diff options
Diffstat (limited to '34312-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-8.txt | 20448 |
1 files changed, 20448 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/34312-8.txt b/34312-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4a0e919 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20448 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8 + "Atherstone" to "Austria" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 13, 2010 [EBook #34312] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOLUME 2 SL 8 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical error has been corrected: + + ARTICLE ATTICA: "The place in Attica which has been the chief scene + of excavations (independently of Athens and its vicinity) is + Eleusis ..." 'vicinity' amended from 'vicinty'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME II, SLICE VIII + + Atherstone to Austria + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE + ATHERSTONE AUDEFROI LE BATARD + ATHERTON AUDIENCE + ATHETOSIS AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDMÉ ARMAND GASTON + ATHIAS, JOSEPH AUDIT and AUDITOR + ATHLETE AUDLEY, SIR JAMES + ATHLETIC SPORTS AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY + ATHLONE AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR + ATHOL AUDRAN + ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF AUDRAN, EDMOND + ATHOLL AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D' + ATHOS AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES + ATHY AUE + ATINA AUERBACH, BERTHOLD + ATITLÁN AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER + ATKINSON, EDWARD AUFIDENA + ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT AUGEAS + ATLANTA AUGER + ATLANTIC AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES + ATLANTIC CITY AUGHRIM + ATLANTIC OCEAN AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE + ATLANTIS AUGITE + ATLAS AUGMENT + ATLAS MOUNTAINS AUGMENTATION + ATMOLYSIS AUGSBURG + ATMOSPHERE AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF + ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF + ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY AUGURS + ATOLL AUGUST + ATOM AUGUSTA (Georgia, U.S.A.) + ATONEMENT and DAY OF ATONEMENT AUGUSTA (Maine, U.S.A.) + ATRATO AUGUSTA (Sicily) + ATREK AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM + ATREUS AUGUSTAN HISTORY + ATRI AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM + ATRIUM AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM + ATROPHY AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430) + ATROPOS AUGUSTINE, SAINT (archbishop) + ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS AUGUSTINIAN CANONS + ATTACAPA AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS + ATTACHMENT AUGUSTINIANS + ATTAINDER AUGUSTOWO + ATTAINT, WRIT OF AUGUSTUS + ATTALIA AUGUSTUS I + ATTAR OF ROSES AUGUSTUS II + ATTEMPT AUGUSTUS III + ATTENTION AUGUSTUSBAD + ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS AUK + ATTERBURY, FRANCIS AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE + ATTESTATION AULIC COUNCIL + ATTHIS AULIE-ATA + ATTIC AULIS + ATTICA AULNOY, MARIE CATHERINE DE LA MOTTE + ATTIC BASE AULOS + ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE D'ORLÉANS + ATTICUS HERODES, CLAUDIUS AUMALE + ATTILA AUMONT + ATTIS AUNCEL + ATTLEBOROUGH AUNDH + ATTOCK AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD + ATTORNEY AUNT SALLY + ATTORNEY-GENERAL AURA + ATTORNMENT AURANGABAD + ATTRITION AURANGZEB + ATTWOOD, THOMAS (composer) AURAY + ATTWOOD, THOMAS (reformer) AURELIA, VIA + ATWOOD, GEORGE AURELIAN + AUBADE AURELIANUS, CAELIUS + AUBAGNE AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN D' + AUBE AUREOLA + AUBENAS AURICH + AUBER, DANIEL FRANÇOIS ESPRIT AURICLE + AUBERGINE AURICULA + AUBERVILLIERS AURIFABER + AUBIGNAC, FRANÇOIS HÉDELIN AURIGA + AUBIGNÉ, CONSTANT D' AURILLAC + AUBIGNÉ, JEAN HENRI MERLE D' AURISPA, GIOVANNI + AUBIGNÉ, THÉODORE AGRIPPA D' AUROCHS + AUBIN AURORA (Roman goddess) + AUBREY, JOHN AURORA (Illinois, U.S.A.) + AUBURN (Maine, U.S.A.) AURORA (Missouri, U.S.A.) + AUBURN (New York, U.S.A.) AURORA (New York, U.S.A.) + AUBURN (colour) AURORA POLARIS + AUBUSSON, PIERRE D' AURUNCI + AUBUSSON AUSCULTATION + AUCH AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS + AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL AUSSIG + AUCHTERARDER AUSTEN, JANE + AUCHTERMUCHTY AUSTERLITZ + AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN AUSTIN, ALFRED + AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN AUSTIN, JOHN + AUCKLAND AUSTIN, SARAH + AUCKLAND ISLANDS AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER + AUCTION PITCH AUSTIN (Minnesota, U.S.A.) + AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS AUSTIN (Texas, U.S.A.) + AUCUBA AUSTRALASIA + AUDAEUS AUSTRALIA + AUDE (river of France) AUSTRASIA + AUDE (department of France) AUSTRIA + + + + +ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON (1813-1898), British geologist, one of the +pioneers in South African geology, was born in 1813, in the district of +Uitenhage, Cape Colony. Having qualified as M.D. he settled in early +life as a medical practitioner at Grahamstown, subsequently becoming +F.R.C.S. In 1839 his interest was aroused in geology, and from that date +he "devoted the leisure of a long and successful medical practice" to +the pursuit of geological science. In 1857 he published an account of +the rocks and fossils of Uitenhage (the latter described more fully by +R. Tate, _Quart. Journal Geol. Soc._, 1867). He also obtained many +fossil reptilia from the Karroo beds, and presented specimens to the +British Museum. These were described by Sir Richard Owen. Atherstone's +identification in 1867 as a diamond of a crystal found at De Kalk near +the junction of the Riet and Vaal rivers, led indirectly to the +establishment of the great diamond industry of South Africa. He +encouraged the workings at Jagersfontein, and he also called attention +to the diamantiferous neck at Kimberley. He was one of the founders of +the Geological Society of South Africa at Johannesburg in 1895; and for +some years previously he was a member of the Cape parliament. He died at +Grahamstown, on the 26th of June 1898. + + See the obituary by T. Rupert Jones, _Natural Science_, vol. xiv. + (January 1899). + + + + +ATHERSTONE, a market-town in the Nuneaton parliamentary division of +Warwickshire, England, 102½ m. N.W. from London by the London & +North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5248. It lies in the upper valley of +the Anker, under well-wooded hills to the west, and is on the Roman +Watling Street, and the Coventry canal. The once monastic church of St +Mary is rebuilt, excepting the central tower and part of the chancel. +The chief industry is hat-making. On the high ground to the west lie +ruins of the Cistercian abbey of Merevale, founded in 1149; they include +the gatehouse chapel, part of the refectory and other remains exhibiting +beautiful details of the 14th century. Coal is worked at Baxterley, 3 m. +west of Atherstone. + + Atherstone (_Aderestone, Edridestone, Edrichestone_), though not + mentioned in any pre-Conquest record, is of unquestionably ancient + origin. A Saxon barrow was opened near the town in 1824. It is + traversed by Watling Street, and portions of the ancient Roman road + have been discovered in modern times. Atherstone is mentioned in + Domesday among the possessions of Countess Godiva, the widow of + Leofric. In the reign of Henry III. it passed to the monks of Bec in + Normandy, who in 1246 obtained the grant of an annual fair at the + feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, and the next year of a market + every Tuesday. This market became so much frequented that in 1319 a + toll was levied upon all goods coming into the town, in order to + defray the cost of the repair to the roads necessitated by the + constant traffic, and in 1332 a similar toll was levied on all goods + passing over the bridge called Feldenbrigge near Atherstone. The + September fair and Tuesday markets are still continued. In the reign + of Edward III. a house of Austin Friars was founded at Atherstone by + Ralph Lord Basset of Drayton, which, however, never rose to much + importance, and at its dissolution in 1536 was valued at 30 shillings + and 3 pence only. + + + + +ATHERTON, or CHOWBENT, an urban district in the Leigh parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 13 m. W.N.W. of Manchester on the +London & North-Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) +16,211. The cotton factories are the principal source of industry; there +are also iron-works and collieries. The manor was held by the local +family of Atherton from John's reign to 1738, when it passed by marriage +to Robert Gwillym, who assumed that name. In 1797 his eldest daughter +and co-heiress married Thomas Powys, afterwards the second Lord Lilford. +Up to 1891 the lord of the manor held a court-leet and court-baron +annually in November, but in that year Lord Lilford sold to the local +board the market tolls, stallages and pickages, and since this sale the +courts have lapsed. The earliest manufactures were iron and cotton. +Silk-weaving, formerly an extensive industry, has now almost entirely +decayed. The first chapel or church was built in 1645. James Wood, who +became Nonconformist minister in the chapel at Atherton in 1691, earned +fame and the familiar title of "General" by raising a force from his +congregation, uncouthly armed, to fight against the troops of the +Pretender (1715). + + + + +ATHETOSIS (Gr. [Greek: hathetos], "without place"), the medical term +applied to certain slow, purposeless, deliberate movements of the hands +and feet. The fingers are separately flexed and extended, abducted and +adducted in an entirely irregular way. The hands as a whole are also +moved, and the arms, toes and feet may be affected. The condition is +usually due to some lesion of the brain which has caused hemiplegia, and +is especially common in childhood. It is occasionally congenital (so +called), and is then due to some injury of the brain during birth. It is +more usually associated with hemiplegia, in which condition there is +first of all complete voluntary immobility of the parts affected: but +later, as there is a return of a certain amount of power over the limbs +affected, the slow rhythmic movements of athetosis are first noticed. +This never develops, however, where there is no recovery of voluntary +power. Its distribution is thus nearly always hemiplegic, and it is +often associated with more or less mental impairment. The movements may +or may not continue during sleep. They cannot be arrested for more than +a moment by will power, and are aggravated by voluntary movements. The +prognosis is unsatisfactory, as the condition usually continues +unchanged for years, though improvement occasionally occurs in slight +cases, or even complete recovery. + + + + +ATHIAS, JOSEPH (d. 1700), Jewish rabbi and printer, was born in Spain +and settled in Amsterdam. His editions of the Hebrew Bible (1661, 1667) +are noted for beauty of execution and the general correctness of the +text. He also printed a Judaeo-German edition of the Bible in 1679, a +year after the appearance of the edition by Uri Phoebus. + + + + +ATHLETE (Gr. [Greek: athletes]; Lat. _athleta_), in Greek and Roman +antiquities, one who contended for a prize ([Greek: athlon]) in the +games; now a general term for any one excelling in physical strength. +Originally denoting one who took part in musical, equestrian, gymnastic, +or any other competitions, the name became restricted to the competitors +in gymnastic contests, and, later, to the class of professional +athletes. Whereas in earlier times competitors, who were often persons +of good birth and position, entered the lists for glory, without any +idea of material gain, the professional class, which arose as early as +the 5th century B.C., was chiefly recruited from the lower orders, with +whom the better classes were unwilling to associate, and took up +athletics entirely as a means of livelihood. Ancient philosophers, +moralists and physicians were almost unanimous in condemning the +profession of athletics as injurious not only to the mind but also to +the body. The attack made upon it by Euripides in the fragment of the +_Autolycus_ is well known. The training for the contests was very +rigorous. The matter of diet was of great importance; this was +prescribed by the _aleiptes_, whose duty it also was to anoint the +athlete's body. At one time the principal food consisted of fresh +cheese, dried figs and wheaten bread. Afterwards meat was introduced, +generally beef, or pork; but the bread and meat were taken separately, +the former at breakfast, the latter at dinner. Except in wine, the +quantity was unlimited, and the capacity of some of the heavy-weights +must have been, if such stories as those about Milo are true, enormous. +In addition to the ordinary gymnastic exercises of the palaestra, the +athletes were instructed in carrying heavy loads, lifting weights, +bending iron rods, striking at a suspended leather sack filled with sand +or flour, taming bulls, &c. Boxers had to practise delving the ground, +to strengthen their upper limbs. The competitions open to athletes were +running, leaping, throwing the discus, wrestling, boxing and the +pancratium, or combination of boxing and wrestling. Victory in this last +was the highest achievement of an athlete, and was reserved only for men +of extraordinary strength. The competitors were naked, having their +bodies salved with oil. Boxers wore the _caestus_, a strap of leather +round the wrists and forearms, with a piece of metal in the fist, which +was sometimes employed with great barbarity. An athlete could begin his +career as a boy in the contests set apart for boys. He could appear +again as a youth against his equals, and though always unsuccessful, +could go on competing till the age of thirty-five, when he was debarred, +it being assumed that after this period of life he could not improve. +The most celebrated of the Greek athletes whose names have been handed +down are Milo of Crotona, Hipposthenes, Polydamas, Promachus and +Glaucus. Cyrene, famous in the time of Pindar for its athletes, appears +to have still maintained its reputation to at least the time of +Alexander the Great; for in the British Museum are to be seen six prize +vases carried off from the games at Athens by natives of that district. +These vases, found in the tombs, probably, of the winners, are made of +clay, and painted on one side with a representation of the contest in +which they were won, and on the other side with a figure of Pallas +Athena, with an inscription telling where they were gained, and in some +cases adding the name of the eponymous magistrate of Athens, from which +the exact year can be determined. + +Amongst the Romans athletic contests had no doubt taken place from the +earliest times, but according to Livy (xxxix. 22) professional Greek +athletes were first introduced at Rome by M. Fulvius Nobilior in 186 +B.C. After the institution of the Actian games by Augustus, their +popularity increased, until they finally supplanted the gladiators. In +the time of the empire, gilds or unions of athletes were formed, each +with a temple, treasury and exercise-ground of its own. The profession, +although it ranked above that of a gladiator or an actor, was looked +upon as derogatory to the dignity of a Roman, and it is a rare thing to +find a Roman name amongst the athletes on inscriptions. The system was +entirely, and the athletes themselves nearly always, Greek. (See also +GAMES, CLASSICAL.) + + Krause, _Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen_ (1841); Friedländer, + _Sittengeschichte Roms_, ii.; Reisch, in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyc_. + + + + +ATHLETIC SPORTS. Various sports were cultivated many hundred years +before the Christian era by the Egyptians and several Asiatic races, +from whom the early Greeks undoubtedly adopted the elements of their +athletic exercises (see ATHLETE), which reached their highest +development in the Olympic games, and other periodical meetings of the +kind (see GAMES, CLASSICAL). The original Celtic inhabitants of Great +Britain were an athletic race, and the earliest monuments of Teutonic +literature abound in records of athletic prowess. After the Norman +conquest of England the nobles devoted themselves to the chase and to +the joust, while the people had their games of ball, running at the +quintain, fencing with club and buckler, wrestling and other pastimes on +green and river. The chroniclers of the succeeding centuries are for the +most part silent concerning the sports of the folk, except such as were +regarded as a training for war, as archery, while they love to record +the prowess of the kings and their courts. Thus it is told of Henry V. +that he "was so swift a runner that he and two of his lords, without bow +or other engine, would take a wild buck in a large park." Several +romances of the middle ages, quoted by Strutt (_Sports and Pastimes of +the People of England_), chronicle the fact that young men of good +family were taught to run, leap, wrestle and joust. In spite of the +general silence of the historians concerning the sports of the people, +it is evident that they were indulged in very largely, since several +English sovereigns found it necessary to curtail, and even prohibit, +certain popular pastimes, on the ground that they seduced the people +from the practice of archery. Thus Edward III. prohibited weight-putting +by statute. Nevertheless a variety of this exercise, "casting of the +barre," continued to be a popular pastime, and was afterwards one of the +favourite sports of Henry VIII., who attained great proficiency at it. +The prowess of the same monarch at throwing the hammer is a matter of +history, and his reign seems to have been at a time of general athletic +revival. We even find his secretary, Richard Pace, advising the sons of +noblemen to practise their sports and "leave study and learning to the +children of meaner people," and Sir William Forest, in his _Poesye of +Princeelye Practice_, thus admonishes his high-born readers:-- + + "In featis of maistries bestowe some diligence. + Too ryde, runne, lepe, or caste by violence + Stone, barre or plummett, or such other thinge, + It not refuseth any prince or kynge." + +Mr Montague Shearman, to whose volume on _Athletics_ in the Badminton +series the reader is referred, notes that Sir Thomas Elyot, who wrote at +about the same period, deprecated too much study and flogging for +schoolboys, saying: "A discrete master may with as much or more ease +both to himself and his scholler lead him to play at tennis or shoote." +Elyot recommends the perusal of Galen's _De sanitate tuenda_, and +suggests as suitable athletic exercises within doors "deambulations, +labouryng with poyses made of ledde, lifting and throwing the heavy +stone or barre, playing at tennis," and dwells upon "rennyng" as a "good +exercise and laudable solace." It is probable that the disciples of the +"new learning," who had become prominent in Sir Thomas's time, +endeavoured to combat the influence of athletic exercises, their point +of view being exemplified by the dictum of Roger Ascham, who, in his +_Toxophilus_, declares that "running, leaping and quoiting be too vile +for scholars." + +In the 16th century the great football match played annually at Chester +was abolished in favour of a series of foot-races, which took place in +the presence of the mayor. A list of the common sports of that time is +contained in some verses by Randel Holme, a minstrel of the North +country, and makes mention of throwing the sledge, jumping, "wrastling," +stool-ball (cricket), running, pitching the bar, shooting, playing +loggets, "nine holes or ten pins," "football by the shinnes," leap-frog, +morris, shove-groat, leaping the bonfire, stow-ball (golf), and many +other outdoor and indoor sports, some of them now obsolete. Shakespeare +and the other Elizabethan poets abound in allusions to sport, which +formed an important feature in school life and at every fair. The Stuart +kings were warm encouragers of sport, the _Basilikon Doron_ of James I., +written for his son, containing a recommendation to the young prince to +practise "running, leaping, wrestling, fencing, dancing, and playing at +the caitch, or tennise, archerie, palle-malle, and such like other fair +and pleasant field games." + +An extraordinary variety of sports has been popular in Great Britain +with high and low for the past five centuries, no other country +comparing with it in this respect. Nor have Ireland and Scotland lagged +behind England in athletic prowess. Indeed, so far as history and legend +record, Ireland boasts of by far the most ancient organized sports +known, the Tailtin Games, or Lugnasad, traditionally established by +Lugaid of the Long Arm, one of the gods of Dia and Ana, in honour of his +foster-mother Tailti, some three thousand years ago. For many centuries +these games, and others like them, were kept up in Ireland, and though +the almost constant wars which harried the country finally destroyed +their organization, yet the Irish have always been, and still are, a +very important factor in British athletics, as well as in America and +the colonies. + +The Scottish people have, like the Irish, ever delighted in feats of +strength and skill, especially the Celtic highlanders, the character of +whose country and mode of life have, however, prevented organized +athletics from attaining the same prominence as in England. +Nevertheless, the celebrated Highland games held at Braemar, Bridge of +Allan, Luss, Aboyne and other places have served to bring into +prominence many athletes of the first class, although the records, on +account of the roughness of the grounds, have not generally vied with +those made farther south. + +The Briton does not lose his love of sport upon leaving his native soil, +and the development of athletics in the United States and the British +colonies has kept step with that of the mother-land. Upon the continent +of Europe sports have occupied a more or less prominent place in the +life of the nations, but their development has been but an echo of that +in Great Britain. A great advance, however, has been made since the +institution of the modern Olympic games. + +About the year 1812 the Royal Military College at Sandhurst inaugurated +regular athletic sports, but the example was not followed until about +1840, when Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury and the Royal Military +Academy at Woolwich came to the front, the "Crick Run" at Rugby having +been started in 1837. At the two great English universities there were +no organized sports of any kind until 1850, when Exeter College, Oxford, +held a meeting; this example has been followed, one after the other, by +the other colleges of both institutions. The first contest between +Oxford and Cambridge occurred at Oxford in 1864, the programme +consisting of eight events, of which four were won by each side. The +same year saw the first contest of the Civil Servants, still an annual +event. + +In 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club was formed in London for "gentlemen +amateurs," most of its members being old university men. Its first +championship meeting, held in that year, was the beginning of a series +afterwards continued to the present day by the Amateur Athletic +Association, founded in 1880, which has jurisdiction over British +athletic sports. The most important individual English athletic +organization is the London Athletic Club, which antedated the Amateur +Athletic Club, and whose meetings have always been the most important +events except the championships. + +In America a revival of interest in athletic sports took place about the +year 1870. Ten years later was formed the National Association of +Amateur Athletes of America, which, in 1888, became the Amateur Athletic +Union. This body controls athletics throughout the United States, and is +allied with the Canadian Amateur Athletic Association. It is supreme in +matters of amateur status, records and licensing of meetings, and has +control over the following branches of sport: basket-ball, billiards, +boxing, fencing (in connexion with the Amateur Fencers' League of +America), gymnastics, hand-ball (fives), running, jumping, walking, +weight-putting (hammer, shot, discus, weights), hurdle-racing, lacrosse, +pole-vaulting, swimming, tugs-of-war and wrestling. The Amateur Athletic +Union has eight sectional groups, and is allied with the Intercollegiate +Association of Amateur Athletes of America (founded 1876) and the +Western Intercollegiate Association. The first American intercollegiate +athletic meeting took place at Saratoga in 1873, only three universities +competing, though the next year there were eight and in 1875 thirteen. +Professional athletes in America are confined almost entirely to +base-ball, boxing, bicycling, wrestling and physical training. + +The Canadian athletic championships are held independently of the +American. Annual championship meetings are also held in South Africa, +New Zealand and the different states of Australia. For the Australasian +championships New Zealand joins with Australia. + +The organization of university sports in America differs from that at +Oxford and Cambridge, where there is no official control on the part of +the university authorities, and where a man is eligible to represent his +college or university while in residence. In nearly all American +universities and colleges athletic and other sports are under the +general control of faculty committees, to which the undergraduate +athletic committees are subordinate, and which have the power to forbid +the participation of any student who has not attained a certain standard +of scholarship. For some years prior to 1906 no student of an American +university was allowed to represent his university in any sport for +longer than four years. Early in that year, however, many of the most +important institutions, including Harvard, Yale, Princeton and +Pennsylvania, entered upon a new agreement, that only students who have +been in residence one year should play in 'varsity teams in any branch +of athletics and that no student should play longer than three years. +This, together with many other reformatory changes, was directly due to +a widespread outcry against the growing roughness of play exhibited in +American football, basket-ball, hockey and other sports, the too evident +desire to win at all hazards, the extraordinary luxury of the training +equipment, and the enormous gate-receipts of many of the large +institutions--the Yale Athletic Association held a surplus of about +$100,000 (£20,000) in December 1905, after deducting immense amounts for +expenses. The new rule against the participation of freshmen in 'varsity +sports was to discourage the practice of offering material advantages of +different kinds to promising athletes, generally those at preparatory +schools, to induce them to become students at certain universities. + +At the present day athletic sports are usually understood to consist of +those events recognized in the championship programmes of the different +countries. Those in the competitions between Oxford and Cambridge are +the 100 yards, 440 yards, 880 yards, 1-mile and 3-mile runs; 120 yards +hurdle-race; high and long jumps; throwing the hammer; and putting the +weight (shot). To the above list the English A.A.A. adds the 4-mile and +10-mile runs; the 2-mile and 7-mile walking races; the 2-mile +steeplechase; and the pole-vault. The American intercollegiate programme +is identical with that of the Oxford-Cambridge meeting, except that a +2-mile run takes the place of the 3-mile, and the pole-vault is added. +The American A.A.U. programme includes the 100 yards, 220 yards, 440 +yards, 880 yards, 1-mile and 5-mile runs; 120 yards high-hurdle race; +220 yards low-hurdle race; high and broad (long) jumps; throwing the +hammer; throwing 56-lb. weight; putting 16-lb. shot; throwing the +discus; and pole-vault. Of these the running contests are called "track +athletics," and the rest "field" events. + +International athletic contests of any importance have, with the +exception of the modern Olympic games, invariably taken place between +Britons, Americans and Canadians, the continental European countries +having as yet produced few track or field athletes of the first class, +although the interest in sports in general has greatly increased in +Europe during the last ten years. In 1844 George Seward, an American +professional runner, visited England and competed with success against +the best athletes there; and in 1863 Louis Bennett, called "Deerfoot," a +full-blooded Seneca Indian, repeated Seward's triumphs, establishing +running records up to 12 miles. In 1878 the Canadian, C.C. McIvor, +champion sprinter of America, went to England, but failed to beat his +British professional rivals. In 1881 L.E. Myers of New York and E.E. +Merrill of Boston competed successfully in England, Myers winning every +short-distance championship except the 100-yards, and Merrill all the +walking championships save the 7-miles. The same year W.C. Davies of +England won the 5-mile championship of America, but, like several other +British runners who have had success in America, he competed under the +colours of an American club. In 1882 the famous English runner, W.G. +George, ran against Myers in America in races of 1 mile, ¾ mile and ½ +mile, winning over the first two distances. In 1884 Myers again went to +England and made new British records over 500, 600, 800 and 1000 yards, +and world's records over ½ mile and 1200 yards. The next year he won +both the British ¼-mile and ½-mile championships. The same year a team +of Irish athletes, among them W.J.M. Barry, won several Canadian +championships. In 1888 a team of the Manhattan Athletic Club, New York, +competed in England with fair success, and during the same season an +Irish team from the Gaelic Athletic Association visited America without +much success. In 1890 a team from the Salford Harriers was invited to +America by the Manhattan Athletic Club, but the evidently commercial +character of the enterprise caused its failure. One of the Harriers, +E.W. Parry, won the American steeplechase championship. The next year +saw another visit to Europe of the Manhattan athletes, who had fair +success in England and won every event at Paris. In 1895 the London +Athletic Club team competed in New York against the New York Athletic +Club, but lost every one of the eleven events, several new records being +established. During the previous summer (1894) occurred the first of the +international matches between British and American universities which +still retain their place as the most interesting athletic event. In that +contest, which took place at Queen's Club, London, Oxford beat Yale by +5½ to 3½ events. The next summer Cambridge, as the champion English +university, visited America and was beaten by Yale (3 to 8). In 1899 +both British universities competed at Queen's Club against the combined +athletes of Harvard and Yale, who were beaten by the odd event. The +return match took place between the same universities at New York in the +summer of 1901, the Americans winning 6 to 3 events. In 1904 Harvard and +Yale beat Oxford and Cambridge at Queen's Club by the same score. + +Outside Great Britain and America the most important athletic events are +undoubtedly the revived Olympic games. They were instituted by delegates +from the different nations who met in Paris on the 16th of June 1894, +principally at the instigation of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the result +being the formation of an International Olympic Games Committee with +Baron de Coubertin at its head, which resolved that games should be held +every fourth year in a different country. The first modern Olympiad took +place at Athens, 6th to 12th April 1896, in the ancient stadium, which +was rebuilt through the liberality of a Greek merchant and seated about +45,000 people. The programme of events included the usual field and +track sports, gymnastics, wrestling, pole-climbing, lawn tennis, +fencing, rifle and revolver shooting, weight-lifting, swimming, the +Marathon race and bicycle racing. Among the contestants were +representatives of nearly every European nation, besides Americans and +Australians. Great Britain took little direct interest in the occasion +and was inadequately represented, but the United States sent five men +from Boston and four from Princeton University, who, though none of them +held American championships, succeeded in winning every event for which +they were entered. The Marathon race of 42 kilometres (26 miles), +commemorative of the famous run of the Greek messenger to Athens with +the news of the victory of Marathon, was won by a Greek peasant. The +second Olympiad was held in Paris in June 1900. Again Great Britain was +poorly represented, but American athletes won eighteen of the +twenty-four championship events. The third Olympiad was held at St Louis +in the summer of 1904 in connexion with the Louisiana Purchase +Exposition, its success being due in great measure to James E. Sullivan, +the physical director of the Exposition, and Caspar Whitney, the +president of the American Olympic Games Committee. The games were much +more numerous than at the previous Olympiads, including sports of all +kinds, handicaps, inter-club competitions, and contests for aborigines. +In the track and field competitions the American athletes won every +championship except weight-throwing (56 lb.) and lifting the bar. The +sports of the savages, among whom were American Indians, Africans of +several tribes, Moros, Patagonians, Syrians, Ainus and Filipinos, were +disappointing; their efforts in throwing the javelin, shooting with bow +and arrow, weight-lifting, running and jumping, proving to be feeble +compared with those of white races. The Americanized Indians made the +best showing. + +The Greeks, however, were not altogether satisfied with the cosmopolitan +character of the revival of these celebrated games of their ancestors, +and resolved to give the revival a more definitely Hellenic stamp by +intercalating an additional series, to take place at Athens, in the +middle of the quadrennial period. Their action was justified by the +success which attended the first of this additional series at Athens in +1906. This success may have been partly due to the personal interest +taken in the games by the king and royal family of Greece, and to the +presence of King Edward VII., Queen Alexandra, and the prince and +princess of Wales; but to whatever cause it should be assigned it was +generally acknowledged that neither in France nor in America had the +games acquired the same prestige as those held on the classical soil of +Greece. In 1906 the governments of Germany, France and the United States +made considerable grants of money to defray the expenses of the +competitors from those countries. These games aroused much more interest +in England than the earlier ones in the series, but though upwards of +fifty British competitors took part in the contests, they were by no +means representative in all cases of the best British athletics. The +American representatives were slightly less numerous, but they were more +successful. It was noteworthy that no British or Americans took part in +the rowing races in the Bay of Phalerum, nor in the tennis, football or +shooting competitions. The Marathon race, by far the most important +event in the games, was won in 1906 by a British athlete, M.D. Sherring, +a Canadian by birth. The Americans won a total of 75 prizes, the British +39, and the Swedes and Greeks each 28. + +The games of the 4th Olympiad (1908) were held in London in connexion +with the Franco-British Exhibition of that year. An immense sensation +was caused by the finish for the Marathon race from Windsor Castle to +the stadium in the Exhibition grounds in London. The first competitor to +arrive was the Italian, Dorando Pietri, whose condition of physical +collapse was such that, appearing to be on the point of death, he had to +be assisted over the last few yards of the course. He was therefore +disqualified, and J. Hayes, an American, was adjudged the winner; a +special prize was presented to the Italian by Queen Alexandra. In the +whole series of contests the United Kingdom made 38 wins, the Americans +22, and the Swedes 7. In the Olympic games proper, British athletes, +including two wins by colonials from Canada and Africa, scored 25 +successes, and the Americans 18. In the track events 8 wins fell to the +British, including two Colonials, and 6 to American athletes; but the +latter gained complete supremacy in the field events, of which they won +9, while British competitors secured only two of minor importance. + + For records, &c., see the annual _Sporting and Athletic Register_; for + the Olympic games see Theodore Andrea Cook's volume, published in + connexion with the Olympiad of 1908. + + + + +ATHLONE, a market-town of Co. Westmeath, Ireland, on both banks of the +Shannon. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6617. The urban district, under +the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1900, is wholly in county Westmeath, +but the same area is divided by the Shannon between the parliamentary +divisions of South Westmeath and South Roscommon. Athlone is 78 m. W. +from Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway, and is also served by +a branch from Portarlington of the Great Southern & Western line, +providing an alternative and somewhat longer route from the capital. The +main line of the former company continues W. to Galway, and a branch +N.W. serves counties Roscommon and Mayo. The Shannon divides the town +into two portions, known as the Leinster side (east), and the Connaught +side (west), which are connected by a handsome bridge opened in 1844. +There is a swivel railway bridge. The rapids of the Shannon at this +point are obviated by means of a lock communication with a basin, which +renders the navigation of the river practicable above the town. The +steamers of the Shannon Development Company ply on the river, and some +trade by water is carried on with Limerick, and with Dublin by the river +and the Grand and Royal canals. Athlone is an important agricultural +centre, and there are woollen factories. The salmon fishing both +provides sport and is a source of commercial wealth. There are two +parish churches, St Mary and St Peter, both erected early in the 19th +century, of which the first has near it an isolated church tower of +earlier date. There are three Roman Catholic chapels, a court-house and +other public offices. Early remains include portions of the castle, of +the town walls (1576), of the abbey of St Peter and of a Franciscan +foundation. On several islands of the picturesque Lough Ree, to the +north, are ecclesiastical and other remains. + +The military importance of Athlone dates from the erection of the castle +and of a bridge over the river by John de Grey, bishop of Norwich and +justiciar of Ireland, in 1210. It became the seat of the presidency of +Connaught under Elizabeth, and withstood a siege by the insurgents in +1641. In the war of 1688 the possession of Athlone was considered of the +greatest importance, and it consequently sustained two sieges, the first +by William III. in person, which failed, and the second by General +Godart van Ginkel (q.v.), who, on the 30th of June 1691, in the face +of the Irish, forded the river and took possession of the town, with the +loss of only fifty men. Ginkel was subsequently created earl of Athlone, +and his descendants held the title till it became extinct in 1844. In +1797 the town was strongly fortified on the Roscommon side, the works +covering 15 acres and containing two magazines, an ordnance store, an +armoury with 15,000 stands of arms and barracks for 1500 men. The works +are now dismantled. Athlone was incorporated by James I., and returned +two members to the Irish parliament, and one member to the imperial +parliament till 1885. + + + + +ATHOL, a township of Worcester county, northern Massachusetts, U.S.A., +having an area of 35 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 7061, of whom 986 were +foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 8536. Its surface is irregular and +hilly. The village of Athol is on Miller's river, and is served by the +Boston & Albany and the Boston & Maine railways. The streams of the +township furnish good water-power, and manufactures of varied character +are its leading interests. Athol was first settled in 1735, and was +incorporated as a township in 1762. It was named by its largest +landowner Col. James Murray, after the ancestral home of the Murrays, +dukes of Atholl. + + See L.B. Caswell, _Athol, Mass., Past and Present_ (Athol, 1899). + + + + +ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Stewart line of the Scottish earls of +Atholl, which ended with the 5th Stewart earl in 1595, the earldom +reverting to the crown, had originated with Sir John Stewart of Balveny +(d. 1512), who was created earl of Atholl about 1457 (new charter 1481). +The 5th earl's daughter, Dorothea, married William Murray, earl of +Tullibardine (cr. 1606), who in 1626 resigned his earldom in favour of +Sir Patrick Murray, on condition of the revival of the earldom of Atholl +in his wife and her descendants. The earldom thus passed to the Murray +line, and John Murray, their only son (d. 1642), was accordingly +acknowledged as earl of Atholl (the 1st of the Murrays) in 1629. + +JOHN STEWART, 4th earl of Atholl, in the Stewart line (d. 1579), son of +John, 3rd earl, and of Grizel, daughter of Sir John Rattray, succeeded +his father in 1542. He supported the government of the queen dowager, +and in 1560 was one of the three nobles who voted in parliament against +the Reformation and the Confession of Faith, and declared their +adherence to Roman Catholicism. Subsequently, however, he joined the +league against Huntly, whom with Murray and Morton he defeated at +Corrichie in October 1562, and he supported the projected marriage of +Elizabeth with Arran. On the arrival of Mary from France in 1561 he was +appointed one of the twelve privy councillors, and on account of his +religion obtained a greater share of the queen's favour than either +Murray or Maitland. He was one of the principal supporters of the +marriage with Darnley, became the leader of the Roman Catholic nobles, +and with Lennox obtained the chief power in the government, successfully +protecting Mary and Darnley from Murray's attempts to regain his +ascendancy by force of arms. According to Knox he openly attended mass +in the queen's chapel, and was especially trusted by Mary in her project +of reinstating Roman Catholicism. The fortress of Tantallon was placed +in his keeping, and in 1565 he was made lieutenant of the north of +Scotland. He is described the same year by the French ambassador as +"très grand catholique hardi et vaillant et remuant, comme l'on dict, +mais de nul jugement et expérience." He had no share in the murders of +Rizzio or Darnley, and after the latter crime in 1567, he joined the +Protestant lords against Mary, appeared as one of the leaders against +her at Carberry Hill, and afterwards approved of her imprisonment at +Lochleven Castle. In July he was present at the coronation of James, and +was included in the council of regency on Mary's abdication. He, +however, was not present at Langside in May 1568, and in July became +once more a supporter of Mary, voting for her divorce from Bothwell +(1569). In March 1570 he signed with other lords the joint letter to +Elizabeth asking for the queen's intercession and supporting Mary's +claims, and was present at the convention held at Linlithgow in April in +opposition to the assembly of the king's party at Edinburgh. In 1574 he +was proceeded against as a Roman Catholic and threatened with +excommunication, subsequently holding a conference with the ministers +and being allowed till midsummer to overcome his scruples. He had failed +in 1572 to prevent Morton's appointment to the regency, but in 1578 he +succeeded with the earl of Argyll in driving him from office. On the +24th of March James took the government into his own hands and dissolved +the regency, and Atholl and Argyll, to the exclusion of Morton, were +made members of the council, while on the 29th Atholl was appointed lord +chancellor. Subsequently, on the 24th of May, Morton succeeded in +getting into Stirling Castle and in regaining his guardianship of James. +Atholl and Argyll, who were now corresponding with Spain in hopes of +assistance from that quarter, then advanced to Stirling with a force of +7000 men, when a compromise was arranged, the three earls being all +included in the government. While on his way from a banquet held on the +20th of April 1579 on the occasion of the reconciliation, Atholl was +seized with sudden illness, and died on the 25th, not without strong +suspicions of poison. He was buried at St. Giles's cathedral in +Edinburgh. He married (1) Elizabeth, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl +of Huntly, by whom he had two daughters, and (2) Margaret, daughter of +Malcolm Fleming, 3rd Lord Fleming, by whom, besides three daughters, he +had John, 5th earl of Atholl, at whose death in 1595 the earldom in +default of male heirs reverted to the crown. + +JOHN MURRAY, 1st earl of Atholl in the Murray line (see above), died in +1642. On the outbreak of the civil war he called out the men of Atholl +for the king, and was imprisoned by the marquess of Argyll in Stirling +Castle in 1640. + +JOHN MURRAY, 2nd earl and 1st marquess of Atholl (1631-1703), son of the +1st earl and of Jean, daughter of Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy, was +born on the 2nd of May 1631. In 1650 he joined in the unsuccessful +attempt to liberate Charles II. from the Covenanters, and in 1653 was +the chief supporter of Glencairn's rising, but was obliged to surrender +with his two regiments to Monk on the 2nd of September 1654. At the +restoration Atholl was made a privy councillor for Scotland and sheriff +of Fife, in 1661 lord justice-general of Scotland, in 1667 a +commissioner for keeping the peace in the western Highlands, in 1670 +colonel of the king's horseguards, in 1671 a commissioner of the +exchequer, and in 1672 keeper of the privy seal in Scotland and an +extraordinary lord of session. In 1670 he became earl of Tullibardine by +the death of his cousin James, 4th earl, and on the 7th of February 1676 +he was created marquess of Atholl, earl of Tullibardine, viscount of +Balquhidder, Lord Murray, Balvenie and Cask. He at first zealously +supported Lauderdale's tyrannical policy, but after the raid of 1678, +called the "Highland Host," in which Atholl was one of the chief +leaders, he joined in the remonstrance to the king concerning the +severities inflicted upon the Covenanters, and was deprived of his +office of justice-general and passed over for the chancellorship in +1681. In 1679, however, he was present at the battle of Bothwell Brig; +in July 1680 he was made vice-admiral of Scotland, and in 1681 president +of parliament. In 1684 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Argyll, and +invaded the country, capturing the earl of Argyll after his return from +abroad in June 1685 at Inchinnan. The excessive severities with which he +was charged in this campaign were repudiated with some success by him +after the Revolution.[1] The same year he was reappointed lord privy +seal, and in 1687 was made a knight of the Thistle on the revival of the +order. At the Revolution he wavered from one side to the other, showing +no settled purpose but waiting upon the event, but finally in April 1689 +wrote to William to declare his allegiance, and in May took part in the +proclamation of William and Mary as king and queen at Edinburgh. But on +the occasion of Dundee's insurrection he retired to Bath to drink the +waters, while the bulk of his followers joined Dundee and brought about +in great measure the defeat of the government troops at Killiecrankie. +He was then summoned from Bath to London and imprisoned during August. +In 1690 he was implicated in the Montgomery plot and subsequently in +further Jacobite intrigues. In June 1691 he received a pardon, and acted +later for the government in the pacification of the Highlands. He died +on the 6th of May 1703. He married Amelia, daughter of James Stanley, +7th earl of Derby (through whom the later dukes of Atholl acquired the +sovereignty of the Isle of Man), and had, besides one daughter, six +sons, of whom John became 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl; Charles +was made 1st earl of Dunmore, and William married Margaret, daughter of +Sir Robert Nairne, 1st Lord Nairne, becoming in her right 2nd Lord +Nairne. + +JOHN MURRAY, 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl (1660-1724), was born +on the 24th of February 1660, and was styled during his father's +lifetime Lord Murray, till 1696, when he was created earl of +Tullibardine. He was a supporter of William and the Revolution in 1688, +taking the oaths in September 1689, but was unable to prevent the +majority of his clan, during his father's absence, from joining Dundee +under the command of his brother James. In 1693 as one of the +commissioners he showed great energy in the examination into the +massacre of Glencoe and in bringing the crime home to its authors. In +1694 he obtained a regiment, in 1695 was made sheriff of Perth, in 1696 +secretary of state, and from 1696 to 1698 was high commissioner. In the +latter year, however, he threw up office and went into opposition. At +the accession of Anne he was made a privy councillor, and in 1703 lord +privy seal for Scotland. The same year he succeeded his father as 2nd +marquess of Atholl, and on the 30th of June he was created duke of +Atholl, marquess of Tullibardine, earl of Strathtay and Strathardle, +Viscount Balquhidder, Glenalmond and Glenlyon, and Lord Murray, Balvenie +and Gask. In 1704 he was made a knight of the Thistle. In 1703-1704 an +unsuccessful attempt was made by Simon, Lord Lovat, who used the duke of +Queensberry as a tool, to implicate him in a Jacobite plot against Queen +Anne; but the intrigue was disclosed by Robert Ferguson, and Atholl sent +a memorial to the queen on the subject, which resulted in Queensberry's +downfall. But he fell nevertheless into suspicion, and was deprived of +office in October 1705, subsequently becoming a strong antagonist of the +government, and of the Hanoverian succession. He vehemently opposed the +Union during the years 1705-1707, and entered into a project for +resisting by force and for holding Stirling Castle with the aid of the +Cameronians, but nevertheless did not refuse a compensation of £1000. +According to Lockhart, he could raise 6000 of the best men in the +kingdom for the Jacobites. On the occasion, however, of the invasion of +1708 he took no part, on the score of illness, and was placed under +arrest at Blair Castle. On the downfall of the Whigs and the advent of +the Tories to power, Atholl returned to office, was chosen a +representative peer in the Lords in 1710 and 1713, in 1712 was an +extraordinary lord of session, from 1713 to 1714 was once more keeper of +the privy seal, and from 1712 to 1714 was high commissioner. On the +accession of George I. he was again dismissed from office, but at the +rebellion of 1715, while three of his sons joined the Jacobites, he +remained faithful to the government, whom he assisted in various ways, +on the 4th of June 1717 apprehending Robert Macgregor (Rob Roy), who, +however, succeeded in escaping. He died on the 14th of November 1724. He +married (1) Catherine, daughter of William Douglas, 3rd duke of +Hamilton, by whom, besides one daughter, he had six sons, of whom John +was killed at Malplaquet in 1709, William was marquess of Tullibardine, +and James succeeded his father as 2nd duke on account of the share +taken by his elder brother in the rebellion; and (2) Mary, daughter of +William, Lord Ross, by whom he had three sons and several daughters. + +The _Atholl Chronicles_ have been privately printed by the 7th duke of +Atholl (b. 1840). See also S. Cowan, _Three Celtic Earldoms_ (1909). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A. Lang, _Hist. of Scotland_, iii. 407. + + + + +ATHOLL, or ATHOLE, a district in the north of Perthshire, Scotland, +covering an area of about 450 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by +Badenoch, on the N.E. by Braemar, on the E. by Forfarshire, on the S. by +Breadalbane, on the W. and N.W. by Lochaber. The Highland railway +bisects it diagonally from Dunkeld to the borders of Inverness-shire. It +is traversed by the Grampian mountains and watered by the Tay, Tummel, +Garry, Tilt, Bruar and other streams. Glen Garry and Glen Tilt are the +chief glens, and Loch Rannoch and Loch Tummel the principal lakes. The +population mainly centres around Dunkeld, Pitlochry and Blair Atholl. +The only cultivable soil occurs in the valleys of the large rivers, but +the deer-forest and the shootings on moor and mountain are among the +most extensive in Scotland. It is said to have been named Athfotla +(Atholl) after Fotla, son of the Pictish king Cruithne, and was under +the rule of a Celtic _mormaer_ (thane or earl) until the union of the +Picts and Scots under Kenneth Macalpine in 843. The duke of Atholl's +seats are Blair Castle and Dunkeld House. What is called Atholl brose is +a compound, in equal parts, of whisky and honey (or oatmeal), which was +first commonly used in the district for hoarseness and sore throat. + + + + +ATHOS (Gr. [Greek: Agion Oros]; Turk. _Aineros_; Ital. _Monte Santo_), +the most eastern of the three peninsular promontories which extend, like +the prongs of a trident, southwards from the coast of Macedonia +(European Turkey) into the Aegean Sea. Before the 19th century the name +Athos was usually confined to the terminal peak of the promontory, which +was itself known by its ancient name, _Acte_. The peak rises like a +pyramid, with a steep summit of white marble, to a height of 6350 ft., +and can be seen at sunset from the plain of Troy on the east, and the +slopes of Olympus on the west. On the isthmus are distinct traces of the +canal cut by Xerxes before his invasion of Greece in 480 B.C. The +peninsula is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and derives a +peculiar interest from its unique group of monastic communities with +their medieval customs and institutions, their treasures of Byzantine +art and rich collections of documents. It is about 40 m. in length, with +a breadth varying from 4 to 7 m.; its whole area belongs to the various +monasteries. It was inhabited in the earliest times by a mixed Greek and +Thracian population; of its five cities mentioned by Herodotus few +traces remain; some inscriptions discovered on the sites were published +by W.M. Leake (_Travels in N. Greece_, 1835, iii. 140) and Kinch. The +legends of the monks attribute the first religious settlements to the +age of Constantine (274-337), but the hermitages are first mentioned in +historical documents of the 9th century. It is conjectured that the +mountain was at an earlier period the abode of anchorites, whose numbers +were increased by fugitives from the iconoclastic persecutions +(726-842). The "coenobian" rule to which many of the monasteries still +adhere was established by St Athanasius, the founder of the great +monastery of Laura, in 969. Under a constitution approved by the emperor +Constantine Monomachos in 1045, women and female animals were excluded +from the holy mountain. In 1060 the community was withdrawn from the +authority of the patriarch of Constantinople, and a monastic republic +was practically constituted. The taking of Constantinople by the Latins +in 1204 brought persecution and pillage on the monks; this reminded them +of earlier Saracenic invasions, and led them to appeal for protection to +Pope Innocent III., who gave them a favourable reply. Under the +Palaeologi (1260-1453) they recovered their prosperity, and were +enriched by gifts from various sources. In the 14th century the +peninsula became the chosen retreat of several of the emperors, and the +monasteries were thrown into commotion by the famous dispute over the +mystical Hesychasts. + +Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks after the +capture of Salonica (1430), their privileges were respected by +successive sultans: a tribute is paid to the Turkish government, which +is represented by a resident _kaimakam_, and the community is allowed to +maintain a small police force. Under the present constitution, which +dates from 1783, the general affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted +to an assembly ([Greek: oynaxis]) of twenty members, one from each +monastery; a committee of four members, chosen in turn, styled +_epistatae_ ([Greek: epistatai]), forms the executive. The president of +the committee ([Greek: ho protos]) is also the president of the +assembly, which holds its sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of +government since the 10th century. The twenty monasteries, which all +belong to the order of St Basil, are: Laura ([Greek: ae Laura]), founded +in 963; Vatopédi ([Greek: Batopedios]), said to have been founded by the +emperor Theodosius; Rossikon ([Greek: 'Rossikon]), the Russian monastery +of St Panteleïmon; Chiliándari ([Greek: Chiliantarios]: supposed to be +derived from [Greek: chilioi andres] or [Greek: chilia leontaria]), +founded by the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya (1159-1195); Iveron +([Greek: ae monae ton Ibaeron]), founded by Iberians, or Georgians; +Esphigmenu ([Greek: tou Esphigmenou]: the name is derived from the +confined situation of the monastery); Kutlumush ([Greek: +Koutloumousae]); Pandocratoros ([Greek: tou Pantokratoros]); Philotheu +([Greek: Philotheou]); Caracallu ([Greek: tou Karakallou]); St Paul +([Greek: tou agiou Paulou]); St Denis ([Greek: tou agiou Dionusiou]); St +Gregory ([Greek: tou agiou Graegoriou]); Simópetra ([Greek: Simopetra]); +Xeropotámu ([Greek: tou Xaeropotamou]); St Xenophon ([Greek: tou agiou +Xenophontos]); Dochiaríu ([Greek: Docheiareiou]); Constamonítu ([Greek: +Konstamonitou]); Zográphu ([Greek: tou Zographou]); and Stavronikítu +([Greek: tou Stavronikitou], the last built, founded in 1545). The +"coenobian" monasteries ([Greek: koinobia]), each under the rule of an +abbot ([Greek: aegoumenos]), are subjected to severe discipline; the +brethren are clothed alike, take their meals (usually limited to bread +and vegetables) in the refectory, and possess no private property. In +the "idiorrhythmic" monasteries ([Greek: idiorrythma]), which are +governed by two or three annually elected wardens ([Greek: epitropoi]), +a less stringent rule prevails, and the monks are allowed to supplement +the fare of the monastery from their private incomes. Dependent on the +several monasteries are twelve _sketae_ ([Greek: skaetai]) or monastic +settlements, some of considerable size, in which a still more ascetic +mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several farms ([Greek: +metochia]), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining habitations +([Greek: kellia]) and hermitages ([Greek: askaetaeria]). The +monasteries, with the exception of Rossikón (St Panteleïmon) and the +Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliándari and Zográphu, are occupied exclusively by +Greek monks. The large _skete_ of St Andrew and some others belong to +the Russians; there are also Rumanian and Georgian _sketae_. The great +monastery of Rossikón, which is said to number about 3000 inmates, has +been under a Russian abbot since 1875; it is regarded as one of the +principal centres of the Russian politico-religious propaganda in the +Levant. The tasteless style of its modern buildings is out of harmony +with the quaint beauty of the other monasteries. Furnished with ample +means, the Russian monks neglect no opportunity of adding to their +possessions on the holy mountain; their encroachments are resisted by +the Greek monks, whose wealth, however, was much diminished by the +secularization of their estates in Rumania (1864). The population of the +holy mountain numbers from 6000 to 7000; about 3000 are monks ([Greek: +kalogeroi]), the remainder being lay brothers ([Greek: kosmikoi]). The +monasteries, which are all fortified, generally consist of large +quadrangles enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present +a wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed from the +sea. Their inmates, when not engaged in religious services, occupy +themselves with husbandry, fishing and various handicrafts; the standard +of intellectual culture is not high. A large academy, founded by the +monks of Vatopedi in 1749, for a time attracted students from all parts +of the East, but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The +muniment rooms of the monasteries contain a marvellous series of +documents, including chrysobulls of various emperors and princes, +_sigilla_ of the patriarchs, _typica_, iradés and other documents, the +study of which will throw an important light on the political and +ecclesiastical history and social life of the East from the middle of +the 10th century. Up to comparatively recent times a priceless +collection of classical manuscripts was preserved in the libraries; many +of them were destroyed during the War of Greek Independence (1821-1829) +by the Turks, who employed the parchments for the manufacture of +cartridges; others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks, +who, it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been +sold to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed to Moscow +and Paris. The library of Simopetra was destroyed by fire in 1891, and +that of St Paul in 1905. There is now little hope of any important +discovery of classical manuscripts. The codices remaining in the +libraries are for the most part theological and ecclesiastical works. Of +the Greek manuscripts, numbering about 11,000, 6618 have been catalogued +by Professor Spyridion Lambros of Athens; his work, however, does not +include the MSS. in some of the _sketae_, or those in the libraries of +Laura and Vatopedi, of which catalogues (hitherto unpublished) have been +prepared by resident monks. The canonic MSS. only of Vatopedi and Laura +have been catalogued by Benessevich in the supplement to vol. ix. of the +_Bizantiyskiy Vremennik_ (St Petersburg, 1904). The Slavonic and +Georgian MSS. have not been catalogued. Apart from the illuminated MSS., +the mural paintings, the mosaics, and the goldsmith's work of Mount +Athos are of infinite interest to the student of Byzantine art. The +frescoes in general date from the 15th or 16th century: some are +attributed by the monks to Panselinos, "the Raphael of Byzantine +painting," who apparently flourished in the time of the Palaeologi. Most +of them have been indifferently restored by local artists, who follow +mechanically a kind of hieratic tradition, the principles of which are +embodied in a work of iconography by the monk Dionysius, said to have +been a pupil of Panselinos. The same spirit of conservatism is manifest +in the architecture of the churches, which are all of the medieval +Byzantine type. Some of the monasteries were seriously damaged by an +earthquake in 1905. + + AUTHORITIES.--R.N.C. Curzon, _Visits to Monasteries in the Levant_ + (London, 1849); J.P. Fallmerayer, _Fragmenta aus dem Orient_ + (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1845); V. Langlois, _Le Mont Athos et ses + monastères_, with a complete bibliography (Paris, 1867); Duchesne and + Bayet, _Mémoirs sur une mission en Macédoine et au Mont Athos_ (Paris, + 1876); Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_ (London, 1864); H. + Brockhaus, _Die Kunst in den Athosklöstern_ (Leipzig, 1891); A. Riley, + _Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks_ (London, 1887); S. Lambros, + _Catalogue of the Greek Manuscripts on Mount Athos_ (2 vols., + Cambridge, 1895 and 1900); M.I. Gedeon, [Greek: o Athos] + (Constantinople, 1885); P. Meyer, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der neueren + Geschichte und des gegenwärtigen Zustandes der Athosklöster," in + _Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte_, 1890; _Die Haupturkunden für die + Geschichte der Athosklöster_ (Leipzig, 1894); G. Millet, J. Pargoire + and L. Petit, _Recueil des inscriptions chrétiennes de l'Athos_ + (Paris, 1904); H. Gelzer, _Vom Heiligen Berge und aus Makedonien_ + (Leipzig, 1904); K. Vlachu (Blachos), [Greek: Ae Chersonaesos tou + Hagiou Orous] (Athens, 1903); G. Smurnakes, [Greek: To Hagiou + Archaiologia Orous Atho], (Athens, 1904). (J. D. B.) + + + + +ATHY (pronounced Athý), a market-town of Co. Kildare, Ireland, in the +south parliamentary division, 45 m. S.W. of Dublin on a branch of the +Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3599. It +is intersected by the river Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge of +five arches. The crossing of the river here was guarded and disputed +from the earliest times, and the name of the town is derived from a king +of Munster killed here in the 2nd century. There are picturesque remains +of Woodstock Castle of the 12th or 13th century, and White Castle built +in 1506, and rebuilt in 1575 by a member of the family whose name it +bears, and still occupied. Both were erected to defend the ford of the +Barrow. There are also an old town gate, and an ancient cemetery with +slight monastic remains. Previous to the Union Athy returned two members +to the Irish parliament. The trade, chiefly in grain, is aided by +excellent water communication, by a branch of the Grand Canal to Dublin, +and by the river Barrow, navigable from here to Waterford harbour. + + + + +ATINA, the name of three ancient towns of Italy. + +1. A town (mod. _Àtena_) of Lucania, upon the Via Popillia, 7 m. N. of +Tegianum, towards which an ancient road leads, in the valley of the +river now known as Diano. Its ancient importance is vouched for by its +walls of rough cyclopean work, which may have had a total extent of some +2 m. (see G. Patroni in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1897, 112; 1901, 498). +The date of these walls has not as yet been ascertained, recent +excavations, which led to the discovery of a few tombs in which the +earliest objects showing Greek influence may go back to the 7th century +B.C., not having produced any decisive evidence on the point. To the +Roman period belong the remains of an amphitheatre and numerous +inscriptions. + +2. A town (mod. _Atina_) of the Volsci, 12 m. N. of Casinum, and about +14 m. E. of Arpinum, on a hill 1607 ft. above sea-level. The walls, of +carefully worked polygonal blocks of stone, are still preserved in +parts, and the modern town does not fill the whole area which they +enclose. Cicero speaks of it as a prosperous country town, which had not +as yet fallen into the hands of large proprietors; and inscriptions show +that under the empire it was still flourishing. One of these last is a +boundary stone relating to the assignation of lands in the time of the +Gracchi, of which six other examples have been found in Campania and +Lucania. + +3. A town of the Veneti, mentioned by Pliny, _H.N._ iii. 131. + + + + +ATITLÁN, or SANTIAGO DE ATITLÁN, a town in the department of Sololá, +Guatemala, on the southern shore of Lake Atitlán. Pop. (1905) about +9000, almost all Indians. Cotton-spinning is the chief industry. Lake +Atitlán is 24 m. long and 10 m. broad, with 64 m. circumference. It +occupies a crater more than 1000 ft. deep and about 4700 ft. above +sea-level. The peaks of the Guatemala Cordillera rise round it, +culminating near its southern end in the volcanoes of San Pedro (7000 +ft.) and Atitlán (11,719 ft.). Although the lake is fed by many small +mountain torrents, it has no visible outlet, but probably communicates +by an underground channel with one of the rivers which drain the +Cordillera. Mineral springs abound in the neighbourhood. The town of +Sololá (q.v.) is near the north shore of the lake. + + + + +ATKINSON, EDWARD (1827-1905), American economist, was born at Brookline, +Massachusetts, on the 10th of February 1827. For many years he was +engaged in managing various business enterprises, and became, in 1877, +president of the Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire Insurance Company, a +post which he held till his death. He was a strong controversialist and +a prolific writer on such economic subjects as banking, railways, cotton +manufacture, the tariff and free trade, and the money question. He was +appointed in 1887 a special commissioner to report upon the status of +bimetallism in Europe. He also made a special study of mill construction +and fire prevention, and invented an improved cooking apparatus, called +the "Aladdin oven." He was an active supporter of anti-imperialism. He +died at Boston on the 11th of December 1905. + + His principal works were _Right Methods of Preventing Fires in Mills_ + (1881); _Distribution of Products_ (1885); _Industrial Progress of the + Nation_ (1889); _Taxation and Work_ (1892); _Science of Nutrition_ + (10th ed., 1898). + + + + +ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT (1831-1892), British colonial statesman, +prime minister and speaker of the legislative council, New Zealand, was +born at Chester in 1831, and in 1855 emigrated to Taranaki, New Zealand, +where he became a farmer. In 1860 the Waitara war broke out, and from +its outset Atkinson, who had been selected as a captain of the New +Plymouth Volunteers, distinguished himself by his contempt for +appearances and tradition, and by the practical skill, energy and +courage which he showed in leading his Forest Rangers in the tiresome +and lingering bush warfare of the next five years. For this work he was +made a major of militia, and thanked by the government. Elected to the +house of representatives in 1863, he joined Sir Frederick Weld's +ministry at the end of November 1864 as minister of defence, and, during +eleven months of office, was identified with the well-known +"self-reliance" policy, a proposal to dispense with imperial regulars, +and meet the Maori with colonials only. Parliament accepted this +principle, but turned out the Weld ministry for other reasons. For four +years Atkinson was out of parliament; in October 1873 he re-entered it, +and a year later became minister of lands under Sir Julius Vogel. Ten +months later he was treasurer, and such was his aptitude for finance +that, except during six months in 1876, he thenceforth held that post +whenever his party was in power. From October 1874 to January 1891 +Atkinson was only out of office for about five years. Three times he was +premier, and he was always the most formidable debater and fighter in +the ranks of the Conservative opponents of the growing Radical party +which Sir George Grey, Sir Robert Stout and John Ballance led in +succession. It was he, who was mainly responsible for the abolition of +the provinces into which the colony was divided from 1853 to 1876. He +repealed the Ballance land-tax in 1879, and substituted a property-tax. +He greatly reduced the cost of the public service in 1880, and again in +1888. In both these years he raised the customs duties, amongst other +taxes, and gave them a quasi-protectionist character. In 1880 he struck +10% off all public salaries and wages; in 1887 he reduced the salary of +the governor by one-third, and the pay and number of ministers and +members of parliament. By these resolute steps revenue was increased, +expenditure checked, and the colony's finance reinstated. Atkinson was +an advocate of compulsory national assurance, and the leasing as opposed +to the selling of crown lands. Defeated in the general election of +December 1890, he took the appointment of speaker of the legislative +council. There, while leaving the council chamber after the sitting of +the 28th of June 1892, he was struck down by heart disease and died in a +few minutes. Though brusque in manner and never popular, he was esteemed +as a vigorous, upright and practical statesman. He was twice married, +and had seven children, of whom three sons and a daughter survived him. + (W. P. R.) + + + + +ATLANTA, the capital and the largest city of Georgia, U.S.A., and the +county-seat of Fulton county, situated at an altitude of 1000-1175 ft., +in the N.W. part of the state, near the Chattahoochee river. Pop. (1860) +9554; (1880) 37,409; (1890) 65,533; (1900) 89,872, of whom 35,727 were +negroes and 2531 were foreign-born; (1910) 154,839. It is served by the +Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Seaboard Air Line, +the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis (which enters the city over the +Western & Atlantic, one of its leased lines), the Louisville & +Nashville, the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlanta & West +Point railways. These railway communications, and the situation of the +city (on the Piedmont Plateau) on the water-parting between the streams +flowing into the Atlantic Ocean and those flowing into the Gulf of +Mexico, have given Atlanta its popular name, the "Gate City of the +South." Atlanta was laid out in the form of a circle, the radius being +1¾ m. and the centre the old railway station, the Union Depot (the new +station is called the Terminal); large additions have been made beyond +this circle, including West End, Inman Park on the east, and North +Atlanta. Among the best residence streets are Peachtree and West +Peachtree streets to the north, and the older streets to the south of +the business centre of the city--Washington Street, Whitehall, Pryor and +Capitol Avenues. Among the principal office buildings are the Empire, +the Equitable, the Prudential, the Fourth National, the Austell, the +Peters, the Century, the English-American and the Candler buildings; and +there are many fine residences, particularly in Peachtree and Washington +streets, Inman Park and Ponce de Leon Circle. Among prominent public +buildings are the State Capitol (completed 1889), containing a law +library of about 65,000 volumes and a collection of portraits of famous +Georgians, the north-west front of the Capitol grounds containing an +equestrian statue (unveiled in 1907) of John Brown Gordon (1832-1904), a +distinguished Confederate general in the American Civil War and governor +of Georgia in 1887-1890; the court house; the Carnegie library, in which +the young men's library, organized in 1867, was merged in 1902; the post +office building; and the Federal prison (about 4 m. south of the city). +The principal parks are: the Piedmont (189 acres), the site of the +Piedmont Exposition of 1887 and of the Cotton States and International +Exposition of 1895; the Grant, given to the city by L.P. Grant, an +Atlanta railroad builder, in 1882, and subsequently enlarged by the city +(in its south-east corner is Fort Walker); the Lakewood, 6 m. south of +the city; and Ponce de Leon Park, owned by an electric railway company +and having mineral springs and a fine baseball ground. Four miles south +of the centre of Atlanta is Fort McPherson, an important United States +military post, occupying a reservation of 40 acres and having barracks +for the accommodation of 1000 men. In Oakland Cemetery is a large +monument to Confederate soldiers; another monument in Oakland, "To the +unknown Confederate Dead," is a reproduction of the Lion of Lucerne; in +West View Cemetery (4 m. west of the city) is a memorial erected by the +United Confederate Veterans. The city obtains its water-supply from the +Chattahoochee river (above the mouth of Peachtree Creek), whence the +water is pumped by four pumps, which have a daily capacity of 55,000,000 +gallons. Atlanta is widely known for its public spirit and enterprise, +to which the expositions of 1881, 1887 and 1895 bear witness. The air is +bracing, largely because of the city's altitude; the mean annual +temperature is 60.8° F. (winter 44.1°, spring 60.5°, summer 77°, autumn +61.5°). + +Atlanta is an important educational centre. Its public-school system was +organized in 1871. Here are the Georgia School of Technology, founded in +1885 (opened 1888) as a branch of the university of Georgia; the Atlanta +College of Physicians and Surgeons (established in 1898 by the union of +the Atlanta Medical College, organized in 1855, and the Southern Medical +College, organized in 1878); the Atlanta School of Medicine (1905); the +Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine; the Atlanta Theological Seminary +(1901, Congregational), the only theological school of the denomination +in the South in 1908; the Atlanta Dental College; the Southern College +of Pharmacy (1903); Washington Seminary (1877) for girls; and the +following institutions for negroes--Atlanta University, founded in 1869, +which is one of the best institutions in the country for the higher +education of negroes, standing particularly for "culture" education (as +opposed to industrial training), which has done particularly good work +in the department of sociology, under the direction of Prof. W.E.B. du +Bois (b. 1868), one of the most prominent teachers of negro descent in +the country, and which had in 1908 339 students; Clark University, +founded in 1870 by the Freedman's Aid and Southern Educational Society +of the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Atlanta Baptist College, founded +in 1867; Morris Brown College (African Methodist Episcopal, founded in +1882, and opened in 1885), which has college preparatory, scientific, +academic, normal and missionary courses, correspondence courses in +English and theology, an industrial department, and departments of law, +theology (Turner Theological Seminary), nurse-training, music and art; +the Gammon Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal, chartered in +1888), which has its buildings just outside the city limits; and the +Spelman Seminary for women and girls (Baptist) opened in 1881 as the +Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary--the present name being adopted in 1883 +in honour of the parents of Mrs John D. Rockefeller--and incorporated in +1888. At Decatur (pop. 1418 in 1900), a residential suburb, 6 m. +east-north-east of Atlanta, is the Agnes Scott College (1890) for white +girls; connected with the college is a school of music, art and +expression, and an academy. + +The city's principal charitable institutions are the Grady Memorial +hospital (opened in 1892), supported by the city and named in honour of +Henry W. Grady; the Presbyterian hospital; the Baptist Tabernacle +Infirmary; the Wesley Memorial hospital; St Joseph's infirmary; the +Municipal hospital for contagious diseases; the Florence Crittenden +home. Three miles south-east of the city is a (state) soldiers' home, +for aged, infirm and disabled Confederate veterans. The Associated +Charities of Atlanta was organized in 1905. + +The principal newspapers are the _Constitution_ (morning), edited from +1880 until 1889 by Henry W. Grady (1851-1889),[1] one of the most +eloquent of Southern orators, who did much to promote the reconciliation +of the North and the South after the Civil War, and whose statue stands +opposite the post office; the _Journal_ (evening), of which Hoke Smith +(b. 1855), a prominent political leader, secretary of the interior in +President Cleveland's cabinet in 1893-1896, and later governor of +Georgia, was long the proprietor; and the _Georgian_ (evening), founded +in 1906 as a Prohibition organ. + +As regards commerce and manufactures, Atlanta ranks first among the +cities of Georgia. In 1907 its whosesale and retail trade was estimated +at $100,000,000. The city is said to receive two-fifths of the total +freight delivered in the state of Georgia. From 1895 to 1907 the bank +clearings increased from about $65,000,000 to about $260,000,000. In +recognition of the city's financial strength, Atlanta has been +designated by the secretary of the treasury as one of the cities whose +bonds will be accepted as security for Federal deposits. Atlanta is the +Southern headquarters for a number of fire and life insurance companies, +and is the third city of the United States in the amount of insurance +business written and reported to resident agents, the annual premium +receipts averaging about $10,000,000. It is an important horse and mule +market, and handles much tobacco. + +The development of manufactures has been especially notable. In 1880 the +capital invested in manufacturing industries was approximately +$2,468,000; in 1890 it was $9,508,962; in 1900 it had increased to +$16,045,156; and in 1905, when only establishments under the "factory +system" were counted in the census, to $21,631,162. In 1900 the total +product was valued at $16,707,027, and the factory product at +$14,418,834; and in 1905 the factory product was valued at $25,745,650, +an increase of 78.6% in five years. Among the products are cotton goods +(the product value of which in 1905 was 14% of the total value of the +city's manufactures), foundry and machine-shop products, lumber, patent +medicines, confectionery, men's clothing, mattresses, spring-beds and +other furniture. Since 1904 part of the power utilized for manufacturing +has been obtained from the Chattahoochee river, 15 m. from the city. +There are many manufactories just outside the city limits. + +_History._--Atlanta owes its origin to the development of pioneer +railroads of Georgia. In 1836 the Western & Atlantic, the first road +built into North Georgia, was chartered, and the present site of Atlanta +was chosen as its southern terminal, which it reached in 1843, and which +was named "Terminus." The Georgia and the Central of Georgia then +projected branches to Terminus in order to connect with the Western & +Atlantic, and completed them in 1845 and 1846. The town charter of 1843 +changed the name to Marthasville, in honour of the daughter of Governor +Wilson Lumpkin; and the city charter of 1847 changed this to Atlanta. +The population in 1850 was 2572; in 1860, 9554. Manufacturing interests +soon became important, and during the Civil War Atlanta was the seat of +Confederate military factories and a depot of supplies. In 1864 it was +the objective point of the first stage of General William T. Sherman's +invasion of Georgia (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR), which is therefore +generally known as the "Atlanta campaign." + +After the battles around Marietta (q.v.), and the crossing of the +Chattahoochee river on the 8th and 9th of July, Sherman continued his +advance against Atlanta. His plan of operations was directed primarily +to the seizure of the Decatur railway, by which the Confederate +commander, General J.E. Johnston, might receive support from Virginia +and the Carolinas. The three Union armies under Sherman's command, +outnumbering the Confederates about 3 to 2, began their movement on the +16th of July; the Army of the Cumberland (Gen. G.H. Thomas) on the right +marching from Marietta by the fords of the Upper Chattahoochee on +Atlanta, the Army of the Ohio (Gen. J.M. Schofield) in the centre direct +on Decatur, and the Army of the Tennessee (Gen. J.B. McPherson) still +farther east towards Stone Mountain. At the moment of marching out to +meet the enemy, Johnston was relieved of his command and was replaced by +Gen. J.B. Hood (July 17). Hood at once prepared to attack Thomas as soon +as that general should have crossed Peachtree Creek (6 m. north of the +city) and thus isolated himself from Schofield and McPherson. Sherman's +confidence in Thomas and his troops was, however, justified. Hood's +attack (battle of Peachtree Creek, July 20) was everywhere repulsed, and +Schofield and McPherson closed up at the greatest speed. Hood had to +retire to Atlanta, with a loss of more than 4000 men, and the three +Union armies gradually converged on the north and east sides of the +city. But Hood, who had been put in command as a fighting general, was +soon ready to attack afresh. This time he placed Gen. W.J. Hardee's +corps, the largest of his army, to the south of Atlanta, facing the left +flank of McPherson's army. As Hardee's attack rolled up the Union army +from left to right, the remainder of the Confederate army was to issue +from the Atlanta fortifications and join in the battle. Hardee opened +his attack at noon on the 22nd of July (battle of Atlanta). The troops +of the Army of the Tennessee were swiftly driven back, and their +commander, McPherson, killed; but presently the Federals re-formed and a +severe struggle ensued, in which most of Hood's army joined. The +veterans of the Army of the Tennessee, led by Gen. J.A. Logan, offered a +stubborn resistance, however, and Schofield's army now intervened. After +prolonged attacks lasting to nightfall, Hood had once more to draw off, +with about 10,000 men killed and wounded. The Confederates now abandoned +all idea of regaining the Decatur line, and based themselves on +Jonesboro' and the Macon railway. Sherman quickly realized this, and the +Army of the Tennessee, now commanded by Gen. O.O. Howard, was +counter-marched from left to right, until it formed up on the right of +the Union line about Ezra Church (about 4 m. west of Atlanta). The +railway from Chattanooga to Atlanta, destroyed by Johnston as he fell +back in May and June, was now repaired and working up to Thomas's camps. +Hood had meanwhile extended his entrenchments southwards to cover the +Macon railway, and Howard's movement led to another engagement (battle +of Ezra Church, July 28) in which the XV. corps under Logan again bore +the brunt of Hood's attack. The Confederates were once more +unsuccessful, and the losses were so heavy that the "fighting" policy +ordered by the Confederate government was countermanded. Sherman's +cavalry had hitherto failed to do serious damage to the railway, and the +Federal general now proceeded to manoeuvre with his main body so as to +cut off Hood from his Southern railway lines (August). Covered by Howard +at Ezra Church, Schofield led this advance, but the new Confederate +lines baffled him. A bombardment of the Atlanta fortifications was then +begun, but it had no material result. Another cavalry raid effected but +slight damage to the line, and Sherman now decided to take his whole +force to the south side. This apparently dangerous movement (August 25) +is a remarkable illustration of Sherman's genius for war, and in fact +succeeded completely. Only a small force was left to guard the +Chattanooga railway, and the Union forces, Howard on the right, Thomas +in the centre, and Schofield on the left, reached the railway after some +sharp fighting (action of Jonesboro', September 1). The defence of +Atlanta was now hopeless; Hood's forces retreated southward the same +evening, and on the 2nd of September the Union detachment left behind on +the north side entered Atlanta unopposed. + +All citizens were now ordered to leave, the place was turned into a +military camp, and when Sherman started on his "March to the Sea," on +the 15th of November, a large part of the city was burned. Consequently +the present city is a product of the post-bellum development of Georgia. +The military government of Georgia was established here in 1865. In 1868 +Atlanta was made the capital of the state. + +In 1881 an International Cotton Exposition was held in Atlanta. This was +American, even local, in character; its inception was due to a desire to +improve the cultivation and manufacture of cotton; but it brought to the +notice of the whole country the industrial transformation wrought in the +Southern states during the last quarter of the 19th century. In 1887 the +Piedmont Exposition was held in Atlanta. The Cotton States and +International Exposition, also held at Atlanta, in 1895, attracted +widespread attention, and had exhibits from thirty-seven states and +thirteen foreign countries. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Grady was succeeded as managing editor by Clark Howell (b. 1863); + and Joel Chandler Harris was long a member of the editorial staff. + + + + +ATLANTIC, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Iowa, U.S.A., on +East Nishnabatna river, about 80 m. W. by S. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890) +4351; (1900) 5046; (1905, state census) 5180 (625 foreign-born); (1910) +4560. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway, and by +an inter-urban electric line connecting with Elkhorn and Kimballton, and +is the trade centre of a fine agricultural country; among its +manufactures are machine-shop products, canned corn, flour, umbrellas, +drugs and bricks. The municipality owns the water-works and +electric-lighting plant. Atlantic was chartered as a city in 1869. + + + + +ATLANTIC CITY, a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the +Atlantic Ocean, 58 m. S.E. of Philadelphia and 137 m. S. by W. of New +York. Pop. (1890) 13,055; (1900) 27,838, of whom 6513 were of negro +descent and 3189 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 46,150. It is served +by the Atlantic City (Philadelphia & Reading) and the West Jersey & +Seashore (Pennsylvania system) railways. Atlantic City is the largest +and most popular all-the-year-round resort in the United States, and has +numerous fine hotels. The city extends for 3 m. along a low sandy island +(Absecon Beach), 10 m. long by ¾ m. wide, separated from the mainland by +a narrow strip of salt water and 4 or 5 m. of salt marshes, partly +covered with water at highest storm tide. There are good bathing, +boating, sailing, fishing and wild-fowl shooting. A "Board Walk" +stretches along the beach for about 5 m.--the newest part of it is of +concrete--and along or near this walk are the largest hotels, and +numerous shops, and places of amusement; from the walk into the ocean +extend several long piers. Other features of the place are the broad +driveway (Atlantic Avenue) and an automobile boulevard. There are +several seaside sanitoriums and hospitals, including the Atlantic City +hospital, the Mercer Memorial home, and the Children's Seashore home. On +the north end of the beach is Absecon Lighthouse, 160 ft. high. The +municipality owns the water-works. Oysters are dredged here and are +shipped hence in large quantities. There was a settlement of fishermen +on the island in the latter part of the 18th century. In 1852 a movement +was made to develop it as a seaside resort for Philadelphia, and after +the completion of the Camden & Atlantic City railway in 1854 the growth +of the place was rapid. A heavy loss occurred by fire on the 3rd of +April 1902. + + + + +ATLANTIC OCEAN, + + + Extent. + +a belt of water, roughly of an S-shape, between the western coasts of +Europe and Africa and the eastern coasts of North and South America. It +extends northward to the Arctic Basin and southward to the Great +Southern Ocean. For purposes of measurement the polar boundaries are +taken to be the Arctic and Antarctic circles, although in discussing the +configuration and circulation it is impossible to adhere strictly to +these limits. The Atlantic Ocean consists of two characteristic +divisions, the geographical equator forming a fairly satisfactory line +of division into North and South Atlantic. The North Atlantic, by far +the best-known of the main divisions of the hydrosphere, is remarkable +for the immense length of its coast-line and for the large number of +enclosed seas connected with it, including on the western side the +Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St Lawrence and Hudson +Bay, and on the eastern side the Mediterranean and Black Sea, the North +Sea and the Baltic. The North Atlantic is connected with the Arctic +Basin by four main channels: (1) Hudson Strait, about 60 m. wide, +communicating with the gulfs and straits of the North American Arctic +archipelago; (2) Davis Strait, about 200 m. wide, leading to Baffin Bay; +(3) Denmark Strait, between Greenland and Iceland, 130 m. wide; and (4) +the "Norwegian Sea," about 400 m. wide, extending from Iceland to the +Faeroe Islands, the Shetland Islands and the coast of Norway. The width +of the North Atlantic in lat. 60°, approximately where it breaks up into +the branches just named, is nearly 2000 m.; in about lat. 50° N. the +coasts of Ireland and Newfoundland approach to 1750 m.; the breadth then +increases rapidly to lat. 40° N., and attains its maximum of 4500 m. in +lat. 25° N.; farther south the minimum breadth is reached between Africa +and South America, Cape Palmas being only 1600 m. distant from Cape St +Roque. In marked contrast to this, the South Atlantic is distinguished +by great simplicity of coast-line; inland seas there are none, and it +attains its greatest breadth as it merges with the Southern Ocean; in +lat. 35° S. the width is 3700 m. + +The total area of the North Atlantic, not counting inland seas connected +with it, is, according to G. Karstens, 36,438,000 sq. kilometres, or +10,588,000 sq. m.; including the inland seas the area is 45,641,000 sq. +kilometres or 13,262,000 sq. m. The area of the South Atlantic is +43,455,000 sq. kilometres, or 12,627,000 sq. m. Although not the most +extensive of the great oceans, the Atlantic has by far the largest +drainage area. The "long slopes" of the continents on both sides are +directed towards the Atlantic, which accordingly receives the waters of +a large proportion of the great rivers of the world, including the St +Lawrence, the Mississippi, the Orinoco, the Amazon, the rivers of the La +Plata, the Congo, the Niger, the Loire, the Rhine, the Elbe and the +great rivers of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Sir J. Murray +estimates the total area of land draining to the Atlantic to be +13,432,000 sq. m., or with the Arctic area nearly 20,000,000 sq. m., +nearly four times the area draining to the Pacific Ocean, and almost +precisely four times the area draining to the Indian Ocean. Murray's +calculations give the amount of precipitation received on this area at +15,800 cub. m. annually, and the river discharge from it at 3900 cub. m. + + + Relief of the bed. + +The dominant feature of the relief of the Atlantic basin is a submarine +ridge running from north to south from about lat. 50° N. to lat. 40° S., +almost exactly in the central line, and following the S-shape of the +coasts. Over this ridge the average depth is about 1700 fathoms. Towards +its northern end the ridge widens and rises to the plateau of the +Azores, and in about 50° N. lat. it merges with the "Telegraph Plateau," +which extends across nearly the whole ocean from Ireland to +Newfoundland. North of the fiftieth parallel the depths diminish towards +the north-east, two long submarine ridges of volcanic origin extend +north-eastwards to the south-west of Iceland and to the Faeroe Islands, +and these, with their intervening valleys, end in a transverse ridge +connecting Greenland, through Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, with +North-western Scotland and the continental mass of Europe. The mean +depth over this ridge is about 250 fathoms, and the maximum depth +nowhere reaches 500 fathoms. The main basin of the Atlantic is thus cut +off from the Arctic basin, with which the area north of the ridge has +complete deep-water communication. This intermediate region, which has +Atlantic characteristics down to 300 fathoms, and at greater depths +belongs more properly to the Arctic Sea, commonly receives the name of +Norwegian Sea. On both sides of the central ridge deep troughs extend +southwards from the Telegraph plateau to the Southern Ocean, the deep +water coming close to the land all the way down on both sides. In these +troughs the depth is seldom much less than 3000 fathoms, and this is +exceeded in a series of patches to which Murray has given the name of +"Deeps." In the eastern trough the Peake Deep lies off the Bay of Biscay +in 20° W. long., Monaco Deep and Chun Deep off the north-west of Africa, +Moseley Deep off the Cape Verde Islands, Krech Deep off the Liberian +coast, and Buchanan Deep off the mouth of the Congo. The western trough +extends northwards into Davis Strait, forming a depression in the +Telegraph plateau; to the south of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia are +Sigsbee Deep, Libbey Deep and Suhm Deep, each of small area; north-east +of the Bahamas Nares Deep forms the largest and deepest depression in +the Atlantic, in which a sounding of 4561 fathoms was obtained (70 m. +north of Porto Rico) by the U.S. ship "Blake" in 1883. Immediately to +the south of Nares Deep lies the smaller Makarov Deep; and off the coast +of South America are Tizard Deep and Havergal Deep. + +Before the Antarctic expeditions of 1903-1904 our knowledge of the form +of the sea bottom south of 40° S. lat. was almost wholly derived from +the soundings of the expedition of Sir J.C. Ross in the "Erebus" and +"Terror" (1839-1843), and the bathymetrical maps published were largely +the result of deductions based on one sounding taken by Ross in 68° 34' +S. lat., 12° 49' W. long., in which he recorded a depth exceeding 4000 +fathoms. The Scottish Antarctic expedition has shown this sounding to be +erroneous; the "Scotia" obtained samples of bottom, in almost the same +spot, from a depth of 2660 fathoms. Combining the results of recent +soundings, Dr W.S. Bruce, the leader of the Scottish expedition, finds +that there is a ridge "extending in a curve from Madagascar to Bouvet +Island, and from Bouvet Island to the Sandwich group, whence there is a +forked connexion through the South Orkneys to Graham's Land, and through +South Georgia to the Falkland Islands and the South American continent." +Again, the central ridge of the South Atlantic extends a thousand miles +farther south than was supposed, joining the east and west ridge, just +described, between the Bouvet Islands and the Sandwich group. + +The foundations of our knowledge of the relief of the Atlantic basin may +be said to have been laid by the work of H.M.S. "Challenger" +(1873-1876), and the German ship "Gazelle" (1874-1876), the French +expedition in the "Travailleur" (1880), and the U.S. surveying vessel +"Blake" (1877 and later). Large numbers of additional soundings have +been made in recent years by cable ships, by the expeditions of H.S.H. +the prince of Monaco, the German "Valdivia" expedition under Professor +Chun (1898), and the combined Antarctic expeditions (1903-1904). + + + Islands. + +The Atlantic Ocean contains a relatively small number of islands. The +only continental groups, besides some islands in the Mediterranean, are +Iceland, the British Isles, Newfoundland, the West Indies, and the +Falklands, and the chief oceanic islands are the Azores, Madeira, the +Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan da Cunha +and Bouvet Island. + + + Mean depth, and bottom deposits. + +The mean depth of the North Atlantic is, according to G. Karstens, 2047 +fathoms. If we include the enclosed seas, the North Atlantic has a mean +depth of 1800 fathoms. The South Atlantic has a mean depth of 2067 +fathoms. + +The greater part of the bottom of the Atlantic is covered by a deposit +of Globigerina ooze, roughly the area between 1000 and 3000 fathoms, or +about 60% of the whole. At a depth of about 3000 fathoms, i.e. in the +"Deeps," the Globigerina ooze gradually gives place to red clay. In the +shallower tropical waters, especially on the central ridge, considerable +areas are covered by Pteropod ooze, a deposit consisting largely of the +shells of pelagic molluscs. Diatom ooze is the characteristic deposit in +high southern latitudes. The terrigenous deposits consist of blue muds, +red muds (abundant along the coast of Brazil, where the amount of +organic matter present is insufficient to reduce the iron in the matter +brought down by the great rivers to produce blue muds), green muds and +sands, and volcanic and coral detritus. + +The question of the origin of the Atlantic basin, like that of the other +great divisions of the hydrosphere, is still unsettled. Most geologists +include the Atlantic with the other oceans in the view they adopt as to +its age; but E. Suess and M. Neumayr, while they regard the basin of the +Pacific as of great antiquity, believe the Atlantic to date only from +the Mesozoic age. Neumayr finds evidence of the existence of a continent +between Africa and South America, which protruded into the central North +Atlantic, in Jurassic times. F. Kossmat has shown that the Atlantic had +substantially its present form during the Cretaceous period. + + + Distribution of temperature. + +In describing the mean distribution of temperature in the waters of the +Atlantic it is necessary to treat the northern and southern divisions +separately. The heat equator, or line of maximum mean surface +temperature, starts from the African coast in about 5° N. lat., and +closely follows that parallel to 40° W. long., where it bends northwards +to the Caribbean Sea. North of this line, near which the temperature is +a little over 80° F., the gradient trends somewhat to the east of north, +and the temperature is slightly higher on the western than on the +eastern side until, in 45° N. lat., the isothermal of 60° F. runs nearly +east and west. Beyond this parallel the gradient is directed towards the +north-west, and temperatures are much higher on the European than on the +American side. From the surface to 500 fathoms the general form of the +isothermals remains the same, except that instead of an equatorial +maximum belt there is a focus of maximum temperature off the eastern +coast of the United States. This focus occupies a larger area and +becomes of greater relative intensity as the depth increases until, at +500 fathoms, it becomes an elongated belt extending right across the +ocean in about 30° N. lat. Below 500 fathoms the western centres of +maximum disappear, and higher temperatures occur in the eastern Atlantic +off the Iberian peninsula and north-western Africa down to at least 1000 +fathoms; at still greater depths temperature gradually becomes more and +more uniform. The communication between the Atlantic and Arctic basins +being cut off, as already described, at a depth of about 300 fathoms, +the temperatures in the Norwegian Sea below that level are essentially +Arctic, usually below the freezing-point of fresh water, except where +the distribution is modified by the surface circulation. The isothermals +of mean surface temperature in the South Atlantic are in the lower +latitudes of an ~-shape, temperatures being higher on the American than +on the African side. In latitudes south of 30° S. the curved form tends +to disappear, the lines running more and more directly east and west. +Below the surface a focus of maximum temperature appears off the coast +of South America in about 30° S. lat., and of minimum temperature north +and north-east of this maximum. This distribution is most marked at +about 300 fathoms, and disappears at 500 fathoms, beyond which depth the +lines tend to become parallel and to run east and west, the gradient +slowly diminishing. + + + Salinity. + +The Atlantic is by far the saltest of the great oceans. Its saltest +waters are found at the surface in two belts, one extending east and +west in the North Atlantic between 20° and 30° N. lat., and another of +almost equal salinity extending eastwards from the coast of South +America in 10° to 20° S. lat. In the equatorial region between these +belts the salinity is markedly less, especially in the eastern part. +North of the North Atlantic maximum the waters become steadily fresher +as latitude increases until the channels opening into the Arctic basin +are reached. In all of these water of relatively high salinity usually +appears for a long distance towards the north on the eastern side of the +channel, while on the western side the water is comparatively fresh; but +great variations occur at different seasons and in different years. In +the higher latitudes of the South Atlantic the salinity diminishes +steadily and tends to be uniform from east to west, except near the +southern extremity of South America, where the surface waters are very +fresh. Our knowledge of the salinity of waters below the surface is as +yet very defective, large areas being still unrepresented by a single +observation. The chief facts already established are the greater +saltness of the North Atlantic compared with the South Atlantic at all +depths, and the low salinity at all depths in the eastern equatorial +region, off the Gulf of Guinea. + + + Meteorology. + +The wind circulation over the Atlantic is of a very definite character. +In the South Atlantic the narrow land surfaces of Africa and South +America produce comparatively little effect in disturbing the normal +planetary circulation. The tropical belt of high atmospheric pressure is +very marked in winter; it is weaker during the summer months, and at +that season the greater relative fall of pressure over the land cuts it +off into an oval-shaped anticyclone, the centre of which rests on the +coolest part of the sea surface in that latitude, near the Gulf of +Guinea. South of this anticyclone, from about the latitude of the Cape, +we find the region where, on account of the uninterrupted sea surface +right round the globe, the planetary circulation is developed to the +greatest extent known; the pressure gradient is steep, and the region is +swept continuously by strong westerly winds--the "roaring forties." + +In the North Atlantic the distribution of pressure and resulting wind +circulation are very largely modified by the enormous areas of land and +frozen sea which surround the ocean on three sides. The tropical belt of +high pressure persists all the year round, but the immense demand for +air to supply the ascending currents over the heated land surfaces in +summer causes the normal descending movement to be largely reinforced; +hence the "North Atlantic anticyclone" is much larger, and its +circulation more vigorous, in summer than in winter. Again, during the +winter months pressure is relatively high over North America, Western +Eurasia and the Arctic regions; hence vast quantities of air are brought +down to the surface, and circulation must be kept up by ascending +currents over the ocean. The Atlantic anticyclone is, therefore, at its +weakest in winter, and on its polar side the polar eddy becomes a trough +of low pressure, extending roughly from Labrador to Iceland and Jan +Mayen, and traversed by a constant succession of cyclones. The net +effect of the surrounding land is, in fact, to reverse the seasonal +variations of the planetary circulation, but without destroying its +type. In the intermediate belt between the two high-pressure areas the +meteorological equator remains permanently north of the geographical +equator, moving between it and about 11° N. lat. + + + Currents. + +The part of this atmospheric circulation which is steadiest in its +action is the trade winds, and this is, therefore, the most effective in +producing drift movement of the surface waters. The trade winds give +rise, in the region most exposed to their influence, to two +westward-moving drifts--the equatorial currents, which are separated in +parts of their course by currents moving in the opposite direction along +the equatorial belt. These last may be of the nature of "reaction" +currents; they are collectively known as the equatorial counter-current. +On reaching the South American coast, the southern equatorial current +splits into two parts at Cape St Roque: one branch, the Brazil current, +is deflected southwards and follows the coast as a true stream current +at least as far as the river Plate. The second branch proceeds +north-westwards towards the West Indies, where it mingles with the +waters of the northern equatorial; and the two drifts, blocked by the +<-shape of the land, raise the level of the surface in the Gulf of +Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the whole area outside the West +Indies. This congestion is relieved by what is probably the most rapid +and most voluminous stream current in the world, the Gulf Stream, which +runs along the coast of North America, separated from it by a narrow +strip of cold water, the "cold wall," to a point off the south-east of +Newfoundland. At this point the Gulf Stream water mixes with that from +the Labrador current (see below), and a drift current eastwards is set +up under the influence of the prevailing westerly winds: this is +generally called the Gulf Stream drift. When the Gulf Stream drift +approaches the eastern side of the Atlantic it splits into two parts, +one going southwards along the north-west coast of Africa, the Canaries +current, and another turning northwards and passing to the west of the +British Isles. Most of the Canaries current re-enters the northern +equatorial, but a certain proportion keeps to the African coast, unites +with the equatorial return currents, and penetrates into the Gulf of +Guinea. This last feature of the circulation is still somewhat obscure; +it is probably to be accounted for by the fact that on this part of the +coast the prevailing winds, although to a considerable extent monsoonal, +are off-shore winds, blowing the surface waters out to sea, and the +place of the water thus removed is filled up by the water derived either +from lower levels or from "reaction" currents. + +The movements of the northern branch of the Gulf Stream drift have been +the object of more careful and more extended study than all the other +currents of the ocean put together, except, perhaps, the Gulf Stream +itself. The cruises of the "Porcupine" and "Lightning" which led +directly to the despatch of the "Challenger" expedition, were altogether +within its "sphere of influence"; so also was the great Norwegian +Atlantic expedition. More recently, the area has been further explored +by the German expedition in the ss. "National," the Danish "Ingolf" +expedition, and the minor expeditions of the "Michael Sars," "Jackal," +"Research," &c., and since 1902 it has been periodically examined by the +International Council for the Study of the Sea. Much has also been done +by the discussion of observations made on board vessels belonging to the +mercantile marine of various countries. It may now be taken as generally +admitted that the current referred to breaks into three main branches. +The first passes northwards, most of it between the Faeroe and Shetland +Islands, to the coast of Norway, and so on to the Arctic basin, which, +as Nansen has shown, it fills to a great depth. The second, the Irminger +stream, passes up the west side of Iceland; and the third goes up to the +Greenland side of Davis Strait to Baffin Bay. These branches are +separated from one another at the surface by currents moving southwards: +one passes east of Iceland; the second, the Greenland current, skirts +the east coast of Greenland; and the third, the Labrador current already +mentioned, follows the western side of Davis Strait. + +The development of the equatorial and the Brazil currents in the South +Atlantic has already been described. On the polar side of the +high-pressure area a west wind drift is under the control of the +"roaring forties," and on reaching South Africa part of this is +deflected and sent northwards along the west coast as the cold Benguella +current which rejoins the equatorial. In the central parts of the two +high-pressure areas there is practically no surface circulation. In the +North Atlantic this region is covered by enormous banks of gulf-weed +(_Sargassum bucciferum_), hence the name Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea +is bounded, roughly, by the lines of 20°-35° N. lat. and 40°-75° W. +long. + +The sub-surface circulation in the Atlantic may be regarded as +consisting of two parts. Where surface water is banked up against the +land, as by the equatorial and Gulf Stream drift currents, it appears to +penetrate to very considerable depths; the escaping stream currents are +at first of great vertical thickness and part of the water at their +sources has a downward movement. In the case of the Gulf Stream, which +is not much impeded by the land, this descending motion is relatively +slight, being perhaps largely due to the greater specific gravity of the +water; it ceases to be perceptible beyond about 500 fathoms. On the +European-African side the descending movement is more marked, partly +because the coast-line is much more irregular and the northward current +is deflected against it by the earth's rotation, and partly because of +the outflow of salt water from the Mediterranean; here the movement is +traceable to at least 1000 fathoms. The northward movement of water +across the Norwegian Sea extends down from the surface to the +Iceland-Shetland ridge, where it is sharply cut off; the lower levels of +the Norwegian Sea are filled with ice-cold Arctic water, close down to +the ridge. The south-moving currents originating from melting ice are +probably quite shallow. The second part of the circulation in the depth +is the slow "creep" of water of very low temperature along the bottom. +The North Atlantic being altogether cut off from the Arctic regions, and +the vertical circulation being active, this movement is here practically +non-existent; but in the South Atlantic, where communication with the +Southern Ocean is perfectly open, Antarctic water can be traced to the +equator and even beyond. + +The tides of the Atlantic Ocean are of great complexity. The tidal wave +of the Southern Ocean, which sweeps uninterruptedly round the globe from +the east to west, generates a secondary wave between Africa and South +America, which travels north at a rate dependent only on the depth of +the ocean. With this "free" wave is combined a "forced" wave, generated, +by the direct action of the sun and moon, within the Atlantic area +itself. Nothing is known about the relative importance of these two +waves. (H. N. D.) + + See also OCEANS AND OCEANOGRAPHY. + + + + +ATLANTIS, ATLANTIS, or ATLANTICA, a legendary island in the Atlantic +Ocean, first mentioned by Plato in the _Timaeus_. Plato describes how +certain Egyptian priests, in a conversation with Solon, represented the +island as a country larger than Asia Minor and Libya united, and +situated just beyond the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar). +Beyond it lay an archipelago of lesser islands. According to the +priests, Atlantis had been a powerful kingdom nine thousand years before +the birth of Solon, and its armies had overrun the lands which bordered +the Mediterranean. Athens alone had withstood them with success. Finally +the sea had overwhelmed Atlantis, and had thenceforward become +unnavigable owing to the shoals which marked the spot. In the _Critias_ +Plato adds a history of the ideal commonwealth of Atlantis. It is +impossible to decide how far this legend is due to Plato's invention, +and how far it is based on facts of which no record remains. Medieval +writers, for whom the tale was preserved by the Arabian geographers, +believed it true, and were fortified in their belief by numerous +traditions of islands in the western sea, which offered various points +of resemblance to Atlantis. Such in particular were the Greek Isles of +the Blest, or Fortunate Islands, the Welsh Avalon, the Portuguese +Antilia or Isle of Seven Cities, and St Brendan's island, the subject of +many sagas in many languages. These, which are described in separate +articles, helped to maintain the tradition of an earthly paradise which +had become associated with the myth of Atlantis; and all except Avalon +were marked in maps of the 14th and 15th centuries, and formed the +object of voyages of discovery, in one case (St Brendan's island) until +the 18th century. In early legends, of whatever nationality, they are +almost invariably described in terms which closely resemble Homer's +account of the island of the Phaeacians (_Od._ viii.)