplished in spite of the
+  engineering difficulties owing to the mountainous nature of the
+  country and of the great financial expenses resulting therefrom. The
+  construction of the Semmering railway, opened in 1854, for instance,
+  was the first mountain railway built in the European continent, and
+  marked an epoch in railway engineering. The first railway laid down in
+  Austria was in 1824 between Budweis and Kerschbaum, over a distance of
+  40 m., and was at first used for horse tramway. The first steam
+  railway was opened in 1837 over a distance of about 10 m. between
+  Floridsdorf (near Vienna) and Wagram. From the first, the policy of
+  the Austrian government was to construct and to work the railways
+  itself; and in granting concessions to private companies it stipulated
+  among its conditions the reversionary right of the state, whereby the
+  line becomes the property of the state without compensation after the
+  lapse of the period of concession. With various modifications,
+  according to its financial means, it vigorously pursued its policy, by
+  both building railways itself, and encouraging private companies to
+  build. In 1905 the total length of railways in Austria was 13,590 m.,
+  of which 5017 m. belonged to and were worked by the state, and 3359 m.
+  belonged to private companies, but were worked by the state.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Umlauft, _Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort und
+  Bild_ (15 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), _Die osterreichisch-ungarische
+  Monarchic_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1896), _Die osterreichische Monarchic in
+  Wort und Bild_ (24 vols., Vienna, 1888-1902), and _Die Volker
+  Osterreich-Ungarns_ (12 vols., Teschen, 1881-1885); A. Supan,
+  "Osterreich-Ungarn" (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhoff's _Landerkunde von
+  Europa_, vol. ii.); Auerbach, _Les Races et les nationalities en
+  Autriche-Hongrie_ (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, _Osterreich-ungarisches
+  Ortslexikon_ (Vienna, 1896). For geology see C. Diener, &c., _Ban und
+  Bild Osterreichs_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903); F. von Hauer, _Die
+  Geologie_ (Vienna). The official statistical publications of the
+  central statistical department, of the ministry of agriculture, and of
+  the ministry of commerce, appearing annually.     (O. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The census returns of 1857, and of 1869, which were the first
+    systematic censuses taken, gave the population of Austria as
+    18,224,500 and 20,394,980 respectively. It must be noticed that
+    between these two dates Austria lost its Lombardo-Venetian
+    territories, with a population of about 5,000,000 inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various
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