--a fact which may +be an indication of their common origin in some folk-tale current among +several races. Somewhat similar legends are those of the island of +Brazil (q.v.), of Lyonnesse (q.v.), the sunken land off the Cornish +coast, of the lost Breton city of Is, and of Mayda or Asmaide--the +French _Isle Verte_ and Portuguese _Ilha Verde_ or "Green Island"--which +appears in many folk-tales from Gibraltar to the Hebrides, and until +1853 was marked on English charts as a rock in 44° 48' N. and 26° 10' W. +After the Renaissance, with its renewal of interest in Platonic studies, +numerous attempts were made to rationalize the myth of Atlantis. The +island was variously identified with America, Scandinavia, the Canaries +and even Palestine; ethnologists saw in its inhabitants the ancestors of +the Guanchos, the Basques or the ancient Italians; and even in the 17th +and 18th centuries the credibility of the whole legend was seriously +debated, and sometimes admitted, even by Montaigne, Buffon and Voltaire. + + For the theory that Atlantis is to be identified with Crete in the + Minoan period, see "The Lost Continent" in _The Times_ (London) for + the 19th of February 1909. See also "Dissertation sur l'Atlantide" in + T.H. Martin's _Études sur le Timée_ (1841). + + + + +ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the "endurer," a son of the Titan Iapetus and +Clymene (or Asia), brother of Prometheus. Homer, in the _Odyssey_ (i. +52) speaks of him as "one who knows the depths of the whole sea, and +keeps the tall pillars which hold heaven and earth asunder." In the +first instance he seems to have been a marine creation. The pillars +which he supported were thought to rest in the sea, immediately beyond +the most western horizon. But as the Greeks' knowledge of the west +increased, the name of Atlas was transferred to a hill in the north-west +of Africa. Later, he was represented as a king of that district, rich in +flocks and herds, and owner of the garden of the Hesperides, who was +turned into a rocky mountain when Perseus, to punish him for his +inhospitality, showed him the Gorgon's head (Ovid, _Metam._ iv. 627). +Finally, Atlas was explained as the name of a primitive astronomer, who +was said to have made the first celestial globe (Diodorus iii. 60). He +was the father of the Pleiades and Hyades; according to Homer, of +Calypso. In works of art he is represented as carrying the heavens or +the terrestrial globe. The Farnese statue of Atlas in the Naples museum +is well known. + +The plural form ATLANTES is the classical term in architecture for the +male sculptured figures supporting a superstructure as in the baths at +Pompeii, and in the temple at Agrigentum in Sicily. In 18th-century +architecture half-figures of men with strong muscular development were +used to support balconies (see CARYATIDES and TELAMONES). + +A figure of Atlas supporting the heavens is often found as a +frontispiece in early collections of maps, and is said to have been +first thus used by Mercator. The name is hence applied to a volume of +maps (see MAP), and similarly to a volume which contains a tabular +conspectus of a subject, such as an atlas of ethnographical, subjects or +anatomical plates. It is also used of a large size of drawing paper. + +The name "atlas," an Arabic word meaning "smooth," applied to a smooth +cloth, is sometimes found in English, and is the usual German word, for +"satin." + + + + +ATLAS MOUNTAINS, the general name for the mountain chains running more +or less parallel to the coast of North-west Africa. They extend from +Cape Nun on the west to the Gulf of Gabes on the east, a distance of +some 1500 m., traversing Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. To their south +lies the Saharan desert. The Atlas consist of many distinct ranges, but +they can be roughly divided into two main chains: (1) the Maritime +Atlas, i.e. the ranges overlooking the Mediterranean from Ceuta to +Cape Bon; (2) the inner and more elevated ranges, which, starting from +the Atlantic at Cape Ghir in Sús, run south of the coast ranges and are +separated from them by high plateaus. This general disposition is seen +most distinctly in eastern Morocco and Algeria. The western inner ranges +are the most important of the whole system, and in the present article +are described first as _the Moroccan Ranges_. The maritime Atlas and the +inner ranges in Algeria and Tunisia are then treated under the heading +_Eastern Ranges_. + +_The Moroccan Ranges._--This section of the Atlas, known to the +inhabitants of Morocco by its Berber name, Idráren Dráren or the +"Mountains of Mountains," consists of five distinct ranges, varying in +length and height, but disposed more or less parallel to one another in +a general direction from south-west to north-east, with a slight +curvature towards the Sahara. + +1. The main range, that known as the Great Atlas, occupies a central +position in the system, and is by far the longest and loftiest chain. It +has an average height of over 11,000 ft., whereas the loftiest peaks in +Algeria do not exceed 8000 ft., and the highest in Tunisia are under +6000 ft. Towards the Dahra district at the north-east end the fall is +gradual and continuous, but at the opposite extremity facing the +Atlantic between Agadir and Mogador it is precipitous. Although only one +or two peaks reach the line of perpetual snow, several of the loftiest +summits are snowclad during the greater part of the year. The northern +sides and tops of the lower heights are often covered with dense forests +of oak, cork, pine, cedar and other trees, with walnuts up to the limit +of irrigation. Their slopes enclose well-watered valleys of great +fertility, in which the Berber tribes cultivate tiny irrigated fields, +their houses clinging to the hill-sides. The southern flanks, being +exposed to the hot dry winds of the Sahara, are generally destitute of +vegetation. + +At several points the crest of the range has been deeply eroded by old +glaciers and running waters, and thus have been formed a number of +devious passes. The central section, culminating in Tizi n 'Tagharat or +Tinzár, a peak estimated at 15,000 ft. high, maintains a mean altitude +of 11,600 ft., and from this great mass of schists and sandstones a +number of secondary ridges radiate in all directions, forming divides +between the rivers Dra'a, Sús, Um-er-Rabía, Sebú, Mulwíya and Ghír, +which flow respectively to the south-west, the west, north-west, north, +north-east and south-east. All are swift and unnavigable, save perhaps +for a few miles from their mouths. With the exception of the Dra'a, the +streams rising on the side of the range facing the Sahara do not reach +the sea, but form marshes or lagoons at one season, and at another are +lost in the dry soil of the desert. + +For a distance of 100 m. the central section nowhere presents any passes +accessible to caravans, but south-westward two gaps in the range afford +communication between the Tansíft and Sús basins, those respectively of +Gindáfi and Bíbáwan. A few summits in the extreme south-west in the +neighbourhood of Cape Ghir still exceed 11,000 ft., and although the +steadily rising ground from the coast and the prominence of nearer +summits detract from the apparent height, this is on an average greater +than that of the European Alps. The most imposing view is to be obtained +from the plain of Marrákesh, only some 1000 ft. above sea-level, +immediately north of the highest peaks. Besides huge masses of old +schists and sandstones, the range contains extensive limestone, marble, +diorite, basalt and porphyry formations, while granite prevails on its +southern slopes. The presence of enormous glaciers in the Ice Age is +attested by the moraines at the Atlantic end, and by other indications +farther east. The best-known passes are: (1) The Bíbáwan in the upper +Wad Sús basin (4150 ft.); (2) the Gindáfi, giving access from Marrákesh +to Tárudánt, rugged and difficult, but low; (3) the Tagharat, difficult +and little used, leading to the Dra'a valley (11,484 ft.); (4) the Gláwi +(7600 ft.); (5) Tizi n 'Tilghemt (7250 ft.), leading to Tafilet +(Tafílált) and the Wad Ghír. + +2. The lower portion of the Moroccan Atlas (sometimes called the Middle +Atlas), extending north-east and east from an undefined point to the +north of the Great Atlas to near the frontier of Algeria, is crossed by +the pass from Fez to Tafílált. Both slopes are wooded, and its forests +are the only parts of Morocco where the lion still survives. From the +north this range, which is only partly explored, presents a somewhat +regular series of snowy crests. + +3. The Anti-Atlas or Jebel Saghru, also known as the Lesser Atlas, +running parallel to and south of the central range, is one of the least +elevated chains in the system, having a mean altitude of not more than +5000 ft., although some peaks and even passes exceed 6000 ft. At one +point it is pierced by a gap scarcely five paces wide with walls of +variegated marbles polished by the transport of goods. As to the +relation of the Anti-Atlas to the Atlas proper at its western end +nothing certain is known. + +The two more or less parallel ranges which complete the western system +are less important:--(4) the Jebel Bani, south of the Anti-Atlas, a low, +narrow rocky ridge with a height of 3000 ft. in its central parts; and +(5) the Mountains of Ghaiáta, north of the Middle Atlas, not a +continuous range, but a series of broken mountain masses from 3000 to +3500 ft. high, to the south of Fez, Táza and Tlemçen. + +_The Eastern Ranges._--The eastern division of the Atlas, which forms +the backbone of Algeria and Tunisia, is adequately known with the +exception of the small portion in Morocco forming the province of +Er-Ríf. The lesser range, nearer the sea, known to the French as the +Maritime Atlas, calls for little detailed notice. From Ceuta, above +which towers Jebel Músa--about 2800 ft.--to Melilla, a distance of some +150 m., the Ríf Mountains face the Mediterranean, and here, as along the +whole coast eastward to Cape Bon, many rugged rocks rise boldly above +the general level. In Algeria the Maritime Atlas has five chief ranges, +several mountains rising over 5000 ft. The Jurjura range, extending +through Kabylia from Algiers to Bougie, contains the peaks of Lalla +Kedija (7542 ft.), the culminating point of the maritime chains, and +Babor (6447 ft.). (See further ALGERIA.) The Mejerda range, which +extends into Tunisia, has no heights exceeding 3700 ft. It was in these +coast mountains of Algeria that the Romans quarried the celebrated +Numidian marbles. + +The southern or main range of the Eastern division is known by the +French as the Saharan Atlas. On its western extremity it is linked by +secondary ranges to the mountain system of Morocco. The Saharan Atlas is +essentially one chain, though known under different names: Jebel K'sur +and Jebel Amur on the west, and Jebel Aures in the east. The central +part, the Záb Mountains, is of lower elevation, the Saharan Atlas +reaching its culminating point, Jebel Shellia (7611 ft. above the sea), +in the Aures. This range sends a branch northward which joins the +Mejerda range of the Maritime Atlas, and another branch runs south by +Gafsa to the Gulf of Gabes. Here Mount Sidi Ali bu Musin reaches a +height of 5700 ft., the highest point in Tunisia. In the Saharan Atlas +the passes leading to or from the desert are numerous, and in most +instances easy. Both in the east (at Batna) and the west (at Ain Sefra) +the mountains are traversed by railways, which, starting from +Mediterranean seaports, take the traveller into the Sahara. + +_History and Exploration._--The name Atlas given to these mountains by +Europeans--but never used by the native races--is derived from that of +the mythical Greek god represented as carrying the globe on his +shoulders, and applied to the high and distant mountains of the west, +where Atlas was supposed to dwell. From time immemorial the Atlas have +been the home of Berber races, and those living in the least accessible +regions have retained a measure of independence throughout their +recorded history. Thus some of the mountain districts of Kabylia had +never been visited by Europeans until the French military expedition of +1857. But in general the Maritime range was well known to the Romans. +The Jebel Amur was traversed by the column which seized El Aghuat in +1852, and from that time dates the survey of the mountains. + +The ancient caravan route from Mauretania to the western Sudan crossed +the lower Moroccan Atlas by the pass of Tilghemt and passed through the +oasis of Tafílált, formerly known as Sajilmása ["Sigilmassa"], on the +east side of the Anti-Atlas. The Moroccan system was visited, and in +some instances crossed, by various European travellers carried into +slavery by the Salli rovers, and was traversed by René Caillé in 1828 on +his journey home from Timbuktu, but the first detailed exploration was +made by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861-1862. Previous to that almost the only +special report was the misleading one of Lieut. Washington, attached to +the British embassy of 1837, who from insufficient data estimated the +height of Mount Tagharat, to which he gave the indefinite name of +Miltsin (i.e. _Mul et-Tizin_, "Lord of the Peaks"), as 11,400 ft. +instead of about 15,000 ft. + +In 1871 the first scientific expedition, consisting of Dr (afterwards +Sir) J.D. Hooker, Mr John Ball and Mr G. Maw, explored the central part +of the Great Atlas with the special object of investigating its flora +and determining its relation to that of the mountains of Europe. They +ascended by the Ait Mízan valley to the Tagharat pass (11,484 ft.), and +by the Amsmiz valley to the summit of Jebel Tezah (11,972 ft.). In the +Tagharat pass Mr Maw was the only one of the party who reached the +watershed; but from Jebel Tezah a good view was obtained southward +across the great valley of the Sús to the Anti-Atlas, which appeared to +be from 9000 to 10,000 ft. high. Dr Oskar Lenz in 1879-1880 surveyed a +part of the Great Atlas north of Tárudant, determined a pass south of +Iligh in the Anti-Atlas, and penetrated thence across the Sahara to +Timbuktu. He was followed in 1883-1884 by Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, whose +extensive itineraries include many districts that had never before been +visited by any Europeans. Such were parts of the first and middle +ranges, crossed once; three routes over the Great Atlas, which was, +moreover, followed along both flanks for nearly its whole length; and +six journeys across the Anti-Atlas, with a general survey of the foot of +this range and several passages over the Jebel Bani. Then came Joseph +Thomson, who explored some of the central parts, and made the highest +ascent yet achieved, that of Mount Likimt, 13,150 ft., but broke little +new ground, and failed to cross the main range (1888); and Walter B. +Harris, who explored some of the southern slopes and crossed the Atlas +at two points during his expedition to Tafílált in 1894. In 1901 and +again in 1905 the marquis de Segonzac, a Frenchman, made extensive +journeys in the Moroccan ranges. He crossed the Great Atlas in its +central section, explored its southern border, and, in part, the Middle +and Anti-Atlas ranges. A member of his expeditions, de Flotte +Rocquevaire, made a triangulation of part of the western portion of the +main Atlas, his labours affording a basis for the co-ordination of the +work of previous explorers. (See also MOROCCO, ALGERIA, TUNISIA and +SAHARA.) + + AUTHORITIES.--Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, _Reconnaissance au Maroc + 1883-1884_ (Paris, 1888, almost the sole authority for the geography + of the Atlas; his book gives the result of careful surveys, and is + illustrated with a good collection of maps and sketches); Hooker, Ball + and Maw, _Marocco and the Great Atlas_ (London, 1879, a most valuable + contribution, always scientific and trustworthy, especially as to + botany and geology); Joseph Thomson, _Travels in the Atlas and + Southern Morocco_ (London, 1889, valuable geographical and geological + data); Louis Gentil, _Mission de Segonzac, &c._ (Paris, 1906; the + author was geologist to the 1905 expedition); Gerhard Rohlfs, + _Adventures in Morocco_ (London, 1874); Walter B. Harris, _Tafilet, a + Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Mountains, &c._ (London, 1895), + full of valuable information; Budgett Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_ + (London, 1901), first and last chapters; Dr Oskar Lenz _Timbuktu: + Reise durch Marokko_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1884). + + + + +ATMOLYSIS (Gr. [Greek: atmos], vapour: [Greek: lyein], to loosen), a +term invented by Thomas Graham to denote the separation of a mixture of +gases by taking advantage of their different rates of diffusion through +a porous septum or diaphragm (see DIFFUSION). + + + + +ATMOSPHERE (Gr. [Greek: atmos], vapour; [Greek: sphaira], a sphere), the +aeriform envelope encircling the earth; also the envelope of a +particular gas or gases about any solid or liquid. Meteorological +phenomena seated more directly in the atmosphere obtained early +recognition; thus Hesiod, in his _Works and Days_, speculated on the +origin of winds, ascribing them to the heating effects of the sun on the +air. Ctesibius of Alexandria, Hero and others, founded the science of +pneumatics on observations on the physical properties of air. Anaximenes +made air the primordial substance, and it was one of the Aristotelian +elements. A direct proof of its material nature was given by Galileo, +who weighed a copper ball containing compressed air. + +Before the development of pneumatic chemistry, air was regarded as a +distinct chemical unit or element. The study of calcination and +combustion during the 17th and 18th centuries culminated in the +discovery that air consists chiefly of a mixture of two gases, oxygen +and nitrogen. Cavendish, Priestley, Lavoisier and others contributed to +this result. Cavendish made many analyses: from more than 500 +determinations of air in winter and summer, in wet and clear weather, +and in town and country, he discerned the mean composition of the +atmosphere to be, oxygen 20.833% and nitrogen 79.167% The same +experimenter noticed the presence of an inert gas, in very minute +amount; this gas, afterwards investigated by Rayleigh and Ramsay, is now +named argon (q.v.). + +The constancy of composition shown by repeated analyses of atmospheric +air led to the view that it was a chemical compound of nitrogen and +oxygen; but there was no experimental confirmation of this idea, and all +observations tended to the view that it is simply a mechanical mixture. +Thus, the gases are not present in simple multiples of their combining +weights; atmospheric air results when oxygen and nitrogen are mixed in +the prescribed ratio, the mixing being unattended by any manifestation +of energy, such as is invariably associated with a chemical action; the +gases may be mechanically separated by atmolysis, i.e. by taking +advantage of the different rates of diffusion of the two gases; the +solubility of air in water corresponds with the "law of partial +pressures," each gas being absorbed in amount proportional to its +pressure and coefficient of absorption, and oxygen being much more +soluble than nitrogen (in the ratio of .04114 to .02035 at 0°); air +expelled from water by boiling is always richer in oxygen. + +Various agencies are at work tending to modify the composition of the +atmosphere, but these so neutralize each other as to leave it +practically unaltered. Minute variations, however, do occur. Bunsen +analysed fifteen examples of air collected at the same place at +different times, and found the extreme range in the percentage of oxygen +to be from 20.97 to 20.84. Regnault, from analyses of the air of Paris, +obtained a variation of 20.999 to 20.913; country air varied from 20.903 +to 21.000; while air taken from over the sea showed an extreme variation +of 20.940 to 20.850. Angus Smith determined London air to vary in oxygen +content from 20.857 to 20.95, the air in parks and open spaces showing +the higher percentage; Glasgow air showed similar results, varying from +20.887 in the streets to 20.929 in open spaces. + +In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, there are a number of other gases +and vapours generally present in the atmosphere. Of these, argon and its +allies were the last to be definitely isolated. Carbon dioxide is +invariably present, as was inferred by Dr David Macbride (1726-1778) of +Dublin in 1764, but in a proportion which is not absolutely constant; it +tends to increase at night, and during dry winds and fogs, and it is +greater in towns than in the country and on land than on the sea. Water +vapour is always present; the amount is determined by instruments termed +hygrometers (q.v.). Ozone (q.v.) occurs, in an amount supposed to be +associated with the development of atmospheric electricity (lightning, +&c.); this amount varies with the seasons, being a maximum in spring, +and decreasing through summer and autumn to a minimum in winter. +Hydrogen dioxide occurs in a manner closely resembling ozone. Nitric +acid and lower nitrogen oxides are present, being formed by electrical +discharges, and by the oxidation of atmospheric ammonia by ozone. The +amount of nitric acid varies from place to place; rain-water, collected +in the country, has been found to contain an average of 0.5 parts in a +million, but town rain-water contains more, the greater amounts being +present in the more densely populated districts. Ammonia is also +present, but in very varying amounts, ranging from 135 to 0.1 parts +(calculated as carbonate) in a million parts of air. Ammonia is carried +back to the soil by means of rain, and there plays an important part in +providing nitrogenous matter which is afterwards assimilated by +vegetable life. + +The average volume composition of the gases of the atmosphere may be +represented (in parts per 10,000) as follows:-- + + Oxygen 2065.94 Ozone 0.015 + Nitrogen 7711.60 Aqueous vapour 140.00 + Argon (about) 79.00 Nitric acid 0.08 + Carbon dioxide 3.36 Ammonia 0.005 + +In addition to these gases, there are always present in the atmosphere +many micro-organisms or bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY); another invariable +constituent is dust (q.v.), which plays an important part in +meteorological phenomena. + +Reference should be made to the articles BAROMETER, CLIMATE and +METEOROLOGY for the measurement and variation of the pressure of the +atmosphere, and the discussion of other properties. + + + + +ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 1. It was not until the middle of the 18th +century that experiments due to Benjamin Franklin showed that the +electric phenomena of the atmosphere are not fundamentally different +from those produced in the laboratory. For the next century the rate of +progress was slow, though the ideas of Volta in Italy and the +instrumental devices of Sir Francis Ronalds in England merit +recognition. The invention of the portable electrometer and the +water-dropping electrograph by Lord Kelvin in the middle of the 19th +century, and the greater definiteness thus introduced into observational +results, were notable events. Towards the end of the 19th century came +the discovery made by W. Linss (6)[1] and by J. Elster and H. Geitel (7) +that even the most perfectly insulated conductors lose their charge, and +that this loss depends on atmospheric conditions. Hard on this came the +recognition of the fact that freely charged positive and negative ions +are always present in the atmosphere, and that a radioactive emanation +can be collected. Whilst no small amount of observational work has been +done in these new branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has +still not developed to a considerable extent beyond preliminary stages. +Observations have usually been limited to a portion of the year, or to a +few hours of the day, whilst the results from different stations differ +much in details. It is thus difficult to form a judgment as to what has +most claim to acceptance as the general law, and what may be regarded as +local or exceptional. + +2. _Potential Gradient._--In dry weather the electric potential in the +atmosphere is normally positive relative to the earth, and increases +with the height. The existence of _earth currents_ (q.v.) shows that the +earth, strictly speaking, is not all at one potential, but the natural +differences of potential between points on the earth's surface a mile +apart are insignificant compared to the normal potential difference +between the earth and a point one foot above it. What is aimed at in +ordinary observations of atmospheric potential is the measurement of the +difference of potential between the earth and a point a given distance +above it, or of the difference of potential between two points in the +same vertical line a given distance apart. Let a conductor, say a +metallic sphere, be supported by a metal rod of negligible electric +capacity whose other end is earthed. As the whole conductor must be at +zero (i.e. the earth's) potential, there must be an induced charge on +the sphere, producing at its centre a potential equal but of opposite +sign to what would exist at the same spot in free air. This neglects any +charge in the air displaced by the sphere, and assumes a statical state +of conditions and that the conductor itself exerts no disturbing +influence. Suppose now that the sphere's earth connexion is broken and +that it is carried without loss of charge inside a building at zero +potential. If its potential as observed there is -V (volts), then the +potential of the air at the spot occupied by the sphere was +V. This +method in one shape or another has been often employed. Suppose next +that a fixed insulated conductor is somehow kept at the potential of the +air at a given point, then the measurement of its potential is +equivalent to a measurement of that of the air. This is the basis of a +variety of methods. In the earliest the conductor was represented by +long metal wires, supported by silk or other insulating material, and +left to pick up the air's potential. The addition of sharp points was a +step in advance; but the method hardly became a quantitative one until +the sharp points were replaced by a flame (fuse, gas, lamp), or by a +liquid jet breaking into drops. The matter leaving the conductor, +whether the products of combustion or the drops of a liquid, supplies +the means of securing equality of potential between the conductor and +the air at the spot where the matter quits electrical connexion with the +conductor. Of late years the function of the collector is discharged in +some forms of apparatus by a salt of radium. Of flame collectors the two +best known are Lord Kelvin's portable electrometer with a fuse, or F. +Exner's gold leaf electroscope in conjunction with an oil lamp or gas +flame. Of liquid collectors the representative is Lord Kelvin's +water-dropping electrograph; while Benndorf's is the form of radium +collector that has been most used. It cannot be said that any one form +of collector is superior all round. Flame collectors blow out in high +winds, whilst water-droppers are apt to get frozen in winter. At first +sight the balance of advantages seems to lie with radium. But while +gaseous products and even falling water are capable of modifying +electrical conditions in their immediate neighbourhood, the "infection" +produced by radium is more insidious, and other drawbacks present +themselves in practice. It requires a radium salt of high radioactivity +to be at all comparable in effectiveness with a good water-dropper. +Experiments by F. Linke (8) indicated that a water-dropper having a +number of fine holes, or having a fine jet under a considerable +pressure, picks up the potential in about a tenth of the time required +by the ordinary radium preparation protected by a glass tube. These fine +jet droppers with a mixture of alcohol and water have proved very +effective for balloon observations. + + TABLE I.--_Annual Variation Potential Gradient._ + + +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Place and Period. | Jan.| Feb.|March|April| May | June|July|Aug.|Sept.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.| + +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Karasjok (10), 1903-1904 | 143 | 150 | 137 | 94 | 74 | 65 | 70 | 67 | 67 | 87 | 120 | 126 | + | Sodankylä (31), 1882-1883 | 94 | 133 | 148 | 155 | 186 | 93 | 53 | 77 | 47 | 72 | 71 | 71 | + | Potsdam (9), 1904 | 167 | 95 | 118 | 88 | 93 | 72 | 73 | 65 | 97 | 101 | 108 | 123 | + | Kew (12), 1898-1904 | 127 | 141 | 113 | 87 | 77 | 70 | 61 | 72 | 76 | 96 | 126 | 153 | + | Greenwich (13), 1893-1894, 1896 | 110 | 112 | 127 | 107 | 83 | 71 | 76 | 84 | 83 | 104 | 104 | 139 | + | Florence (14), 1883-1886 | 132 | 110 | 98 | 84 | 86 | 81 | 77 | 90 | 89 | 99 | 129 | 125 | + | Perpignan (15), 1886-1888 | 121 | 112 | 108 | 89 | 91 | 92 | 89 | 82 | 74 | 99 | 122 | 121 | + | Lisbon (16), 1884-1886 | 104 | 105 | 104 | 92 | 91 | 93 | 87 | 92 | 100 | 99 | 115 | 117 | + | Tokyo (17), 1897-1898, 1900-1901| 165 | 145 | 117 | 86 | 62 | 58 | 41 | 59 | 59 | 97 | 134 | 176 | + | Batavia (18)(2 m.), 1887-1890 | 97 | 115 | 155 | 127 | 129 | 105 | 79 | 62 | 69 | 79 | 90 | 93 | + | " (7.8 m.) 1890-1895 | 100 | 89 | 103 | 120 | 98 | 103 | 85 | 99 | 73 | 101 | 117 | 112 | + +---------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + +3. Before considering observational data, it is expedient to mention +various sources of uncertainty. Above the level plain of absolutely +smooth surface, devoid of houses or vegetation, the equipotential +surfaces under normal conditions would be strictly horizontal, and if we +could determine the potential at one metre above the ground we should +have a definite measure of the potential gradient at the earth's +surface. The presence, however, of apparatus or observers upsets the +conditions, while above uneven ground or near a tree or a building the +equipotential surfaces cease to be horizontal. In an ordinary climate a +building seems to be practically at the earth's potential; near its +walls the equipotential surfaces are highly inclined, and near the +ridges they may lie very close together. The height of the walls in the +various observatories, the height of the collectors, and the distance +they project from the wall vary largely, and sometimes there are +external buildings or trees sufficiently near to influence the +potential. It is thus futile to compare the absolute voltages met with +at two stations, unless allowance can be made for the influence of the +environment. With a view to this, it has become increasingly common of +late years to publish not the voltages actually observed, but values +deduced from them for the potential gradient in the open in volts per +metre. Observations are made at a given height over level open ground +near the observatory, and a comparison with the simultaneous results +from the self-recording electrograph enables the records from the latter +to be expressed as potential gradients in the open. In the case, +however, of many observatories, especially as regards the older records, +no data for reduction exist; further, the reduction to the open is at +best only an approximation, the success attending which probably varies +considerably at different stations. This is one of the reasons why in +the figures for the annual and diurnal variations in Tables I., II. and +III., the potential has been expressed as percentages of its mean value +for the year or the day. In most cases the environment of a collector is +not absolutely invariable. If the shape of the equipotential surfaces +near it is influenced by trees, shrubs or grass, their influence will +vary throughout the year. In winter the varying depth of snow may exert +an appreciable effect. There are sources of uncertainty in the +instrument itself. Unless the insulation is perfect, the potential +recorded falls short of that at the spot where the radium is placed or +the water jet breaks. The action of the collector is opposed by the +leakage through imperfect insulation, or natural dissipation, and this +may introduce a fictitious element into the apparent annual or diurnal +variation. The potentials that have to be dealt with are often hundreds +and sometimes thousands of volts, and insulation troubles are more +serious than is generally appreciated. When a water jet serves as +collector, the pressure under which it issues should be practically +constant. If the pressure alters as the water tank empties, a +discontinuity occurs in the trace when the tank is refilled, and a +fictitious element may be introduced into the diurnal variation. When +rain or snow is falling, the potential frequently changes rapidly. These +changes are often too rapid to be satisfactorily dealt with by an +ordinary electrometer, and they sometimes leave hardly a trace on the +photographic paper. Again rain dripping from exposed parts of the +apparatus may materially affect the record. It is thus customary in +calculating diurnal inequalities either to take no account of days on +which there is an appreciable rainfall, or else to form separate tables +for "dry" or "fine" days and for "all" days. Speaking generally, the +exclusion of days of rain and of negative potential comes pretty much to +the same thing, and the presence or absence of negative potential is not +infrequently the criterion by reference to which days are rejected or +are accepted as normal. + + 4. The potential gradient near the ground varies with the season of + the year and the hour of the day, and is largely dependent on the + weather conditions. It is thus difficult to form even a rough estimate + of the mean value at any place unless hourly readings exist, extending + over the whole or the greater part of a year. It is even somewhat + precipitate to assume that a mean value deduced from a single year is + fairly representative of average conditions. At Potsdam, G. Lüdeling + (9) found for the mean value for 1904 in volts per metre 242. At + Karasjok in the extreme north of Norway G.C. Simpson (10) in 1903-1904 + obtained 139. At Kremsmünster for 1902 P.B. Zölss(11) gives 98. At Kew + (12) the mean for individual years from 1898 to 1904 varied from 141 + in 1900 to 179 in 1899, the mean from the seven years combined being + 159. The large difference between the means obtained at Potsdam and + Kremsmünster, as compared to the comparative similarity between the + results for Kew and Karasjok, suggests that the mean value of the + potential gradient may be much more dependent on local conditions than + on difference of latitude. + + At any single station potential gradient has a wide range of values. + The largest positive and negative values recorded are met with during + disturbed weather. During thunderstorms the record from an + electrograph shows large sudden excursions, the trace usually going + off the sheet with every flash of lightning when the thunder is near. + Exactly what the potential changes amount to under such circumstances + it is impossible to say; what the trace shows depends largely on the + type of electrometer. Large rapid changes are also met with in the + absence of thunder during heavy rain or snow fall. In England the + largest values of a sufficiently steady character to be shown + correctly by an ordinary electrograph occur during winter fogs. At + such times gradients of +400 or +500 volts per metre are by no means + unusual at Kew, and voltages of 700 or 800 are occasionally met with. + + 5. Annual Variation.--Table I. gives the annual variation of the + potential gradient at a number of stations arranged according to + latitude, the mean value for the whole year being taken in each case + as 100. Karasjok as already mentioned is in the extreme north of + Norway (69° 17' N.); Sodankylä was the Finnish station of the + international polar year 1882-1883. At Batavia, which is near the + equator (6° 11' S.) the annual variation seems somewhat irregular. + Further, the results obtained with the water-dropper at two + heights--viz. 2 and 7.8 metres--differ notably. At all the other + stalions the difference between summer and winter months is + conspicuous. From the European data one would be disposed to conclude + that the variation throughout the year diminishes as one approaches + the equator. It is decidedly less at Perpignan and Lisbon than at + Potsdam, Kew and Greenwich, but nowhere is the seasonal difference + more conspicuous than at Tokyo, which is south of Lisbon. + + + TABLE II.--_Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient_. + + +-------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+-------------+---------+ + |Station|Karasjok|Sodankylä| Kew(19, 12).|Greenwich|Florence|Perpignan| Lisbon.| Tokyo.| Batavia. | Cape | + | | | | | | | | | | |Horn(20).| + +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+ + |Period | 1903-4.| 1882-83 | 1862-| 1898-| 1893-96.|1883-85.| 1886-88.|1884-86.|1897-98| 1887-| 1890-| 1882-83.| + | | | | 1864.| 1904.| | | | |1900-1.| 1890.| 1895.| | + +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+ + | Days. | | All. | All. |Quiet.| All. | All. | Fine. | All. | All. | Dry. | Dry. | Pos. | + +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+ + | h | 5.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 3.35 | 3.0 | | 8.4 | 3.0 | 1.7 | 2 | 7.8 | 3.5 | + | l | | 2.5 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 1.8 | | 1.5 | 0.5 | 2.0 | | 7.8 | 2.0 | + +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+ + | Hour | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | 1 | 83 | 91 | 87 | 93 | 97 | 92 | 78 | 84 | 101 | 147 | 125 | 82 | + | 2 | 73 | 85 | 79 | 88 | 89 | 83 | 72 | 80 | 98 | 141 | 114 | 73 | + | 3 | 66 | 82 | 74 | 84 | 87 | 77 | 71 | 78 | 97 | 135 | 109 | 85 | + | 4 | 63 | 84 | 72 | 83 | 86 | 75 | 72 | 81 | 99 | 128 | 102 | 81 | + | 5 | 60 | 89 | 71 | 85 | 86 | 74 | 77 | 83 | 121 | 127 | 101 | 85 | + | 6 | 68 | 91 | 77 | 93 | 92 | 82 | 92 | 92 | 154 | 137 | 117 | 95 | + | 7 | 81 | 97 | 92 | 103 | 100 | 100 | 107 | 101 | 167 | 158 | 147 | 106 | + | 8 | 87 | 100 | 106 | 112 | 102 | 112 | 114 | 105 | 149 | 104 | 119 | 118 | + | 9 | 94 | 98 | 107 | 115 | 100 | 113 | 111 | 104 | 117 | 67 | 82 | 119 | + | 10 | 101 | 102 | 100 | 112 | 101 | 107 | 100 | 104 | 87 | 42 | 55 | 123 | + | 11 | 99 | 98 | 90 | 101 | 96 | 100 | 96 | 102 | 70 | 35 | 46 | 123 | + | Noon. | 103 | 102 | 92 | 94 | 97 | 95 | 99 | 108 | 61 | 30 | 43 | 115 | + | 1 | 106 | 105 | 90 | 89 | 96 | 92 | 99 | 111 | 54 | 30 | 42 | 112 | + | 2 | 108 | 107 | 91 | 87 | 94 | 90 | 97 | 114 | 49 | 30 | 43 | 94 | + | 3 | 108 | 108 | 92 | 88 | 95 | 89 | 99 | 109 | 53 | 33 | 46 | 89 | + | 4 | 109 | 108 | 98 | 93 | 97 | 89 | 105 | 108 | 61 | 41 | 53 | 88 | + | 5 | 110 | 108 | 108 | 99 | 102 | 94 | 113 | 108 | 76 | 67 | 73 | 84 | + | 6 | 119 | 110 | 121 | 108 | 108 | 113 | 126 | 111 | 95 | 91 | 108 | 110 | + | 7 | 129 | 102 | 134 | 115 | 111 | 121 | 131 | 116 | 107 | 120 | 145 | 107 | + | 8 | 136 | 111 | 139 | 118 | 115 | 129 | 129 | 114 | 114 | 137 | 155 | 123 | + | 9 | 139 | 111 | 138 | 119 | 117 | 132 | 120 | 109 | 119 | 146 | 155 | 112 | + | 10 | 133 | 104 | 128 | 115 | 117 | 127 | 109 | 102 | 120 | 148 | 147 | 99 | + | 11 | 121 | 108 | 113 | 108 | 111 | 114 | 97 | 92 | 119 | 151 | 143 | 85 | + | 12 | 102 | 93 | 99 | 99 | 104 | 100 | 86 | 85 | 112 | 147 | 130 | 98 | + +-------+--------+---------+------+------+---------+--------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+---------+ + + + TABLE III.--_Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient_. + + +--------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + |Station.| Karasjok. | Sodankylä.| Kew. | Greenwich.| Bureau | Eiffel | Perpignan | Batavia | + | | | | | |Central(21)|Tower(21)| (21). | (2 m.) | + +--------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | Period.| 1903-4. | 1882-83. | 1898-1904. |1894, 1896.| 1894-99. | 1896-98.| 1885-95. | 1887-90. | + +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | Win-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Win-|Equi-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Win-| Sum-| Summer. | Win-| Sum-| Win | Sum-| + | | ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.| ter.| nox.| mer.| ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.| | ter.| mer.| ter.| mer.| + +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Hour. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | 1 | 76 | 104 | 90 | 99 | 91 | 93 | 96 | 87 | 110 | 79 | 102 | 90 | 72 | 88 | 145 | 149 | + | 2 | 66 | 96 | 79 | 84 | 86 | 88 | 90 | 84 | 101 | 71 | 92 | 83 | 67 | 83 | 139 | 142 | + | 3 | 57 | 89 | 78 | 90 | 82 | 85 | 85 | 76 | 98 | 70 | 88 | 79 | 66 | 81 | 137 | 135 | + | 4 | 55 | 83 | 74 | 99 | 81 | 84 | 84 | 77 | 96 | 69 | 84 | 76 | 67 | 83 | 131 | 127 | + | 5 | 50 | 79 | 74 | 111 | 82 | 87 | 90 | 78 | 94 | 75 | 94 | 78 | 72 | 92 | 132 | 123 | + | 6 | 61 | 83 | 80 | 114 | 86 | 97 | 101 | 82 | 101 | 83 | 106 | 87 | 84 | 107 | 138 | 136 | + | 7 | 78 | 89 | 86 | 117 | 95 | 109 | 113 | 94 | 107 | 98 | 118 | 97 | 104 | 114 | 166 | 153 | + | 8 | 82 | 93 | 95 | 122 | 104 | 118 | 120 | 97 | 111 | 111 | 120 | 103 | 122 | 108 | 118 | 92 | + | 9 | 90 | 93 | 91 | 109 | 111 | 119 | 119 | 98 | 102 | 113 | 106 | 110 | 126 | 100 | 74 | 64 | + | 10 | 104 | 93 | 106 | 101 | 114 | 110 | 110 | 102 | 98 | 111 | 94 | 109 | 114 | 93 | 43 | 40 | + | 11 | 102 | 92 | 98 | 97 | 107 | 95 | 97 | 103 | 86 | 108 | 84 | 107 | 98 | 90 | 35 | 36 | + | Noon. | 119 | 90 | 98 | 100 | 102 | 86 | 87 | 107 | 94 | 106 | 77 | 104 | 99 | 95 | 31 | 30 | + | 1 | 116 | 94 | 116 | 97 | 99 | 81 | 80 | 107 | 85 | 112 | 79 | 107 | 96 | 93 | 29 | 33 | + | 2 | 118 | 97 | 113 | 97 | 97 | 80 | 76 | 109 | 82 | 112 | 81 | 110 | 94 | 90 | 28 | 32 | + | 3 | 119 | 100 | 121 | 93 | 99 | 82 | 76 | 111 | 78 | 111 | 78 | 107 | 95 | 88 | 24 | 41 | + | 4 | 115 | 99 | 111 | 96 | 103 | 88 | 80 | 116 | 81 | 113 | 80 | 105 | 102 | 92 | 30 | 49 | + | 5 | 120 | 106 | 105 | 106 | 108 | 96 | 87 | 112 | 93 | 120 | 85 | 106 | 115 | 98 | 60 | 74 | + | 6 | 131 | 104 | 115 | 92 | 111 | 109 | 98 | 114 | 98 | 124 | 97 | 109 | 128 | 110 | 88 | 94 | + | 7 | 136 | 110 | 118 | 102 | 114 | 120 | 111 | 117 | 99 | 124 | 123 | 113 | 133 | 122 | 119 | 122 | + | 8 | 134 | 113 | 117 | 106 | 112 | 124 | 123 | 113 | 108 | 116 | 134 | 110 | 131 | 127 | 138 | 135 | + | 9 | 137 | 125 | 115 | 90 | 111 | 123 | 129 | 111 | 118 | 104 | 130 | 109 | 124 | 125 | 145 | 147 | + | 10 | 125 | 135 | 112 | 90 | 108 | 118 | 125 | 110 | 124 | 97 | 122 | 105 | 111 | 117 | 148 | 148 | + | 11 | 114 | 126 | 113 | 103 | 103 | 109 | 116 | 102 | 120 | 90 | 115 | 101 | 96 | 108 | 149 | 152 | + | 12 | 96 | 111 | 95 | 85 | 96 | 99 | 105 | 93 | 116 | 83 | 108 | 94 | 83 | 95 | 148 | 146 | + +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + At the temperate stations the maximum occurs near midwinter; in the + Arctic it seems deferred towards spring. + + 6. _Diurnal Variation._--Table II. gives the mean diurnal variation + for the whole year at a number of stations arranged in order of + latitude, the mean from the 24 hourly values being taken as 100. The + data are some from "all" days, some from "quiet," "fine" or "dry" + days. The height, h, and the distance from the wall, l, were the + potential is measured are given in metres when known. In most cases + two distinct maxima and minima occur in the 24 hours. The principal + maximum is usually found in the evening between 8 and 10 P.M., the + principal minimum in the morning from 3 to 5 A.M. At some stations the + minimum in the afternoon is indistinctly shown, but at Tokyo and + Batavia it is mu ch more conspicuous than the morning minimum. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + 7. In Table III. the diurnal inequality is shown for "winter" and + "summer" respectively. In all cases the mean value for the 24 hours is + taken as 100. By "summer" is meant April to September at Sodankylä, + Greenwich and Batavia; May to August at Kew, Bureau Central (Paris), + Eiffel Tower and Perpignan; and May to July at Karasjok. "Winter" + includes October to March at Sodankylä, Greenwich and Batavia; + November to February at Kew and Bureau Central; November to January at + Karasjok, and December and January at Perpignan. Mean results from + March, April, September and October at Kew are assigned to "Equinox." + + At Batavia the difference between winter and summer is comparatively + small. Elsewhere there is a tendency for the double period, usually so + prominent in summer, to become less pronounced in winter, the + afternoon minimum tending to disappear. Even in summer the double + period is not prominent in the arctic climate of Karasjok or on the + top of the Eiffel Tower. The diurnal variation in summer at the latter + station is shown graphically in the top curve of fig. 1. It presents a + remarkable resemblance to the adjacent curve, which gives the diurnal + variation at mid-winter at the Bureau Central. The resemblance between + these curves is much closer than that between the Bureau Central's own + winter and summer curves. All three Paris curves show three peaks, the + first and third representing the ordinary forenoon and afternoon + maxima. In summer at the Bureau Central the intermediate peak nearly + disappears in the profound afternoon depression, but it is still + recognizable. This three-peaked curve is not wholly peculiar to Paris, + being seen, for instance, at Lisbon in summer. The December and June + curves for Kew are good examples of the ordinary nature of the + difference between midwinter and midsummer. The afternoon minimum at + Kew gradually deepens as midsummer approaches. Simultaneously the + forenoon maximum occurs earlier and the afternoon maximum later in the + day. The two last curves in the diagram contrast the diurnal variation + at Kew in potential gradient and in barometric pressure for the year + as a whole. The somewhat remarkable resemblance between the diurnal + variation for the two elements, first remarked on by J.D. Everett + (19), is of interest in connexion with recent theoretical conclusions + by J.P. Elster and H.F.K. Geitel and by H. Ebert. + + In the potential curves of the diagram the ordinates represent the + hourly values expressed--as in Tables II. and III.--as percentages of + the mean value for the day. If this be overlooked, a wrong impression + may be derived as to the absolute amplitudes of the changes. The Kew + curves, for instance, might suggest that the range (maximum less + minimum hourly value) was larger in June than in December. In reality + the December range was 82, the June only 57 volts; but the mean value + of the potential was 243 in December as against 111 in June. So again, + in the case of the Paris curves, the absolute value of the diurnal + range in summer was much greater for the Eiffel Tower than for the + Bureau Central, but the mean voltage was 2150 at the former station + and only 134 at the latter. + + 8. _Fourier Coefficients._--Diurnal inequalities such as those of + Tables II. and III. and intended to eliminate irregular changes, but + they also to some extent eliminate regular changes if the hours of + maxima and minima or the character of the diurnal variation alter + throughout the year. The alteration that takes place in the regular + diurnal inequality throughout the year is best seen by analysing it + into a Fourier series of the type + + c1 sin(t + a1) + c2 sin(2t + a2) + c3 sin(3t + a3) + + + c4 sin(4t + a4) + ... + + where t denotes time counted from (local) midnight, c1, c2, c3, c4, + ... are the amplitudes of the component harmonic waves of periods 24, + 12, 8 and 6 hours; a1, a2, a3, a4, are the corresponding phase angles. + One hour of time t is counted as 15°, and a delay of one hour in the + time of maximum answers to a diminution of 15° in a1, of 30° in a2, + and so on. If a1, say, varies much throughput the year, or if the + ratios of c2, c3, c4, ... to c1, vary much, then a diurnal inequality + derived from a whole year, or from a season composed of several + months, represents a mean curve arising from the superposition of a + number of curves, which differ in shape and in the positions of their + maxima and minima. The result, if considered alone, inevitably leads + to an underestimate of the average amplitude of the regular diurnal + variation. + + It is also desirable to have an idea of the size of the irregular + changes which vary from one day to the next. On stormy days, as + already mentioned, the irregular changes hardly admit of satisfactory + treatment. Even on the quietest days irregular changes are always + numerous and often large. + + Table IV. aims at giving a summary of the several phenomena for a + single station, Kew, on electrically quiet days. The first line gives + the mean value of the potential gradient, the second the mean excess + of the largest over the smallest hourly value on individual days. The + hourly values are derived from smoothed curves, the object being to + get the mean ordinate for a 60-minute period. If the actual crests of + the excursions had been measured the figures in the second line would + have been even larger. The third line gives the range of the _regular_ + diurnal inequality, the next four lines the amplitudes of the first + four Fourier waves into which the regular diurnal inequality has been + analysed. These mean values, ranges and amplitudes are all measured in + volts per metre (in the open). The last four lines of Table IV. give + the phase angles of the first four Fourier waves. + + + TABLE IV.--_Absolute Potential Data at Kew_ (12). + + +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | Jan.| Feb.| Mar.| Apr.| May | June| July| Aug.| Sep.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.| + +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Mean Potential Gradient | 201 | 224 | 180 | 138 | 123 | 111 | 98 | 114 | 121 | 153 | 200 | 243 | + | Mean of individual daily ranges| 203 | 218 | 210 | 164 | 143 | 143 | 117 | 129 | 141 | 196 | 186 | 213 | + | Range in Diurnal inequality | 73 | 94 | 83 | 74 | 71 | 57 | 55 | 60 | 54 | 63 | 52 | 82 | + | / c1 | 22 | 22 | 17 | 13 | 18 | 9 | 6 | 6 | 9 | 7 | 14 | 30 | + | Amplitudes of Fourier | c2 | 21 | 33 | 34 | 31 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 26 | 23 | 30 | 17 | 21 | + | waves < c3 | 7 | 10 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | + | \ c4 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 3 | + | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | ° | ° | ° | ° | ° | ° | ° | ° | ° ° | ° | ° | + | / a1 | 206 | 204 | 123 | 72 | 86 | 79 | 48 | 142 | 154 | 192 | 202 | 208 | + | Phase angles of Fourier | a1 | 170 | 171 | 186 | 193 | 188 | 183 | 185 | 182 | 199 | 206 | 212 | 175 | + | waves < a3 | 11 | 9 | 36 | 96 | 100 | 125 | 124 | 107 | 16 | 18 | 38 | 36 | + | \ a1 | 235 | 225 | 307 | 314 | 314 | 277 | 293 | 313 | 330 | 288 | 238 | 249 | + +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + It will be noticed that the difference between the greatest and least + hourly values is, in all but three winter months, actually larger than + the mean value of the potential gradient for the day; it bears to the + range of the regular diurnal inequality a ratio varying from 2.0 in + May to 3.6 in November. + + At midwinter the 24-hour term is the largest, but near midsummer it is + small compared to the 12-hour term. The 24-hour term is very variable + both as regards its amplitude and its phase angle (and so its hour of + maximum). The 12-hour term is much less variable, especially as + regards its phase angle; its amplitude shows distinct maxima near the + equinoxes. That the 8-hour and 6-hour waves, though small near + midsummer, represent more than mere accidental irregularities, seems a + safe inference from the regularity apparent in the annual variation of + their phase angles. + + + TABLE V.--_Fourier Series Amplitudes and Phase Angles._ + + +------------------+---------+-------------------------+-------------------------+ + | | | Winter. | Summer . | + | Place. | Period. +------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+ + | | | c1. | c2. | a1. | a2. | c1. | c2. | a1. | a2. | + +------------------+---------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+ + | | | | | ° | ° | | | ° | ° | + | Kew | 1862-64 |0.283 |0.160 | 184 | 193 |0.127 |0.229 | 111 | 179 | + | " |1898-1904| .102 | .103 | 206 | 180 | .079 | .213 | 87 | 186 | + | Bureau Central | 1894-98 | .220 | .104 | 223 | 206 | .130 | .200 | 95 | 197 | + | Eiffel Tower | 1896-98 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .133 | .085 | 216 | 171 | + | Sonnblick (22) | 1902-03 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .208 | .120 | 178 | 145 | + | Karasjok | 1903-04 | .356 | .144 | 189 | 155 | .165 | .093 | 141 | 144 | + | Kremsmünster (23)| 1902 | .280 | .117 | 224 | 194 | .166 | .153 | 241 | 209 | + | Potsdam | 1904 | .269 | .101 | 194 | 185 | .096 | .152 | 343 | 185 | + +------------------+---------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-----+ + + 9. Table V. gives some data for the 24-hour and 12-hour Fourier + coefficients, which will serve to illustrate the diversity between + different stations. In this table, unlike Table IV., amplitudes are + all expressed as decimals of the mean value of the potential gradient + for the corresponding season. "Winter" means generally the four + midwinter, and "summer" the four midsummer, months; but at Karasjok + three, and at Kremsmünster six, months are included in each season. + The results for the Sonnblick are derived from a comparatively small + number of days in August and September. At Potsdam the data represent + the arithmetic means derived from the Fourier analysis for the + individual months comprising the season. The 1862-1864 data from + Kew--due to J.D. Everett (19)--are based on "all" days; the others, + except Karasjok to some extent, represent electrically quiet days. The + cause of the large difference between the two sets of data for c1 at + Kew is uncertain. The potential gradient is in all cases lower in + summer than winter, and thus the reduction in c1 in summer would + appear even larger than in Table V. if the results were expressed in + absolute measure. At Karasjok and Kremsmünster the seasonal variation + in a1 seems comparatively small, but at Potsdam and the Bureau Central + it is as large as at Kew. Also, whilst the winter values of a1 are + fairly similar at the several stations the summer values are widely + different. Except at Karasjok, where the diurnal changes seem somewhat + irregular, the relative amplitude of the 12-hour term is considerably + greater in summer than in winter. The values of a2 at the various + stations differ comparatively little, and show but little seasonal + change. Thus the 12-hour term has a much greater uniformity than the + 24-hour term. This possesses significance in connexion with the view, + supported by A.B. Chauveau (21), F. Exner (24) and others, that the + 12-hour term is largely if not entirely a local phenomenon, due to the + action of the lower atmospheric strata, and tending to disappear even + in summer at high altitudes. Exner attributes the double daily + maximum, which is largely a consequence of the 12-hour wave, to a thin + layer near the ground, which in the early afternoon absorbs the solar + radiation of shortest wave length. This layer he believes specially + characteristic of arid dusty regions, while comparatively non-existent + in moist climates or where foliage is luxuriant. In support of his + theory Exner states that he has found but little trace of the double + maximum and minimum in Ceylon and elsewhere. C. Nordmann (25) + describes some similar results which he obtained in Algeria during + August and September 1905. His station, Philippeville, is close to the + shores of the Mediterranean, and sea breezes persisted during the day. + The diurnal variation showed only a single maximum and minimum, + between 5 and 6 P.M. and 4 and 5 A.M. respectively. So again, a few + days' observations on the top of Mont Blanc (4810 metres) by le Cadet + (26) in August and September 1902, showed only a single period, with + maximum between 3 and 4 P.M., and minimum about 3 A.M. Chauveau points + to the reduction in the 12-hour term as compared to the 24-hour term + on the Eiffel Tower, and infers the practical disappearance of the + former at no great height. The close approach in the values for c1 in + Table V. from the Bureau Central and the Eiffel Tower, and the + reduction of c2 at the latter station, are unquestionably significant + facts; but the summer value for c2 at Karasjok--a low level + station--is nearly as small as that at the Eiffel Tower, and notably + smaller than that at the Sonnblick (3100 metres). Again, Kew is + surrounded by a large park, not devoid of trees, and hardly the place + where Exner's theory would suggest a large value for c2, and yet the + summer value of c2 at Kew is the largest in Table V. + + 10. Observations on mountain tops generally show high potentials near + the ground. This only means that the equipotential surfaces are + crowded together, just as they are near the ridge of a house. To + ascertain how the increase in the voltage varies as the height in the + free atmosphere increases, it is necessary to employ kites or + balloons. At small heights Exner (27) has employed captive balloons, + provided with a burning fuse, and carrying a wire connected with an + electroscope on the ground. He found the gradient nearly uniform for + heights up to 30 to 40 metres above the ground. At great heights free + balloons seem necessary. The balloon carries two collectors a given + vertical distance apart. The potential difference between the two is + recorded, and the potential gradient is thus found. Some of the + earliest balloon observations made the gradient increase with the + height, but such a result is now regarded as abnormal. A balloon may + leave the earth with a charge, or become charged through discharge of + ballast. These possibilities may not have been sufficiently realized + at first. Among the most important balloon observations are those by + le Cadet (1) F. Linke (28) and H. Gerdien (29). The following are + samples from a number of days' results, given in le Cadet's book. h is + the height in metres, P the gradient in volts per metre. + + Aug. 9, 1893 / h 824 830 1060 1255 1290 1745 1940 2080 2310 2520 + \ P 37 43 43 41 42 34 25 21 18 16 + + Sep. 11, 1897 / h 1140 1378 1630 1914 2370 2786 3136 3364 3912 4085 + \ P 43 38 33 25 22 21 19 19 14 13 + + The ground value on the last occasion was 150. From observations + during twelve balloon ascents, Linke concludes that below the + 1500-metre level there are numerous sources of disturbance, the + gradient at any given height varying much from day to day and hour to + hour; but at greater heights there is much more uniformity. At heights + from 1500 to 6000 metres his observations agreed well with the formula + + dV/dh = 34 - 0.006h, + + V denoting the potential, h the height in metres. The formula makes + the gradient diminish from 25 volts per metre at 1500 metres height to + 10 volts per metre at 4000 metres. Linke's mean value for dV/dh at the + ground was 125. Accepting Linke's formula, the potential at 4000 + metres is 43,750 volts higher than at 1500 metres. If the mean of the + gradients observed at the ground and at 1500 metres be taken as an + approximation to the mean value of the gradient throughout the lowest + 1500 metres of the atmosphere, we find for the potential at 1500 + metres level 112,500 volts. Thus at 4000 metres the potential seems of + the order of 150,000 volts. Bearing this in mind, one can readily + imagine how close together the equipotential surfaces must lie near + the summit of a high sharp mountain peak. + + 11. At most stations a negative potential gradient is exceptional, + unless during rain or thunder. During rain the potential is usually + but not always negative, and frequent alternations of sign are not + uncommon. In some localities, however, negative potential gradient is + by no means uncommon, at least at some seasons, in the absence of + rain. At Madras, Michie Smith (30) often observed negative potential + during bright August and September days. The phenomenon was quite + common between 9.30 A.M. and noon during westerly winds, which at + Madras are usually very dry and dusty. At Sodankylä, in 1882-1883, + K.S. Lemström and F.C. Biese (31) found that out of 255 observed + occurrences of negative potential, 106 took place in the absence of + rain or snow. The proportion of occurrences of negative potential + under a clear sky was much above its average in autumn. At Sodankylä + rain or snowfall was often unaccompanied by change of sign in the + potential. At the polar station Godthaab (32) in 1882-1883, negative + potential seemed sometimes associated with aurora (see AURORA + POLARIS). + + Lenard, Elster and Geitel, and others have found the potential + gradient negative near waterfalls, the influence sometimes extending + to a considerable distance. Lenard (33) found that when pure water + falls upon water the neighbouring air takes a negative charge. Kelvin, + Maclean and Gait (34) found the effect greatest in the air near the + level of impact. A sensible effect remained, however, after the + influence of splashing was eliminated. Kelvin, Maclean and Galt regard + this property of falling water as an objection to the use of a + water-dropper indoors, though not of practical importance when it is + used out of doors. + + 12. Elster and Geitel (35) have measured the charge carried by + raindrops falling into an insulated vessel. Owing to observational + difficulties, the exact measure of success attained is a little + difficult to gauge, but it seems fairly certain that raindrops usually + carry a charge. Elster and Geitel found the sign of the charge often + fluctuate repeatedly during a single rain storm, but it seemed more + often than not opposite to that of the simultaneous potential + gradient. Gerdien has more recently repeated the experiments, + employing an apparatus devised by him for the purpose. It has been + found by C.T.R. Wilson (36) that a vessel in which freshly fallen rain + or snow has been evaporated to dryness shows radioactive properties + lasting for a few hours. The results obtained from equal weights of + rain and snow seem of the same order. + + 13. W. Linss (6) found that an insulated conductor charged either + positively or negatively lost its charge in the free atmosphere; the + potential V after time t being connected with its initial value V0 by + a formula of the type V = V0e^(-at) where a is constant. This was + confirmed by Elster and Geitel (7), whose form of dissipation + apparatus has been employed in most recent work. The percentage of the + charge which is dissipated per minute is usually denoted by a+ or a- + according to its sign. The mean of a+ and a- is usually denoted by a± + or simply by a, while q is employed for the ratio a-/a+. Some + observers when giving mean values take [Sigma](a-/a+) as the mean + value of q, while others take [Sigma](a-)/[Sigma](a+). The Elster + and Geitel apparatus is furnished with a cover, serving to protect the + dissipator from the direct action of rain, wind or sunlight. It is + usual to observe with this cover on, but some observers, e.g. A. + Gockel, have made long series of observations without it. The loss of + charge is due to more than one cause, and it is difficult to attribute + an absolutely definite meaning even to results obtained with the cover + on. Gockel (37) says that the results he obtained without the cover + when divided by 3 are fairly comparable with those obtained under the + usual conditions; but the appropriate divisor must vary to some extent + with the climatic conditions. Thus results obtained for a+ or a- + without the cover are of doubtful value for purposes of comparison + with those found elsewhere with it on. In the case of q the + uncertainty is much less. + + + TABLE VI.--_Dissipation. Mean Values._ + + +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+ + | Place. |Period.| Season. | Observer or | a± | q | + | | | | Authority. | | | + +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+ + | Karasjok | 1903-4| Year | Simpson (10) | 3.57 | 1.15 | + | Wolfenbüttel | Year | Elster & Geitel (39)| 1.33 | 1.05 | + | Potsdam | 1904 | Year | Lüdeling (40) | 1.13 | 1.33 | + | Kremsmüster | 1902 | Year | Zölss (42) | 1.32 | 1.18 | + | " | 1903 | Year | Zölss (41) | 1.35 | 1.14 | + | Freiburg | | Year | Gockel (43) | .. | 1.41 | + | Innsbruck | 1902 | | Czermak (44) | 1.95 | 0.94 | + | " | 1905 | Jan. to June | Defant (45) | 1.47 | 1.17 | + | Mattsee (Salzburg) | 1905 | July to Sept.| von Schweidler (46) | .. | 0.99 | + | Seewalchen | 1904 | July to Sept.| von Schweidler (38) | .. | 1.18 | + | Trieste | 1902-3| Year | Mazelle (47) | 0.58 | 1.09 | + | Misdroy | 1902 | | Lüdeling (40) | 1.09 | 1.58 | + | Swinemünde | 1904 |Aug. and Sept.| Lüdeling (40) | 1.23 | 1.37 | + | Heligoland (sands) | 1903 | Summer | Elster & Geitel (40)| 1.14 | 1.71 | + | " plateau | " | " | " " (40)| 3.07 | 1.50 | + | Juist (Island) | | " | " " (48)| 1.56 | 1.56 | + | Atlantic and German Ocean| 1904 | August | Boltzmann (49) | 1.83 | 2.69 | + | Arosa (1800 m.) | 1903 |Feb. to April | Saake (50) | 1.79 | 1.22 | + | Rothhorn (2300 m.) | 1903 | September | Gockel (43) | .. | 5.31 | + | Sonnblick (3100 m.) | 1903 | September | Conrad (22) | .. | 1.75 | + | Mont Blanc (4810 m.) | 1902 | September | le Cadet (43) | .. |10.3 | + +--------------------------+-------+--------------+---------------------+------+------+ + + Table VI. gives the mean values of a± and q found at various places. + The observations were usually confined to a few hours of the day, very + commonly between 11 A.M. and 1 P.M., and in absence of information as + to the diurnal variation it is impossible to say how much this + influences the results. The first eight stations lie inland; that at + Seewalchen (38) was, however, adjacent to a large lake. The next five + stations are on the coast or on islands. The final four are at high + levels. In the cases where the observations were confined to a few + months the representative nature of the results is more doubtful. + + On mountain summits q tends to be large, i.e. a negative charge is + lost much faster than a positive charge. Apparently q has also a + tendency to be large near the sea, but this phenomenon is not seen at + Trieste. An exactly opposite phenomenon, it may be remarked, is seen + near waterfalls, q becoming very small. Only Innsbruck and Mattsee + give a mean value of q less than unity. Also, as later observations at + Innsbruck give more normal values for q, some doubt may be felt as to + the earlier observations there. The result for Mattsee seems less open + to doubt, for the observer, von Schweidler, had obtained a normal + value for q during the previous year at Seewalchen. Whilst the average + q in at least the great majority of stations exceeds unity, individual + observations making q less than unity are not rare. Thus in 1902 (51) + the percentage of cases in which q fell short of 1 was 30 at Trieste, + 33 at Vienna, and 35 at Kremsmünster; at Innsbruck q was less than 1 + on 58 days out of 98. + + In a long series of observations, individual values of q show usually + a wide range. Thus during observations extending over more than a + year, q varied from 0.18 to 8.25 at Kremsmünster and from 0.11 to 3.00 + at Trieste. The values of a+, a- and a± also show large variations. + Thus at Trieste a+ varied from 0.12 to 4.07, and a- from 0.11 to 3.87; + at Vienna a+ varied from 0.32 to 7.10, and a- from 0.78 to 5.42; at + Kremsmünster a± varied from 0.14 to 5.83. + + 14. _Annual Variation._--When observations are made at irregular + hours, or at only one or two fixed hours, it is doubtful how + representative they are. Results obtained at noon, for example, + probably differ more from the mean value for the 24 hours at one + season than at another. Most dissipation results are exposed to + considerable uncertainty on these grounds. Also it requires a long + series of years to give thoroughly representative results for any + element, and few stations possess more than a year or two's + dissipation data. Table VII. gives comparative results for winter + (October to March) and summer at a few stations, the value for the + season being the arithmetic mean from the individual months composing + it. At Karasjok (10), Simpson observed thrice a day; the summer value + there is nearly double the winter both for a+ and a-. The Kremsmünster + (42) figures show a smaller but still distinct excess in the summer + values. At Trieste (47), Mazelle's data from all days of the year show + no decided seasonal change in a+ or a-; but when days on which the + wind was high are excluded the summer value is decidedly the higher. + At Freiburg (43), q seems decidedly larger in winter than in summer; + at Karasjok and Trieste the seasonal effect in q seems small and + uncertain. + + + TABLE VII.--_Dissipation._ + + +--------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+ + | | Winter. | Summer. | + +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Place. | a+ | a- | a± | q | a+ | a- | a± | q | + +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Karasjok 1903-1904 | 2.28 | 2.69 | 2.49 | 1.18 | 4.38 | 4.94 | 4.65 | 1.13 | + | Kremsmüster 1903 | 1.14 | 1.30 | 1.22 | 1.14 | 1.38 | 1.56 | 1.47 | 1.12 | + | Freiburg | .. | .. | .. | 1.57 | .. | .. | .. | 1.26 | + | Trieste 1902-1903 | 0.56 | 0.59 | 0.58 | 1.07 | 0.55 | 0.61 | 0.58 | 1.13 | + | " calm days | .. | .. | 0.35 | .. | .. | .. | 0.48 | .. | + +--------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + 15. _Diurnal Variation._--P.B. Zölss (41, 42) has published diurnal + variation data for Kremsmünster for more than one year, and + independently for midsummer (May to August) and midwinter (December to + February). His figures show a double daily period in both a+ and a-, + the principal maximum occurring about 1 or 2 P.M. The two minima + occur, the one from 5 to 7 A.M., the other from 7 to 8 P.M.; they are + nearly equal. Taking the figures answering to the whole year, May 1903 + to 1904, a+ varied throughout the day from 0.82 to 1.35, and a- from + 0.85 to 1.47. At midsummer the extreme hourly values were 0.91 and + 1.45 for a+, 0.94 and 1.60 for a-. The corresponding figures at + midwinter were 0.65 and 1.19 for a+, 0.61 and 1.43 for a-. Zölss' data + for q show also a double daily period, but the apparent range is + small, and the hourly variation is somewhat irregular. At Karasjok, + Simpson found a+ and a- both larger between noon and 1 P.M. than + between either 8 and 9 A.M. or 6 and 7 P.M. The 6 to 7 P.M. values + were in general the smallest, especially in the case of a+; the + evening value for q on the average exceeded the values from the two + earlier hours by some 7%. + + Summer observations on mountains have shown diurnal variations very + large and fairly regular, but widely different from those observed at + lower levels. On the Rothhorn, Gockel (43) found a+ particularly + variable, the mean 7 A.M. value being 4½ times that at 1 P.M. q (taken + as [Sigma](a-/a+)) varied from 2.25 at 5 A.M. and 2.52 at 9 P.M. to + 7.82 at 3 P.M. and 8.35 at 7 P.M. On the Sonnblick, in early + September, V. Conrad (22) found somewhat similar results for q, the + principal maximum occurring at 1 P.M., with minima at 9 P.M. and 6 + A.M.; the largest hourly value was, however, scarcely double the + least. Conrad found a- largest at 4 A.M. and least at 6 P.M., the + largest value being double the least; a+ was largest at 5 A.M. and + least at 2 P.M., the largest value being fully 2½ times the least. On + Mont Blanc, le Cadet (43) found q largest from 1 to 3 P.M., the value + at either of these hours being more than double that at 11 A.M. On the + Patscherkofel, H. von Ficker and A. Defant (52), observing in + December, found q largest from 1 to 2 P.M. and least between 11 A.M. + and noon, but the largest value was only 1½ times the least. On + mountains much seems to depend on whether there are rising or falling + air currents, and results from a single season may not be fairly + representative. + + 16. Dissipation seems largely dependent on meteorological conditions, + but the phenomena at different stations vary so much as to suggest + that the connexion is largely indirect. At most stations a+ and a- + both increase markedly as wind velocity rises. From the observations + at Trieste in 1902-1903 E. Mazelle (47) deduced an increase of about + 3% in a+ for a rise of 1 km. per hour in wind velocity. The following + are some of his figures, the velocity v being in kilometres per + hour:-- + + +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | v | 0 to 4. | 20 to 24. | 40 to 49. | 60 to 69. | + +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | a | 0.33 | 0.64 | 1.03 | 1.38 | + | q | 1.13 | 1.19 | 1.00 | 0.96 | + +-----+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + For velocities from 0 to 24 km. per hour q exceeded unity in 74 cases + out of 100; but for velocities over 50 km. per hour q exceeded unity + in only 40 cases out of 100. Simpson got similar results at Karasjok; + the rise in a+ and a- with increased wind velocity seemed, however, + larger in winter than in summer. Simpson observed a fall in q for wind + velocities exceeding 2 on Beaufort's scale. On the top of the + Sonnblick, Conrad observed a _slight_ increase of a± as the wind + velocity increased up to 20 km. per hour, but for greater velocities + up to 80 km. per hour no further decided rise was observed. + + At Karasjok, treating summer and winter independently, Simpson (10) + found a+ and a- both increase in a nearly linear relation with + temperature, from below -20° to +15° C. For example, when the + temperature was below -20° mean values were 0.76 for a+ and 0.91 for + a-; for temperatures between -10° and -5° the corresponding means were + 2.45 and 2.82; while for temperatures between +10° and +15° they were + 4.68 and 5.23. Simpson found no certain temperature effect on the + value of q. At Trieste, from 470 days when the wind velocity did not + exceed 20 km. per hour, Mazelle (47) found somewhat analogous results + for temperatures from 0° to 30° C.; a-, however, increased faster than + a+, i.e. q increased with temperature. When he considered all days + irrespective of wind velocity, Mazelle found the influence of + temperature obliterated. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found a± + increase appreciably as temperature rose up to 4° or 5° C.; but at + higher temperatures a decrease set in. + + Observations on the Sonnblick agree with those at low-level stations + in showing a diminution of dissipation with increase of relative + humidity. The decrease is most marked as saturation approaches. At + Trieste, for example, for relative humidities between 90 and 100 the + mean a± was less than half that for relative humidities under 40. With + certain dry winds, notably Föhn winds in Austria and Switzerland, + dissipation becomes very high. Thus at Innsbruck Defant (45) found the + mean dissipation on days of Föhn fully thrice that on days without + Föhn. The increase was largest for a+, there being a fall of about 15% + in q. In general, a+ and a- both tend to be less on cloudy than on + bright days. At Kiel (53) and Trieste the average value of q is + considerably less for wholly overcast days than for bright days. At + several stations enjoying a wide prospect the dissipation has been + observed to be specially high on days of great visibility when distant + mountains can be recognized. It tends on the contrary to be low on + days of fog or rain. + + The results obtained as to the relation between dissipation and + barometric pressure are conflicting. At Kremsmünster, Zölss (42) found + dissipation vary with the absolute height of the barometer, a± having + a mean value of 1.36 when pressure was below the normal, as against + 1.20 on days when pressure was above the normal. He also found a± on + the average about 10% larger when pressure was falling than when it + was rising. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found dissipation increase + decidedly as the absolute barometric pressure was larger, and he found + no difference between days of rising and falling barometer. At + Trieste, Mazelle (47) found no certain connexion with absolute + barometric pressure. Dissipation was above the average when cyclonic + conditions prevailed, but this seemed simply a consequence of the + increased wind velocity. At Mattsee, E.R. von Schweidler (46) found no + connexion between absolute barometric pressure and dissipation, also + days of rising and falling pressure gave the same mean. At Kiel, K. + Kaehler (53) found a+ and a- both greater with rising than with + falling barometer. + + V. Conrad and M. Topolansky (54) have found a marked connexion at + Vienna between dissipation and ozone. Regular observations were made + of both elements. Days were grouped according to the intensity of + colouring of ozone papers, 0 representing no visible effect, and 14 + the darkest colour reached. The mean values of _a+_ and _a-_ answering + to 12 and 13 on the ozone scale were both about double the + corresponding values answering to 0 and 1 on that scale. + + 17. A charged body in air loses its charge in more than one way. The + air, as is now known, has always present in it ions, some carrying a + positive and others a negative charge, and those having the opposite + sign to the charged body are attracted and tend to discharge it. The + rate of loss of charge is thus largely dependent on the extent to + which ions are present in the surrounding air. It depends, however, in + addition on the natural mobility of the ions, and also on the + opportunities for convection. Of late years many observations have + been made of the ionic charges in air. The best-known apparatus for + the purpose is that devised by Ebert. A cylinder condenser has its + inner surface insulated and charged to a high positive or negative + potential. Air is drawn by an aspirator between the surfaces, and the + ions having the opposite sign to the inner cylinder are deposited on + it. The charge given up to the inner cylinder is known from its loss + of potential. The volume of air from which the ions have been + extracted being known, a measure is obtained of the total charge on + the ions, whether positive or negative. The conditions must, of + course, be such as to secure that no ions shall escape, otherwise + there is an underestimate. I+ is used to denote the charge on positive + ions, I- that on negative ions. The unit to which they are ordinarily + referred is 1 electrostatic unit of electricity per cubic metre of + air. For the ratio of the mean value of I+ to the mean value of I-, + the letter Q is employed by Gockel (55), who has made an unusually + complete study of ionic charges at Freiburg. Numerous observations + were also made by Simpson (10)--thrice a day--at Karasjok, and von + Schweidler has made a good many observations about 3 P.M. at Mattsee + (46) in 1905, and Seewalchen (38) in 1904. These will suffice to give + a general idea of the mean values met with. + + +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+ + | Station. | Authority. | I+ | I- | Q | + +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+ + | Freiburg | Gockel | 0.34 | 0.24 | 1.41 | + | Karasjok | Simpson | 0.38 | 0.33 | 1.17 | + | Mattsee | von Schweidler | 0.35 | 0.29 | 1.19 | + | Seewalchen | " | 0.45 | 0.38 | 1.17 | + +------------+-----------------+------+------+------+ + + Gockel's mean values of I+ and Q would be reduced to 0.31 and 1.38 + respectively if his values for July--which appear abnormal--were + omitted. I+ and I- both show a considerable range of values, even at + the same place during the same season of the year. Thus at Seewalchen + in the course of a month's observations at 3 P.M., I+ varied from 0.31 + to 0.67, and I- from 0.17 to 0.67. + + There seems a fairly well marked annual variation in ionic contents, + as the following figures will show. Summer and winter represent each + six months and the results are arithmetic means of the monthly values. + + +--------+--------------------+--------------------+ + | | Freiburg. | Karasjok. | + +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | I+ | I- | Q | I+ | I- | Q | + +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Winter | 0.29 | 0.21 | 1.49 | 0.33 | 0.27 | 1.22 | + | Summer | 0.39 | 0.28 | 1.34 | 0.44 | 0.39 | 1.13 | + +--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + If the exceptional July values at Freiburg were omitted, the summer + values of I+ and Q would become 0.33 and 1.25 respectively. + + 18. _Diurnal Variation._--At Karasjok Simpson found the mean values of + I+ and I- throughout the whole year much the same between noon and 1 + P.M. as between 8 and 9 A.M. Observations between 6 and 7 P.M. gave + means slightly lower than those from the earlier hours, but the + difference was only about 5% in I+ and 10% in I-. The evening values + of Q were on the whole the largest. At Freiburg, Gockel found I+ and + I- decidedly larger in the early afternoon than in either the morning + or the late evening hours. His greatest and least mean hourly values + and the hours of their occurrence are as follows:-- + + +-------------------------------+-------------------------------+ + | Winter. | Summer. | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | I+ | I- | I+ | I- | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | + | 0.333 | 0.193 | 0.242 | 0.130 | 0.430 | 0.244 | 0.333 | 0.192 | + | 2 P.M.| 7 P.M.| 2 P.M.| 8 P.M.| 4 P.M.| 9 to | 4 P.M.| 9 to | + | | | | | |10 P.M.| |10 P.M.| + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + + Gockel did not observe between 10 P.M. and 7 A.M. + + 19. Ionization seems to increase notably as temperature rises. Thus at + Karasjok Simpson found for mean values:-- + + Temp. less than -20° -10° to -5° 10° to 15° + I+ = 0.18, I- = 0.36 I+ = 0.36, I- = 0.30 I+ = 0.45, I- = 0.43 + + Simpson found no clear influence of temperature on Q. Gockel observed + similar effects at Freiburg--though he seems doubtful whether the + relationship is direct--but the influence of temperature on I+ seemed + reduced when the ground was covered with snow. Gockel found a + diminution of ionization with rise of relative humidity. Thus for + relative humidities between 40 and 50 mean values were 0.306 for I+ + and 0.219 for I-; whilst for relative humidities between 90 and 100 + the corresponding means were respectively 0.222 and 0.134. At + Karasjok, Simpson found a slight decrease in I- as relative humidity + increased, but no certain change in I+. Specially large values of I+ + and I- have been observed at high levels in balloon ascents. Thus on + the 1st of July 1901, at a height of 2400 metres, H. Gerdien (29) + obtained 0.86 for I+ and 1.09 for I-. + + 20. In 1901 Elster and Geitel found that a radioactive emanation is + present in the atmosphere. Their method of measuring the radioactivity + is as follows (48): A wire not exceeding 1 mm. in diameter, charged to + a negative potential of at least 2000 volts, is supported between + insulators in the open, usually at a height of about 2 metres. After + two hours' exposure, it is wrapped round a frame supported in a given + position relative to Elster and Geitel's dissipation apparatus, and + the loss of charge is noted. This loss is proportional to the length + of the wire. The radioactivity is denoted by A, and A=1 signifies that + the potential of the dissipation apparatus fell 1 volt in an hour per + metre of wire introduced. The loss of the dissipation body due to the + natural ionization of the air is first allowed for. Suppose, for + instance, that in the absence of the wire the potential falls from 264 + to 255 volts in 15 minutes, whilst when the wire (10 metres long) is + introduced it falls from 264 to 201 volts in 10 minutes, then + + 10A = (254 - 201)×6 - (264 - 255)×4 = 342; or A = 34.2. + + The values obtained for A seem largely dependent on the station. At + Wolfenbüttel, a year's observations by Elster and Geitel (56) made A + vary from 4 to 64, the mean being 20. In the island of Juist, off the + Friesland coast, from three weeks' observations they obtained only 5.2 + as the mean. On the other hand, at Altjoch, an Alpine station, from + nine days' observations in July 1903 they obtained a mean of 137, the + maximum being 224, and the minimum 92. At Freiburg, from 150 days' + observations near noon in 1903-1904, Gockel (57) obtained a mean of + 84, his extreme values being 10 and 420. At Karasjok, observing + several times throughout the day for a good many months, Simpson (10) + obtained a mean of 93 and a maximum of 432. The same observer from + four weeks' observations at Hammerfest got the considerably lower mean + value 58, with a maximum of 252. At this station much lower values + were found for A with sea breezes than with land breezes. Observing on + the pier at Swinemünde in August and September 1904, Lüdeling (40) + obtained a mean value of 34. + + Elster and Geitel (58), having found air drawn from the soil highly + radioactive, regard ground air as the source of the emanation in the + atmosphere, and in this way account for the low values they obtained + for A when observing on or near the sea. At Freiburg in winter Gockel + (55) found A notably reduced when snow was on the ground, I+ being + also reduced. When the ground was covered by snow the mean value of A + was only 42, as compared with 81 when there was no snow. + + J.C. McLennan (59) observing near the foot of Niagara found A only + about one-sixth as large as at Toronto. Similarly at Altjoch, Elster + and Geitel (56) found A at the foot of a waterfall only about + one-third of its normal value at a distance from the fall. + + 21. _Annual and Diurnal Variations._--At Wolfenbüttel, Elster and + Geitel found A vary but little with the season. At Karasjok, on the + contrary, Simpson found A much larger at midwinter--notwithstanding + the presence of snow--than at midsummer. His mean value for November + and December was 129, while his mean for May and June was only 47. He + also found a marked diurnal variation, A being considerably greater + between 3 and 5 A.M. or 8.30 to 10.30 P.M. than between 10 A.M. and + noon, or between 3 and 5 P.M. + + At all seasons of the year Simpson found A rise notably with increase + of relative humidity. Also, whilst the mere absolute height of the + barometer seemed of little, if any, importance, he obtained larger + values of A with a falling than with a rising barometer. This last + result of course is favourable to Elster and Geitel's views as to the + source of the emanation. + + 22. For a wire exposed under the conditions observed by Elster and + Geitel the emanation seems to be almost entirely derived from radium. + Some part, however, seems to be derived from thorium, and H.A. + Bumstead (60) finds that with longer exposure of the wire the relative + importance of the thorium emanation increases. With three hours' + exposure he found the thorium emanation only from 3 to 5% of the + whole, but with 12 hours' exposure the percentage of thorium emanation + rose to about 15. These figures refer to the state of the wire + immediately after the exposure; the rate of decay is much more rapid + for the radium than for the thorium emanation. + + 23. The different elements--potential gradient, dissipation, + ionization and radioactivity--are clearly not independent of one + another. The loss of a charge is naturally largely dependent on the + richness of the surrounding air in ions. This is clearly shown by the + following results obtained by Simpson (10) at Karasjok for the mean + values of a± corresponding to certain groups of values of I±. To + eliminate the disturbing influence of wind, different wind strengths + are treated separately. + + + TABLE VIII.--_Mean Values of a±._ + + +----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Wind |I±0 to 0.1.|0.1 to 0.2|0.2 to 0.3|0.3 to 0.4|0.4 to 0.5| + | Strength.| | | | | | + +----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | 0 to 1 | 0.45 | 0.60 | 1.26 | 2.04 | 3.03 | + | 1 " 2 | 0.65 | 1.08 | 1.85 | 2.92 | 3.83 | + | 2 " 3 | .. | .. | 2.70 | 3.88 | 5.33 | + +----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + + Simspon concluded that for a given wind velocity dissipation is + practically a linear function of ionization. + + 24. Table IX. will give a general idea of the relations of potential + gradient to dissipation and ionization. + + + TABLE IX.--_Potential, Dissipation, Ionization._ + + +------------+----------------------------+----------------------------------+ + | Potential | q | Karasjok (Simpson (10)). | + | gradients | | | + | volts per +----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | metre. | Kremsmün-| Freibu-| Rothho-| a+ | a- | I+ | I- | Q | + | | ster(41).|rg (43).| rn(43).| | | | | | + +------------+----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | 0 to 50 | .. | 1.12 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | 50 " 100 | 1.14 | 1.31 | .. | 4.29 | 4.67 | 0.43 | 0.39 | 1.11 | + | 100 " 150 | 1.24 | 1.69 | .. | 3.38 | 3.93 | 0.37 | 0.32 | 1.15 | + | 150 " 200 | 1.48 | 1.84 | .. | 1.85 | 2.58 | 0.36 | 0.28 | 1.28 | + | 200 " 300 | .. | .. | 3.21 | 1.37 | 1.58 | 0.26 | 0.19 | 1.42 | + | 300 " 400 | .. | .. | 4.33 | 0.60 | 0.85 | .. | .. | .. | + | 400 " 500 | .. | .. | 5.46 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | 500 " 700 | .. | .. | 8.75 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + +------------+----------+--------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + If we regard the potential gradient near the ground as representing a + negative charge on the earth, then if the source of supply of that + charge is unaffected the gradient will rise and become high when the + operations by which discharge is promoted slacken their activity. A + diminution in the number of positive ions would thus naturally be + accompanied by a rise in potential gradient. Table IX. associates with + rise in potential gradient a reduced number of both positive and + negative ions and a diminished rate of dissipation whether of a + negative or a positive charge. The rise in q and Q indicates that the + diminished rate of dissipation is most marked for positive charges, + and that negative ions are even more reduced then positive. + + At Kremsmünster Zölss (41) finds a considerable similarity between the + diurnal variations in q and in the potential gradient, the hours of + the forenoon and afternoon maxima being nearly the same in the two + cases. + + No distinct relationship has yet been established between potential + gradient and radioactivity. At Karasjok Simpson (10) found fairly + similar mean values of A for two groups of observations, one confined + to cases when the potential gradient exceeded +400 volts, the other + confined to cases of negative gradient. + + At Freiburg Gockel (55, 57) found that when observations were grouped + according to the value of A there appeared a distinct rise in both a- + and I+ with increasing A. For instance, when A lay between 100 and 150 + the mean value of a- was 1.27 times greater than when A lay between 0 + and 50; while when A lay between 120 and 150 the mean value of I+ was + 1.53 times larger than when A lay between 0 and 30. These apparent + relationships refer to mean values. In individual cases widely + different values of a- or I+ are associated with the same value of A. + + 25. If V be the potential, [rho] the density of free electricity at a + point in the atmosphere, at a distance r from the earth's centre, then + assuming statical conditions and neglecting variation of V in + horizontal directions, we have + + r^(-2)(d/dr)(r² dV/dr) + 4[pi][rho] = 0. + + For practical purposes we may treat r² as constant, and replace d/dr + by d/dh, where h is height in centimetres above the ground. + + We thus find [rho] = -(1/4[pi]) d²V/dh². + + If we take a tube of force 1 sq. cm. in section, and suppose it cut by + equipotential surfaces at heights h1 and h2 above the ground, we have + for the total charge M included in the specified portion of the tube + + 4[pi]M = (dV/dh)h1 - (dV/dh)h2. + + Taking Linke's (28) figures as given in § 10, and supposing h1 = 0, h2 + = 15 × 10^4, we find for the charge in the unit tube between the + ground and 1500 metres level, remembering that the centimetre is now + the unit of length, M = (1/(4[pi])) (125.25)/100. Taking 1 volt equal + 1/300 of an electrostatic unit, we find M = 0.000265. Between 1500 and + 4000 metres the charge inside the unit tube is much less, only + 0.000040. The charge on the earth itself has its surface density given + by [sigma] = - (1/(4[pi])) × 125 volts per metre, = 0.000331 in e + ectrostatic units. Thus, on the view now generally current, in the + circumstances answering to Linke's experiments we have on the ground a + charge of -331 × 10^(-6) C.G.S. units per sq. cm. Of the corresponding + positive charge, 265 × 10^(-6) lies below the 1500 metres level, 40 × + 10^(-6) between this and the 4000 metres level, and only 26 × 10^(-6) + above 4000 metres. + + There is a difficulty in reconciling observed values of the ionization + with the results obtained from balloon ascents as to the variation of + the potential with altitude. According to H. Gerdien (61), near the + ground a mean value for d²V/dh² is - (1/10) volt/(metre)². From this + we deduce for the charge [rho] per cubic centimetre (1/(4[pi])) × + 10^(-5) (volt/cm²), or 2.7 × 10^(-9) electrostatic units. But taking, + for example, Simpson's mean values at Karasjok, we have observed + + [rho] [equivalent] I+ - I1 = 0.05 × (cm./metre)^3 = 5 × 10^(-8), + + and thus (calculated [rho])/(observed [rho]) = 0.05 approximately. + Gerdien himself makes I+ - I- considerably larger than Simpson, and + concludes that the observed value of [rho] is from 30 to 50 times that + calculated. The presumption is either that d²V/dh² near the ground is + much larger numerically than Gerdien supposes, or else that the + ordinary instruments for measuring ionization fail to catch some + species of ion whose charge is preponderatingly negative. + + 26. Gerdien (61) has made some calculations as to the probable average + value of the vertical electric current in the atmosphere in fine + weather. This will be composed of a conduction and a convection + current, the latter due to rising or falling air currents carrying + ions. He supposes the field near the earth to be 100 volts per metre, + or 1/300 electrostatic units. For simplicity, he assumes I+ and I- + each equal 0.25 × 10^(-6) electrostatic units. The specific velocities + of the ions--i.e. the velocities in unit field--he takes to be 1.3 × + 300 for the positive, and 1.6 × 300 for the negative. The positive and + negative ions travel in opposite directions, so the total current is + (1/300)(0.25 × 10^(-6))(1.3 × 300 + 1.6 × 300), or 73 × 10^(-8) in + electrostatic measure, otherwise 2.4 × 10^(-16) amperes per sq. cm. As + to the convection current, Gerdien supposes--as in § 25--[rho] = 2.7 × + 10^(-9) electrostatic units, and on fine days puts the average + velocity of rising air currents at 10 cm. per second. This gives a + convection current of 2.7 × 10^(-8) electrostatic units, or about 1/27 + of the conduction current. For the total current we have approximately + 2.5 × 10^(-16) amperes per sq. cm. This is insignificant compared to + the size of the currents which several authorities have calculated + from considerations as to terrestrial magnetism (q.v.). Gerdien's + estimate of the convection current is for fine weather conditions. + During rainfall, or near clouds or dust layers, the magnitude of this + current might well be enormously increased; its direction would + naturally vary with climatic conditions. + + 27. H. Mache (62) thinks that the ionization observed in the + atmosphere may be wholly accounted for by the radioactive emanation. + If this is true we should have q = [alpha] n², where q is the number + of ions of one sign made in 1 cc. of air per second by the emanation, + [alpha] the constant of recombination, and n the number of ions found + simultaneously by, say, Ebert's apparatus. Mache and R. Holfmann, from + observations on the amplitude of saturation currents, deduce q = 4 as + a mean value. Taking for [alpha] Townsend's value 1.2 × 10^(-6), Mache + finds n = 1800. The charge on an ion being 3.4 × 10^(-10) Mache + deduces for the ionic charge, I+ or I-, per cubic metre 1800 × 3.4 × + 10^(-10) × 10^6, or 0.6. This is at least of the order observed, which + is all that can be expected from a calculation which assumes I+ and I- + equal. If, however, Mache's views were correct, we should expect a + much closer connexion between I and A than has actually been observed. + + 28. C.T.R. Wilson (63) seems disposed to regard the action of rainfall + as the most probable source of the negative charge on the earth's + surface. That great separation of positive and negative electricity + sometimes takes place during rainfall is undoubted, and the charge + brought to the ground seems preponderatingly negative. The difficulty + is in accounting for the continuance in extensive fine weather + districts of large positive charges in the atmosphere in face of the + processes of recombination always in progress. Wilson considers that + convection currents in the upper atmosphere would be quite inadequate, + but conduction may, he thinks, be sufficient alone. At barometric + pressures such as exist between 18 and 36 kilometres above the ground + the mobility of the ions varies inversely as the pressure, whilst the + coefficient of recombination [alpha] varies approximately as the + pressure. If the atmosphere at different heights is exposed to + ionizing radiation of uniform intensity the rate of production of ions + per cc., q, will vary as the pressure. In the steady state the number, + n, of ions of either sign per cc. is given by n = [root](q/[alpha]), + and so is independent of the pressure or the height. The conductivity, + which varies as the product of n into the mobility, will thus vary + inversely as the pressure, and so at 36 kilometres will be one hundred + times as large as close to the ground. Dust particles interfere with + conduction near the ground, so the relative conductivity in the upper + layers may be much greater than that calculated. Wilson supposes that + by the fall to the ground of a preponderance of negatively charged + rain the air above the shower has a higher positive potential than + elsewhere at the same level, thus leading to large conduction currents + laterally in the highly conducting upper layers. + + 29. _Thunder._--Trustworthy frequency statistics for an individual + station are obtainable only from a long series of observations, while + if means are taken from a large area places may be included which + differ largely amongst themselves. There is the further complication + that in some countries thunder seems to be on the increase. In + temperate latitudes, speaking generally, the higher the latitude the + fewer the thunderstorms. For instance, for Edinburgh (64) (1771 to + 1900) and London (65) (1763 to 1896) R.C. Mossman found the average + annual number of thunderstorm days to be respectively 6.4 and 10.7; + while at Paris (1873-1893) E. Renou (66) found 27.3 such days. In some + tropical stations, at certain seasons of the year, thunder is almost a + daily occurrence. At Batavia (18) during the epoch 1867-1895, there + were on the average 120 days of thunder in the year. + + As an example of a large area throughout which thunder frequency + appears fairly uniform, we may take Hungary (67). According to the + statistics for 1903, based on several hundred stations, the average + number of days of thunder throughout six subdivisions of the country, + some wholly plain, others mainly mountainous, varied only from 21.1 to + 26.5, the mean for the whole of Hungary being 23.5. The antithesis of + this exists in the United States of America. According to A.J. Henry + (68) there are three regions of maximum frequency: one in the + south-east, with its centre in Florida, has an average of 45 days of + thunder in the year; a second including the middle Mississippi valley + has an average of 35 days; and a third in the middle Missouri valley + has 30. With the exception of a narrow strip along the Canadian + frontier, thunderstorm frequency is fairly high over the whole of the + United States to the east of the 100th meridian. But to the west of + this, except in the Rocky Mountain region where storms are numerous, + the frequency steadily diminishes, and along the Pacific coast there + are large areas where thunder occurs only once or twice a year. + + 30. The number of thunderstorm days is probably a less exact measure + of the relative _intensity_ of thunderstorms than statistics as to the + number of persons killed annually by lightning per million of the + population. Table X. gives a number of statistics of this kind. The + letter M stands for "Midland." + + + TABLE X.--_Deaths by Lightning, per annum, per million Inhabitants._ + + Hungary 7.7 Upper Missouri and Plains 15 + Netherlands 2.8 Rocky Mountains and Plateau 10 + England, N. M. 1.8 South Atlantic 8 + " E. 1.3 Central Mississippi 7 + " S. M. 1.2 Upper " 7 + " York and W. M. 1.1 Ohio Valley 7 + " N. 1.0 Middle Atlantic 6 + Wales 0.9 Gulf States 5 + England, S. E. 0.8 New England 4 + " N. W. 0.7 Pacific Coast <1* + " S. W. 0.6 North and South Dakota 20 + London 0.1 California 0 + + * Note in case of Pacific coast, Table X., "<1" means "less than 1." + + The figure for Hungary is based on the seven years 1897-1903; that for + the Netherlands, from data by A.J. Monné (69) on the nine years + 1882-1890. The English data, due to R. Lawson (70), are from + twenty-four years, 1857-1880; those for the United States, due to + Henry (68), are for five years, 1896-1900. In comparing these data + allowance must be made for the fact that danger from lightning is much + greater out of doors than in. Thus in Hungary, in 1902 and 1903, out + of 229 persons killed, at least 171 were killed out of doors. Of the + 229 only 67 were women, the only assignable explanation being their + rarer employment in the fields. Thus, _ceteris paribtis_, deaths from + lightning are much more numerous in a country than in an industrial + population. This is well brought out by the low figure for London. It + is also shown conspicuously in figures given by Henry. In New York + State, where the population is largely industrial, the annual deaths + per million are only three, but of the agricultural population eleven. + In states such as Wyoming and the Dakotas the population is largely + rural, and the deaths by lightning rise in consequence. The frequency + and intensity of thunderstorms are unquestionably greater in the Rocky + Mountain than in the New England states, but the difference is not so + great as the statistics at first sight suggest. + + + TABLE XI.--_Annual Variation of Thunderstorms._ + + +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | + +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Ediburgh | 1.8 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 3.8 | 12.3 | 20.8 | 28.2 | 19.1 | 7.0 | 2.3 | 1.1 | 0.8 | + | London | 0.6 | 0.5 | 1.6 | 6.6 | 12.7 | 18.3 | 25.5 | 19.2 | 9.3 | 3.1 | 1.7 | 0.9 | + | Paris | 0.2 | 0.4 | 2.3 | 7.5 | 14.9 | 21.6 | 22.0 | 17.0 | 9.9 | 3.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | + | Netherlands | 2.2 | 1.8 | 3.7 | 6.5 | 14.0 | 14.7 | 15.6 | 14.7 | 10.3 | 10.1 | 3.8 | 2.5 | + | France | 2.2 | 2.8 | 4.1 | 8.4 | 13.8 | 18.7 | 14.6 | 13.5 | 10.0 | 6.3 | 3.1 | 2.4 | + | Switzerland | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 4.9 | 11.9 | 22.9 | 29.9 | 18.0 | 9.8 | 1.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | + | Hungary (a) | 0.0 | 0.1 | 1.6 | 5.7 | 20.9 | 25.0 | 23.2 | 15.9 | 5.7 | 1.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | + | " (b) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.0 | 3.2 | 11.8 | 20.6 | 30.7 | 25.3 | 6.9 | 0.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | + | United States| 0.1 | 0.1 | 1.2 | 4.0 | 14.3 | 25.0 | 27.2 | 20.4 | 5.8 | 1.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | + | Hong-Kong | 0.0 | 2.1 | 4.3 | 8.5 | 12.8 | 23.4 | 14.9 | 21.3 | 10.6 | 2.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | + | Trevandrum | 3.2 | 3.8 | 13.1 | 20.9 | 18.6 | 4.9 | 1.2 | 3.5 | 2.5 | 12.9 | 12.0 | 3.3 | + | Batavia | 10.4 | 9.2 | 11.1 | 10.5 | 7.9 | 5.5 | 4.3 | 3.8 | 5.4 | 8.8 | 12.2 | 10.9 | + +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + 31. Even at the same place thunderstorms vary greatly in intensity and + duration. Also the times of beginning and ending are difficult to + define exactly, so that several elements of uncertainty exist in data + as to the seasonal or diurnal variation. The monthly data in Table XI. + are percentages of the total for the year. In most cases the figures + are based on the number of days of thunder at a particular station, or + at the average station of a country; but the second set for Hungary + relates to the number of lightning strokes causing fire, and the + figures for the United States relate to deaths by lightning. The data + for Edinburgh, due to R.C. Mossman (64), refer to 130 years, 1771 to + 1900. The data for London (1763-1896) are also due to Mossman (65); + for Paris (1873-1893) to Renou (66); for the Netherlands (1882-1900) + to A.J. Monné (69); for France(71) (1886-1899) to Frou and Hann; for + Switzerland to K. Hess (72); for Hungary (67) (1896-1903) to L. von + Szalay and others; for the United States (1890-1900) to A.J. Henry + (68); for Hong-Kong (73) (1894-1903) to W. Doberck. The Trevandrum + (74) data (1853-1864) were due originally to A. Broun; the Batavia + data (1867-1895) are from the Batavia _Observations_, vol. xviii. + + Most stations in the northern hemisphere have a conspicuous maximum at + midsummer with little thunder in winter. Trevandrum (8° 31' N.) and + Batavia (6° 11' S.), especially the former, show a double maximum and + minimum. + + + TABLE XII.--_Diurnal Variation of Thunderstorms._ + + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ + | Hour. | 0-2.| 2-4.| 4-6.| 6-8.|8-10.|10-12.|0'-2'.|2'-4'.|4'-6'.|6'-8'.|8'-10'|10'-12'| + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ + | Finland (76) | 2.3 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 3.0 | 4.6 | 12.1 | 18.9 | 19.2 | 16.1 | 10.1 | 6.1 | 3.4 | + | Edinburgh (64) | 1.7 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 4.7 | 14.2 | 22.4 | 23.7 | 11.9 | 9.2 | 5.1 | 2.0 | + | Belgium (77) | 3.0 | 2.9 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 2.0 | 6.4 | 12.9 | 21.6 | 19.4 | 15.8 | 8.4 | 4.1 | + | Brocken (78) | 1.6 | 2.5 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 4.2 | 3.1 | 12.1 | 28.6 | 22.4 | 10.1 | 7.2 | 5.6 | + | Switzerland (72) | 3.1 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 2.0 | 7.3 | 13.8 | 20.9 | 20.8 | 14.6 | 8.0 | 3.5 | + | Italy (77) | 1.3 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 8.5 | 19.5 | 26.5 | 16.6 | 9.8 | 8.3 | 1.5 | + | Hungary (i.) (67) | 2.1 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 2.1 | 2.9 | 11.5 | 18.1 | 22.0 | 17.9 | 10.7 | 6.2 | 2.8 | + | " (ii.) (67) | 6.9 | 4.2 | 2.3 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 5.0 | 9.9 | 16.9 | 18.2 | 10.7 | 11.7 | 10.0 | + | " (iii.) (75)| 2.3 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 2.4 | 2.7 | 7.9 | 16.1 | 22.1 | 19.1 | 12.7 | 7.6 | 3.2 | + | " (iv.) (75) | 2.6 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 3.6 | 13.3 | 19.9 | 20.7 | 15.2 | 9.2 | 6.2 | 3.3 | + | Trevandrum (74) | 5.6 | 4.9 | 4.3 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 2.0 | 13.3 | 24.5 | 15.9 | 13.3 | 7.6 | 5.9 | + | Agustia (74) | 2.9 | 2.9 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 1.7 | 2.9 | 15.1 | 36.1 | 22.2 | 9.3 | 4.6 | 2.0 | + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ + + 32. _Daily Variation._--The figures in Table XII. are again + percentages. They are mostly based on data as to the hour of + commencement of thunderstorms. Data as to the hour when storms are + most severe would throw the maximum later in the day. This is + illustrated by the first two sets of figures for Hungary (67). The + first set relate as usual to the hour of commencement, the second to + the hours of occurrence of lightning causing fires. Of the two other + sets of figures for Hungary (75), (iii.) relates to the central plain, + (iv.) to the mountainous regions to north and south of this. The hour + of maximum is earlier for the mountains, thunder being more frequent + there than in the plains between 8 A.M. and 4 P.M., but less frequent + between 2 and 10 P.M. Trevandrum (8° 31' N., 76° 59' E., 195 ft. above + sea-level) and Agustia (8° 37' N., 77° 20' E., 6200 ft. above + sea-level) afford a contrast between low ground and high ground in + India. In this instance there seems little difference in the hour of + maximum, the distinguishing feature being the great concentration of + thunderstorm occurrence at Agustia between noon and 6 P.M. + + + TABLE XIII. + + +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+ + | Year.| Netherlands.| France.| Hungary.| U.S.A.| + +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+ + | 1882 | 98 | .. | 141 | .. | + | 1883 | 117 | .. | 195 | .. | + | 1884 | 95 | .. | 229 | .. | + | 1885 | 93 | .. | 192 | .. | + | 1886 | 102 | 251 | 319 | .. | + | 1887 | 78 | 292 | 236 | .. | + | 1888 | 94 | 286 | 232 | .. | + | 1889 | 126 | 294 | 258 | .. | + | 1890 | 93 | 299 | 265 | .. | + | 1891 | 98 | 317 | 302 | 204 | + | 1892 | 86 | 324 | 350 | 251 | + | 1893 | 102 | 288 | 233 | 209 | + | 1894 | 111 | 300 | 333 | 336 | + | 1895 | 119 | 309 | 280 | 426 | + | 1896 | 109 | 266 | 299 | 341 | + | 1897 | 119 | 297 | 350 | 362 | + | 1898 | 95 | 299 | 386 | 367 | + | 1899 | 112 | 299 | 368 | 563 | + | 1900 | 108 | .. | 401 | 713 | + | 1901 | .. | .. | 502 | .. | + | 1902 | .. | .. | 322 | .. | + | 1903 | .. | .. | 256 | .. | + +------+-------------+--------+---------+-------+ + + 33. Table XIII. gives some data as to the variability of thunder from + year to year. The figures for the Netherlands (69) and France (71) are + the number of days when thunder occurred somewhere in the country. Its + larger area and more varied climate give a much larger number of days + of thunder to France. Notwithstanding the proximity of the two + countries, there is not much parallelism between the data. The figures + for Hungary (67) give the number of lightning strokes causing fire; + those for the United States (68) give the number of persons killed by + lightning. The conspicuous maximum in 1901 and great drop in 1902 in + Hungary are also shown by the statistics as to the number of days of + thunder. This number at the average station of the country fell from + 38.4 in 1901 to 23.1 in 1902. On the whole, however, the number of + destructive lightning strokes and of days of thunder do not show a + close parallelism. + + + TABLE XIV. + + +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Decade ending | 1810| 1820| 1830| 1840| 1850| 1860| 1870| 1880| 1890| 1900| + +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Edinburgh | 4.9| 5.7| 7.7| 6.7| 5.7| 6.5| 5.4| 10.6| 9.4| 9.2| + | London | 9.5| 8.3| 11.5| 11.8| 10.5| 11.9| 9.6| 15.7| 13.0| .. | + | Tilsit | .. | .. | 12.5| 12.1| 16.1| 15.3| 11.9| 17.6| 21.8| .. | + | Germany, South | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49 | 66 | 91 | 143 | 175 | + | " West | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 92 | 106 | 187 | 244 | 331 | + | " North | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 124 | 135 | 245 | 288 | 352 | + | " East | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 102 | 143 | 186 | 210 | 273 | + | " Whole | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 90 | 116 | 189 | 254 | 318 | + +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + 34. Table XIV. deals with the variation of thunder over longer + periods. The data for Edinburgh (64) and London (65) due to Mossman, + and those for Tilsit, due to C. Kassner (79), represent the average + number of days of thunder per annum. The data for Germany, due to O. + Steffens (80), represent the average number of houses struck by + lightning in a year per million houses; in the first decade only seven + years (1854-1860) are really included. Mossman thinks that the + apparent increase at Edinburgh and London in the later decades is to + some extent at least real. The two sets of figures show some + corroborative features, notably the low frequency from 1860 to 1870. + The figures for Germany--representing four out of six divisions of + that country--are remarkable. In Germany as a whole, out of a million + houses the number struck per annum was three and a half times as great + in the decade 1890 to 1900 as between 1854 and 1860. Von Bezold (81) + in an earlier memoir presented data analogous to Steffens', seemingly + accepting them as representing a true increase in thunderstorm + destructiveness. Doubts have, however, been expressed by others--e.g. + A. Gockel, _Das Gewitter_, p. 106--as to the real significance of the + figures. Changes in the height or construction of buildings, and a + greater readiness to make claims on insurance offices, may be + contributory causes. + + 35. The fact that a considerable number of people sheltering under + trees are killed by lightning is generally accepted as a convincing + proof of the unwisdom of the proceeding. When there is an option + between a tree and an adjacent house, the latter is doubtless the + safer choice. But when the option is between sheltering under a tree + and remaining in the open it is not so clear. In Hungary (67), during + the three years 1901 to 1903, 15% of the total deaths by lightning + occurred under trees, as against 57% wholly in the open. In the United + States (68) in 1900, only 10% of the deaths where the precise + conditions were ascertained occurred under trees, as against 52% in + the open. If then the risk under trees exceeds that in the open in + Hungary and the United States, at least five or six times as many + people must remain in the open as seek shelter under trees. An + isolated tree occupying an exposed position is, it should be + remembered, much more likely to be struck than the average tree in the + midst of a wood. A good deal also depends on the species of tree. A + good many years' data for Lippe (82) in Germany make the liability to + lightning stroke as follows--the number of each species being supposed + the same:--Oak 57, Fir 39, Pine 5, Beech 1. In Styria, according to K. + Prohaska (83), the species most liable to be struck are oaks, poplars + and pear trees; beech trees again are exceptionally safe. It should, + however, be borne in mind that the apparent differences between + different species may be partly a question of height, exposure or + proximity to water. A good deal may also depend on the soil. According + to Hellmann, as quoted by Henry (82), the liability to lightning + stroke in Germany may be put at chalk 1, clay 7, sand 9, loam 22. + + 36. Numerous attempts have been made to find periodic variations in + thunderstorm frequency. Among the periods suggested are the 11-year + sun-spot period, or half this (cf. v. Szalay (67)). Ekholm and + Arrhenius (84) claim to have established the existence of a tropical + lunar period, and a 25.929-day period; while P. Polis (85) considers a + synodic lunar period probable. A.B. MacDowall (86) and others have + advanced evidence in favour of the view that thunderstorms are most + frequent near new moon and fewest near full moon. Much more evidence + would be required to produce a general acceptance of any of the above + periods. + + 37. _St Elmo's Fire._--Luminous discharges from masts, lightning + conductors, and other pointed objects are not very infrequent, + especially during thunderstorms. On the Sonnblick, where the + phenomenon is common, Elster and Geitel (87) have found St Elmo's fire + to answer to a discharge sometimes of positive sometimes of negative + electricity. The colour and appearance differ in the two cases, red + predominating in a positive, blue in a negative discharge. The + differences characteristic of the two forms of discharge are described + and illustrated in Gockel's _Das Gewitter_. Gockel states (l.c. p. 74) + that during snowfall the sign is positive or negative according as the + flakes are large or are small and powdery. The discharge is not + infrequently accompanied by a sizzling sound. + + 38. Of late years many experiments have been made on the influence of + electric fields or currents on plant growth. S. Lemström (88), who was + a pioneer in this department, found an electric field highly + beneficial in some but not in all cases. Attempts have been made to + apply electricity to agriculture on a commercial scale, but the exact + measure of success attained remains somewhat doubtful. Lemström + believed atmospheric electricity to play an important part in the + natural growth of vegetation, and he assigned a special rôle to the + needles of fir and pine trees. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following abbreviations are here used:--M.Z., + _Meteorologische Zeitschrift_; P.Z., _Physikalische Zeitschrift_; S., + _Sitzungsberichte k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. Naturw. Klasse_, Theil + ii. 2; P.T., "Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London"; + T.M., _Terrestrial Magnetism_, edited by Dr L.A. Bauer. + + Text-books:--(1) G. le Cadet, _Étude du champ électrique de + l'atmosphère_ (Paris, 1898); (2) Svante A. Arrhenius, _Lehrbuch der + kosmischen Physik_ (Leipzig, 1903); (3) A. Gockel, _Das Gewitter_ + (Cologne, 1905). + + Lists of original authorities:--(4) F. Exner, M.Z., vol. 17, 1900, p. + 529 (especially pp. 542-3); (5) G.C. Simpson, _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol. + 31, 1905, p. 295 (especially pp. 305-6). References in the text:--(6) + M.Z., vol. 4, 1887, p. 352; (7) T.M., vol. 4, 1899, p. 213; (8) P.Z., + vol. 4, p. 661; (9) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 114; (10) P.T., vol. 205 + A, 1906, p. 61; (11) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 260; (12) C. Chree, P.T., vol. + 206 A, p. 299; (13) Annual volumes, _Greenwich Magnetical and + Meteorological Observations_; (14) M.Z., vol. 8, 1891, p. 357; (15) + M.Z., vol. 7, 1890, p. 319 and vol. 8, 1891, p. 113; (16) Annual + volumes, _Annaes do Obs. do Infante D. Luiz_; (17) _Annual Reports_, + Central Meteorological Observatory of Japan; (18) _Observations made + at the Mag. and Met. Obs. at Batavia_, vol. 18, 1895; (19) J.D. + Everett, P.T., vol. 158, 1868, p. 347; (20) M.Z., vol. 6, 1889, p. 95; + (21) A.B. Chauveau, _Ann. bureau central météorologique, Paris, année + 1900_, "Mémoires," p. C1; (22) V. Conrad, S., 113, p. 1143; (23) P.B. + Zölss, P.Z., vol. 5, p. 260; (24) T.M., vol. 7, 1902, p. 89; (25) + _Revue générale des sciences_, 1906, p. 442; (26) T.M., vol. 8, 1903, + p. 86. and vol. 9, 1904, p. 147; (27) S., 93, p. 222; (28) M.Z., vol. + 22, 1905, p. 237; (29) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 632; (30) _Phil. Mag._, vol. + 20, 1885, p. 456; (31) _Expédition polaire finlandaise_, vol. 3 + (Helsingfors, 1898); (32) A. Paulsen, _Bull. de l'Acad. ... de + Danemarke_, 1894, p. 148; (33) _Wied. Ann._, vol. 46, 1892, p. 584; + (34) P.T., vol. 191 A, p. 187; (35) M.Z., vol. 5, 1888, p. 95; S., 99, + p. 421; T.M., vol. 4, 1899, p. 15; (36) _Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc._, vol. + 11, p. 428, and vol. 12, pp. 17 and 85; (37) P.Z., vol. 4, pp. 267 and + 873; (38) E.R. v. Schweidler, S., 113, p. 1433; (39) S., 111, July + 1902; (40) _Veröffentl. des Kg. Preuss. Met. Inst._, 1904; (41) P.Z., + vol. 5, p. 106; (42) S., 114, p. 198; (43) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 871; (44) + P.Z., vol. 4, p. 93; (45) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 229; (46) S., 114, + p. 1705; (47) S., 114, p. 399; (48) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 522; (49) S., + 113, p. 1455; (50) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 627; (51) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 90; + (52) S., 114, p. 151; (53) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 253; (54) P.Z., + vol. 5, p. 749; (55) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, pp. 53 and 339; (56) P.Z., + vol. 5, p. 11; (57) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 591; (58) T.M., vol. 9, 1904, p. + 49; (59) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 295; (60) P.Z., vol. 5, p. 504; (61) T.M., + vol. 10, 1905, p. 65; (62) S., 114, p. 1377; (63) _Camb. Phil. Soc. + Proc._, vol. 13, p. 363; (64) _Trans. R.S. Edin._, vol. 39, p. 63, and + vol. 40, p. 484; (65) _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol. 24, 1898, p. 31; (66) + M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 277; (67) _Jahrbücher der Konigl. Ung. + Reichsanstalt für Met. und Erdmag._, vol. 33, 1903, III. Theil with + appendix by L. von Szalay; (68) U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, _Weather + Bureau Bulletin_, No. 30, 1901; (69) M.Z., vol. 19, 1902, p. 297; (70) + _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._, vol. 15, 1889, p. 140; (71) M.Z., vol. 20, 1903, + p. 227; (72) M.Z., vol. 20, 1903, p. 522; (73) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. + 367; (74) M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p. 175; (75) J. Hegyfoky, M.Z., vol. + 20, 1903, p. 218; (76) M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p. 575; (77) S. Arrhenius, + M.Z., vol. 5, 1888, p. 348; (78) G. Hellmann, M.Z., vol. 22, 1905, p. + 223; (79) M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 239; (80) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. + 468; (81) _Berlin Sitz._, 1889, No. 16; (82) A.J. Henry, _U.S. Dept. + of Agriculture Bull._, No. 26, 1899; (83) M.Z., vol. 16, 1899, p. 128; + (84) _K. Sven. Vet. Akad. Hand._, Bd. 19, No. 8, Bd. 20, No. 6, Bd. + 31, Nos. 2 and 3; (85) M.Z., vol. 11, 1894, p. 230; (86) _Nature_, + vol. 65, 1902, p. 367; (87) M.Z., vol. 8, 1891, p. 321; (88) _Brit. + Assoc. Report_ for 1898, p. 808, also _Electricity in Agriculture and + Horticulture_ (London, 1904). (C. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] see _Authorities_ below. + + + + +ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. About 1840-1845 great interest was excited by a +method of propelling railway trains through the agency of atmospheric +pressure. Various inventors worked at the realization of this idea. On +the system worked out in England by Jacob Samuda and S. Clegg, a +continuous pipe or main was laid between the rails, and in it a partial +vacuum was maintained by means of air pumps. A piston fitting closely in +it was connected to the leading vehicle of the train by an iron plate +which passed through a longitudinal groove or aperture running the whole +length of the pipe. This aperture was covered by a valve consisting of a +continuous strip of leather, strengthened on each side with iron plates; +one edge was fastened, while the other was free to rise, and was closed +against a composition of beeswax and tallow placed in the groove, the +surface of which was slightly melted by a heater, carried on each train, +in order to secure an air-tight joint. Connected behind the piston was a +frame carrying four wheels which lifted and sustained the continuous +valve for a distance of about 15 ft. Thus the piston having atmospheric +pressure on one side of it and a vacuum equal to 15 or 16 in. of mercury +on the other, was forced along the tube, taking the train with it. +Various advantages were claimed by the advocates of the system, +including cheapness of operation as compared with steam locomotives, and +safety from collision, because the main was divided into sections by +separating valves and only one train could be in each section at a given +time. It was installed on about 2 m. of line between Kingstown and +Dalkey (Ireland) in 1843 and worked till 1855; it was also tried on the +London and Croydon and on the South Devon lines, but was soon abandoned. +The same principle is applied in the system of pneumatic despatch (q.v.) +to the transmission of small parcels in connexion with postal and +telegraph work. + + For further particulars see three papers by J. Samuda, P.W. Barlow and + G. Berkeley, with reports of the discussions upon them, in _Proc. + Inst. C.E._, 1844 and 1845. + + + + +ATOLL (native name _atollon_ in the Maldive Islands), a horse-shoe or +ring shaped coral reef enclosing a lagoon. The usual shape is that of a +partly submerged dish with a broken edge, forming the ring of islands, +standing upon a conical pedestal. The dish is formed of coral rock and +the shells of various reef-dwelling mollusca, covered, especially at the +seaward edges, with a film of living coral polyps that continually +extend the fringe, and enlarge the diameter of the atoll. The lagoon +tends to deepen when the land is stationary by the death of the coral +animals in the still water, and the patchy disintegration of the "hard" +coral, while waves and storms tear off blocks of rock and pile them up +at the margin, increasing the height of the islands, which become +covered by vegetation. The lagoon entrance in the open part of the +horse-shoe is always to leeward of prevailing winds, since the coral +growth is there slower than where the waves constantly renew the polyps' +food supply. The conical pedestal rising from the depths is frequently a +submarine volcanic cone or island, though any submerged peak may be +crowned by an atoll. For the theory of atoll formation see CORAL-REEFS. + + + + +ATOM + + Theories of matter. + +(Gr. [Greek: atomos], indivisible, from [Greek: a-] privative, and +[Greek: temnein], to cut), the term given in physical science to the +ultimate indivisible particle of matter, and so by analogy to something +minutely small in size. If we examine such a substance as sugar we find +that it can be broken up into fine grains, and these again into finer, +the finest particles still appearing to be of the same nature as sugar. +The same is true in the case of a liquid such as water; it can be +divided into drops and these again into smaller drops, or into the +finest spray the particles of which are too small to be detected by our +unaided vision. In fact, so far as the direct evidence of our senses +tells us, matter appears to be indefinitely divisible. Moreover, small +particles do not seem to exist in the water until it is broken up; so +far as we can see, the material of the water is continuous not granular. +This conception of matter, _as infinitely divisible and continuous_, was +taught by Anaxagoras more than four centuries before the Christian era, +and in the philosophy of Aristotle the same ideas are found. But some +phenomena are difficult to reconcile with this view; for example, a +cubic foot of air can be compressed into less than one five-hundredth of +a cubic foot, or, if allowed to expand, the air originally occupying the +cubic foot can be made to fill, apparently uniformly, a space of a +million cubic feet or more. This enormous capacity for expansion and +contraction is astonishing if we believe matter to be continuous, but if +we imagine air to be made up of little particles separated by relatively +large empty spaces the changes in volume are more easily conceivable. +Moreover, if we attribute such a structure to gases, we are led to +attribute it to liquids and to solids also, since gases can be liquefied +without any abrupt change, and many substances usually solid can be +converted into gases by heating them. This conception of the _grained_ +structure of matter is very ancient; traces of it are to be found in +Indian philosophy, perhaps twelve centuries before the Christian era, +and the Greek philosophers Democritus and Epicurus, in the 3rd and 4th +centuries B.C., taught it very definitely. Their view was that "matter +is not indefinitely divisible, but that all substances are formed of +indivisible particles or atoms which are eternal and unchangeable, that +the atoms are separated from one another by void, and that these atoms, +by their combinations, form the matter we are conscious of." The Roman +poet Lucretius (_De Rerum Natura_) was an eloquent exponent of this +theory, but throughout the middle ages, indeed until the 17th century, +it was eclipsed by the prestige of Aristotle. In the time, however, of +Boyle[1] and Newton, we again find an atomic theory of matter; Newton[2] +regarded a gas as consisting of small separate particles which repelled +one another, the tendency of a gas to expand being attributed to the +supposed repulsion between the particles. + +Let us consider some common phenomena in the light of these rival +theories as to the nature of matter. When a few lumps of sugar are added +to a glass of water and stirred, the sugar soon disappears and we are +left with a uniform liquid resembling water, except that it is sweet. +What has become of the sugar? Does it still exist? The atomist would +say, "Yes, it is broken up into its atoms, and these are distributed +throughout the spaces between the particles of water." The rival +philosopher, who believes water to be continuous and without spaces +between its particles, has a greater difficulty in accounting for the +disappearance of the sugar; he would probably say that the sugar, and +the water also, had ceased to exist, and that a new continuous substance +had been formed from them, but he could offer no picture of how this +change had taken place. Or consider a well-marked case of what we are in +the habit of calling _chemical combination_. If 127 parts of iodine, +which is an almost black solid, and 100 parts of mercury, which is a +white liquid metal, be intimately mixed by rubbing them together in a +mortar, the two substances wholly disappear, and we obtain instead a +brilliant red powder quite unlike the iodine or the mercury; almost the +only property that is unchanged is the weight. The question again +arises, what has become of the original substances? The atomist has an +easy answer; he says that the new body is made up by the juxtaposition +of the atoms of iodine and mercury, which still exist in the red powder. +His opponent would be disposed to say that the iodine and the mercury +ceased to exist when the red powder was formed, that they were +_components_ but not _constituents_ of it. The fact that the two +components can be recovered from the compound by destroying it does not +decide the question. It is remarkable that pure chemistry, even to-day, +has no very conclusive arguments for the settlement of this controversy; +but the sister science of physics is steadily accumulating evidence in +favour of the atomic conception. + +[Illustation: From Dalton's _New System of Chemical Philosophy_.] + + Hydrogen Gas. + Nitrous Gas. + Carbonic Acid Gas.] + +[Illustation: + + (·) hydrogen. + ( ) oxygen. + (|) nitrogen. + (O) carbon. + (·)( ) water. + (·)(|) ammonia. + (·)(O) ethylene. + (O)( ) carbon monoxide. + ( )(O)( ) carbon dioxide. + (|)( ) nitric oxide (nitous gas). + (|)( )(|) nitrous oxide. + ( )(|)( ) nitrogen peroxide.] + + + Dalton. + +Until the time of John Dalton, the atomic conception remained purely +qualitative, and until then it does not appear to have advanced +chemistry or to have found further confirmation in the facts of +chemistry. Dalton (1803) gave the atomic theory a quantitative form, and +showed that, by means of it, a vast number of the facts of chemistry +could be predicted or explained. In fact, he did so much to make the +atomic theory of matter probable that he is popularly regarded as its +originator. Dalton lived in a period marked by great advances in +experimental chemistry. Rather before the commencement of the 19th +century the work of Lavoisier had rendered it very probable that +chemical changes are not accompanied by any change in weight, and this +principle of the conservation of matter was becoming universally +accepted; chemists were also acquiring considerable skill in chemical +analysis, that is, in the determination of the nature and relative +amounts of the elements contained in compounds. But Sir H.E. Roscoe and +A. Harden, _New View of the Atomic Theory_ (1896), have shown, from a +study of Dalton's manuscript notes, that we do not owe his atomic theory +to such experiments. If their view is correct, the theory appears to be +a remarkable example of deductive reasoning. Dalton, who was a +mathematical physicist even more than a chemist, had given much thought +to the study of gases. Following Newton, he believed a gas to be made up +of particles or atoms, separated from one another by considerable +spaces. Certain difficulties that he met with in his speculations led +him to the conclusion that the particles of any one kind of gas, though +all of them alike, must differ from those of another gas both in _size_ +and _weight_. He thus arrived at the conception of a definite atomic +weight peculiar to the particles of each gas, and he thought that he +could determine these atomic weights, in terms of one of them, by means +of the quantitative analysis of compounds. The conclusion that each +element had a definite atomic weight, peculiar to it, was the new idea +that made his speculations fruitful, because it allowed of quantitative +deduction and verification. He drew simple diagrams, three of which, +taken from Dalton's _New System of Chemical Philosophy_, part ii. +(1810), are reproduced here, in which gases are represented as composed +of atoms. Knowing that the gas which he called "nitrous gas" was +composed of oxygen and nitrogen, and believing it to be the simplest +compound of these two elements, he naturally represented its atom as +formed of an atom of oxygen and an atom of nitrogen in juxtaposition. +When two elements form more than one compound, as is the case with +oxygen and carbon, he assigned to the compound which he thought the more +complex an atom made up of two atoms of the one element and one atom of +the other; the diagram for carbonic acid illustrates this, and an +extension of the same plan enabled him to represent any compound, +however complex its structure. The table here given contains some of +Dalton's diagrams of atoms. They are not all considered to be correct at +the present time; for example, we now think that the ultimate particle +of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, and that +that of ammonia contains three atoms of hydrogen to one of nitrogen. But +these differences between Dalton's views and our present ones do not +impair the accuracy of the arguments which follow. The diagrams show +that Dalton formed a very definite conception of the nature of chemical +combination; it was the union of a small number of atoms of one kind +with a small number of another kind to form a compound atom, or as we +now say a "molecule," this identical process being repeated millions of +times to form a perceptible amount of a compound. The conceptions of +"element," "compound" and "mixture" became more precise than they had +been hitherto; in an element all the atoms are alike, in a compound all +the molecules are alike, in a mixture there are different kinds of +molecules. If we accept the hypothesis that each kind of atom has a +specific and invariable weight, we can, with the aid of the above +theory, make most important inferences concerning the proportions by +weight in which substances combine to form compounds. These inferences +are often summarized as the laws of _constant, multiple and reciprocal +proportions_. + + + Law of constant proportions. + +The law of _constant proportions_ asserts that _when two elements unite +to form a compound the weights that combine are in an invariable ratio, +a ratio that is characteristic of that compound._ Thus if Dalton's +diagram for the molecule, or compound atom, of water be correct, it +follows that in all samples of water the total number of the hydrogen +atoms is equal to that of the oxygen atoms; consequently, the ratio of +the weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen in water is the same as the +ratio of the weights of an oxygen and a hydrogen atom, and _this is +invariable_. Different samples of water cannot therefore differ ever so +little in percentage composition, and the same must be true for every +compound as distinguished from a mixture. Apart from the atomic theory +there is no obvious reason why this should be so. We give the name bread +to a substance containing variable proportions of flour and water. +Similarly the substance we call wine is undeniably variable in +composition. Why should not the substance we call water also vary more +or less? The Aristotelian would find no difficulty in such a +variability; it is only the disciple of Dalton to whom it seems +impossible. It is evident that we have in this law a definite prediction +that can be tested by experiment. + + + Law of multiple proportions. + +The law of _multiple proportions_ asserts that _if two elements form +more than one compound, then the weights of the one element which are +found combined with unit weight of the other in the different compounds, +must be in the ratio of two or more whole numbers._ If we compare +Dalton's diagrams of the two oxides of carbon or of the three oxides of +nitrogen that are given in the preceding table, we at once see the +necessity of this law; for the more complex molecule has to be formed +from the simpler one by the addition of one or more whole atoms. In the +oxides of carbon the same weight of carbon must be combined with weights +of oxygen that are as 1 : 2, and in the oxides of nitrogen a fixed +weight of nitrogen must be in union with weights of oxygen that are as 1 +: 2 : ½, which are the same ratios as 2 : 4 : 1. This law has been +abundantly verified by experiment; for example, five oxides of nitrogen +are known, and independent analyses show that, if we consider the same +weight of nitrogen in every case, the weights of oxygen combined with it +are to one another as 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5. The discovery of this law is +due to Dalton; it is a direct deduction from his atomic theory. Here +again, apart from this theory, there is no obvious reason why the +composition of different substances should be related in so simple a +way. As Dalton said, "The doctrine of definite proportions appears +mysterious unless we adopt the atomic hypothesis." "It appears like the +mystical ratios of Kepler which Newton so happily elucidated." The +chemists of Dalton's time were not unanimous in accepting these laws; +indeed C.L. Berthollet (_Essai de statique chimique_, 1803) expressly +controverted them. He maintained that, under varying conditions, two +substances could combine in an indefinitely large number of different +ratios, that there could in fact be a continuous variation in the +combining ratio. This view is clearly inconsistent with the atomic +theory, which requires that when the combining ratio of two substances +changes it should do so, _per saltum_, to quite another value. + + + Law of reciprocal proportions. + +The law of _reciprocal proportions_, or, as it might well be named, the +law of _equivalence_, cannot be adequately enunciated in a few words. +The following gives a partial statement of it. _If we know the weights a +and b of two elements that are found in union with unit weight of a +third element, then we can predict the composition of the compounds +which the first two elements can form with each other; either the +weights a and b will combine exactly, or if not, these weights must be +multiplied by integers to obtain the composition of a compound._ To see +how this law follows from Dalton's theory let us consider his diagrams +for the molecules of water, ethylene and the oxides of carbon. In water +and in ethylene experiment shows that 8 parts by weight of oxygen and 6 +parts of carbon, respectively, are in union with one part of hydrogen; +also, if the diagrams are correct, these numbers must be in the ratio of +the atomic weights of oxygen and carbon. We can therefore predict that +all oxides of carbon will have compositions represented by the ratio of +8m parts of oxygen to 6n parts of carbon, where m and n are whole +numbers. This prediction is verified by the result of analysis. +Similarly, if we know by experiment the composition of water and of +ammonia, we can predict the probable composition of the oxides of +nitrogen. Experiment shows that, in water and ammonia, we have, +respectively, 8 parts of oxygen and 4.67 parts of nitrogen in union with +one part of hydrogen; we can therefore infer that the oxides of nitrogen +will all have the composition of 8m parts of oxygen to 4.67n parts of +nitrogen. Experiment alone can tell us the values of m and n; all that +the theory tells us is that they are whole numbers. In this particular +case, n turns out to be 3, and m has in succession the values 1, 2, 3, +4, 5. + +It is evident that these laws all follow from the idea that a compound +molecule can only alter through the addition or subtraction of one or +more complete atoms, together with the idea that all the molecules in a +pure substance are alike. Fortunately, the compounds at first examined +by the chemists engaged in verifying these laws were comparatively +simple, so that the whole numbers referred to above were small. The +astonishing variety of ratios in which carbon and hydrogen combine was +not at first realized. Otherwise Berthollet's position would have been a +much stronger one, and the atomic theory might have had to wait a long +while for acceptance. Even at the present time, it would be too much to +say that all the complex organic substances have been proved by analysis +to obey these laws; all we can assert is that their composition and +properties can be satisfactorily explained on the assumption that they +do so. + +The above statement does not by any means exhaust the possible +predictions that can be made from the atomic theory, but it shows how to +test the theory. If chemical compounds can be proved by experiment to +obey these laws, then the atomic theory acquires a high degree of +probability; if they are contradicted by experiment then the atomic +theory must be abandoned, or very much modified. Dalton himself made +many analyses with the purpose of establishing his views, but his skill +as an analyst was not very great. It is in the work of the great Swedish +chemist J.J. Berzelius, and somewhat later, in the experiments of the +Belgian chemist J.S. Stas, that we find the most brilliant and vigorous +verification of these laws, and therefore of the atomic theory. + +We shall now give an outline of the experimental evidence for the truth +of these laws. + + + Experimental evidence. + +The law of the conservation of matter, an important element in the +atomic theory, has been roughly verified by innumerable analyses, in +which, a given weight of a substance having been taken, each ingredient +in it is isolated and its weight separately determined; the total weight +of the ingredients is always found to be very nearly equal to the weight +of the original substance. But on account of experimental errors in +weighing and measuring, and through loss of material in the transfer of +substances from one vessel to another, such analyses are rarely +trustworthy to more than one part in about 500; so that small changes in +weight consequent on the chemical change could not with certainty be +proved or disproved. A few experimenters have carried the verification +much further. Stas, in his syntheses of silver iodide, weighed the +silver and the iodine separately, and after converting them into the +compound he weighed this also. In each of a number of experiments he +found that the weight of the silver iodide did not differ by one +twenty-thousandth of the whole from the sum of the weights of the silver +and the iodine used. His analyses of another compound, silver iodate, +confirm the law to one part in 78,000. In E.W. Morley's experiments on +the synthesis of water the hydrogen, the oxygen and the water that had +been formed were separately determined; taking the mean of his results, +the sum of the weights of the ingredients is not found to differ from +the weight of the product by one part in 10,000. It is evident that if +our experiments are solely directed to the verification of this law, +they should, if possible, be carried out in a hermetically closed +vessel, the vessel and its contents being weighed before and after the +chemical change. The extremely careful experiments of this kind, by H. +Landolt and others, made it at first appear that the change in weight, +if there is any, consequent on a chemical change can rarely exceed +one-millionth of the weight of the reacting substances, and that it must +often be much less. The small discrepancies found are so easily +accounted for by attributing them to experimental errors that, until +recently, every chemist would have regarded the law as sufficiently +verified. Landolt's subsequent experiments showed, what was already +noticed in the earlier ones, that these minute changes in weight are +nearly always losses, the products weigh less than the components, while +if they had been purely experimental errors, due to weighing, they might +have been expected to be as frequently gains as losses. Landolt was +disposed to attribute these losses in weight to the containing vessel, +which was of glass or quartz, not being absolutely impervious, but in +1908 he showed that, by making allowance for the moisture adsorbed on +the vessel, the errors were both positive and negative, and were less +than one in ten million. He concluded that _no change of weight can be +detected._ Modern researches (see RADIOACTIVITY) on the complex nature +of the atom have a little shaken the belief in the absolute permanence +of matter. But it seems pretty clear that if there is any change in +weight consequent on chemical change, it is _too minute to be of +importance to the chemist_, though the methods of modern physics may +settle the question. (See ELEMENT.) + +The law of constant proportions is easily verified to a moderate degree +of accuracy by such experiments as the following. We can prepare, in the +laboratory, a white powder that proves to be calcium carbonate, that is, +it appears to be wholly composed of carbon dioxide and lime. We find in +nature two other unlike substances, marble and Iceland spar, each of +which is wholly composed of carbon dioxide and lime. Thus these three +substances, unlike in appearance and origin, are composed of the same +ingredients: if small variations in the combining ratio of the +components were possible, we might expect to find them in such a case as +this. But analysis has failed to find such differences; the ratio of the +weights of lime and carbon dioxide is found to be the same in all three +substances. Such analyses, which do not always admit of great accuracy, +have been confirmed by a few carefully planned experiments in which two +components were brought together under very varied conditions, and the +resulting compound analysed. Stas carried out such experiments on the +composition of silver chloride and of ammonium chloride, but he never +found a variation of one part in 10,000 in the composition of the +substances. + +The two laws discussed above were more or less accepted before the +promulgation of the atomic theory, but the law of multiple proportions +is the legitimate offspring of this theory. Berzelius saw at once that +it afforded an admirable test for the correctness of Dalton's views, and +he made numerous experiments expressly designed to test the law. One of +these experiments may be described. Two chlorides of copper are known, +one a highly coloured substance, the other quite white. Berzelius took 8 +grams of copper, converted it into the coloured chloride, and sealed up +the whole of this in solution, together with a weighed strip of copper. +After some time the colour entirely disappeared; the strip of copper was +then taken out and reweighed, and it was found to have lost 8.03 grams. +Thus the chlorine, which in the coloured compound was in union with 8 +grams of copper, appears, in the colourless chloride, to be combined +with 16.03 grams, or almost exactly double the amount. It is easy to +verify this result. In a series of repetitions of the experiment, by +different observers, the following numbers were obtained for the ratio +of the copper in the two chlorides: 1.98, 1.97, 2.03, 2.003, the mean +value being 1.996. It will be noticed that the ratio found is sometimes +above and sometimes below the number 2, which is required by the atomic +theory, and therefore the deviations may not unreasonably be attributed +to experimental errors. Such experiments--and numerous ones of about +this degree of accuracy have been made on a variety of substances--give +a high degree of probability to the law, but leave it an open question +whether it has the exactitude of the law of the conservation of matter, +or whether it is only approximately true. The question is, however, +vital to the atomic theory. It is, therefore, worth while to quote a +verification of great exactitude from the work of Stas and J.B.A. +Dumas[3] on the composition of the two oxides of carbon. From their work +it follows that the ratio of the weights of oxygen combined with unit +weight of carbon in the two oxides is 1.99995, or with somewhat +different data, 1.9996. + +The law of reciprocal proportion, of which some examples have been +already given, is part of a larger law of equivalence that underlies +most of our chemical methods and calculations. One section of the law +expresses the fact that the weights of two substances, not necessarily +elements, that are equivalent in one reaction, are often found to be +equivalent in a number of other reactions. The neutralization of acids +by bases affords many illustrations, known even before the atomic +theory, of the truth of the statement. It is universally found that the +weights of two bases which neutralize the same weight of one acid are +equivalent in their power of neutralizing other acids. Thus 5 parts by +weight of soda, 7 of potash and 3.5 of quicklime will each neutralize +4.56 parts of hydrochloric acid or 7.875 of nitric or 6.125 parts of +sulphuric acid; these weights, in fact, are mutually equivalent to one +another. The Daltonian would say that each of these weights represents a +certain group of atoms, and that these groups can replace, or combine +with, each other, to form new molecules. The change from a binary +compound, that is, one containing two elements, to a ternary compound in +which these two elements are associated with a third, sometimes affords +a very good test for the theory. The atomic theory can picture the +change from the binary to the ternary compound simply as the addition of +one or more atoms of the third element to the previously existing +molecule; in such a case the combining ratio of the first two elements +should be absolutely the same in both compounds. Berzelius tested this +prediction. He showed that lead sulphide, a black substance containing +only lead and sulphur, could be _converted_ by oxidation into lead +sulphate, a white compound containing oxygen as well as lead and +sulphur. The whole of the lead and sulphur of the sulphide was found to +be present in the sulphate; in other words, the combining ratio of the +lead and sulphur was not altered by the addition of the oxygen. This is +found to be a general rule. It was verified very exactly by Stas's +experiments, in which he removed the oxygen from the ternary compound +silver iodate and found that the whole of the silver and the iodine +remained in combination with each other as silver iodide; his results +prove, to one part in ten millions, that the combining ratio of the +silver and the iodine is unaltered by the removal of the oxygen. + +The above gives some idea of the evidence that has been accumulated in +favour of the laws of chemical combination, laws which can be deduced +from the atomic theory. Whenever any of these laws, or indeed any +prediction from the theory, can be tested it has so far proved to be in +harmony with experiment. The existence of the periodic law (see +ELEMENT), and the researches of physicists on the constitution of +matter (q.v.), also furnish very strong support to the theory. + + + Atomic weight. + +Dalton was of the opinion that it was possible to determine the weights +of the elementary atoms in terms of any one by the analysis of +compounds. It is evident that this is practicable if the number and kind +of atoms contained in the molecule of a compound can be determined. To +take the simplest possible case, if Dalton had been correct in assuming +that the molecule of water was made up of one atom of oxygen and one of +hydrogen, then the experimental fact that water contains eight parts by +weight of oxygen to one part of hydrogen, would at once show that the +atom of oxygen is eight times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen, or that, +taking the atomic weight of hydrogen as the unit, the atomic weight of +oxygen is 8. Similarly, Dalton's diagram for ammonia, together with the +fact that ammonia contains 4.67 parts of nitrogen to one of hydrogen, at +once leads to the conclusion that the atomic weight of nitrogen is 4.67. +But, unfortunately, the assumption as to the number of atoms in the +molecules of these two compounds was an arbitrary one, based on no valid +evidence. It is now agreed that the molecule of water contains two atoms +of hydrogen and one of oxygen, so that the atomic weight of oxygen +becomes 16, and similarly that the molecule of ammonia contains three +atoms of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, and that consequently the atomic +weight of nitrogen is 14. On account of this difficulty, the atomic +weights published by Dalton, and the more accurate ones of Berzelius, +were not always identical with the values now accepted, but were often +simple multiples or submultiples of these. + + + Formulae. + +The "symbols" for the elements used by Dalton, apparently suggested by +those of the alchemists, have been rejected in favour of those which +were introduced by Berzelius. The latter employed the first letter, or +the first two letters, of the name of an element as its symbol. The +symbol, like that of Dalton, always stands for the atomic weight of the +element, that is, while H stands for one part by weight of hydrogen, O +stands for 16 parts of oxygen, and so on. The symbols of compounds +become very concise, as the number of atoms of one kind in a molecule +can be expressed by a sub-index. Thus the symbol or formula H2O for +water expresses the view that the molecule of water consists of one atom +of oxygen and two of hydrogen; and if we know the atomic weights of +oxygen and hydrogen, it also tells us the composition of water by +weight. Similarly, the modern formula for ammonia is NH3. + +The superiority of this notation over that of Dalton is not so obvious +when we consider such simple cases as the above, but chemists are now +acquainted with very complex molecules containing numerous atoms; cane +sugar, for example, has the formula C12H22O11. It would be a serious +business to draw a Daltonian diagram for such a molecule. + +Dalton believed that the molecules of the elementary gases consisted +each of one atom; his diagram for hydrogen gas makes the point clear. We +now believe that the molecule of an element is frequently made up of two +or more atoms; thus the formulae for the gases hydrogen, oxygen and +nitrogen are H2, O2, N2, while gaseous phosphorus and sulphur are +probably P4 and S6, and gaseous mercury is Hg1,--that is, the molecule +of this element is monatomic. This view, as to the frequently complex +nature of the elementary molecule, is logically and historically +connected with the striking hypothesis of Amadeo Avogadro and A.M. +Ampère. These natural philosophers suggested that equal volumes of all +gaseous substances must contain, at the same temperature and pressure, +the same number of molecules. Their hypothesis explains so many facts +that it is now considered to be as well established as the parts of the +theory due to Dalton.[4] This principle at once enables the weights of +molecules to be compared even when their composition is unknown; it is +only necessary to determine the specific gravities of the various gases +referred to some one of them, say hydrogen; the numbers so obtained +giving the weights of the molecules referred to that of the hydrogen +molecule. + + + Present position of the atomic theory. + +The atomic theory has been of priceless value to chemists, but it has +more than once happened in the history of science that a hypothesis, +after having been useful in the discovery and the co-ordination of +knowledge, has been abandoned and replaced by one more in harmony with +later discoveries. Some distinguished chemists have thought that this +fate may be awaiting the atomic theory, and that in future chemists may +be able to obtain all the guidance they need from the science of the +transformations of energy. But modern discoveries in radioactivity[5] +are in favour of the existence of the atom, although they lead to the +belief that the atom is not so eternal and unchangeable a thing as +Dalton and his predecessors imagined, and in fact, that the atom itself +may be subject to that eternal law of growth and decay of which +Lucretius speaks. (F. H. Ne.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Robert Boyle, _The Sceptical Chymist_ (1661); _The Usefulness of + Natural Philosophy_ (1663). + + [2] Sir Isaac Newton, _Principia_, bk. ii. prop. 23. + + [3] Freund, _The Study of Chemical Composition_. + + [4] It will be seen that in the three gas diagrams of Dalton that are + reproduced above, equal numbers of molecules are contained in equal + volumes, but if Dalton held this view at one time he certainly + afterwards abandoned it. + + [5] Rutherford, _Radioactivity_. + + + + +ATONEMENT and DAY OF ATONEMENT. + + The religious doctrine. + +"Atone" (originally--see below--"at one") and "atonement" terms +ordinarily used as practically synonymous with satisfaction, reparation, +compensation, with a view to reconciliation. As the English technical +terms representing a theological doctrine which plays an important part +not only in Christianity but in most religions, the underlying ideas +require more detailed analysis. A doctrine of atonement makes the +following presuppositions. (a) There is a natural relation between God +and man in which God looks favourably upon man. (b) This relation has +been disturbed so that God regards man's character and conduct with +disapproval, and inflicts suffering upon him by way of punishment. In +the higher religions the disturbance is due, as just implied, to +unsatisfactory conduct on man's part, i.e. sin. (c) The normal +relation may be restored, i.e. sin may be forgiven; and this +restoration is the atonement. + +The problem of the atonement is the means or condition of the +restoration of man to God's favour; this has been variously found (a) in +the endurance of punishment; (b) in the payment of compensation for the +wrong done, the compensation consisting of sacrifices and other +offerings; (c) in the performance of magical or other ritual, the +efficacy of the ritual consisting in its being pleasing to or appointed +by God, or even in its having a coercive power over the deity; (d) in +repentance and amendment of life. Most theories of atonement would +combine two or more of these, and would include repentance and +amendment. Some or all of the conditions of atonement may be fulfilled, +according to various views, either by the sinner or vicariously on his +behalf by some kinsman; or by his family, clan or nation; or by some one +else. + + + Old Testament. + +In the Old Testament, "atonement," "make an atonement" represent the +Hebrew _kippur_ and its derivatives. It is doubtful whether this root +meant originally to "cover" or "wipe out"; but probably it is used as a +technical term without any consciousness of its etymology. The Old +Testament presents very varied teaching on this subject without +attempting to co-ordinate its doctrines in a harmonious system. In some +cases there is no suggestion of any forgiveness; sinners are "cut off" +from the chosen people; individuals and nations perish in their +iniquity.[1] Some passages refer exclusively to the endurance of +punishment as a condition of pardon;[2] others to the penitence and +amendment of the sinner.[3] In Ezekiel xxxvi. 25-31, repentance is +called forth by the divine forgiveness. + +Sacrifice and other rites are also spoken of as conditions of the +restoration of man to happy relations with God. The Priestly Code +(Leviticus and allied passages) seems to confine the efficacy of +sacrifice to ritual, venial and involuntary sins,[4] and requires that +the sacrifices should be offered at Jerusalem by the Aaronic priests; +but these limitations did not belong to the older religion; and even in +later times popular faith ascribed a larger efficacy to sacrifice. On +the other hand, other passages protest against the ascription of great +importance to sacrifice; or regard the rite as a consequence rather than +a cause of forgiveness.[5] The Old Testament has no theory of sacrifice; +in connexion with sin the sacrifice was popularly regarded as payment of +penalty or compensation. Lev. xvii. 11 suggests a mystic or symbolic +explanation by its statement "the life of the flesh is in the blood; and +I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your +lives:[6] for it is the blood that maketh atonement by reason of the +life." The Old Testament nowhere explains why this importance is +attached to the blood, but the passage is often held to mean that the +life of the victim represented the forfeited life of the offerer. + + + Jewish day of atonement. + +The atoning ritual reached its climax on the Day of Atonement [Hebrew: +yom hakipurim] [Greek: aemera exilasmon], in the Mishna simply "the +Day," (_Yoma_), observed annually on the 10th day of the 7th month +(Tisri), in the autumn, about October, shortly before the Feast of +Tabernacles or vintage festival. At one time the year began in Tisri. +The laws of the Day of Atonement belong to the Priestly Code.[7] There +is no trace of this function before the exile; the earliest reference to +any such special time of atonement being the proposal of Ezek. xlv. +18-20 to establish two days of atonement, in the first and seventh +months.[8] No doubt, however, both the principles and ritual are partly +derived from earlier times. The object of the observances was to cleanse +the sanctuary, the priesthood and the people from all their sins, and to +renew and maintain favourable relations between Yahweh and Israel. The +ritual includes features found on other holy days, sacrifices, +abstinence from work, &c.; and also certain unique acts. The Day of +Atonement is the only fast provided in the Law; it is only on this +occasion that (a) the Jews are required to "afflict their souls," (b) +the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies, (c) the High Priest offers +incense before the mercy seat and sprinkles it with blood, and (d) the +scapegoat or Azazel is sent away into the wilderness, bearing upon him +all the iniquities of the people. In later Judaism, especially from +about 100 B.C., great stress was laid on the Day of Atonement, and it is +now the most important religious function of the Jews. On that day many +attend the synagogues who are seldom or never seen in them at other +times. + +The idea of vicarious atonement appears in the Old Testament in +different forms. The nation suffers for the sin of the individual;[9] +and the individual for the sin of his kinsfolk[10] or of the nation.[11] +Above all the Servant of Yahweh[12] appears as atoning for sinners by +his sufferings and death. Again, the Old Testament speaks of the +restoration of heathen nations, and of the salvation of the heathen;[13] +but does not formulate any theory of atonement in this connexion. The +Old Testament, however, only prepares the way for the Christian doctrine +of the atonement; this is clear, inasmuch as its teaching is largely +concerned with the nation, and hardly touches on the future life. +Moreover, it could not define the relation of Christ to the atonement. +Later Judaism emphasized the idea of vicarious atonement for Israel +through the sufferings of the righteous, especially the martyrs; but it +is very doubtful whether the idea of the atonement through the death of +the Messiah is a pre-Christian Jewish doctrine.[14] + + + New Testament. + +In the New Testament, the English version uses "atonement" once, Rom. v. +11, for [Greek: katallagae] (R.V. here and elsewhere "reconciliation"). +This Greek word corresponds to the idea suggested by the etymology of +at-one-ment, the re-uniting in amity of those at variance, a sense which +the word had in the 17th century but has since lost. But the idea which +is now usually expressed by "atonement" is rather represented in the New +Testament by [Greek: ilasmos] and its cognates, e.g. 1 John ii. 2 R.V., +"He (Jesus) is the propitiation ([Greek: ilasmos]) for our sins." But +these words are rare, and we read more often of "salvation" ([Greek: +sotaeria]) and "being saved," which includes or involves that +restoration to divine favour which is called atonement. The leading +varieties of teaching, the Sayings of Jesus, Paul, the Johannine +writings, the Epistle to the Hebrews, connect the atonement with Christ +especially with His death, and associate it with faith in Him and with +repentance and amendment of life.[15] + +These ideas are also common to Christian teaching generally. The New +Testament, however, does not indicate that its writers were agreed as to +any formal dogma of the atonement, as regards the relation of the death +of Christ to the sinner's restoration to God's favour; but various +suggestions are made as to the solution of the problem. St Paul's +teaching connects with the Jewish doctrine of vicarious suffering, +represented in the Old Testament by Is. liii., and probably, though not +expressly, with the ritual sacrifices. Christ suffering on behalf of +sinners satisfies the divine righteousness, which was outraged by their +sin.[16] His work is an expression of God's love to man;[17] the +redeeming power of Christ's death is also explained by his solidarity +with humanity as the second Adam,[18]--the redeemed sinner has "died +with Christ."[19] Some atoning virtue seems also attributed to the +Resurrection;[20] Christ's sayings connect admission to the kingdom of +God with susceptibility to the influence of His personality, faith in +Himself and His mission, and the loyalty that springs from faith.[21] In +John, Christ is a "propitiation" ([Greek: ilasmos]) provided by the love +of God that man may be cleansed from sin; He is also their advocate +([Greek: Paraklaetos]) with God that they may be forgiven, for His +name's sake.[22] _Hebrews_ speaks of Christ as transcending the rites +and officials of the law; He accomplishes the realities which they could +only foreshadow; in relation to the perfect, heavenly sacrifice which +atones for sin, He is both priest and victim.[23] + + + Later interpretation. + +The subsequent development of the Christian doctrine has chiefly shaped +itself according to the Pauline formula of vicarious atonement; the +sufferings of Christ were accepted as a substitute for the punishment +which men deserved, and so the divine righteousness was satisfied--a +formula, however, which left much room for controversy. The creeds and +confessions are usually vague. Thus the Apostles' Creed, "I believe in +the forgiveness of sins"; the Nicene Creed, "I believe in one Lord Jesus +Christ ... who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven +... I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins"; the Athanasian +Creed, "Who (Christ) suffered for our salvation." In the Thirty-nine +Articles of the Church of England we have (ii.) "Christ suffered ... to +reconcile his Father to us, and to be a sacrifice, not only for original +guilt, but also for all actual sins of men"; and (xxxi.) "The offering +of Christ once made is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and +satisfaction, for all the sins of the whole world." The council of Trent +declared that "_Christus ... nobis sua sanctissima passione ligno crucis +justificationem meruit et pro nobis deo patri satisfecit_," "Christ +earned our justification by His most holy passion and satisfied God the +Father for us." The Confession of Augsburg uses words equivalent to the +Articles quoted above which were based upon it. The Westminster +Confession declares: "The Lord Jesus Christ, by His perfect obedience +and sacrifice of Himself, which He through the Eternal Spirit once +offered up to God, hath fully satisfied the justice of His Father, and +purchased not only reconciliation, but an everlasting inheritance in the +kingdom of heaven, for all those whom the Father hath given unto Him." + +Individual theologians have sought to define more exactly the points on +which the standards are vague. For instance, how was justice satisfied +by Christ? The early Fathers, from Irenaeus (d. c. 200) to Anselm (d. +1109),[24] held, _inter alia_, that Christ paid a ransom to Satan to +induce him to release men from his power. Anselm and the scholastics +regarded the atonement as an offering to God of such infinite value as +to outweigh men's sins, a view sometimes styled the "Commerical +Theory."[25] The leading reformers emphasized the idea that Christ bore +the punishment of sin, sufferings equivalent to the punishments deserved +by men, a view maintained later on by Jonathan Edwards junior. But the +intellectual activity of the Reformation also developed other views; the +Socinians, with their humanitarian theory of the Person of Christ, +taught that He died only to assure men of God's forgiving love and to +afford them an example of obedience--"Forgiveness is granted upon the +ground of repentance and obedience."[26] Grotius put forward what has +been called the _Governmental_ Theory, viz. that the atonement took +place not to satisfy the wrath of God, but in the practical interests of +the divine government of the world, "The sufferings and death of the Son +of God are an exemplary exhibition of God's hatred of moral evil, in +connexion with which it is safe and prudent to remit that penalty, which +so far as God and the divine attributes are concerned, might have been +remitted without it."[27] + + + Modern views. + +The formal legal view continued to be widely held, though it was +modified in many ways by various theologians. For instance, it has been +held that Christ atoned for mankind not by enduring the penalty of sin, +but by identifying Himself with the sinner in perfect sympathy, and +feeling for him an "equivalent repentance" for his sin. Thus McLeod +Campbell (q.v.) held that Christ atoned by offering up to God a perfect +confession of the sins of mankind and an adequate repentance for them, +with which divine justice is satisfied, and a full expiation is made for +human guilt. A similar view was held by F.D. Maurice.[28] Others hold +that the effect of the atoning death of Christ is not to propitiate God, +but to reconcile man to God; it manifests righteousness, and thus +reveals the heinousness of sin; it also reveals the love of God, and +conveys the assurance of His willingness to forgive or receive the +sinner; thus it moves men to repentance and faith, and effects their +salvation; so substantially Ritschl.[29] In England much influence has +been exerted by Dr R.W. Dale's _Atonement_ (1875), the special point of +which is that the death of Christ is not required by the personal demand +of God to be propitiated, but by the necessity of honouring an ideal law +of righteousness; thus, "the death of Christ is the objective ground on +which the sins of men are remitted, because it was an act of submission +to the righteous authority of the law by which the human race was +condemned ... and because in consequence of the relation between Him and +us--His life being our own--His submission is the expression of ours, +and carries ours with it ... (and) because in His submission to the +awful penalty of sin ... there was a revelation of the righteousness of +God, which must otherwise have been revealed in the infliction of the +penalties of sin on the human race."[30] This view, however, leads to a +dilemma; if the law of righteousness is simply an expression of the +divine will, satisfaction to law is equivalent to propitiation offered +to God; if the law has an independent position, the view is inconsistent +with pure monotheism. + +The present position may be illustrated from a work representing the +more liberal Anglican theology. Bishop Lyttelton in _Lux Mundi_[31] +stated that the death of Christ is propitiatory towards God because it +expressed His perfect obedience, it manifested God's righteous wrath +against sin, and in virtue of Christ's human nature involved man's +recognition of the righteousness of God's condemnation of sin; also +because in some mysterious way death has a propitiatory value; and +finally because Christ is the representative of the human race. Towards +man, the death of Christ has atoning efficacy because it delivers from +sin, bestows the divine gift of life and conveys the assurance of +pardon. The benefits of the atonement are appropriated by "the +acceptance of God's forgiveness in Christ, our self-identification with +Christ's atoning attitude, and then working out, by the power of the +life bestowed upon us, all the (moral and spiritual) consequence of +forgiveness." + +At present the belief in an objective atonement is still widely held; +whether in the form of penal theories--the old forensic view that the +death of Christ atones by paying the penalty of man's sin--or in the +form of governmental theories; that the Passion fulfilled a necessity of +divine government by expressing and vindicating God's righteousness. But +there is also a widespread inclination to minimize, ignore or deny the +objective aspect of the atonement, the effect of the death of Christ on +God's attitude towards men; and to follow the moral theories in +emphasizing the subjective aspect of the atonement, the influence of the +Passion on man. There is a tendency to eclectic views embracing the more +attractive features of the various theories; and attempts are made to +adapt, interpret and qualify the imagery and language of older formulae, +in order so to speak, to issue them afresh in new editions, compatible +with modern natural science, psychology and historical criticism. Such +attempts are necessary in a time of transition, but they involve a +measure of obscurity and ambiguity. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Atonement: H. Bushnell, _Vicarious Sacrifice_ (1871); + J. McLeod Campbell, _Nature of the Atonement_ (1869); T.J. Crawford, + _Doctrine of the Holy Spirit respecting the Atonement_ (1871); R.W. + Dale, _Atonement_ (1875); J. Denney, _Death of Christ_, _Atonement and + the Modern Mind_ (1903); A. Lyttelton, _Lux Mundi_, pp. 201 ff. + (Atonement), (1889); R. Moberly, _Atonement and Personality_; A. + Ritschl, _Die christliche Lehre van der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung_ + (1870-1874); G.B. Stevens, _Christian Doctrine of Salvation_ (1905). + + Day of Atonement: articles in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, and in the + _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. (W. H. Be.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Cf. Exodus xii. 15, &c.; Josh. vii. 24 (Achan); Jer. li. 62 + (Babylon). + + [2] 2 Sam. xii. 13, 14 (David); Isaiah xl. 2 (Jerusalem): in such + cases, however, the context implies repentance. + + [3] Ezek. xviii., Micah vi. + + [4] Lev. iv. 2, "sin unwittingly," _bishegag[=a]_, c. 450 B.C., &c. + + [5] Psalm l. 10, li. 16-19; Isaiah i. 11; Micah vi. 6-8. + + [6] Heb. _nephesh_, also translated "soul." + + [7] Lev. xvi., xxiii. 27-32; Numb. xxix. 7-11. + + [8] So Davidson, &c. with LXX. The A.V. with Hebrew text has "seventh + day of the month." + + [9] e.g. Achan, Josh. vii. 10-15. + + [10] 2 Sam. xxi. 1-9; Deut. v. 9, 10. + + [11] Ezek. xxi. 3, 4. + + [12] Isaiah liii. + + [13] Isaiah xix. 25, xlix. 6. + + [14] Köberle, _Sunde und Gnade_, pp. 592 ff. + + [15] Mark x. 45; Matt. xxvi. 28; 1 Cor. xv. 3; John xi. 48-52; Heb. + ii. 9. + + [16] Rom. iii. 25. + + [17] Rom. v. 8. + + [18] Rom. v. 15-19. + + [19] Rom. vi. 8. + + [20] Rom. iv. 25. + + [21] Matt. xxv. 34 f.; Mark viii. 34 ff., ix. 36 f., x. 21. + + [22] 1 John ii. 1, 2, 12, iii. 5, 8, iv. 10. + + [23] Heb. ii. 17, ix. 14. + + [24] Stevens, _Christian Doctrine of Salvation_, p. 138. + + [25] _Ibid._ p. 151. + + [26] Shedd, _Hist. of Christ. Doctr._ ii. 385 ff.; cf. van Oosterzee, + _Christ. Dogmatics_, 611. + + [27] Shedd ii. 358 f. + + [28] Crawford, _Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement_, pp. 327 ff. + + [29] Orr, _Ritschlian Theology_, pp. 149 ff. + + [30] Dale, _Atonement_, pp. 430 ff. + + [31] Pp. 209, 212, 214, 216, 219, 221, 225. + + + + +ATRATO, a river of western Colombia, South America, rising on the slopes +of the Western Cordilleras, in 5° 36' N. lat., and flowing almost due +north to the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, where it forms a large delta. Its +length is about 400 m., but owing to the heavy rainfall of this region +it discharges no less than 175,000 cub. ft. of water per second, +together with a very large quantity of sediment, which is rapidly +filling the gulf. The river is navigable to Quibdo (250 m.), and for the +greater part of its course for large vessels, but the bars at its mouth +prevent the entrance of sea-going steamers. Flowing through the narrow +valley between the Cordillera and coast range, it has only short +tributaries, the principal ones being the Truando, Sucio and Murri. The +gold and platinum mines of Choco were on some of its affluents, and the +river sands are auriferous. The Atrato at one time attracted +considerable attention as a feasible route for a trans-isthmian canal, +which, it was estimated, could be excavated at a cost of £11,000,000. + + + + +ATREK, a river which rises in 37° 10' N. lat. and 59° E., in the +mountains of the north-east of the Persian province of Khorasan, and +flows west along the borders of Persia and the Russian Transcaspian +province, till it falls, after a course of 350 m., into the +south-eastern corner of the Caspian, a short distance north-north-west +of Astarabad. + + + + +ATREUS, in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodameia, and elder +brother of Thyestes. Having murdered his stepbrother Chrysippus, Atreus +fled with Thyestes to Mycenae, where he succeeded Eurystheus in the +sovereignty. His wife Aërope was seduced by Thyestes, who was driven +from Mycenae. To avenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthenes (Atreus' son +whom Thyestes had brought up as his own) to kill Atreus, but Pleisthenes +was himself slain by his own father. After this Atreus, apparently +reconciled to his brother, recalled him to Mycenae and invited him to a +banquet to eat of his son, whom Atreus had slain. Thyestes fled in +horror. Subsequently Atreus married the daughter of Thyestes, Pelopia, +who had by her own father a son, Aegisthus, who was adopted by Atreus. +Thyestes was found by Agamemnon and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus, and +imprisoned at Mycenae. Aegisthus being sent to murder Thyestes, mutual +recognition took place, and Atreus was slain by the father and son, who +seized the throne, and drove Agamemnon and Menelaus out of the country +(Thucydides i. 9; Hyginus, _Fabulae_; Apollodorus). Homer does not speak +of the horrors of the story, which are first found in the tragedians; he +merely states (_Iliad_, ii. 105) that Atreus at his death left the +kingdom to Thyestes. + + See T. Voigt in _Dissert. philol. Halenses._ vi. (1886). + + + + +ATRI, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Teramo, 6 m. W. +of the station of that name on the railway from Ancona to Foggia, and 18 +m. due E.S.E. of Teramo, on the site of the ancient _Hadria_ (q.v.). +Pop. (1901) 13,448. Its Gothic cathedral (1285-1305) is remarkably fine; +and the interior, though spoilt by restoration in 1657, contains some +important frescoes of the end of the 15th century by Andrea di Lecce and +his pupils. The crypt was originally a cistern of the Roman period. The +palace of the Acquaviva family, who were dukes of Atri from 1398 to +1775, is a massive building situated in the principal square. + + + + +ATRIUM (either from _ater_, black, referring to the blackening of the +walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek [Greek: aethrion], +open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of +building is supposed to have originated), the principal entrance hall or +court of a Roman dwelling, giving access and light to the rooms round +it. The centre of the roof over the atrium was open to the sky and +called the _compluvium_; the rain-water from the roof collected in the +gutters was discharged into a marble tank underneath, which was known as +the _impluvium_. In the early periods of Roman civilization the atrium +was the common public apartment, and was used for the reception of +visitors and clients, and for ordinary domestic purposes, as cooking and +dining. In it were placed the ancestral pictures, the marriage-couch, +the hearth and generally a small altar. At a somewhat later period, and +among the wealthy, separate apartments were built for kitchens and +dining-rooms, and the atrium was kept as a general reception-room for +clients and visitors. There were many varieties of the atrium, depending +on the way in which the roof was carried. These are described by +Vitruvius under the title of _cavaedium_. + +Other buildings, both consecrated and unconsecrated, were called by the +term (corresponding to the English "hall"), such as the Atrium Vestae, +where the vestal virgins lived, and the Atrium Libertatis, the residence +of the censor, where Asinius Pollio established the first public library +at Rome. + +The word _atrium_ in Rome had a second signification, being given to an +open court with porticos round, sometimes placed in front of a temple. A +similar arrangement was adopted by the early Christians with relation to +the Basilica, in front of which there was an open court surrounded by +colonnades or arcades. The church of San Clemente at Rome, that of Sant' +Ambrogio at Milan and the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria still retain +their atria. + + + + +ATROPHY (Gr. [Greek: a]- priv., [Greek: trophae], nourishment), a term +in medicine used to describe a state of wasting due to some interference +with the function of healthy nutrition (see PATHOLOGY). In the living +organism there are always at work changes involving the waste of its +component tissues, which render necessary, in order to maintain and +preserve life, the supply and proper assimilation of nutritive material. +It is also essential for the maintenance of health that a due relation +exist between these processes of waste and repair, so that the one may +not be in excess of the other. When the appropriation of nutriment +exceeds the waste, hypertrophy (q.v.) or increase in bulk of the tissues +takes place. When, on the other hand, the supply of nutritive matter is +suspended or diminished, or when the power of assimilation is impaired, +atrophy or wasting is the result. Thus the whole body becomes atrophied +in many diseases; and in old age every part of the frame, with the +single exception of the heart, undergoes atrophic change. Atrophy may, +however, affect single organs or parts of the body, irrespective of the +general state of nutrition, and this may be brought about in a variety +of ways. One of the most frequently observed of such instances is +atrophy from disuse, or cessation of function. Thus, when a limb is +deprived of the natural power of motion, either by paralysis or by +painful joint disease, the condition of exercise essential to its +nutrition being no longer fulfilled, atrophy of all its textures sooner +or later takes place. The brain in imbeciles is frequently observed to +be shrivelled, and in many cases of blindness there is atrophy of the +optic nerve and optic tract. This form of atrophy is likewise well +exemplified in the case of those organs and structures of the body which +subserve important ends during foetal life, but which, ceasing to be +necessary after birth, undergo a sort of natural atrophy, such as the +thymus gland, and certain vessels specially concerned in the foetal +circulation. The uterus after parturition undergoes a certain amount of +atrophy, and the ovaries, after the child-bearing period, become +shrunken. Atrophy of a part may also be caused by interruption to its +normal blood-supply, as in the case of the ligature or obstruction of an +artery. Again, long-standing disease, by affecting the nutrition of an +organ and by inducing the deposit of morbid products, may result in +atrophy, as frequently happens in affections of the liver and kidneys. +Parts that are subjected to continuous pressure are liable to become +atrophied, as is sometimes seen in internal organs which have been +pressed upon by tumours or other morbid growths, and is well illustrated +in the Chinese practice of foot-binding. Atrophy may manifest itself +simply by loss of substance; but, on the other hand, it is often found +to co-exist with degenerative changes in the textures affected and the +formation of adventitious growth, so that the part may not be reduced in +bulk although atrophied as regards its proper structure. Thus, in the +case of the heart, when affected with fatty degeneration, there is +atrophy of the proper muscular texture, but as this is largely replaced +by fatty matter, the organ may undergo no diminution in volume, but may, +on the contrary, be increased in size. Atrophy is usually a gradual and +slow process, but sometimes it proceeds rapidly. In the disease known by +the name of _acute yellow atrophy of the liver_, that organ undergoes +such rapidly destructive change as results in its shrinking to half, or +one-third, of its normal size in the course of a few days. The term +_progressive muscular atrophy_ (synonyms, _wasting_ or _creeping palsy_) +is applied to an affection of the muscular system, which is +characterized by the atrophy and subsequent paralysis of certain +muscles, or groups of muscles, and is associated with morbid changes in +the anterior roots of the nerves of the spinal cord. This disease begins +insidiously, and is often first observed to affect the muscles of one +hand, generally the right. The attention of the sufferer is first +attracted by the power of the hand becoming weakened, and then there is +found to be a wasting of certain of its muscles, particularly those of +the ball of the thumb. Gradually other muscles in the arms and legs +become affected in a similar manner, their atrophy being attended with a +corresponding diminution in power. Although sometimes arrested, this +disease tends to progress, until in course of time the greater part of +the muscular system is implicated and a fatal result ensues. + + + + +ATROPOS, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the three Fates (see FATE). +Her name, the "Unalterable" ([Greek: a]- privative, and [Greek: +trepein], to turn), indicates her function, that of rendering the +decisions of her sisters irreversible or immutable. Atropos is most +frequently represented with scales, a sun-dial or a cutting instrument, +the "abhorred shears," with which she slits the thin-spun thread of life +that has been placed on the spindle by Clotho and drawn off by Lachesis. + + + + +ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS, or QUINTICIUS (d. 77 B.C.), Roman comedy writer, +was, like Titinius and Afranius, distinguished as a writer of _fabulae +togatae_, national comedies. He had the reputation of being a vivid +delineator of character, especially female. He also seems to have +published a collection of epigrams. The scanty fragments contain many +archaisms, but are lively in style. According to Horace (_Epistles_, ii +1. 79) the plays of Atta were still put on the stage in his time. + + Aulus Gellius vii. 9; fragments in Neukirch, _De fabula togata + Romanorum_ (1833); Ribbeck, _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1855). + + + + +ATTACAPA (Choctaw for "cannibal"), a tribe of North-American Indians, +whose home was in south-west Louisiana; they are now practically +extinct. + + + + +ATTACHMENT,[1] in law, a process from a court of record, awarded by the +justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion, or on their own +knowledge, and properly grantable in cases of contempt. It differs from +arrest (q.v.), in that he who arrests a man carries him to a person of +higher power to be forthwith disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the +party attached, and presents him in court at the day assigned, as +appears by the words of the writ. Another difference is, that arrest is +only upon the body of a man, whereas an attachment is often upon his +goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to lands, as +the latter does; nor does a distress touch the body, as an attachment +does. Every court of record has power to fine and imprison for contempt +of its authority. Attachment being merely a process to bring the +defendant before the court, is not necessary in cases of contempt in the +presence of the court itself. Attachment will be granted in England +against peers and members of parliament only for such gross contempts as +rescues, disobedience to the sovereign's writs and the like. Attachment +will not lie against a corporation. The county courts in this respect +are regulated by acts of 1846 and 1849. They can only punish for +contempts committed in presence of the court (see CONTEMPT OF COURT). +Attachments are granted on a rule in the first instance to show cause, +which must be personally served before it can be made absolute, except +for non-payment of costs on a master's allocatur, and against a sheriff +for not obeying a rule to return a writ or to bring in the body. The +offender is then arrested, and when committed will be compelled to +answer interrogatories, exhibited against him by the party at whose +instance the proceedings have been had; and the examination when taken +is referred to the master, who reports thereon, and on the contempt +being reported, the court gives judgment according to its discretion, in +the same manner as upon a conviction for a misdemeanour at common law. +Sir W. Blackstone observes that "this method of making the defendant +answer upon oath to a criminal charge is not agreeable to the genius of +the common law in any other instance"; and the elasticity of the legal +definitions of contempt of court, especially with respect to comments on +judicial proceedings, is the subject of much complaint. + +_Attachment of Debts._--It was suggested by the common law commissioners +in 1853 that a remedy analogous to that of Foreign Attachment (see +below) might be made available to creditors, after judgment, against +debts due to their debtors. Accordingly, the Common Law Procedure Act +1854 enacted that any creditor, having obtained judgment in the superior +courts, should have an order that the judgment debtor might be examined +as to any debts due and owing to him before a master of the court. The +rules and regulations under the Judicature Act 1873 retained the process +for attachment of debts as established by the Procedure Act of 1854. On +affidavit that the judgment was still unsatisfied, and that any other +person within the jurisdiction was indebted to the judgment debtor, the +judge was empowered to attach all debts due from such third person +(called the _garnishee_) to the judgment debtor, to answer the judgment +debt. This order binds the debts in the hands of the garnishee, and if +he does not dispute his liability execution issues against him at once. +If he disputes his liability the question must be tried. Payment by the +garnishee or execution against him is a complete discharge as against +the judgment debtor. These provisions were, by an order in council of +the 18th of November 1867, extended to the county courts. By the Wages +Attachment Abolition Act 1870 it is enacted that no order for the +attachment of the wages of any servant, labourer or workman shall be +made by the judge of any court of record or inferior court, and by the +Merchant Shipping Act 1894 it is enacted that the wages of a seaman or +apprentice are not subject to attachment. + +In the United States attachment of debts is a statutory remedy accorded +in most of the states in certain circumstances for the security of +creditors, by the seizure by the sheriff of the debtor's goods or the +imposition of a lien upon his land, before judgment, and sometimes at +the very commencement of the action. In some states it is only allowed +in special cases, as when the debtor has absconded, or is a non-resident +or guilty of fraud; in a few it may be had, as of right, at the +commencement of ordinary actions. The common-law courts of the United +States (by act of Congress) follow the practice in this regard of the +state in which they sit. Such attachments (on mesne process) can +generally be dissolved by the substitution of a bond with surety. The +body can also be attached in most states on civil actions of tort (for a +wrongful or negligent act to the damage of another), but not in actions +on contract. + +_Foreign Attachment_ is an important custom prevailing in the city of +London, whereby a creditor may attach money owing to his debtor, or +property belonging to him in the possession of third parties. The person +holding the property or owing the money must be within the city at the +time of being served with the process, but all persons are entitled to +the benefit of the custom. The plaintiff having commenced his action, +and made a satisfactory affidavit of his debt, is entitled to issue +attachment, which thereupon affects all the money or property of the +defendant in the hands of the third party, the garnishee. The garnishee, +of course, has as against the attachment all the defences which would be +available to him against the defendant, his alleged creditor. The +garnishee may plead payment under the attachment, if there has been no +fraud or collusion, in bar to an action by the defendant for his debt or +property. The court to which this process belongs is the mayor's court +of London, the procedure in which is regulated by the Mayor's Court of +London Procedure Act 1857. This custom, and all proceedings relating +thereto, are expressly exempted from the operation of the Debtor's Act +1869. Similar customs exist in Bristol and a few other towns in England +and also in Scotland. + +_A Writ of Attachment_ enforces answers and obedience to decrees and +orders of the High Court of Justice, and is made out without order upon +an affidavit of the due service of the process, &c., with whose +requirements compliance is sought. A corporation, however, is proceeded +against by distringas and not by attachment. It was formerly competent +to the plaintiff to compel the appearance of a defendant in chancery by +attachment, but the usual course was to enter appearance for him in case +of default. It is one of the modes of execution allowed for the recovery +of property other than land or money. + +_Attachment of the Forest_ was the proceeding in the courts of +attachments, Woodmote, or Forty Days' courts. These courts have fallen +into desuetude. They were held before the verderers of the royal forests +in different parts of the kingdom once in every forty days, for the +purpose of inquiring into all offences against "vert (greensward) and +venison." The attachment was by the bodies of the offenders, if taken in +the very act of killing venison, or stealing wood, or preparing so to +do, or by fresh and immediate pursuit after the act was done; else they +must be attached by their goods. These attachments were received by the +verderers and enrolled, and certified under their seals to the +Swainmote, or Court of Justice-seat, which was the superior of the +forest courts. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "To attach" is first used in English in the legal sense of arrest + or seizure, and the sense of "fasten to" is comparatively late. The + Old French _atachier_, modern _attacher_, from which the English + "attach" is derived, is from a word for a peg or nail, in English + "tack," which is found in many forms in Scandinavian and Celtic + languages, and is ultimately connected with the root seen in Latin + _tangere_, to touch. The Italian _attacare_, especially in the phrase + _attacare battaglia_, to join battle, gave the French _attaquer_, + whence the English "attack," which is therefore by origin a doublet + of "attach." + + + + +ATTAINDER (from the O. Fr. _ataindre, ateindre_, to attain, i.e. to +strike, accuse, condemn; Lat. _attingere, tangere_, to touch; the +meaning has been greatly affected by the confusion with Fr. _taindre, +teindre_, to taint, stain, Lat. _tingere_, to dye), in English law, was +the immediate and inseparable consequence from the common law upon the +sentence of death. When it was clear beyond all dispute that the +criminal was no longer fit to live he was called _attaint_, and could +not, before the Evidence Act 1843, be a witness in any court. This +attainder took place after judgment of death, or upon such circumstances +as were equivalent to judgment of death, such as judgment of outlawry on +a capital crime, pronounced for absconding from justice. Conviction +without judgment was not followed by attainder. The consequences of +attainder were (1) forfeiture, (2) corruption of blood. On attainder for +treason, the criminal forfeited to the crown his lands, rights of entry +on lands, and any interest he might have in lands for his own life or a +term of years. For murder, the offender forfeited to the crown the +profit of his freeholds during life, and in the case of lands held in +fee-simple, the lands themselves for a year and a day; subject to this, +the lands escheated to the lord of the fee. These forfeitures related +back to the time of the offence committed. Forfeitures of goods and +chattels ensued not only on attainder, but on conviction for a felony of +any kind, or on flight from justice, and had no relation backwards to +the time of the offence committed. By _corruption of blood_, "both +upwards and downwards," the attainted person could neither inherit nor +transmit lands. The lands escheated to the lord of the fee, subject to +the crown's right of forfeiture. The doctrine of attainder has, however, +ceased to be of much importance. The Forfeiture Act 1870 enacted that +henceforth no confession, verdict, inquest, conviction or judgment of or +for any treason or felony, or _felo de se_, should cause any attainder +or corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat. Sentence of death, +penal servitude or imprisonment with hard labour for more than twelve +months, after conviction for treason or felony, disqualifies from +holding or retaining a seat in parliament, public offices under the +crown or otherwise, right to vote at elections, &c., and such disability +is to remain until the punishment has been suffered or a pardon +obtained. Provision was made for the due administration of convicts' +estates, in the interests of themselves and their families. Forfeiture +consequent on outlawry was exempted from the provisions of the act. The +United States constitution (Art. III. s. 3) says: "The Congress shall +have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of +treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the +life of the person attainted." + +_Bills of Attainder_, in English legal procedure, were formerly a +parliamentary method of exercising judicial authority. They were +ordinarily initiated in the House of Lords and the proceedings were the +same as on other bills, but the parties against whom they were brought +might appear by counsel and produce witnesses in both Houses. In the +case of an impeachment (q.v.), the House of Commons was prosecutor and +the House of Lords judge; but such bills being _legislative_ in form, +the consent of crown, lords and commons was necessary to pass them. +Bishops, who do not exercise but who claim the right to vote in cases of +impeachment (q.v.), have a right to vote upon bills of attainder, but +their vote is not conclusive in passing judgment upon the accused. First +passed in 1459, such bills were employed, more particularly during the +reigns of the Tudor kings, as a species of extrajudicial procedure, for +the direct punishment of political offences. Dispensing with the +ordinary judicial forms and precedents, they took away from the accused +whatever advantages he might have gained in the courts of law; such +evidence only was admitted as might be necessary to secure conviction; +indeed, in many cases bills of attainder were passed without any +evidence being produced at all. In the reign of Henry VIII. they were +much used, through a subservient parliament, to punish those who had +incurred the king's displeasure; many distinguished victims who could +not have been charged with any offence under the existing laws being by +this means disposed of. In the 17th century, during the disputes with +Charles I., the Long Parliament made effective use of the same +procedure, forcing the sovereign to give his consent. After the +Restoration it became less frequent, though the Jacobite movement in +Scotland produced several instances of attainder, without, however, the +infliction of the extreme penalty of death. The last bill of attainder +passed in England was in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the +Irish rebel leaders of 1798. + +A bill for reversing attainder took a form contrary to the usual rule. +It was first signed by the sovereign and presented by a peer to the +House of Lords by command of the crown, then passed through the ordinary +stages and on to the commons, to whom the sovereign's assent was +communicated before the first reading was taken, otherwise the whole +proceedings were null and void. + +A _Bill of Pains and Penalties_ resembles a bill of attainder in object +and procedure, but imposes a lesser punishment than death. The most +notable instances of the passing of a bill of pains and penalties are +those of Bishop Atterbury in 1722, and of Queen Caroline, wife of George +IV., in 1820. + +The constitution of the United States declares that "no bill of +attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed." + + + + +ATTAINT, WRIT OF, an obsolete method of procedure in English law, for +inquiring by a jury of twenty-four whether a false verdict had been +given in a trial before an ordinary jury of twelve. If it were found +that an erroneous judgment had been given, the wrong was redressed and +the original jury incurred infamy, with imprisonment and forfeiture of +their goods, which punishments were, however, commuted later for a +pecuniary penalty. In criminal cases a writ of attaint was issued at +suit of the king, and in civil cases at the suit of either party. In +criminal cases it appears to have become obsolete by the end of the 15th +century. Procedure by attaint in civil cases had also been gradually +giving place to the practice of granting new trials, and after the +decision in Bushell's case in 1670 (see JURY) it became obsolete, and +was finally abolished by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurors +guilty of embracery (q.v.). + + + + +ATTALIA, an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its name from +Attalus II., king of Pergamum; the modern Adalia (q.v.). It was +important as the nearest seaport to the rich districts of south-west +Phrygia. A much-frequented "half-sea" route led through it to the Lycus +and Maeander valleys, and so to Ephesus and Smyrna. This was the natural +way from any part of central Asia Minor to Syria and Egypt, and +accordingly we hear of Paul and Barnabas taking ship at Attalia for +Antioch. Originally the port of Perga, Attalia eclipsed the old +Pamphylian capital in early Christian times and became the metropolis. +There are extensive remains of the ancient walls, including some +portions which go back to the foundation of the Pergamenian city. The +most conspicuous monument is the triple Gate of Hadrian, flanked by a +tower built by the empress Julia. This lies about half-way round the +_enceinte_ and formerly admitted the road from Perga. + + + + +ATTAR [or OTTO] OF ROSES (Pers. _'atar_, essence), a perfume consisting +of essential oil of roses, prepared by distilling, or, in some +districts, by macerating the flowers. The manufacture is chiefly carried +out in India, Persia and the Balkans; the last named supplying the bulk +of the European demand. It is used by perfumery manufacturers as an +ingredient. The genuine attar of roses is costly and it is frequently +adulterated. + + + + +ATTEMPT (Lat. _adtemptare, attentare_, to try), in law, an act done with +intent to commit a crime, and forming one of a series of acts which +would constitute its actual commission if it were not interrupted. An +attempt must proceed beyond mere preparation, but at the same time it +must fall short of the ultimate purpose in any part of it. The actual +point, however, at which an act ceases to be an attempt, and becomes +criminal, depends upon the circumstances of each particular case. A +person may be guilty of an attempt to commit a crime, even if its +commission in the manner proposed was impossible. Every attempt to +commit a treason, felony or indictable misdemeanour is in itself an +indictable misdemeanour, punishable by fine or imprisonment, unless the +attempt to commit is specifically punishable by statute as a felony, or +in a defined manner as a misdemeanour; and a person who has been +indicted for a felony or misdemeanour may, if the evidence so warrants, +be found guilty only of the attempt, provided that it too is a +misdemeanour. + + + + +ATTENTION (from Lat. _ad-tendo_, await, expect; the condition of being +"stretched" or "tense"), in psychology, the concentration of +consciousness upon a definite object or objects. The result is brought +about, not by effecting any change in the perceptions themselves, but +simply by isolating them from other objects. Since all consciousness +involves this isolation, attention may be defined generally as the +necessary condition of consciousness. Such a definition, however, throws +no light upon the nature of the psychological process, which is partly +explained by the general law that the greater the number of objects on +which attention is concentrated the less will each receive ("pluribus +intentus, minor est ad singula sensus"), and conversely. There are also +special circumstances which determine the amount of attention, e.g. +influences not subject to the will, such as the vividness of the +impression (e.g. in the case of a shock), strong change in pleasurable +or painful sensations. Secondly, an exercise of volition is employed in +fixing the mind upon a definite object. This is a purely voluntary act, +which can be strengthened by habit and is variable in different +individuals; to it the name "attention" is sometimes restricted. The +distinction is expressed by the words "reflex" or "passive," and +"volitional" or "active." It is important to notice that in every case +of attention to an object, there must be in consciousness an implicit +apprehension of surrounding objects from which the particular object is +isolated. These objects are known as the "psychic fringe," and are +essential to the systematic unity of the attention-process. Attempts +have been made to examine the attention-process from the physiological +standpoint by investigating the muscular and neural changes which +accompany it, and even to assign to it a specific local centre. It has, +for example, been remarked that uniformity of environment, resulting in +practically automatic activity, produces mental equilibrium and the +comparative disappearance of attention-processes; whereas the necessity +of adapting activity to abnormal conditions produces a comparatively +high degree of attention. In other words, attention is absent where +there is uniformity of activity in accordance with uniform, or uniformly +changing, environment. In spite of the progress made in this branch of +study, it has to be remembered that all psycho-physical experiments are +to some extent vitiated by the fact that the phenomena can scarcely +remain normal under inspection. + + See G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (London, 1896), especially part + ii. chap. 2; also PSYCHOLOGY, BRAIN, &c. + + + + +ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS (1790-1855), Swedish poet, son of a country +parson, was born in the province of Östergötland on the 19th of January +1790. He studied in the university of Upsala from 1805 to 1815, and +became professor of philosophy there in 1828. He was the first great +poet of the romantic movement which, inaugurated by the critical work of +Lorenzo Hammersköld, was to revolutionize Swedish literature. In 1807, +when in his seventeenth year, he founded at Upsala an artistic society, +called the Aurora League, the members of which included V.F. Palmblad, +A.A. Grafström (d. 1870), Samuel Hedborn (d. 1849), and other youths +whose names were destined to take a foremost rank in the literature of +their generation. Their first newspaper, _Polyfem_, was a crude effort, +soon abandoned, but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, _Fosforos_, +edited by Atterbom, which lasted for three years and finds a place in +classic Swedish literature. It consisted entirely of poetry and +aesthetico-polemical essays; it introduced the study of the newly arisen +Romantic school of Germany, and formed a vehicle for the early works, +not of Atterbom only, but of Hammersköld, Dahlgren, Palmblad and others. +Later, the members of the Aurora League established the _Poetisk +Kalender_ (1812-1822), in which their poems appeared, and a new critical +organ, _Svensk Litteraturtidning_ (1813-1824). Among Atterbom's +independent works the most celebrated is _Lycksalighetens Ö_ (_The +Fortunate Island_), a romantic drama of extraordinary beauty, published +in 1823. Before this he had published a somewhat in the manner of +Novalis. Of a dramatized fairy tale, _Fågel blå (The Blue Bird_), only a +fragment, which is among the most exquisite of his writings, is +preserved. As a purely lyrical poet he has not been excelled in Sweden, +but his more ambitious works are injured by his weakness for allegory +and symbolism, and his consistent adoption of the mannerisms of Tieck +and Novalis. In his later years he became less violent in literary +controversy. He became in 1835 professor of aesthetics and literature at +Upsala, and four years later he was admitted to the Swedish Academy. He +died on the 21st of July 1855. His _Svenska Siare och Skalder_ (6 vols., +1841-1855, supplement, 1864) consists of a series of biographies of +Swedish poets and men of letters, which forms a valuable history of +Swedish letters down to the end of the "classical" period. Atterbom's +works were collected (13 vols., Örebro) in 1854-1870. + + + + +ATTERBURY, FRANCIS (1662-1732), English man of letters, politician and +bishop, was born in the year 1662, at Milton or Middleton Keynes in +Buckinghamshire, a parish of which his father was rector. He was +educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he +became a tutor. In 1682 he published a translation of _Absalom and +Ahithophel_ into Latin verse; but neither the style nor the +versification was that of the Augustan age. In English composition he +succeeded much better. In 1687 he published _An Answer to some +Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original of the +Reformation_, a reply to Obadiah Walker, who, elected master of +University College in 1676, had printed in a press set up by him there +an attack on the Reformation, written by Abraham Woodhead. Atterbury's +treatise, though highly praised by Bishop Burnet, is perhaps more +distinguished for the vigour of his rhetoric than for the soundness of +his arguments, and the Papists were so much galled by his sarcasms and +invectives that they accused him of treason, and of having, by +implication, called King James a Judas. + +After the Revolution, Atterbury, though bred in the doctrines of +non-resistance and passive obedience, readily swore fealty to the new +government. He had taken holy orders in 1687, preached occasionally in +London with an eloquence which raised his reputation, and was soon +appointed one of the royal chaplains. But he ordinarily resided at +Oxford, where he was the chief adviser and assistant of Dean Aldrich, +under whom Christ Church was a stronghold of Toryism. Thus he became the +inspirer of his pupil, Charles Boyle, in the attack (1698) on the Whig +scholar, Richard Bentley (q.v.), arising out of Bentley's impugnment of +the genuineness of the _Epistles of Phalaris_. He was figured by Swift +in the _Battle of the Books_ as the Apollo who directed the fight, and +was, no doubt, largely the author of Boyle's essay. Bentley spent two +years in preparing his famous reply, which proved not only that the +letters ascribed to Phalaris were spurious, but that all Atterbury's +wit, eloquence and skill in controversial fence was only a cloak for an +audacious pretence of scholarship. + +Atterbury was soon occupied, however, in a dispute about matters still +more important and exciting. The rage of religious factions was extreme. +High Church and Low Church divided the nation. The great majority of the +clergy were on the High Church side; the majority of King William's +bishops were inclined to latitudinarianism. In 1700 Convocation, of +which the lower house was overwhelmingly Tory, had not been suffered to +meet for ten years. This produced a lively controversy, into which +Atterbury threw himself with characteristic energy, publishing a series +of treatises written with much wit, audacity and acrimony. By the mass +of the clergy he was regarded as the most intrepid champion that had +ever defended their rights against the oligarchy of Erastian prelates. +In 1701 he was rewarded with the archdeaconry of Totnes and a prebend in +Exeter cathedral. The lower house of Convocation voted him thanks for +his services; the university of Oxford created him a doctor of divinity; +and in 1704, soon after the accession of Anne, while the Tories still +had the chief weight in the government, he was promoted to the deanery +of Carlisle. + +Soon after he had obtained this preferment the Whig party came into +power. From that party he could expect no favour. Six years elapsed +before a change of fortune took place. At length, in the year 1710, the +prosecution of Sacheverell produced a formidable explosion of High +Church fanaticism. At such a moment Atterbury could not fail to be +conspicuous. His inordinate zeal for the body to which he belonged, his +turbulent and aspiring temper, his rare talents for agitation and for +controversy, were again signally displayed. He bore a chief part in +framing that artful and eloquent speech which the accused divine +pronounced at the bar of the Lords, and which presents a singular +contrast to the absurd and scurrilous sermon which had very unwisely +been honoured with impeachment. During the troubled and anxious months +which followed the trial, Atterbury was among the most active of those +pamphleteers who inflamed the nation against the Whig ministry and the +Whig parliament. When the ministry had been changed and the parliament +dissolved, rewards were showered upon him. The lower house of +Convocation elected him prolocutor, in which capacity he drew up, in +1711, the often-cited _Representation of the State of Religion_; and, in +August 1711, the queen, who had selected him as her chief adviser in +ecclesiastical matters, appointed him dean of Christ Church on the death +of his old friend and patron Aldrich. + +At Oxford he was as conspicuous a failure as he had been at Carlisle, +and it was said by his enemies that he was made a bishop because he was +so bad a dean. Under his administration Christ Church was in confusion, +scandalous altercations took place, and there was reason to fear that +the great Tory college would be ruined by the tyranny of the great Tory +doctor. In 1713 he was removed to the bishopric of Rochester, which was +then always united with the deanery of Westminster. Still higher +dignities seemed to be before him. For, though there were many able men +on the episcopal bench, there was none who equalled or approached him in +parliamentary talents. Had his party continued in power it is not +improbable that he would have been raised to the archbishopric of +Canterbury. The more splendid his prospects the more reason he had to +dread the accession of a family which was well known to be partial to +the Whigs, and there is every reason to believe that he was one of those +politicians who hoped that they might be able, during the life of Anne, +to prepare matters in such a way that at her decease there might be +little difficulty in setting aside the Act of Settlement and placing the +Pretender on the throne. Her sudden death confounded the projects of +these conspirators, and, whatever Atterbury's previous views may have +been, he acquiesced in what he could not prevent, took the oaths to the +house of Hanover, and did his best to ingratiate himself with the royal +family. But his servility was requited with cold contempt; and he became +the most factious and pertinacious of all the opponents of the +government. In the House of Lords his oratory, lucid, pointed, lively +and set off with every grace of pronunciation and of gesture, extorted +the attention and admiration even of a hostile majority. Some of the +most remarkable protests which appear in the journals of the peers were +drawn up by him; and, in some of the bitterest of those pamphlets which +called on the English to stand up for their country against the aliens +who had come from beyond the seas to oppress and plunder her, critics +easily detected his style. When the rebellion of 1715 broke out, he +refused to sign the paper in which the bishops of the province of +Canterbury declared their attachment to the Protestant succession, and +in 1717, after having been long in indirect communication with the +exiled family, he began to correspond directly with the Pretender. + +In 1721, on the discovery of the plot for the capture of the royal +family and the proclamation of King James, Atterbury was arrested with +the other chief malcontents, and in 1722 committed to the Tower, where +he remained in close confinement during some months. He had carried on +his correspondence with the exiled family so cautiously that the +circumstantial proofs of his guilt, though sufficient to produce entire +moral conviction, were not sufficient to justify legal conviction. He +could be reached only by a bill of pains and penalties. Such a bill the +Whig party, then decidedly predominant in both Houses, was quite +prepared to support, and in due course a bill passed the Commons +depriving him of his spiritual dignities, banishing him for life, and +forbidding any British subject to hold intercourse with him except by +the royal permission. In the Lords the contest was sharp, but the bill +finally passed by eighty-three votes to forty-three. + +Atterbury took leave of those whom he loved with a dignity and +tenderness worthy of a better man, to the last protesting his innocence +with a singular disingenuousness. After a short stay at Brussels he went +to Paris, and became the leading man among the Jacobite refugees there. +He was invited to Rome by the Pretender, but Atterbury felt that a +bishop of the Church of England would be out of place at the Vatican, +and declined the invitation. During some months, however, he seemed to +stand high in the good graces of James. The correspondence between the +master and the servant was constant. Atterbury's merits were warmly +acknowledged, his advice was respectfully received, and he was, as +Bolingbroke had been before him, the prime minister of a king without a +kingdom. He soon, however, perceived that his counsels were disregarded, +if not distrusted. His proud spirit was deeply wounded. In 1728 he +quitted Paris, fixed his residence at Montpelier, gave up politics, and +devoted himself entirely to letters. In the sixth year of his exile he +had so severe an illness that his daughter, Mrs Morice, herself very +ill, determined to run all risks that she might see him once more. She +met him at Toulouse, received the communion from his hand, and died that +night. + +Atterbury survived the severe shock of his daughter's death two years. +He even returned to Paris and to the service of the Pretender, who had +found out that he had not acted wisely in parting with one who, though a +heretic, was the most able man of the Jacobite party. In the ninth year +of his banishment he published a luminous, temperate and dignified +vindication of himself against John Oldmixon, who had accused him of +having, in concert with other Christ Church men, garbled the new edition +of Clarendon's _History of the Rebellion_. The charge, as respected +Atterbury, had not the slightest foundation; for he was not one of the +editors of the _History_, and never saw it till it was printed. A copy +of this little work he sent to the Pretender, with a letter singularly +eloquent and graceful. It was impossible, the old man said, that he +should write anything on such a subject without being reminded of the +resemblance between his own fate and that of Clarendon. They were the +only two English subjects who had ever been banished from their country +and debarred from all communication with their friends by act of +parliament. But here the resemblance ended. One of the exiles had been +so happy as to bear a chief part in the restoration of the royal house. +All that the other could now do was to die asserting the rights of that +house to the last. A few weeks after this letter was written Atterbury +died, on the 22nd of February 1732. His body was brought to England, and +laid, with great privacy, under the nave of Westminster Abbey. No +inscription marks his grave. + +It is agreeable to turn from Atterbury's public to his private life. His +turbulent spirit, wearied with faction and treason, now and then +required repose, and found it in domestic endearments, and in the +society of the most illustrious literary men of his time. Of his wife, +Katherine Osborn, whom he married while at Oxford, little is known; but +between him and his daughter there was an affection singularly close and +tender. The gentleness of his manners when he was in the company of a +few friends was such as seemed hardly credible to those who knew him +only by his writings and speeches. Though Atterbury's classical +attainments were not great, his taste in English literature was +excellent; and his admiration of genius was so strong that it +overpowered even his political and religious antipathies. His fondness +for Milton, the mortal enemy of the Stuarts and of the Church, was such +as to many Tories seemed a crime; and he was the close friend of +Addison. His favourite companions, however, were, as might have been +expected, men whose politics had at least a tinge of Toryism. He lived +on friendly terms with Swift, Arbuthnot and Gay. With Prior he had a +close intimacy, which some misunderstanding about public affairs at +last dissolved. Pope found in Atterbury not only a warm admirer, but a +most faithful, fearless and judicious adviser. + + See F. Williams, _Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury with Notes_, + &c. (1869); _Stuart Papers_, vol. i.: _Letters of Atterbury to the + Chevalier St George_, &c. (1847); J. Nichols, _Epistolary + Correspondence_, &c. (1783-1796); and H.C. Beeching, _Francis + Atterbury_, (1909). + + + + +ATTESTATION (Lat. _adtestare, attestare_, to bear witness, _testis_, a +witness), the verification of a deed, will or other instrument by the +signature to it of a witness or witnesses, who endorse or subscribe +their names under a memorandum, to the effect that it was signed or +executed in their presence. The essence of attestation is to show that +at the execution of the document there was present some disinterested +person capable of giving evidence as to what took place. The clause at +the end of the instrument, immediately preceding the signatures of the +witnesses to the execution, and stating that they have witnessed it, is +known as the attestation clause. In Scots law, the corresponding clause +is called the testing-clause (see DEED; WILL OR TESTAMENT; WITNESS). + + + + +ATTHIS (an adjective meaning "Attic"), the name given to a monograph or +special treatise on the religious and political history, antiquities and +topography of Attica and Athens. During the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., +a class of writers arose, who, making these subjects their particular +study, were called atthidographi, or compilers of atthides. The first of +these was Clidemus or Clitodemus (about 378 B.C.); the last, Ister of +Cyrene (died 212 B.C.); the most important was Philochorus (first half +of the 3rd century B.C.), of whose work considerable fragments have been +preserved. The names of the other atthidographi known to us are +Phanodemus, Demon, Androtion, Andron, Melanthius. They laid no claim to +literary skill; their style was monotonous and soon became wearisome. +They were in fact chroniclers or annalists--not historians. Their only +object was to set down, in plain and simple language, all that seemed +worthy of note in reference to the legends, history, constitution, +religion and civilization of Attica. They followed the order of the +olympiads and archons, and their work was supported by the authority of +original documents, monuments and inscriptions. Their writings were much +used by historians, as well as by the scholiasts and grammarians. + + Fragments in Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, i. + + + + +ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style"), an architectural term given to the +masonry rising above the main cornice of a building, the earliest +example known being that of the monument of Thrasyllus at Athens. It was +largely employed by the Romans, who in their arches of triumph utilized +it for inscriptions or for bas-relief sculpture. It was used also to +increase the height of enclosure walls such as those of the Forum of +Nerva. By the Italian revivalists it was utilized as a complete storey, +pierced with windows, as found in Palladio's work at Vicenza and in +Greenwich hospital. The largest attic in existence is that which +surmounts the entablature of St Peter's at Rome, which measures 39 ft. +in height. The term is also employed in modern terminology to designate +an upper storey in a roof, and the feature is sometimes introduced to +hide a roof behind. + + + + +ATTICA, a district of ancient Greece, triangular in shape, projecting in +a south-easterly direction into the Aegean Sea, the base line being +formed by the continuous chain of Mounts Cithaeron and Parnes, the apex +by the promontory of Sunium. It was washed on two sides by the sea, and +the coast is broken up into numerous small bays and harbours, which, +however, are with few exceptions exposed to the south wind. The surface +of Attica, as of the rest of Greece, is very mountainous, and between +the mountain chains lie several plains of no great size, open on one +side to the sea. On the west its natural boundary is the Corinthian +Gulf, so that it would include Megaris; indeed, before the Dorian +invasion, which resulted in the foundation of Megara, the whole country +was politically one, in the hands of the Ionian race. This is proved by +the column which, as we learn from Strabo, once stood on the Isthmus of +Corinth, bearing on one side in Greek the inscription, "This land is +Peloponnesus, not Ionia," and on the other, "This land is not +Peloponnesus, but Ionia." + +The position of Attica was one main cause of its historical importance. +Hence in part arose the maritime character of its inhabitants; and when +they had once taken to the sea, the string of neighbouring islands, +Ceos, Cythnos and others, some of which lay within sight of their +coasts, and from one to another of which it was possible to sail without +losing sight of land, served to tempt them on to further enterprises. +Similarly on land, the post it occupied between northern Greece and the +Peloponnese materially influenced its relation to other states, both in +respect of its alliances, such as that with Thessaly, towards which it +was drawn by mutual hostility to Boeotia, which lay between them; and +also in respect of offensive combinations of other powers, as that +between Thebes and Sparta, which throughout an important part of Greek +history were closely associated in their politics, through mutual dread +of their powerful neighbour. + + + Mountains. + +The mountains of Attica, which form its most characteristic feature, are +a continuation of that chain which, starting from Tymphrestus at the +southern extremity of Pindus, passes through Phocis and Boeotia under +the names of Parnassus and Helicon; from this proceeds the range which, +as Cithaeron in its western and Parnes in its eastern portion, separates +Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs southward towards the Saronic +Gulf in Aegaleos and Hymettus, which bound the plain of Athens. Again, +the eastern extremity of Parnes is joined by another line of hills, +which, separating from Mount Oeta, skirts the Euboic Gulf, and, after +entering Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus, overlooking +the plain of Marathon, and then sinks towards the sea at Sunium to rise +once more in the outlying islands. Finally, at the extreme west of the +whole district, Cithaeron is bent round at right angles in the direction +of the isthmus, at the northern approach to which it abuts against the +mighty mass of Mount Geraneia, which is interposed between the +Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. Both Cithaeron and Parnes are about +4600 ft. high, Pentelicus 3635, and Hymettus 3370, while Aegaleos does +not rise higher than 1534 ft. At the present day they are extremely +bare, and in this respect almost repellent; but the lack of colour is +compensated by the delicacy of the outlines, the minute articulation of +the minor ridges and valleys, and the symmetrical grouping of the +several mountains. + + + Soil. + +The soil is light and thin, and requires very careful agriculture not +only on the rocky mountain sides but to some extent also in the maritime +plains. This fact had considerable influence on the inhabitants, both by +enforcing industrious habits and by leading them at an early period to +take to the sea. Still, the level ground was sufficiently fertile to +form a marked contrast to the rest of the district. Thucydides +attributes to the nature of the soil (i. 2 [Greek: to leptogeon]), which +presented no attraction to invaders, the permanence of the same +inhabitants in the country, whence arose the claim to indigenousness on +which the Athenians so greatly prided themselves; while at the same time +the richer ground fostered that fondness for country life, which is +proved by the enthusiastic terms in which it is always spoken of by +Aristophanes. That we are not justified in judging of the ancient +condition of the soil by, the aridity which prevails at the present day, +is shown by the fact that out of the 182 demes (see CLEISTHENES) into +which Attica was divided, one-tenth were named from trees or plants. + + + Climate. + +The climate of Attica has always been celebrated. In approaching Attica +from Boeotia a change of temperature is felt as soon as a person +descends from Cithaeron or Parnes, and the sea breeze, which in modern +times is called [Greek: ho embates], or that which sets towards shore, +moderates the heat in summer. The Attic comedians and Plato speak with +enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the Athenian +intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attic atmosphere. It +was in the neighbourhood of Athens itself that the air was thought to +be purest. So Euripides describes the inhabitants as "ever walking +gracefully through the most luminous ether" (_Med._ 829); and Milton-- + + "Where, on the Aegean shore, a city stands, + Built nobly, pure the air, and light the soil-- + Athens, the eye of Greece." + +Or again Xenophon says "one would not err in thinking that this city is +placed near the centre of Greece--nay, of the civilized world--because, +the farther removed persons are from it, the severer is the cold or heat +they meet with" (_Vectigal._ i. 6). The air is so clear that one can see +from the Acropolis the lines of white marble that streak the sides of +Pentelicus. The brilliant colouring which is so conspicuous in an +Athenian sunset is due to the same cause. The epithet "violet-crowned," +used of Athens by Pindar, is due either to the blue haze on the +surrounding hills, or to the use of violets (or irises) for festal +wreaths. This otherwise perfect climate is slightly marred by the +prevalence of the north wind. This is expressed on the Horologium of +Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or Tower of the Winds, at +Athens, where Boreas is represented as a bearded man of stern aspect, +thickly clad, and wearing strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell, +which he holds in his hand as a sign of his tempestuous character. + + + Vegetation. + + Minerals. + +Of the flora of Attica, the olive is the most important. This tree, we +learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one time to have been found +in that country only; and the enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (_Oed. +Col._ 700) teach us that it was the land in which it flourished best. So +great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the early legend of +the struggle between the gods of sea and land, Poseidon and Athena, for +the patronage of the country, the sea-god is represented as having to +retire vanquished before the giver of the olive; and at a later period +the evidences of this contention were found in an ancient olive tree in +the Acropolis, together with three holes in the rock, said to have been +made by the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well +hard by. The fig also found its favourite home in this country, for +Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian +Phytalus, i.e. "the gardener." Both Cithaeron and Parnes must have been +wooded in former times; for on the former are laid the picturesque +silvan scenes in the _Bacchae_ of Euripides, and it was from the latter +that the wood came which caused the neighbouring deme of Acharnae to be +famous for its charcoal--the [Greek: anthrakes Parnesioi] of the +_Acharnians_ of Aristophanes (348). From the thymy slopes of Hymettus +came the famous Hymettian honey. Among the other products we must notice +the marble--both that of Pentelicus, which afforded a material of +unrivalled purity and whiteness for building the Athenian temples, and +the blue marble of Hymettus--the _trabes Hymettiae_ of Horace--which +used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces. But the +richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the silver mines of +Laurium, the yield of which was so considerable as to render silver the +principal medium of exchange in Greece, so that "a silver piece" +([Greek: argurion]) was the Greek equivalent term for money. Hence +Aeschylus speaks of the Athenians as possessing a "fountain of silver" +(_Pers._ 235), and Aristophanes makes his chorus of birds promise the +audience that, if they show him favour, owls from Laurium (i.e. silver +pieces with the emblem of Athens) shall never fail them (_Birds_, 1106). +The reputation of these coins for purity of metal and accuracy of weight +was so great that they had a very wide circulation, and in consequence +it was thought undesirable to make any alteration in the types lest +their genuineness should be doubted. This accounts for the somewhat +inartistic character which the Athenian coins maintained to the last +(see further NUMISMATICS: _Greek_, § Athens). In Strabo's time, though +the mines had almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in +considerable quantities from the scoriae; and at the present day a large +amount of lead is got in the same way, the work being chiefly carried on +by two companies, one of which is French and the ether Greek. In the +ancient workings, many of which are in the same condition as they were +left 1800 years ago, there are in all 2000 shafts and galleries. + + + Plain of Megara. + +It has been already mentioned that the base line of Attica is formed by +the chain of Cithaeron and Parnes, running from west to east; and that +from this transverse chains run southward, dividing Attica into a +succession of plains. The westernmost of these, which is separated from +the innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Alcyonium, by +an offshoot of Cithaeron, and is bounded on the east by a ridge which +ends towards the Saronic Gulf in a striking two-horned peak called +Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for geographical purposes +that we include this district under Attica, for both the Dorian race of +the inhabitants, and its dangerous proximity to Athens, caused it to be +at perpetual feud with that city; but its position as an outpost for the +Peloponnesians, together with the fact of its having once been Ionian +soil, sufficiently explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians +towards the Megarians. The great importance of Megara arose from its +commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were three in +number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, which, owing to the +nature of the ground, makes a long detour; the other two starting from +Megara, and passing, the one by a lofty though gradual route over the +ridge of Geraneia, the other along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous +precipices of the Scironian rocks. + + + Plain of Eleusis. + +To the east of the plain of Megara lies that of Eleusis, bounded on the +one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that of Aegaleos, +through a depression in which was the line of the sacred way, where the +torchlight processions from Athens used to descend to the coast, the +"brightly gleaming shores" ([Greek: lampades aktai]) of Sophocles (_Oed. +Col._ 1049). The deep bay which here runs into the land is bounded on +its southern side by the rocky island of Salamis, which was at all times +an important possession to the Athenians on account of its proximity to +their city; and the winding channel which separates that island from the +mainland in the direction of the Peiraeus was the scene of the battle of +Salamis, while on the last declivities of Mt. Aegaleos, which here +descends to the sea, was the spot where, as Byron wrote-- + + "A king sate on the rocky brow + Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis." + +The eastern portion of the plain of Eleusis was called the Thriasian +plain, and the city itself was situated in the recesses of the bay just +mentioned. + + + Plain of Athens. + +Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came that of Athens, which is the +most extensive of all, reaching from the foot of Parnes to the sea, and +bounded on the west by Aegaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most +conspicuous feature is the broad line of dark green along its western +side, formed by the olive-groves of Colonus and the gardens of the +Academy, which owe their fertility to the waters of the Cephisus. This +river is fed by copious sources on the side of Mt. Parnes, and thus, +unlike the other rivers of Attica, has a constant supply of water, which +was diverted in classical times, as it still is, into the neighbouring +plantations (cf. Sophocles, _Oed. Col._ 685). The position of Colonus +itself is marked by two bare knolls of light-coloured earth, which +caused the poet in the same chorus to apply the epithet "white" ([Greek: +argeta]) to that place. On the opposite side of the plain runs the other +river, the Ilissus, which rises from two sources on the side of Mt. +Hymettus, and skirts the eastern extremity of the city of Athens; but +this, notwithstanding its celebrity, is a mere brook, which stands in +pools a great part of the year, and in summer is completely dry. The +situation of Athens relatively to the surrounding objects is singularly +harmonious; for, while it forms a central point, so as to be the eye of +the plain, and while the altar-rock of the Acropolis and the hills by +which it is surrounded are conspicuous from every point of view, there +is no such exactness in its position as to give formality, since it is +nearer to the sea than to Parnes, and nearer to Hymettus than to +Aegaleos. The most striking summit in the neighbourhood of the city is +that of Lycabettus, on the north-eastern side; and the variety is still +further increased by the continuation of the ridge which it forms for +some distance northwards through the plain. Three roads lead to Athens +from the Boeotian frontier over the intervening mountain barrier--the +easternmost over Parnes, from Delium and Oropus by Decelea, which was +the usual route of the invading Lacedaemonians during the Peloponnesian +War; the westernmost over Cithaeron, by the pass of Dryoscephalae, or +the "Oakheads," leading from Thebes by Plataea to Eleusis, and so to +Athens, which we hear of in connexion with the battle of Plataea, and +with the escape of the Plataeans at the time of the siege of that city +in the Peloponnesian War; the third, midway between the two, by the pass +of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged height overlooking the +Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by Thrasybulus in the days of the +Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast to the south-west of Athens rises the +hill of Munychia, a mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the +town of Peiraeus. It was probably at one time an island; this was +Strabo's opinion, and at the present day the ground which joins it to +the mainland is low and swampy, and seems to have been formed by +alluvial soil brought down by the Cephisus. On one side of this, towards +Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of Phalerum, on the other the harbour +of Peiraeus, a completely land-locked inlet, safe, deep and spacious, +the approach to which was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern +side of the hill was further indented by two small but commodious +havens, which were respectively called Zea and Munychia. + + + Eastern Attica. + +The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Athens is formed by the +graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, which received its name from the deme of +Pentele at its foot, but was far more commonly known as Brilessus in +ancient times. This mountain did not form a continous chain with +Hymettus, for between them intervenes a level space of ground 2 m. in +width, which formed the entrance to the Mesogaea, an elevated undulating +plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching nearly to Sunium. At the +extremity of Hymettus, where it projects into the Saronic Gulf, was the +promontory of Zoster ("the Girdle"), which was so called because it +girdles and protects the neighbouring harbour; but in consequence of the +name, a legend was attached to it, to the effect that Latona had loosed +her girdle there. From this promontory to Sunium there runs a lower line +of mountains, and between these and the sea a fertile strip of land +intervenes, which was called the Paralia. Beyond Sunium, on the eastern +coast, were two safe ports, that of Thoricus, which is defended by the +island of Helene, forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that +of Prasiac, now called Porto Raphti ("the Tailor"), from a statue at the +entrance to which the natives have given that name. In the north-east +corner is the little plain of Marathon (q.v.), the scene of the battle +against the Persians (490 B.C.). It lies between Parnes, Pentelicus and +the sea. The bay in front is sheltered by Euboea, and on the north by a +projecting tongue of land, called Cynosura. The mountains in the +neighbourhood were the home of the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being +poor mountaineers, and having nothing to lose, were the principal +advocates of political reform; while, on the other hand, the Pedieis, or +inhabitants of the plains, being wealthy landholders, formed the strong +conservative element, and the Parali, or occupants of the sea-coast, +representing the mercantile interest, held an intermediate position +between the two (see CLEISTHENES). Finally, there was one district of +Attica, the territory of Oropus, which properly belonged to Boeotia, as +it was situated to the north of Parnes; but on this the Athenians always +endeavoured to retain a firm hold, because it facilitated their +communications with Euboea. The command of that island was of the utmost +importance to them; for, if Aegina could rightly be called "the eyesore +of the Peiraeus," Euboea was quite as truly a thorn in the side of +Attica; for we learn from Demosthenes (_De Cor._ p. 307) that at one +period the pirates that made it their headquarters so infested the +neighbouring sea as to prevent all navigation. + + + Excavations. + +The place in Attica which has been the chief scene of excavations +(independently of Athens and its vicinity) is Eleusis (q.v.), where +the remains of the sanctuary of Demeter, the home of the Eleusinian +Mysteries, together with other buildings in its neighbourhood, were +cleared by the Greek Archaeological Society in 1882-1887 and 1895-1896. +Of the other classical ruins in Attica the best-known is the temple of +Athena at Sunium, which forms a conspicuous object on the headland, to +which it gave the name of Cape Colonnae, still used by the peasants. It +is in the Doric style, of white marble, and eleven columns of the +peristyle and one of the pronaos are now standing. At Thoricus there is +a theatre, which was cleared of earth by the archaeologists of the +American School in 1886. In the neighbourhood of Rhamnus are the remains +of two temples that stood side by side, the larger of which was +dedicated to Nemesis, the smaller probably to Themis, of which goddess a +fine statue was discovered in its ruins in the course of the excavations +of the Greek Archaeological Society in 1890. The same Society, in +1884,1886 and 1887, excavated the sanctuary of Amphiaraus, 4 m. from +Oropus; in ancient times this was the resort of numerous invalids, who +came thither to consult the healing divinity. Within it were found a +temple of Amphiaraus, a large altar, and a long colonnade, which may +have been the dormitory where the patients slept in hope of obtaining +counsel in dreams. There were also baths and a small theatre, and +numerous inscriptions relating to the arrangement and observances of the +sanctuary and oracle. The walls and towers also of the city of +Eleutherae and the fortress of Phyle are fine specimens of Hellenic +fortifications. + +Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern times little need be +said, for it has followed for the most part the fortunes of Athens. The +population, however, has undergone a great change, independently of the +large admixture of Slavonic blood that has affected the Greeks of the +mainland generally, by the immigration of Albanian colonists, who now +occupy a great part of the country. The district formed part of the +_nome_ (administrative division) of Boeotia and Attica until 1899, when +it became a separate _nome_. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols. + ii. and v. (London, 1898); W.M. Leake, _The Demi of Attica_ (2nd ed., + London, 1841); Chr. Wordsworth, _Athens and Attica_ (4th ed., London, + 1869); C. Bursian, _Geographic von Griechenland_, vol. i. (Leipzig, + 1862); Baedeker's _Greece_ (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1908); _Karten von + Attica_, published by the German Archaeological Institute of Athens, + with explanatory text, chiefly by Professor Milchhofer (1875-1903); + see also ATHENS, ELEUSIS and GREECE: _Topography_. (H. F. T.) + + + + +ATTIC BASE, the term given in architecture to the base of the Roman +Ionic order, consisting of an upper and lower torus, separated by a +scotia (q.v.) and fillets. It was the favourite base of the Romans, +and was employed by them for columns of the Corinthian and Composite +orders, and in Byzantine and Romanesque work would seem to have been +generally adopted as a model. + + + + +ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS (109-32 B.C.), Roman patron of letters, was +born at Rome three years before Cicero, with whom he and the younger +Marius were educated. His name was Titus Pomponius, that of Atticus, by +which he is known, being given him afterwards from his long residence in +Athens (86-65) and his intimate acquaintance with the Greek literature +and language. His family is said to have been of noble and ancient +descent; his father belonged to the equestrian order, and was very +wealthy. When Pomponius was still a young man his father died, and he at +once took the prudent resolution of transferring himself and his fortune +to Athens, in order to escape the dangers of the civil war, in which he +might have been involved through his connexion with the murdered +tribune, Sulpicius Rufus. Here he lived in retirement, devoting himself +entirely to study. On his return to Rome, he took possession of an +inheritance left him by his uncle and assumed the name of Quintus +Caecilius Pomponianus. From this time he kept aloof from political +strife, attaching himself to no particular party, and continuing on +intimate terms with men so opposed as Caesar and Pompey, Antony and +Octavian. His most intimate friend, however, was Cicero, whose +correspondence with him extended over many years, and who seems to have +found his prudent counsel and sympathy a remedy for all his many +troubles. His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry till +he was fifty-three years of age, and his only child became the wife of +Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister of Augustus. In 32, +being seized with an illness believed to be incurable, he starved +himself to death. Of his writings none is extant, but mention is made of +two: a Greek history of Cicero's consulship, and some annals, in Latin, +an epitome of the events of Roman history down to the year 54. His most +important work was his edition of the letters addressed to him by +Cicero. He also formed a large library at Athens, and engaged a staff of +slaves to make copies of valuable works. + + See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Berwick, _Lives of Messalla Corvinus and + T.P.A._ (1813); Fialon, _Thesis in T.P.A._ (1861); Boissier, _Cicéron + et ses amis_ (1888: Eng. trans. A.D. Jones, 1897); Peter, + _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta._ + + + + +ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS (c. A.D. 101-177), Greek rhetorician, +was born at Marathon in Attica. He belonged to a wealthy and +distinguished family, and received a careful education under the most +distinguished masters of the time, especially in rhetoric and +philosophy. His talents gained him the favourable notice of Hadrian, who +appointed him praefect of the free towns in the province of Asia (125). +On his return to Athens, he attained great celebrity as an orator and +teacher of rhetoric, and was elected to the office of archon. In 140 he +was summoned by Antoninus Pius to undertake the education of Marcus +Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and received many marks of favour, amongst +them the consulship (143). He is principally celebrated, however, for +the vast sums he expended on public purposes. He built at Athens a great +race-course of Pentelic marble, and a splendid musical theatre, called +the Odeum in memory of his wife Regilla, which still exists. At Corinth +he built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium, at Thermopylae hot baths, at +Canusium in Italy an aqueduct. He even contemplated cutting a canal +through the Isthmus of Corinth, but was afraid to carry out his plan +because the same thing had been unsuccessfully attempted before by the +emperor Nero. Many of the partially ruined cities of Greece were +restored by Atticus, and numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude +to their benefactor. His latter years were embittered by family +misfortune, and having incurred the enmity of the Athenians, he withdrew +from Athens to his villa near Marathon, where he died. He enjoyed a very +high reputation amongst his contemporaries, and wrote numerous works, of +which the only one to come down to us is a rhetorical exercise _On the +Constitution_ (ed. Hass, 1880), advocating an alliance of the Thebans +and Peloponnesians against Archelaus, king of Macedonia. The genuineness +of this speech, which is of little merit, has been disputed. + + Philostratus, _Vit. Soph._ ii. 1; Fiorillo, _Herodis Attici quae + supersunt_ (1801); _A Biographical Notice of A.H._ (London, 1832), + privately printed; Fuelles, _De Herodis Attici Vita_ (1864); + Vidal-Lablache, _Hérode Atticus_ (1871). + + + + +ATTILA (d. 453), king of the Huns, became king in 433, along with his +brother Bleda, on the death of his uncle Roua. We hear but little as to +Bleda, who died about 445, possibly slain by his brother's orders. In +the first eight years of his reign Attila was chiefly occupied in the +wars with other barbarian tribes, by which he made himself virtually +supreme in central Europe. His own special kingdom comprised the +countries which are now called Hungary and Transylvania, his capital +being possibly not far from the modern city of Buda-Pest; but having +made the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae and many other Teutonic tribes his +subject-allies, and having also sent his invading armies into Media, he +seems for nearly twenty years to have ruled practically without a rival +from the Caspian to the Rhine. Very early in his reign, Honoria, +grand-daughter of the emperor Theodosius II., being subjected to severe +restraint on account of an amorous intrigue with one of the chamberlains +of the palace, sent her ring to the king of the Huns and called on him +to be her husband and her deliverer. Nothing came of the proposed +engagement, but the wrongs of Honoria, his affianced wife, served as a +convenient pretext for some of the constantly recurring embassies with +which Attila, fond of trampling on the fallen majesty of Rome, worried +and bullied the two courts of Constantinople and Ravenna. Another +frequent subject of complaint was found in certain sacred vessels which +the bishop of Sirmium had sent as a bribe to the secretary of Attila, +and which had been by him, fraudulently, as his master contended, pawned +to a silversmith at Rome. There were also frequent and imperious demands +for the surrender of fugitives who had sought shelter from the wrath of +Attila within the limits of the empire. One of the return embassies from +Constantinople, that sent in 448, had the great advantage of being +accompanied by a rhetorician named Priscus, whose minute journalistic +account of the negotiations, including as it does a vivid picture of the +great Hun in his banquet-hall, is by far the most valuable source of +information as to the court and camp of Attila. What lends additional +interest to the story is the fact that in the ambassador's suite there +was an interpreter named Vigilas, who for fifty pounds of gold had +promised to assassinate Attila. This base design was discovered by the +Hunnish king, but had never been revealed to the head of the embassy or +to his secretary. The situations created by this strange combination of +honest diplomacy and secret villainy are described by Priscus with real +dramatic power. + +In 450 Theodosius II., the incapable emperor of the East, died, and his +throne was occupied by a veteran soldier named Marcian, who answered the +insulting message of Attila in a manlier tone than his predecessor. +Accordingly the Hun, who had something of the bully in his nature, now +turned upon Valentinian III., the trembling emperor of the West, and +demanded redress for the wrongs of Honoria, and one-half of +Valentinian's dominions as her dowry. Allying himself with the Franks +and Vandals, he led his vast many-nationed army to the Rhine in the +spring of 451, crossed that river, and sacked, apparently, most of the +cities in Belgic Gaul. Most fortunately for Europe, the Teutonic races +already settled in Gaul rallied to the defence of the empire against +invaders infinitely more barbarous than themselves. Prominent in this +new coalition was Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, whose capital city +was Toulouse. His firm fighting alliance with the Roman general Aëtius, +with whom he had had many a conflict in previous years, was one of the +best auguries for the new Europe that was to arise out of the ruins of +the Roman empire. Meanwhile Attila had reached the Loire and was +besieging the strong city of Orléans. The citizens, under the leadership +of their bishop Anianus, made a heroic defence, but the place was on the +point of being taken when, on the 24th of June, the allied Romano-Gothic +army was seen on the horizon. Attila, who knew the difficulty that he +should have in feeding his immense army if his march was further +delayed, turned again to the north-east, was persuaded by the venerable +bishop Lupus to spare the city of Troyes, but halted near that place in +the Catalaunian plains and offered battle to his pursuers Aëtius and +Theodoric. The battle which followed--certainly one of the decisive +battles of the world--has been well described by the Gothic historian +Jordanes as "ruthless, manifold, immense, obstinate." It lasted for the +whole day, and the number of the slain is variously stated at 175,000 +and 300,000. All such estimates are, of course, untrustworthy, but there +is no doubt that the carnage was terrible. The Visigothic king was +slain, but the victory, though hardly earned, remained with his people +and his allies. Attila did not venture to renew the engagement on the +morrow, but retreated, apparently in good order, on the Rhine, recrossed +that river and returned to his Pannonian home. From thence in the spring +of 452 he again set forth to ravage or to conquer Italy. Her great +champion Aëtius showed less energy in her cause than he had shown in his +defence of Gaul. After a stubborn contest, Attila took and utterly +destroyed Aquileia, the chief city of Venetia, and then proceeded on his +destructive course, capturing and burning the cities at the head of the +Adriatic, Concordia, Altinum and Patavium (Padua). The fugitives from +these cities, but especially from the last, seeking shelter in the +lagoons of the Adriatic, laid the foundations of that which was one day +to become the glorious city of Venice. Upon Milan and the cities of +western Lombardy the hand of Attila seems to have weighed more lightly, +plundering rather than utterly destroying; and at last when Pope Leo I., +at the head of a deputation of Roman senators, appeared in his camp on +the banks of the Mincio, entreating him not to pursue his victorious +career to the gates of Rome, he yielded to their entreaties and +consented to cross the Alps, with a menace, however, of future return, +should the wrongs of Honoria remain unredressed. As he himself jokingly +said: he knew how to conquer men, but the Lion and the Wolf (Leo and +Lupus) were too strong for him. No further expeditions to Italy were +undertaken by Attila, who died suddenly in 453, in the night following a +great banquet which celebrated his marriage with a damsel named Ildico. +Notwithstanding some rumours of violence it is probable that his death +was natural and due to his own intemperate habits. + +Under his name of Etzel, Attila plays a great part in Teutonic legend +(see NIBELUNGENLIED) and under that of Atli in Scandinavian Saga, but +his historic lineaments are greatly obscured in both. He was short of +stature, swarthy and broad-chested, with a large head which early turned +grey, snub nose and deep-set eyes. He walked with proud step, darting a +haughty glance this way and that as if he felt himself lord of all. + + The chief authorities for the life of Attila are Priscus, Jordanes, + the _Historia Miscella_, Apollonius Sidonius and Gregory of Tours. + (T. H.) + + + + +ATTIS, or ATYS, a deity worshipped in Phrygia, and later throughout the +Roman empire, in conjunction with the Great Mother of the Gods. Like +Aphrodite and Adonis in Syria, Baal and Astarte at Sidon, and Isis and +Osiris in Egypt, the Great Mother and Attis formed a duality which +symbolized the relations between Mother Earth and her fruitage. Their +worship included the celebration of mysteries annually on the return of +the spring season. Attis was also known as Papas, and the Bithynians and +Phrygians, according to evidence of the time of the late Empire, called +him Zeus. He was never worshipped independently, however, though the +worship of the Great Mother was not always accompanied by his. He was +confused with Pan, Sabazios, Men and Adonis, and there were resemblances +between the orgiastic features of his worship and that of Dionysus. His +resemblance to Adonis has led to the theory that the names of the two +are identical, and that Attis is only the Semitic companion of Syrian +Aphrodite grafted on to the Phrygian Great Mother worship (Haakh, +_Stuttgarter-Philolog.-Vers._, 1857, 176 ff.). It is likely, however, +that Attis, like the Great Mother, was indigenous to Asia Minor, adopted +by the invading Phrygians, and blended by them with a deity of their +own. + +_Legends._--According to Pausanias (vii. 17), Attis was a beautiful +youth born of the daughter of the river Sangarius, who was descended +from the hermaphroditic Agdistis, a monster sprung from the earth by the +seed of Zeus. Having become enamoured of Attis, Agdistis struck him with +frenzy as he was about to wed the king's daughter, with the result that +he deprived himself of manhood and died. Agdistis in repentance +prevailed upon Zeus to grant that the body of the youth should never +decay or waste. In Arnobius (v. 5-8) Attis emasculates himself under a +pine tree, which the Great Mother bears into her cave as she and +Agdistis together wildly lament the death of the youth. Zeus grants the +petition as in the version of Pausanias, but permits the hair of Attis +to grow, and his little finger to move. The little finger, _digitus_, +[Greek: daktylos], is interpreted as the phallus by Georg Kaibel +(_Gottinger Nachrichten_, 1901, p. 513). In Diodorus (in. 58, 59) the +Mother is the carnal lover of Attis, and, when her father the king +discovers her fault and kills her lover, roams the earth in wild grief. +In Ovid (_Fasti_, iv. 223 ff.) she is inspired with chaste love for him, +which he pledges himself to reciprocate. On his proving unfaithful, the +Great Mother slays the nymph with whom he has sinned, whereupon in +madness he mutilates himself as a penalty. Another form of the legend +(Paus. vii. 17), showing the influence of the Aphrodite-Adonis myth, +relates that Attis, the impotent son of the Phrygian Caläust Lydia to +institute the worship of the Great Mother, and was there slain by a boar +sent by Zeus. + + See GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS; J.G. Frazer, _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_ + (1906). (G. Sn.) + + + + +ATTLEBOROUGH, a township of Bristol county, in south-east Massachusetts, +U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 7577; (1900) 11,335, of whom 3237 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 16,215 It is traversed by the New York, New Haven & +Hartford railway, and by inter-urban electric lines. It has an area of +28 sq. m. The population is largely concentrated in and about the +village which bears the name of the township. In Attleborough are the +Attleborough Home Sanitarium, and a public library (1885). The principal +manufactures of the township are jewelry, silverware, cotton goods, +cotton machinery, coffin trimmings, and leather. In 1905 the total value +of the township's factory products was $10,050,384, of which $5,544,285 +was the value of jewelry, Attleborough ranking fourth among the cities +of the country in this industry, and producing 10.4% of the total +jewelry product of the United States. Attleborough was incorporated in +1694, though settled soon after 1661 (records since 1672) as part of +Rehoboth. In 1887 the township was divided in population, wealth and +area by the creation of the township of NORTH ATTLEBOROUGH--pop. (1890) +6727; (1900) 7253, of whom 1786 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) +7878. This township produced manufactured goods in 1900 to the value of +$3,990,731, jewelry valued at $2,785,567; it maintains the Richards +memorial library. + + See J. Daggett, _A Sketch of the History of Attleborough to 1887_ + (Boston, 1894). + + + + +ATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Rawalpindi district of +the Punjab, 47 m. by rail from Peshawar, and situated on the eastern +bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901) 2822. The place is of both political and +commercial importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the military and +trade route through the Khyber Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the +Great, Tamerlane and Nadir Shah are believed to have successively +crossed the Indus at or about this spot in their respective invasions of +India. The river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yds. +broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen. The +rocky gorges through which it flows, with a distant view of the Hindu +Kush, form some of the finest scenery in the world. In 1883 an iron +girder bridge of five spans was opened, which carries the North-Western +railway to Peshawar, and has also a subway for wheeled traffic and foot +passengers. The fort of Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in 1581, +on a low hillock beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and +the whole structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is +of little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is +divided only by a ravine. On the opposite side of the river is the +village of Khairabad, with a fort, also erected by Akbar according to +some, or by Nadir Shah according to others. The military importance of +Attock has diminished, but it still has a small detachment of British +troops. + + + + +ATTORNEY (from O. Fr. _atorné_ a person appointed to act for another, +from _atourner_, legal Lat. _attornare_, attorn, literally to turn over +to another or commit business to another), in English law, in its widest +sense, any substitute or agent appointed to act in "the turn, stead or +place of another." Attorneys are of two kinds, attorneys-in-fact and +attorneys-at-law. An attorney-in-fact is simply an agent, the extent of +whose capacity to act is bounded only by the powers embodied in his +authority, his _power of attorney_. An attorney-at-law was a public +officer, conducting legal proceedings on behalf of others, known as his +clients, and attached to the supreme courts of common law at +Westminster. Attorneys-at-law corresponded to the solicitors of the +courts of chancery and the proctors of the admiralty, ecclesiastical, +probate and divorce courts. Since the passing of the Judicature Act of +1873, however, the designation "attorney" has become obsolete in +England, all persons admitted as solicitors, attorneys or proctors of +an English court being henceforth called "solicitors of the supreme +court" (see SOLICITOR). + +In the United States an attorney-at-law exercises all the functions +distributed in England between barristers, attorneys and solicitors, and +his full title is "attorney and counsellor-at-law." When acting in a +court of admiralty he is styled "proctor" or "advocate." Formerly, in +some states, there existed a grade among lawyers of attorneys-at-law, +which was inferior to that of counsellors-at-law, and in colonial times +New Jersey established a higher rank still--that of serjeant-at-law. Now +the term attorney-at-law is precisely equivalent to that of lawyer. +Attorneys are admitted by some court to which the legislature confides +the power, and on examination prescribed by the court, or by a board of +state examiners, as the case may be. The term of study required is +generally two or three years, but in some states less. In one no +examination is required. College graduates are often admitted to +examination after a shorter term of study than that required from those +not so educated. In the courts of the United States, admission is +regulated by rules of court and based upon a previous admission to the +state bar. In almost all states aliens are not admitted as attorneys, +and in many states women are ineligible, but during recent years several +states have passed statutes permitting them to practise. Since 1879 +women have been eligible to practise before the U.S. Supreme Court, if +already admitted to practise in some state court, under the same +conditions as men. A _state attorney_ or _district attorney_ is the +local public prosecutor. He is either elected by popular vote at the +state elections for the district in which he resides and goes out of +office with the political party for which he was elected, or he is +appointed by the governor of the state for that district and for the +same term. He represents the state in criminal prosecutions and also in +civil actions within his district. There is a _United States district +attorney_ in each federal district, similarly representing the federal +government before the courts. + +An attorney is an officer of the court which admits him to practise, and +he is subject to its discipline. He is liable to his client in damages +for failure to exercise ordinary care and skill, and he can bring action +for the value of his services. He has a lien on his client's papers, and +usually on any judgment in favour of his client to secure the payment of +his fees. (See also under BAR, THE.) + + + + +ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England, the chief law officer appointed to manage +all the legal affairs and suits in which the crown is interested. He is +appointed by letters-patent authorizing him to hold office during the +sovereign's pleasure. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and only +counsel of the highest eminence are appointed to the office. The origin +of the office is uncertain, but as far back as 1277 we find an +_attornatus regis_ appointed to look after the interests of the crown, +in proceedings affecting it before the courts. He has precedence in all +the courts, and in the House of Lords he has precedence of the lord +advocate, even in Scottish appeals, but unlike the lord advocate and the +Irish attorney-general he is not necessarily made a privy councillor. He +is a necessary party to all proceedings affecting the crown, and has +extensive powers of control in matters relating to charities, lunatics' +estates, criminal prosecutions, &c. The attorney-general and the +solicitor-general are always members of the House of Commons (except for +temporary difficulties in obtaining a seat) and of the ministry, being +selected from the party in power, and their advice is at the disposal of +the government and of each department of the government, while in the +House of Commons they defend the legality of ministerial action if +called in question. Previously to 1895 there was no restriction placed +on the law officers as to their acceptance of private practice, but +since that date this privilege has been withdrawn, and the salary of the +attorney-general is fixed at £7000 a year and in addition such fees +according to the ordinary professional scales as he may receive for any +litigious business he may conduct on behalf of the crown. The crown has +also as a legal adviser an attorney-general in Ireland. In Scotland he +is called lord advocate (q.v.). There is also an attorney-general in +almost all the British colonies, and his duties are very similar to +those of the same officer in England. In the self-governing colonies he +is appointed by the administration of the colony, and in the crown +colonies by royal warrant under the signet and sign-manual. There is an +attorney-general for the duchy of Cornwall and also one for the duchy of +Lancaster, each of whom sues in matters relating to that duchy. + +The United States has an officer of this name, who has a seat in the +cabinet. His duties are in general to represent the federal government +before the United States Supreme Court, to advise the president on +questions of law, and to advise similarly the heads of the state +departments with reference to matters affecting their department. His +opinions are published by the government periodically for the use of its +officials and they are frequently cited by the courts. Every state but +one or two has a similar officer. He represents the state in important +legal matters, and is often required to assist the local prosecutor in +trials for capital offences. He appears for the public interest in suits +affecting public charities. He is generally elected by the people for +the same term as the governor and on the same ticket. + + + + +ATTORNMENT (from Fr. _tourner_, to turn), in English real property law, +the acknowledgment of a new lord by the tenant on the alienation of +land. Under the feudal system, the relations of landlord and tenant were +to a certain extent reciprocal. So it was considered unreasonable to the +tenant to subject him to a new lord without his own approval, and it +thus came about that alienation could not take place without the consent +of the tenant. Attornment was also extended to all cases of lessees for +life or for years. The necessity for attornment was abolished by an act +of 1705. The term is now used to indicate an acknowledgment of the +existence of the relationship of landlord and tenant. An +attornment-clause, in mortgages, is a clause whereby the mortgagor +attorns tenant to the mortgagee, thus giving the mortgagee the right to +distrain, as an additional security. + + + + +ATTRITION (Lat. _attritio_, formed from _atterere_, to rub away), a +rubbing away; a term used in pathology and geology. Theologians have +also distinguished "attrition" from "contrition" in the matter of sin, +as an imperfect stage in the process of repentance; attrition being due +to servile fear of the consequences of sin, contrition to filial fear of +God and hatred of sin for His sake. It has been held among the Roman +Catholics that in the sacrament of penance attrition becomes contrition. + + + + +ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1765-1838), English composer, the son of a coal +merchant who had musical tastes, was born in London on the 23rd of +November 1765. At the age of nine he became a chorister in the Chapel +Royal, where he remained for five years. In 1783 he was sent to study +abroad at the expense of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), +who had been favourably impressed by his skill at the harpsichord. After +spending two years at Naples, Attwood proceeded to Vienna, where he +became a favourite pupil of Mozart. On his return to London in 1787 he +held for a short time an appointment as one of the chamber musicians to +the prince of Wales. In 1796 he was chosen organist of St Paul's, and in +the same year he was made composer to the Chapel Royal. His court +connexion was further confirmed by his appointment as musical instructor +to the duchess of York, and afterwards to the princess of Wales. For the +coronation of George IV. he composed the anthem, "The King shall +rejoice," a work of high merit. The king, who had neglected him for some +years on account of his connexion with the princess of Wales, now +restored him to favour, and in 1821 appointed him organist to his +private chapel at Brighton. Soon after the institution of the Royal +Academy of Music in 1823, Attwood was chosen one of the professors. He +was also one of the original members of the Philharmonic Society, +founded in 1813. He wrote the anthem, "O Lord, grant the King a Long +Life," which was performed at the coronation of William IV., and he was +composing a similar work for the coronation of Queen Victoria when he +died at his house in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, on the 24th of March 1838. He +was buried under the organ in St Paul's cathedral. His services and +anthems were published in a collected form after his death by his pupil +Walmisley. Of his secular compositions several songs and glees are well +known and popular. The numerous operas which he composed in early life +are now practically forgotten. Of his songs the most popular was "The +Soldier's Dream," and the best of his glees were "In peace Love tunes +the shepherd's reed," and "To all that breathe the air of Heaven." +Attwood was a friend of Mendelssohn, for whom he professed an admiration +at a time when the young German's talent was little appreciated by the +majority of English musicians. + + + + +ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1783-1856), English political reformer, was born at +Halesowen, Worcestershire, on the 6th of October 1783. In 1800 he +entered his father's banking business in Birmingham, where he was +elected high bailiff in 1811. He took a leading part in the public life +of the city, and became very popular with the artisan class. He is now +remembered for his share in the movement which led to the carrying of +the Reform Act of 1832. He was one of the founders, in January 1830, of +the Political Union, branches of which were soon formed throughout +England. Under his leadership vast crowds of working-men met +periodically in the neighbourhood of Birmingham to demonstrate in favour +of reform of the franchise, and Attwood used his power over the +multitude to repress any action on their part which might savour of +illegality. His successful exertions in favour of reform made him a +popular hero all over the country, and he was presented with the freedom +of the city of London. After the passing of the Reform Act in 1832 he +was elected one of the members for the new borough of Birmingham, for +which he sat till 1839. He failed in the House of Commons to maintain +the reputation which he had made outside it, for in addition to an eager +partisanship in favour of every ultra-democratic movement, he was +wearisomely persistent in advocating his peculiar monetary theory. This +theory, which became with him a monomania, was that the existing +currency should be rectified in favour of state-regulated and +inconvertible paper-money, and the adoption of a system for altering the +standard of value as prices fluctuated. His waning influence with his +constituents led him to retire from parliament in 1837, and, though +invited to re-enter political life in 1843, he had by that time become a +thoroughly spent force. He died at Great Malvern on the 6th of March +1856. + + His grandson, C.M. Wakefield, wrote his life "for private circulation" + (there is a copy in the British Museum), and his economic theories are + set forth in a little book, _Gemini_, by T.B. Wright and J. Harlow, + published in 1844. + + + + +ATWOOD, GEORGE (1746-1807), English mathematician, was born in the early +part of the year 1746. He entered Westminster school, and in 1759 was +elected to a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in +1769, with the rank of third wrangler and first Smith's prizeman. +Subsequently he became a fellow and a tutor of the college, and in 1776 +was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In the year 1784 he +left Cambridge, and soon afterwards received from William Pitt the +office of a patent searcher of the customs, which required but little +attendance, and enabled him to devote a considerable portion of his time +to his special studies. He died in July 1807. Atwood's published works, +exclusive of papers contributed to the _Philosophical Transactions_, for +one of which he obtained the Copley medal, are as follows:--_Analysis of +a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophy_ +(Cambridge, 1784); _Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of +Bodies_ (Cambridge, 1784), which gives some interesting experiments, by +means of which mechanical truths can be ocularly exhibited and +demonstrated, and describes the machine, since called by Atwood's name, +for verifying experimentally the laws of simple acceleration of motion; +_Review of the Statutes and Ordinances of Assize which have been +established in England from the 4th year of King John, 1202, to the 37th +of his present Majesty_ (London, 1801), a work of some historical +research; _Dissertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches_ +(London, 1801), with supplement, pt. i., 1801, pt. ii., 1804, an +elaborate work, now completely superseded. + + + + +AUBADE (a French word from _aube_, the dawn), the dawn-song of the +troubadours of Provence, developed by the Minnesingers (q.v.) of Germany +into the _Tagelied_, the song of the parting at dawn of lovers at the +warning of the watchman. In France in modern times the term is applied +to the performance of a military band in the early morning in honour of +some distinguished person. + + + + +AUBAGNE, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of +Bouches-du-Rhône on the Huveaune, 11 m. E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. +(1906) 6039. The town carries on the manufacture of earthenware and +pottery, leather, &c. and the cultivation of fruit and wine. There is a +fountain to the memory of the statesman, F. Barthélemy (d. 1830), born +at Aubagne. + + + + +AUBE, a department of north-eastern France, bounded N. by the department +of Marne, N.W. by Seine-et-Marne, W. by Yonne, S. by Yonne and +Cote-d'Or, and E. by Haute-Marne; it was formed in 1790 from +Basse-Champagne, and a small portion of Burgundy. Area, 2326 sq. m. Pop. +(1906) 243,670. The department belongs to the Seine basin, and is +watered chiefly by the Seine and the Aube. These rivers follow the +general slope of the department, which is from south-east, where the +Bois du Mont (1200 ft.), the highest point, is situated, to north-west. +The southern and eastern districts are fertile and well wooded. The +remainder of the department, with the exception of a more broken and +picturesque district in the extreme north-west, forms part of the +sterile and monotonous plain known as Champagne Pouilleuse. The climate +is mild but damp. The annual rainfall over the greater part varies from +24 to 28 in.; but in the extreme south-east it at times reaches a height +of 36 in. Aube is an agricultural department; more than one third of its +surface consists of arable land of which the chief products are wheat +and oats, and next to them rye, barley and potatoes; vegetables are +extensively cultivated in the valleys of the Seine and the Aube. The +vine flourishes chiefly on the hills of the south-east; the wines of Les +Riceys, Bar-sur-Aube, Bouilly and Laines-aux-Bois are most esteemed. The +river valleys abound in natural pasture, and sainfoin, lucerne and other +forage crops are largely grown; cattle-raising is an important source of +wealth, and the cheeses of Troyes are well known. There are excellent +nurseries and orchards in the neighbourhood of Troyes, Bar-sur-Seine, +Méry-sur-Seine and Brienne. Chalk, from which _blanc de Troyes_ is +manufactured, and clay are abundant; and there are peat workings and +quarries of building-stone and limestone. The spinning and weaving of +cotton and the manufacture of hosiery, of both of which Troyes is the +centre, are the main industries of the department; there are also a +large number of distilleries, tanneries, oil works, tile and brick +works, flour-mills, saw-mills and dye-works. The Eastern railway has +works at Romilly, and there are iron works at Clairvaux and wire-drawing +works at Plaines; but owing to the absence of coal and iron mines, metal +working is of small importance. The exports of Aube consist of timber, +cereals, agricultural products, hosiery, wine, dressed pork, &c.; its +imports include wool and raw cotton, coal and machinery, especially +looms. The department is served by the Eastern railway, of which the +main line to Belfort crosses it. The river Aube is navigable for 28 m. +(from Arcis-sur-Aube to its confluence with the Seine); the Canal de la +Haute-Seine extends beside the Seine from Bar-sur-Seine to Marcilly +(just outside the department) a distance of 46 m.; below Marcilly the +Seine is canalized. + +Aube is divided into 5 arrondissements with 26 cantons and 446 communes. +It falls within the educational circumscription (_academie_) of Dijon +and the military circumscription of the XX. army corps; its court of +appeal is in Paris. It constitutes the diocese of Troyes and part of the +archiepiscopal province of Sens. The capital of the department is +Troyes; of the arrondissements the capitals are Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, +Arcis-sur-Aube, Bar-sur-Seine and Nogent-sur-Seine. The architecture of +the department is chiefly displayed in its churches, many of which +possess stained glass of the 16th century. Besides the cathedral and +other churches of Troyes, those of Mussy-sur-Seine (13th century), +Chaource (16th century) and Nogent-sur-Seine (15th and 16th centuries), +are of note. The abbey buildings of Clairvaux are the type of the +Cistercian abbey. + + + + +AUBENAS, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Ardèche, +19 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 3976 (town), 7064 (commune). +Aubenas is beautifully situated on the slope of a hill, on the right +bank of the Ardèche, but its streets generally are crooked and narrow. +It has a castle of the 13th and 16th centuries, now occupied by several +of the public institutions of the town. These include a tribunal and +chamber of commerce, and a conditioning-house for silk. Iron and coal +mines are worked in the vicinity. As the centre of the silk trade of +southern France Aubenas is a place of considerable traffic. It has also +a large silk spinning and weaving industry, and carries on tanning and +various minor industries together with trade in silk. The district is +rich in plantations of mulberries and olives. + + + + +AUBER, DANIEL FRANÇOIS ESPRIT (1782-1871), French musical composer, the +son of a Paris printseller, was born at Caen in Normandy on the 29th of +January 1782. Destined by his father to the pursuits of trade, he was +allowed, nevertheless, to indulge his fondness for music, and learnt to +play at an early age on several instruments, his first teacher being the +Tirolean composer, I.A. Ladurner. Sent at the age of twenty to London to +complete his business training, he was obliged to leave England in +consequence of the breach of the treaty of Amiens (1804). He had already +attempted musical composition, and at this period produced several +_concertos pour basse_, in the manner of the violoncellist, Lamarre, in +whose name they were published. The praise given to his concerto for the +violin, which was played at the Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him +to undertake the resetting of the old comic opera, _Julie_ (1811). +Conscious by this time of the need of regular study of his chosen art, +he placed himself under the severe training of Cherubini, by which the +special qualities of the young composer were admirably developed. In +1813 he made his _début_ in an opera in one act, the _Séjour militaire_, +the unfavourable reception of which put an end for some years to his +attempts as composer. But the failure in business and death of his +father, in 1819, compelled him once more to turn to music, and to make +that which had been his pastime the serious employment of his life. He +produced another opera, the _Testament et les billets-deux_ (1819), +which was no better received than the former. But he persevered, and the +next year was rewarded by the complete success of his _Bergère +châtelaine_, an opera in three acts. This was the first in a long series +of brilliant successes. In 1822 began his long association with A.E. +Scribe, who shared with him, as librettist, the success and growing +popularity of his compositions. The opera of _Leicester_, in which they +first worked together (1823), is remarkable also as showing evidences of +the influence of Rossini. But his own style was an individual one, +marked by lightness and facility, sparkling vivacity, grace and +elegance, clear and piquant melody--characteristically French. In _La +Muette de Portici_, familiarly known as _Masaniello_, Auber achieved his +greatest musical triumph. Produced at Paris in 1828, it rapidly became a +European favourite, and its overture, songs and choruses were everywhere +heard. The duet, "Amour sacré de la patrie," was welcomed like a new +_Marseillaise_; sung by Nourrit at Brussels in 1830, it became the +signal for the revolution which broke out there. Of Auber's remaining +operas (about 50 in all) the more important are: _Le Maçon_ (1825), _La +Fiancée_ (1829), _Fra Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _Le Cheval de +bronze_ (1835), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino noir_ (1837), _Le +Lac des fées_ (1839), _Les Diamants de la couronne_ (1841), _Haydée_ +(1847), _Marco Spada_ (1853), _Manon Lescaut_ (1856), and _La Fiancée du +roi des Garbes_ (1864). Official and other dignities testified the +public appreciation of Auber's works. In 1829 he was elected member of +the Institute, in 1830 he was named director of the court concerts, and +in 1842, at the wish of Louis Philippe, he succeeded Cherubini as +director of the Conservatoire. He was also a member of the Legion of +Honour from 1825, and attained the rank of commander in 1847. Napoleon +III. made Auber his Imperial Maître de Chapelle in 1857. + +One of Auber's latest compositions was a march, written for the opening +of the International Exhibition in London in 1862. His fascinating +manners, his witty sayings, and his ever-ready kindness and beneficence +won for him a secure place in the respect and love of his +fellow-citizens. He remained in his old home during the German siege of +Paris, 1870-71, but the miseries of the Communist war which followed +sickened his heart, and he died in Paris on the 13th of May 1871. + + See Adolph Kohut, "Auber," vol. xvii. of _Musiker Biographien_ + (Leipzig, 1895). + + + + +AUBERGINE (diminutive of Fr. _auberge_, a variant of _alberge_, a kind +of peach), or EGG PLANT (_Solanum melongena_, var. _ovigerum_), a tender +annual widely cultivated in the warmer parts of the earth, and in France +and Italy, for the sake of its fruits, which are eaten as a vegetable. +The seed should be sown early in February in a warm pit, where the +plants are grown till shifted into 8-in. or 10-in. pots, in well-manured +soil. Liquid manure should be given occasionally while the fruit is +swelling; about four fruits are sufficient for one plant. The French +growers sow them in a brisk heat in December, or early in January, and +in March plant them out four or eight in a hot-bed with a bottom heat of +from 60° to 68°, the sashes being gradually more widely opened as the +season advances, until at about the end of May they may be taken off. +The two main branches which are allowed are pinched to induce laterals, +but when the fruits are set all young shoots are taken off in order to +increase their size. The best variety is the large purple, which +produces oblong fruit, sometimes reaching 6 or 7 in. in length and 10 or +12 in. in circumference. The fruit of the ordinary form almost exactly +resembles the egg of the domestic fowl. It is also grown as an +ornamental plant, for covering walls or trellises; especially the +black-fruited kind. + + + + +AUBERVILLIERS, or AUBERVILLIERS-LES-VERTUS, a town of northern France, +in the department of Seine, on the canal St Denis, 2 m. from the right +bank of the Seine and 1 m. N. of the fortifications of Paris. Pop. +(1906) 33,358. Its manufactures include cardboard, glue, oils, colours, +fertilizers, chemical products, perfumery, &c. During the middle ages +and till modern times Aubervilliers was the resort of numerous pilgrims, +who came to pay honour to Notre Dame des Vertus. In 1814 the locality +was the scene of a stubborn combat between the French and the Allies. + + + + +AUBIGNAC, FRANÇOIS HÉDELIN, ABBÉ D' (1604-1676), French author, was born +at Paris on the 4th of August 1604. His father practised at the Paris +bar, and his mother was a daughter of the great surgeon Ambroise Paré. +François Hédelin was educated for his father's profession, but, after +practising for some time at Nemours he abandoned law, took holy orders, +and was appointed tutor to one of Richelieu's nephews, the duc de +Fronsac. This patronage secured for him the abbey of Aubignac and of +Mainac. The death of the duc de Fronsac in 1646 put an end to hopes of +further preferment, and the Abbé d'Aubignac retired to Nemours, +occupying himself with literature till his death on the 25th of July +1676. He took an energetic share in the literary controversies of his +time. Against Gilles Ménage he wrote a _Térence justifié_ (1656); he +laid claim to having originated the idea of the "_Carte de tendre_" of +Mlle de Scudéry's _Clélie_; and after being a professed admirer of +Corneille he turned against him because he had neglected to mention the +abbé in his _Discours sur le poème dramatique_. He was the author of +four tragedies: _La Cyminde_ (1642), _La Pucelle d'Orléans_ (1642), +_Zénobie_ (1647) and _Le Martyre de Sainte Catherine_ (1650). _Zénobie_ +was written with the intention of affording a model in which the strict +rules of the drama, as understood by the theorists, were observed. In +the choice of subjects for his plays, he seems to have been guided by a +desire to illustrate the various kinds of tragedy--patriotic, antique +and religious. The dramatic authors whom he was in the habit of +criticizing were not slow to take advantage of the opportunity for +retaliation offered by the production of these mediocre plays. It is as +a theorist that D'Aubignac still arrests attention. It has been proved +that to Jean Chapelain belongs the credit of having been the first to +establish as a practical law the convention of the unities that plays +so large a part in the history of the French stage; but the laws of +dramatic method and construction generally were codified by d'Aubignac +in his _Pratique du théâtre._ The book was only published in 1657, but +had been begun at the desire of Richelieu as early as 1640. His +_Conjectures académiques sur l'Iliade d'Homère_, which was not published +until nearly forty years after his death, threw doubts on the existence +of Homer, and anticipated in some sense the conclusions of Friedrich +August Wolf in his _Prolegomena ad Homerum_ (1795). + + The contents of the _Pratique du théâtre_ are summarized by F. + Brunetière in his notice of Aubignac in the _Grande Encydopédie._ See + also G. Saintsbury, _Hist. of Criticism_, bk. v., and H. Rigault, + _Hist. de la querelle des anciens et modernes._ (1859). + + + + +AUBIGNÉ, CONSTANT D' [BARON DE SURINEAU] (c. 1584-1647), French +adventurer, was the son of Théodore Agrippa d'Aubigné, and the father of +Madame de Maintenon. Born a Protestant, he became by turns Catholic or +Protestant as it suited his interests. He betrayed the Protestants in +1626, revealing to the court, after a voyage to England, the projects of +the English upon La Rochelle. He was renounced by his father; then +imprisoned by Richelieu's orders at Niort, where he was detained ten +years. After having tried his fortunes in the Antilles, he died in +Provence, leaving in destitution his wife, Jeanne de Cardillac, whom he +had married in 1627. He had two children, Charles, father of the duchess +of Noailles, and Françoise, known in history as Madame de Maintenon. + + See T. Lavallée, _La Famille d'Aubigné et l'enfance de Madame de + Maintenon_ (Paris, 1863). + + + + +AUBIGNÉ, JEAN HENRI MERLE D' (1794-1872), Swiss Protestant divine and +historian, was born on the 16th of August 1794, at Eaux Vives, near +Geneva. The ancestors of his father, Aimé Robert Merle d'Aubigné +(1755-1799), were French Protestant refugees. Jean Henri was destined by +his parents to a commercial life; but at college he decided to be +ordained. He was profoundly influenced by Robert Haldane, the Scottish +missionary and preacher who visited Geneva. When in 1817 he went abroad +to further his education, Germany was about to celebrate the +tercentenary of the Reformation; and thus early he conceived the +ambition to write the history of that great epoch. At Berlin he received +stimulus from teachers so unlike as J.A.W. Neander and W.M.L. de Wette. +After presiding for five years over the French Protestant church at +Hamburg, he was, in 1823, called to become pastor of a congregation in +Brussels and preacher to the court. He became also president of the +consistory of the French and German Protestant churches. At the Belgian +revolution of 1830 he thought it advisable to undertake pastoral work at +home rather than to accept an educational post in the family of the +Dutch king. The Evangelical Society had been founded with the idea of +promoting evangelical Christianity in Geneva and elsewhere, but it was +found that there was also needed a theological school for the training +of pastors. On his return to Switzerland, d'Aubigné was invited to +become professor of church history in an institution of the kind, and +continued to labour in the cause of evangelical Protestantism. In him +the Evangelical Alliance found a hearty promoter. He frequently visited +England, was made a D.C.L. by Oxford University, and received civic +honours from the city of Edinburgh. He died suddenly in 1872. + +His principal works are--_Discours sur l'étude de l'histoire de +Christianisme_ (Geneva, 1832); _Le Luthéranisme et la Réforme_ (Paris, +1844); _Germany, England and Scotland, or Recollections of a Swiss +Pastor_ (London, 1848); _Trois siècles de lutte en Écosse, ou deux rois +et deux royaumes; Le Protecteur ou la république d'Angleterre aux jours +de Cromwell_ (Paris, 1848); _Le Concile et l'infaillibililé_ (1870); +_Histoire de la Réformation au XVI^ième siècle_ (Paris, 1835-1853; new +ed:, 1861-1862, in 5 vols.); and _Histoire de la Réformation en Europe +au temps de Calvin_ (8 vols., 1862-1877). + +The first portion of his _Histoire de la Réformation_, which was devoted +to the earlier period of the movement in Germany, gave him at once a +foremost place amongst modern French ecclesiastical historians, and was +translated into most European tongues. The second portion, dealing with +reform in the time of Calvin, was not less thorough, and had a subject +hitherto less exhaustively treated, but it did not meet with the same +success. This part of the subject, with which he was most competent to +deal, was all but completed at the time of his death. Among his minor +treatises, the most important are the vindication of the character and +aims of Oliver Cromwell, and the sketch of the contendings of the Church +of Scotland. + +Indefatigable in sifting original documents, Aubigné had amassed a +wealth of authentic information; but his desire to give in all cases a +full and graphic picture, assisted by a vivid imagination, betrayed him +into excess of detail concerning minor events, and in a few cases into +filling up a narrative by inference from later conditions. Moreover, in +his profound sympathy with the Reformers, he too frequently becomes +their apologist. But his work is a monument of painstaking sincerity, +and brings us into direct contact with the spirit of the period. + + + + +AUBIGNÉ, THÉODORE AGRIPPA D' (1552-1630), French poet and historian, was +born at St Maury, near Pons, in Saintonge, on the 8th of February 1552. +His name Agrippa (_aegre partus_) was given him through his mother dying +in childbirth. In his childhood he showed a great aptitude for +languages; according to his own account he knew Latin, Greek and Hebrew +at six years of age; and he had translated the _Crito_ of Plato before +he was eleven. His father, a Huguenot who had been one of the +conspirators of Amboise, strengthened his Protestant sympathies by +showing him, while they were passing through that town on their way to +Paris, the heads of the conspirators exposed upon the scaffold, and +adjuring him not to spare his own head in order to avenge their death. +After a brief residence he was obliged to flee from Paris to avoid +persecution, but was captured and threatened with death. Escaping +through the intervention of a friend, he went to Montargis. In his +fourteenth year he was present at the siege of Orléans, at which his +father was killed. His guardian sent him to Geneva, where he studied for +a considerable time under the direction of Beza. In 1567 he made his +escape from tutelage, and attached himself to the Huguenot army under +the prince of Condé. Subsequently he joined Henry of Navarre, whom he +succeeded in withdrawing from the corrupting influence of the house of +Valois (1576), and to whom he rendered valuable service, both as a +soldier and as a counsellor, in the wars that issued in his elevation to +the throne as Henry IV. After a furious battle at Casteljaloux, and +suffering from fever from his wounds, he wrote his _Tragiques_ (1571). +He was in the battle of Coutras (1587), and at the siege of Paris +(1590). His career at camp and court, however, was a somewhat chequered +one, owing to the roughness of his manner and the keenness of his +criticisms, which made him many enemies and severely tried the king's +patience. In his _tragédie-ballet Circe_ (1576) he did not hesitate to +indulge in the most outspoken sarcasm against the king and other members +of the royal family. Though he more than once found it expedient to +retire into private life he never entirely lost the favour of Henry, who +made him governor of Maillezais. After the conversion of the king to +Roman Catholicism, d'Aubigné remained true to the Huguenot cause, and a +fearless advocate of the Huguenot interests. The first two volumes of +the work by which he is best known, his _Histoire universelle depuis +1550 jusqu'à l'an 1601_, appeared in 1616 and 1618 respectively. The +third volume was published in 1619, but, being still more free and +personal in its satire than those which had preceded it, it was +immediately ordered to be burned by the common hangman. The work is a +lively chronicle of the incidents of camp and court life, and forms a +very valuable source for the history of France during the period it +embraces. In September 1620 its author was compelled to take refuge in +Geneva, where he found a secure retreat for the last ten years of his +life, though the hatred of the French court showed itself in procuring a +sentence of death to be recorded against him more than once. He devoted +the period of his exile to study, and the superintendence of works for +the fortifications of Bern and Basel which were designed as a material +defence of the cause of Protestantism. He died at Geneva on the 29th of +April 1630. + + A complete edition of his works according to the original MSS. was + begun by E. Réaume and F. de Caussade (1879). It contains all the + literary works, the _Aventures du baron de Faeneste_ (1617), and the + _Mémoires_ (6 vols., 1873-1892). The best edition of the _Histoire + universelle_ is by A. de Ruble. The _Mémoires_ were edited by L. + Lalanne (1854). + + + + +AUBIN, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron on the +Enne, 30 m. N.W. of Rodez. In 1906 the urban population was 2229, the +communal population 9986. Aubin is the centre of important coal-mines +worked in the middle ages, and also has iron-mines, the product of which +supplies iron works close to the town. Sheep-breeding is important in +the vicinity. The church dates from the 12th century. + + + + +AUBREY, JOHN (1626-1697), English antiquary, was born at Easton Pierse +or Percy, near Malmesbury, Wiltshire, on the 12th of March 1626, his +father being a country gentleman of considerable fortune. He was +educated at the Malmesbury grammar school under Robert Latimer, who had +numbered Thomas Hobbes among his earlier pupils, and at his +schoolmaster's house Aubrey first met the philosopher about whom he was +to leave so many curious and interesting details. He entered Trinity +College, Oxford, in 1642, but his studies were interrupted by the Civil +War. In 1646 he became a student of the Middle Temple, but was never +called to the bar. He spent much of his time in the country, and in 1649 +he brought into notice the megalithic remains at Avebury. His father +died in 1652, leaving to Aubrey large estates, and with them, +unfortunately, complicated lawsuits. Aubrey, however, lived gaily, and +used his means to gratify his passion for the company of celebrities and +for every sort of knowledge to be gleaned about them. Anthony à Wood +prophesied that he would one day break his neck while running downstairs +after a retreating guest, in the hope of extracting a story from him. He +took no active share in the political troubles of the time, but from his +description of a meeting of the Rota Club, founded by James Harrington, +the author of _Oceana_, he appears to have been a theorizing republican. +His reminiscences on this subject date from the Restoration, and are +probably softened by considerations of expediency. In 1663 he became a +member of the Royal Society, and in the next year he met Joan Somner, +"in an ill hour," he tells us. This connexion did not end in marriage, +and a lawsuit with the lady complicated his already embarrassed affairs. +He lost estate after estate, until in 1670 he parted with his last piece +of property, Easton Pierse. From this time he was dependent on the +hospitality of his numerous friends. In 1667 he had made the +acquaintance of Anthony à Wood at Oxford, and when Wood began to gather +materials for his invaluable _Athenae Oxonienses_, Aubrey offered to +collect information for him. From time to time he forwarded memoranda to +him, and in 1680 he began to promise the "Minutes for Lives," which Wood +was to use at his discretion. He left the task of verification largely +to Wood. As a hanger-on in great houses he had little time for +systematic work, and he wrote the "Lives" in the early morning while his +hosts were sleeping off the effects of the dissipation of the night +before. He constantly leaves blanks for dates and facts, and many +queries. He made no attempt at a fair copy, and, when fresh information +occurred to him, inserted it at random. He made some distinction between +hearsay and authentic information, but had no pretence to accuracy, his +retentive memory being the chief authority. The principal charm of his +"Minutes" lies in the amusing details he has to recount about his +personages, and in the plainness and truthfulness that he permits +himself in face of established reputations. In 1592 he complained +bitterly that Wood had destroyed forty pages of his MS., probably +because of the dangerous freedom of Aubrey's pen. Wood Was prosecuted +eventually for insinuations against the judicial integrity of the earl +of Clarendon. One of the two statements called in question was certainly +founded on information provided by Aubrey. This perhaps explains the +estrangement between the two antiquaries and the ungrateful account that +Wood gives of the elder man's character. "He was a shiftless person, +roving and magotic-headed, and sometimes little better than crased. And +being exceedingly credulous, would stuff his many letters sent to A.W. +with follies and misinformations, which sometimes would guide him into +the paths of error."[1] In 1673 Aubrey began his "Perambulation" or +"Survey" of the county of Surrey, which was the result of many years' +labour in collecting inscriptions and traditions in the country. He +began a "History of his Native District of Northern Wiltshire," but, +feeling that he was too old to finish it as he would wish, he made over +his material, about 1695, to Thomas Tanner, afterwards bishop of St +Asaph. In the next year he published his only completed, though +certainly not his most valuable work, the _Miscellanies_, a collection +of stories on ghosts and dreams. He died at Oxford in June 1697, and was +buried in the church of St Mary Magdalene. + + Beside the works already mentioned, his papers included: + "Architectonica Sacra," notes on ecclesiastical antiquities; and "Life + of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury," which served as the basis of Dr + Blackburn's Latin life, and also of Wood's account. His survey of + Surrey was incorporated in R. Rawlinson's _Natural History and + Antiquities of Surrey_ (1719); his antiquarian notes on Wiltshire were + printed in _Wiltshire; the Topographical Collections of John Aubrey_, + corrected and enlarged by J.E. Jackson (Devizes, 1862); part of + another MS. on "The Natural History of Wiltshire" was printed by John + Britton in 1847 for the Wiltshire Topographical Society; the + _Miscellanies_ were edited in 1890 for the _Library of Old Authors_; + the "Minutes for Lives" were partially edited in 1813. A complete + transcript, _Brief Lives chiefly of Contemporaries set down by John + Aubrey between the Years 1669 and 1696_, was edited for the Clarendon + Press in 1898 by the Rev. Andrew Clark from the MSS. in the Bodleian, + Oxford. + + See also John Britton, _Memoir of John Aubrey_ (1845); David Masson, + in the _British Quarterly Review_, July 1856; Émile Montégut, _Heures + de lecture d'un critique_ (1891); and a catalogue of Aubrey's + collections in _The Life and Times of Anthony Wood_ ..., by Andrew + Clark (Oxford, 1891-1900, vol. iv. pp. 191-193), which contains many + other references to Aubrey. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "Life of Anthony à Wood written by Himself" (_Athen. Oxon._, ed. + Bliss). + + + + +AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Androscoggin county, Maine, +U.S.A., on the Androscoggin river, opposite Lewiston (with which it +practically forms an industrial unit), in the S.W. part of the state. +Pop. (1890) 11,250; (1900) 12,951, of whom 2076 were foreign-born; +(1910, census) 15,064. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Maine +Central railways. The river furnishes abundant water-power, and the city +ranked fourth in the state as a manufacturing centre in 1905. Boots and +shoes are the principal products; in 1905 seven-tenths of the city's +wage-earners were engaged in their manufacture, and Auburn's output +($4,263,162 = 66.5% of the total factory product of the city) was +one-third of that of the whole state. Other manufactures are butter, +bread and other bakery products, cotton goods, furniture and leather. +The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Auburn was first +settled in 1786, and was incorporated in 1842, but the present charter +dates only from 1869. + + + + +AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A., +25 m. S.W. of Syracuse, on an outlet of Owasco Lake. Pop. (1890) 25,858; +(1900) 30,345, of whom 5436 were foreign-born, 2084 being from Ireland +and 1023 from England; (1910) 34,668. It is served by the Lehigh Valley +and the New York Central & Hudson River railways, and by inter-urban +electric lines. The city is attractively situated amidst a group of low +hills in the heart of the lake country of western New York; the streets +are wide, with a profusion of shade trees. Auburn has a city hall, the +large Burtis Auditorium, the Auburn hospital, two orphan asylums, and +the Seymour library in the Case Memorial building. There is a fine +bronze statue of William H. Seward, who made his home here after 1823, +and was buried in Fort Hill Cemetery. In Auburn are the Auburn (State) +prison (1816), in connexion with which there is a women's prison; the +Auburn Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), founded in 1819, chartered +in 1820, and opened for students in 1821; the Robinson school for girls; +and the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, for the education of +working girls, with a building erected in 1907. The city owns its +water-supply system, the water being pumped from Owasco Lake, about 2½ +m. S.S.E. of the city. There is a good water-power, and the city has +important manufacturing interests. The principal manufactures are +cordage and twine, agricultural implements, engines, pianos, boots and +shoes, cotton and woollen goods, carpets and rugs, rubber goods, flour +and machinery. The total factory product in 1905 was valued at +$13,420,863; of this $2,890,301 was the value of agricultural +implements, in the manufacture of which Auburn ranked fifth among the +cities of the United States. There are a number of grey and blue +limestone quarries, one of which is owned and operated by the +municipality. + +Settled soon after the close of the War of Independence, Auburn was laid +out in 1793 by Captain John L. Hardenburgh, a veteran of the war, and +for some years was known as Hardenburgh's Corners. In 1805, when it was +made the county-seat, it was renamed Auburn. It was incorporated in +1814, and was chartered as a city in 1848. + + See C. Hawley, _Early Chapters of Cayuga History_ (Auburn, 1879). + + + + +AUBURN (from the Low Lat. _alburnus_, whitish, light-coloured), +ruddy-brown; the meaning has changed from the original one of +brownish-white or light yellow (_citrinus_, in _Promptorium +Parvulorum_), probably through the intensification of the idea of brown +caused by the early spelling "abron" or "abrown." + + + + +AUBUSSON, PIERRE D' (1423-1503), grand-master of the order of St John of +Jerusalem, and a zealous opponent of the Turks, was born in 1423. He +belonged to a noble French family, and early devoted himself to the +career of a soldier in the service of the emperor Sigismund. Under the +archduke Albert of Austria he took part in a campaign against the Turks, +and on his return to France sided with the Armagnacs against the Swiss, +greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of St Jacob in 1444. He +then joined the order of the knights of Rhodes, and successfully +conducted an expedition against the pirates of the Levant and an embassy +to Charles VII. He soon rose to the most important offices in the order, +and in 1476 was elected grand-master. It was the period of the conquests +of Mahommed II., who, supreme in the East, now began to threaten Europe. +In December 1479 a large Turkish fleet appeared in sight of Rhodes; a +landing was effected, and a vigorous attack made upon the city. But in +July of the next year, being reinforced from Spain, the knights forced +the Mussulmans to retire, leaving behind them 9000 dead. The siege, in +which d'Aubusson was seriously wounded, enhanced his renown throughout +Europe. Mahommed was furious, and would have attacked the island again +but for his death in 1481. His succession was disputed between his sons +Bayezid and Jem. The latter, after his defeat by Bayezid, sought refuge +at Rhodes under a safe-conduct from the grand-master and the council of +the knights. What followed remains a stain on d'Aubusson's memory. +Rhodes not being considered secure, Jem with his own consent was sent to +France. Meanwhile, in spite of the safe-conduct, d'Aubusson accepted an +annuity of 45,000 ducats from the sultan; in return for which he +undertook to guard Jem in such a way as to prevent his design of +appealing to the Christian powers to aid him against his brother. For +six years Jem, in spite of frequent efforts to escape, was kept a close +prisoner in various castles of the Rhodian order in France, until in +1489 he was handed over to Pope Innocent VIII., who had been vying with +the kings of Hungary and Naples for the possession of so valuable a +political weapon. D'Aubusson's reward was a cardinal's hat (1489), and +the power to confer all benefices connected with the order without the +sanction of the papacy; the order of St John received the wealth of the +suppressed orders of the Holy Sepulchre and St Lazarus. The remaining +years of his life d'Aubusson spent in the attempt to restore discipline +and zeal in his order, and to organize a grand international crusade +against the Turks. The age of the Renaissance, with Alexander Borgia on +the throne of St Peter, was, however, not favourable to such an +enterprise; the death of Jem in 1495 had removed the most formidable +weapon available against the sultan; and when in 1501 d'Aubusson led an +expedition against Mytilene, dissensions among his motley host rendered +it wholly abortive. The old man's last years were embittered by chagrin +at his failure, which was hardly compensated by his success in +extirpating Judaism in Rhodes, by expelling all adult Jews and forcibly +baptizing their children. In the summer of 1503 he died. + + See P. Bouhours, _Hist. de Pierre d'Aubusson_ (Paris, 1676; Hague, + 1793; abridged ed. Bruges, 1887); G.E. Streck, _Pierre d'Aubusson, + Grossmeister_, &c. (Chemnitz, 1873); J.B. Bury in _Cambridge Mod. + Hist._ vol. i. p. 85, &c. (for relations with Jem). + + + + +AUBUSSON, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Creuse, picturesquely situated on the river Creuse 24 m. +S.E. of Guéret by rail. Pop. (1906) 6475. It has celebrated +manufactories of carpets, &c., employing about 2000 workmen, the +artistic standard of which is maintained by a national school of +decorative arts, founded in 1869. Nothing certain is known as to the +foundation of this industry, but it was in full activity at least as far +back as 1531. From the 10th to the 13th century Aubusson was the centre +of a viscounty, and the viscountess Marguerite, wife of Rainaud VI., was +sung by many a troubadour. After the death of the viscount Guy II. (a +little later than 1262) Aubusson was incorporated in the countship of La +Marche by Hugh XII. of Lusignan, and shared in its fortunes. Louis XIV. +revived the title of viscount of Aubusson in favour of François, first +marshall de la Feuillade (1686). From the family of the old viscounts +was descended Pierre d'Aubusson (q.v.). Admiral Sallandrouze de +Lamornaix (1840-1902) belonged to a family of tapestry manufacturers +established at Aubusson since the beginning of the 19th century. +Aubusson was also the native place of the novelists Leonard Sylvain, +Julien Sandeau and Alfred Assollant (1827-1886). + + See Le Père Anselme, _Hist. généalogique de la maison de France_, vol. + v. pp. 318 et seq.; P. Mignaton, _Hist. de la maison d'Aubusson_ + (Paris, 1886); Cyprien Pérathon, _Hist. d'Aubusson_ (Limoges, 1886). + (A. T.) + + + + +AUCH, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Gers, +55 m. W. of Toulouse on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 9294. Auch is +built on the summit and sides of a hill at the foot of which flow the +yellow waters of the Gers. It consists of a lower and upper quarter +united in several places by flights of steps. The streets are in general +steep and narrow, but there is a handsome promenade in the upper town, +laid out in the 18th century by the _intendant_ Antoine Mégret d'Etigny. +Three bridges lead from the left to the right bank of the Gers, on which +the suburb of Patte d'Oie is situated. The most interesting part of the +town lies in the old quarter around the Place Salinis, a spacious +terrace which commands an extensive view over the surrounding country. +On its eastern side it communicates with the left bank of the river by a +handsome series of steps; on its north side rises the cathedral of +Sainte-Marie. This church, built from 1489 to 1662, belongs chiefly to +the Gothic style, of which it is one of the finest examples in southern +France. The façade, however, with its two square and somewhat heavy +flanking towers dates from the 17th century, and is Greco-Roman in +architecture. Sainte-Marie contains many artistic treasures, the chief +of which are the magnificent stained-glass windows of the Renaissance +which light the apsidal chapels, and the 113 choir-stalls of carved oak, +also of Renaissance workmanship. The archbishop's palace adjoins the +cathedral; it is a building of the 18th century with a Romanesque hall +and a tower of the 14th century. Opposite the south side of the +cathedral stands the lycée on the site of a former Jesuit college. Only +scanty remains are left of the once celebrated abbey of St Orens. The +ecclesiastical seminary contains an important library with a collection +of manuscripts, and there is a public library in the Carmelite chapel, a +building of the 17th century. The former palace of the _intendants_ of +Gascony is now used as the _préfecture_. Auch is the seat of an +archbishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of +first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycée, +training-colleges, a school of design, a branch of the Bank of France +and an important lunatic asylum. The manufactures include agricultural +implements, leather, vinegar and plaited sandals, and there is a trade +in brandy, wine, cattle, poultry and wool; there are quarries of +building-stone in the neighbourhood. + +Auch (Elimberris) was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe, the Ausci, and +under the Roman domination was one of the most important cities in +Gaul. In the 4th century this importance was increased by the foundation +of its bishopric, and after the destruction of Eauze in the 9th century +it became the metropolis of Novempopulana. Till 732, Auch stood on the +right bank of the Gers, but in that year the ravages of the Saracens +drove the inhabitants to take refuge on the left bank of the river, +where a new city was formed. In the 10th century Count Bernard of +Armagnac founded the Benedictine abbey of St Orens, the monks of which, +till 1308, shared the jurisdiction over Auch with the archbishops--an +arrangement which gave rise to constant strife. The counts of Armagnac +possessed a castle in the city, which was the capital of Armagnac in the +middle ages. During the Religious Wars of the 16th century Auch remained +Catholic, except for a short occupation in 1569 by the Huguenots under +Gabriel, count of Montgomery. In the 18th century it was capital of +Gascony, and seat of a generality. Antoine Mégret d'Etigny, intendant +from 1751 to 1767, did much to improve the city and its commerce. + + + + +AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL (1756-1822), British general, was born at New York +in 1756, and served as a loyalist in the American War of Independence, +being given an ensigncy in the royal army in 1777, and in 1778 a +lieutenancy in the 45th Foot, without purchase. When his regiment +returned to England after the war, having neither private means nor +influence, he exchanged into the 52nd, in order to proceed to India. He +took part in the last war against Hyder Ali; he was given a staff +appointment by Lord Cornwallis in 1790, served in the operations against +Tippoo Sahib, and continued in various staff appointments up to 1797, +when he returned to England a brevet lieut.-colonel. In 1800 he was made +lieut.-colonel and brevet colonel; and in the following year, as +adjutant-general to Sir David Baird in Egypt, took a distinguished share +in the march across the desert and the capture of Alexandria. On his +return to England in 1803 he was knighted, and three years later he went +out to the River Plate as a brigadier-general. Auchmuty was one of the +few officers who came out of the disastrous Buenos Aires expedition of +1806-7 with enhanced reputation. While General Whitelocke, the +commander, was cashiered, Auchmuty was at once re-employed and promoted +major-general, and was sent out in 1810 to command at Madras. In the +following year he commanded the expedition organized for the conquest of +Java, which the governor-general, Lord Minto, himself accompanied. The +storming of the strongly fortified position of Meester Cornelis (28th +August 1811), stubbornly defended by the Dutch garrison under General +Janssens, practically achieved the conquest of the island, and after the +action of Samarang (September 8th) Janssens surrendered. Auchmuty +received the thanks of parliament and the order of K.C.B. (G.C.B. in +1815), and in 1813, on his return home, was promoted to the rank of +lieut.-general. In 1821 he became commander-in-chief in Ireland, and a +member of the Irish privy council. He died suddenly on the 11th of +August 1822. + + + + +AUCHTERARDER (Gaelic, "upper high land"), a police burgh of Perthshire, +Scotland, 13¾ m. S.W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) +2276. It is situated on Ruthven Water, a right-hand tributary of the +Earn. The chief manufactures are those of tartans and other woollens, +and of agricultural implements. At the beginning of the 13th century it +obtained a charter from the earl of Strathearn, afterwards became a +royal burgh for a period, and was represented in the Scottish +parliament. Its castle, now ruinous, was built as a hunting-lodge for +Malcolm Canmore, but of the abbey which it possessed as early as the +reign of Alexander II. (1198-1249) no remains exist. The ancient church +of St Mungo, now in ruins, was a building in the Norman or Early Pointed +style. The town was almost entirely burned down by the earl of Mar in +1716 during the abortive Jacobite rising. It was in connexion with this +parish that the ecclesiastical dispute arose which led to the disruption +in the Church of Scotland in 1843. The estate of Kincardine, 1 m. south, +gives the title of earl of Kincardine to the duke of Montrose. The old +castle, now in ruins, was dismantled in 1645 by the marquis of Argyll in +retaliation for the destruction of Castle Campbell in Dollar Glen on the +south side of the Ochils. The old ruined castle of Tullibardine, 2 m +west of the burgh, once belonged to the Murrays of Tullibardine, +ancestors of the duke of Atholl, who derives the title of marquis of +Tullibardine from the estate. The ancient chapel adjoining, also +ruinous, was a burial-place of the Murrays. + + + + +AUCHTERMUCHTY (Gaelic, "the high ground of the wild sow"), a royal and +police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, built on an elevation about 9 m. W. +by S. of Cupar, with a station on a branch of the North British railway +from Ladybank to Mawcarse Junction. Pop. 1387. The rapid Loverspool Burn +divides the town. The principal industries include the weaving of linen +and damasks, bleaching, distilling and malting. John Glas, founder of +the sect known as Glassites or Sandemanians, was a native of the town. A +mile and a half to the south-west is the village of Strathmiglo (pop. +966), on the river Eden, with a linen factory and bleaching works. + + + + +AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF (1784-1849), English statesman, was the +second son of the 1st Baron Auckland. He completed his education at +Oxford, and was admitted to the bar in 1809. His elder brother was +drowned in the Thames in the following year; and in 1814, on the death +of his father, he took his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland. +He supported the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made +president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In 1834 he held +office for a few months as first lord of the admiralty, and in 1835 he +was appointed governor-general of India. He proved himself to be a +painstaking and laborious legislator, and devoted himself specially to +the improvement of native schools, and the expansion of the commercial +industry of the nation committed to his care. These useful labours were +interrupted in 1838 by complications in Afghanistan, which excited the +fears not only of the Anglo-Indian government but of the home +authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war, and on the 1st +of October 1838 published at Simla his famous manifesto dethroning Dost +Mahommed. The early operations were crowned with success, and the +governor-general received the title of earl of Auckland. But reverses +followed quickly, and in the ensuing campaigns the British troops +suffered the most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double +mortification of seeing his policy a complete failure and of being +superseded before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of 1841 +he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and returned to England +in the following year. In 1846 he was made first lord of the admiralty, +which office he held until his death, on the 1st of January 1849. He +died unmarried, and the earldom became extinct, the barony (see below) +passing to his brother Robert. + + See S.J. Trotter, _The Earl of Auckland_ ("Rulers of India" series), + 1893. + + + + +AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, 1ST BARON (1745-1814), English statesman, son of +Sir Robert Eden, 3rd Bart., of Windlestone Hall, Durham, and of Mary, +daughter of William Davison, was born in 1745, educated at Eton and +Christ Church, Oxford, and called to the bar at the Middle Temple in +1768. In 1771 he published _Principles of Penal Law_, and was early +recognized as an authority on commercial and economic questions, and in +1772 he was appointed an under secretary of state. He represented New +Woodstock in the parliaments of 1774 and 1780, and Heytesbury in those +of 1784 and 1790. In 1776 he was appointed a commissioner on the board +of trade and plantations. In 1778 he carried an act for the improvement +of the treatment of prisoners, and accompanied the earl of Carlisle as a +commissioner to North America on an unsuccessful mission to settle the +disputes with the colonists. On his return in 1779 he published his +widely read _Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle_, and in 1780 became +chief secretary for Ireland. He was elected to the Irish House of +Commons as member for Dungannon in 1781 and sworn of the Irish privy +council, and while in Ireland established the National Bank. He advised +the increase of the secret service fund, and was reputed, according to +Lord Charlemont (a political opponent), as especially skilful in the +arts of corruption and in overcoming political prejudices. He resigned +in 1782, but in the following year he took office again as +vice-treasurer of Ireland under the coalition ministry, which he had +been instrumental in arranging, and was included in the privy council, +resigning with the government in December. He opposed strongly Pitt's +propositions for free trade between England and Ireland in 1785, but +took office with Pitt as a member of the committee on trade and +plantations, and negotiated in 1786 and 1787 Pitt's important commercial +treaty with France, and agreements concerning the East India Companies +and Holland. In 1787 he published his _History of New Holland_. Next +year he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and after his return was +created (September 1789) Baron Auckland in the Irish peerage. The same +year he was sent on a mission to Holland, and represented English +interests there with great zeal and prudence during the critical years +of 1790 to 1793, obtaining the assistance of the Dutch fleet in 1790 on +the menace of a war with Spain, signing the convention relating to the +Netherlands the same year, and in 1793 attending the congress at +Antwerp. He retired from the public service in the latter year, received +a pension of £2300, and was created Baron Auckland of West Auckland, +Durham, in the English peerage. During his retirement in the country at +Beckenham, he continued his intimacy with Pitt, his nearest neighbour at +Holwood, who at one time had thoughts of marrying his daughter; and with +Pitt's sanction he published his _Remarks on the Apparent Cicumstances +of the War_ in 1795, to prepare public opinion for a peace. In 1798 he +was included in Pitt's government as joint postmaster-general, and +supported strongly the income tax and the Irish Union, assisting in +drawing up the act embodying the latter. In 1799 he brought in a bill to +check adultery by preventing the marriage of the guilty parties, and the +same year took a mischievous part in the cabal against Sir Ralph +Abercromby. He severely criticized Pitt's resignation in 1801, from +which he had endeavoured to dissuade him, and retained office under +Addington. This terminated his friendship with Pitt, who excluded him +from his administration in 1804 though he increased his pension. +Auckland was included in Granville's ministry of "All the Talents" as +president of the board of trade in 1806. He held the appointments of +auditor and director of Greenwich hospital, recorder of Grantham, and +chancellor of the Marischal College in Aberdeen. He died on the 28th of +May 1814. + +He had married in 1776 Eleanor, sister of the first Lord Minto, and had +a large family. Emily Eden (1797-1869), the novelist, was one of his +daughters. On the death of his son George, 2nd baron and earl of +Auckland (q.v.), the barony passed to the 1st baron's younger son Robert +John (1790-1870), bishop of Bath and Wells, from whom the later barons +were descended, and who was also the father of Sir Ashley Eden +(1831-1887), lieutenant-governor of Bengal. The 1st baron had two +distinguished brothers--Morton Eden (1752-1830), a diplomatist, who +married Lady Elizabeth Henley, and in 1799 was created 1st Baron Henley +(his family, from 1831, taking the name of Henley instead of Eden); and +Sir Robert Eden, governor of Maryland, whose son, Sir Frederic Morton +Eden (1766-1809), was a well-known economist. + + Lord Auckland's _Journal and Correspondence_, published in 1861-1862, + throws much light on the political history of the time. + + + + +AUCKLAND, a city and seaport on the east coast of North Island, New +Zealand, in Eden county; capital of the province of its name, and the +seat of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 37,736; including suburbs, 82,101. It is +situated at the mouth of an arm of Hauraki Gulf, and is only 6 m. +distant from the head of Manukau harbour on the western coast. The +situation is extremely beautiful. The Hauraki Gulf, a great square inlet +opening northward, is studded with islands of considerable elevation; +Rangitoto, which protects the harbour, is a volcanic cone reaching +nearly 1000 ft. The isthmus on which the town stands (which position has +caused it to be likened to Corinth) can be crossed without surmounting +any great elevation, and offers a feasible canal route. A number of +small extinct volcanoes, however, appear in all directions. To the west +the Titirangi hills exceed 1400 ft. Some of the volcanic soil is barren, +but much of the district is clothed in luxuriant vegetation. + +Auckland harbour, one of the best in New Zealand, is approachable by the +largest vessels at the lowest tide. There are two graving docks. Queen +Street, the principal thoroughfare, leads inland from the main dock, and +contains the majority of the public buildings. There is a small +government house, standing in beautiful grounds, adjoining Albert Park, +with plantations of oaks and pines. The government offices, art gallery +and exchange, with St Mary's cathedral (Anglican), a building in a +combination of native timbers, St Paul's and St Patrick's cathedral +(Roman Catholic), are noteworthy buildings. The art gallery and free +library contain excellent pictures, and valuable books and MSS. +presented by Sir G. Grey. The museum contains one of the best existing +collections of Maori art. There are an opera-house and an academy of +music. The Auckland University College and the grammar school are the +principal educational establishments. The parks are the Domain, with a +botanical garden, the Albert Park near the harbour, with a bronze statue +of Queen Victoria, the extensive grounds at One Tree Hill on the +outskirts, and Victoria Park on Freeman's Bay. The principal +thoroughfares are served by electric tramway. Of the suburbs, Newton, +Parnell and Newmarket are in reality outlying parts of the town itself. +Devonport, Birkenhead and Northcote are beautifully situated on the +north shore of the inlet, and are served by steam-ferries. Several other +residential suburbs lie among the hills on the mainland, such as Mount +Albert, Mount Eden and Epsom. Onehunga is a small port on Manukau +harbour, served by rail. In Parnell is the former residence of Bishop +Selwyn, who, arriving in the colony in 1842, assisted to draw up the +constitution of the Anglican church. There are many associations with +his name in the neighbourhood. The prospect over the town and its +environs from Mount Eden is justly famous. The hill is terraced with +former native fortifications. + +Auckland has industries of sugar-refining, ship-building and paper-, +rope- and brick-making, and timber is worked. The town was founded as +capital of the colony in 1840 by Governor Hobson. There is communication +both south and north by rail, and regular steamers serve the ports of +the colony, the principal Pacific Islands, Australia, &c. From 1853 to +1876 Auckland was the seat of the provincial government, and until 1865 +that of the central government, which was then transferred to +Wellington. The first session of the general assembly took place here in +1854. Auckland is under municipal government. + + + + +AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1806 by +Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler "Ocean," in 50° 24' S., 166° 7' +E. The islands, of volcanic origin, are very fertile, and are covered +with forest. They were granted to the Messrs Enderby by the British +government as a whaling station, but the establishment was abandoned in +1852. The islands belong politically to New Zealand. + + + + +AUCTION PITCH, a card game which is a popular variation of All Fours +(q.v.). The name is derived from the rule that the first card played, or +_pitched_, is the trump suit, and that the eldest hand has the privilege +of pitching it or of selling out to the highest bidder. A full pack is +used, and the cards rank as in All Fours, namely from ace down to 2, ace +being highest in cutting also. From four to seven may play, each player +being provided with seven white counters, and also with red counters in +case stakes are played for. Each player receives six cards in every +deal, three at a time, no trump being turned. The object is to get rid +of the white counters, one of which may be put into the pool either (1) +for holding the highest trump played; (2) for having the lowest trump +dealt to one; (3) for taking the Jack (knave) of trumps; or (4) for +winning the _game_, namely the greatest number of pips that count. In +case of a tie of pips no game is scored. If the eldest hand decides to +pitch and not to sell out, he may do so, but is obliged to make four +points or be set back that number. If he decides to sell, he says "I +pass," and the player at his left bids for the privilege of pitching the +trump or passes, &c. When a bid has been made the rest must pass or bid +higher, and the eldest hand must either accept a bid or undertake to +make as many points as the bidder. If no bid is made he pitches the +trump himself, without the obligation of making anything. The first card +played is the trump suit, the winner of the trick leading again. In +trumps a player must follow suit if he can, and the same rule applies in +plain suits, excepting that a trump may be played at any time ("follow +suit or trump"). In play the highest card wins the trick unless trumped. +When the hand is played out each player puts a white counter into the +pool for every point won, and the first player to get rid of all his +seven white counters wins the pool and takes from it all the red +counters, which represent cash. This ends the game. In case two players +count out during the same deal, the bidder has the first right to the +pool, the rule being "bidder counts out first." If the two players who +count out are neither of them bidder, then they go out in regular order, +i.e. high first, then low, Jack and game. If a bidder fails to make his +points he is set back that number. A revoke is punished by the offender +being set back the number of points bid and forfeiting a red counter to +the pool. + + + + +AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS. An auction (Lat. _auctio_, increase) is a +proceeding at which people are invited to compete for the purchase of +property by successive offers of advancing sums. The advantages of +conducting a sale in this way are obvious, and we naturally find that +auctions are of great antiquity. Herodotus describes a custom which +prevailed in Babylonian villages of disposing of the maidens in marriage +by delivering them to the highest bidders in an assembly annually held +for the purpose (Book i. 196). So also among the Romans the quaestor +sold military booty and captives in war by auction--_sub hasta_--the +spear being the symbol of quiritarian ownership. The familiarity of such +proceedings is forcibly suggested by the conduct of the Praetorian Guard +when Sulpicianus was treating for the imperial dignity after the murder +of Pertinax. Apprehending that they would not obtain a sufficient price +by private contract, the Praetorians proclaimed from their ramparts that +the Roman world was to be disposed of by public auction to the best +bidder. Thereupon Julian proceeded to the foot of the ramparts and +outbid his competitor (Gibbon, vol. i. ch. v.). Though, however, +auctions were undoubtedly common among the Romans both in public and +private transactions, the rules whereby they were governed are by no +means clearly enunciated in the _Corpus Juris Civilis_. + +In England the method of conducting auctions has varied. In some places +it has been usual to set up an inch of lighted candle, the person making +the last bid before the fall of the wick becoming the purchaser. By an +act of William III. (1698), this method of sale was prescribed for goods +and merchandise imported from the East Indies. Lord Eldon speaks of +"candlestick biddings," where the several bidders did not know what the +others had offered. A "dumb bidding" was the name given to a proceeding +at which a price was put by the owner under a candlestick with a +stipulation that no bidding should avail if not equal to it. In a "Dutch +auction" property is offered at a certain price and then successively at +lower prices until one is accepted. + +According to the practice now usual in England, a proposed auction is +duly advertised, and a printed catalogue in the case of chattels, or +particulars of sale in the case of land, together with conditions of +sale, are circulated. Sometimes, in sales of goods, the conditions are +merely suspended in the auction room. At the appointed time and place, +the auctioneer, standing in a desk or rostrum, "puts up" the several +lots in turn by inviting biddings from the company present. He announces +the acceptance of the last bid by a tap with his hammer and so "knocks +down" the lot to the person who has made it. Sometimes property is +offered on lease to the highest bidder. "Roup" is the Scottish term for +an auction. A bid in itself is only an offer, and may accordingly be +retracted at any time before its acceptance by the fall of the hammer or +otherwise. Puffing is unlawful. Unless a right to bid is expressly +reserved on behalf of the vendor, he must neither bid himself nor employ +any one else to bid. When a right to bid has been expressly reserved, +the seller or any one person (but no more) on his behalf may bid at the +auction. If it is simply announced that the sale is to be subject to a +reserved or upset price, no bidding by or on behalf of the seller is +permissible: it is only lawful to declare by some appropriate terms that +the property is withdrawn. Where a sale is expressed to be without +reserve, or where an upset price has been reached, the auctioneer must, +after the lapse of a reasonable interval, accept the bid of the highest +_bona fide_ bidder. By not doing so he would render the vendor liable in +damages. The auctioneer must not make a pretence of receiving bids which +are not in fact made, as it would be fraudulent to run up the price by +such an artifice. A "knock-out" is a combination of persons to prevent +competition between themselves at an auction by an arrangement that only +one of their number shall bid, and that anything obtained by him shall +be afterwards disposed of privately among themselves. Such a combination +is not illegal. A "mock auction" is a proceeding at which persons +conspire by artifice to make it appear, contrary to the fact, that a +_bona fide_ sale is being conducted, and so attempt to induce the public +to purchase articles at prices far above their value. Those who invite +the public to enter the room where the supposed auction is proceeding, +or otherwise endeavour to attract bidders, are called "barkers." A +conspiracy to defraud in this way is an indictable offence. + +American law is in general the same as the English law with regard to +auctions. As to bidding by the vendor, however, it is less stringent. +For, though puffing or by-bidding, as it is often called, will, under +both systems alike, render an auction sale voidable at the option of a +purchaser when it amounts to fraud, the weight of authority in the +United States is in favour of the view that an owner may, without +notice, employ a person to bid for him, if he does so with no other +purpose than to prevent a sacrifice of the property under a given price. + +By a charter of Henry VII., confirmed by Charles I., the business of +selling by auction was confined to an officer called an _outroper_, and +all other persons were prohibited from selling goods or merchandise by +public claim or outcry (see Henry Blackstone's _Reports_, vol. ii. p. +557). The only qualification now required by an auctioneer is a licence +on which a duty of £10 has to be paid, and which must be renewed before +the 5th of July in each year. A liability to a penalty of £100 is +incurred by acting as an auctioneer without being duly licensed. The +duty formerly imposed upon the purchase-money payable by virtue of a +sale at auction was abolished by an act of 1845. An auctioneer is bound +under a penalty of £20 to see that his full name and address are +displayed before the commencement of an auction and during its +continuance in the place where he conducts it. He is the agent of the +vendor only, except in so far that, after he has knocked down a lot to +the highest bidder, he has authority to affix the name of the latter to +a memorandum of the transaction, so as to render the contract of sale +enforceable where written evidence is necessary. An auctioneer does not, +by merely announcing that a sale of certain articles will take place, +render himself liable to those who, in consequence, attend at the time +and place advertised, if the sale is not in fact proceeded with, +provided he acts in good faith. One of the chief risks run by an +auctioneer is that of being held liable for the conversion of goods +which he has sold upon the instructions of a person whom he believed to +be the owner, but who in fact had no right to dispose of them. + +The number of auctioneers' licences issued during the year ended the +31st of March 1908 was in England 6639, in Scotland 760, and in Ireland +839. A central organization having its headquarters in London, the +Auctioneers' Institute of the United Kingdom, was founded in 1886, in +order to elevate the status and further the interests of auctioneers, +estate agents and valuers. It has nearly 2000 members. (H. Ha.) + + + + +AUCUBA, the Japanese name for a small genus of the Dogwood order +(Cornaceae). The familiar Japanese laurel of gardens and shrubberies is +_Aucuba japonica_. It bears male and female flowers on distinct plants; +the red berries often last till the next season's flowers appear. There +are numerous varieties in cultivation, differing in the variegation of +their leaves. + + + + +AUDAEUS, or AUDIUS, a church reformer of the 4th century, by birth a +Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from the Syrian clergy for +his fearless censure of their irregular lives, and was expelled from the +church, thereupon establishing an episcopal monastic community. He was +afterwards banished into Scythia, where he worked successfully among the +Goths, not living to see the destruction of his labours by Athanaric. +The Audaeans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as the +Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing to the +Deity a human shape, an opinion which they appear to have founded on +Genesis i. 26. Theodoret groundlessly accuses them of Manichean +tendencies. + + The main source of information is Epiphanius (_Haer._ 70). + + + + +AUDE, a river of south-western France, rising in the eastern Pyrenees +and flowing into the Golfe du Lion. Rising in a small lake a short +distance east of the Puy de Carlitte, it soon takes a northerly +direction and flows for many miles through deep gorges of great beauty +as far as the plain of Axat. Beyond Axat its course again lies through +defiles which become less profound as the river nears Carcassonne. Below +that town it receives the waters of the Fresquel and turns abruptly +east. From this point to its junction with the Cesse its course is +parallel with that of the Canal du Midi. The river skirts the northern +spurs of the Corbières, some distance below which it is joined by the +Orbieu and the Cesse. It then divides into two branches, the +northernmost of which, the Aude proper, runs east and empties into the +Mediterranean some 12 m. east-north-east of Narbonne, while the other +branch, the Canal de la Robine, turning south, traverses that town, +below which its course to the sea lies between two extensive lagoons, +the Étang de Bages et de Sigean and the Étang de Gruissan. The Aude has +a length of 140 m. and a basin 2061 sq. m. in extent. There is +practically no traffic upon it. + + + + +AUDE, a maritime department of southern France, formed in 1790 from part +of the old province of Languedoc. Area, 2448 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 308,327. +It is bounded E. by the Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Hérault +and Tarn, N.W. by Haute-Garonne, W. by Ariège, and S. by +Pyrénées-Orientales. The department is traversed on its western boundary +from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which unites the +Pyrenees with the southern Cévennes; and its northern frontier is +occupied by the Montagne Noire, the most westerly portion of the +Cévennes. The Corbières, a branch of the Pyrenees, run in a south-west +and north-east direction along the southern district. The Aude (q.v.), +its principal river, has almost its entire length in the department, and +its lower course, together with its tributary the Fresquel, forms the +dividing line between the Montagne Noire and the Pyrenean system. + +The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagoons, the chief of +which are those of Bages et Sigean, Gruissan, Lapalme and Leucate. The +climate is warm and dry, but often sudden in its alterations. The wind +from the north-west, known as the _cers_, blows with great violence, and +the sea-breeze is often laden with pestilential effluvia from the +lagoons. The agriculture of the department is in a flourishing +condition. The meadows are extensive and well watered, and are pastured +by numerous flocks and herds. The grain produce, consisting mainly of +wheat, oats, rye and Indian corn, exceeds the consumption, and the +vineyards yield an abundant supply of both white and red wines, those of +Limoux and the Narbonnais being most highly esteemed. Truffles are +abundant. The olive and chestnut are the chief fruits. Mines of iron, +manganese, and especially of mispickel, are worked, and there are +stone-quarries and productive salt-marshes. Brewing, distilling, +cooperage, iron-founding, hat-making and machine construction are +carried on, and there are flour-mills, brick-works, saw-mills, sulphur +refineries and leather and paper works. The formerly flourishing textile +industries are now of small importance. The department imports coal, +lime, stone, salt, raw sulphur, skins and timber and exports +agricultural and mineral products, bricks and tiles, and other +manufactured goods. It is served by the Southern railway. The Canal du +Midi, following the courses of the Fresquel and the Aude, traverses it +for 76 m.; and a branch, the Canal de la Robine, which passes through +Narbonne to the sea, has a length of 24 m. The capital is Carcassonne, +and the department is divided into the four arrondissements of +Carcassonne, Limoux, Narbonne and Castelnaudary, with 31 cantons and 439 +communes. It belongs to the 16th military region, and to the académie +(educational division) of Montpellier, where also is its court of +appeal. It forms the diocese of Carcassonne, and part of the province of +the archbishop of Toulouse. Carcassonne, Narbonne and Castelnaudary are +the principal towns. At Alet, which has hot springs of some note, there +are ruins of a fine Romanesque cathedral destroyed in the religious wars +of the 16th century. The extensive buildings of the Cistercian abbey of +Fontfroide, near Bizanet, include a Romanesque church, a cloister, +dormitories and a refectory of the 12th century. A curious polygonal +church of the 11th century at Rieux-Minervois, the abbey-church at St +Papoul, with its graceful cloister of the 14th century, and the remains +of the important abbey of St Hilaire, founded in the 6th century and +rebuilt from the 12th to the 15th century, are also of antiquarian +interest. Rennes-les-Bains has mineral springs of repute. + + + + +AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1759-1800), French artist and naturalist, was +born at Rochefort in 1759. He studied painting and drawing at Paris, and +gained considerable reputation as a miniature-painter. Employed in +preparing plates for the _Histoire des coléoptères_ of G.A. Olivier +(1756-1814), he acquired a taste for natural history. In 1800 appeared +his first original work, _L'Histoire naturelle des singes, des makis et +des galéopithèques_, illustrated by sixty-two folio plates, drawn and +engraved by himself. The colouring in these plates was unusually +beautiful, and was applied by a method devised by himself. Audebert died +in Paris in 1800, leaving complete materials for another great work, +_Histoire des colibris, des oiseaux-mouches, des jacamars et des +promérops_, which was published in 1802. Two hundred copies were printed +in folio, one hundred in large quarto, and fifteen were printed with the +whole text in letters of gold. Another work, left unfinished, was also +published after the author's death, _L'Histoire des grimpereaux et des +oiseaux de paradis_. The last two works also appeared together in two +volumes, _Oiseaux dorés ou à reflets métalliques_ (1802). + + + + +AUDEFROI LE BATARD, French _trouvère_, flourished at the end of the 12th +century and was born at Arras. Of his life nothing is known. The +seigneur de Nesles, to whom some of his songs are addressed, is probably +the châtelain of Bruges who joined the crusade of 1200. Audefroi was the +author of at least five lyric romances: _Argentine, Belle Idoine, Belle +Isabeau, Belle Emmelos_ and _Béatrix_. These romances follow older +_chansons_ in subject, but the smoothness of the verse and beauty of +detail hardly compensate for the spontaneity of the shorter form. + + See A. Jeanroy, _Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen + âge_ (Paris, 1889). + + + + +AUDIENCE (from Lat. _audire_, to hear), the act or state of hearing, the +term being therefore transferred to those who hear or listen, as in a +theatre, at a concert or meeting. In a more technical sense, the term is +applied to the right of access to the sovereign enjoyed by the peers of +the realm individually and by the House of Commons collectively. More +particularly it means the ceremony of the admission of ambassadors, +envoys or others to an interview with a sovereign or an important +official for the purpose of presenting their credentials. In France, +_audience_ is the term applied to the sitting of a law court for hearing +actions. In Spain, _audiencia_ is the name given to certain tribunals +which try appeals from minor courts. The Spanish judges were originally +known as _oidores_, hearers, from the Spanish _oir_, to hear; but they +are now called _ministros_, or _magistrados togados_, robed judges, as +the gown of the Spanish judge is called a _toga_. The _audiencia +pretorial_, i.e. of the praetor, was a court in Spanish America from +which there was no appeal to the viceroy, but only to the council of +the Indies in Spain. It is not the custom in Spain to speak of +_audiencias reales_, royal courts, but of the _audiencias del Reino_, +courts of the kingdom. + +In England the _Audience-court_ was an ecclesiastical court, held by the +archbishops of Canterbury and York, in which they once exercised a +considerable part of their jurisdiction, dealing with such matters as +they thought fit to reserve for their own hearing. It has been long +disused and is now merged in the court of arches. + + + + +AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDMÉ ARMAND GASTON, DUC D' (1823-1905), French +statesman, was the grand-nephew and adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis +Pasquier. He was created duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council +of state in 1846. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private +life. Under the empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the +legislature, but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly, +and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the fall of +Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different royalist +parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused to give up the +tricolour for the flag of the old _régime_, the project failed. Yet he +retained the confidence of the chamber, and was its president in 1875 +when the constitutional laws were being drawn up. Nominated senator +under the new constitution, he likewise was president of the senate from +March 1876 to 1879 when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was +less prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation and +uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon from taking +violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the French Academy, but +never published anything. + + + + +AUDIT and AUDITOR. An audit is the examination of the accounts kept by +the financial officers of a state, public corporations and bodies, or +private persons, and the certifying of their accuracy. In the United +Kingdom the public accounts were audited from very early times, though, +until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to +1559 this duty was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially +appointed, at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the +auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314. But in +1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing of the public +accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the imprests. These +officers were paid by fee and did their work by deputy, but as the +results were thoroughly unsatisfactory the offices were abolished in +1785. An audit board, consisting of five commissioners, was appointed in +their place, but in order to concentrate under one authority the +auditing of the accounts of the various departments, some of which had +been audited separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit +Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length the +duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint a +"comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to examine +and verify the accounts prepared by the different departments of the +public service. In examining accounts of the appropriation of the +several supply grants, the comptroller and auditor-general "ascertains +first whether the payments which the account department has charged to +the grant are supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second, +whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose or purposes +for which such grant was intended to provide." The treasury may also +submit certain other accounts to the audit of the comptroller-general. +All public moneys payable to the exchequer (q.v.) are paid to the +"account of His Majesty's exchequer" at the Bank of England, and daily +returns of such payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly +accounts of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared +and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the +consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances. + +In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is in the +charge of the treasury department, under the supervision of the +comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors, (1) for the +treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the interior, (4) for the +navy, (5) for the state, &c., (6) for the post office, as well as a +register and assistant register, who keep all general receipt and +expenditure ledgers; there are official auditors in most of the states +and in many cities. In practically all European countries there is a +department of the administration, charged with the auditing of the +public accounts, as the _cour des comptes_ in France, the _Rechnungshof +des deutschen Reiches_ in Germany, &c. All local boards, large cities, +corporations, and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of +examining and checking their accounts and looking after their +expenditure. So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in +connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building +societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies, +savings banks, &c., the word auditor is now almost synonymous with +"skilled accountant," and his duties are discussed in the article +ACCOUNTANTS. + +In Scotland there is an "auditor" who is an official of the court of +session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who corresponds to +the English taxing-master. In France there are legal officers, called +auditors, attached to the _Conseil d'État_, whose duties consist in +drawing up briefs and preparing documents. On the continent of Europe, +lawyers skilled in military law are called "auditors" (see MILITARY +LAW). + +Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman curia. +The _auditores Rotae_ are the judges of the court of the Rota (so +called, according to Hinschius, probably from the form of the panelling +in the room where they originally met). These were originally +ecclesiastics appointed to _hear_ particular questions in dispute and +report to the pope, who retained the decision in his own hands. In the +_Speculum juris_ of Durandus (published in 1272 and re-edited in 1287 +and 1291) the _auditores palatii domini papae_ are cited as permanent +officials appointed to instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The +court of the Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull +_Romani Pontificis_ of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by this time +had developed into a permanent tribunal to which the definitive decision +of certain disputes, hitherto relegated to a commission of cardinals or +to the pope himself, was assigned. From this time the powers of the +auditores increased until the reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the +creation of the congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended +gradually to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It +still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal +curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges. +They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have others +conceded by successive popes, e.g. that of holding benefices in +plurality, of non-residence, &c. When the pope says mass pontifically +the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores must be in priest's or +deacon's orders, and have always been selected--nominally at +least--after severe tests as to their moral and intellectual +qualifications. They are twelve in number, and, by the constitution of +Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners; one French, one Spanish, +one German and one Venetian; while the nomination of others was the +privilege of certain, cities. No bishop, unless _in partibus_ (see +BISHOP), may be an auditor. On the other hand, from the auditores, as +the intellectual _élite_ of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature +and the cardinalate are largely recruited. The _auditor camerae_ +(_uditore generale della reverenda camera apostolica_) is an official +formerly charged with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull +of Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all civil +and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it from the +papal territories. In addition he received the function of watching over +the execution of all sentences passed by the curia. This was extended +later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive function in respect of all +papal bulls and briefs, wherever no special executor was named. This +right was confirmed by Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still +in principle issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function +was at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to a +prelate _locum tenens_, who also took over the auditor's jurisdiction in +the papal states (Hinschius, _Kathol. Kirchenrecht_, i. 409, &c.). + +_Auditores_ (listeners), in the early Church, was another name. for +catechumens (q.v.). + + + + +AUDLEY, or AUDELEY, SIR JAMES (c. 1316-1386), one of the original +knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the eldest son of +Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire. When the order of +the Garter was founded, he was instituted as one of the first founders, +and his stall in St George's chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the +side of Edward, the Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in +1346, and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When +hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354 Sir James +was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince, and earned a great +reputation for valour. At the battle of Poitiers on the 19th of +September 1356 he took his stand in front of the English army, and after +fighting for a long time was severely wounded and carried from the +fight. After the victory, the prince inquired for Sir James, who was +brought to the royal tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest +knight on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks. +Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had attended him +during the battle, and received from the prince a further pension of six +hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of the leaders of an expedition into +France, in 1360 he took the fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was +present at Calais when peace was made between England and France in +October 1360. He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great +seneschal of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La +Roche-sur-Yon by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at +Fontenay-le-Comte, where he had gone to reside, and was buried at +Poitiers. + + See Jean Froissart, _Chronigues_, translated by T. Johnes (Hafod, + 1810); G.F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_ + (London, 1841). + + + + +AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY, BARON (c. 1488-1544), lord chancellor of England, +whose parentage is unknown, is believed to have studied at Buckingham +College, Cambridge. He was educated for the law, entered the Middle +Temple (becoming autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester, +and was on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he was +returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this constituency in +subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom of the chamber, and became +a member of Wolsey's household. On the fall of the latter in 1529, he +was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker +of the House of Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the +Black or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the papal +jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of the Commons to the +king to complain of Bishop Fisher's speech against their proceedings. He +interpreted the king's "moral" scruples to parliament concerning his +marriage with Catherine, and made himself the instrument of the king in +the attack upon the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy. +In 1531 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant; and on +the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded Sir Thomas More as +lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed lord chancellor on the +26th of January 1533. He supported the king's divorce from Catherine and +the marriage with Anne Boleyn; and presided at the trial of Fisher and +More in 1535, at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a +conviction has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn +and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate queen's +execution, and recommended to parliament the new act of succession. In +1537 he condemned to death as traitors the Lincolnshire and the +Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November 1538 he was created Baron +Audley of Walden; and soon afterwards presided as lord steward at the +trials of Henry Pole, Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of +Exeter. In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made +himself the king's instrument in enforcing religious conformity, and in +the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of April 1540 he was +made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently managed the attainder of +Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and the dissolution of Henry's marriage +with Anne of Cleves. In 1542 he warmly supported the privileges of the +Commons in the case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested and +imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as usual by +subservience to the court, which desired to secure a subsidy, and his +opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has been questioned by +good authority. He resigned the great seal on the 21st of April 1544, +and died on the 30th, being buried at Saffron Walden, where he had +prepared for himself a splendid tomb. He received several grants of +monastic estates, including the priory of Christ Church in London and +the abbey of Walden in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of +Suffolk, built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 he +re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambridge, under the +new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in the statutes that his +heirs, "the possessors of the late monastery of Walden," should be +visitors of the college _in perpetuum_. _A Book of Orders for the Warre +both by Sea and Land_ (Harleian MS. 297, f. 144) is attributed to his +authorship. He married (1) Christina, daughter of Sir Thomas +Barnardiston, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of +Dorset, by whom he had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his +death. + + + + +AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR (1797-1841), French naturalist, was born at Paris +on the 27th of April 1797. He began the study of law, but was diverted +from it by his strong predilection for natural history, and entered the +medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to P.A. Latreille +(1762-1833) in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural +history, and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of the +Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November 1841. His +principal work, _Histoire des insectes nuisibles à la vigne_ (1842), was +completed after his death by Henry Milne-Edwards and Émile Blanchard. +His papers mostly appeared in the _Annales des sciences naturelles_, +which, with A.T. Brongniart and J.B.A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in +the proceedings of the Société Entomologique de France, of which he was +one of the founders in 1832. + + + + +AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and engravers. The first +who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born +1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude's great-grandson, who died in +1772. The two most distinguished members of the family are Gérard and +Jean. + +GÉRARD, or GIRARD, AUDRAN, the most celebrated French engraver, was the +third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught +the first principles of design and engraving by his father; and, +following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself +in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun "Constantine's +Battle with Maxentius," his "Triumph," and the "Stoning of Stephen," +which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran in the +very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set out for Rome, +where he resided three years, and engraved several fine plates. That +great patron of the arts, J.B. Colbert, was so struck with the beauty of +Audran's works, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On +his return he applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was +appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great +encouragement. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the +Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun's +"Battles of Alexander" are regarded as the best of his numerous works. +"He was," says the Abbé Fontenay, "the most celebrated engraver that +ever existed in the historical line. We have several subjects, which he +engraved from his own designs, that manifested as much taste as +character and facility. But in the 'Battles of Alexander' he surpassed +even the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gérard published in 1683 a +work entitled _Les Proportions du corps humain mesurées sur les plus +belles figures de l'antiquité_. + +JEAN AUDRAN, nephew of Gérard, was born at Lyons in 1667. After having +received instructions from his father, he went to Paris to perfect +himself in the art of engraving under his uncle, next to whom he was the +most distinguished member of his family. At the age of twenty his genius +began to display itself in a surprising manner; and his subsequent +success was such, that in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the +king, Louis XIV., who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the +Gobelins; and the following year he was made a member of the Royal +Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the graver, and +nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of this artist are those +which appear not so pleasing to the eye at first sight. In these the +etching constitutes a great part; and he has finished them in a bold, +rough style. The "Rape of the Sabines," after Poussin, is considered his +masterpiece. + + + + +AUDRAN, EDMOND (1842-1901), French musical composer, was born at Lyons +on the 11th of April 1842. He studied music at the École Niedermeyer, +where he won the prize for composition in 1859. Two years later he +accepted the post of organist of the church of St Joseph at Marseilles. +He made his first appearance as a dramatic composer at Marseilles with +_L'Ours et le Pacha_ (1862), a musical version of one of Scribe's +vaudevilles. This was followed by _La Chercheuse d'Esprit_ (1864), a +comic opera, also produced at Marseilles. Audran wrote a funeral march +on the death of Meyerbeer, which was performed with some success, and +made various attempts to win fame as a writer of sacred music. He +produced a mass (Marseilles, 1873), an oratorio, _La Sulamite_ +(Marseilles, 1876), and numerous minor works, but he is known almost +entirely as a composer of the lighter forms of opera. His first Parisian +success was made with _Les Noces d'Olivette_ (1879), a work which +speedily found its way to London and (as _Olivette_) ran for more than a +year at the Strand theatre (1880-1881). Audran's music has, in fact, met +with as much favour in England as in France, and all save a few of his +works have been given in a more or less adapted form in London theatres. +Besides those already mentioned, the following have been the most +undeniably successful of Audran's many comic operas: _Le Grand Mogol_ +(Marseilles, 1876; Paris, 1884; London, as _The Grand Mogul_, 1884), _La +Mascotte_ (Paris, 1880; London, as _The Mascotte_, 1881), _Gillette de +Narbonne_ (Paris, 1882; London, as _Gillette_, 1883), _La Cigale et la +Fourmi_ (Paris, 1886; London, as _La Cigale_, 1890), _Miss Hélyett_ +(Paris, 1890; London, as _Miss Decima_ 1891), _La Poupée_ (Paris, 1896; +London, 1897). Audran was one of the best of the successors of +Offenbach. He had little of Offenbach's humour, but his music is +distinguished by an elegance and a refinement of manner which lift it +above the level of opéra bouffe to the confines of genuine opéra +comique. He was a fertile if not a very original melodist, and his +orchestration is full of variety, without being obtrusive or vulgar. +Many of his operas, _La Mascotte_ in particular, reveal a degree of +musicianship which is rarely associated with the ephemeral productions +of the lighter stage. He died in Paris on the 16th of August 1901. + + + + +AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D' (c. 1305-1370), French soldier, was born at +Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de Calais, near St Omer. +Nothing is known of his career before 1332, when he is heard of at the +court of the king of France. Between 1335 and 1342 he went three times +to Scotland to aid King David Bruce in his wars. In 1342 he became +captain for the king of France in Brittany; then he seems to have served +in the household of the duke of Normandy, and in 1346, as one of the +main defenders of Calais, was taken as a prisoner to England by Edward +III. From 1349 he holds an important place in the military history of +France, first as captain in Angoulême, and from June 1351, in succession +to the lord of Beaujeu, as marshal of France. In March 1352 he was +appointed lieutenant for the king in the territory between the Loire and +the Dordogne, in June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy +and the Boulonnais. It was Audrehem who arrested Charles the Bad, king +of Navarre, and his partisans, at the banquet given by the dauphin at +Rouen in 1356. At Poitiers he was one of those who advised King John to +attack the English, and, charging in the front line of the French army, +was slightly wounded and taken prisoner. From England he was several +times given safe-conducts to France, and he took an active part in the +negotiations for the treaty of Bretigny, recovering his liberty the same +time as King John. In 1361, as the king's lieutenant in Languedoc, he +prevented the free companies from seizing the castles, and negotiated +the treaty with their chiefs under which they followed Henry, count of +Trastamara (later Henry II. of Castile), into Spain. In 1365 he himself +joined du Guesclin in the expedition to Spain, was taken prisoner with +him by the Black Prince at the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable +to pay his ransom until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was +relieved of the office of marshal, being appointed bearer of the +oriflamme, with a pension of 2000 livres. He was sent to Spain in 1370 +by Charles V., to urge his friend du Guesclin to return to France, and +in spite of his age he took part in the battle of Pontvallain (December +1370), but fell ill and died, probably at Saumur, in the latter part of +December 1370. + + See Émile Molinier, "Étude sur la vie d'Arnoul d'Audrehem, maréchal de + France," in _Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l'académie des + inscriptions et belles-lettres_, 2^e série, iv. (1883). + + + + +AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES (1780-1851), American naturalist, is said to have +been born on the 5th of May 1780 in Louisiana, his father being a French +naval officer and his mother a Spanish Creole. He was educated in Paris, +where he had lessons from the painter, J.L. David. Returning to America +in 1798 he settled on a farm near Philadelphia, and gave himself up to +the study of natural history, and especially to drawing birds. In 1826 +he went to England in the hope of getting his drawings published, and by +the following year he had obtained sufficient subscribers to enable him +to begin the publication of his _Birds of America_, which on its +completion in 1838 consisted of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055 +figures of birds the size of life. Cuvier called it "le plus magnifique +monument que l'art ait encore élevé à la nature." The descriptive matter +to accompany the plates appeared at Edinburgh in 5 vols. from 1831 to +1839 under the title of _American Ornithological Biography._ During the +publication of these works Audubon divided his time between Great +Britain and America, devoting his leisure to expeditions to various +parts of the United States and Canada for the purpose of collecting new +material. In 1842 he bought an estate on the Hudson, now Audubon Park in +New York City. In 1844 he published in America a popular octavo edition +of his _Birds of America._ He also took up the preparation of a new +work, _The Quadrupeds of America_, with the collaboration of John +Bachman, the publication of which was begun in New York in 1846 and +finished in 1853-1854. He died at New York on the 27th of January 1851. + + See ORNITHOLOGY; also _Audubon and his Journals_ (1897), by his + grand-daughter Maria R. Audubon, with notes by Elliot Coues. + + + + +AUE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, at the confluence of +the Mulde and Schwarzwasser, 21 m. S.W. from Chemnitz on the railway to +Adorf. It has a school of lace-making, foundries, and manufactures of +machinery, tin-plate and cotton goods. Pop. (1905) 17,102. + + + + +AUERBACH, BERTHOLD (1812-1882), German novelist, was born on the 28th of +February 1812 at Nordstetten in the Württemberg Black Forest. His +parents were Jews, and he was intended for the ministry; but after +studying philosophy at Tübingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming +estranged from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted +himself to literature. He made a fortunate beginning in a romance on the +life of Spinoza (1837), so interesting in itself, and so close in its +adherence to fact, that it may be read with equal advantage as a novel +or as a biography. _Dichter und Kaufmann_ followed in 1839, and a +translation of Spinoza's works in 1841, when Auerbach turned to the +class of fiction which has made him famous, the _Schwarzwälder +Dorfgeschichten_ (1843), stories of peasant life in the Black Forest. In +these, as well as in _Barfüssele_ (1856), _Edelweiss_ (1861), and other +novels of greater compass, he depicts the life of the south German +peasant as "Jeremias Gotthelf" (Albrecht Bitzius) had painted the +peasantry of Switzerland, but in a less realistic spirit. When this vein +was exhausted Auerbach returned to his first phase as a philosophical +novelist, producing _Auf der Höhe_ (1865), _Das Landhaus am Rhein_ +(1869), and other romances of profound speculative tendencies, turning +on plots invented by himself. With the exception of _Auf der Höhe_, +these works did not enjoy much popularity, and suffer from lack of form +and concentration. Auerbach's fame continues to rest upon his +_Dorfgeschichten_, although the celebrity of even these has been +impaired by the growing demand for a more uncompromising realism. +Auerbach died at Cannes on the 8th of February 1882. + + The first collected edition of Auerbach's _Schriften_ appeared in 22 + vols. in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895). + Auerbach's _Briefe an seinen Freund J. Auerbach_ (with a preface by F. + Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel, _B. + Auerbach_ (1882); and E. Lasker, _B. Auerbach, ein Gedenkblatt_ + (1882). + + + + +AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER, GRAF VON (1806-1876), Austrian poet, who +wrote under the pseudonym of ANASTASIUS GRÜN, was born on the 11th of +April 1806, at Laibach, the capital of the Austrian duchy of Carniola, +and was head of the Thurn-am-Hart branch of the Carniolan cadet line of +the house of Auersperg. He received his university education first at +Graz and then at Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he +succeeded to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member of +the estates of Carniola on the _Herrenbank_ of the diet at Laibach. Here +he distinguished himself by his outspoken criticism of the Austrian +government, leading the opposition of the duchy to the exactions of the +central power. In 1832 the title of "imperial chamberlain" was conferred +upon him, and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After +the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of Laibach +at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main, to which he +tried in vain to persuade his Slovene compatriots to send +representatives. After a few months, however, disgusted with the violent +development of the revolution, he resigned his seat, and again retired +into private life. In 1860 he was summoned to the remodelled _Reichsrat_ +by the emperor, who next year nominated him a life member of the +Austrian upper house (_Herrenhaus_), where, while remaining a keen +upholder of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism of +Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one of the most +intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of liberalism, in both +political and religious matters, until his death at Graz on the 12th of +September 1876. + +Count Auersperg's first publication, a collection of lyrics, _Blätter +der Liebe_ (1830), showed little originality; but his second production, +_Der letzte Ritter_ (1830), brought his genius to light. It celebrates +the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maximilian I. (1493-1519) in a +cycle of poems written in the strophic form of the _Nibelungenlied_. But +Auersperg's fame rests almost exclusively on his political poetry; two +collections entitled _Spaziergänge eines Wiener Poeten_ (1831) and +_Schutt_ (1835) created a sensation in Germany by their originality and +bold liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely for +their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification and +powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German political poetry of +1840-1848. His _Gedichte_ (1837), if anything, increased his reputation; +his epics, _Die Nibelungen im Frack_ (1843) and _Der Pfaff vom +Kahlenberg_ (1850), are characterized by a fine ironic humour. He also +produced masterly translations of the popular Slovenic songs current in +Carniola (_Volkslieder aus Krain_, 1850), and of the English poems +relating to "Robin Hood" (1864). + + Anastasius Grün's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published by L.A. Frankl in + 5 vols. (Berlin, 1877); his _Briefwechsel mit L.A. Frankl_ (Berlin, + 1897). A selection of his _Politische Reden und Schriften_ has been + published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics, _Anastasius + Grün_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879). + + + + +AUFIDENA, an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site of which is +just north of the modern Alfedena,[1] Italy, a station on the railway +between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the latter. Its remains are +fully and accurately described by L. Mariani in _Monumenti dei Lincei_ +(1901), 225 seq.: cf. _Notizie degli scavi_, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516 +seq. The ancient city occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above +sea-level (in the valley between were found the supposed remains of the +later forum), and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile +in length. A fortified outpost lay on a still higher hill to the north. +Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one public +building of the 5th century B.C. was excavated in 1901, and a small +sanctuary in 1902), attention having been chiefly devoted to the +necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs had already been examined in +1908, though this number is conjectured to be only a sixteenth of the +whole. They are all inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and +date from the 7th to the 4th century B.C., falling into three +classes--those without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone +slabs, and those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered +are preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we find +Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road between Sulmo and +Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangro, crossing the river +by an ancient bridge some 5 m. to the north-east. Castel di Sangro has +remains of ancient walls, but these are attributed to a road by Mariani, +and in any case the fortified area there was quite small, only +one-sixteenth the size of Aufidena. The attempted identification of +Castel di Sangro with Aufidena must therefore be rejected, though we +must allow that it was probably the Roman post station; the ancient +city, since its capture by the Romans in the 3rd century B.C., having +lost something of its importance. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Two churches here contain paintings of interest in the history of + Abruzzese art, and one of them, the Madonna del Campo, contained + fragments of a temple of considerable size. + + + + +AUGEAS, or AUGEIAS, in Greek legend, a son of Helios, the sun-god, and +king of the Epeians in Elis. He possessed an immense wealth of herds, +including twelve bulls sacred to Helios, and white as swans. Eurystheus +imposed upon Heracles the task of clearing out all his stalls unaided in +one day. This he did by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through +them. Augeas had promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this, +alleging that Heracles had acted only in the service of Eurystheus. +Heracles thereupon sent an army against him, and, though at first +defeated, finally slew Augeas and his sons. + + Apollodorus ii. 5, 7; Pindar, _Olympia_, xi, 24; Diodorus iv. 13; + Theocritus, _Idyll_ 25. + + + + +AUGER (from the O. Eng. _nafu-gár_, nave-borer; the original initial n +having been lost, as in "adder," through a confusion in the case of a +preceding indefinite article), a tool for boring (q.v.) or drilling. + + + + +AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, duke of Castiglione (1757-1816), +marshal of France, was born in Paris in a humble station of life. At the +age of seventeen he enlisted in the carabineers and thereafter came into +note as a duellist. Having drawn his sword upon an officer who insulted +him, he fled from France and roamed about in the Levant. He served in +the Russian army against the Turks; but afterwards escaped into Prussia +and enlisted in the guards. Tiring of this, he deserted with several +others and reached the Saxon frontier. Service in the Neapolitan army +and a sojourn in Portugal filled up the years 1788-1791; but the events +of the French Revolution brought him back to his native land. He served +with credit against the Vendeans and then joined the troops opposing the +Spaniards in the south. There he rose rapidly, becoming general of +division on the 23rd of December 1793. His division distinguished itself +even more when transferred to the army of Italy; and under Bonaparte he +was largely instrumental in gaining the battle of Millesimo and in +taking the castle of Cosseria and the camp of Ceva. At the battle of +Lodi (May 10, 1796), the turning movement of Augereau and his division +helped to decide the day. But it was at Castiglione that he rendered the +most signal services. Marbot describes him as encouraging even Bonaparte +himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle, +and, though this is exaggerated, there is no doubt that Augereau largely +decided the fortunes of those critical days. Bonaparte thus summed up +his military qualities: "Has plenty of character, courage, firmness, +activity; is inured to war; is well liked by the soldiery; is fortunate +in his operations." In 1797 Bonaparte sent him to Paris to encourage the +Jacobinical Directors, and it was Augereau and the troops led by him +that coerced the "moderates" in the councils and carried through the +_coup d'état_ of 18 Fructidor (4th of September) 1797. He was then sent +to lead the united French forces in Germany; but peace speedily ensued; +and he bore a grudge against the Directors and Bonaparte for their +treatment of him at that time. He took no part in the _coup d'état_ of +Brumaire 1799, and did not distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign +which ensued. Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte's +fortunes, he received a marshal's baton at the beginning of the Empire +(May 19, 1804). In the campaign of 1805 he did good service around +Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena (October 14, 1806) his corps +distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell ill of a fever, and at the +battle of Eylau he had to be supported on his horse, but directed the +movements of his corps with his wonted bravery. His corps was almost +annihilated and the marshal himself received a wound from which he never +quite recovered. When transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes +but tarnished his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 1812 in Russia and +in the Saxon campaign of 1813 his conduct was little more than mediocre. +Before the battle of Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19, 1813), Napoleon +reproached him with not being the Augereau of Castiglione; to which he +replied, "Give me back the old soldiers of Italy, and I will show you +that I am." In 1814 he had command of the army of Lyons, and his +slackness exposed him to the charge of having come to an understanding +with the Austrian invaders. Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but, +after reviling Napoleon, went over to him during the Hundred Days. The +emperor repulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to France in +1814. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne, deprived him of his +military title and pension. He died at his estate of La Houssaye on the +12th of June 1816. In person he was tall and commanding, but his loud +and vulgar behaviour frequently betrayed the soldier of fortune. + + As authorities consult: Kock's _Mémoires de Masséna_; Bouvier, + _Bonaparte en Italie_; Count A.F. Andréossi, _La Campagne sur le + Mein, 1800-1801_; Baron A. Ducasse, _Précis de la campagne de l'armée + de Lyon en 1814_; and the _Memoirs_ of Marbot. (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +AUGHRIM, or AGHRIM, a small village in Co. Galway, Ireland, 4 m. W. by +S. of Ballinasloe. It is rendered memorable by the decisive victory +gained here on the 12th of July 1691 by the forces of William III. under +General Ginkel, over those of James II. under the French general St +Ruth, who fell in the fight. The Irish numbering 25,000, and strongly +posted behind marshy ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance; +but Ginkel having penetrated their line of defence, and their general +being struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they were at +length overcome and routed with terrible slaughter. The loss of the +English did not exceed 700 killed and 1000 wounded; while the Irish, in +their disastrous flight, lost about 7000 men, besides the whole material +of the army. This defeat rendered the adherents of James in Ireland +incapable of further efforts, and was speedily followed by the complete +submission of the country. + + + + +AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE (1820-1889), French dramatist, was born +at Valence, Drôme, on the 17th of September 1820. He was the grandson of +Pigault Lebrun, and belonged to the well-to-do _bourgeoisie_ in +principles and in thought as well as by actual birth. He received a good +education and studied for the bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts +and in verse, _La Ciguë_, refused at the Théâtre Français, but produced +with considerable success at the Odéon. This settled his career. +Thenceforward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in +collaboration with other writers--Jules Sandeau, Eugène-Marie Labiche, +Éd. Foussier--he produced plays which were in their way eventful. _Le +Fils de Giboyer_ (1862)--which was regarded as an attack on the clerical +party in France, and was only brought out by the direct intervention of +the emperor--caused some political excitement. His last comedy, _Les +Fourchambault_, belongs to the year 1879. After that date he wrote no +more, restrained by an honourable fear of producing inferior work. The +Academy had long before, on the 31st of March 1857, elected him to be +one of its members. He died in his house at Croissy on the 25th of +October 1889. Such, in briefest outline, is the story of a life which +Augier himself describes as "without incident"--a life in all senses +honourable. Augier, with Dumas _fils_ and Sardou, may be said to have +held the French stage during the Second Empire. The man respected +himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side--for he did not +disdain to be a teacher--has high qualities of rectitude and +self-restraint. Uprightness of mind and of heart, generous honesty, as +Jules Lemaitre well said, constituted the very soul of all his dramatic +work. _L'Aventurière_ (1848), the first of Augier's important works, +already shows a deviation from romantic models; and in the _Mariage +d'Olympe_ (1855) the courtesan is shown as she is, not glorified as in +Dumas's _Dame aux Camélias_. In _Gabrielle_ (1849) the husband, not the +lover, is the sympathetic, poetic character. In the _Lionnes pauvres_ +(1858) the wife who sells her favours comes under the lash. Greed of +gold, social demoralization, ultramontanism, lust of power, these are +satirized in _Les Effrontés_ (1861), _Le Fils de Giboyer_ (1862), +_Contagion_, first announced under the title of _Le Baron d'Estrigaud_ +(1866), _Lions et renards_ (1869)--which, with _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_ +(1854), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, reach the +high-water mark of Augier's art; in _Philiberte_ (1853) he produced a +graceful and delicate drawing-room comedy; and in _Jean de Thommeray_, +acted in 1873 after the great reverses of 1870, the regenerating note of +patriotism rings high and clear. His last two dramas, _Madame Caverlet_ +(1876) and _Les Fourchambault_ (1879), are problem plays. But it would +be unfair to suggest that Émile Augier was a preacher only. He was a +moralist in the great sense, the sense in which the term can be applied +to Molière and the great dramatists--a moralist because of his large and +sane outlook on life. Nor does the interest of his dramas depend on +elaborate plot. It springs from character and its evolution. His men and +women move as personality, that mysterious factor, dictates. They are +real, several of them typical. Augier's first drama, _La Ciguë_, belongs +to a time (1844) when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost +exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric +outbursts of pure poetry. But his verse, if not that of a great poet, +has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose dramas is +admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large and effective +wit. Perhaps it wanted these qualities to enlist laughter on his side in +such a war as he waged against false passion and false sentiment. + (F. T. M.) + + + + +AUGITE, an important member of the pyroxene (q.v.) group of rock-forming +minerals. The name (from [Greek: augae], lustre) has at various times +been used in different senses; it is now applied to aluminous pyroxenes +of the monoclinic series which are dark-greenish, brownish or black in +colour. Like the other pyroxenes it is characterized crystallographically +by its distinct cleavages parallel to the prism-faces (M), the angle +between which is 87°. A typical crystal is represented in fig. 1, whilst +fig. 2 shows a crystal twinned on the orthopinacoid (r'). Such crystals, +of short prismatic habit and black in colour, are common as phenocrysts +in many basalts, and are hence known as "basaltic augite"; when the +containing rock weathers to a clayey material the augite is left as black +isolated crystals, and such specimens, usually from Bohemia, are +represented in all mineral collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks, +augite is also an important constituent of many other kinds of igneous +rocks, and a rock composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite. +It also occurs in metamorphic rocks; for example, in the crystalline +limestones of the Fassathal in Tirol, where the variety known as fassaite +is found as pistachio-green crystals resembling epidote in appearance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly of CaMgSi2O6, +but it contains in addition alumina and ferric iron as (Mg, Fe") (Al, +Fe"')2 SiO6; the acmite (NaFe"'Si2O6,) and jadeite (NaAlSi2O6) +molecules are also sometimes present. Variations in the amount of iron +in mixtures of these isomorphous molecules are accompanied by variations +in the optical characters of the augite. (L. J. S.) + + + + +AUGMENT (Lat. _augere_, to increase), in Sanskrit and Greek grammar the +vowel prefixed to indicate the past tenses of a verb; in Greek grammar +it is called _syllabic_, when only the [epsilon] is prefixed; +_temporal_, when it causes an initial vowel in the verb to become a +diphthong or long vowel. + + + + +AUGMENTATION, or enlargement, a term in heraldry for an addition to a +coat of arms; in music, for the imitation in longer notes of an original +theme; in biology, an addition to the normal number of parts; in Scots +law, an increase of a minister's stipend by an action called "Process of +Augmentation." The "Court of Augmentation" in Henry VIII.'s time was +established to try cases affecting the suppression of monasteries, and +was dissolved in Mary's reign. + + + + +AUGSBURG, a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of +Bavaria, chief town of the district of Swabia. Pop. (1885) 65,905; +(1900) 89,109; (1905) 93,882. It lies on a high plateau, 1500 ft. above +the sea, between the rivers Wertach and Lech, which unite below the +city, 39 m. W.N.W. from Munich, with which, as with Regensburg, +Ingolstadt and Ulm, it is connected by main lines of railway. It +consists of an upper and a lower town, the old Jakob suburb and various +modern suburbs. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1703 and have +since been converted into public promenades. Maximilian Street is +remarkable for its breadth and architectural beauty. One of its most +interesting edifices is the Fugger Haus, of which the entire front is +painted in fresco. Among the public buildings of Augsburg most worthy of +notice is the town-hall in Renaissance style, one of the finest in +Germany, built by Elias Holl in 1616-1620. One of its rooms, called the +"Golden Hall," from the profusion of its gilding, is 113 ft. long, 59 +broad and 53 high. The palace of the bishops, where the memorable +Confession of Faith was presented to Charles V., is now used for +government offices. Among the seventeen Reman Catholic churches and +chapels, the cathedral, a basilica with two Romanesque towers, dates in +its oldest portions from the 10th century. The church of St Ulrich and +St Afra, built 1474-1500, is a Late Gothic edifice, with a nave of +magnificent proportions and a tower 300 ft. high. The church stands on +the spot where the first Christians of the district suffered martyrdom, +and where a chapel was erected in the 6th century over the grave of St +Afra. There are also a Protestant church, St Anne's, a school of arts, a +polytechnic institution, a picture gallery in the former monastery of St +Catherine, a museum, observatory, botanical gardens, an exchange, +gymnasium, deaf-mute institution, orphan asylum, several remarkable +fountains dating from the 16th century, &c. Augsburg is particularly +well provided with special and technical schools. The newer buildings, +all in the modern west quarter of the city, include law courts, a +theatre, and a municipal library with 200,000 volumes. The "Fuggerei," +built in 1519 by the brothers Fugger, is a miniature town, with six +streets or alleys, three gates and a church, and consists of a hundred +and six small houses let to indigent Roman Catholic citizens at a +nominal rent. The manufactures of Augsburg are of great importance. It +is the chief seat of the textile industry in south Germany, and its +cloth, cotton goods and linen manufactories employ about 10,000 hands. +It is also noted for its bleach and dye works, its engine works, +foundries, paper factories, and production of silk goods, watches, +jewelry, mathematical instruments, leather, chemicals, &c. Augsburg is +also the centre of the acetylene gas industry of Germany. +Copper-engraving, for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried +on; but printing, lithography and publishing have acquired a +considerable development, one of the best-known Continental newspapers +being the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ or _Augsburg Gazette_. On the opposite +side of the river, which is here crossed by a bridge, lies the township +of Lechhausen. + +Augsburg (the _Augusta Vindelicorum_ of the Romans) derives its name +from the Roman emperor Augustus, who, on the conquest of Rhaetia by +Drusus, established here a Roman colony about 14 B.C. In the 5th century +it was sacked by the Huns, and afterwards came under the power of the +Frankish kings. It was almost entirely destroyed in the war of +Charlemagne against Tassilo III., duke of Bavaria; and after the +dissolution and division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the +dukes of Swabia. After this it rose rapidly into importance as a +manufacturing and commercial town, becoming, after Nuremberg, the centre +of the trade between Italy and the north of Europe; its merchant +princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the Medici of Florence; but +the alterations produced in the currents of trade by the discoveries of +the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned a great decline. In 1276 it was +raised to the rank of a free imperial city, which it retained, with many +changes in its internal constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to +the kingdom of Bavaria. Meanwhile, it was the scene of numerous events +of historical importance. It was besieged and taken by Gustavus Adolphus +in 1632, and in 1635 it surrendered to the imperial forces; in 1703 it +was bombarded by the electoral prince of Bavaria, and forced to pay a +contribution of 400,000 dollars; and in the war of 1803 it suffered +severely. Of its conventions the most memorable are those which gave +birth to the Augsburg confession (1530) and to the Augsburg alliance +(1686). + + See Wagenseil, _Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg_ (Augs., 1820-1822); + Werner, _Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg_ (1899); Roth, _Augsburg's + Reformationsgeschichte_ (1902). + + + + +AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF, the most important Protestant statement of +belief drawn up at the Reformation. In summoning a diet for April 1530, +Charles V. offered a fair hearing to all religious parties in the +Empire. Luther, Justus Jonas, Melanchthon and Johann Bugenhagen were +appointed to draw up a statement of the Saxon position. These "Torgau +Articles" (March 1530) tell merely why Saxony had abolished certain +ecclesiastical abuses. Melanchthon, however, soon found that, owing to +attacks by Johann Eck of Ingolstadt ("404 Articles"), Saxony must state +its position in doctrinal matters as well. Taking the Articles of +Marburg (see MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF) and of Schwabach as the point of +departure, he repudiated all connexion with heretics condemned by the +ancient church. On the 11th of May he sent the draft to Luther, who +approved it, adding that he himself "could not tread so softly and +gently." On the 23rd of June the Confession, originally intended as the +statement of Electoral Saxony alone, was discussed and signed by a +number of other Protestant princes and cities, and read before the diet +on the 25th of June. Articles 1-21 attempt to show that the Evangelicals +had deviated from current doctrine only in order to restore the pure and +original teaching of the church. In spite of significant omissions (the +sole authority of scripture; rejection of transubstantiation), the +Confession contains nothing contradictory to Luther's position, and in +its emphasis on justification by faith alone enunciates a cardinal +concept of the Evangelical churches. Articles 22-28 describe and defend +the reformation of various "abuses." On the 3rd of August, shorn of much +of its original bitterness, the so-called _Confutatio pontificia_ was +read; it well expresses the views approved in substance by the emperor +and all the Catholic party. In answer, Melanchthon was ordered to +prepare an Apology of the Confession, which the emperor refused to +receive; so Melanchthon enlarged it and published the _editio princeps_ +of both Confession and Apology in 1531. + + As he felt free to make slight changes, the first edition does not + represent the exact text of 1530; the edition of 1533 was further + improved, while that of 1540, rearranged and in part rewritten, is + known as the _Variata_. Dogmatic changes in this seem to have drawn + forth no protest from Luther or Brenz, so Melanchthon made fresh + alterations in 1542. Later, the _Variata_ of 1540 became the creed of + the Melanchthonians and even of the Crypto-calvinists; so the framers + of the Formula of Concord, promulgated in 1580, returned to the text + handed in at the Diet. By mistake they printed from a poor copy and + not from the original, from which their German text varies at over 450 + places. Their Latin text, that of Melanchthon's _editio princeps_, is + more nearly accurate. The _textus receptus_ is that of the Formula of + Concord, the divergent Latin and German forms being equally binding. + +Acceptance of the Confession and Apology was made a condition of +membership in the Schmalkalden League. The Wittenberg Concord (1536) +and the Articles of Schmalkalden (1537) reaffirmed them. The Confession +was the ultimate source of much of the Thirty-nine Articles. The +Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognized no Protestants save +adherents of the Confession; this was modified in 1648. To-day the +_Invariata_ is of symbolical authority among Lutherans generally, while +the _Variata_ is accepted by the Reformed churches of certain parts of +Germany (see Löber, pp. 79-83.) + + Editions of the received text: J.T. Müller, _Die symbolischen Bücher + der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche_ (10th ed., Gütersloh, 1907), with + a valuable historical introduction by Th. Kolde; Theodor Kolde, _Die + Augsburgische Konfession_ (Gotha, 1896), (contains also the Marburg, + Schwabach and Torgau Articles, the _Confutatio_ and the _Variata_ of + 1540). For translations of these, as well as of Zwingli's Reckoning of + his Faith, and of the Tetrapolitan Confession, see H.E. Jacobs, _The + Book of Concord_ (Philadelphia, 1882-83). The texts submitted to the + emperor, lost before 1570, are reconstructed and compared with the + _textus receptus_ by P. Tschackert, _Die unveranderte Augsburgische + Konfession_ (Leipzig, 1901). For the genesis of the Confession, see + Th. Kolde, _Die alteste Redaktion der Augsburger Konfession_ + (Gütersloh, 1906), also Kolde's article, "Augsburger Bekenntnis," in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed., vol. ii., Leipzig, 1897). + The standard commentary is still G.L. Plitt, _Einleitung in die + Augustana_ (Erlangen, 1867 ff.); compare also J. Ficker, _Die + Konfutation des Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses in ihrer ersten Gestalt_ + (Leipzig, 1891); also A. Petzold, _Die Konfutation des + Vierstädtebekenntnisses_ (Leipzig, 1900). On its present use see G. + Löber, _Die im evangelischen Deutschland geltenden + Ordinationsverpflichtungen geschichtlich geordnet_ (Leipzig, 1905), 79 + ff. (W. W. R.*) + + + + +AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF, the name applied to the European war of +1688-1697. The league of Augsburg was concluded on the 9th of July 1686 +by the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg and other princes, against +the French. Spain, Sweden, England and other non-German states joined +the league, and formed the Grand Alliance by the treaty of Vienna (July +12, 1689). (See GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE.) + + + + +AUGURS, in ancient Rome, members of a religious college whose duty it +was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices) of approval or +disapproval sent by the gods in reference to any proposed undertaking. +The _augures_ were originally called _auspices_, but, while _auspex_[1] +fell into disuse and was replaced by _augur_, _auspicium_ was retained +as the scientific term for the observation of signs. + +The early history of the college is obscure. Its institution has been +attributed to Romulus or Numa. It probably consisted originally of three +members, of whom the king himself was one. This number was doubled by +Tarquinius Priscus, but in 300 B.C. it was only four, two places, +according to Livy (x. 6), being vacant. The Ogulnian law in the same +year increased the number to nine, five plebeian being added to the four +patrician members. In the time of Sulla the number was fifteen, which +was increased to sixteen by Julius Caesar. This number continued in +imperial times; the college itself was certainly in existence as late as +the 4th century. The office of augur, which was bestowed only upon +persons of distinguished merit and was much sought after by reason of +its political importance, was held for life. Vacancies were originally +filled by co-optation, but by the Domitian law (104) the selection was +made, by seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes chosen by lot, from +candidates previously nominated by the college. The insignia of office +were the _lituus_, a staff free from knots and bent at the top, and the +_trabea_, a kind of toga with bright scarlet stripes and a purple +border. The science of augury was contained in various written works, +which were consulted as occasion arose: such were the _libri augurum_, a +manual of augural ritual, and the _commentarii augurum_, a collection of +decrees or answers given by the college to the senate in certain +definite cases. + +The natural region to look to for signs of the will of Jupiter was the +sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed by him as +counsel to men. The latter, however, was the more difficult of +interpretation, and upon it, therefore, mainly hinged the system of +divination with which the augurs were occupied. It was the duty of the +augur, before the auspices properly so called (those from the sky and +from birds) were taken, to mark out with his staff the templum or +consecrated space within which his observations were intended to be +made. The method of procedure was as follows. At midnight, when the sky +was clear and there was an absence of wind, the augur, in the presence +of a magistrate, took up his position on a hill which afforded a wide +view. After prayer and sacrifice, he marked out the templum both in the +sky and on the ground and dedicated it. Within its limits he then +pitched a tent, in which he sat down with covered head, asked the gods +for a sign, and waited for an answer. As the augur looked south he had +the east, the lucky quarter, on his left, and therefore signs on the +left side were considered favourable, those on the right unfavourable. +The practice was the reverse in Greece; the observers of signs looked +towards the north, so that signs on the right were regarded as the +favourable ones, and this is frequently adopted in the Roman poets. The +augur afterwards announced the result of his observations in a set form +of words, by which the magistrate was bound. Signs of the will of the +gods were of two kinds, either in answer to a request (_auspicia +impetrativa_), or incidental (_auspicia oblativa_). Of such signs there +were five classes: (1) Signs in the sky (_caelestia auspicia_), +consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning, but not excluding falling +stars and other phenomena. Lightning from left to right was favourable, +from right to left unfavourable; but on its mere appearance, in either +direction, all business in the public assemblies was suspended for the +day. Since the person charged to take the auspices for a certain day was +constitutionally subject to no other authority who could test the truth +or falsehood of his statement that he had observed lightning, this +became a favourite device for putting off meetings of the public +assembly. Restrictions were, however, imposed in later republican times. +When a new consul, praetor or quaestor entered on his first day of +office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of custom to +report to him that lightning from the left had been seen. (2) Signs from +birds (_signa ex avibus_), with reference to the direction of their +flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other sounds. To the +first class, called _alites_, belonged the eagle and the vulture; to the +second, called _oscines_, the owl, the crow and the raven. The mere +appearance of certain birds indicated good or ill luck, while others had +a reference only to definite persons or events. In matters of ordinary +life on which divine counsel was prayed for, it was usual to have +recourse to this form of divination. For public affairs it was, by the +time of Cicero, superseded by the fictitious observation of lightning. +(3) Feeding of birds (_auspicia ex tripudiis_), which consisted in +observing whether a bird--usually a fowl--on grain being thrown before +it, let fall a particle from its mouth (_tripudium sollistimum_). If it +did so, the will of the gods was in favour of the enterprise in +question. The simplicity of this ceremony recommended it for very +general use, particularly in the army when on service. The fowls were +kept in cages by a servant, styled _pullarius_. In imperial times +_decuriales pullarii_ are mentioned. (4) Signs from animals (_pedestria +auspicia_, or _ex quadrupedibus_), i.e. observation of the course of, +or sounds uttered by, quadrupeds and reptiles within a fixed space, +corresponding to the observations of the flight of birds, but much less +frequently employed. It had gone out of use by the time of Cicero. (5) +Warnings (_signa ex diris_), consisting of all unusual phenomena, but +chiefly such as boded ill. Being accidental in their occurrence, they +belonged to the _auguria oblativa_, and their interpretation was not a +matter for the augurs, unless occurring in the course of some public +transaction, in which case they formed a divine veto against it. +Otherwise, reference was made for an interpretation to the pontifices in +olden times, afterwards frequently to the Sibylline books, or the +Etruscan haruspices, when the incident was not already provided for by a +rule, as, for example, that it was unlucky for a person leaving his +house to meet a raven, that the sudden death of a person from epilepsy +at a public meeting was a sign to break up the assembly. + +Among the other means of discovering the will of the gods were the +casting of lots, oracles of Apollo (in the hands of the college _sacris +faciundis_), but chiefly the examination of the entrails of animals +slain for sacrifice (see OMEN). Anything abnormal found there was +brought under the notice of the augurs, but usually the Etruscan +haruspices were employed for this. The persons entitled to ask for an +expression of the divine will on a public affair were the magistrates. +To the highest offices, including all persons of consular and praetorian +rank, belonged the right of taking _auspicia maxima_; to the inferior +offices of aedile and quaestor, the _auspicia minora_; the differences +between these, however, must have been small. The subjects for which +_auspicia publica_ were always taken were the election of magistrates, +their entering on office, the holding of a public assembly to pass +decrees, the setting out of an army for war. They could only be taken in +Rome itself; and in case of a commander having to renew his _auspicia_, +he must either return to Rome or select a spot in the foreign country to +represent the hearth of that city. The time for observing auspices was, +as a rule, between midnight and dawn of the day fixed for any proposed +undertaking. In military affairs this course was not always possible, as +in the case of taking auspices before crossing a river. The founding of +colonies, the beginning of a battle, the calling together an army, the +sittings of the senate, decisions of peace or war, were occasions, not +always but frequently, for taking auspices. The place where the ceremony +was performed was not fixed, but selected with a view to the matter in +hand. A spot being selected, the official charged to make the +observation pitched his tent there some days before. A matter postponed +through adverse signs from the gods could on the following or some +future day be again brought forward for the auspices. If an error +(_vitium_) occurred in the auspices, the augurs could, of their own +accord or at the request of the senate, inform themselves of the +circumstances, and decree upon it. A consul could refuse to accept their +decree while he remained in office, but on retiring he could be +prosecuted. _Auspicia oblativa_ referred mostly to the comitia. A +magistrate was not bound to take notice of signs reported merely by a +private person, but he could not overlook such a report from a brother +magistrate. For example, if a quaestor on his entry to office observed +lightning and announced it to the consul, the latter must delay the +public assembly for the day. + + On the subject generally, see A. Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la + divination dans l'antiquité_ (1879), and his articles, with + bibliography, in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, + also articles "Augures," "Auspicium," by Wissowa in Pauly's + _Realencyclopädie_ (II. pt. ii., 1896), and by L.C. Purser (and + others) in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd + ed., 1890). (See also DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY, &c.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] There is no doubt that _auspex_ = _avi-spex_ ("observer of + birds"), but the derivation of _augur_ is still unsettled. The + following have been suggested: (1) _augur_ (or _augus_) is a + substantive originally meaning "increase" (related to _augustus_ as + _robur_ to _robustus_), then transferred to the priest as the giver + of increase or blessing; (2) = _avi-gur_, the second part of the word + pointing to (a) _garrire_, "chatter," or (b) _gerere_, the augur + being conceived as "carrying" or guiding the flight of the birds; (3) + from a lost verb _augo_ = "tell," "declare." It is now generally + agreed that the science of augury is of Italian, not Etruscan, + origin. + + + + +AUGUST (originally _Sextilis_), the sixth month in the pre-Julian Roman +year, which received its present name from the emperor Augustus. The +preceding month, _Quintilis_, had been called "July" after Julius +Caesar, and the emperor chose August to be rechristened in his own +honour because his greatest good fortune had then happened. In that +month he had been admitted to the consulate, had thrice celebrated a +triumph, had received the allegiance of the soldiers stationed on the +Janiculum, had concluded the civil wars, and had subdued Egypt. As July +contained thirty-one days, and August only thirty, it was thought +necessary to add another day to the latter month, in order that the +month of Augustus might not be in any respect inferior to that of +Julius. + + + + +AUGUSTA, a city and the county-seat of Richmond county, Georgia, U.S.A., +at the head of steamboat navigation on the Savannah river, 132 m. N.W. +of Savannah by rail and 240 m. by river course. Pop. (1890) 33,300; +(1900) 39,441, of whom 18,487 were negroes and only 995 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 41,040. Augusta is served by the Southern, +the Augusta Southern (controlled by the Southern), the Atlantic Coast +Line, the Charleston & Western Carolina (controlled by the Atlantic +Coast Line), the Georgia and the Central of Georgia railways, by an +electric line to Aiken, South Carolina, and by a line of steamers to +Savannah. The city extends along the river bank for a distance of more +than 3 m., and is connected by a bridge with Hamburg, and with North +Augusta, South Carolina, two residential suburbs. Augusta is well known +as a winter resort (mean winter temperature, 47° F.), and there are many +fine winter homes here of wealthy Northerners. There are good roads, +stretching from Augusta for miles in almost every direction. In North +Augusta there is a large hotel, and there is another in Summerville +(pop. in 1910, 4361), 2½ m. N.W., an attractive residential suburb and +winter resort, in which there are a country club and a large United +States arsenal, established in 1831. Broad Street is the principal +thoroughfare of Augusta, and Greene Street, with a park in the centre +and flanking rows of oaks and elms, is the finest residential street. Of +historical interest is St Paul's church (Protestant Episcopal); the +present building was erected in 1819 and is the third St Paul's church +on the same site. The first church was "built by the gentlemen of +Augusta" in 1750. In the crypt of the church General Leonidas Polk is +buried; and in the churchyard are the graves of George Steptoe +Washington, a nephew of George Washington, and of William Longstreet, +the inventor. Among the city's principal buildings are the Federal +building, the Richmond county court house, the Augusta orphan asylum, +the city hospital, the Lamar hospital for negroes, and the buildings of +Richmond Academy (incorporated in 1783), of the Academy of the Sacred +Heart (for girls), of Paine's Institute (for negroes), of Houghton +Institute, endowed in 1852 to be "free to all the children of Augusta," +and of the medical school of the university of Georgia, founded in 1829, +and a part of the university since 1873. A granite obelisk 50 ft. high +was erected in 1861 as a memorial to the signers for Georgia of the +Declaration of Independence; beneath it are buried Lyman Hall +(1726-1790) and George Walton (1740-1804). There are two Italian marble +monuments in honour of Confederate soldiers, and monuments to the +Southern poets, Paul Hamilton Hayne and Richard Henry Wilde (1789-1847). + +In commerce and manufacturing, Augusta ranks second among the cities of +Georgia. As a centre of trade for the "Cotton Belt," it has a large +wholesale and retail business; and it is an important cotton market. The +principal manufacture is cotton goods; among the other products are +lumber, flour, cotton waste, cotton-seed oil and cake, ice, silk, +boilers and engines, and general merchandise staples. Water-power for +factories is secured by a system of "water-power canals" from a large +dam across the Savannah, built in 1847 and enlarged in 1871; the +principal canal, owned by the city, is so valuable as nearly to pay the +interest on the municipal debt. In 1905 the value of the city's total +factory product was $8,829,305, of which $3,832,009, or 43.4%, was the +value of the cotton goods. The principal newspaper is the _Augusta +Chronicle_, founded in 1785. + +Augusta was established in 1735-1736 by James Edward Oglethorpe, the +founder of Georgia, and was named in honour of the princess of Wales. +The Carolina colonists had a trading post in its vicinity before the +settlement by Oglethorpe. The fort, built in 1736, was first named Fort +Augusta, and in 1780, at the time of the British occupation, was +enlarged and renamed Fort Cornwallis; its site is now marked by a +Memorial Cross, erected by the Colonial Dames of Georgia in the +churchyard of St Paul's. Tobacco was the principal agricultural product +during the 18th century, and for its culture negro slaves were +introduced from Carolina, before the restrictions of the Georgia +Trustees on slavery were removed. During the colonial period several +treaties with Indians were made at Augusta; by the most important, that +of 1763, the Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, Cherokees and Catawbas agreed +(in a meeting with the governors of North and South Carolina, Virginia +and Georgia) to the terms of the treaty of Paris. At the opening of the +American War of Independence, the majority of the people of Augusta were +Loyalists. The town was taken by the British under Lieut.-Col. Archibald +Campbell (1739-1791) in January 1779, but was evacuated a month later; +it was the seat of government of Georgia for almost the entire period +from the capture of Savannah in December 1778 until May 1780, and was +then abandoned by the Patriots and was occupied chiefly by Loyalists +under Lieut.-Col. Thomas Brown. In September 1780 a force of less than +500 patriots under Col. Elijah Clarke marched against the town in three +divisions, and while one division, attacking a neighbouring Indian camp, +drew off most of the garrison, the other two divisions entered the town; +but British reinforcements arrived before Brown could be dislodged from +a building in which he had taken refuge, and Clarke was forced to +withdraw. A stronger American force, under Lieut.-Col. Henry Lee, +renewed the siege in May 1781 and gained possession on the 5th of June. +From 1783 until 1795 Augusta was again the seat of the state government. +It was the meeting-place of the Land Court which confiscated the +property of the Loyalists of Georgia, and of the convention which +ratified for Georgia the Constitution of the United States. In 1798 it +was incorporated as a town, and in 1817 it was chartered as a city. +Augusta was the home of the inventor, William Longstreet (1759-1814), +who as early as 1788 received a patent from the state of Georgia for a +steamboat, but met with no practical success until 1808; as early as +1801 he had made experiments in the application of steam to cotton gins +and saw-mills at Augusta. Near Augusta, on the site now occupied by the +Eli Whitney Country Club, Eli Whitney is said to have first set up and +operated his cotton gin; he is commemorated by a mural tablet in the +court house. The establishment of a steamboat line to Savannah in 1817 +aided Augusta's rapid commercial development. There was a disastrous +fire in 1829, an epidemic of yellow fever in 1839, and a flood in 1840, +but the growth of the city was not seriously checked; the cotton +receipts of 1846 were 212,019 bales, and in 1847 a cotton factory was +built. During the Civil War Augusta was the seat of extensive military +factories, the tall chimney of the Confederate powder mills still +standing as a memorial. The economic development has, since the Civil +War, been steady and continuous. An exposition was held in Augusta in +1888, and another in 1893. + + + + +AUGUSTA, the capital of Maine, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Kennebec +county, on the Kennebec river[1] (at the head of navigation), 44 m. from +its mouth, 62 m. by rail N.E. of Portland, and 74 m. S.W. of Bangor. +Pop. (1890) 10,527; (1900) 11,683, of whom 2131 were foreign-born; +(1910, census) 13,211. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by +several electric lines, and by steamboat lines to Portland, Boston and +several other ports. It is built on a series of terraces, mostly on the +west bank of the river, which is spanned here by a bridge 1100 ft. long. +The state house, built of granite quarried in the vicinity, occupies a +commanding site along the south border of the city, and in it is the +state library. The Lithgow library is a city public library. Near the +state house is the former residence of James G. Blaine. On the other +side of the river, nearly opposite, is the Maine insane hospital. Among +other prominent buildings are the court house, the post office and the +city hall. In one of the parks is a soldiers' and sailors' monument. By +means of a dam across the river, 17 ft. high and nearly 600 ft. long, +good water-power is provided, and the city manufactures cotton goods, +boots and shoes, paper, pulp and lumber. A leading industry is the +printing and publishing of newspapers and periodicals, several of the +periodicals published here having an enormous circulation. The total +value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,886,833. Augusta occupies +the site of the Indian village, Koussinoc, at which the Plymouth Colony +established a trading post about 1628. In 1661 Plymouth sold its +interests, and soon afterward the four purchasers abandoned the post. In +1754, however, their heirs brought about the erection here of Fort +Western, the main building of which is still standing at the east end of +the bridge, opposite the city hall. Augusta was originally a part of the +township of Hallowell (incorporated in 1771); in 1797 the north part of +Hallowell was incorporated as a separate town and named Harrington; and +later in the same year the name was changed to Augusta. It became the +county-seat in 1799; was chosen by the Maine legislature as the capital +of the state in 1827, but was not occupied as such until the completion +of the state house in 1831; and was chartered as a city in 1849. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Kennebec was first explored to this point in 1607. + + + + +AUGUSTA, a seaport of the province of Syracuse, Sicily, 19 m. N. of it +by rail. Pop. (1901) 16,402. It occupies a part of the former peninsula +of Xiphonia, now a small island, connected with the mainland by a +bridge. It was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in 1232, and almost +entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1693, after which it was rebuilt. +The castle is now a large prison. The fortified port, though +unfrequented except as a naval harbour of refuge, is a very fine one. +There are considerable saltworks at Augusta. To the south, on the left +bank of the Molinello. 1½ m. from its mouth, Sicel tombs and Christian +catacombs, and farther up the river a cave village of the early middle +ages, have been explored (_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1902, 411, 631; +_Römische Quartalschrift_, 1902, 205). Whether there was ever a town +bearing the name Xiphonia is doubted by E.A. Freeman (_Hist. of Sic._ i. +583); cf., however, E. Pais, _Atakta_ (Pisa, 1891), 55, who attributes +its foundation, under the name of Tauromenion (which it soon lost), to +the Zancleans of Hybla (afterwards Megara Hyblaea). (T. As.) + + + + +AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM, the chief town of the Ligurian tribe of the +Bagienni, probably identical with the modern Bene Vagienna, on the upper +course of the Tanaro, about 35 m. due south of Turin. The town retained +its position as a tribal centre in the reorganization of Augustus, whose +name it bears, and was erected on a systematic plan. Considerable +remains of public buildings, constructed in concrete faced with small +stones with bands of brick at intervals, an amphitheatre with a major +axis of 390 ft. and a minor axis of 305 ft., a theatre with a stage 133 +ft. in length, and near it the foundations of what was probably a +basilica, an open space (no doubt the forum), an aqueduct, baths, &c., +have been discovered by recent excavations, and also one of the city +gates, flanked by two towers 22 ft. sq. + + See G. Assandria and G. Vacchetta in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1894), + 155; (1896), 215; (1897), 441; (1898), 299; (1900), 389; (1901), 413. + (T. As.) + + + + +AUGUSTAN HISTORY, the name given to a collection of the biographies of +the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus (A.D. 117-284). The work +professes to have been written during the reigns of Diocletian and +Constantine, and is to be regarded as the composition of six +authors,--Aelius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius, +Vulcacius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus--known as +Scriptores Historiae Augustae, writers of Augustan history. It is +generally agreed, however, that there is a large number of +interpolations in the work, which are referred to the reign of +Theodosius; and that the documents inserted in the lives are almost all +forgeries. The more advanced school of critics holds that the names of +the supposed authors are purely fictitious, as those of some of the +authorities which they profess to quote certainly are. The lives, which +(with few exceptions) are arranged in chronological order, are +distributed as follows:--To Spartianus: the biographies of Hadrian, +Aelius Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, +Caracallus, Geta (?); to Vulcacius Gallicanus: Avidius Cassius; to +Capitolinus: Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Verus, Pertinax, +Clodius Albinus, the two Maximins, the three Gordians, Maximus and +Balbinus, Opilius Macrinus (?); to Lampridius: Commodus, Diadumenus, +Elagabalus, Alexander Severus; to Pollio: the two Valerians, the +Gallieni, the so-called Thirty Tyrants or Usurpers, Claudius (his lives +of Philip, Decius, and Gallus being lost); to Vopiscus: Aurelian, +Tacitus, Florian, Probus, the four tyrants (Firmus, Saturninus, +Proculus, Bonosus), Carus, Numerian, Carinus. + +The importance of the Augustan history as a repertory of information is +very considerable, but its literary pretensions are of the humblest +order. The writers' standard was confessedly low. "My purpose," says +Vopiscus, "has been to provide materials for persons more eloquent than +I." Considering the perverted taste of the age, it is perhaps fortunate +that the task fell into the hands of no showy declaimer who measured his +success by his skill in making surface do duty for substance, but of +homely, matter-of-fact scribes, whose sole concern was to record what +they knew. Their narrative is unmethodical and inartificial; their style +is tame and plebeian; their conception of biography is that of a +collection of anecdotes; they have no notion of arrangement, no measure +of proportion, and no criterion of discrimination between the important +and the trivial; they are equally destitute of critical and of +historical insight, unable to sift the authorities on which they rely, +and unsuspicious of the stupendous social revolution comprised within +the period which they undertake to describe. Their value, consequently, +depends very much on that of the sources to which they happen to have +recourse for any given period of history, and on the fidelity of their +adherence to these when valuable. Marius Maximus and Aelius Junius +Cordus, to whose qualifications they themselves bear no favourable +testimony, were their chief authorities for the earlier lives of the +series. Marius Maximus, who lived about 165-230, wrote biographies of +the emperors, in continuation of those of Suetonius, from Nerva to +Elagabalus; Junius Cordus dealt with the less-known emperors, perhaps +down to Maximus and Balbinus. The earlier lives, however, contain a +substratum of authentic historical fact, which recent critics have +supposed to be derived from a lost work by a contemporary writer, +described by one of these scholars as "the last great Roman historian." +For the later lives the Scriptores were obliged to resort more largely +to public records, and thus preserved matter of the highest importance, +rescuing from oblivion many imperial rescripts and senatorial decrees, +reports of official proceedings and speeches on public occasions, and a +number of interesting and characteristic letters from various emperors. +Their incidental allusions sometimes cast vivid though undesigned light +on the circumstances of the age, and they have made large contributions +to our knowledge of imperial jurisprudence in particular. Even their +trivialities have their use; their endless anecdotes respecting the +personal habits of the subjects of their biographies, if valueless to +the historian, are most acceptable to the archaeologist, and not +unimportant to the economist and moralist. Their errors and deficiencies +may in part be ascribed to the contemporary neglect of history as a +branch of instruction. Education was in the hands of rhetoricians and +grammarians; historians were read for their style, not for their matter, +and since the days of Tacitus, none had arisen worth a schoolmaster's +notice. We thus find Vopiscus acknowledging that when he began to write +the life of Aurelian, he was entirely misinformed respecting the +latter's competitor Firmus, and implying that he would not have ventured +on Aurelian himself if he had not had access to the MS. of the emperor's +own diary in the Ulpian library. The writers' historical estimates are +superficial and conventional, but report the verdict of public opinion +with substantial accuracy. The only imputation on the integrity of any +of them lies against Trebellius Pollio, who, addressing his work to a +descendant of Claudius, the successor and probably the assassin of +Gallienus, has dwelt upon the latter versatile sovereign's carelessness +and extravagance without acknowledgment of the elastic though fitful +energy he so frequently displayed in defence of the empire. The caution +of Vopiscus's references to Diocletian cannot be made a reproach to him. + +No biographical particulars are recorded respecting any of these +writers. From their acquaintance with Latin and Greek literature they +must have been men of letters by profession, and very probably +secretaries or librarians to persons of distinction. There seems no +reason to accept Gibbon's contemptuous estimate of their social +position. They appear particularly versed in law. Spartianus's reference +to himself as "Diocletian's own" seems to indicate that he was a +domestic in the imperial household. They address their patrons with +deference, acknowledging their own deficiencies, and seem painfully +conscious of the profession of literature having fallen upon evil days. + + Editio princeps (Milan, 1475); Casaubon (1603) showed great critical + ability in his notes, but for want of a good MS. left the restoration + of the text to Salmasius (1620), whose notes are a most remarkable + monument of erudition, combined with acuteness in verbal criticism and + general vigour of intellect. Of recent years considerable attention + has been devoted by German scholars to the _History_, especially by + Peter, whose edition of the text in the Teubner series (2nd ed., 1884) + contains (praef. xxxv.-xxxvii.) a bibliography of works on the subject + preceding the publication of his own special treatise. The edition by + Jordan-Eyssenhardt (1863) should also be mentioned. Amongst the most + recent treatises on the subject are: A. Gemoll, _Die Scriptores + Historiae Augustae_ (1886); H. Peter, _Die Scriptores Historiae + Augustae_ (1892); G. Tropea, _Studi sugli Scriptores Historiae + Augustae_ (1899-1903); J.M. Heer, _Der historische Wert der Vita + Commodi in der Sammlung der Scriptores Historiae Augustae_ (1901); C. + Lécrivain, _Études sur l'histoire Auguste_ (1904); E. Kornemann, + _Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom_ (1905), + according to whom "the last great historian of Rome" is Lollius + Urbicus; O. Schulz, _Das Kaiserhaus der Antonine und der letzte + Historiker Roms_ (1907). On their style, see C. Paucker, _De + Latinitate Scriptorum Historiae Augustae_ (1870); special lexicon by + C. Lessing (1901-1906). An English translation is included in _The + Lives of the Roman Emperors_, by John Bernard (1698). See further + ROME: _History_ (anc. _ad fin._), section "Authorities"; M. Schanz, + _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_, iii. p. 69 (for Marius Maximus + and Junius Cordus), iv. p. 47; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman + Literature_ (Eng. tr.), § 392; H. Peter, bibliography from 1893 to + 1905 in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, cxxix. (1907). + + + + +AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM (mod. _Aosta_, q.v.), an ancient town of +Italy in the district of the Salassi, founded by Augustus about 24 B.C. +on the site of the camp of Varro Murena, who subdued this tribe in 25 +B.C., and settled with 3000 praetorians. Pliny calls it the last town of +Italy on the north-west, and its position at the confluence of two +rivers, at the end of the Great and Little St Bernard, gave it +considerable military importance, which is vouched for by considerable +remains of Roman buildings. The ancient town walls, enclosing a +rectangle 793 by 624 yds., are still preserved almost in their entire +extent. The walls are 21 ft. high. They are built of concrete faced with +small blocks of stone, and at the bottom are nearly 9 ft. thick, and at +the top 6 ft. There are towers at the angles of the _enceinte_, and +others at intervals, and two at each of the four gates, making a total +of twenty towers altogether. They are roughly 32 ft. square, and project +14 ft. from the wall. The Torre del Pailleron on the south and the Torre +del Leproso in the west are especially well preserved. The east and +south gates exist (the latter, a double gate with three arches flanked +by two towers, is the Porta Praetoria, and is especially fine), while +the rectangular arrangement of the streets perpetuates the Roman plan, +dividing the town into 16 blocks (_insulae_). The main road, 32 ft. +wide, divides the city into two equal halves, running from east to west, +an arrangement which makes it clear that the guarding of the road was +the main _raison d'être_ of the city. Some arcades of the amphitheatre +(the diameters of which are 282 ft. and 239 ft.), and the south wall of +the theatre are also preserved, the latter to a height of over 70 ft., +and a market-place some 300 ft. square, surrounded by storehouses on +three sides with a temple in the centre, and two on the open (south) +side, and the _thermae_, have been discovered. Outside the town is a +handsome triumphal arch in honour of Augustus. About 5 m. to the west is +a single-arched Roman bridge, the Pondel, which has a closed passage +lighted by windows for foot passengers in winter, and above it an open +footpath, both being about 3½ ft. in width. There are considerable +remains of the ancient road from Eporedia (mod. _Ivrea_) to Augusta +Praetoria, up the Valle d' Aosta, which the modern railway follows, +notably the Pont St Martin, with a single arch with a span of 116 ft. +and a roadway 15 ft. wide, the cutting of Donnaz, and the Roman bridges +of Châtillon (Pont St Vincent) and Aosta (Pont de Pierre), &c. + + See C. Promis, _Le antichità di Aosta_ (Turin, 1862); E. Bérard in + _Atti della Società di Archeologia di Torino_, iii. 119 seq.; _Notizie + degli Scavi_, passim; A. d'Andrade, _Relazione dell' Ufficio Regionale + per la consenazione dei Monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria_ + (Turin, 1899), 46 seq. (T. As.) + + + + +AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM (1772-1841), German theologian, born +at Eschenberga, near Gotha, was of Jewish descent, his grandfather +having been a converted rabbi. He was educated at the gymnasium at Gotha +and the university of Jena. At Jena he studied oriental languages, of +which he became professor there in 1803. Subsequently he became ordinary +professor of theology (1812), and for a time rector, at Breslau. In 1819 +he was transferred to the university of Bonn, where he was made +professor primarius. In 1828 he was appointed chief member of the +consistorial council at Coblenz. Here he was afterwards made director of +the consistory. He died at Coblenz in 1841. Augusti had little sympathy +with the modern philosophical interpretations of dogma, and although he +took up a position of free criticism with regard to the Biblical +narratives, he held fast to the traditional faith. His works on theology +(_Dogmengeschichte_, 1805; 4th ed., 1835) are simple statements of fact; +they do not attempt a speculative treatment of their subjects. In 1809 +he published in conjunction with W.M.L. de Wette a new translation of +the Old Testament. Mention should also be made of his _Grundriss einer +historischkritischen Einleitung ins Alte Testament_ (1806), his +_Exegetisches Handbuch des Alten Testaments_ (1797-1800), and his +edition of _Die Apokryphen des A. T._ (1804). In addition to these, his +most important writings are the _Denkwürdigkeiten aus der Christlichen +Archäologie_, 12 vols. (1817-1831), a partially digested mass of +materials, and the _Handbuch der Christ. Archäologie_, 3 vols. +(1836-1837), which gives the substance of the larger work in a more +compact and systematic form. + + + + +AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430), one of the four great fathers of the Latin +Church. Augustinus--the _praenomen_ Aurelius is used indeed by his +disciples Orosius and Prosper, and is found in the oldest Augustine +MSS., but is not used by himself, nor in the letters addressed to +him--was born at Tagaste, a town of Numidia, now Suk Ahras in +Constantine, on the 13th of November 354. His father, Patricius, was a +burgess of Tagaste and still a pagan at the time of his son's birth. His +mother, Monica, was not only a Christian, but a woman of the most tender +and devoted piety, whose beautiful faith and enthusiasm and patient +prayer for both her husband and son (at length crowned with success in +both cases) have made her a type of womanly saintliness for all ages. +She early instructed her son in the faith and love of Jesus Christ, and +for a time he seems to have been impressed by her teaching. Falling ill, +he wished to be baptized; but when the danger was past, the rite was +deferred and, in spite of his mother's admonitions and prayers, +Augustine grew up without any profession of Christian piety or any +devotion to Christian principles. + +Inheriting from his father a passionate nature, he formed while still a +mere youth an irregular union with a girl, by whom he became the father +of a son, whom in a fit of pious emotion he named Adeodatus ("by God +given"), and to whom he was passionately attached. In his _Confessions_ +he afterwards described this period of his life in the blackest colours; +for in the light of his conversion he saw behind him only shadows. Yet, +whatever his youthful aberrations, Augustine was from the first an +earnest student. His father, noticing his early promise, destined him +for the brilliant and lucrative career of a rhetorician, for which he +spared no expense in training him. Augustine studied at his native town +and afterwards at Madaura and Carthage, especially devoting himself to +the works of the Latin poets, many traces of his love for which are to +be found in his writings. His acquaintance with Greek literature was +much more limited, and, indeed, it has been doubted, though without +sufficient reason, whether he could use the Greek scriptures in the +original. Cicero's _Hortensius_, which he read in his nineteenth year, +first awakened in his mind the spirit of speculation and the impulse +towards the knowledge of the truth. But he passed from one phase of +thought to another, unable to find satisfaction in any. Manichaeism, +that mixed product of Zoroastrian and Christian-gnostic elements, first +enthralled him. He became a fervent member of the sect, and was admitted +into the class of _auditors_ or "hearers." Manichaeism seemed to him to +solve the mysteries of the world, and of his own experiences by which he +was perplexed. His insatiable imagination drew congenial food from the +fanciful religious world of the Manichaeans, decked out as this was with +the luxuriant wealth of Oriental myth. His strongly developed sense of a +need of salvation sought satisfaction in the contest of the two +principles of Good and Evil, and found peace, at least for the moment, +in the conviction that the portions of light present in him would be +freed from the darkness in which they were immersed. The ideal of +chastity and self-restraint, which promised a foretaste of union with +God, amazed him, bound as he was in the fetters of sensuality and for +ever shaking at these fetters. But while his moral force was not +sufficient for the attainment of this ideal, gradually everything else +which Manichaeism seemed to offer him dissolved before his criticism. +Increasingly occupied with the exact sciences, he learnt the +incompatibility of the Manichaean astrology with the facts. More and +more absorbed in the problems of psychology, he realized the +insufficiency of dualism, which did not solve the ultimate questions but +merely set them back. The Manichaean propaganda seemed to him +invertebrate and lacking in force, and a discussion which he had with +Faustus, a distinguished Manichaean bishop and controversialist, left +him greatly disappointed. + +Meanwhile nine years had passed. Augustine, after finishing his studies, +had returned to Tagaste, where he became a teacher of grammar. He must +have been an excellent master, who knew how to influence the whole +personality of his pupils. It was then that Alypius, who in the later +stages of Augustine's life proved a true friend and companion, attached +himself to him. He remained in his native town little more than a year, +during which time he lived with his mother, who was comforted by the +bishop for the estrangement of her son from the Catholic faith ("a son +of so many tears cannot be lost": _Confess._ III. xii. § 21), comforted +also, and above all, by the famous vision, which Augustine thus +describes: "She saw herself standing on a certain wooden rule, and a +shining youth coming towards her, cheerful and smiling upon her the +while she grieved, and was consumed with grief: and when he had inquired +of her the causes of her grief and daily tears (for the sake, as is +their wont, of teaching, not of learning) and she had made answer that +she was bewailing my perdition, he bade her be at ease, and advised her +to look and observe, 'That where she was, there was I also.' And when +she looked there, she saw me standing by her on the same rule" +(_Confess._ III. xi.). Augustine now returned for a second time to +Carthage, where he devoted himself zealously to work. Thence, probably +in the spring of 383, he migrated to Rome. His Manichaean friends urged +him to take this step, which was rendered easier by the licentious lives +of the students at Carthage. His stay at Rome may have lasted about a +year, no agreeable time for Augustine, since his patrons and friends +belonged to just those Manichaean circles with which he had in the +meantime entirely lost all intellectual touch. He, therefore, accepted +an invitation from Milan, where the people were in search of a teacher +of rhetoric. + +At Milan the conflict within his mind in search of truth still +continued. It was now that he separated himself openly from the +Manichaean sect. As a thinker he came entirely under the influence of +the New Academy; he professed the Sceptic philosophy, without being able +to find in it the final conclusion of wisdom. He was, however, not far +from the decision. Two things determined his further development. He +became acquainted with the Neo-Platonic philosophy; its monism replaced +the dualism, its intellectualized world of ideas the materialism of +Manichaeism. Here he found the admonition to seek for truth outside the +material world, and from created things he learnt to recognize the +invisible God; he attained the certainty that this God is, and is +eternal, always the same, subject to change neither in his parts nor in +his motions. And while thus Augustine's metaphysical convictions were +being slowly remodelled, he met, in Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a man in +whom complete worldly culture and the nobility of a ripe Christian +personality were wonderfully united. He heard him preach; but at first +it was the orator and not the contents of the sermons that enchained +him. He sought an opportunity of conversation with him, but this was not +easily found. Ambrose had no leisure for philosophic discussion. He was +accessible to all who sought him, but never for a moment free from study +or the cares of duty. Augustine, as he himself tells us, used to enter +without being announced, as all persons might; but after staying for a +while, afraid of interrupting him, he would depart again. He continued, +however, to hear Ambrose preach, and gradually the gospel of divine +truth and grace was received into his heart. He was busy with his friend +Alypius in studying the Pauline epistles; certain words were driven home +with irresistible force to his conscience. His struggle of mind became +more and more intolerable, the thought of divine purity fighting in his +heart with the love of the world and the flesh. That sensuality was his +worst enemy he had long known. The mother of his child had accompanied +him to Milan. When he became betrothed he dismissed her; but neither the +pain of this parting nor consideration for his not yet marriageable +bride prevented him from forming a fresh connexion of the same kind. +Meanwhile, the determination to renounce the old life with its pleasures +of sense, was ever being forced upon him with more and more +distinctness. He then received a visit from a Christian compatriot named +Pontitian, who told him about St Anthony and the monachism in Egypt, and +also of a monastery near Milan. He was shaken to the depths when he +learnt from Pontitian that two young officials, like himself betrothed, +had suddenly formed a determination to turn their backs upon the life of +the world. He could no longer bear to be inside the house; in terrible +excitement he rushed into the garden; and now followed that scene which +he himself in the _Confessions_ has described to us with such graphic +realism. He flung himself under a fig tree, burst into a passion of +weeping, and poured out his heart to God. Suddenly he seemed to hear a +voice bidding him consult the divine oracle: "Take up and read, take up +and read." He left off weeping, rose up, sought the volume where Alypius +was sitting, and opening it read in silence the following passage from +the Epistle to the Romans (xiii. 13, 14): "Not in rioting and +drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and +envying. But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for +the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." He adds: "I had neither desire +nor need to read further. As I finished the sentence, as though the +light of peace had been poured into the heart, all the shadows of doubt +dispersed. Thus hast Thou converted me to Thee, so as no longer to seek +either for wife or other hope of the world, standing fast in that rule +of faith in which Thou so many years before hadst revealed me to my +mother" (_in qua me ante lot annos ei revelaveras: Confess_. VIII. xii. +§ 30).[1] + +The conversion of Augustine, as we have been accustomed to call this +event, took place in the late summer of 386, a few weeks before the +beginning of the vacation. The determination to give up his post was +rendered easier by a chest-trouble which was not without danger, and +which for months made him incapable of work. He withdrew with several +companions to the country estate of Cassisiacum near Milan, which had +been lent him by a friend, and announced himself to the bishop as a +candidate for baptism. His religious opinions were still to some extent +unformed, and even his habits by no means altogether such as his great +change demanded. He mentions, for example, that during this time he +broke himself of a habit of profane swearing, and in other ways sought +to discipline his character and conduct for the reception of the sacred +rite. He received baptism the Easter following, in his thirty-third +year, and along with him his son Adeodatus and his friend Alypius were +admitted to the Church. Monica, his mother, had rejoined him, and at +length rejoiced in the fulfilment of her prayers. She died at Ostia, +just as they were about to embark for Africa, her last hours being +gladdened by his Christian sympathy. In the account of the conversation +which he had with his mother before her end, in the narrative of her +death and burial (_Confess_. IX. x.-xi., §§ 23-28), Augustine's literary +power is displayed at its highest. + +The plan of returning home, remained for the present unaccomplished. +Augustine stayed for a year in Rome, occupied in literary work, +particularly in controversy with Manichaeism. It was not until the +autumn of 388 that he returned to Tagaste, probably still accompanied by +his son, who, however, must have died shortly afterwards. With some +friends, who joined him in devotion, he formed a small religious +community, which looked to him as its head. Their mode of life was not +formally monastic according to any special rule, but the experience of +this time of seclusion was, no doubt, the basis of that monastic system +which Augustine afterwards sketched and which derived its name from him +(see AUGUSTINIANS). As may be imagined, the fame of such a convert in +such a position soon spread, and invitations to a more active +ecclesiastical life came to him from many quarters. He shrank from the +responsibility, but his destiny was not to be avoided. After two and a +half years spent in retirement he went to Hippo, to see a Christian +friend, who desired to converse with him as to his design of quitting +the world and devoting himself to a religious life. The Christian +community there being in want of a presbyter and Augustine being present +at the meeting, the people unanimously chose him and he was ordained to +the presbyterate. A few years afterwards, 395 or 396, he was made +coadjutor to the bishop, and finally became bishop of the see. + +Henceforth Augustine's life is filled up with his ecclesiastical +labours, and is more marked by the series of his numerous writings and +the great controversies in which they engaged him than by anything else. +His life was spent in a perpetual strife. During the first half this had +been against himself; but even when others stepped into his place, it +always seems as though a part of Augustine himself were incarnate in +them. Augustine had early distinguished himself as an author. He had +written several philosophical treatises, and, as teacher of rhetoric at +Carthage, he had composed a work _De pulchro et apto_, which is no +longer extant. Whenat Cassisiacum he had combated the scepticism of the +New Academy (_Contra Academicos_), had treated of the "blessed life" +(_De Vita beata_), of the significance of evil in the order of the world +(_De ordine_), of the means for the elucidation of spiritual truths +(_Soliloquia_). Shortly before the time of his baptism, he was occupied +with the question of the immortality of the soul (_De immortalitate +animae_), and in Rome and at Tagaste he was still engaged with +philosophical problems, as is evidenced by the writings _De quantitate +animae_ and _De magistro_. In all these treatises is apparent the +influence of the Neo-Platonic method of thought, which for him, as for +so many others, had become the bridge to the Christian. While still in +Rome, he began to come to a reckoning with the Manichaeans, and wrote +two books on the morals of the Catholic Church and of the Manichaeans +(_De moribus ecclesiae Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum libri +duo_). For many years he pursued this controversy in a long series of +writings, of which the most conspicuous is the elaborate reply to his +old associate and disputant, Faustus of Mileve (_Contra Faustum +Manichaeum_, A.D. 400). It was natural that the Manichaean heresy, which +had so long enslaved his own mind, should have first exercised +Augustine's great powers as a theological thinker and controversialist. +He was able from his own experience to give force to his arguments for +the unity of creation and of the spiritual life, and to strengthen the +mind of the Christian Church in its last struggle with that dualistic +spirit which had animated and moulded in succession so many forms of +thought at variance with Christianity. + +But the time was one of almost universal ecclesiastical and intellectual +excitement; and so powerful a mental activity as his was naturally drawn +forth in all directions. Following his writings against the Manichaeans +came those against the Donatists. The controversy was one which strongly +interested him, involving as it did the whole question of the +constitution of the Church and the idea of catholic order, to which the +circumstances of the age gave special prominence. The Donatist +controversy sprang out of the Diocletian persecution in the beginning of +the century. A party in the Church of Carthage, fired with fanatic zeal +on behalf of those who had courted martyrdom by resistance to the +imperial mandates, resented deeply the appointment of a bishop of +moderate opinions, whose consecration had been performed, they alleged, +by a _traditor_, viz. a bishop who had "delivered" the holy scriptures +to the magistrates. They set up, in consequence, a bishop of their own, +of the name of Majorinus, succeeded in 315 by Donatus. The party made +great pretensions to purity of discipline, and rapidly rose in popular +favour, notwithstanding a decision given against them both by the bishop +of Rome and by the emperor Cons tan tine. Augustine was strongly moved +by the lawlessness of the party and launched forth a series of writings +against them, the most important of which survive. Amongst these are +"Seven Books on Baptism" (_De baptismo contra Donatistas_, c. A.D. 400) +and a lengthy answer, in three books, to Petilian, bishop of Cirta, who +was the most eminent theologian amongst the Donatist divines. At a later +period, about 417, Augustine wrote a treatise concerning the correction +of the Donatists (_De correctione Donatistarum_) "for the sake of +those," he says in his _Retractations_, "who were not willing that the +Donatists should be subjected to the correction of the imperial laws." +In these writings, while vigorously maintaining the validity of the +Church as it then stood in the Roman world, and the necessity for +moderation in the exercise of church discipline, Augustine yet gave +currency, in his zeal against the Donatists, to certain maxims as to the +duty of the civil power to control schism, which were of evil omen, and +have been productive of much disaster in the history of Christianity. + +The third controversy in which Augustine engaged was the most important, +and the most intimately associated with his distinctive greatness as a +theologian. As may be supposed, owing to the conflicts through which he +had passed, the bishop of Hippo was intensely interested in what may be +called the anthropological aspect of the great Christian idea of +redemption. He had himself been brought out of darkness into "marvellous +light," only by entering into the depths of his own soul, and finding, +after many struggles, that there was no power but divine grace, as +revealed in the life and death of the Son of God, which could bring rest +to human weariness, or pardon and peace for human guilt. He had found +human nature in his own case too weak and sinful to find any good for +itself. In God alone he had found good. This deep sense of human +sinfulness coloured all his theology, and gave to it at once its +depth--its profound and sympathetic adaptation to all who feel the +reality of sin--and that tinge of darkness and exaggeration which has as +surely repelled others. When the expression "Augustinism" is used, it +points especially to those opinions of the great teacher which were +evoked in the Pelagian controversy, to which he devoted the most mature +and powerful period of his life. His opponents in this controversy were +Pelagius, from whom it derives its name, and Coelestius and Julianus, +pupils of the former. Nothing is certainly known as to the home of +Pelagius. Augustine calls him Brito, and so do Marius Mercator and +Orosius. Jerome points to his Scottish descent, in such terms, however, +as to leave it uncertain whether he was a native of Scotland or of +Ireland. He was a man of blameless character, devoted to the reformation +of society, full of that confidence in the natural impulses of humanity +which often accompanies philanthropic enthusiasm. About the year 400 he +came, no longer a young man, to Rome, where he lived for more than a +decade, and soon made himself conspicuous by his activity and by his +opinions. His pupil Coelestius, a lawyer of unknown origin, developed +the views of his master with a more outspoken logic, and, while +travelling with Pelagius in Africa, in the year 411, was at length +arraigned before the bishop of Carthage for the following, amongst other +heretical opinions:--(1) that Adam's sin was purely personal, and +affected none but himself; (2) that each man, consequently, is born with +powers as incorrupt as those of Adam, and only falls into sin under the +force of temptation and evil example; (3) that children who die in +infancy, being untainted by sin, are saved without baptism. Views such +as these were obviously in conflict with the whole course of Augustine's +experience, as well as with his interpretation of the catholic doctrine +of the Church. And when his attention was drawn to them by the trial and +excommunication of Coelestius, he undertook their refutation, first of +all in three books on the punishment and forgiveness of sins and the +baptism of infants (_De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo +parvulorum_), addressed to his friend Marcellinus, in which he +vindicated the necessity of baptism of infants because of original sin +and the grace of God by which we are justified (_Retract._ ii. 23). This +was in 412. In the same year he addressed a further treatise to the same +Marcellinus on _The Spirit and the Letter_ (_De spiritu et littera_). +Three years later he composed the treatises on _Nature and Grace_ (_De +natura et gratia_) and the relation of the human to the divine +righteousness (_De perfectione iustitiae hominis_). The controversy was +continued during many years in no fewer than fifteen treatises. Upon no +subject did Augustine bestow more of his intellectual strength, and in +relation to no other have his views so deeply and permanently affected +the course of Christian thought. Even those who most usually agree with +his theological standpoint will hardly deny that, while he did much in +these writings to vindicate divine truth and to expound the true +relations of the divine and human, he also, here as elsewhere, was +hurried into extreme expressions as to the absoluteness of divine grace +and the extent of human corruption. Like his great disciple in a later +age--Luther--Augustine was prone to emphasize the side of truth which he +had most realized in his own experience, and, in contradistinction to +the Pelagian exaltation of human nature, to depreciate its capabilities +beyond measure. + +In addition to these controversial writings, which mark the great epochs +of Augustine's life and ecclesiastical activity after his settlement as +a bishop at Hippo, he was the author of other works, some of them better +known and even more important. His great work, the most elaborate, and +in some respects the most significant, that came from his pen, is _The +City of God_ (_De civitate Dei_). It is designed as a great apologetic +treatise in vindication of Christianity and the Christian Church,--the +latter conceived as rising in the form of a new civic order on the +crumbling ruins of the Roman empire,--but it is also, perhaps, the +earliest contribution to the philosophy of history, as it is a repertory +throughout of his cherished theological opinions. This work and his +_Confessions_ are, probably, those by which he is best known, the one as +the highest expression of his thought, and the other as the best +monument of his living piety and Christian experience. _The City of God_ +was begun in 413, and continued to be issued in its several portions for +a period of thirteen years, or till 426. The _Confessions_ were written +shortly after he became a bishop, about 397, and give a vivid sketch of +his early career. To the devout utterances and aspirations of a great +soul they add the charm of personal disclosure, and have never ceased to +excite admiration in all spirits of kindred piety. Something of this +charm also belongs to the _Retractations_, that remarkable work in which +Augustine, in 427, towards the end of his life, held as it were a review +of his literary activity, in order to improve what was erroneous and to +make clear what was doubtful in it. His systematic treatise on _The +Trinity_ (_De Trinitate_) which extends to fifteen books and occupied +him for nearly thirty years, must not be passed over. This important +work, unlike most of his dogmatic writings, was not provoked by any +special controversial emergency, but grew up silently during this long +period in the author's mind. This has given it something more of +completeness and organic arrangement than is usual with Augustine, if it +has also led him into the prolonged discussion of various analogies, +more curious than apt in their bearing on the doctrine which he +expounds. Brief and concise is the presentation of the Catholic doctrine +in the compendium, which, about 421, he wrote at the request of a Roman +layman named Laurentius (_Encheiridion, sive de fide spe et caritate_). +In spite of its title, the compendious work on Christian doctrine (_De +doctrina Christiana_), begun as early as 393, but only finished in 426, +does not belong to the dogmatic writings. It is a sort of Biblical +hermeneutic, in which homiletic questions are also dealt with. His +catechetical principles Augustine developed in the charming writing _De +catechizandis rudibus_ (c. 400). A large number of tractates are devoted +to moral and theological problems (_Contra mendacium_, c. 420; _De bono +conjugali_, 401, &c.). A widespread influence was exercised by the +treatise _De opere monachorum_ (c. 400), in which, on the ground of +Holy Scripture, manual work was demanded of monks. Of less importance +than the remaining works are the numerous exegetical writings, among +which the commentary on the Gospel of St John deserves a special +mention. These have a value owing to Augustine's appreciation of the +deeper spiritual meaning of scripture, but hardly for their exegetical +qualities. His _Letters_ are full of interest owing to the light they +throw on many questions in the ecclesiastical history of the time, and +owing to his relations with such contemporary theologians as Jerome. +They have, however, neither the liveliness nor the varied interest of +the letters of Jerome himself. As a preacher Augustine was of great +importance. We still possess almost four hundred sermons which may be +ascribed to him with certainty. Many others only pass under his +celebrated name. + +The closing years of the great bishop were full of sorrow. The Vandals, +who had been gradually enclosing the Roman empire, appeared before the +gates of Hippo, and laid siege to it. Augustine was ill with his last +illness, and could only pray for his fellow-citizens. He passed away +during the siege, on the 28th of August 430, at the age of seventy-five, +and thus was spared the indignity of seeing the city in the hands of the +enemy. + +The character of Augustine, both as a man and as a theologian, has been +briefly indicated in the course of our sketch. None can deny the +greatness of Augustine's soul--his enthusiasm, his unceasing search +after truth, his affectionate disposition, his ardour, his +self-devotion. And even those who may doubt the soundness of his +dogmatic conclusions, cannot but acknowledge the depth of his spiritual +convictions, and the logical force and penetration with which he handled +the most difficult questions, thus weaving all the elements of his +experience and of his profound scriptural knowledge into a great system +of Christian thought. Of the four great Fathers of the Church he was +admittedly the greatest--more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual +father, more original and systematic than Jerome, his correspondent, and +intellectually far more distinguished than Gregory the Great, his pupil +on the papal throne. The theological position and influence of Augustine +may be said to be unrivalled. No single name has ever exercised such +power over the Christian Church, and no one mind ever made so deep an +impression upon Christian thought. In him scholastics and mystics, popes +and the opponents of the papal supremacy, have seen their champion. He +was the fulcrum on which Luther rested the thoughts by which he sought +to lift the past of the Church out of the rut; yet the judgment of +Catholics still proclaims the ideas of Augustine as the only sound basis +of philosophy. + + The best complete edition of Augustine's works is that of the + Maurines, in 11 vols. fol. published at Paris, 1679-1700, and + reprinted in Migne's _Patrologie_ (Paris, 1841-1842). Of the new + critical edition in the _Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum + Latinorum_, issued by the Vienna Academy, thirteen volumes had been + published in 1908, including the _Confessions_, the _Retractations_, + _De civitate Dei_, and a number of exegetical and of dogmatic + polemical works, together with a portion of the _Letters_. An English + translation of nearly the whole of Augustine's writings will be found + in the _Select Library of the Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the + Christian Church_ (series 1, Buffalo, 1886, &c.). Tillemont, in his + _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique des VI premiers + siècles_, has devoted a quarto volume (vol. xiii.) to Augustine's life + and writings. The most complete monographs are those on the Catholic + side by Kloth (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1839-1840, 3 vols.) and J.J.F. + Poujoulat (7th ed., Paris, 1886, 2 vols.), and on the Protestant side + by Bindemann (Berlin, Leipzig, Greifswald, 1844-1869, 3 vols,). There + are interesting sketches, from quite different points of view, by von + Hertling, _Augustinus_ (2nd ed., Mainz, 1904), and Joseph McCabe, _St + Augustine and His Age_ (London, 1902). See also Nourrisson, _La + Philosophie de St Augustin_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1866, 2 vols.); H.A. + Naville, _St Augustin, étude sur la développement de sa pensée jusqu'à + l'époque de son ordination_ (Geneva, 1872); Dorner, _Augustinus_ + (Berlin, 1873); Reuter, _Augustinische Studien_ (Gotha, 1886); F. + Scheel, _Die Anschauung Augustins über Christi Person und Werk_ + (Tübingen, 1901); A. Hatzfeld, _Saint Augustin_ (6th ed., Paris, + 1902); G. von Hertling, _Augustin_ (Mainz, 1902); A. Egger, _Der + heilige Augustinus_ (Kempten, 1904); J.N. Espenberger, _Die Elemente + der Erbsunde nach Augustin und der Fruhscholastik_ (Mainz, 1905); S. + Angus, _The Sources of the First Ten Books of Augustine's De Civitate + Dei_ (Princeton, 1906); and the more modern text-books of the history + of dogma, especially Harnack. (G. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The reference is to the vision described above. + + + + +AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c. 613), first archbishop of Canterbury, occupied a +position of authority in the monastery of St Andrew at Rome, when +Gregory I. summoned him to lead a mission to England in A.D. 596. The +apprehensions of Augustine's followers caused him to return to Rome, but +the pope furnished him with letters of commendation and encouraged him +to proceed. He landed in Thanet in A.D. 597, and was favourably received +by Æthelberht, king of Kent, who granted a dwelling-place for the monks +in Canterbury, and allowed them liberty to preach. Augustine first made +use of the ancient church of St Martin at Canterbury, which before his +arrival had been the oratory of the Queen Berhta and her confessor +Liudhard. Æthelberht upon his conversion employed all his influence in +support of the mission. In 601 Augustine received the pallium from +Gregory and was given authority over the Celtic churches in Britain, as +well as all future bishops consecrated in English territory, including +York. Authority over the see of York was not, however, to descend to +Augustine's successors. In 603 he consecrated Christ Church, Canterbury, +and built the monastery of SS. Peter and Paul, afterwards known as St +Augustine's. At the conference of Augustine's Oak he endeavoured in vain +to bring over the Celtic church to the observance of the Roman Easter. +He afterwards consecrated Mellitus and Justus to the sees of London and +Rochester respectively. The date of his death is not recorded by Bede, +but MS. F of the Saxon Chronicle puts it in 614, and the _Annales +Monasterienses_ in 612. + + See Bede, _Eccl. Hist._ (ed. by Plummer), i. 23-ii. 3. + + + + +AUGUSTINIAN CANONS, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church, +called also Austin Canons, Canons Regular, and in England Black Canons, +because their cassock and mantle were black, though they wore a white +surplice: elsewhere the colour of the habit varied considerably. + +The canons regular (see CANON) grew out of the earlier institute of +canonical life, in consequence of the urgent exhortations of the Lateran +Synod of 1059. The clergy of some cathedrals (in England, Carlisle), and +of a great number of collegiate churches all over western Europe, +responded to the appeal; and the need of a rule of life suited to the +new regime produced, towards the end of the 11th century, the so-called +Rule of St Augustine (see AUGUSTINIANS). This Rule was widely adopted by +the canons regular, who also began to bind themselves by the vows of +poverty, obedience and chastity. In the 12th century this discipline +became universal among them; and so arose the order of Augustinian +canons as a religious order in the strict sense of the word. They +resembled the monks in so far as they lived in community and took +religious vows; but their state of life remained essentially clerical, +and as clerics their duty was to undertake the pastoral care and serve +the parish churches in their patronage. They were bound to the choral +celebration of the divine office, and in its general tenor their manner +of life differed little from that of monks. + +Their houses, at first without bonds between them, soon tended to draw +together and coalesce into congregations with corporate organization and +codes of constitutions supplementary to the Rule. The popes encouraged +these centralizing tendencies; and in 1339 Benedict XII. organized the +Augustinian canons on the same general lines as those laid down for the +Benedictines, by a system of provincial chapters and visitations. + +Some thirty congregations of canons regular of St Augustine are +numbered. The most important were: (1) the Lateran canons, formed soon +after the synod of 1059, by the clergy of the Lateran Basilica; (2) +Congregation of St Victor in Paris, c. 1100, remarkable for the +theological and mystical school of Hugh, Richard and Adam of St Victor; +(3) Gilbertines (see GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST); (4) Windesheim +Congregation, c. 1400, in the Netherlands and over north and central +Germany (see GROOT, GERHARD), to which belonged Thomas à Kempis; (5) +Congregation of Ste Geneviève in Paris, a reform c. 1630. During the +later middle ages the houses of these various congregations of canons +regular spread all over Europe and became extraordinarily numerous. They +underwent the natural and inevitable vicissitudes of all orders, having +their periods of depression and degeneracy, and again of revival and +reform. The book of Johann Busch, himself a canon of Windesheim, _De +Reformatione monasteriorum_, shows that in the 15th century grave +relaxation had crept into many monasteries of Augustinian canons in +north Germany, and the efforts at reform were only partially successful. +The Reformation, the religious wars and the Revolution have swept away +nearly all the canons regular, but some of their houses in Austria still +exist in their medieval splendour. In England there were as many as 200 +houses of Augustinian canons, and 60 of them were among the "greater +monasteries" suppressed in 1538-1540 (for list see Tables in F.A. +Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The first foundation was Holy +Trinity, Aldgate, by Queen Maud, in 1108; Carlisle was an English +cathedral of Augustinian canons. In Ireland the order was even more +numerous, Christ Church, Dublin, being one of their houses. Three houses +of the Lateran canons were established in England towards the close of +the 19th century. Most of the congregations of Augustinian canons had +convents of nuns, called canonesses; many such exist to this day. + + See the works of Amort and Du Molinet, mentioned under CANON. Vol. ii. + of Helyot's _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792) is devoted to canons + regular of all kinds. The information is epitomized by Max Heimbucher, + _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), §§ 54-60, where copious + references to the literature of the subject are supplied. See also + Otto Zöckler, _Askese und Mönchtum_, ii. (1897), p. 422; and Wetzer + und Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Canonici Regulares" and + "Canonissae." For England see J.W. Clark, _Observances in use at the + Augustinian Priory at Barnwell_ (1897); and an article in _Journal of + Theological Studies_ (v.) by Scott Holmes. (E. C. B.) + + + + +AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS, or FRIARS, a religious order in the Roman Catholic +Church, sometimes called (but improperly) Black Friars (see FRIARS). In +the first half of the 13th century there were in central Italy various +small congregations of hermits living according to different rules. The +need of co-ordinating and organizing these hermits induced the popes +towards 1250 to unite into one body a number of these congregations, so +as to form a single religious order, living according to the Rule of St +Augustine, and called the Order of Augustinian Hermits, or simply the +Augustinian Order. Special constitutions were drawn up for its +government, on the same lines as the Dominicans and other mendicants--a +general elected by chapter, provincials to rule in the different +countries, with assistants, definitors and visitors. For this reason, +and because almost from the beginning the term "hermits" became a +misnomer (for they abandoned the deserts and lived conventually in +towns), they ranked among the friars, and became the fourth of the +mendicant orders. The observance and manner of life was, relatively to +those times, mild, meat being allowed four days in the week. The habit +is black. The institute spread rapidly all over western Europe, so that +it eventually came to have forty provinces and 2000 friaries with some +30,000 members. In England there were not more than about 30 houses (see +Tables in F.A. Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The reaction against +the inevitable tendencies towards mitigation and relaxation led to a +number of reforms that produced upwards of twenty different +congregations within the order, each governed by a vicar-general, who +was subject to the general of the order. Some of these congregations +went in the matter of austerity beyond the original idea of the +institute; and so in the 16th century there arose in Spain, Italy and +France, Discalced or Barefooted Hermits of St Augustine, who provided in +each province one house wherein a strictly eremitical life might be led +by such as desired it. + +About 1500 a great attempt at a reform of this kind was set on foot +among the Augustinian Hermits of northern Germany, and they were formed +into a separate congregation independent of the general. It was from +this congregation that Luther went forth, and great numbers of the +German Augustinian Hermits, among them Wenceslaus Link the provincial, +followed him and embraced the Reformation, so that the congregation was +dissolved in 1526. + +The Reformation and later revolutions have destroyed most of the houses +of Augustinian Hermits, so that now only about a hundred exist in +various parts of Europe and America; in Ireland they are relatively +numerous, having survived the penal times. The Augustinian school of +theology (Noris, Berti) was formed among the Hermits. There have been +many convents of Augustinian Hermitesses, chiefly in the Barefooted +congregations; such convents exist still in Europe and North America, +devoted to education and hospital work. There have also been numerous +congregations of Augustinian Tertiaries, both men and women, connected +with the order and engaged on charitable works of every kind (see +TERTIARIES). + + See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), iii.; Max Heimbucher, + _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), § 61-65; Wetzer und Welte, + _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Augustiner"; Herzog, + _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed.), art. "Augustiner." The chief book on the + subject is Th. Kolde, _Die deutschen Augustiner-Kongregationen_ + (1879). (E. C. B.) + + + + +AUGUSTINIANS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a generic name for religious +orders that follow the so-called "Rule of St Augustine." The chief of +these orders are:--Augustinian Canons (q.v.), Augustinian Hermits (q.v.) +or Friars, Premonstratensians (q.v.), Trinitarians (q.v.), Gilbertines +(see GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST). The following orders, though not +called Augustinians, also have St Augustine's Rule as the basis of their +life: Dominicans, Servites, Our Lady of Ransom, Hieronymites, +Assumptionsts and many others; also orders of women: Brigittines, +Ursulines, Visitation nuns and a vast number of congregations of women, +spread over the Old and New Worlds, devoted to education and charitable +works of all kinds. + + See Helyot, _Ordres religieux_ (1792), vols. ii., iii., iv.; Max + Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_, i. (1896), § 66-85; Wetzer und + Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_, i., 1665-1667. + +St Augustine never wrote a Rule, properly so called; but _Ep._ 211 +(_al._ 109) is a long letter of practical advice to a community of nuns, +on their daily life; and _Serm._ 355, 356 describe the common life he +led along with his clerics in Hippo. When in the second half of the 11th +century the clergy of a great number of collegiate churches were +undertaking to live a substantially monastic form of life (see CANON), +it was natural that they should look back to this classical model for +clerics living in community. And so attention was directed to St +Augustine's writings on community life; and out of them, and spurious +writings attributed to him, were compiled towards the close of the 11th +century three Rules, the "First" and "Second" being mere fragments, but +the "Third" a substantive rule of life in 45 sections, often grouped in +twelve chapters. This Third Rule is the one known as "the Rule of St +Augustine." Being confined to fundamental principles without entering +into details, it has proved itself admirably suited to form the +foundation of the religious life of the most varied orders and +congregations, and since the 12th century it has proved more prolific +than the Benedictine Rule. In an uncritical age it was attributed to St +Augustine himself, and Augustinians, especially the canons, put forward +fantastic claims to antiquity, asserting unbroken continuity, not merely +from St Augustine, but from Christ and the Apostles. + + The three Rules are printed in Dugdale, _Monasticon_ (ed. 1846), vi. + 42; and in Holsten-Brockie, _Codex Regularum_, ii. 121. For the + literature see Otto Zöckler, _Askese und Mönchtum_ (1897), pp. 347, + 354. (E. C. B.) + + + + +AUGUSTOWO, a city of Russian Poland, in the government of Suwalki, 20 m. +S. of the town of that name, on a canal (65 m.) connecting the Vistula +with the Niemen. It was founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. (Augustus), and +is laid out in a very regular manner, with a spacious market-place. It +carries on a large trade in cattle and horses, and manufactures linen +and huckaback. Pop. (1897) 12,746. + + + + +AUGUSTUS (a name[1] derived from Lat. _augeo_, increase, i.e. venerable, +majestic, Gr. [Greek: Sebastos]), the title given by the Roman senate, +on the 17th of January 27 B.C., to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (63 +B.C.-A.D. 14), or as he was originally designated, Gaius Octavius, in +recognition of his eminent services to the state (_Mon. Anc._ 34), and +borne by him as the first of the Roman emperors. The title was adopted +by all the succeeding Caesars or emperors of Rome long after they had +ceased to be connected by blood with the first Augustus. + +Gaius Octavius was born in Rome on the 23rd of September 63 B.C., the +year of Cicero's consulship and of Catiline's conspiracy. He came of a +family of good standing, long settled at Velitrae (Velletri), but his +father was the first of the family to obtain a curule magistracy at Rome +and senatorial dignity. His mother, however, was Atia, daughter of +Julia, the wife of M. Atius Balbus, and sister of Julius Caesar, and it +was this connexion with the great dictator which determined his career. +In his fifth year (58 B.C.) his father died; about a year later his +mother remarried, and the young Octavius passed under her care to that +of his stepfather, L. Marcius Philippus. At the age of twelve (51 B.C.) +he delivered the customary funeral panegyric on his grandmother Julia, +his first public appearance. On the 18th of October 48 (or ? 47) B.C. he +assumed the "toga virilis" and was elected into the pontifical college, +an exceptional honour which he no doubt owed to his great-uncle, now +dictator and master of Rome. In 46 B.C. he shared in the glory of +Caesar's African triumph, and in 45 he was made a patrician by the +senate, and designated as one of Caesar's "masters of the horse" for the +next year. In the autumn of 45, Caesar, who was planning his Parthian +campaign, sent his nephew to study quietly at the Greek colony of +Apollonia, in Illyria. Here the news of Caesar's murder reached him and +he crossed to Italy. On landing he learnt that Caesar had made him his +heir and adopted him into the Julian gens, whereby he acquired the +designation of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. The inheritance was a +perilous one; his mother and others would have dissuaded him from +accepting it, but he, confident in his abilities, declared at once that +he would undertake its obligations, and discharge the sums bequeathed by +the dictator to the Roman people. Mark Antony had possessed himself of +Caesar's papers and effects, and made light of his young nephew's +pretensions. Brutus and Cassius paid him little regard, and dispersed to +their respective provinces. Cicero, much charmed at the attitude of +Antonius, hoped to make use of him, and flattered him to the utmost, +with the expectation, however, of getting rid of him as soon as he had +served his purpose. Octavianus conducted himself with consummate +adroitness, making use of all competitors for power, but assisting none. +Considerable forces attached themselves to him. The senate, when it +armed the consuls against Antonius, called upon him for assistance; and +he took part in the campaign in which Antonius was defeated at Mutina +(43 B.C.). The soldiers of Octavianus demanded the consulship for him, +and the senate, though now much alarmed, could not prevent his election. +He now effected a coalition with Antonius and Lepidus, and on the 27th +of November 43 B.C. the three were formally appointed a triumvirate for +the reconstitution of the commonwealth for five years. They divided the +western provinces among them, the east being held for the republic by +Brutus and Cassius. They drew up a list of proscribed citizens, and +caused the assassination of three hundred senators and two thousand +knights. They further confiscated the territories of many cities +throughout Italy, and divided them among their soldiers. Cicero was +murdered at the demand of Antonius. The remnant of the republican party +took refuge either with Brutus and Cassius in the East, or with Sextus +Pompeius, who had made himself master of the seas. + +Octavianus and Antonius crossed the Adriatic in 42 B.C. to reduce the +last defenders of the republic. Brutus and Cassius were defeated, and +fell at the battle of Philippi. War soon broke out between the victors, +the chief incident of which was the siege and capture by famine of +Perusia, and the alleged sacrifice of three hundred of its defenders by +the young Caesar at the altar of his uncle. But peace was again made +between them (40 B.C.). Antonius married Octavia, his rival's sister, +and took for himself the eastern half of the empire, leaving the west to +Caesar. Lepidus was reduced to the single province of Africa. Meanwhile +Sextus Pompeius made himself formidable by cutting off the supplies of +grain from Rome. The triumvirs were obliged to concede to him the +islands in the western Mediterranean. But Octavianus could not allow the +capital to be kept in alarm for its daily sustenance. He picked a +quarrel with Sextus, and when his colleagues failed to support him, +undertook to attack him alone. Antonius, indeed, came at last to his +aid, in return for military assistance in the campaign he meditated in +the East. But Octavianus was well served by the commander of his fleet, +M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Sextus was completely routed, and driven into +Asia, where he perished soon afterwards (36 B.C.). Lepidus was an object +of contempt to all parties, and Octavianus and Antonius remained to +fight for supreme power. + +The five years (36-31 B.C.) which preceded the decisive encounter +between the two rivals were wasted by Antony in fruitless campaigns, and +in a dalliance with Cleopatra which shocked Roman sentiment. By Octavian +they were employed in strengthening his hold on the West, and his claim +to be regarded as the one possible saviour of Rome and Roman +civilization. His marriage with Livia (38 B.C.) placed by his side a +sagacious counsellor and a loyal ally, whose services were probably as +great as even those of his trusted friend Marcus Agrippa. With their +help he set himself to win the confidence of a public still inclined to +distrust the author of the proscriptions of 43 B.C. Brigandage was +suppressed in Italy, and the safety of the Italian frontiers secured +against the raids of Alpine tribes on the north-west and of Illyrians on +the east, while Rome was purified and beautified, largely with the help +of Agrippa (aedile in 33 B.C.). Meanwhile, indignation at Antony's +un-Roman excesses, and alarm at Cleopatra's rumoured schemes of founding +a Greco-Oriental empire, were rapidly increasing. In 32 B.C. Antony's +repudiation of his wife Octavia, sister of Octavian, and the discovery +of his will, with its clear proofs of Cleopatra's dangerous ascendancy, +brought matters to a climax, and war was declared, not indeed against +Antony, but against Cleopatra. + +The decisive battle was fought on the 2nd of September 31 B.C. at Actium +on the Epirot coast, and resulted in the almost total destruction of +Antony's fleet and the surrender of his land forces. Not quite a year +later (Aug. 1, 30 B.C.) followed the capture of Alexandria and the +deaths by their own hands of Antony and Cleopatra. On the 11th of +January 29 B.C. the restoration of peace was marked by the closing of +the temple of Janus for the first time for 200 years. In the summer +Octavian returned to Italy, and in August celebrated a three days' +triumph. He was welcomed, not as a successful combatant in a civil war, +but as the man who had vindicated the sovereignty of Rome against its +assailants, as the saviour of the republic and of his fellow-citizens, +above all as the restorer of peace. + +He was now, to quote his own words, "master of all things," and the +Roman world looked to him for some permanent settlement of the +distracted empire. His first task was the re-establishment of a regular +and constitutional government, such as had not existed since Julius +Caesar crossed the Rubicon twenty years before. To this task he devoted +the next eighteen months (Aug. 29-Jan. 27 B.C.). In the article on ROME: +_History_ (q.v.), his achievements are described in detail, and only a +brief summary need be given here. The "principate," to give the new form +of government its most appropriate name, was a compromise thoroughly +characteristic of the combination of tenacity of purpose with cautious +respect for forms and conventions which distinguished its author. The +republic was restored; senate, magistrates and assembly resumed their +ancient functions; and the public life of Rome began to run once more in +the familiar grooves. The triumvirate with its irregularities and +excesses was at an end. The controlling authority, which Octavian +himself wielded, could not indeed be safely dispensed with. But +henceforward he was to exercise it under constitutional forms and +limitations, and with the express sanction of the senate and people. +Octavian was legally invested for a period of ten years with the +government of the important frontier provinces, with the sole command of +the military and naval forces of the state, and the exclusive control of +its foreign relations. At home it was understood that he would year by +year be elected consul, and enjoy the powers and pre-eminence attached +to the chief magistracy of the Roman state. Thus the republic was +restored under the presidency and patronage of its "first citizen" +(_princeps civitatis_). + +In acknowledgment of this happy settlement and of his other services +further honours were conferred upon Octavian. On the 13th of January 27 +B.C., the birthday of the restored republic, he was awarded the civic +crown to be placed over the door of his house, in token that he had +saved his fellow-citizens and restored the Republic. Four days later +(Jan. 17) the senate conferred upon him the cognomen of Augustus. + +But it was not only the machinery of government in Rome that needed +repair. Twenty years of civil war and confusion had disorganized the +empire, and the strong hand of Augustus, as he must now be called, +could alone restore confidence and order. Towards the end of 27 B.C. he +left Rome for Gaul, and from that date until October 19 B.C. he was +mainly occupied with the reorganization of the provinces and of the +provincial administration, first of all in the West and then in the +East. It was during his stay in Asia (20 B.C.) that the Parthian king +Phraates voluntarily restored the Roman prisoners and standards taken at +Carrhae (53 B.C.), a welcome tribute to the respect inspired by +Augustus, and a happy augury for the future. In October 19 B.C. he +returned to Rome, and the senate ordered that the day of his return +(Oct. 12) should thenceforward be observed as a public holiday. The +period of ten years for which his _imperium_ had been granted him was +nearly ended, and though much remained to be done, very much had been +accomplished. The pacification of northern Spain by the subjugation of +the Astures and Cantabri, the settlement of the wide territories added +to the empire by Julius Caesar in Gaul--the "New Gaul," or the +"long-haired Gaul" (Gallia Comata) as it was called by way of +distinction from the old province of Gallia Narbonensis (see GAUL)--and +the re-establishment of Roman authority over the kings and princes of +the Near East, were achievements which fully justified the acclamations +of senate and people. + +In 18 B.C. Augustus's _imperium_ was renewed for five years, and his +tried friend Marcus Agrippa, now his son-in-law, was associated with him +as a colleague. From October of 19 B.C. till the middle of 16 B.C. +Augustus's main attention was given to Rome and to domestic reform, and +to this period belong such measures as the Julian law "as to the +marriage of the orders." In June of 17 B.C. the opening of the new and +better age, which he had worked to bring about, was marked by the +celebration in Rome of the Secular games. The chief actors in the +ceremony were Augustus himself and his colleague Agrippa,--while, as the +extant record tells us, the processional hymn, chanted by youths and +maidens first before the new temple of Apollo on the Palatine and then +before the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, was composed by Horace. The +hymn, the well-known _Carmen Saeculare_, gives fervent expression to the +prevalent emotions of joy and gratitude. + +In the next year (16 B.C.), however, Augustus was suddenly called away +from Rome to deal with a problem which engrossed much of his attention +for the next twenty-five years. The defeat of Marcus Lollius, the legate +commanding on the Rhine, by a horde of German invaders, seems to have +determined Augustus to take in hand the whole question of the frontiers +of the empire towards the north, and the effective protection of Gaul +and Italy. The work was entrusted to Augustus's step-sons Tiberius and +Drusus. The first step was the annexation of Noricum and Raetia (16-15 +B.C.), which brought under Roman control the mountainous district +through which the direct routes lay from North Italy to the upper waters +of the Rhine and the Danube. East of Noricum Tiberius reduced to order +for the time the restless tribes of Pannonia, and probably established a +military post at Carnuntum on the Danube. To Drusus fell the more +ambitious task of advancing the Roman frontier line from the Rhine to +the Elbe, a work which occupied him until his death in Germany in 9 B.C. +In 13 B.C. Augustus had returned to Rome; his return, and the conclusion +of his second period of rule, were commemorated by the erection of one +of the most beautiful monuments of the Augustan age, the Ara Pacis +Augustae (see ROMAN ART, Pl. II, III). His _imperium_ was renewed, again +for five years, and in 12 B.C., on the death of his former +fellow-triumvir Lepidus, he was elected Pontifex Maximus. But this third +period of his imperium brought with it losses which Augustus must have +keenly felt. Only a few months after his reappointment as Augustus's +colleague, Marcus Agrippa, his trusted friend since boyhood, died. As +was fully his due, his funeral oration was pronounced by Augustus, and +he was buried in the mausoleum near the Tiber built by Augustus for +himself and his family. Three years later his brilliant step-son Drusus +died on his way back from a campaign in Germany, in which he had reached +the Elbe. Finally in 8 B.C. he lost the comrade who next to Agrippa had +been the most intimate friend and counsellor of his early manhood, Gaius +Cilnius Maecenas, the patron of Virgil and Horace. + +For the moment Augustus turned, almost of necessity, to his surviving +step-son. Tiberius was associated with him as Agrippa had been in the +tribunician power, was married against his will to Julia, and sent to +complete his brother Drusus's work in Germany (7-6 B.C.). But Tiberius +was only his step-son, and, with all his great qualities, was never a +very lovable man. On the other hand, the two sons of Agrippa and Julia, +Gaius and Lucius, were of his own blood and evidently dear to him. Both +had been adopted by Augustus (178. c.). In 6 B.C. Tiberius, who had just +received the tribunician power, was transferred from Germany to the +East, where the situation in Armenia demanded attention. His sudden +withdrawal to Rhodes has been variously explained, but, in part at +least, it was probably due to the plain indications which Augustus now +gave of his wish that the young Caesars should be regarded as his heirs. +The elder, Gaius, now fifteen years old (5 B.C.), was formally +introduced to the people as consul-designate by Augustus himself, who +for this purpose resumed the consulship (12th) which he had dropped +since 23 B.C., and was authorized to take part in the deliberations of +the senate. Three years later (2 B.C.) Augustus, now consul for the 13th +and last time, paid a similar compliment to the younger brother Lucius. +In 1 B.C. Gaius was given proconsular imperium, and sent to re-establish +order in Armenia, and a few years afterwards (A.D. 2) Lucius was sent to +Spain, apparently to take command of the legions there. But the fates +were unkind; Lucius fell sick and died at Marseilles on his way out, and +in the next year (A.D. 3) Gaius, wounded by an obscure hand in Armenia, +started reluctantly for home, only to die in Lycia. Tiberius alone was +left, and Augustus, at once accepting facts, formally and finally +declared him to be his colleague and destined successor (A.D. 4) and +adopted him as his son. + +The interest of the last ten years of Augustus's life centres in the +events occurring on the northern frontier. The difficult task of +bringing the German tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe under Roman +rule, commenced by Drusus in 13 B.C., had on his death been continued by +Tiberius (9-6 B.C.). During Tiberius's retirement in Rhodes no decisive +progress was made, but in A.D. 4 operations on a large scale were +resumed. From Velleius Paterculus, who himself served in the war, we +learn that in the first campaign Roman authority was restored over the +tribes between the Rhine and the Weser, and that the Roman forces, +instead of returning as usual to their headquarters on the Rhine, went +into winter-quarters near the source of the Lippe. In the next year +(A.D. 5) the Elbe was reached by the troops, while the fleet, after a +hazardous voyage, arrived at the mouth of the same river and sailed some +way up it. Both feats are deservedly commemorated by Augustus himself in +the Ancyran monument. To complete the conquest of Germany and to connect +the frontier with the line of the Danube, it seemed that only one thing +remained to be done, to break the power of the Marcomanni and their king +Maroboduus. In the spring of A.D. 6 preparations were made for this +final achievement; the territory of the Marcomanni (now Bohemia) was to +be invaded simultaneously by two columns. One, starting apparently from +the headquarters of the army of Upper Germany at Mainz, was to advance +by way of the Black Forest and attack Maroboduus on the west; the other, +led by Tiberius himself, was to start from the new military base at +Carnuntum on the Danube and operate from the south-east. + +But the attack was never delivered, for at this moment, in the rear of +Tiberius, the whole of Pannonia and Dalmatia burst into a blaze of +insurrection. The crisis is pronounced by Suetonius to have been more +serious than any which had confronted Rome since the Hannibalic war, for +it was not merely the loss of a province but the invasion of Italy that +was threatened, and Augustus openly declared in the senate that the +insurgents might be before Rome in ten days. He himself moved to +Ariminum to be nearer the seat of war, recruiting was vigorously carried +on in Rome and Italy, and legions were summoned from Moesia and even +from Asia. In the end, and not including the Thracian cavalry of King +Rhoemetalces, a force of 15 legions with an equal number of auxiliaries +was employed. Even so the task of putting down the insurrection was +difficult enough, and it was not until late in the summer of A.D. 9, +after three years of fighting, that Germanicus, who had been sent to +assist Tiberius, ended the war by the capture of Andetrium in Dalmatia. + +Five days later the news reached Rome of the disaster to Varus and his +legions, in the heart of what was to have been the new province of +Germany beyond the Rhine. The disaster was avowedly due entirely to +Varus's incapacity and vanity, and might no doubt have been repaired by +leaders of the calibre of Tiberius and Germanicus. Augustus, however, +was now seventy-two, the Dalmatian outbreak had severely tried his +nerve, and now for the second time in three years the fates seemed to +pronounce clearly against a further prosecution of his long-cherished +scheme of a Roman Germany reaching to the Elbe. + +All that was immediately necessary was done. Recruiting was pressed +forward in Rome, and first Tiberius and then Germanicus were despatched +to the Rhine. But the German leaders were too prudent to risk defeat, +and the Roman generals devoted their attention mainly to strengthening +the line of the Rhine. + +The defeat of Varus, and the tacit abandonment of the plans of expansion +begun twenty-five years before, are almost the last events of importance +in the long principate of Augustus. The last five years of his life +(A.D. 10-14) were untroubled by war or disaster. Augustus was ageing +fast, and was more and more disinclined to appear personally in the +senate or in public. Yet in A.D. 13 he consented, reluctantly we are +told, to yet one more renewal of his _imperium_ for ten years, +stipulating, however, that his step-son Tiberius, himself now over +fifty, should be associated with himself on equal terms in the +administration of the empire. Early in the same year (January 16, A.D. +13) the last triumph of his principate was celebrated. Tiberius was now +in Rome, the command on the Rhine having been given to Germanicus, who +went out to it immediately after his consulship (A.D. 12), and the time +had come to celebrate the Dalmatian and Pannonian triumph, which the +defeat of Varus had postponed. Augustus witnessed the triumphal +procession, and Tiberius, as it turned from the Forum to ascend the +Capitol, halted, descended from his triumphal car, and did reverence to +his adopted father. + +One last public appearance Augustus made in Rome. During A.D. 13 he and +Tiberius conducted a census of Roman citizens, the third taken by his +orders; the first having been in 28 B.C. at the very outset of his rule. +The business of the census lasted over into the next year, but on the +11th of May, A.D. 14, before a great crowd in the Campus Martius, +Augustus took part in the solemn concluding ceremony of burying away out +of sight the old age and inaugurating the new. The ceremony had been +full of significance in 28 B.C., and now more than forty years later it +was given a pathetic interest by Augustus himself. When the tablets +containing the vows to be offered for the welfare of the state during +the next lustrum were handed to him, he left the duty of reciting them +to Tiberius, saying that he would not take vows which he was never +destined to perform. + +It was apparently at the end of June or early in July that Augustus left +Rome on his last journey. Travelling by road to Astura (Torre Astura) at +the southern point of the little bay of Antium, he sailed thence to +Capri and to Naples. On his way at Puteoli, the passengers and crew of a +ship just come from Alexandria cheered the old man by their spontaneous +homage, declaring, as they poured libations, that to him they owed life, +safe passage on the seas, freedom and fortune. + +At Naples, in spite of increasing disease, he bravely sat out a +gymnastic contest held in his honour, and then accompanied Tiberius as +far as Beneventum on his way to Brundusium and Illyricum. On his return +he was forced by illness to stop at Nola, his father's old home. +Tiberius was hastily recalled and had a last confidential talk on +affairs of state. Thenceforward, says Suetonius, he gave no more thought +to such great affairs. He bade farewell to his friends, inquired after +the health of Drusus's daughter who was ill, and then quietly expired in +the arms of the wife who for more than fifty years had been his most +intimate and trusted guide and counsellor, and to whom his last words +were an exhortation to "live mindful of our wedded life." He died on the +19th of August, A.D. 14, in the same room in which his father had died +before him, and on the anniversary of his entrance upon his first +consulship fifty-seven years before (43 B.C.). The corpse was carried to +Rome in slow procession along the Appian Way. On the day of the funeral +it was borne to the Campus Martius on the shoulders of senators and +there burnt. The ashes were reverently collected by Livia, and placed in +the mausoleum by the Tiber which her husband had built for himself and +his family. The last act was the formal decree of the senate by which +Augustus, like his father Julius before him, was added to the number of +the gods recognized by the Roman state. + +If we except writers like Voltaire who could see in Augustus only the +man who had destroyed the old republic and extinguished political +liberty, the verdict of posterity on Augustus has varied just in +proportion as his critics have fixed their attention, mainly, on the +means by which he rose to power, or the use which he made of the power +when acquired. The lines of argument followed respectively by friendly +and hostile contemporaries immediately after his death (Tac. _Ann_. i. +9, 10) have been followed by later writers with little change. But of +late years, our increasing mistrust of the current gossip about him, and +our increased knowledge of the magnitude of what he actually +accomplished, have conspicuously influenced the judgments passed upon +him. We allow the faults and crimes of his early manhood, his cruelties +and deceptions, his readiness to sacrifice everything that came between +him and the end he had in view. On the other hand, a careful study of +what he achieved between the years 38 B.C., when he married Livia, and +his death in A.D. 14, is now held to give him a claim to rank, not +merely as an astute and successful intriguer, or an accomplished +political actor, but as one of the world's great men, a statesman who +conceived and carried through a scheme of political reconstruction which +kept the empire together, secured peace and tranquillity, and preserved +civilization for more than two centuries. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive work on Augustus and his age is + that of V. Gardthausen, _Augustus und seine Zeit_ (2 vols., Leipzig, + 1891-1904), which deals with all aspects of Augustus's life, vol. ii. + consisting of elaborate critical and bibliographical notes. See also + histories of Rome generally, and among special works:--E.S. + Shuckburgh, _Augustus_ (London, 1903; reviewed by F.T. Richards in + _Class. Rev._ vol. xviii.), containing the text of the _Monumentum + Ancyranum_ (see also Gardthausen, book xiii.); J.B. Firth, _Augustus + Caesar_ (London, 1903), in "Heroes of the Nations" series; O. Seeck, + "Kaiser Augustus" (_Monographien zur Weltgeschichte_, xvii., 1902), + nine essays on special problems, e.g. the campaigns of Mutina, Perusia + and against Sextus Pompeius, "das Augustische Zeitalter"; A. Duméril, + "Auguste et la fondation de l'empire romain," in the _Annales de la + Fac. des lett. de Bordeaux_ (1890); a suggestive monograph on the + reforms of Augustus in relation to the decrease of population is Jules + Ferlet's _L'Abaissement de la natalité à Rome_ (Paris, 1902). + (H. F. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On the name see Neumann, in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie f. + cl. alterth._, s.v. 2374. + + + + +AUGUSTUS I. (1526-1586), elector of Saxony, was the younger son of +Henry, duke of Saxony, and consequently belonged to the Albertine branch +of the Wettin family. Born at Freiberg on the 31st of July 1526, and +brought up as a Lutheran, he received a good education and studied at +the university of Leipzig. When Duke Henry died in 1541 he decreed that +his lands should be divided equally between his two sons, but as his +bequest was contrary to law, it was not carried out, and the dukedom +passed almost intact to his elder son, Maurice. Augustus, however, +remained on friendly terms with his brother, and to further his policy +spent some time at the court of the German king, Ferdinand I., in +Vienna. In 1544 Maurice secured the appointment of his brother as +administrator of the bishopric of Merseburg; but Augustus was very +extravagant and was soon compelled to return to the Saxon court at +Dresden. Augustus supported his brother during the war of the league of +Schmalkalden, and in the policy which culminated in the transfer of the +Saxon electorate from John Frederick I., the head of the Ernestine +branch of the Wettin family, to Maurice. On the 7th of October 1548 +Augustus was married at Torgau to Anna, daughter of Christian III., king +of Denmark, and took up his residence at Weissenfels. But he soon +desired a more imposing establishment. The result was that Maurice made +more generous provision for his brother, who acted as regent of Saxony +in 1552 during the absence of the elector. Augustus was on a visit to +Denmark when by Maurice's death in July 1553 he became elector of +Saxony. + +The first care of the new elector was to come to terms with John +Frederick, and to strengthen his own hold upon the electoral position. +This object was secured by a treaty made at Naumburg in February 1554, +when, in return for the grant of Altenburg and other lands, John +Frederick recognized Augustus as elector of Saxony. The elector, +however, was continually haunted by the fear that the Ernestines would +attempt to deprive him of the coveted dignity, and his policy both in +Saxony and in Germany was coloured by this fear. In imperial politics +Augustus acted upon two main principles: to cultivate the friendship of +the Habsburgs, and to maintain peace between the contending religious +parties. To this policy may be traced his share in bringing about the +religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, his tortuous conduct at the diet of +Augsburg eleven years later, and his reluctance to break entirely with +the Calvinists. On one occasion only did he waver in his allegiance to +the Habsburgs. In 1568 a marriage was arranged between John Casimir, son +of the elector palatine, Frederick III., and Elizabeth, a daughter of +Augustus, and for a time it seemed possible that the Saxon elector would +support his son-in-law in his attempts to aid the revolting inhabitants +of the Netherlands. Augustus also entered into communication with the +Huguenots; but his aversion to foreign complications prevailed, and the +incipient friendship with the elector palatine soon gave way to serious +dislike. Although a sturdy Lutheran the elector hoped at one time to +unite the Protestants, on whom he continually urged the necessity of +giving no cause of offence to their opponents, and he favoured the +movement to get rid of the clause in the peace of Augsburg concerning +ecclesiastical reservation, which was offensive to many Protestants. His +moderation, however, prevented him from joining those who were prepared +to take strong measures to attain this end, and he refused to jeopardize +the concessions already won. + +The hostility between the Albertines and the Ernestines gave serious +trouble to Augustus. A preacher named Matthias Flacius held an +influential position in ducal Saxony, and taught a form of Lutheranism +different from that taught in electoral Saxony. This breach was widened +when Flacius began to make personal attacks on Augustus, to prophesy his +speedy downfall, and to incite Duke John Frederick to make an effort to +recover his rightful position. Associated with Flacius was a knight, +William of Grumbach, who, not satisfied with words only, made inroads +into electoral Saxony and sought the aid of foreign powers in his plan +to depose Augustus. After some delay Grumbach and his protector, John +Frederick, were placed under the imperial ban, and Augustus was +entrusted with its execution. His campaign in 1567 was short and +successful. John Frederick surrendered, and passed his time in prison +until his death in 1595; Grumbach was taken and executed; and the +position of the elector was made quite secure. + +The form of Lutheranism taught in electoral Saxony was that of +Melanchthon, and many of its teachers and adherents, who were afterwards +called Crypto-Calvinists, were favoured by the elector. When Augustus, +freed from the fear of an attack by the Ernestines, became gradually +estranged from the elector palatine and the Calvinists, he seemed to +have looked with suspicion upon the Crypto-Calvinists, who did not +preach the pure doctrines of Luther. Spurred on by his wife the matter +reached a climax in 1574, when letters were discovered, which, while +revealing a hope to bring over Augustus to Calvinism, cast some +aspersions upon the elector and his wife. Augustus ordered the leaders +of the Crypto-Calvinists to be seized, and they were tortured and +imprisoned. A strict form of Lutheranism was declared binding upon all +the inhabitants of Saxony, and many persons were banished from the +country. In 1576 he made a serious but unsuccessful attempt to unite the +Protestants upon the basis of some articles drawn up at Tolgau, which +inculcated a strict form of Lutheranism. The change in Saxony, however, +made no difference to the attitude of Augustus on imperial questions. In +1576 he opposed the proposal of the Protestant princes to make a grant +for the Turkish War conditional upon the abolition of the clause +concerning ecclesiastical reservation, and he continued to support the +Habsburgs. + +Much of the elector's time was devoted to extending his territories. In +1573 he became guardian to the two sons of John William, duke of +Saxe-Weimar, and in this capacity was able to add part of the county of +Henneberg to electoral Saxony. His command of money enabled him to take +advantage of the poverty of his neighbours, and in this way he secured +Vogtland and the county of Mansfeld. In 1555 he had appointed one of his +nominees to the bishopric of Meissen, in 1561 he had secured the +election of his son Alexander as bishop of Merseburg, and three years +later as bishop of Naumburg; and when this prince died in 1565 these +bishoprics came under the direct rule of Augustus. + +As a ruler of Saxony Augustus was economical and enlightened. He +favoured trade by encouraging Flemish emigrants to settle in the +country, by improving the roads, regulating the coinage and establishing +the first posts. He was specially interested in benefiting agriculture, +and added several fine buildings to the city of Dresden. His laws were +numerous and comprehensive. The constitution of 1572 was his work, and +by these laws the church, the universities and the police were +regulated, the administration of justice was improved, and the raising +of taxes placed upon a better footing (see SAXONY). + +In October 1585 the electress Anna died, and a few weeks later Augustus +married Agnes Hedwig, a daughter of Joachim Ernest, prince of Anhalt. +His own death took place at Dresden on the 21st of January 1586, and he +was buried at Freiberg. By his first wife he had fifteen children, but +only four of these survived him, among whom was his successor, the +elector Christian I. (1560-1591). Augustus was a covetous, cruel and +superstitious man, but these qualities were redeemed by his political +caution and his wise methods of government. He wrote a small work on +agriculture entitled _Künstlich Obstund Gartenbüchlein_. + + See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte Sachsens_, Band ii. + (Gotha, 1870); M. Ritter, _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der + Gegenreformation_, Band i. (Stuttgart, 1890); R. Calinich, _Kampf und + Untergang des Melanchthonismus in Kursachsen_ (Leipzig, 1866); J. + Falke, _Geschichte des Kurfürsten August in volkswirtschaftlicher + Beziehung_ (Leipzig, 1868); J. Janssen, _Geschichte des Deutschen + Volks seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters_ (Freiburg, 1885-1894); W. + Wenck, _Kurfürst Moritz und Herzog August_ (Leipzig, 1874). + + + + +AUGUSTUS II., king of Poland, and, as FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I., elector of +Saxony (1670-1733), second son of John George III., elector of Saxony, +was born at Dresden on the 12th of May 1670. He was well educated, spent +some years in travel and in fighting against France, and on account of +his immense strength was known as "the Strong." On the death of his +brother, John George IV., in 1694, he became elector of Saxony, and in +1695 and 1696 led the imperial troops against the Turks, but without +very much success. When John Sobieski died in 1696, Augustus was a +candidate for the Polish throne, and in order to further his chances +became a Roman Catholic, a step which was strongly resented in Saxony. +By a lavish expenditure of money, and by his promptness in entering the +country, he secured his election and coronation in September 1697, and +his principal rival F.L. de Bourbon, prince of Conti, abandoned the +contest and returned to France. Augustus continued the war against the +Turks for a time, and being anxious to extend his influence and to find +a pretext for retaining the Saxon troops in Poland, made an alliance in +1699 with Russia and Denmark against Charles XII. of Sweden. The Poles +would not assist, and at the head of the Saxons Augustus invaded +Livonia, but for various causes the campaign was not a success, and in +July 1702 he was defeated by Charles at Klissow. Augustus was then +deposed in Poland, and after holding Warsaw for a short time he fled to +Saxony. The alliance with Russia was renewed and in reply Charles +invaded Saxony in 1706, and compelled the elector to sign the treaty of +Altranstädt in September of that year, to recognize Stanislaus +Leszczynski as his successor in Poland, and to abandon the Russian +alliance. During the War of the Spanish Succession, Augustus fought with +the imperialists in the Netherlands, but after the defeat of Charles +XII. at Poltawa in July 1709, he turned his attention to the recovery of +Poland. Declaring the treaty of Altranstädt void and renewing his +alliance with Russia and Denmark, he quickly recovered the Polish crown. +He then attacked Swedish Pomerania. He was handicapped by the mutual +jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle broke out in Poland +which was only ended when the king promised to limit the number of his +army in that country to 18,000 men. Peace was made with Sweden in +December 1719 at Stockholm after the death of Charles XII., and Augustus +was recognized as king of Poland. His remaining years were spent in +futile plans to make Poland a hereditary monarchy, to weaken the power +of the Saxon nobles, and to gain territory for his sons in various parts +of Europe. He was a man of extravagant and luxurious tastes, and, +although he greatly improved the city of Dresden, he cannot be called a +good ruler. He sought to govern Saxony in an absolute fashion, and, in +spite of his declaration that his conversion to Roman Catholicism was +personal only, assisted the spread of the teachings of Rome. His wife +was Christine Eberhardine, a member of the Hohenzollern family, who left +him when he became a Roman Catholic, and died in 1727. Augustus died at +Warsaw on the 1st of February 1733, leaving a son Frederick Augustus, +who succeeded him in Poland and Saxony, and many illegitimate children, +among whom was the famous general, Maurice of Saxony, known as Marshal +Saxe (q.v.). + + See Otwikowski, _History of Poland under Augustus II._ (Cracow, 1849); + F. Förster, _Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im achtzehnten + Jahrhtmdert_ (Potsdam, 1839); Jarochowski, _History of Augustus II._ + (Posen, 1856-1874); C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte des + Kurstaates und Königreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, 1867-1873). + + + + +AUGUSTUS III., king of Poland, and, as FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II., elector +of Saxony (1696-1763), the only legitimate son of Augustus II. ("the +Strong"), was born at Dresden on the 17th of October 1696. Educated as a +Protestant, he followed his father's example by joining the Roman +Catholic Church in 1712, although his conversion was not made public +until 1717. In August 1719 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the +emperor Joseph I., and seems to have taken very little part in public +affairs until he became elector of Saxony on his father's death in +February 1733. He was then a candidate for the Polish crown; and having +purchased the support of the emperor Charles VI. by assenting to the +Pragmatic Sanction, and that of the czarina Anne by recognizing the +claim of Russia to Courland, he was elected king of Poland in October +1733. Aided by the Russians, his troops drove Stanislaus Leszczynski +from Poland; Augustus was crowned at Cracow in January 1734, and was +generally recognized as king at Warsaw in June 1736. On the death of +Charles VI. in October 1740, Augustus was among the enemies of his +daughter Maria Theresa, and, as a son-in-law of the emperor Joseph I., +claimed a portion of the Habsburg territories. In 1742, however, he was +induced to transfer his support to Maria Theresa, and his troops took +part in the struggle against Frederick the Great during the Silesian +wars, and again when the Seven Years' War began in 1756. Saxony was in +that year attacked by the Prussians, and with so much success that not +only was the Saxon army forced to capitulate at Pirna in October, but +the elector, who fled to Warsaw, made no attempt to recover Saxony, +which remained under the dominion of Frederick. When the treaty of +Hubertsburg was concluded in February 1763, he returned to Saxony, where +he died on the 5th of October 1763. He left five sons, the eldest of +whom was his successor in Saxony, Frederick Christian; and five +daughters, one of whom was the wife of Louis, the dauphin of France, and +mother of Louis XVI. Another daughter was the wife of Charles III., king +of Spain, but she predeceased her father. Augustus, who showed neither +talent nor inclination for government, was content to leave Poland under +the influence of Russia, and Saxony to the rule of his ministers. He +took great interest in music and painting, and added to the collection +of art treasures at Dresden. + + See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte des Kurstaates und + Königreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, 1867-1873); R. Röpell, _Polen um die + Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (Gotha, 1876). + + + + +AUGUSTUSBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 10 +m. E. from Dresden, close to Radeberg, in a pleasant valley. Pop. 900. +It has five saline chalybeate springs, used both for drinking and +bathing, and specific in feminine disorders, rheumatism, paralysis and +neuralgia. The spa is largely frequented in summer and has agreeable +public rooms and gardens. + + + + +AUK, a name commonly given to several species of sea-fowl. A special +interest attaches to the great auk (_Alca impennis_), owing to its +recent extinction and the value of its eggs to collectors. (See +GAREFOWL; also GUILLEMOT, PUFFIN, RAZORBILL.) + + + + +AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE (1849- ), French historian, was born +at Montbron in Charente in 1849. Having obtained the degree of doctor of +letters in 1877 with a Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French +one upon Giacomo Leopardi (whose works he subsequently translated into +French), he made a study of parliamentary oratory during the French +Revolution, and published two volumes upon _Les Orateurs de la +constituante_ (1882) and upon _Les Orateurs de la legislative et de la +convention_ (1885). With these works, which were reprinted in 1905, he +entered a fresh field, where he soon became an acknowledged master. +Applying to the study of the French Revolution the rules of historical +criticism which had produced such rich results in the study of ancient +and medieval history, he devoted himself to profound research in the +archives, and to the publication of numerous most important +contributions to the political, administrative and moral history of that +marvellous period. Appointed professor of the history of the French +Revolution at the Sorbonne, he formed the minds of students who in their +turn have done valuable work. To him we owe the _Recueil des actes du +comité de salut public_ (vol. i., 1889; vol. xvi., 1904); _La Société +des Jacobins; recueil de documents pour l'histoire du club des Jacobins +de Paris_ (6 vols., 1889-1897); and _Paris pendant la reaction +thermidorienne et sous le directoire, recueil de documents pour +l'histoire de l'esprit public à Paris_ (5 vols., 1898-1902), which was +followed by an analogous collection for Paris sous le consulat (2 vols., +1903-1904). For the Société de l'Histoire de la Révolution Française, +which brought out under his supervision an important periodical +publication called _La Révolution française_, he produced the _Registre +des déliberations du consulat provisoire_ (1894), and _L'État de la +France en l'an VIII et en l'an IX_, with the reports of the prefects +(1897), besides editing various works or memoirs written by men of the +Revolution, such as J.C. Bailleul, Chaumette, Fournier (called the +American), Hérault de Séchelles, and Louvet de Couvrai. But these large +collections of documents are not his entire output. Besides a little +pamphlet upon Danton, he has written a _Histoire politique de la +Révolution française_ (1901), and a number of articles which have been +collected in volumes under the title _Études et leçons sur la Révolution +française_ (5 vols., 1893-1908). In a volume entitled _Taine, historien +de la Révolution française_ (1908), Aulard has submitted the method of +the eminent philosopher to a criticism, severe, perhaps even unjust, but +certainly well-informed. This is, as it were, the "manifesto" of the new +school of criticism applied to the political and social history of the +Revolution (see _Les Annales Révolutionnaires_, June 1908). + + See A. Mathiez, "M. Aulard, historien et professeur," in the _Revue de + la Révolution française_ (July 1908). (C. B.*) + + + + +AULIC COUNCIL (_Reichshofrat_), an organ of the Holy Roman Empire, +originally intended for executive work, but acting chiefly as a +judicature, which worked from 1497 to 1806. In the early middle ages +the emperor had already his _consiliarii_; but his council was a +fluctuating body of personal advisers. In the 14th century there first +arose an official council, with permanent and paid members, many of whom +were legists. Its business was largely executive, and it formed +something of a ministry; but it had also to deal with petitions +addressed to the king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme court of +judicature. It was thus parallel to the king's council, or _concilium +continuum_, of medieval England; while by its side, during the 15th +century, stood the _Kammergericht_, composed of the legal members of the +council, in much the same way as the Star Chamber stood beside the +English council. But the real history of the Aulic Council, as that term +was understood in the later days of the Empire, begins with Maximilian +I. in 1497-1498. In these years Maximilian created three organs +(apparently following the precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in +the Netherlands)--a _Hofrat_, a _Hofkammer_ for finance, and a +_Hofkanzlei._ Primarily intended for the hereditary dominions of +Maximilian, these bodies were also intended for the whole Empire; and +the _Hofrat_ was to deal with "all and every business which may flow in +from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king's hereditary +principalities." It was thus to be the supreme executive and judicial +organ, discharging all business except that of finance and the drafting +of documents; and it was intended to serve Maximilian as a _point +d'appui_ for the monarchy against the system of oligarchical committees, +instituted by Berthold, archbishop of Mainz. But it was difficult to +work such a body both for the Empire and for the hereditary +principalities; and under Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire +alone (_circ._ 1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from +its cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its composition and powers +were fixed by the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. (1) It consisted of +about 20 members--a president, a vice-president, the vice-chancellor of +the Empire, and some 18 other members. These came partly from the Empire +at large, partly (and in greater numbers) from the hereditary lands of +the emperor. There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors +of civil law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council +followed the person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed at +Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its members, whose +office terminated with his life--an arrangement which made the council +more dependent than it should have been on the emperor's will. (2) Its +powers were nominally both executive and judicial. (a) Its executive +powers were small: it gradually lost everything except the formal +business of investiture with imperial fiefs and the confirmation of +charters, its other powers being taken over by the _Geheimräte._ These +_Geheimräte_, a narrow body of secret counsellors, had already become a +determinate _concilium_ by 1527; and though at first only concerned with +foreign affairs, they acquired, from the middle of the 16th century +onwards, the power of dealing with imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic +Council. (b) In its judicial aspect, the Aulic Council, exercising the +emperor's judicial powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it +were, to the old _Kammergericht_, had exclusive cognizance of matters +relating to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals +of the Empire, imperial charters, Italian affairs, and cases "reserved" +for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic Council was a +competitor for judicial work with the Imperial Chamber[1] +(_Reichskammergericht_, a tribunal dating from the great diet of Worms +of 1495: see under IMPERIAL CHAMBER). It was determined in 1648 that the +one of these two judicial authorities which first dealt with a case +should alone have competence to pursue it. An appeal lay from the +decision of the council to the emperor, and judgment on appeal was given +by those members of the council who had not joined in the original +decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by members of +the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could deal with cases of +outlawry, except to prepare such cases for the decision of the diet. +To-day the archives of the Aulic Council are in Vienna, though parts of +its records have been given to the German states which they concern. + + AUTHORITIES.--R. Schröder, _Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ + (Leipzig, 1904), gives the main facts; S. Adler, _Die Organisation der + Centralverwaltung unter Maximilian I._ (Leipzig, 1886), deals with + Maximilian's reorganization of the Council; and J. St. Pütter, + _Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des Teutschen + Reichs_ (Göttingen, 1798-1799), may be consulted for its development + and later form. (E. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, with its + members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public court of + the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of the Empire. + + + + +AULIE-ATA, a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province of Syr-darya, +152 m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at the western end of the +Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft. The inhabitants are mostly +Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle, horses and hides. Pop. (1897) +12,006. + + + + +AULIS, an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated on a rocky +peninsula between two bays, near the modern village of Vathy, about 3 m. +S. of Chalcis. Its fame was due to the tradition that it was the +starting-place of the Greek fleet before the Trojan War, the scene of +the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The temple of Artemis was still to be seen +in the time of Pausanias. + + + + +AULNOY (or AUNOY), MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE, +BARONNE D' (c. 1650-1705), French author, was born about 1650 at +Barneville near Bourg-Achard (Eure). She was the niece of Marie Bruneau +des Loges, the friend of Malherbe and of J.G. de Balzac, who was called +the "tenth Muse." She married on the 8th of March 1666 François de la +Motte, a gentleman in the service of César, duc de Vendôme, who became +Baron d'Aulnoy in 1654. With her mother, who by a second marriage had +become marquise de Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high +treason against her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two +women saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they went +(February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed to return to +France in reward for secret services rendered to the government. Mme. +d'Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of January 1705. She wrote fairy +tales, _Contes nouvelles ou les Fées a la mode_ (3 vols., 1698), in the +manner of Charles Perrault. This collection (24 tales) included +_L'Oiseau bleu, Finette Cendron, La Chatte blanche_ and others. The +originals of most of her admirable tales are to be found in the +_Pentamerone_ (1637) of Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are: +_L'Histoire d'Hippolyte, comte de Duglas_ (1690), a romance in the style +of Madame de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model; _Mémoires de +la cour d'Espagne_ (1679-1681); and a _Relation du voyage d'Espagne_ +(1690 or 1691) in the form of letters, edited in 1874-1876 as _La Cour +et la ville de Madrid_ by Mme. B. Carey; _Histoire de Jean de Bourbon_ +(1692); _Mémoires sur la cour de France_ (1692); _Mémoires de la cour +d'Angleterre_ (1695). Her historical writings are partly borrowed from +existing records, to which she adds much that must be regarded as +fiction, and some vivid descriptions of contemporary manners. + + The _Diverting Works of the Countess d'Anois_, including some + extremely untrustworthy "Memoirs of her own life," were printed in + London in 1707. _The Fairy Tales of Madame d'Aulnoy_, with an + introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For + biographical particulars see M. de Lescure's introduction to the + _Contes des Fées_ (1881). + + + + +AULOS (Gr. [Greek: aulos]; Lat. _tibia_; Egyptian hieroglyphic, _Ma-it_; +medieval equivalents, _shalm, chalumeau, schalmei, hautbois_), in Greek +antiquities, a class of wood-wind instruments with single or with double +reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical or conical bore, thus +corresponding to both oboe and clarinet. In its widest acceptation the +_aulos_ was a generic term for instruments consisting of a tube in which +the air column was set in vibration either directly by the lips of the +performer, or through the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or +a double reed. Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (_syrinx polycalamus_,[1] +[Greek: syrinx polykalamos]) were sometimes called auloi ([Greek: +auloi]). The aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which, +by gradual assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe, +reached the stage at which it became known as the _Tyrrhenian aulos_ +(Pollux iv. 70) or the _hydraulos_, according to the method of +compressing the wind supply (see ORGAN: _Early History_; and SYRINX). +The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during the best classical +period had a cylindrical bore ([Greek: koilia]) like that of the modern +clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic properties of the stopped pipe, +whether the air column was set in vibration by means of a single or of a +double reed, for the mouthpiece does not affect the harmonic series.[2] +To the acoustic properties of open or stopped pipes are due those +essential differences which underlie the classification of modern wind +instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone one octave +lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding length, and +overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the third above the +second octave of the fundamental tone, i.e. the odd numbers of the +series; whereas the open pipe gives the whole series of harmonics, the +octave, the twelfth, the double octave, and the third above it, &c. + +To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its compass, the +stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the side of the pipe, at +appropriate distances from each other, and from the end of the pipe, +whereas the open pipe requires but six. The acoustic properties of the +open pipe can only be secured in combination with a reed mouthpiece by +making the bore conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps +assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their indebtedness +to the Greeks in matters relating to musical instruments, and more +especially to the cithara and aulos) understood the acoustic principle +utilized to-day in making wind instruments, that a hole of small +diameter nearer the mouthpiece may be substituted for one of greater +diameter in the theoretically correct position. This is demonstrated by +the 4th-century grammarian Macrobius, who says (_Comm. in Somn. Scip._ +ii. 4, 5): "Nec secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis +inflantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino +proximis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per +angusta" (see BASSOON). Aristotle gives directions for boring holes in +the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe of cylindrical bore +(_Probl_. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but three or four holes; to +Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of having increased this number +(Pollux iv. 80). Pronomus, the musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th +century B.C.), further improved the aulos by making it possible to play +on one pair of instruments the three musical scales in use at his time, +the Dorian, the Phrygian, and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate +pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5; +Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass of a tenth +in order to produce the fundamental octave in each. + +There are two ways in which this increased compass might have been +obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes and covering up those +not required, (2) by means of contrivances for lowering the pitch of +individual notes as required. We have evidence that both means were +known to the Greeks and Romans. The simplest device for closing holes +not in use was a band of metal left free to slide round the pipe, and +having a hole bored through it corresponding in diameter with the hole +in the pipe. Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases +prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings of metal. +The line on fig. 1 between r and s is thought to have been one of these +rings. + +Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the bone, in such +a manner that only one could be exposed at a time. This is clearly shown +in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments of an aulos from the museum at +Candia, for which the writer is greatly indebted to Professor John L. +Myres, by whom measured drawings were made from the instrument in 1893. +These highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5), seem +to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad pipes in the +Castellani collection at the British Museum, illustrated below; they are +constructed like modern flutes, but played by means of a reed inserted +into the lateral embouchure. + +In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represented the +bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 joining the broken end of No. 2 at l; +there being a possible fit at the other end at s with a in No. 4 (the +drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed for parts 3 and 4), +and No. 5 joining on to No. 4 at k. + +According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a pair of pipes in +the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same construction as the one in +Candia. In the drawing, the shape and relative position of the holes _on +the circumference_ is approximate only, but their position lengthways is +measured. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of the Fragments of an _Aulos_ (Candia +Mus.). + +(From a drawing by Prof. John L. Myres.) + + a, Triple wrapping of bronze as well as slide. + b, Slide with hole. + c, Slides with two holes not uncovered together. + d, Slides with two holes not uncovered together, one hole at back. + e, Slide. + f, Slide missing. + g, Slide missing, scars of slide holes. + h, Slide. + i and j, Slide. + k, Socket. + l, Male half of joint. + m, n, o, Slides, the top hole being in the slide only. + p and q, Slides, with two holes; the small hole shown is in the + pipe, there being a corresponding hole in the slide at the back. + r, Bronze covering (and slide?). + s, Male joint. + t, The wavy line shows the extreme length of fragment. + u, 13 mm. inside diameter, 14 mm. outside diameter. + w, Engraved lines and conical form of bronze covering. + x, Wavy line shows extreme length of fragment. + y, Stopped end of pipe with engraved lines. + + The line between r and s is either a turned ring or part of bronze + cover. The double lines to the right of t are engraved lines.] + +Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from Pompeii[3] (fig. 2), +as well as on two pipes belonging to the Castellani collection (fig. 4) +and on one from Halicarnassus, in the British Museum. In order to enable +the performer to use these bands conveniently, a contrivance such as a +little ring, a horn or a hook termed keras (Greek: keras) was attached +to the band.[4] + +Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets which +probably originally contained _kerata_. Pollux (iv. 80) mentions that +Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the range of the aulos, made +lateral channels for the air ([Greek: plagiai hodoi]). These consisted +of tubes inserted into the holes in the bands for the purpose of +lengthening the column of air, and lowering individual notes at will, +the sound being then produced at the extremity of the tube, instead of +at the surface of the pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes +in the slides of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of +these tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modern crook +or piston.[5] The mouthpiece of the aulos was called _zeugos_ ([Greek: +zeugos]),[6] the reed tongue _glossa_[7] or _glotta_ ([Greek: glossa] or +[Greek: glotta]), and the socket into which the reed was fixed +_glottis_[8] ([Greek: glottis]). + +The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest form of +mouthpiece; the word _zeugos_, moreover, signifies a pair of like +things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting the probability +that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece was used by the +Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it with the as-it or arghoul +(q.v.). + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Roman Ivory Aulos found at Pompeii (Naples +Mus.), showing slides and rings. + +(Drawn from a photo by Brogi.)] + +The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii (fig. 3) has all +the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having, on the side not +shown, the lay on which to fix a single or beating reed.[9] It may, +however, have been the cap of a covered reed, or even a whistle +mouthpiece in which the lip does not show in the photograph. It is +difficult to form a conclusion without seeing the real instrument. On a +mosaic of Monnus in Trèves[10] is represented an aulos which also +appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece. + +The upper part of the aulos, as in the Pompeian pipes, frequently had +the form of a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped bulb, respectively +identified as the _holmos_ ([Greek: holmos]) and the _hypholmion_ +([Greek: hypholmion]), the support of the _holmos_. An explanation of +the original nature and construction of the bulb and flaring cup, so +familiar in the various representations of the aulos, and in the real +instruments found in Pompeii, is provided by an ancient Egyptian flute +belonging to the collection of G. Maspero, illustrated and described by +Victor Loret.[11] Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouthpiece of the +instrument, and describes its construction; it consists of a piece of +reed of larger diameter than that of the flute, and eight centimetres +long; this reed has been forcibly compressed a little more than half way +down by means of a ligature of twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6 +mm. to 4 mm. The end of the pipe, covered by rows of waxed thread, fits +into the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was also bound by waxed +thread exactly as in the Elgin pipe at the British Museum, described +below. There is no indication of the manner in which the pipe was +sounded, and Loret assumes that there was once a whistle or flageolet +mouthpiece. To the present writer, however, it seems probable that the +constricted diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which +the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case at least, +the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated in the upper bulb or +air-chamber. This simple contrivance was probably also employed in the +earliest Greek pipes, and was later copied and elaborated in wood, bone +or metal, the upper bulb being made shorter and developing into the +flaring cup, in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the +mouth. During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken +directly into the mouth[12] and not enclosed in an air-chamber. The two +pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped the holes and +turned the bands by means of the [Greek: phorbeia] (Lat. _capistrum_), a +bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having holes through which the +reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth of the performer; the _phorbeia_ +also relieved the pressure of the breath on the cheeks and lips,[13] +which is felt more especially by performers on oboe and bassoon at the +present day. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Beak mouthpiece. Found at Pompeii (Naples Mus.). + +(From a photo by Brogi.)] + +In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to the Elgin collection at the +British Museum, one of the bulbs, partly broken, but preserved in the +same case as the pipes, was fastened to the pipes by means of waxed +thread, the indented lines being still visible on the rim of the bulb. +The aulos was kept in a case called _sybene_[14] ([Greek: sybaenae]) or +_aulotheke_[15] ([Greek: aulothaekae]), and the little bag or case in +which the delicate reeds were carried was known by the name of +_glottokomeion_[15] ([Greek: glottokomeion]).[16] Two Egyptian flute +cases are extant, one in the Louvre,[17] and the other in the museum at +Leiden. The latter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical in shape, with +a stopper of the same wood; there is no legend or design upon it. The +case contained seven pipes, five pieces of reed without bore or holes, +and three pieces of straw suitable for making double-reed +mouthpieces.[18] + +Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of pipes as +over three octaves:--"For doubtless we should find an interval greater +than the above mentioned three octaves between the highest note of the +soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest note of the bass-clarinet +(aulos); and again between the highest note of a clarinet player +performing with the speaker open, and the lowest note of a clarinet +player performing with the speaker closed."[19] + +This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to the full +range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves from +[Illustration: low "E" below the staff, bass clef] to [Illustration: +high "F-sharp" on the fifth-stave, treble clef]. It is evident that the +ancient Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of the +harmonics. Proclus (_Comm. in Alcibiad._ chap. 68) states that from each +hole of the pipe at least three tones could be produced. Moreover, +classic writers maintain that if the performer press the _zeugos_ or the +_glottai_ of the pipes, a sharper tone is produced.[20] This is exactly +how a performer on a modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher +harmonics of the instrument.[21] The small bore of the aulos in +comparison to its length facilitated the production of the harmonics +(cf. Zamminer p. 218), as does also the use of a small hole near the +mouthpiece, called in Greek _syrinx_ ([Greek: syrinx]) and in the modern +clarinet the "speaker," which when open enables the performer to +overblow with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamental tones. +To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University is due the credit of having +identified the _syrinx_ of the aulos with the speaker of the +clarinet.[22] This assumption is doubtless correct, and is supported by +classical grammarians,[23] who state that the _syrinx_ was one of the +holes of the aulos. It renders quite clear certain passages in +Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch, and a scholion to Pindar's 12th +_Pythian_, which before were difficult to understand (see SYRINX). + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Plagiaulos. Castellani Collection (Maenad +Pipes), British Museum.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Ancient Greek Double Pipes. Elgin Collection, +British Museum.] + +The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties enumerated by +Pollux (_Onomast._ iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus (iv. 76 et seq.). They +fall into two distinct classes, the single and the double pipes. There +were three principal single pipes, the _monaulos_, the _plagiaulos_ and +the _syrinx monocalamos_. The double pipes were used by the great +musicians of ancient Greece, and notably at the musical contests at +Delphi, and what has been said above concerning the construction of the +aulos refers mainly to the double pipes. The _monaulos_, a single pipe +of Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been played +from the end by means of a reed, may have been the archetype of the oboe +or clarinet. The _plagiaulos photinx_ or _tibia obliqua_, invented by +the Libyans (Pollux iv. 74), or, according to Pliny (vii. 204), by Midas +of Phrygia, was held like the modern flute, but was played by means of a +mouthpiece containing a reed. Three of the existing pipes at the British +Museum (the two in the Castellani collection, and the pipe from +Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The mouthpiece projects from the +side of the pipe and communicates with the main bore by means of a +slanting passage; the end nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the +modern flute; in the latter, however, the embouchure is not closed by +the lips when playing, and therefore the flute has the acoustic +properties of the open pipe, whereas the _plagiaulos_ having a reed +mouthpiece gave the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double pipes existed +in five sizes according to pitch, in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a +treatise on the construction of the auloi ([Greek: Peri aulon +traeseos]), unfortunately not extant,[24] divides them thus:-- + +(1) _Parthenioi auloi_ ([Greek: parthenioi auloi]), the maiden's +_auloi_, corresponding to the soprano compass. + +(2) _Paidikoi auloi_ ([Greek: paidikoi auloi]), the boy's pipes or alto +_auloi_, used to accompany boys' songs and also in double pairs at +feasts. + +(3) _Kitharisterioi auloi_ ([Greek: kitharistaerioi auloi]), used to +accompany the cithara. + +(4) _Teleioi auloi_, the perfect aulos, or tenor's pipes; also known as +the _pythic auloi_ ([Greek: pythikoi auloi]); used for the paeans and +for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was the _pythic +auloi_ and the _kitharisterioi auloi_ more especially which were +provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the harmonic +notes (see SYRINX). + +(5) _Hyperteleioi auloi_ ([Greek: hyperteleioi auloi]) or _andreioi +auloi_ ([Greek: andreioi ayloi]) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi. + +The Phrygian pipes or _auloi Elymoi_[25] were made of box-wood and were +tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but differed from all others +in that the two pipes were unequal in length and in the diameter of +their bores;[26] sometimes one of the pipes was curved upwards and +terminated in a horn bell;[27] they seem to have had a conical bore, if +representations on monuments are to be trusted. We may conclude that the +archetype of the oboe with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks; +it was frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appears on many +has-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments. For illustrations see +Wilhelm Froehner, _Les Musées de France_, pl. iii., "Marsyas playing the +double pipes." There the bore is decidedly conical in the ratio of at +least 1:4 between the mouthpiece and the end of the instrument; the vase +is Roman, from the south of France. See also _Bulletino della +Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma_, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd +series, pl. vii. and p. 119 et seq., "Le Nozze di Elena e Paride," from +a bas-relief in the monastery of S. Antonio on the Esquiline; Wilhelm +Zahn, _Die schonsten Ornamente und die merkwurdigsten Gemälde aus +Pompeji, Herkulaneum und Stabiae_ (German and French), vol. iii., pl. 43 +and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859). + + For further information on the aulos, consult Albert A. Howard, "The + Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv., 1893; François A. Gevaert, + _Histoire de la musique dans l'antiquité_, vol. ii. p. 273 et seq.; + Carl von Jan's article "Flote" in August Baumeister's _Denkmaler des + klassischen Altertums_ (Munich, 1884-1888), vol. i.; Dr Hugo Riemann, + _Handbuch der Musikgeschichte_, Bd. I.T. 1, pp. 93-112 (Leipzig, + 1904); Caspar Bartholinus, _De Tibiis Veterum_ (Amsterdam, 1779). + (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Pollux, _Onom._ iv. 69. + + [2] See Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und musikalischen Instrumente + in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik_ (Giessen, 1855), p. + 305. + + [3] These pipes were discovered during the excavations in 1867, and + are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductions and + descriptions of them are given in "The Aulos or Tibia," by Albert A. + Howard, _Harvard Studies_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. ii. and pp. + 48-55. + + [4] For illustrations of _auloi_ provided with these contrivances, + see illustration (fig. 2) of an aulos from Pompeii; a relief in + Vatican, No. 535; Helbig's _Wandgemãlde_, Nos. 56, 69, 730, 765, &c. + + [5] For illustrations of [Greek: hodoi] showing the holes at the ends + of the tubes, see _Description des marbres antiques du Musée + Campana_, by H. d'Escamps, pl. 25; Wilhelm Froehner's _Catalogue of + the Louvre_, No. 378; Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188; Albert A. + Howard, "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, 1893), + pl. 1, No. 1. + + [6] For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and + mouthpiece were made see Theophrastus, _Hist. Plant._ iv. 11. + + [7] Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle, _H.A._ 6, 10, 9, &c. + + [8] Lucian, _Harm._ 1. + + [9] Cf. article MOUTHPIECE. + + [10] See _Antike Denkmaler_, Deutsches archäol. Inst., Berlin, 1891, + vol. i. pi. 49. + + [11] See "Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques," _Journal asiatique_, 8th + ser. vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 212-215. + + [12] See Aristotle, _De Audib._ p. 802 b, 18, and p. 804a; Festus, + ed. Mueller, p. 116. + + [13] See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann, + _Gesch. d. Musik_, Bd. i. T. 1, p. 111 (Leipzig, 1904). + + [14] Pollux, _Onomasticon_, vii. 153. + + [15] Hesychius. + + [16] Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153, x. 153-154; A.A. Howard, op. cit. pp. + 26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given in _Denkmaler des + klassischen Altertums_, by August Baumeister, vol. i. p. 554, fig. + 591. + + [17] Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case + ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double + pipe. See E. de Rougé, _Notice sommaire des monuments égyptiens + exposés dans les galeries du Louvre_, p. 87. + + [18] See Victor Loret, "Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques," in _Journal + asiatique_, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 199, 200 and 201 (note), pp. + 207, 211 and 217, and Conrad Leemans, _Description raisonnée des + monuments égyptiens du Musée d'Antiquités de Leyde_, p. 132, No. 489; + contents of case Nos. 474-488. + + [19] Aristoxenus, _Harm._ bk. i. 20 and 21, H.S. Macran's edition + with translation (Oxford, 1902), p. 179. + + [20] Aristotle, _De audib._ p. 804a; Porphyry, ed. Wallis, p. 249; + _ibid._ p. 252. + + [21] Zamminer, _op. cit._ p. 301. + + [22] _Op. cit._ p. 32-35. + + [23] See _Etymologicum magnum_ (Augsburg. 1848), s.v. "Syrinx." + + [24] See Athenaeus xiv. 634, who quotes from Didymus. + + [25] Pollux iv. 74. + + [26] Servius _ad Aen._ ix. 615. + + [27] Tibullus ii. 85; Virg. _Aen._ xi. 735; Ovid, _Met._ iii. 533, + _Ex Ponto_ i. 1. 39. + + + + +AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE PHILIPPE LOUIS D'ORLÉANS, DUC D' (1822-1897), +French prince and statesman, fifth son of Louis Philippe, duke of +Orleans, afterwards king of the French, and of Marie Amélie, princess of +the Two Sicilies, was born at Paris on the 16th of January 1822. While +still young he inherited a large fortune from the prince de Condé. +Brought up by his parents with great simplicity, he was educated at the +college of Henri IV., on leaving which at the age of seventeen he +entered the army with the rank of a captain of infantry. He +distinguished himself during the conquest of Algeria, and was appointed +governor of that colony, in which capacity he received the submission of +the amir Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to +England and busied himself with historical and military studies, +replying in 1861 by a _Letter upon the History of France_ to Prince +Napoleon's violent attacks upon the house of Orleans. On the outbreak of +the Franco-Prussian War he volunteered for service in the French army, +but his offer was declined. Elected deputy for the Oise department, he +returned to France, and succeeded to the _fauteuil_ of the comte de +Montalembert in the French Academy. In March 1872 he resumed his place +in the army as general of division; and in 1873 he presided over the +court-martial which condemned Marshal Bazaine to death. About this +period, being appointed commandant of the VII. army corps at Besançon, +he retired from political life, and in 1879 became inspector-general of +the army. By the act of exception passed in 1883 all members of families +that had reigned in France serving in the army were deprived of their +military positions; consequently the duc d'Aumale was placed on the +unemployed supernumerary list. Subsequently, in 1886, another law was +promulgated which expelled from French territory the heads of former +reigning families, and provided that henceforward all members of those +families should be disqualified for any public position or function, and +for election to any public body. The duc d'Aumale protested +energetically, and was himself expelled. By his will of the 3rd of June +1884, however, he had bequeathed to the Institute of France his +Chantilly estate, with all the art-collection he had gathered there. +This generosity led the government to withdraw the decree of exile, and +the duke returned to France in 1889. He died at Zucco in Sicily on the +7th of May 1897. Of his marriage, contracted in 1844 with his first +cousin, Caroline de Bourbon, daughter of the prince of Salerno, were +born two sons: the prince de Condé (d. 1866), and the due de Guise (d. +1872). The due d'Aumale's principal literary work was an _Histoire des +princes de Condé_, which he left unfinished. + + See Georges Picot, _M. le duc d'Aumale_ (Paris, 1898); Ernest Daudet, + _Le duc d'Aumale_ (Paris, 1898). (M. P.*) + + + + +AUMALE, a town of northern France, in the department of +Seine-Inférieure, on the left bank of the Bresle, 47 m. N.E. of Rouen on +the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 1999. The church is an interesting +building of the 16th and 17th centuries, and has a portal attributed to +Jean Goujon. The town has glass and steel works. + +The territory of Aumale (Albemarle, Aubemale, Aumerle; Lat. _Alba +Marla_) in Normandy, a dependency of the archbishopric of Rouen, was +granted to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the Conqueror, +who founded the first line of counts of Aumale. Hawise (Hadwide, Havoise +or Avoie), countess of Aumale, after the death of her first husband +William de Mandeville, earl of Essex (d. 1189), married William des +Forts (de Fors, or de Fortz; Lat. de Fortibus), a military adventurer +who had been one of the commanders of the fleet under Richard I. during +his first crusade. He died in 1195, and his widow married Baldwin de +Betun, who became count of Aumale in her right. He died in 1213, and in +1214 William de Fortibus, son of Hawise by her second husband, was +confirmed by King John in all his mother's lands. Meanwhile, however, +the territory of Aumale shared the fate of the rest of Normandy, and was +annexed to the French crown by King Philip Augustus; but the title of +earl of Albemarle, derived from it, continued to be borne in England by +William de Fortibus, and was passed on to his heirs (see ALBEMARLE). +Aumale itself was conferred by Philip Augustus as an appanage on his son +Philip. It was subsequently granted by Louis VIII. to Simon, count of +Dammartin, whose daughter, Jeanne, countess of Dammartin, transferred +it, together with the countship of Ponthieu, to the house of Castile, by +her marriage with Ferdinand III., king of Castile, called the Saint +(1238). It then remained in the possession of a branch of her +descendants bearing the name of Ponthieu, until it passed to the house +of Harcourt on the marriage of Blanche of Ponthieu with John, count of +Harcourt (1340). Marie d'Harcourt (d. 1476), heiress of Aumale, married +Anthony of Lorraine, count of Vaudémont, and Aumale was created a duchy +in the peerage of France for Claude and Francis of Lorraine in 1547. By +the marriage of Anne of Lorraine with the duke of Nemours in 1618 the +duchy of Aumale passed to the house of Savoy-Nemours. In 1686 Marie +Jeanne Baptiste, duchess of Nemours and of Aumale, and wife of Charles +Emmanuel II., duke of Savoy, sold Aumale to Louis XIV., who gave it to +his natural son, the duke of Maine. After the death of that prince, the +dukedom devolved upon his brother, the count of Toulouse, subsequently +passing to the latter's son, the duke of Penthièvre, whose daughter +married the duke of Orleans. Since the reign of Louis Philippe, king of +the French, the title of duke of Aumale has been borne by a son of the +duke of Orleans. + + + + +AUMONT, the name of a family which played an important part in French +history. The origin of the name is uncertain, but it has usually been +derived from Aumont, now a small commune in the department of the Somme. +The family was of great antiquity, a Jean, sire d'Aumont, having +accompanied Louis IX. on crusade. It was already powerful in the 14th +century, and during the English wars of that period its members fought +in the armies of the kings of France. Towards the end of the century, +the family took the part of the dukes of Burgundy, but returned to the +side of France on the death of Charles the Bold. Jean d'Aumont, +lieutenant-general to the king of France in the government of Burgundy, +rendered important services to Louis XII. and Francis I. Another Jean +d'Aumont (d. 1595), a marshal of France and knight of the order of the +Holy Ghost since its institution in 1578, fought against the Huguenots +under the last of the Valois kings; but he was among the first to +recognize Henry IV., and was appointed governor of Champagne and of +Brittany, where he had to fight against the League. His grandson Antoine +(1601-1669) was also a marshal of France (1651), governor of Paris +(1662), duke and peer (1665). Louis Marie Augustin, duc d'Aumont +(1709-1782), was a celebrated collector of works of art. Louis Marie +Celeste d'Aumont, due de Piennes, afterwards duc d'Aumont (1762-1831), +emigrated during the Revolution and served in the army of the royalists, +as also in the Swedish army. During the Hundred Days he effected a +descent upon Normandy in the Bourbon interest, and succeeded in +capturing Bayeux and Caen. + + + + +AUNCEL (from the Anglo-Fr. _auncelle_, a confused derivation from +_l'auncelle_, Ital. _lancella_, a little balance), a balance formerly +used in England; now, in dialectical use, a term for the weighing of +meat by hand instead of by scales. + + + + +AUNDH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, +ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs. Its area is 447 sq. m.; its +population was 63,921 in 1901, showing a decrease of 2% in the decade. +Estimated revenue £9422. The chief, whose title is Pant Pratinidhi, is a +Brahman by caste. The state has suffered severely from plague. The town +of Aundh is situated 26 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. about 3500. + + + + +AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD (1287-1345), commonly known as RICHARD DE BURY, +English bibliophile, writer and bishop, was born near Bury St Edmunds, +Suffolk, on the 24th of January 1287. He was the son of Sir Richard +Aungervyle, who was descended from one of William the Conqueror's +soldiers, settled in Leicestershire, where the family came into +possession of the manor of Willoughby. His education was undertaken by +his uncle, John de Willoughby, and after leaving the grammar school of +his native place he was sent to Oxford, where he is said to have +distinguished himself in philosophy and theology. John Pits[1] says, but +apparently without authority, that he became a Benedictine monk. He was +made tutor to Prince Edward of Windsor (afterwards Edward III.), and, +according to Dibdin, inspired him with some of his own love of books. He +was mixed up with the sordid intrigues which preceded the deposition of +Edward II., and supplied Queen Isabella and Mortimer in Paris with money +in 1325 from the revenues of Guienne, of which province he was +treasurer. For some time he had to hide in Paris from the officers sent +by Edward II. to apprehend him. On the accession of Edward III. his +services were rewarded by rapid promotion. He was cofferer to the king, +treasurer of the wardrobe and afterwards clerk of the privy seal. The +king, moreover, repeatedly recommended him to the pope, and twice sent +him, in 1330 and 1333, as ambassador to the papal court, then in exile +at Avignon. On the first of these visits he made the acquaintance of a +fellow bibliophile in Petrarch, who records his impression (_Epist. +Famil._ lib. iii. Ep. 1) of the Englishman as "not ignorant of +literature and ... from his youth up curious beyond belief of hidden +things." He asked him for information about Thule, but Aungervyle, who +promised information when he should once more be at home among his +books, never sent any answer, in spite of repeated enquiries. The pope, +John XXII., made him his principal chaplain, and presented him with a +rochet in earnest of the first vacant bishopric in England. + +During his absence from England he was made (1333) dean of Wells. In +September of the same year the see of Durham fell vacant, and the king +overruled the choice of the monks, who had elected and actually +installed their sub-prior, Robert de Graystanes, in favour of +Aungervyle. In February 1334 he was made lord treasurer, an appointment +he exchanged later in the year for that of lord chancellor. This charge +he resigned in the next year, and, after making arrangements for the +protection of his northern diocese from an expected inroad of the Scots, +he proceeded in July 1336 to France to attempt a settlement of the +claims in dispute between Edward and Philip. In the next year he served +on three commissions for the defence of the northern counties. In June +1338 he was once more sent abroad to secure peace, but within a month of +his appointment Edward himself landed in Flanders to procure allies for +his approaching campaign. Aungervyle accompanied him to Coblenz to his +meeting with the emperor Louis IV., and in the next year was sent to +England to raise money. This seems to have been his last visit to the +continent. In 1340 and 1342 he was again engaged in trying to negotiate +peace with the Scots, but from this time his life appears to have passed +quietly in the care of his diocese and in the accumulation of a library. + +He sent far and wide in search of manuscripts, rescuing many treasures +from the charge of ignorant and neglectful monks. "No dearness of +price," he says, "ought to hinder a man from the buying of books, if he +has the money demanded for them, unless it be to withstand the malice of +the seller or to await a more favourable opportunity of buying." It is +to be supposed that Richard de Bury sometimes brought undue pressure to +bear on the owners, for it is recorded that an abbot of St Albans bribed +him to secure his influence for the house by four valuable books, and +that de Bury, who procured certain coveted privileges for the monastery, +bought from him thirty-two other books, for fifty pieces of silver, far +less than their normal price. The record of his passion for books, his +_Philobiblon_, was completed on his fifty-eighth birthday, the 24th of +January 1345, and he died on the 14th of April (May, according to Adam +Murimuth) of that year. He gives an account (chapter viii.) of the +unwearied efforts made by himself and his agents to collect books. In +the eighteenth chapter he records his intention of founding a hall at +Oxford, and in connexion with it a library of which his books were to +form the nucleus. He even details the rules to be observed for the +lending and care of the books, and he had already taken the preliminary +steps for the foundation. The bishop died, however, in great poverty, +and it seems likely that his collection was dispersed immediately after +his death. But the traditional account is that the books were sent to +the Durham Benedictines at Oxford, and that on the dissolution of the +foundation by Henry VIII. they were divided between Duke Humphrey of +Gloucester's library, Balliol College and Dr George Owen. Only two of +the volumes are known to be in existence; one is a copy of John of +Salisbury's works in the British Museum, and the other some theological +treatises by Anselm and others in the Bodleian. + +The chief authority for the bishop's life is William de Chambre (printed +in Wharton's _Anglia Sacra_, 1691, and in _Historiae Dunelmensis +scriptores tres_, Surtees Soc. 1839), who describes him as an amiable +and excellent man, charitable in his diocese, and the liberal patron of +many learned men, among these being Thomas Bradwardine, afterwards +archbishop of Canterbury, Richard Fitzralph, afterwards archbishop of +Armagh, the enemy of the mendicant orders, Walter Burley, who translated +Aristotle, John Mauduit the astronomer, Robert Holkot and Richard de +Kilvington. John Bale[2] and Pits[3] mention other works of his, +_Epistolae Familiares_ and _Orationes ad Principes_. The opening words +of the _Philobiblon_ and the _Epistolae_ as given by Bale represent +those of the _Philobiblon_ and its prologue, so that he apparently made +two books out of one treatise. It is possible that the _Orationes_ may +represent a letter book of Richard de Bury's, entitled _Liber +Epistolaris quondam domini Ricardi de Bury, Episcopi Dunelmensis_, now +in the possession of Lord Harlech. This MS., the contents of which are +fully catalogued in the Fourth Report (1874) of the Historical MSS. +Commission (Appendix, pp. 379-397), contains numerous letters from +various popes, from the king, a correspondence dealing with the affairs +of the university of Oxford, another with the province of Gascony, +beside some harangues and letters evidently kept as models to be used on +various occasions. + +It has often been asserted that the _Philobiblon_ itself was not written +by Richard de Bury at all, but by Robert Holkot. This assertion is +supported by the fact that in seven of the extant MSS. of _Philobiblon_ +it is ascribed to Holkot in an introductory note, in these or slightly +varying terms: _Incipit prologus in philobiblon ricardi dunelmensis +episcopi que libru composuit Robertus holcote de ordine predicalorum sub +nomine dicti episcopi_. The Paris MS. has simply _Philobiblon olchoti +anglici_, and does not contain the usual concluding note of the date +when the book was completed by Richard. As a great part of the charm of +the book lies in the unconscious record of the collector's own +character, the establishment of Holkot's authorship would materially +alter its value. A notice of Richard de Bury by his contemporary Adam +Murimuth (_Continuatio Chronicarum_, Rolls Series, 1889, p. 171) gives a +less favourable account of him than does William de Chambre, asserting +that he was only moderately learned, but desired to be regarded as a +great scholar. + + The original Latin text was printed at Cologne (1473), Spires (1483), + Paris (1500), Oxford (1598 and 1599), &c. It was first translated into + English by J.B. Inglis in 1832, and into French by Hippolyte Cocheris + in 1856. The best translation is that by Mr E.C. Thomas, accompanying + the Latin text, with full biographical and bibliographical + introductions (1888). Other editions are in the _King's Classics_ + (1902) and for the Grolier Club (New York, 1889, ed. A.W. West). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _De Ill. Angl. Script._ (1619, p. 467). + + [2] _Script. Ill. Maj. Brit._ cent. v. No. 69. + + [3] _De Ill. Angl. Script._ (1619, p. 468). + + + + +AUNT SALLY, the English name for a game popular at fairs, race-courses +and summer resorts. It consists in throwing hard balls, of wood or +leather-covered yarn, at puppets dressed to represent different +characters, originally a grotesque female figure called "Aunt Sally," +with the object of smashing a clay pipe which is inserted either in the +mouth or forehead of the puppet. In France the game is popular under the +name _jeu de massacre_. In a variation of the pastime the mark consists +of a living person's head thrust through a hole in a sheet of canvas. In +case of a hit a second shy is allowed, or a small prize is given. + + + + +AURA (from the Gr. for "breath" or "breeze"), a term used in old days to +denote a supposed ethereal emanation from a volatile substance; applied +later to the "electrical aura," or air-current caused by electrical +discharge; in epilepsy (q.v.) to one of its premonitory symptoms; and +in spiritualism to a mysterious light associated with the presence of +spirit-forms. See also AUREOLA. + + + + +AURANGABAD, or AURUNGABAD, a city of India, in the dominions of the +nizam of Hyderabad, north-west division, situated 138 m. from Poona, 207 +from Bombay via Poona, and 270 from Hyderabad on the river Kaum. It +gives its name to a district. It was founded in 1610, under the name of +Fatchnagar, by Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian, who had risen from the +condition of a slave to great influence. Subsequently it became the +capital of the Mogul conquests in the south of India. Aurangzeb, who +erected here a mausoleum to his wife which has been compared to the Taj +at Agra, made the city the seat of his government during his viceroyalty +of the Deccan, and gave it the name of Aurangabad. It thus grew into the +principal city of an extensive province of the same name, stretching +westward to the sea, and comprehending nearly the whole of the territory +now comprised within the northern division of the presidency of Bombay. +Aurangabad long continued to be the capital of the succession of +potentates bearing the modern title of nizam, after those chiefs became +independent of Delhi. They abandoned it subsequently, and transferred +their capital to Hyderabad, when the town at once began to decline. +Aurangabad is a railway station on the Hyderabad-Godavari line, 435 m. +from Bombay. In 1901 the population, with military cantonments, was +36,837, showing an increase of 8% in the decade. It has a cotton mill. + +The district of Aurangabad has an area of 6172 sq. m. The population in +1901 was 721,407. It contains the famous caves of Ajanta, and also the +battlefield of Assaye. + + + + +AURANGZEB (1618-1707), one of the greatest of the Mogul emperors of +Hindustan, was the third son of Shah Jahan, and was born in November +1618. His original name, Mahommed, was changed by his father, with whom +he was a favourite, into Aurangzeb, meaning ornament of the throne, and +at a later time he assumed the additional titles of Mohi-eddin, reviver +of religion, and Alam-gir, conqueror of the world. At a very early age, +and throughout his whole life, he manifested profound religious feeling +perhaps instilled into him in the course of his education under some of +the strictest Mahommedan doctors. He was employed, while very young, in +some of his father's expeditions into the country beyond the Indus, gave +promise of considerable military talents, and was appointed to the +command of an army directed against the Uzbegs. In this campaign he was +not completely successful, and soon after was transferred to the army +engaged in the Deccan. Here he gained several victories, and in +conjunction with the famous general, Mir Jumla, who had deserted from +the king of Golconda, he seized and plundered the town of Hyderabad, +which belonged to that monarch. His father's express orders prevented +Aurangzeb from following up this success, and, not long after, the +sudden and alarming illness of Shah Jahan turned his thoughts in another +direction. Of Shah Jahan's four sons, the eldest, Dara, a brave and +honourable prince, but disliked by the Mussulmans on account of his +liberality of thought, had a natural right to the throne. Accordingly, +on the illness of his father, he at once seized the reins of government +and established himself at Delhi. The second son, Shuja, governor of +Bengal, a dissolute and sensual prince, was dissatisfied, and raised an +army to dispute the throne with Dara. The keen eye of Aurangzeb saw in +this conjuncture of events a favourable opportunity for realising his +own ambitious schemes. His religious exercises and temperate habits gave +him, in popular estimation, a great superiority over his brothers, but +he was too politic to put forward his claims openly. He made overtures +to his younger brother Murad, governor of Gujarat, representing that +neither of their elder brothers was worthy of the kingdom, that he +himself had no temporal ambition, and desired only to place a fit +monarch on the throne, and then to devote himself to religious exercises +and make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He therefore proposed to unite his +forces to those of Murad, who would thus have no difficulty in making +himself master of the empire while the two elder brothers were divided +by their own strife. Murad was completely deceived by these crafty +representations, and at once accepted the offer. Their united armies +then moved northward. Meanwhile Shah Jahan had recovered, and though +Dara resigned the crown he had seized, the other brothers professed not +to believe in their father's recovery, and still pressed on. Shuja was +defeated by Dara's son, but the imperial forces under Jaswant Singh were +completely routed by the united armies of Aurangzeb and Murad. Dara in +person took the field against his brothers, but was defeated and +compelled to fly. Aurangzeb then, by a clever stroke of policy, seized +the person of his father, and threw him into confinement, in which he +was kept for the remaining eight years of his life. Murad was soon +removed by assassination, and the way being thus cleared, Aurangzeb, +with affected reluctance, ascended the throne in August 1658. He quickly +freed himself from all other competitors for the imperial power. Dara, +who again invaded Gujarat, was defeated and closely pursued, and was +given up by the native chief with whom he had taken refuge. He was +brought up to Delhi, exhibited to the people, and assassinated. Shuja, +who had been a second time defeated near Allahabad, was attacked by the +imperial forces under Mir Jumla and Mahommed, Aurangzeb's eldest son, +who, however, deserted and joined his uncle. Shuja was defeated and fled +to Arakan, where he perished; Mahommed was captured, thrown into the +fortress of Gwalior, and died after seven years' confinement. No similar +contest disturbed Aurangzeb's long reign of forty-six years, which has +been celebrated, though with doubtful justice, as the most brilliant +period of the history of Hindustan. The empire certainly was wealthy and +of enormous extent, for there were successively added to it the rich +kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda, but it was internally decaying and +ready to crumble away before the first vigorous assault. Two causes +principally had tended to weaken the Mogul power. The one was the +intense bigotry and intolerant policy of Aurangzeb, which had alienated +the Hindus and roused the fierce animosity of the haughty Rajputs. The +other was the rise and rapid growth of the Mahratta power. Under their +able leader, Sivaji, these daring freebooters plundered in every +direction, nor could all Aurangzeb's efforts avail to subdue them. For +the last twenty-six years of his life Aurangzeb was engaged in wars in +the Deccan, and never set foot in his own capital. At the close of the +long contest the Mogul power was weaker, the Mahratta stronger than at +first. Still the personal ability and influence of the emperor were +sufficient to keep his realms intact during his own life. His last years +were embittered by remorse, by gloomy forebodings, and by constant +suspicion, for he had always been in the habit of employing a system of +espionage, and only then experienced its evil effects. He died on the +3rd of March 1707 at Ahmadnagar, while engaged on an extensive but +unfortunate expedition against the Mahrattas. + + See Lane-Poole, _Aurangzib_, "Rulers of India" series (1893). + + + + +AURAY, a town of France near the mouth of the Auray river, in the +department of Morbihan, 12 m. W. of Vannes on the railway between that +town and Lorient. Pop. (1906) 5241. Its port, which is formed by the +channel of the river and divides the town into two parts, is frequented +by coasting and fishing vessels. The principal buildings are the church +of St Esprit (13th century) now secularized; the Renaissance church of +St Gildas; the town-hall (18th century); and, at a short distance from +the town, the Carthusian monastery, now a deaf and dumb institute, on +the site of the battle of 1364, at which Charles of Blois was defeated +by John of Montfort (see BRITTANY: _History_). Adjoining the Chartreuse +is a small chapel in which are preserved the bones of the Royalists +captured by the Republicans in a battle fought near the spot in 1795. In +the neighbourhood is the church of Sainte Anne d'Auray, one of the +principal places of pilgrimage in Brittany. Auray is one of the chief +centres in France for oyster-breeding, and carries on boat-building and +sardine-fishing. + + + + +AURELIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, the date of the construction +of which is unknown. It ran from Rome to Alsium, where it reached the +sea, and thence along the south-west coast of Italy, perhaps originally +only as far as Cosa, and was later extended to Vada Volaterrana, and in +109 B.C. to Genua and Dertona by means of the Via Aemilia, though a +coast road as far as Genua at least must have existed long before. The +name is applied in the Antonine Itinerary to these extensions, and even +to the prolongation to Aries. Its line is in the main closely followed +by the modern coast highroad; cf., however, for the section between Cosa +and Populonia, O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des Öslerr. arch. Instituts_, +vii. (1904), 54. (T. As.) + + + + +AURELIAN [LUCIUS DOMITIUS AURELIANUS], one of the greatest of the Roman +soldier emperors, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia between A.D. 212-214. +He was of humble origin, but nothing definite is known of his family. He +had always shown great enthusiasm for a military career, and so +distinguished himself in the campaigns in which he took part that on one +occasion he received a public vote of thanks. At the same time he was +proclaimed consul elect, and adopted by Ulpius Crinitus, military +governor of Illyria and Thrace. On the death of the emperor Claudius II. +Gothicus (270), Aurelian was proclaimed his successor with the universal +approval of the soldiers. His first task was to continue the war which +had been begun by Claudius against the Goths. He drove them out of +Moesia across the Danube, where he left them in possession of Dacia, +which he did not think himself able to retain; the name was transferred +to Moesia, which was then called Dacia Aureliani. The chronology, +however, of Aurelian's reign is very confused, and the abandonment of +Dacia is placed by some authorities towards its close. He next entered +upon campaigns against the Juthungi, Alamanni, and other Germanic +tribes, over whom, after a severe defeat which was said to have +imperilled the very existence of the empire, he at length obtained a +complete victory. Having thus secured the Rhine and Danube frontiers, he +turned his energies towards the east, and in 271 set out on his +expedition against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra (q.v.). At the same time he +crushed two pretenders to the throne--Firmus and Tetricus. Firmus, a +wealthy merchant of Seleucia, had proclaimed himself emperor of Egypt. +Aurelian, who was at the time in Mesopotamia, hastened thither, and +ordered him to be seized and put to death. Tetricus, who had been +proclaimed emperor in the west after the death of Gallienus, and left +undisturbed by Claudius II., still ruled over Gaul, Spain and Britain. A +decisive battle was fought near the modern Châlons, in which Tetricus +was defeated. The restoration of the unity of the empire was thus +complete. In 274 a brilliant triumph, adorned by the persons of Zenobia +and Tetricus, was celebrated at Rome. + +Aurelian now turned his attention to the internal affairs of the empire. +He introduced sumptuary laws; relieved the poor by distributions of +bread and meat, proceeded with great severity against informers and +embezzlers; began the construction of various public works and +buildings; and proclaimed a general amnesty for political crimes. The +restoration and enlargement of the walls of Rome, commenced by him, was +not completed till the reign of Probus. An attempt to restore the +standard of the coinage is said to have caused a revolt of the workmen +and officials connected with the mint, which was only put down with the +loss of 7000 soldiers. It has been suggested that this was really an +attempt at revolution incited by the senate and praetorian guards, the +opportunity being found in disturbances resulting from opposition to the +attempted reform, which by themselves could hardly have assumed such +serious proportions. Aurelian's restless spirit was not long able to +endure a life of inaction in the city. Towards the end of 274, he +started on an expedition against the Persians, halting in Thrace by the +way. While on the march between Heracleia and Byzantium, at the +beginning of the following year, he was assassinated through the +treachery of his secretary Eros, who, in order to escape the discovery +of his own irregularities, incited certain officers against the emperor +by showing them a forged list, on which their names appeared as marked +out for death. + +Aurelian well deserved the title of restorer of the empire, and it must +be remembered that he lived in an age when severity was absolutely +necessary. He was a great soldier and a rigid but just disciplinarian. +In more favourable circumstances he would have been a great +administrator. He displayed a fondness for pomp and show on public +occasions; he was the first Roman emperor to wear the diadem, and +assumed the title of Lord and God on medals. + + The chief authority for the events of Aurelian's reign is his life by + Vopiscus, one of the writers of the "Augustan History"; it is founded + on Greek memoirs and certain journals deposited in the Ulpian library + at Rome. See L. Homo, _Le Règne de l'empereur Aurélien_ (1904), and + Groag's art. in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, v. 1347 foll. + + + + +AURELIANUS, CAELIUS, a physician of Sicca in Numidia, who probably +flourished in the 5th century A.D., although some place him two or even +three centuries earlier. In favour of the later date is the nature of +his Latin, which shows a strong tendency to the Romance, and the +similarity of his language to that of Cassius Felix, also an African +medical writer, who about 450 wrote a short treatise, chiefly based on +Galen. We possess a translation by Aurelianus of two works of Soranus of +Ephesus (2nd century), the chief of the "methodist" school of medicine, +on chronic and acute maladies--_Tardae_ or _Chronicae Passiones_, in +five, and _Celeres_ or _Acutae Passiones_ in three books. The +translation, which is especially valuable since the original has been +lost, shows that Soranus possessed considerable practical skill in the +diagnosis of ordinary and even of exceptional diseases. It is also +important as containing numerous references to the methods of earlier +medical authorities. We also possess considerable fragments of his +_Medicinales Responsiones_, also adapted from Soranus, a general +treatise on medicine in the form of question and answer; it deals with +rules of health (_salutaria praecepta_) and the pathology of internal +diseases (ed. Rose, _Anecdota Graeca et Latina_, ii., 1870). Where it is +possible to compare Aurelianus's translation with the original--as in a +fragment of his Gynaecia with Soranus's [Greek: Peri gynaikeion +Pathon]--it is found that it is literal, but abridged. There is +apparently no MS. of the treatises in existence. (Editions: Amman, 1709; +Haller, 1774.) + + + + +AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN BAPTISTE D' (1804-1877), French +general, was born at Malzieu, Lozère, on the 9th of January 1804. He was +educated at St Cyr, and entered the army as sub-lieutenant of foot in +1824. He served with distinction in Algeria between 1841 and 1848, +becoming lieut.-colonel and an officer of the Legion of Honour; took +part in the Roman campaigns of 1848 and 1849, and was made colonel. He +served as general of brigade throughout the Crimean War of 1854-56, +being promoted general of division and commander of the Legion of +Honour. During the campaign in Lombardy in 1859 he commanded at +Marseilles, and superintended the despatch of men and stores to the seat +of war, and for his services he was made a grand officer of the Legion +of Honour. Placed on the reserve list in 1869, he was recalled to the +Marseilles command on the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870-71. +After the first capture of Orleans by the Germans, he was appointed by +the Government of National Defence, in November 1870, to the command of +the Army of the Loire. He was at first very successful against von der +Tann-Rathsamhausen, winning the battle of Coulmiers and compelling the +Germans to evacuate Orleans, but the capitulation of Metz had set free +additional German troops to oppose him, and, after his defeat at Beaune +la Rolande and subsequent unsuccessful fighting near Orleans, resulting +in its recapture by the Germans in December, Aurelle retreated into the +Sologne and was superseded. After the armistice he was elected to the +National Assembly by the departments both of Allier and Gironde. He sat +for Allier and was one of the fifteen officers chosen to assist in the +peace negotiations. He was decorated with the grand cross of the Legion +of Honour, and was given the command at Bordeaux, but retired in 1872. +Elected a life senator in 1875, he supported the monarchical majority of +1876. He died at Versailles on the 17th of December 1877. He was the +author of _La Première Armée de la Loire_, published in 1872. + + + + +AUREOLA, AUREOLE (diminutive of Lat. _aura_, air), the radiance of +luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages, is represented +as surrounding the whole figure. In the earliest periods of Christian +art this splendour was confined to the figures of the persons of the +Godhead, but it was afterwards extended to the Virgin Mary and to +several of the saints. The aureola, when enveloping the whole body, is +generally oval or elliptical in form, but is occasionally circular or +quatrefoil. When it is merely a luminous disk round the head, it is +called specifically a _nimbus_, while the combination of nimbus and +aureole is called a _glory_. The strict distinction between nimbus and +aureole is not commonly maintained, and the latter term is most +frequently used to denote the radiance round the heads of saints, angels +or persons of the Godhead. The _nimbus_ in Christian art appeared first +in the 5th century, but practically the same device was known still +earlier, though its history is obscure, in non-Christian art. Thus +(though earlier Indian and Bactrian coins do not show it) it is found +with the gods on some of the coins of the Indian kings Kanishka, +Huvishka and Vasudeva, 58 B.C. to A.D. 41 (Gardner's _Cat. of Coins of +Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India_, Brit. Mus. 1886, plates +26-29). And its use has been traced through the Egyptians to the Greeks +and Romans, representations of Trajan (arch of Constantine) and +Antoninus Pius (reverse of a medal) being found with it. In the circular +form it constitutes a natural and even primitive use of the idea of a +crown, modified by an equally simple idea of the emanation of light from +the head of a superior being, or by the meteorological phenomenon of a +halo. The probability is that all later associations with the symbol +refer back to an early astrological origin (cf. MITHRAS), the person so +glorified being identified with the sun and represented in the sun's +image; so the aureole is the _Hvareno_ of Mazdaism. From this early +astrological use the form of "glory" or "nimbus" has been adapted or +inherited under new beliefs. + + + + +AURICH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, chief +town of the district of East Friesland, on the Ems-Jade canal, 18 m. +N.W. from Emden by rail. Pop. (1900) 6013. It is built in the Dutch +style, and lies in a sandy but fertile plain, surrounded by pleasant +promenades which have taken the place of the old fortifications. It has +a palace, formerly the residence of the counts of East Friesland and now +used as government offices, a Roman Catholic and two Protestant +churches, a gymnasium, and four libraries. There are breweries and +small manufactories of paper and tobacco. Close by is the +_Upstallsboom_, the hill of oath and liberty, where every year at +Whitsuntide representatives of the seven Frisian coast lands assembled +to deliberate. + + See Wiarda, _Bruchstücke zur Geschichte der Stadt Aurich_ (Emden, + 1835). + + + + +AURICLE (from Lat. diminutive of _auris_, ear), the external ear in +animals, or an analogous part in plants, &c. From a supposed resemblance +to the ear of a dog, the term was applied to the upper cavities of the +heart. The adjective "auricular" is more specially used in the phrase +"auricular confession" (see CONFESSION), i.e. private. + + + + +AURICULA (_Primula auricula_), an Alpine plant, which has been an inmate +of British gardens for about three hundred years, and is still prized by +florists as a favourite spring flower. It loves a cool soil and shady +situation. The florists' varieties are grown in rich composts, for the +preparation of which numberless receipts have been given; but many of +the old nostrums are now exploded, and a more rational treatment has +taken their place. Thus Mr Douglas writes (_Hardy Florists' Flowers_):-- + + "There is no mystery, as some suppose, about the potting, any more + than there is about the potting material. The compost should consist + of turfy loam four parts, leaf-mould one part, sharp river or silver + sand one part, and a few bits of broken charcoal mixed with it. The + pots to be used should be from 3 to 4½ in. in diameter, inside + measure; about 1 in. of potsherds should be placed in the bottom of + each pot, and over this some fibrous turf, from which the fine + particles of earth have been removed. The old soil should be shaken + from the roots of the plants to be potted; and before potting cut off, + if necessary, a portion of the main root. In potting press the soil + rather firmly around the roots." + +Auriculas are best grown in a cold frame mounted on legs about 2 ft. +from the ground, and provided with hinged sashes. A graduated stage +formed of wood battens 6 in. broad, with a rise of 2 in., should be +fixed so as to take each one row of pots, with the plants standing at +about 15 in. from the glass; the spaces between the shelves should be +closed, while the top board of the back and the front should be hinged +so as to be let down when desired for ventilation, the sashes, too, +being movable for the same purpose, and also to afford facilities for +examining and attending to the plants. This frame should face the north +from May to October, and south in winter. No protection will be needed +except in very severe frosts, when two or three thicknesses of garden +mats may be thrown over the glass, and allowed to remain on until the +soil is thawed, should it become frozen. + +Auriculas may be propagated from seed, which is to be sown as soon as +ripe, in July or August, in boxes, kept under cover, and exposed only to +the rays of the morning sun. When seed has been saved from the finer +sorts, the operation is one of considerable nicety, as it not +unfrequently happens that the best seedlings are at first exceedingly +weak. They generally flower in the second or third year, a few good +sorts being all that can be expected from a large sowing. The +established varieties are increased by taking off the offshoots, an +operation performed at the time of potting in July or the beginning of +August. But some varieties are very shy in producing offsets. + +The original of the auricula is a hardy perennial herb, of dwarf habit, +bearing dull yellowish blossoms. This and the commoner forms raised from +seed, as well as one or two double forms, are interesting hardy border +flowers. The choice florists' varieties are divided into five +classes:--the _green-edged_, with the margins of the flowers green; the +_grey-edged_, with the green margins powdered with meal so as to appear +to be coloured grey; the _white-edged_, with the mealy powder so dense +as to cover the green; the _selfs_, which have none of the green +variegation of margin seen in the foregoing, but are of some distinct +colour, as purple, maroon, &c., but have, like the preceding, a white +paste surrounding the eye; and the _alpines_, which resemble the selfs +in not having any green marginal variegation, but differ in having a +yellow centre more or less dense. The individual flowers of the first +three groups of florists' auriculas show four distinct circles:--first +the eye or tube, which should have the stamens lying in it, but +sometimes has the pin-headed stigma instead, which is a defect; second, +the paste or circle of pure white surrounding the eye; third, the body +colour, a circle of some dark tint, as maroon or violet, which feathers +out more or less towards the edge, but is the more perfect the less it +is so feathered, and is quite faulty if it breaks through to the outer +circle; fourth, the margin, which is green or grey or white. These +circles should be about equal in width and clearly defined, and the +nearer they are to this standard the more perfect is the flower. In the +group of selfs the conditions are the same, except that there is no +margin, and consequently the body colour, which should be uniform in +tone, extends to the edge. In the alpines there should be no paste or +white surrounding the eye, but this space should be either golden-yellow +or creamy-yellow, which makes two subdivisions in this group; and the +body colour is more or less distinctly shaded, the edges being of a +paler hue. There is besides a group of laced alpines, in which a +distinct and regular border of colour surrounds each of the marginal +lobes. + +The following is a selection of the best varieties cultivated in 1909:-- + + _Green-edged._--Abbé Liszt, Abraham Barker, Shirley Hibberd, Prince + Charming, Mrs Henwood. + + _Grey-edged._--Amy Robsart, George Lightbody, Marmion, Olympus, George + Rudd, Richard Headly. + + _White-edged._--Acme, Conservative, Heather Bell, Mrs Dodson, Rachel, + Smiling Beauty. + + _Selfs._--Andrew Miller, Gerald, Mikado, Mrs Phillips, Mrs Potts, + Harrison Weir. + + _Alpines._--Argus, Dean Hole, Duke of York, Firefly, Flora Mclvor, Mrs + Douglas, Mrs Markham, Perfection, Phyllis, Rosy Morn, The Bride, + Teviotdale. + + + + +AURIFABER (the latinized form of Goldschmidt), a surname borne by three +prominent men of the Reformation period in Germany. + +1. ANDREAS (1514-1559) was a physician of some repute, but through his +influence with Albert of Brandenburg, last grand-master of the Teutonic +order, and first Protestant duke of Prussia, became an outstanding +figure in the controversy associated with Andreas Osiander (q.v.) whose +daughter he had married. + +2. JOANNES (Vratislaviensis; 1517-1568), the younger brother of Andreas, +was born at Breslau on the 30th of January 1517, and educated at +Wittenberg, where he formed a close and lasting friendship with +Melanchthon. After graduating in 1538 he spent twelve years as _docent_ +at the university, and having then received his doctorate of divinity, +was appointed professor of divinity and pastor of the church of St +Nicholas at Rostock. He distinguished himself by his conciliatory +disposition, earned the special confidence of Duke John Albert of +Mecklenburg, and took a leading part in 1552 in drawing up the +constitution of the Mecklenburg church. He also settled some religious +disputes in the town of Lübeck. In 1553 Duke Albert of Prussia, anxious +to heal the differences in the Prussian church caused by the discussion +of Osiander's doctrines, invited him to Königsberg, and in the following +year appointed him professor of divinity and president of the Samland +diocese. Joannes, however, found it impossible to conciliate all +parties, and in 1565 returned to Breslau, where, in 1567, he became +pastor in the church of St Elizabeth and inspector of the Lutheran +churches and schools. He died on the 19th of October 1568. + +3. JOANNES (Vinariensis; 1519-1575), was born in the county of Mansfeldt +in 1519. He studied at Wittenberg where he heard the lectures of Luther, +and afterwards became tutor to Count Mansfeldt. In the war of 1544-45 he +accompanied the army as field-preacher, and then lived with Luther as +his _famulus_ or private secretary, being present at his death in 1546. +In the following year he spent six months in prison with John Frederick, +elector of Saxony, who had been captured by the emperor, Charles V. He +held for some years the office of court-preacher at Weimar, but owing to +theological disputes was compelled to resign this office in 1561. In +1566 he was appointed to the Lutheran church at Erfurt, and there +remained till his death in November 1575. Besides taking a share in the +first collected or Jena edition of Luther's works (1556), Aurifaber +sought out and published at Eisleben in 1564-1565 several writings not +included in that edition. He also published Luther's _Letters_ (1556, +1565), and _Table Talk_ (1566). This popular work, which has given him +most of his fame, is unfortunately but a second or third hand +compilation. + + See G. Kawerau's art. in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk. für prot. + Theologie_, and the literature there cited. + + + + +AURIGA (the "charioteer" or "waggoner"), in astronomy, a constellation +of the northern hemisphere, found in the catalogues of Eudoxus (4th +century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). It was symbolized by the +Greeks as an old man in a more or less sitting posture, with a goat and +her kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right. The ancient Greeks +associated this constellation with many myths. Some assume it to be +Erichthonius, son of Athena and Hephaestus, who was translated to the +skies by Zeus on account of his invention of chariots or coaches. Others +assume it to be Myrtilus, a son of Hermes and Clytic, and charioteer to +Oenomaus, who was placed in the heavens by Hermes. Another myth has it +to be Olenus, a son of Hephaestus, and father of Aega and Helice, two +nymphs who nursed Zeus. Ptolemy catalogued fourteen stars, Tycho Brahe +twenty-seven, and Hevelius forty in this constellation. Interesting +stars are: [alpha] _Aurigae_ or _Capella_ (the goat), one of the +brightest stars in the heavens, determined by Newall and Campbell to be +a spectroscopic binary; [beta] _Aurigae_, a star of the second magnitude +also a spectroscopic binary; [epsilon] _Aurigae_, an irregularly +variable star; and _Nova Aurigae_, a "new" star discovered by Anderson +in 1892, and afterwards found on a photographic plate exposed at Harvard +in December 1891. Several fine star clusters also appear in this +constellation. + + + + +AURILLAC, a town of central France, capital of the department of Cantal, +140 m. N.N.E. of Toulouse, on the Orléans railway between Figeac and +Murat. Pop. (1906) 14,097. Aurillac stands on the right bank of the +Jordanne, and is dominated from the north-west by the Roc Castanet, +crowned by the castle of St Etienne, the keep of which dates from the +11th century. Its streets are narrow and uninteresting, with the +exception of one which contains, among other old houses, that known as +the Maison des Consuls, a Gothic building of the 16th century, decorated +with sculptured stone-work. Aurillac owes its origin to an abbey founded +in the 9th century by St Géraud, and the abbey-church, rebuilt in the +17th century in the Gothic style, is the chief building in the town. The +former college, which dates from the 17th century, is now occupied by a +museum and a library. There is a statue of Pope Silvester II., born near +Aurillac in 930 and educated in the abbey, which soon afterwards became +one of the most famous schools of France. Aurillac is the seat of a +prefect, and its public institutions include tribunals of first instance +and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycée, training-colleges and a +branch of the Bank of France. The chief manufactures are wooden shoes +and umbrellas, and there is trade in cheese and in the cattle and horses +reared in the neighbourhood. + + + + +AURISPA, GIOVANNI (c. 1370-1459), one of the learned Italians of the +15th century, who did so much to promote the revival of the study of +Greek in Italy, was born at Noto in Sicily. In 1418 he visited +Constantinople, where he remained for some years, perfecting his +knowledge of Greek and searching for ancient MSS. His efforts were +rewarded by the acquisition of some 250 MSS., with which he returned to +Venice. Here he is said to have been obliged to pawn his treasures for +50 gold florins to provide for his immediate wants. Cosimo de' Medici, +hearing of his embarrassment, redeemed the MSS. and summoned the owner +to Florence. In 1438, at the council of Basel, Aurispa attracted the +attention of Pope Eugenius IV., who made him his secretary; he held a +similar position under Nicholas V., who presented him to two lucrative +abbacies. He died at Ferrara. Considering his long life and reputation +Aurispa produced little: Latin translations of the commentary of +Hierocles on the golden verses of Pythagoras (1474) and of _Philisci +Consolatoria ad Ciceronem_ from Dio Cassius (not published till 1510); +and, according to Gesner, a translation of the works of Archimedes. +Aurispa's reputation rests upon the extensive collection of MSS. copied +and distributed by him, and his persistent efforts to revive and promote +the study of ancient literature. + + + + +AUROCHS (from Lat. _urus_, the wild ox, and "ox") or URUS, the name of +the extinct wild ox of Europe (_Bos taurus primigenius_), which after +the disappearance of that animal became transferred to the bison. +According to the German Freiherr von Herberstein (1486-1566), in his +_Moscovia_, of which an Italian translation was published at Venice in +1550, the aurochs survived in Poland (and probably also in Hungary) +during the latter middle ages. In this work appear woodcuts--rude but +characteristic and unmistakable--of two distinct types of European wild +cattle; one the aurochs, or ur, and the other the bison. As Herberstein +had travelled in Poland, it is probable that he had seen both species +alive, and the drawings were most likely executed under his own +direction. It has indeed been suggested that the figure of the aurochs +was taken from a domesticated ox, but this is a mistaken idea. Not the +least important feature of the work of Herberstein is the application of +the name aurochs to the wild ox, as distinct from the bison. The +locality where aurochs survived in Herberstein's time was the forest of +Jaktozowka, situated about 55 kilometres west-south-west of Warsaw, in +the provinces of Bolemow and Sochaczew. From other evidence it appears +that the last aurochs was killed in this forest in the year 1627. +Herberstein describes the colour of the aurochs as black, and this is +confirmed by another old picture of the animal. Gesner's figure of the +aurochs, or as he calls it "thur," given in the _Icones_ to his _History +of Animals_, was probably adapted from Herberstein's. It may be added +that an ancient gold goblet depicts the hunting and taming of the wild +aurochs. + +As a wild animal, then, the aurochs appears to have ceased to exist in +the early part of the 17th century; but as a species it survives, for +the majority of the domesticated breeds of European cattle are its +descendants, all diminished in point of size, and some departing more +widely from the original type than others. Aurochs' calves were in all +probability captured by the early inhabitants of Britain and the +continent and tamed; and from these, with perhaps an occasional blending +of wild blood, are descended most European breeds of cattle. + +Much misconception, however, has prevailed as to which breeds are the +nearest to the ancestral wild stock. At one time this position was +supposed to be occupied by the white half-wild cattle of Chillingham and +other British parks. These white breeds are, however, partial albinos; +and such semi-albinos are always the result of domestication and could +not have arisen in the wild state. Moreover, park-cattle display +evidence of their descent from dark-coloured breeds by the retention of +red or black ears and brown or black muzzles. In the Chillingham cattle +the ears are generally red, although sometimes black, and the muzzle is +brown; while in the breed at Cadzow Chase Lanarkshire, both ears and +muzzle are black, and there are usually flecks of black on the head and +forequarters. It is further significant that, in the Chillingham herd, +dark-coloured calves, which are weeded out, make their appearance from +time to time. + +A very ancient British breed is the black Pembroke; and when this breed +tends to albinism, the ears and muzzle, and more rarely the fetlocks, +remain completely black, or very dark grey, although the colour +elsewhere is whitish, more or less flecked and blotched with pale grey. +In the shape and curvature of the horns, which at first incline outwards +and forwards, and then bend somewhat upwards and inwards, this breed of +cattle resembles the aurochs and the (by comparison) dwarfed +park-breeds. Moreover, in both the Pembroke and the park-breeds the +horns are light-coloured with black tips. + +Evidence as to the affinity between these breeds is afforded by the fact +that a breed of cattle very similar to that at Chillingham was found in +Wales in the 10th century; these cattle being white with red ears. +Individuals of this race survived till at least 1850 in Pembroke, where +they were at one time kept perfectly pure as a part of the regular +farm-stock. Until a period comparatively recent, they were relatively +numerous, and were driven in droves to the pasturages of the Severn and +the neighbouring markets. Their whole essential characters are the same +as those of the cattle at Chillingham. Their horns are white, tipped +with black, and extended and turned upwards in the manner distinctive of +the park-breed. The inside of the ears and the muzzle are black, and the +feet are black to the fetlock joint. The skin is unctuous and of a +deep-toned yellow colour. Individuals of the race were sometimes born +entirely black, and then were not to be distinguished from the common +Pembroke cattle of the mountains. + +It is thus evident that park-cattle are an albino offshoot from the +ancient Pembroke black breed, which, from their soft and well-oiled +skins, are evidently natives of a humid climate, such as that of the +forests in which dwelt the wild aurochs. This disposes of a theory that +they are descendants of a white sacrificial breed introduced into +Britain by the ancient Romans. + +The Pembroke and park-cattle are, however, by no means the sole +descendants of the aurochs, the black Spanish fighting-bulls claiming a +similar descent. This breed shows a light-coloured line along the spine, +which was characteristic of the aurochs. It has also been suggested that +the Swiss Siemental cattle are nearly related to the aurochs. The latter +was a gigantic animal, especially during the Pleistocene period; the +skulls and limb-bones discovered in the brick-earths and gravels of the +Thames valley and many other parts of England having belonged to animals +that probably stood six feet at the shoulder. (R. L.*) + + + + +AURORA (perhaps through a form _ausosa_ from Sansk. _ush_, to burn; the +common idea of "brightness" suggests a connexion with _aurum_, gold), +the Roman goddess of the dawn, corresponding to the Greek goddess Eos. +According to Hesiod (_Theog_. 271) she was the daughter of the Titan +Hyperion and Thea (or Euryphassa), and sister of Helios and Selene. By +the Titan Astraeus, she was the mother of the winds Zephyrus, Notus and +Boreas, of Hesperus and the stars. Homer represents her as rising every +morning from the couch of Tithonus (by whom she was the mother of +Emathion and Memnon), and drawn out of the east in a chariot by the +horses Lampus and Phaëthon to carry light to gods and men (_Odyssey_, +xxiii. 253); in Homer, she abandons her course when the sun is fully +risen (or at the latest at mid-day, _Iliad_, ix. 66), but in later +literature she accompanies the sun all day and thus becomes the goddess +of the daylight. From the roseate shafts of light which herald the dawn, +she bears in Homer the epithet "rosy-fingered." The conception of a +dawn-goddess is common in primitive religions, especially in the Vedic +mythology, where the deity Usás is closely parallel to the Greco-Roman; +see Paul Regnaud, _Le Rig-Véda_ in _Annales du musée Guimet_, vol. i. c. +6 (Paris, 1892). She is also represented as the lover of the hunter +Orion (_Odyssey_, v. 121), the representative of the constellation that +disappears at the flush of dawn, and the youthful hunter Cephalus, by +whom she was the mother of Phaëthon (Apollodorus iii. 14. 3). In works +of art, Eos is represented as a young woman, fully clothed, walking fast +with a youth in her arms; or rising from the sea in a chariot drawn by +winged horses; sometimes, as the goddess who dispenses the dews of the +morning, she has a pitcher in each hand. In the fresco-painting by Guido +Reni in the Rospigliosi palace at Rome, Aurora is represented strewing +flowers before the chariot of the sun. Metaphorically the word Aurora +was used (e.g. Virg. _Aen_. viii. 686, vii. 606) for the East generally. + + + + +AURORA, a city of Kane county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the +state, on the Fox river, about 37 m. W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 19,688; +(1900) 24,147, of whom 5075 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,807. Aurora is +served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, +the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern, and the Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota +railways, and is connected with Chicago by an electric line. The city +has a soldiers' memorial hall, erected by popular subscription, and a +Carnegie library. Aurora is an important manufacturing centre; among its +manufactures are railway cars--the shops of the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy railway being here--flour and cotton, carriages, hardware +specialties, corsets, suspenders, stoves and silver-plate. In 1905 the +city's factory products were valued at $7,329,028, an increase of 30% in +5 years. The municipality owns and operates the water-works and +electric-lighting plants. The first settlement in the vicinity of Aurora +was made in 1834. In 1845 the village of East Aurora was incorporated, +and West Aurora was incorporated nine years later. In 1853 the two +villages were united under a city charter, which was superseded by a +revised charter in 1887. + + + + +AURORA, a city of Lawrence county, Missouri, U.S.A., 275 m. S.W. of St +Louis, on the St Louis & San Francisco, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain +& Southern railways. Pop.(1890) 3482; (1900) 6191; (1910) 4148. It is +situated near a lead and zinc mining region, where surface lead was +discovered in 1873 and systematic mining began in 1887; among the cities +of the state it is second to Joplin in mineral importance, and has large +iron-works and flour-mills; mining machinery also is manufactured. +Farming and fruit-growing are carried on in the surrounding country, and +Aurora is the place from which the products are shipped. Aurora was +platted in 1870 and was chartered as a city in 1886. + + + + +AURORA, a village of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A., on Cayuga Lake, 16 +m. S.W. of Auburn. Pop. (1905) 623; (1910) 493. It is served by the +Lehigh Valley railway. Aurora is a beautiful place and a popular summer +resort, but it is best known as the seat of Wells College, a +non-sectarian college for women, founded in 1868 by Henry Wells +(1805-1878), of the Wells Fargo Express Company, and liberally endowed +by Edwin B. Morgan (1806-1881), also connected with the same company, +and by others. At Aurora are also the Somes school (a preparatory school +for boys), founded in 1798 and until 1904 known as the Cayuga Lake +Academy, and the Wells school (a preparatory school for girls). The +village has a public library. Aurora was settled in 1789 chiefly by +residents of New England, and was incorporated in 1905. + + + + +AURORA POLARIS (_Aurora Borealis_ and _Australis_, Polar Light, Northern +Lights), a natural phenomenon which occurs in many forms, some of great +beauty. + +1. _Forms._--Various schemes of classification have been proposed, but +none has met with universal acceptance; the following are at least the +principal types. (1) _Arcs._ These most commonly resemble segments of +circles, but are not infrequently elliptical or irregular in outline. +The ends of arcs frequently extend to the horizon, but often one or both +ends stop short of this. Several arcs may be visible at the same time. +Usually the under or concave edge of the arc is the more clearly +defined, and adjacent to it the sky often seems darker than elsewhere. +It is rather a disputed point whether this dark segment--through which +starlight has been seen to pass--represents a real atmospheric condition +or is merely a contrast effect. (2) _Bands._ These may be nearly +straight and regular in outline, as if broken portions of arcs; +frequently they are ribbon-like serpentine forms showing numerous +sinuosities. (3) _Rays._ Frequently an arc or band is visibly composed +of innumerable short rays separated by distinctly less luminous +intervals. These rays are more or less perpendicular to the arc or band; +sometimes they are very approximately parallel to one another, on other +occasions they converge towards a point. Longer rays often show an +independent existence. Not infrequently rays extend from the upper edge +of an arc towards the zenith. Combinations of rays sometimes resemble a +luminous fan, or a series of fans, or part of a hollow luminous +cylinder. Rays often alter suddenly in length, seeming to stretch down +towards the horizon or mount towards the zenith. This accounts for the +description of aurora as "Merry Dancers." (4) _Curtains or Draperies._ +This form is rare except in Arctic regions, where it is sometimes fairly +frequent. It is one of the most imposing forms. As a rule the higher +portion is visibly made up of rays, the light tending to become more +continuous towards the lower edge; the combination suggests a connected +whole, like a curtain whose alternate portions are in light and shade. +The curtain often shows several conspicuous folds, and the lower edge +often resembles frilled drapery. At several stations in Greenland +auroral curtains have been observed when passing right overhead to +narrow to a thin luminous streak, exactly as a vertical sheet of light +would seem to do to one passing underneath it. (5) _Corona_. A fully +developed corona is perhaps the finest form of aurora. As the name +implies, there is a sort of crown of light surrounding a comparatively +or wholly dark centre. Farther from the centre the ray structure is +usually prominent. The rays may lie very close together, or may be +widely separated from one another. (6) _Patches_. During some displays, +auroral light appears in irregular areas or patches, which sometimes +bear a very close resemblance to illuminated detached clouds. (7) +_Diffused Aurora_. Sometimes a large part of the sky shows a diffuse +illumination, which, though brighter in some parts than others, +possesses no definite outlines. How far the different forms indicate +real difference in the nature of the phenomenon, and how far they are +determined by the position of the observer, it is difficult to say. Not +infrequently several different forms are visible at the same time. + +[Illustration] + +2. _Isochasms._--Aurora is seldom observed in low latitudes. In the +southern hemisphere there is comparatively little inhabited land in high +latitudes and observational data are few; thus little is known as to how +the frequency varies with latitude and longitude. Even in the northern +hemisphere there are large areas in the Arctic about which little is +known. H. Fritz (2) has, however, drawn a series of curves which are +believed to give a good general idea of the relative frequency of aurora +throughout the northern hemisphere. Fritz' curves, shown in the +illustration, are termed isochasms, from the Greek word employed by +Aristotle to denote aurora. Points on the same curve are supposed to +have the same average number of auroras in the year, and this average +number is shown adjacent to the curve. Starting from the equator and +travelling northwards we find in the extreme south of Spain an average +of only one aurora in ten years. In the north of France the average +rises to five a year; in the north of Ireland to thirty a year; a little +to the north of the Shetlands to one hundred a year. Between the +Shetlands and Iceland we cross the curve of maximum frequency, and +farther north the frequency diminishes. The curve of maximum frequency +forms a slightly irregular oval, whose centre, the auroral pole, is +according to Fritz at about 81° N. lat., 70° W. long. Isochasms reach a +good deal farther south in America than in Europe. In other words, +auroras are much more numerous in the southern parts of Canada and in +the United States than in the same latitudes of Europe. + +3. _Annual Variation._--Table I. shows the annual variation observed in +the frequency of aurora. It has been compiled from several authorities, +especially Joseph Lovering (4) and Sophus Tromholt (5). The monthly +figures denote the percentages of the total number seen in the year. The +stations are arranged in order of latitude. Individual places are first +considered, then a few large areas. + +The Godthaab data in Table I. are essentially those given by Prof. A. +Paulsen (6) as observed by Kleinschmidt in the winters of 1865 to 1882, +supplemented by Lovering's data for summer. Starting at the extreme +north, we have a simple period with a well-marked maximum at midwinter, +and no auroras during several months at midsummer. This applies to +Hammerfest, Jakobshavn, Godthaab and the most northern division of +Scandinavia. The next division of Scandinavia shows a transition stage. +To the south of this in Europe the single maximum at mid-winter is +replaced by two maxima, somewhere about the equinoxes. + + 4. In considering what is the real significance of the great + difference apparent in Table I. between higher and middle latitudes, a + primary consideration is that aurora is seldom seen until the sun is + some degrees below the horizon. There is no reason to suppose that the + physical causes whose effects we see as aurora are in existence only + when aurora is visible. Until means are devised for detecting aurora + during bright sunshine, our knowledge as to the hour at which these + causes are most frequently or most powerfully in operation must remain + incomplete. But it can hardly be doubted that the differences apparent + in Table I. are largely due to the influence of sunlight. In high + latitudes for several months in summer it is never dark, and + consequently a total absence of visible aurora is practically + inevitable. Some idea of this influence can be derived from figures + obtained by the Swedish International Expedition of 1882-1883 at Cape + Thorsden, Spitsbergen, lat. 78° 28' N. (7). The original gives the + relative frequency of aurora for each degree of depression of the sun + below the horizon, assuming the effect of twilight to be nil (i.e. the + relative frequency to be 100) when the depression is 18.5° or more. + The following are a selection of the figures:-- + + Angle of depression 4.5° 7.5° 10.5° 12.5° 15.5°. + Relative frequency 0.3 9.3 44.9 74.5 95.9. + + These figures are not wholly free from uncertainties, arising from + true diurnal and annual variations in the frequency, but they give a + good general idea of the influence of twilight. + + If sunlight and twilight were the sole cause of the apparent annual + variation, the frequency would have a simple period, with a maximum at + midwinter and a minimum at midsummer. This is what is actually shown + by the most northern stations and districts in Table I. When we come, + however, below 65° lat. in Europe the frequency near the equinoxes + rises above that at midwinter, and we have a distinct double period, + with a principal minimum at midsummer and a secondary minimum at + midwinter. In southern Europe--where, however, auroras are too few to + give smooth results in a limited number of years--in southern Canada, + and in the United States, the difference between the winter and summer + months is much reduced. Whether there is any real difference between + high and mean latitudes in the annual frequency of the causes rendered + visible by aurora, it is difficult to say. The Scandinavian data, from + the wealth of observations, are probably the most representative, and + even in the most northern district of Scandinavia the smallness of the + excess of the frequencies in December and January over those in March + and October suggests that some influence tending to create maxima at + the equinoxes has largely counterbalanced the influence of sunlight + and twilight in reducing the frequency at these seasons. + + 5. _Fourier Analysis._--With a view to more minute examination, the + annual frequency can be expressed in Fourier series, whose terms + represent waves, whose periods are 12, 6, 4, 3, &c. months. This has + been done by Lovering (4) for thirty-five stations. The nature of the + results will best be explained by reference to the formula given by + Lovering as a mean from all the stations considered, viz.:-- + + 8.33 + 3.03 sin(30t + 100°52') + 2.53 sin(60t + 309° 5') + + 0.16 sin(90t + 213°31') + 0.56 sin(120t + 162°45') + + 0.27 sin(150t + 32°38'). + + [Illustration: PLATE I. + + FIG. 1--TWO TYPES OF AURORAL ARCS. + + FIG. 2--TWO TYPES OF AURORAL RAYS. + + (From the _Internationale Polarforschung_, 1882-1883, by permission + of the _Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, Vienna.)] + + [Illustration: PLATE II. + + FIG. 3--AURORAL BANDS. + + FIG. 4--AURORAL CURTAIN BELOW AN ARC. + + FIG. 5.--AURORAL CORONA.] + + + TABLE I.--_Annual Frequency (Relative)._ + + +-----------------+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Place. | Latitude. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | + +-----------------+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | ° | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Hammerfest | 70½ | 20.9 | 17.6 | 8.8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4.4 | 9.9 | 17.6 | 20.9 | + | Jakobshavn | 69 | 14.6 | 13.0 | 9.2 | .5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9.2 | 15.1 | 18.4 | 20.0 | + | Godthaab | 64 | 15.5 | 12.4 | 9.7 | 4.9 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.2 | 8.7 | 13.3 | 17.0 | 17.4 | + | St Petersburg | 60 | 6.5 | 9.1 | 16.8 | 13.8 | 3.5 | 1.2 | 1.4 | 5.9 | 13.8 | 13.1 | 7.6 | 7.3 | + | Christiania | 60 | 8.6 | 11.4 | 14.0 | 11.2 | 0.6 | 0 | 0.2 | 6.5 | 14.6 | 12.2 | 10.3 | 10.3 | + | Upsala | 60 | 8.4 | 12.9 | 14.9 | 7.4 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 7.1 | 12.4 | 14.3 | 10.7 | 10.7 | + | Stockholm | 59 | 7.6 | 10.0 | 14.7 | 16.4 3.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 5.6 | 12.9 | 11.4 | 10.0 | 7.3 | + | Edinburgh | 56 | 9.6 | 12.6 | 14.0 | 9.5 | 3.4 | 0.0 | 1.7 | 6.0 | 12.6 | 13.5 | 11.8 | 5.2 | + | Berlin | 52½ | 7.6 | 10.8 | 16.4 | 15.5 | 11.4 | 0.6 | 2.9 | 2.9 | 6.5 | 13.2 | 8.5 | 4.1 | + | London | 51½ | 8.6 | 10.5 | 10.2 | 10.7 | 4.0 | 1.1 | 1.9 | 5.6 | 14.5 | 16.9 | 9.6 | 6.4 | + | Quebec | 47 | 3.6 | 14.8 | 8.3 | 14.2 | 4.1 | 5.9 | 7.7 | 5.9 | 11.2 | 12.4 | 7.7 | 4.1 | + | Toronto | 43½ | 5.4 | 9.5 | 8.7 | 11.8 | 9.0 | 6.2 | 8.0 | 6.4 | 8.5 | 11.1 | 8.7 | 6.7 | + | Cambridge, Mass.| 42½ | 5.1 | 8.2 | 11.8 | 10.2 | 6.4 | 5.1 | 10.3 | 8.5 | 13.3 | 9.2 | 6.8 | 5.1 | + | New Haven, Conn.| 41½ | 7.7 | 7.3 | 8.9 | 8.2 | 7.6 | 5.7 | 8.9 | 8.1 | 11.9 | 7.6 | 10.6 | 7.5 | + | Scandinavia | N. of 68½ | 16.4 | 13.8 | 14.8 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.4 | 7.8 | 15.1 | 14.4 | 15.7 | + | " | 68½ to 65| 15.3 | 14.6 | 13.7 | 2.9 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.1 | 9.7 | 14.6 | 14.0 | 14.1 | + | " | 65 to 61½ | 13.2 | 12.3 | 14.5 | 5.4 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2.8 | 13.1 | 14.2 | 12.8 | 11.5 | + | " | 61½ to 58| 9.5 | 11.2 | 13.5 | 10.9 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 5.7 | 13.6 | 13.8 | 10.4 | 9.6 | + | " | S. of 58 | 8.2 | 11.9 | 12.6 | 13.3 | 1.5 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 4.9 | 14.9 | 13.5 | 10.3 | 8.2 | + | New York State | 45 to 40½ | 6.3 | 7.4 | 9.1 | 11.0 | 7.4 | 6.6 | 8.8 | 10.4 | 11.7 | 9.7 | 6.2 | 5.4 | + +-----------------+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + The total number of auroras in the year is taken as 100, and t denotes + the time, in months, that has elapsed since the middle of January. + Putting t=0, 1, &c., in succession, we get the percentages of the + total number of auroras which occur in January, February, and so on. + The first periodic term has a period of twelve, the second of six + months, and similarly for the others. The first periodic term is + largest when t × 30° + 100° 52' = 450°. This makes t = 11.6 months + after the middle of January, otherwise the 3rd of January, + approximately. The 6-month term has the earliest of its two equal + maxima about the 26th of March. These two are much the most important + of the periodic terms. The angles 100° 52', 309° 5', &c., are known as + the phase angles of the respective periodic terms, while 3.03, 2.53, + &c., are the corresponding amplitudes. Table II. gives a selection of + Lovering's results. The stations are arranged according to latitude. + + + TABLE II. + + +----------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | Annual Term. | 6-Month Term.| 4-Month Term.| + | Station. +-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+ + | | Amp. |Phase.| Amp. |Phase.| Amp. |Phase.| + +----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+ + | | | ° | | ° | | ° | + | Jakobshavn | 10.40 | 123 | 1.13 | 206 | 1.41 | 333 | + | Godthaab | 8.21 | 111 | 1.54 | 316 | 0.64 | 335 | + | St Petersburg | 2.81 | 96 | 5.99 | 309 | 0.57 | 208 | + | Christiania | 4.83 | 116 | 4.99 | 317 | 0.76 | 189 | + | Upsala | 5.41 | 119 | 4.57 | 322 | 0.86 | 296 | + | Stockholm | 3.68 | 91 | 5.80 | 303 | 1.31 | 180 | + | Makerstown (Scotland)| 5.79 | 102 | 4.47 | 310 | 2.00 | 342 | + | Great Britain | 3.87 | 126 | 4.24 | 287 | 0.40 | 73 | + | Toronto | 0.18 | 12 | 2.13 | 260 | 0.52 | 305 | + | Cambridge, Mass. | 1.02 | 262 | 2.84 | 339 | 1.28 | 253 | + | New Haven, Conn. | 0.99 | 183 | 1.02 | 313 | 0.57 | 197 | + | New York State | 1.34 | 264 | 2.29 | 325 | 0.54 | 157 | + +----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+ + + Speaking generally, the annual term diminishes in importance as we + travel south. North of 55° in Europe its phase angle seems fairly + constant, not differing very much from the value 110° in Lovering's + general formula. The 6-month term is small, in the two most northern + stations, but south of 60° N. lat. it is on the whole the most + important term. Excluding Jakobshavn, the phase angles in the 6-month + term vary wonderfully little, and approach the value 309° in + Lovering's general formula. North of lat. 50° the 4-month term is, as + a rule, comparatively unimportant, but in the American stations its + relative importance is increased. The phase angle, however, varies so + much as to suggest that the term mainly represents local causes or + observational uncertainties. Lovering's general formula suggests that + the 4-month term is really less important than the 3-month term, but + he gives no data for the latter at individual stations. + + 6. Sunlight is not the only disturbing cause in estimates of auroral + frequency. An idea of the disturbing influence of cloud may be derived + from some interesting results from the Cape Thorsden (7) observations. + These show how the frequency of visible auroras diminished as cloud + increased from 0 (sky quite clear) to 10 (sky wholly overcast). + + Grouping the results, we have: + + Amount of cloud 0 1 to 3 4 to 6 7 to 9 10 + Relative frequency 100 82 57 46 8 + + Out of a total of 1714 hours during which the sky was wholly overcast + the Swedish expedition saw auroras on 17, occurring on 14 separate + days, whereas 226 hours of aurora would have occurred out of an equal + number of hours with the sky quite clear. The figures being based on + only one season's observations are somewhat irregular. Smoothing them, + Carlheim-Gyllensköld gives f = 100' - 7.3c as the most probable linear + relation between c, the amount of cloud, and f, the frequency, + assuming the latter to be 100 when there is no cloud. + +7. _Diurnal Variation._--The apparent daily period at most stations is +largely determined by the influence of daylight on the visibility. It is +only during winter and in high latitudes that we can hope to ascertain +anything directly as to the real diurnal variation of the causes whose +influence is visible at night as aurora. Table III. gives particulars of +the number of occasions when aurora was seen at each hour of the +twenty-four during three expeditions in high latitudes when a special +outlook was kept. + +The data under A refer to Cape Thorsden (78° 28' N. lat., 15° 42' E. +long.), those under B to Jan Mayen (8) (71° 0' N. lat., 8° 28' W. +long.), both for the winter of 1882-1883. The data under C are given by +H. Arctowski (9) for the "Belgica" Expedition in 1898. They may be +regarded as applying approximately to the mean position of the +"Belgica," or 70½° S. lat., 86½° W. long. The method of counting +frequencies was fairly alike, at least in the case of A and B, but in +comparing the different stations the data should be regarded as relative +rather than absolute. The Jan Mayen data refer really to Göttingen mean +time, but this was only twenty-three minutes late on local time. In +calculating the percentages of forenoon and afternoon occurrences half +the entries under noon and midnight were assigned to each half of the +day. Even at Cape Thorsden, the sun at midwinter is only 11° below the +horizon at noon, and its effect on the visibility is thus not wholly +negligible. The influence of daylight is presumably the principal cause +of the difference between the phenomena during November, December and +January at Cape Thorsden and Jan Mayen, for in the equinoctial months +the results from these two stations are closely similar. Whilst daylight +is the principal cause of the diurnal inequality, it is not the only +cause, otherwise there would be as many auroras in the morning +(forenoon) as in the evening (afternoon). The number seen in the evening +is, however, according to Table III., considerably in excess at all +seasons. Taking the whole winter, the percentage seen in the evening was +the same for the "Belgica" as for Jan Mayen, i.e. for practically the +same latitudes South and North. At Cape Thorsden from November to +January there seems a distinct double period, with minima near noon and +midnight. The other months at Cape Thorsden show a single maximum and +minimum, the former before midnight. The same phenomenon appears at Jan +Mayen especially in November, December and January, and it is the normal +state of matters in temperate latitudes, where the frequency is usually +greatest between 8 and 10 P.M. An excess of evening over morning +occurrences is also the rule, and it is not infrequently more pronounced +than in Table III. Thus at Tasiusak (65° 37' N. lat., 37° 33' W. long.) +the Danish Arctic Expedition (10) of 1904 found seventy-five out of +every hundred occurrences to take place before midnight. + + + TABLE III.--_Diurnal Variation._ + + +-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+ + | | | |Feb., Mar.,|Sep. to Mar. (N. Lat.).| + | Hour. | Dec. |Nov. & Jan.|Sep. & Oct.|Mar. to Sep. (S. Lat.).| + | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+ + | | A | B | A | B | A | B | A | B | C | + +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+ + | 1 | 14 | 7 | 14 | 8 | 27 | 23 | 55 | 38 | 24 | + | 2 | 10 | 6 | 15 | 6 | 20 | 25 | 45 | 37 | 23 | + | 3 | 9 | 4 | 15 | 5 | 15 | 21 | 39 | 30 | 10 | + | 4 | 10 | 5 | 21 | 7 | 14 | 18 | 45 | 30 | 4 | + | 5 | 13 | 5 | 20 | 3 | 10 | 10 | 43 | 18 | 2 | + | 6 | 11 | 3 | 15 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 28 | 10 | 1 | + | 7 | 9 | 2 | 13 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 23 | 7 | 0 | + | 8 | 5 | 1 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 2 | 0 | + | 9 | 7 | 2 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 2 | 0 | + | 10 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 0 | 0 | + | 11 | 9 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 0 | 0 | + | Noon | 10 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 0 | + | 1 | 10 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 0 | 0 | + | 2 | 14 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 24 | 0 | 0 | + | 3 | 18 | 1 | 20 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 38 | 4 | 0 | + | 4 | 16 | 7 | 19 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 36 | 15 | 0 | + | 5 | 12 | 11 | 22 | 10 | 5 | 2 | 39 | 23 | 3 | + | 6 | 14 | 10 | 21 | 16 | 8 | 5 | 43 | 31 | 3 | + | 7 | 16 | 13 | 23 | 16 | 20 | 9 | 59 | 38 | 14 | + | 8 | 15 | 12 | 22 | 18 | 24 | 24 | 61 | 54 | 25 | + | 9 | 14 | 15 | 18 | 17 | 27 | 28 | 59 | 60 | 31 | + | 10 | 12 | 15 | 19 | 15 | 31 | 25 | 62 | 55 | 29 | + | 11 | 10 | 12 | 18 | 17 | 33 | 26 | 61 | 55 | 26 | + | Midnight | 9 | 9 | 13 | 11 | 28 | 22 | 50 | 42 | 26 | + +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+ + | Totals | 277 | 140 | 354 | 167 | 266 | 244 | 897 | 551 | 221 | + +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+ + |Percentages--| | | | | | | | | | + | Forenoon | 42 | 28 | 42 | 25 | 39 | 46 | 41 | 35 | 35 | + | Afternoon | 58 | 72 | 58 | 75 | 61 | 54 | 59 | 65 | 65 | + +-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+-------+ + + 8. The preceding remarks relate to auroras as a whole; the different + forms differ considerably in their diurnal variation. Arcs, bands and, + generally speaking, the more regular and persistent forms, show their + greatest frequencies earlier in the night than rays or patches. Table + IV. shows the percentages of e. (evening) and m. (morning) occurrences + of the principal forms as recorded by the Arctic observers at Cape + Thorsden, Jan Mayen and Tasiusak. + + + TABLE IV. + + +----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Arcs. | Bands. | Rays. | Patches. | + +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | e. | m. | e. | m. | e. | m. | e. | m. | + | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Cape Thorsden. | 76 | 24 | 66 | 34 | 52 | 48 | 51 | 49 | + | Jan Mayen. | 78 | 22 | 68 | 32 | 60 | 40 | 60 | 40 | + | Tasiusak | 85 | 15 | 85 | 15 | 65 | 35 | 62 | 38 | + +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + At Cape Thorsden diffused auroral light had percentages e. 65, m. 35, + practically identical with those for bands. At Tasiusak, 8 P.M. was + the hour of most frequent occurrence for arcs and bands, whereas + patches had their maximum frequency at 11 P.M. and rays at midnight. + +9. _Lunar and other Periods._--The action of moonlight necessarily gives +rise to a true lunar period in the visibility of aurora. The extent to +which it renders aurora invisible depends, however, so much on the +natural brightness of the aurora--which depends on the time and the +place--and on the sharpness of the outlook kept, that it is difficult to +gauge it. Ekholm and Arrhenius (11) claim to have established the +existence of a true tropical lunar period of 27-32 days, and also of a +26-day period, or, as they make it, a 25.929-day period. A 26-day period +has also been derived by J. Liznar (12), after an elaborate allowance +for the disturbing effects of moonlight from the observations in +1882-1883 at Bossekop, Fort Rae and Jan Mayen. Neither of these periods +is universally conceded. The connexion between aurora and earth magnetic +disturbances renders it practically certain that if a 26-day or similar +period exists in the one phenomenon it exists also in the other, and of +the two terrestrial magnetism (q.v.) is probably the element least +affected by external complications, such as the action of moonlight. + +10. _Sun-spot Connexion._--The frequency of auroral displays is much +greater in some years than others. At most places the variation in the +frequency has shown a general similarity to that of sun-spots. Table V. +gives contemporaneous data for the frequency of sun-spots and of auroras +seen in Scandinavia. The sun-spot data prior to 1902 are from A. +Wolfer's table in the _Met. Zeitschrift_ for 1902, p. 195; the more +recent data are from his quarterly lists. All are observed frequencies, +derived after Wolf's method; maxima and minima are in heavy type. + +The auroral data are from Table E of Tromholt's catalogue (5), with +certain modifications. In Tromholt's yearly data the year commences with +July. This being inconvenient for comparison with sun-spots, use was +made of his monthly values to obtain corresponding data for years +commencing with January. The Tromholt-Schroeter data for Scandinavia as +a whole commenced with 1761; the figures for earlier years were obtained +by multiplying the data for Sweden by 1.356, the factor being derived by +comparing the figures for Sweden alone and for the whole of Scandinavia +from July 1761 to June 1783. + +In a general way Table V. warrants the conclusion that years of many +sun-spots are years of many auroras, and years of few sun-spots years of +few auroras; but it does not disclose any very definite relationship +between the two frequencies. The maxima and minima in the two phenomena +in a good many cases are not found in the same years. On the other hand, +there is absolute coincidence in a number of cases, some of them very +striking, as for instance the remarkably low minima of 1810 and 1823. + + 11. During the period 1764 to 1872 there have been ten years of + maximum, and ten of minimum, in sun-spot frequency. Taking the three + years of greatest frequency at each maximum, and the three years of + least frequency at each minimum, we get thirty years of many and + thirty of few sun-spots. Also we can split the period into an earlier + half, 1764 to 1817, and a later half, 1818 to 1872, containing + respectively the earlier five and the later five of the above groups + of sun-spot maximum and minimum years. The annual means derived from + the whole group, and the two sub-groups, of years of many and few + sun-spots are as follows:-- + + +-----------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+ + | | 1764-1872. | 1764-1817. | 1818-1872. | + | Years of +--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+ + | | Spots. | Auroras.| Spots. | Auroras.| Spots. | Auroras.| + +-----------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+ + | Many sun-spots. | 93.4 | 99.9 | 86.7 | 70.7 | 100.1 | 129.1 | + | Few " | 13.4 | 61.5 | 13.6 | 51.6 | 13.1 | 71.3 | + +-----------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+---------+ + + In each case the excess of auroras in the group of years of many + sun-spots is decided, but the results from the two sub-periods do not + harmonize closely. The mean sun-spot frequency for the group of years + of few sun-spots is almost exactly the same for the two sub-periods, + but the auroral frequency for the later group is nearly 40% in excess + of that for the earlier, and even exceeds the auroral frequency in + the years of many sun-spots in the earlier sub-period. This + inconsistency, though startling at first sight, is probably more + apparent than real. It is almost certainly due in large measure to a + progressive change in one or both of the units of frequency. In the + case of sun-spots, A. Schuster (13) has compared J.R. Wolf and A. + Wolfer's frequencies with data obtained by other observers for areas + of sun-spots, and his figures show unquestionably that the unit in one + or other set of data must have varied appreciably from time to time. + Wolf and Wolfer have, however, aimed persistently at securing a + definite standard, and there are several reasons for believing that + the change of unit has been in the auroral rather than the sun-spot + frequency. R. Rubenson (14), from whom Tromholt derives his data for + Sweden, seems to accept this view, assigning the apparent increase in + auroral frequency since 1860 to the institution by the state of + meteorological stations in 1859, and to the increased interest taken + in the subject since 1865 by the university of Upsala. The figures + themselves in Table V. certainly point to this conclusion, unless we + are prepared to believe that auroras have increased enormously in + number. If, for instance, we compare the first and the last three + 11-year cycles for which Table V. gives complete data, we obtain as + yearly means:-- + + 1749-1781 Sun-spots 56.4 Auroras 77.5 + 1844-1876 " 55.8 " 112.2 + + The mean sun-spot frequencies in the two periods differ by only 1%, + but the auroral frequency in the later period is 45% in excess of that + in the earlier. + + The above figures would be almost conclusive if it were not for the + conspicuous differences that exist between the mean sun-spot + frequencies for different 11-year periods. Schuster, who has + considered the matter very fully, has found evidence of the existence + of other periods--notably 8.4 and 4.8 years--in addition to the + recognized period of 11.125 years, and he regards the difference + between the maxima in successive 11-year periods as due at least + partly to an overlapping of maxima from the several periodic terms. + This cannot, however, account for all the fluctuations observed in + sun-spot frequencies, unless other considerably longer periods exist. + There has been at least one 33-year period during which the mean value + of sun-spot frequency has been exceptionally low, and, as we shall + see, there was a corresponding remarkable scarcity of auroras. The + period in question may be regarded as extending from 1794 to 1826 + inclusive. Comparing it with the two adjacent periods of thirty-three + years, we obtain the following for the mean annual frequencies:-- + + +-----------------+------------+----------+ + | 33-Year Period. | Sun-spots. | Auroras. | + +-----------------+------------+----------+ + | 1761-1793 | 65.6 | 76.1 | + | 1794-1826 | 20.3 | 39.5 | + | 1827-1859 | 56.1 | 84.4 | + +-----------------+------------+----------+ + + 12. The association of high auroral and sun-spot frequencies shown in + Table V. is not peculiar to Scandinavia. It is shown, for instance, in + Loomis's auroral data, which are based on observations at a variety of + European and American stations (_Ency. Brit._ 9th ed. art. + METEOROLOGY, Table XXVIII.). It does not seem, however, to apply + universally. Thus at Godthaab we have, according to Adam Paulsen (15), + comparing 3-year periods of few and many sun-spots:-- + + +----------------+----------------+--------------+ + | 3-Year Period. | Total Sun-spot | Total Nights | + | | Frequency. | of Aurora. | + +----------------+----------------+--------------+ + | 1865-1868 | 48 | 274 | + | 1869-1872 | 339 | 138 | + | 1876-1879 | 23 | 273 | + +----------------+----------------+--------------+ + + The years start in the autumn, and 1865-1868 includes the three + winters of 1865 to '66, '66 to '67, and '67 to '68. Paulsen also gives + data from two other stations in Greenland, viz. Ivigtut (1869 to 1879) + and Jakobshavn (1873 to 1879), which show the same phenomenon as at + Godthaab in a prominent fashion. Greenland lies to the north of + Fritz's curve of maximum auroral frequency, and the suggestion has + been made that the zone of maximum frequency expands to the south as + sun-spots increase, and contracts again as they diminish, the number + of auroras at a given station increasing or diminishing as the zone of + maximum frequency approaches to or recedes from it. This theory, + however, does not seem to fit all the facts and stands in want of + confirmation. + + + TABLE V. + + +-------+----------------------++-------+----------------------+ + | | Frequency. || | Frequency. | + | Year. +----------------------++ Year. +----------------------+ + | | Sun-spot. | Auroral. || | Sun-spot. | Auroral. | + +-------+-----------+----------++-------+-----------+----------+ + | 1749 | 80.9 | 103 || 1829 | 67.0 | 93 | + | 1750 | 83.4 | 134 || 1830 | 71.0 | 132 | + | 1751 | 47.7 | 53 || 1831 | 47.8 | 89 | + | 1752 | 47.8 | 111 || 1832 | 27.5 | 54 | + | 1753 | 30.7 | 96 || 1833 | 8.5 | 79 | + | 1754 | 12.2 | 65 || 1834 | 13.2 | 81 | + | 1755 | 9.6 | 34 || 1835 | 56.9 | 58 | + | 1756 | 10.2 | 60 || 1836 | 121.5 | 98 | + | 1757 | 32.4 | 83 || 1837 | 138.3 | 137 | + | 1758 | 47.6 | 80 || 1838 | 103.2 | 159 | + | 1759 | 54.0 | 113 || 1839 | 85.8 | 165 | + | 1760 | 62.9 | 86 || 1840 | 63.2 | 82 | + | 1761 | 85.9 | 124 || 1841 | 36.8 | 75 | + | 1762 | 61.2 | 114 || 1842 | 24.2 | 91 | + | 1763 | 45.1 | 89 || 1843 | 10.7 | 66 | + | 1764 | 36.4 | 107 || 1844 | 15.0 | 81 | + | 1765 | 20.9 | 76 || 1845 | 40.1 | 26 | + | 1766 | 11.4 | 51 || 1846 | 61.5 | 50 | + | 1767 | 37.8 | 68 || 1847 | 98.5 | 63 | + | 1768 | 69.8 | 80 || 1848 | 124.3 | 107 | + | 1769 | 106.1 | 89 || 1849 | 95.9 | 131 | + | 1770 | 100.8 | 83 || 1850 | 66.5 | 95 | + | 1771 | 81.6 | 62 || 1851 | 64.5 | 60 | + | 1772 | 66.5 | 38 || 1852 | 54.2 | 92 | + | 1773 | 34.8 | 58 || 1853 | 39.0 | 65 | + | 1774 | 30.6 | 98 || 1854 | 20.6 | 64 | + | 1775 | 7.0 | 33 || 1855 | 6.7 | 49 | + | 1776 | 19.8 | 17 || 1856 | 4.3 | 46 | + | 1777 | 92.5 | 64 || 1857 | 22.8 | 38 | + | 1778 | 154.4 | 59 || 1858 | 54.8 | 88 | + | 1779 | 125.9 | 60 || 1859 | 93.8 | 131 | + | 1780 | 84.8 | 67 || 1860 | 95.7 | 119 | + | 1781 | 68.1 | 103 || 1861 | 77.2 | 127 | + | 1782 | 38.5 | 67 || 1862 | 59.1 | 135 | + | 1783 | 22.8 | 70 || 1863 | 44.0 | 135 | + | 1784 | 10.2 | 78 || 1864 | 47.0 | 124 | + | 1785 | 24.1 | 83 || 1865 | 30.5 | 119 | + | 1786 | 82.9 | 136 || 1866 | 16.3 | 130 | + | 1787 | 132.0 | 115 || 1867 | 7.3 | 127 | + | 1788 | 130.9 | 97 || 1868 | 37.3 | 144 | + | 1789 | 118.1 | 89 || 1869 | 73.9 | 160 | + | 1790 | 89.9 | 90 || 1870 | 139.1 | 195 | + | 1791 | 66.6 | 54 || 1871 | 111.2 | 185 | + | 1792 | 60.0 | 64 || 1872 | 101.7 | 200 | + | 1793 | 46.9 | 29 || 1873 | 66.3 | 189 | + | 1794 | 41.0 | 37 || 1874 | 44.7 | 158 | + | 1795 | 21.3 | 34 || 1875 | 17.1 | 133 | + | 1796 | 16.0 | 37 || 1876 | 11.3 | 137 | + | 1797 | 6.4 | 61 || 1877 | 12.3 | 126 | + | 1798 | 4.1 | 35 || 1878 | 3.4 | .. | + | 1799 | 6.8 | 28 || 1879 | 6.0 | .. | + | 1800 | 14.5 | 30 || 1880 | 32.3 | .. | + | 1801 | 34.0 | 34 || 1881 | 54.3 | .. | + | 1802 | 45.0 | 65 || 1882 | 59.7 | .. | + | 1803 | 43.1 | 73 || 1883 | 63.7 | .. | + | 1804 | 47.5 | 101 || 1884 | 63.5 | .. | + | 1805 | 42.2 | 85 || 1885 | 52.2 | .. | + | 1806 | 28.1 | 62 || 1886 | 25.4 | .. | + | 1807 | 10.1 | 42 || 1887 | 13.1 | .. | + | 1808 | 8.1 | 20 || 1888 | 6.8 | .. | + | 1809 | 2.5 | 20 || 1889 | 6.3 | .. | + | 1810 | 0.0 | 4 || 1890 | 7.1 | .. | + | 1811 | 1.4 | 13 || 1891 | 35.6 | .. | + | 1812 | 5.0 | 11 || 1892 | 73.0 | .. | + | 1813 | 12.2 | 18 || 1893 | 84.9 | .. | + | 1814 | 13.9 | 17 || 1894 | 78.0 | .. | + | 1815 | 35.4 | 10 || 1895 | 64.0 | .. | + | 1816 | 45.8 | 33 || 1896 | 41.8 | .. | + | 1817 | 41.1 | 60 || 1897 | 26.2 | .. | + | 1818 | 30.4 | 74 || 1898 | 26.7 | .. | + | 1819 | 23.9 | 43 || 1899 | 12.1 | .. | + | 1820 | 15.7 | 62 || 1900 | 9.5 | .. | + | 1821 | 6.6 | 37 || 1901 | 2.7 | .. | + | 1822 | 4.0 | 33 || 1902 | 5.0 | .. | + | 1823 | 1.8 | 13 || 1903 | 24.4 | .. | + | 1824 | 8.5 | 14 || 1904 | 42.0 | .. | + | 1825 | 16.6 | 40 || 1905 | 62.8 | .. | + | 1826 | 36.3 | 58 || 1906 | 53.8 | .. | + | 1827 | 49.7 | 79 || 1907 | 62.0 | .. | + | 1828 | 62.5 | 60 || 1908 | 48.5 | .. | + +-------+-----------+----------++-------+-----------+----------+ + +13. _Auroral Meridian._--It is a common belief that the summit of an +auroral arc is to be looked for in the observer's magnetic meridian. On +any theory it would be rather extraordinary if this were invariably +true. In temperate latitudes auroral arcs are seldom near the zenith, +and there is reason to believe them at very great heights. In high +latitudes the average height is probably less, but the direction in +which the magnetic needle points changes rapidly with change of +latitude and longitude, and has a large diurnal variation. Thus there +must in general be a difference between the observer's magnetic +meridian--answering to the mean position of the magnetic needle at his +station--and the direction the needle would have at a given hour, if +undisturbed by the aurora, at any spot where the phenomena which the +observer sees as aurora exist. + + Very elaborate observations have been made during several Arctic + expeditions of the azimuths of the summits of auroral arcs. At Cape + Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth derived from 371 arcs was + 24° 12' W., or 11° 27' to the W. of the magnetic meridian. As to the + azimuths in individual cases, 130 differed from the mean by less than + 10°, 118 by from 10° to 20°, 82 by from 20° to 30°, 21 by from 30° to + 40°, 14 by from 40° to 50°; in six cases the departure exceeded 50°, + and in one case it exceeded 70°. Also, whilst the mean azimuths + deduced from the observations between 6 A.M. and noon, between noon + and 6 P.M., and between 6 P.M. and midnight, were closely alike, their + united mean being 22.4° W. of N. (or E. of S.), the mean derived from + the 113 arcs observed between midnight and 6 A.M. was 47.8° W. At Jan + Mayen (8) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth of the summit of the arcs was + 28.8° W. of N., thus approaching much more closely to the magnetic + meridian 29.9° W. As to individual azimuths, 113 lay within 10° of the + mean, 37 differed by from 10° to 20°, 18 by from 20° to 30°, 6 by from + 30° to 40°, whilst 6 differed by over 40°. Azimuths were also measured + at Jan Mayen for 338 auroral bands, the mean being 22.0° W., or 7.9° + to the east of the magnetic meridian. Combining the results from arcs + and bands, Carlheim-Gyllensköld gives the "anomaly" of the auroral + meridian at Jan Mayen as 5.7° E. At the British Polar station of 1882, + Fort Rae (62° 23' N. lat., 115° 44' W. long.), he makes it 15.7° W. At + Godthaab in 1882-1883 the auroral anomaly was, according to Paulsen, + 15.5° E., the magnetic meridian lying 57.6° W. of the astronomical. + +14. _Auroral Zenith._--Another auroral direction having apparently a +close relation to terrestrial magnetism is the imaginary line drawn to +the eye of an observer from the centre of the corona--i.e. the point to +which the auroral rays converge. This seems in general to be nearly +coincident with the direction of the dipping needle. + + Thus at Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 the mean of a considerable + number of observations made the angle between the two directions only + 1° 7', the magnetic inclination being 80° 35', whilst the coronal + centre had an altitude of 79° 55' and lay somewhat to the west of the + magnetic meridian. Even smaller mean values have been found for the + angle between the auroral and magnetic "zeniths"--as the two + directions have been called--e.g. 0° 50' at Bossekop (16) in + 1838-1839, and 0° 7' at Treurenberg (17) (79° 55' N. lat., 16° 51' E. + long.) in 1899-1900. + +15. _Relations to Magnetic Storms._--That there is an intimate connexion +between aurora when visible in temperate latitudes and terrestrial +magnetism is hardly open to doubt. A bright aurora visible over a large +part of Europe seems always accompanied by a magnetic storm and earth +currents, and the largest magnetic storms and the most conspicuous +auroral displays have occurred simultaneously. Noteworthy examples are +afforded by the auroras and magnetic storms of August 28-29 and +September 1-2, 1859; February 4, 1872; February 13-14 and August 12, +1892; September 9, 1898; and October 31, 1903. On some of these +occasions aurora was brilliant in both the northern and southern +hemispheres, whilst magnetic disturbances were experienced the whole +world over. In high latitudes, however, where both auroras and magnetic +storms are most numerous, the connexion between them is much less +uniform. Arctic observers, both Danish and British, have repeatedly +reported displays of aurora unaccompanied by any special magnetic +disturbance. This has been more especially the case when the auroral +light has been of a diffused character, showing only minor variability. +When there has been much apparent movement, and brilliant changes of +colour in the aurora, magnetic disturbance has nearly always accompanied +it. In the Arctic, auroral displays seem sometimes to be very local, and +this may be the explanation. On the other hand, Arctic observers have +reported an apparent connexion of a particularly definite character. +According to Paulsen (18), during the Ryder expedition in 1891-1892, the +following phenomenon was seen at least twenty times by Lieut. Vedel at +Scoresby Sound (70° 27' N. lat., 26° 10' W. long.). An auroral curtain +travelling with considerable velocity would approach from the south, +pass right overhead and retire to the north. As the curtain approached, +the compass needle always deviated to the west, oscillated as the +curtain passed the zenith, and then deviated to the east. The behaviour +of the needle, as Paulsen points out, is exactly what it should be if +the space occupied by the auroral curtain were traversed by electric +currents directed upwards from the ground. The Danish observers at +Tasiusak (10) in 1898-1899 observed this phenomenon occasionally in a +slightly altered form. At Tasiusak the auroral curtain after reaching +the zenith usually retired in the direction from which it had come. The +direction in which the compass needle deviated was west or east, +according as the curtain approached from the south or the north; as the +curtain retired the deviation eventually diminished. + + Kr. Birkeland (19). who has made a special study of magnetic + disturbances in the Arctic, proceeding on the hypothesis that they + arise from electric currents in the atmosphere, and who has thence + attempted to deduce the position and intensity of these currents, + asserts that whilst in the case of many storms the data were + insufficient, when it was possible to fix the position of the mean + line of flow of the hypothetical current relatively to an auroral arc, + he invariably found the directions coincident or nearly so. + +16. In the northern hemisphere to the south of the zone of greatest +frequency, the part of the sky in which aurora most generally appears is +the magnetic north. In higher latitudes auroras are most often seen in +the south. The relative frequency in the two positions seems to vary +with the hour, the type of aurora, probably with the season of the year, +and possibly with the position of the year in the sun-spot cycle. + + At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882-1883, out of 177 arcs whose position was + accurately determined, 44 were seen in the north, their summits + averaging 38.5° above the northern horizon; 88 were seen in the south, + their average altitude above the southern horizon being 33.5°; while + 45 were in the zenith. At Tasiusak (10) in 1898-1899 the magnetic + directions of the principal types were noted separately. The results + are given in Table VI. + + + TABLE VI. + + +--------+----------------------------------------------+------------+ + | Direc- | Absolute Number for each Type. | Percentage | + | tion. +-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+ from all | + | | Arcs. | Bands. | Curtains. | Rays. | Patches.| Types. | + +--------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+------------+ + | N. | 9 | 16 | 5 | 15 | 4 | 10 | + | N.E. | 9 | 13 | 2 | 20 | 4 | 9 | + | E. | 3 | 11 | 2 | 26 | 3 | 9 | + | S.E. | 5 | 6 | 1 | 10 | 7 | 6 | + | S. | 45 | 43 | 1 | 16 | 15 | 24 | + | S.W. | 9 | 9 | 2 | 12 | 13 | 9 | + | W. | 3 | 11 | 2 | 22 | 6 | 9 | + | N.W. | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 5 | 5 | + +--------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+---------+------------+ + +Table VI. accounts for only 81% of the total displays; of the remainder +15% appeared in the zenith, while 4% covered the whole sky. Auroral +displays generally cover a considerable area, and are constantly +changing, so the figures are necessarily somewhat rough. But clearly, +whilst the arcs and bands, and to a lesser extent the patches, showed a +marked preference for the magnetic meridian, the rays showed no such +preference. + + At Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 auroras as a whole were divided into + those seen in the north and those seen in the south. The variation + throughout the twenty-four hours in the percentage seen in the south + was as follows:-- + + +--------+------+------+------+-------+ + | Hour. | 0-3. | 3-6. | 6-9. | 9-12. | + +--------+------+------+------+-------+ + | A.M. | 69 | 55 | 44 | 35 | + | P.M. | 55 | 70 | 65 | 65 | + +--------+------+------+------+-------+ + + The mean from the whole twenty-four hours is sixty-three. Between 3 + A.M. and 3 P.M. the percentage of auroras seen in the south thus + appears decidedly below the mean. + + 17. The following data for the apparent angular width of arcs were + obtained at Cape Thorsden, the arcs being grouped according to the + height of the lower edge above the horizon. Group I. contained thirty + arcs whose altitudes did not exceed 11° 45'; Group II. thirty arcs + whose altitudes lay between 12° and 35°; and Group III, thirty arcs + whose altitudes lay between 36° and 80°. + + +-----------------+--------+--------+----------+ + | Group. | I. | II. | III. | + +-----------------+--------+--------+----------+ + | Greatest width | 11.5° | 12.0° | 21.0° | + | Least " | 1.0° | 0.75° | 2.0° | + | Mean " | 3.45° | 4.6° | 6.9° | + +-----------------+--------+--------+----------+ + + There is here a distinct tendency for the width to increase with the + altitude. At the same time, arcs near the horizon often appeared wider + than others near the zenith. Furthermore, Gyllensköld says that when + arcs mounted, as they not infrequently did, from the horizon, their + apparent width might go on increasing right up to the zenith, or it + might increase until an altitude of about 45° was reached and then + diminish, appearing much reduced when the zenith was reached. Of + course the phenomenon might be due to actual change in the arc, but it + is at least consistent with the view that arcs are of two kinds, one + form constituting a layer of no great vertical depth but considerable + real horizontal width, the other form having little horizontal width + but considerable vertical depth, and resembling to some extent an + auroral curtain. + + 18. According to numerous observations made at Cape Thorsden, the + apparent angular velocity of arcs increases on the average with their + altitude. Dividing the whole number of arcs, 156, whose angular + velocities were measured into three numerically equal groups, + according to their altitude, the following were the results in minutes + of arc per second of time (or degrees per minute of time):-- + + +-------------------+-------+--------+--------+------+ + | Group. | I. | II. | III. | All. | + +-------------------+-------+--------+--------+------+ + | Mean altitude | 10.5° | 34.6° | 72.3° | .. | + | Greatest velocity | 4.81 | 15.12 | 109.09 | .. | + | Mean velocity | 0.48 | 2.42 | 8.67 | 3.86 | + +-------------------+-------+--------+--------+------+ + + Each group contained auroras which appeared stationary. The intervals + to which the velocities referred were usually from five to ten + minutes, but varied widely. The velocity 109.09 was much the largest + observed, the next being 52.38; both were from observations lasting + under half a minute. + + 19. In 1882-1883 the direction of motion of arcs was from north to + south in 62% of the cases at Jan Mayen, and in 58% of the cases at + Cape Thorsden. This seems the more common direction in the northern + hemisphere, at least for stations to the south of the zone of maximum + frequency, but a considerable preponderance of movements towards the + north was observed in Franz Joseph Land by the Austrian Expedition of + 1872-1874. The apparent motion of arcs is sometimes of a complicated + character. One end only, for example, may appear to move, as if + rotating round the other; or the two ends may move in opposite + directions, as if the arc were rotating about a vertical axis through + its summit. + +20. _Height._--If an auroral arc represented a definite self-luminous +portion of space of small transverse dimensions at a uniform height +above the ground, its height could be accurately determined by +observations made with theodolites at the two ends of a measured base, +provided the base were not too short compared to the height. If a very +long base is taken, it becomes increasingly open to doubt whether the +portions of space emitting auroral light to the observers at the two +ends are the same. There is also difficulty in ensuring that the +observations shall be simultaneous, an important matter especially when +the apparent velocity is considerable. If the base is short, definite +results can hardly be hoped for unless the height is very moderate. +Amongst the best-known theodolite determinations of height are those +made at Bossekop in Norway by the French Expedition of 1838-1839 (16) +and the Norwegian Expedition of 1882-1883, and those made in the latter +year by the Swedes at Cape Thorsden and the Danes at Godthaab. At +Bossekop and Cape Thorsden there were a considerable proportion of +negative or impossible parallaxes. Much the most consistent results were +those obtained at Godthaab by Paulsen (15). The base was 5.8 km. (about +3½ miles) long, the ends being in the same magnetic meridian, on +opposite sides of a fiord, and observations were confined to this +meridian, strict simultaneity being secured by signals. Heights were +calculated only when the observed parallax exceeded 1°, but this +happened in three-fourths of the cases. The calculated heights--all +referring to the lowest border of the aurora--varied from 0.6 to 67.8 +km. (about 0.4 to 42 m.), the average being about 20 km. (12 m.). +Regular arcs were selected in most cases, but the lowest height obtained +was for a collection of rays forming a curtain which was actually +situated between the two stations. + + In 1885 Messrs Garde and Eherlin made similar observations at + Nanortalik near Cape Farewell in Greenland, but using a base of only + 1250 metres (about ¾ m.). Their results were very similar to + Paulsen's. On one occasion twelve observations, extending over half an + hour, were made on a single arc, the calculated heights varying in a + fairly regular fashion from 1.6 to 12.9 km. (about 1 to 8 m.). The + calculated horizontal distances of this arc varied between 5 and 24 + km. (about 3 and 15 m.), the motion being sometimes towards, sometimes + away from the observers, but not apparently exceeding 3 km. (nearly 2 + m.) per minute. Heights of arcs have often been calculated from the + apparent altitudes at stations widely apart in Europe or America. The + heights calculated in this way for the under surface of the arc, have + usually exceeded 100 m.; some have been much in excess of this figure. + None of the results so obtained can be accepted without reserve, but + there are several reasons for believing that the average height in + Greenland is much below that in lower latitudes. Heights have been + calculated in various less direct ways, by observing for instance the + angular altitude of the summit of an arc and the angular interval + between its extremities, and then making some assumption such as that + the portion visible to an observer may be treated as a circle whose + centre lies over the so-called auroral pole. The mean height + calculated at Arctic stations, where careful observations have been + made, in this or analogous ways, has varied from 58 km. (about 36 m.) + at Cape Thorsden (Gyllensköld) to 227 km. (about 141 m.) at Bossekop + (Bravais). The height has also been calculated on the hypothesis that + auroral light has its source where the atmospheric pressure is similar + to that at which most brilliancy is observed when electric discharges + pass in vacuum tubes. Estimates on this basis have suggested heights + of the order of 50 km. (about 31 m.). There are, of course, many + uncertainties, as the conditions of discharge in the free atmosphere + may differ widely from those in glass vessels. If the Godthaab + observations can be trusted, auroral discharges must often occur + within a few miles of the earth's surface in Arctic regions. In + confirmation of this view reference may be made to a number of + instances where observers--e.g. General Sabine, Sir John Franklin, + Prof. Selim Lemström, Dr David Walker (at Fort Kennedy in 1858-1859), + Captain Parry (Fort Bowen, 1825) and others--have seen aurora below + the clouds or between themselves and mountains. One or two instances + of this kind have even been described in Scotland. Prof. Cleveland + Abbe (20) has given a full historical account of the subject to which + reference may be made for further details. + + 21. _Brightness._--In auroral displays the brightness often varies + greatly over the illuminated area and changes rapidly. Estimates of + the intensity of the light have been based on various arbitrary + scales, such for instance as the size of type which the observer can + read at a given distance. The estimate depends in the case of reading + type on the general illumination. In other cases scales have been + employed which make the result mainly depend on the brightest part of + the display. At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882-1883 a scale was employed + running from 1, taken as corresponding to the brightness of the milky + way, to 4, corresponding to full moonlight. The following is an + analysis of the results obtained, showing the number of times the + different grades were reached:-- + + +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+ + | Scale of | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | Mean | + | Intensity. | | | | | Intensity. | + +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+ + | Arcs | 27 | 53 | 13 | 1 | 1.87 | + | Bands | 46 | 83 | 49 | 22 | 2.24 | + | Rays | 30 | 116 | 138 | 28 | 2.21 | + | Corona | 3 | 14 | 12 | 12 | 2.81 | + +------------+------+------+------+------+------------+ + + On one or two occasions at Jan Mayen auroral light is described as + making the full moon look like an ordinary gas jet in presence of + electric light, whilst rays could be seen crossing and brighter than + the moon's disk. Such extremely bright auroras seem very rare, + however, even in the Arctic. There is a general tendency for both + bands and rays to appear brightest at their lowest parts; arcs seldom + appear as bright at their summits as nearer the horizon. It is not + unusual for arcs and bands to look as if pulses or waves of light were + travelling along them; also the direction in which these pulses travel + does not seem to be wholly arbitrary. Movements to the east were twice + as numerous at Jan Mayen and thrice as numerous at Traurenberg as + movements to the west. In some cases changes of intensity take place + round the auroral zenith, simulating the effect that would be produced + by a cyclonic rotation of luminous matter. In the case of isolated + patches the intensity often waxes and wanes as if a search-light were + being thrown on and turned off. + +22. _Colour._--The ordinary colour of aurora is white, usually with a +distinct yellow tint in the brighter forms, but silvery white when the +light is faint. When the light is intense and changing rapidly, red is +not infrequently present, especially towards the lower edge. Under these +circumstances, green is also sometimes visible, especially towards the +zenith. Thus a bright auroral ray may seem red towards the foot and +green at its summit, with yellow intervening. In some cases the green +may be only a contrast effect. Other colours, e.g. violet, have +occasionally been noticed but are unusual. + +23. _Spectrum._--The spectrum of aurora consists of a number of lines. +Numerous measurements have been made of the wave-lengths of the +brightest. One line, in the yellow green, is so dominant optically as +often to be described as the auroral line. Its wave-length is probably +very near 5571 tenth-metres, and it is very close to, if not absolutely +coincident with, a prominent line in the spectrum of krypton. This line +is so characteristic that its presence or absence is the usual criterion +for deciding whether an atmospheric light is aurora. The Swedish +Expedition (17) of 1899-1902, engaged in measuring an arc of the meridian +in Spitsbergen, were unusually well provided spectrographically, and +succeeded in taking photographs of aurora in conjunction with artificial +lines--chiefly of hydrogen--which led to results claiming exceptional +accuracy. In the spectrograms three auroral rays--including the principal +one mentioned above--were pre-eminent. For the two shorter wave-lengths, +for whose measurement he claims the highest precision, the observer, J. +Westman, gives the values 4276.4 and 3913.5. In addition, he assigns +wave-lengths for 156 other auroral lines between wave-lengths 5205 and +3513. The following table gives the wave-lengths of the photographically +brightest of these, retaining four significant figures in place of +Westman's five. + + + TABLE VII. + + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | 4830 | 4489 | 4329 | 3997 | 3861 | + | 4709 | 4420 | 4242 | 3986 | 3804 | + | 4699 | 4371 | 4230 | 3947 | 3793 | + | 4661 | 4356 | 4225 | 3937 | 3704 | + | 4560 | 4344 | 4078 | 3880 | 3607 | + | 4550 | 4337 | 4067 | 3876 | 3589 | + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + +There are a number of optically bright lines of longer wave-length. For +the principal of these Angot (1) gives the following wave-lengths (unit +1 µµ or 1 × 10^(-9) metre):--630, 578, 566, 535, 523, 500. + +Out of a total of 146 auroral lines, with wave-lengths longer than 3684 +tenth-metres, Westman identifies 82 with oxygen or nitrogen lines at the +negative pole in vacuum discharges. Amongst the lines thus identified +are the two principal auroral lines having wave-lengths 4276.4 and +3913.5. The interval considered by Westman contains at least 300 oxygen +and nitrogen lines, so that approximate coincidence with a number of +auroral lines was almost inevitable, and an appreciable number of the +coincidences may be accidental. E.C.C. Baly (21), making use of the +observations of the Russian expedition in Spitsbergen in 1899, accepts +as the wave-lengths of the three principal auroral lines 5570, 4276 and +3912; and he identifies all three and ten other auroral lines ranging +between 5570 and 3707 with krypton lines measured by himself. In +addition to these, he mentions other auroral lines as very probably +krypton lines, but in their case the wave-lengths which he quotes from +Paulsen (22) are given to only three significant figures, so that the +identification is more uncertain. The majority of the krypton lines +which Baly identifies with auroral lines require for their production a +Leyden jar and spark gap. + + If, as is now generally believed, aurora represents some form of + electrical discharge, it is only reasonable to suppose that the + auroral lines arise from atmospheric gases. The conditions, however, + as regards pressure and temperature under which the hypothetical + discharges take place must vary greatly in different auroras, or even + sometimes in different parts of the same aurora. Further, auroras are + often possessed of rapid motion, so that conceivably spectral lines + may receive small displacements in accordance with Doppler's + principle. Thus the differences in the wave-lengths of presumably the + same lines as measured by different Arctic observers may be only + partly due to unfavourable observational conditions. Many of the + auroral lines seen in any single aurora are exceedingly faint, so that + even their relative positions are difficult to settle with high + precision. + + 24. Whether or not auroral displays are ever accompanied by a + characteristic sound is a disputed question. If sound waves originate + at the seat of auroral displays they seem hardly likely to be audible + on the earth, unless the aurora comes very low and great stillness + prevails. It is thus to the Arctic one looks for evidence. According + to Captain H.P. Dawson (26), in charge of the British Polar Station at + Fort Rae in 1882-1883, "The Indians and _voyageurs_ of the Hudson Bay + Company, who often pass their nights in the open, say that it [sound] + is not uncommon ... there can be no doubt that distinct sound does + occasionally accompany certain displays of aurora." On the one + occasion when Captain Dawson says he heard it himself, "the sound was + like the swishing of a whip or the noise produced by a sharp squall of + wind in the upper rigging of a ship, and as the aurora brightened and + faded so did the sound which accompanied it." If under these + conditions the sound was really due to the aurora, the latter, as + Captain Dawson himself remarks, must have been pretty close. + + 25. Usually the electric potential near the ground is positive + compared to the earth and increases with the height (see ATMOSPHERIC + ELECTRICITY). Several Arctic observers, however, especially Paulsen + (18) have observed a diminution of positive potential, or even a + change to negative, for which they could suggest no explanation except + the presence of a bright aurora. Other Arctic observers have failed to + find any trace of this phenomenon. If it exists, it is presumably + confined to cases when the auroral discharge comes unusually low. + + 26. _Artificial Phenomena resembling Aurora._--At Sodankylä, the + station occupied by the Finnish Arctic Expedition of 1882-1883, Selim + Lemström and Biese (23) described and gave drawings of optical + phenomena which they believed to be artificially produced aurora. A + number of metallic points, supported on insulators, were connected by + wires enclosing several hundred square metres on the top of a hill. + Sometimes a Holtz machine was employed, but even without it + illumination resembling aurora was seen on several occasions, + extending apparently to a considerable height. In the laboratory, Kr. + Birkeland (19) has produced phenomena bearing a striking resemblance + to several forms of aurora. His apparatus consists of a vacuum vessel + containing a magnetic sphere--intended to represent the earth--and the + phenomena are produced by sending electric discharges through the + vessel. + + 27. _Theories._--A great variety of theories have been advanced to + account for aurora. All or nearly all the most recent regard it as + some form of electrical discharge. Birkeland (19) supposes the + ultimate cause to be cathode rays emanating from the sun; C. Nordmann + (24) replaces the cathode rays by Hertzian waves; while Svante + Arrhenius (25) believes that negatively charged particles are driven + through the sun's atmosphere by the Maxwell-Bartoli repulsion of light + and reach the earth's atmosphere. For the size and density of + particles which he considers most likely, Arrhenius calculates the + time required to travel from the sun as forty-six hours. By modifying + the hypothesis as to the size and density, times appreciably longer or + shorter than the above would be obtained. Cathode rays usually have a + velocity about a tenth that of light, but in exceptional cases it may + approach a third of that of light. Hertzian waves have the velocity of + light itself. On either Birkeland's or Nordmann's theory, the electric + impulse from the sun acts indirectly by creating secondary cathode + rays in the earth's atmosphere, or ionizing it so that discharges due + to natural differences of potential are immensely facilitated. The + ionized condition must be supposed to last to a greater or less extent + for a good many hours to account for aurora being seen throughout the + whole night. The fact that at most places the morning shows a marked + decay of auroral frequency and intensity as compared to the evening, + the maximum preceding midnight by several hours, is certainly + favourable to theories which postulate ionization of the atmosphere by + some cause or other emanating from the sun. + + AUTHORITIES.--The following works are numbered according to the + references in the text:--(1) A. Angot, _Les Aurores polaires_ (Paris, + 1895); (2) H. Fritz, _Das Polarlicht_ (Leipzig, 1881); (3) Svante + August Arrhenius, _Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik_; (4) Joseph + Lovering, "On the Periodicity of the Aurora Borealis," _Mem. American + Acad._ vol. x. (1868); (5) Sophus Tromholt, _Catalog der in Norwegen + bis Juni 1878 beobachteten Nordlichter_; (6) _Observations + internationales polaires_ (1882-1883), _Expédition Danoise_, tome i. + "Aurores boréales"; (7) Carlheim-Gyllensköld, "Aurores boréales" in + _Observations faites au Cap Thorsden Spitzberg par l'expédition + suédoise_, tome ii. 1; (8) "Die Österreichische Polar Station Jan + Mayen" in _Die Internationale Polarforschung_, 1882-1883, Bd. ii. + Abth. 1; (9) Henryk Arctowski, "Aurores australes" in _Expédition + antarctique belge ... Voyage du S. Y. "Belgica"_; (10) G.C. Amdrup, + _Observations ... faites par l'expédition danoise_; H. Ravn, + _Observations de l'aurore boréale de Tasiusak_; (11) _K. Sven. + Vet.-Akad. Hand_. Bd. 31, Nos. 2, 3, &c.; (12) _Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. + Wiss._ (Vienna), Math. Naturw. Classe, Bd. xcvii. Abth. iia, 1888; + (13) _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1906, lxxvii. A, 141; (14) _Kongl. Sven. + Vet.-Akad. Hand._ Bd. 15, No. 5, Bd. 18, No. 1; (15) _Bull. Acad. Roy. + Danoise_, 1889, p. 67; (16) _Voyages ... pendant les années 1838, 1839 + et 1840 sur ... la Recherche_, "Aurores boréales," by MM. Lottin, + Bravais, &c.; (17) _Missions scientifiques ... au Spitzberg ... en + 1899-1902, Mission suédoise_, tome ii. VIII^e Section, C. "Aurores + boréales"; (18) _Bull. Acad. R. des Sciences de Danemark_, 1894, p. + 148; (19) Kr. Birkeland, _Expédition norvégienne 1899-1900 pour + l'étude des aurores boréales_ (Christiania, 1901); (20) _Terrestrial + Magnetism_, vol. iii. (1898), pp. 5, 53, 149; (21) _Astrophysical + Journal_, 1904, xix. p. 187; (22) _Rapports présentés au Congrès + International de Physique réuni à Paris_, 1900, iii. 438; (23) + _Expédition polaire finlandaise_ (1882-1884), tome iii.; (24) Charles + Nordmann, _Thèses présentées à la Faculté des Sciences de Paris_ + (1903); (25) _Terrestrial Magnetism_, vol. 10, 1905, p. 1; (26) + _Observations of the International Polar Expeditions 1882-1883 Fort + Rae_ ... by Capt. H.P. Dawson, R.A. (C. Ch.) + + + + +AURUNCI, the name given by the Romans to a tribe which in historical +times occupied only a strip of coast on either side of the Mons Massicus +between the Volturnus and the Liris, although it must at an earlier +period have extended over a considerably wider area. Their own name for +themselves in the 4th century B.C. was _Ausones_, and in Greek writers +we find the name _Ausonia_ applied to Latium and Campania (see Strabo v. +p. 247; Aristotle, _Pol._ iv. (vii.) 10; Dion. Hal. i. 72), while in the +Augustan poets (e.g. Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 795) it is used as one of +many synonyms for Italy. In history the tribe appears only for a brief +space, from 340 to 295 B.C. (Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. pp. 451, 463, 465), +and their struggle with the Romans ended in complete extermination; +their territory was parcelled out between the Latin colonies of Cales +(Livy viii. 16) and Suessa Aurunca (_id._ ix. 28) which took the place +of an older town called _Ausona_ (_id._ ix. 25; viii. 15), and the +maritime colonies Sinuessa (the older _Vescia_) and Minturnae (both in +295 B.C., Livy x. 21). The coin formerly attributed to Suessa Aurunca on +the strength of its supposed legend _Aurunkud_ has now been certainly +referred to Naples (see R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, 145, and +_Verner's law in Italy_, p. 78, where the change of s to r is +explained as probably due to the Latin conquest). Seeing that the tribe +was blotted out at the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., we can +scarcely wonder that no record of its speech survives; but its +geographical situation and the frequency of the _co_-suffix in that +strip of coast (besides _Aurunci_ itself we have the names _Vescia_, +_Mons Massicus_, _Marica_, _Glanica_ and _Caedicii_; see _Italic +Dialects_, pp. 283 f.) rank them beyond doubt with their neighbours the +Volsci (q.v.). (R. S. C.) + + + + +AUSCULTATION (from Lat. _auscultare_, to listen), a term in medicine, +applied to the method employed by physicians for determining, by the +sense of hearing, the condition of certain internal organs. The ancient +physicians appear to have practised a kind of auscultation, by which +they were able to detect the presence of air or fluids in the cavities +of the chest and abdomen. Still no general application of this method of +investigation was resorted to, or was indeed possible, till the advance +of the study of anatomy led to correct ideas regarding the locality, +structure and uses of the various organs of the body, and the +alterations produced in them by disease. In 1761 Leopold Auenbrugger +(1722-1809), a Viennese physician, published his _Inventum Novum_, +describing the art of percussion in reference more especially to +diseases of the chest. This consisted in tapping with the fingers the +surface of the body, so as to elicit sounds by which the comparative +resonance of the subjacent parts or organs might be estimated. +Auenbrugger's method attracted but little attention till the French +physician J.N. Corvisart (1755-1828) in 1808 demonstrated its great +practical importance, and then its employment in the diagnosis of +affections of the chest soon became general. Percussion was originally +practised in the manner above mentioned (_immediate percussion_), but +subsequently the method of _mediate percussion_ was introduced by P.A. +Piorry (1794-1879). It is accomplished by placing upon the spot to be +examined some solid substance, upon which the percussion strokes are +made with the fingers. For this purpose a thin oval piece of ivory +(called a _pleximeter_, or stroke-measurer) may be used, with a small +hammer; but one or more fingers of the left hand applied flat upon the +part answer equally well, and this is the method which most physicians +adopt. Percussion must be regarded as a necessary part of auscultation, +particularly in relation to the examination of the chest; for the +physician who has made himself acquainted with the normal condition of +that part of the body in reference to percussion is thus able to +recognize by the ear alterations of resonance produced by disease. But +percussion alone, however important in diagnosis, could manifestly +convey only limited and imperfect information, for it could never +indicate the nature or extent of functional disturbance. + +In 1819 the distinguished French physician R.T.H. Laënnec (1781-1826) +published his _Traité de L'auscultation médiate_, embodying the present +methods of auscultatory examination, and venturing definite conclusions +based on years of his own study. He also invented the stethoscope +([Greek: staethos], the breast, and [Greek: skopein], to examine). Since +then many men have widened the scope of auscultation, notably Skoda, +Wintrich, A. Geigel, Th. Weber and Gerhardt. According to Laënnec the +essential of a good stethoscope was its capability of intensifying the +tone vibrations. But since his time the opinion of experts on this +matter has somewhat changed, and there are now two definite schools. The +first and older condemns the resonating stethoscope, maintaining that +the tones are bound to be altered; the second and younger school warmly +advocates its use. In America, more than elsewhere, there is a type of +phonendoscope much used by the younger men, which has the advantage that +it can be used when the older type of instrument fails, viz. when the +patient is recumbent and too ill to be moved. By slipping it beneath the +patient's back a fairly accurate idea of the breathing over the bases of +the lungs behind can often be obtained. + +Stethoscopes have been made of many forms and materials. They usually +consist of a hollow stem of wood, hard rubber or metal, with an enlarged +tip slightly funnel-shaped at one end, and an ear-plate with a hole in +the middle, fastened perpendicularly to the other end. To enable the +instrument to be more conveniently carried, the ear-plate can be +unscrewed from the tube. The length of the stem of the instrument is of +minor importance, but its bore should be as nearly as possible that of +the entrance of the external ear. A flexible stethoscope in general use +both in England and America transmits the sound from a funnel through +tubes to the ears of the observer. This is the common form of a binaural +resonating stethoscope. It is convenient and gives a loud tone, but is +condemned by the older school, who say that the resonance is confusing, +and that the slightest movement in handling gives rise to perplexing +murmurs. Nevertheless, it is this form of instrument which has by far +the greatest vogue. It is probable, however, that the most skilled +physicians of all find a special use in each form, the monaural +non-resonating type being more sensitive to high-pitched sounds, and of +greater assistance in differentiating the sounds and murmurs of the +heart, the ordinary binaural form being more useful in examining the +lungs and other organs. In using the stethoscope, it must be applied +very carefully, so that the edge of the funnel makes an air-tight +connexion with the skin, and in the monaural form the ear must be but +lightly applied to the ear-plate, not pressing heavily on the patient. + +The numerous diseases affecting the lungs can now be recognized and +discriminated from each other with a precision which, but for +auscultation and the stethoscope, would have been altogether +unattainable. The same holds good in the case of the heart, whose varied +and often complex forms of disease can, by auscultation, be identified +with striking accuracy. But in addition to these its main uses, +auscultation is found to render great assistance in the investigation of +many obscure internal affections, such as aneurysms and certain diseases +of the oesophagus and stomach. To the accoucheur the stethoscope yields +valuable aid in the detection of some forms of uterine tumours, and +especially in the diagnosis of pregnancy--the only evidence now accepted +as absolutely diagnostic of that condition being the hearing of the +foetal heart sounds. + + + + +AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS (c. 310-395), Roman poet and rhetorician, was +born at Burdigala [_Bordeaux_]. He received an excellent education, +especially in grammar and rhetoric, but confesses that his progress in +Greek was unsatisfactory. Having completed his studies, he practised for +some time as an advocate, but his inclination lay in the direction of +teaching. He set up (in 334) a school of rhetoric in his native place, +which was largely attended, his most famous pupil being Paulinus, +afterwards bishop of Nola. After thirty years of this work, he was +summoned by Valentinian to the imperial court, to undertake the +education of Gratian, the heir-apparent. The prince always entertained +the greatest regard for his tutor, and after his accession bestowed upon +him the highest titles and honours, culminating in the consulship (379). +After the murder of Gratian (383), Ausonius retired to his estates near +Burdigala. He appears to have been a (not very enthusiastic) convert to +Christianity. He died about 395. + +His most important extant works are: in prose, _Gratiarum Actio_, an +address of thanks to Gratian for his elevation to the consulship; +_Periochae_, summaries of the books of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_; and +one or two _epistolae_; in verse, _Epigrammata_, including several free +translations from the Greek Anthology; _Ephemeris_, the occupations of +a day; _Parentalia_ and _Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium_, on +deceased relatives and literary friends; _Epitaphia_, chiefly on the +Trojan heroes; _Caesares_, memorial verses on the Roman emperors from +Julius Caesar to Elagabalus; _Ordo Nobilium Urbium_, short poems on +famous cities; _Ludus Septem Sapientum_, speeches delivered by the Seven +Sages of Greece; _Idyllia_, of which the best-known are the _Mosella_, a +descriptive poem on the Moselle, and the infamous _Cento Nuptialis_. We +may also mention _Cupido Cruciatus_, Cupid on the cross; +_Technopaegion_, a literary trifle consisting of a collection of verses +ending in monosyllables; _Eclogarum Liber_, on astronomical and +astrological subjects; _Epistolae_, including letters to Paulinus and +Symmachus; lastly, _Praefatiunculae_, three poetical epistles, one to +the emperor Theodosius. Ausonius was rather a man of letters than a +poet; his wide reading supplied him with material for a great variety of +subjects, but his works exhibit no traces of a true poetic spirit; even +his versification, though ingenious, is frequently defective. + + There are no MSS. containing the whole of Ausonius's works. Editio + princeps, 1472; editions by Scaliger 1575, Souchay 1730, Schenkl 1883, + Peiper 1886; cf. _Mosella_, Böcking 1845, de la Ville de Mirmont + (critical edition with translation) 1889, and _De Ausonii Mosella_, + 1892, Hosius 1894. See Deydou, _Un Poète bordelais_ (1868); Everat, + _De Ausonii Operibus_ (1885); Jullian, _Ausone et Bordeaux_ (1893); C. + Verrier and R. de Courmont, _Les Épigrammes d'Ausone_ (translation + with bibliography, 1905); R. Pichon, _Les Derviers Écrivains profanes_ + (1907). + + + + +AUSSIG (Czech _Oustí nad Labem_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 68 m. N. +of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 37,255, mostly German. It is situated in +a mountainous district, at the confluence of the Biela and the Elbe, +and, besides being an active river port, is an important junction of the +northern Bohemian railways. Aussig has important industries in +chemicals, textiles, glass and boat-building, and carries on an active +trade in coal from the neighbouring mines, stone and stoneware, corn, +fruit and wood. It was the birthplace of the painter, Raphael Mengs +(1728-1779). Aussig is mentioned as a trading centre as early as 993. It +was made a city by Ottokar II. in the latter part of the 13th century. +In 1423 it was pledged by King Sigismund to the elector Frederick of +Meissen, who occupied it with a Saxon garrison. In 1426 it was besieged +by the Hussites, who on the 16th of June, though only 25,000 strong, +defeated a German army of 70,000, which had been sent to its relief, +with great slaughter. The town was stormed and sacked next day. After +lying waste for three years, it was rebuilt in 1429. It suffered much +during the Thirty Years' and Seven Years' Wars, and in 1830 it had only +1400 inhabitants. Not far from Aussig is the village of Kulm, where, on +the 29th and 30th of August 1813, a battle took place between the French +under Vandamme and an allied army of Austrians, Prussians and Russians. +The French were defeated, and Vandamme surrendered with his army of +10,000 men. + + + + +AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817), English novelist, was born on the 16th of +December 1775 at the parsonage of Steventon, in Hampshire, a village of +which her father, the Rev. George Austen, was rector. She was the +youngest of seven children. Her mother was Cassandra Leigh, niece of +Theophilus Leigh, a dry humorist, and for fifty years master of Balliol, +Oxford. The life of no woman of genius could have been more uneventful +than Miss Austen's. She did not marry, and she never left home except on +short visits, chiefly to Bath. Her first sixteen years were spent in the +rectory at Steventon, where she began early to trifle with her pen, +always jestingly, for family entertainment. In 1801 the Austens moved to +Bath, where Mr Austen died in 1805, leaving only Mrs Austen, Jane and +her sister Cassandra, to whom she was always deeply attached, to keep up +the home; his sons were out in the world, the two in the navy, Francis +William and Charles, subsequently rising to admiral's rank. In 1805 the +Austen ladies moved to Southampton, and in 1809 to Chawton, near Alton, +in Hampshire, and there Jane Austen remained till 1817, the year of her +death, which occurred at Winchester, on July 18th, as a memorial window +in the cathedral testifies. + +During her placid life Miss Austen never allowed her literary work to +interfere with her domestic duties: sewing much and admirably, keeping +house, writing many letters and reading aloud. Though, however, her days +were quiet and her area circumscribed, she saw enough of middle-class +provincial society to find a basis on which her dramatic and humorous +faculties might build, and such was her power of searching observation +and her sympathetic imagination that there are not in English fiction +more faithful representations of the life she knew than we possess in +her novels. She had no predecessors in this genre. Miss Austen's "little +bit (two inches wide) of ivory" on which she worked "with so fine a +brush"--her own phrases--was her own invention. + +Her best-known, if not her best work, _Pride and Prejudice_, was also +her first. It was written between October 1796 and August 1797, +although, such was the blindness of publishers, not issued until 1813, +two years after _Sense and Sensibility_, which was written, on an old +scenario called "Eleanor and Marianne," in 1797 and 1798. Miss Austen's +inability to find a publisher for these stories, and for _Northanger +Abbey_, written in 1798 (although it is true that she sold that MS. in +1803 for £10 to a Bath bookseller, only, however, to see it locked away +in a safe for some years, to be gladly resold to her later), seems to +have damped her ardour; for there is no evidence that between 1798 and +1809 she wrote anything but the fragment called "The Watsons," after +which year she began to revise her early work for the press. Her other +three books belong to a later date--_Mansfield Park_, _Emma_ and +_Persuasion_ being written between 1811 and 1816. The years of +publication were _Sense and Sensibility_, 1811; _Pride and Prejudice_, +1813; _Mansfield Park_, 1814; and _Emma_, 1816--all in their author's +lifetime. _Persuasion_ and _Northanger Abbey_ were published +posthumously in 1818. All were anonymous, agreeably to their author's +retiring disposition. + +Although _Pride and Prejudice_ is the novel which in the mind of the +public is most intimately associated with Miss Austen's name, both +_Mansfield Park_ and _Emma_ are finer achievements--at once riper and +richer and more elaborate. But the fact that _Pride and Prejudice_ is +more single-minded, that the love story of Elizabeth Bennet and D'Arcy +is not only _of_ the book but _is_ the book (whereas the love story of +Emma and Mr Knightley and Fanny Price and Edmund Bertram have parallel +streams), has given _Pride and Prejudice_ its popularity above the +others among readers who are more interested by the course of romance +than by the exposition of character. Entirely satisfactory as is _Pride +and Prejudice_ so far as it goes, it is, however, thin beside the +niceness of analysis of motives in _Emma_ and the wonderful management +of two housefuls of young lovers that is exhibited in _Mansfield Park_. + +It has been generally agreed by the best critics that Miss Austen has +never been approached in her own domain. No one indeed has attempted any +close rivalry. No other novelist has so concerned herself or himself +with the trivial daily comedy of small provincial family life, +disdaining equally the assistance offered by passion, crime and +religion. Whatever Miss Austen may have thought privately of these +favourite ingredients of fiction, she disregarded all alike when she +took her pen in hand. Her interest was in life's little perplexities of +emotion and conduct; her gaze was steadily ironical. The most untoward +event in any of her books is Louisa's fall from the Cobb at Lyme Regis, +in _Persuasion_; the most abandoned, Maria's elopement with Crawford, in +_Mansfield Park_. In pure ironical humour Miss Austen's only peer among +novelists is George Meredith, and indeed _Emma_ may be said to be her +_Egoist_, or the _Egoist_ his _Emma_. But irony and fidelity to the fact +alone would not have carried her down the ages. To these gifts she +allied a perfect sense of dramatic progression and an admirably lucid +and flowing prose style which makes her stories the easiest reading. + +Recognition came to Miss Austen slowly. It was not until quite recent +times that to read her became a necessity of culture. But she is now +firmly established as an English classic, standing far above Miss Burney +(Madame d'Arblay) and Miss Edgeworth, who in her day were the popular +women novelists of real life, while Mrs Radcliffe and "Monk" Lewis, +whose supernatural fancies' _Northanger Abbey_ was written in part to +ridicule, are no longer anything but names. Although, however, she has +become only lately a household word, Miss Austen had always her +panegyrists among the best intellects--such as Coleridge, Tennyson, +Macaulay, Scott, Sydney Smith, Disraeli and Archbishop Whately, the last +of whom may be said to have been her discoverer. Macaulay, whose +adoration of Miss Austen's genius was almost idolatrous, considered +_Mansfield Park_ her greatest feat; but many critics give the palm to +_Emma_. Disraeli read _Pride and Prejudice_ seventeen times. Scott's +testimony is often quoted: "That young lady had a talent for describing +the involvements, feelings and characters of ordinary life which is to +me the most wonderful I have ever met with. The big bow-wow I can do +myself like any one going; but the exquisite touch which renders +commonplace things and characters interesting from the truth of the +description and the sentiment is denied to me." + + Many monographs on Miss Austen have been written, in addition to the + authorized _Life_ by her nephew J.E. Austen Leigh in 1870, and the + collection of her _Letters_ edited by Lord Brabourne in 1884. The + chief books on her and around her are _Jane Austen_, by S.F. Malden + (1889); _Jane Austen_, by Goldwin Smith (1890); _Jane Austen: Her + Contemporaries and Herself_, by W.H. Pollock; _Jane Austen: Her Homes + and Her Friends_, by Constance Hill (1902); _Jane Austen and Her + Times_, by G.E. Mitton (1905); _Jane Austen's Sailor Brothers_, by J + H. and E.C. Hubback (1906); and the essay on her in Lady Richmond + (Thackeray) Ritchie's _Book of Sibyls_ (1883). (E. V. L.) + + + + +AUSTERLITZ (Czech _Slavkov_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 15 m. +E.S.E. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 3145, mostly Czech. It contains a +magnificent palace belonging to the prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, and a +beautiful church. + +[Illustration: (map of Austerlitz battle site)] + +The great battle in which the French under Napoleon I. defeated the +Austrians and Russians on the 2nd of December 1805, was fought in the +country to the west of Austerlitz, the position of Napoleon's left wing +being almost equi-distant from Brünn and from Austerlitz. The wooded +hills to the northward throw out to the south and south-west long spurs, +between which are the low valleys of several rivers and brooks. The +scene of the most important fighting was the Pratzen plateau. The famous +"lakes" in the southern part of the field were artificial ponds, which +have long since been drained. On the west or Brünn side of the Goldbach +is another and lower ridge, which formed in the battle the first +position of the French right and centre. On the other wing is the mass +of hills from which the spurs and streams descend: here the Olmütz-Brünn +road passes. The road from Brunn to Vienna, Napoleon's presumed line of +retreat, runs in a southerly direction, and near the village of Raigern +(3 m. west of Monitz) is very close to the extreme right of the French +position, a fact which had a great influence on the course of the +battle. (The course of events which led to the action is described under +NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) Napoleon, falling back before the advance of the +allied Austrians and Russians from Olmütz, bivouacked west of the +Goldbach, whilst the allies, holding, near Austerlitz, the junction of +the roads from Olmutz and from Hungary, formed up in the valleys east of +the Pratzen heights. The cavalry of both sides remained inactive, +Napoleon's by express order, the enemy's seemingly from mere negligence, +since they had 177 squadrons at their disposal. Napoleon, having +determined to fight, as usual called up every available battalion; the +splendid III. corps of Davout only arrived upon the field after a heavy +march, late on the night of December 1st. The plan of the allies was to +attack Napoleon's right, and to cut him off from Vienna, and their +advanced guard began, before dark on the 1st of December, to skirmish +towards Telnitz. At that moment Napoleon was in the midst of his troops, +thousands of whom had made their bivouac-straw into torches in his +honour. The glare of these seemed to the allies to betoken the familiar +device of lighting fires previous to a retreat, and thus confirmed them +in the impression which Napoleon's calculated timidity had given. Thus +encouraged, those who desired an immediate battle soon gained the upper +hand in the councils of the tsar and the emperor Francis. The attack +orders for the 2nd of December (drawn up by the Austrian general +Weyrother, and explained by him to a council of superior officers, of +whom some were hostile, the greater part indifferent, and the chief +Russian member, General Kutusov, asleep) gave the five columns and the +reserve, into which the Austro-Russian army was organized, the following +tasks: the first and second (Russians) to move south-westward behind the +Pratzen ridge towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz; the third (Russian) to +cross the southern end of the plateau, and come into line on the right +of the first two; the fourth (Austrians and Russians under Kolowrat) on +the right of the third to advance towards Kobelnitz. An Austrian +advanced guard preceded the 1st and 2nd columns. Farther still on the +right the 5th column (cavalry under Prince John of Liechtenstein) was to +hold the northern part of the plateau, south of the Brunn-Olmutz road; +across the road itself was the corps of Prince Bagration, and in rear of +Liechtenstein's corps was the reserve (Russians under the grand-duke +Constantine). Thus, the farther the four main columns penetrated into +the French right wing, the wider would the gap become between Bagration +and Kolowrat, and Liechtenstein's squadrons could not form a serious +obstacle to a heavy attack of Napoleon's centre. The whole plan was +based upon defective information and preconceived ideas; it has gone +down to history as a classical example of bad generalship, and its +author Weyrother, who was perhaps nothing worse than a pedant, as a +charlatan. + +Napoleon, on the other hand, with the exact knowledge of the powers of +his men, which was the secret of his generalship, entrusted nearly half +of his line of battle to a division (Legrand's) of Soult's corps, which +was to be supported by Davout, some of whose brigades had marched, from +Vienna, 90 m. in forty-eight hours. But the ground which this thin line +was to hold against three columns of the enemy was marshy and densely +intersected by obstacles, and the III. corps was the best in the _Grande +Armée_, while its leader was perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon's +marshals. The rest of the army formed in the centre and left. "Whilst +they march to turn my right," said Napoleon in the inspiriting +proclamation which he issued on the eve of the battle, "they present me +their flank," and the great counterstroke was to be delivered against +the Pratzen heights by the French centre. This was composed of Soult's +corps, with Bernadotte's in second line. On the left, around the hill +called by the French the Santon (which was fortified) was Lannes' corps, +supported by the cavalry reserve under Murat. The general reserve +consisted of the Guard and Oudinot's grenadiers. + +The attack of the allies was begun by the first three columns, which +moved down from their bivouacs behind the Pratzen plateau before dawn on +the 2nd, towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz. The Austrian advanced guard +engaged at daybreak, and the French in Telnitz made a vigorous defence; +both parties were reinforced, and Legrand drew upon himself, in +fulfilling his mission, the whole weight of the allied attack. The +contest was long and doubtful, but the Russians gradually drove back +Legrand and a part of Davout's corps; numerous attacks both of infantry +and cavalry were made, and by the successive arrival of reinforcements +each side in turn received fresh impetus. Finally, at about 10 A.M., the +allies were in possession of the villages on the Goldbach from Sokolnitz +southwards, and Davout's line of battle had reformed more than a mile to +rearward, still, however, maintaining touch with the French centre on +the Goldbach at Kobelnitz. Between the two lines the fighting continued +almost to the close of the battle. With 12,500 men of all arms the +Marshal held in front of him over 40,000 of the enemy. + +In the centre, the defective arrangements of the allied staff had +delayed the 4th column (Kolowrat), the line of march of which was +crossed by Liechtenstein's cavalry moving in the opposite direction. The +objective of this column was Kobelnitz, and the two emperors and Kutusov +accompanied it. The delay had, however, opened a gap between Kolowrat +and the 3rd column on his left; and towards this gap, and the denuded +Pratzen plateau, Napoleon sent forward St Hilaire's division of Soult's +corps for the decisive attack. Kutusov was pursuing this march to the +south-west when he was surprised by the swift advance of Soult's men on +the plateau itself. Napoleon had here double the force of the allies; +Kutusov, however, displayed great energy, changed front to his right and +called up his reserves. The French did not win the plateau without a +severe struggle. St Hilaire's (the right centre) division was fiercely +engaged by Kolowrat's column, General Miloradovich opposed the left +centre attack under Vandamme, but the French leaders were two of the +best fighting generals in their army. The rearmost troops of the Russian +2nd column, not yet committed to the fight on the Goldbach, made a bold +counter stroke against St Hilaire's right flank, but were repulsed, and +Soult now turned to relieve the pressure on Davout by attacking +Sokolnitz. The Russians in Sokolnitz surrendered, an opportune cavalry +charge further discomfited the allied left, and the Pratzen plateau was +now in full possession of the French. Even the Russian Guard failed to +shake Vandamme's hold. In the meanwhile Lannes and Murat had been +engaged in the defence of the Santon. Here the allied leaders displayed +the greatest vigour, but they were unable to drive back the French. The +cavalry charges in this quarter are celebrated in the history of the +mounted arm; and Kellermann, the hero of Marengo, won fresh laurels +against the cavalry of Liechtenstein's command. The French not only held +their ground, but steadily advanced and eventually forced back the +allies on Austerlitz, thereby barring their retreat on Olmütz. The last +serious attempt of the allies in the centre led to some of the hardest +fighting of the day; the Russian Imperial Guard under the grand-duke +Constantine pressed closely upon St Hilaire and Vandamme on the plateau, +and only gave way when the French Guard and the Grenadiers came into +action. After the "Chevalier Guards" had been routed by Marshal +Bessières and the Guard cavalry, the allies had no more hope of victory; +orders had already been sent to Buxhöwden, who commanded the three +columns engaged against Davout, to retreat on Austerlitz. No further +attempt was made on the plateau, which was held by the French from +Pratzen to the Olmütz road. The allied army was cut in two, and the last +confused struggle of the three Russian columns on the Goldbach was one +for liberty only. The fighting in Telnitz was perhaps the hardest of the +whole battle, but the inevitable retreat, every part of which was now +under the fire of the French on the plateau, was terribly costly. Soult +now barred the way to Austerlitz, and the allies turned southward +towards Satschan. As they retreated, the ice of the Satschan pond was +broken up by the French artillery, and many of the fugitives were +drowned. In the twelve hours from 7 A.M. to nightfall, the 65,000 French +troops had lost 6800 men, or about 10%; the allies (82,500 engaged) had +12,200 killed and wounded, and left in the enemy's hands 15,000 +prisoners (many wounded) and 133 guns. + + + + +AUSTIN, ALFRED (1835- ), English poet-laureate, was born at Headingley, +near Leeds, on the 30th of May 1835. His father, Joseph Austin, was a +merchant of the city of Leeds; his mother, a sister of Joseph Locke, +M.P. for Honiton. Mr Austin was educated at Stonyhurst, Oscott, and +London University, where he graduated in 1853. He was called to the bar +four years later, and practised as a barrister for a short time; but in +1861, after two comparatively false starts in poetry and fiction, he +made his first noteworthy appearance as a writer with a satire called +_The Season_, which contained incisive lines, and was marked by some +promise both in wit and observation. In 1870 he published a volume of +criticism, _The Poetry of the Period_, which was again conceived in a +spirit of satirical invective, and attacked Tennyson, Browning, Matthew +Arnold and Swinburne in no half-hearted fashion. The book aroused some +discussion at the time, but its judgments were extremely uncritical. In +1881 Mr Austin returned to verse with a tragedy, _Savonarola_, to which +he added _Soliloquies_ in 1882, _Prince Lucifer_ in 1887, _England's +Darling_ in 1896, _The Conversion of Winckelmann_ in 1897, &c. A keen +Conservative in politics, for several years he edited _The National +Review_, and wrote leading articles for _The Standard_. On Tennyson's +death in 1892 it was felt that none of the then living poets, except +Swinburne or William Morris, who were outside consideration on other +grounds, was of sufficient distinction to succeed to the laurel crown, +and for several years no new poet-laureate was nominated. In the +interval the claims of one writer and another were much canvassed, but +eventually, in 1896, Mr Austin was appointed. As poet-laureate, his +occasional verses did not escape adverse criticism; his hasty poem in +praise of the Jameson Raid in 1896 being a notable instance. The most +effective characteristic of Mr Austin's poetry, as of the best of his +prose, is a genuine and intimate love of nature. His prose idylls, _The +Garden that I love_ and _In Veronica's Garden_, are full of a pleasant, +open-air flavour, which is also the outstanding feature of his _English +Lyrics_. His lyrical poems are wanting in spontaneity and individuality, +but many of them possess a simple, orderly charm, as of an English +country lane. He has, indeed, a true love of England, sometimes not +without a suspicion of insularity, but always fresh and ingenuous. A +drama by him, _Flodden Field_, was acted at His Majesty's theatre in +1903. + + + + +AUSTIN, JOHN (1790-1859), English jurist, was born on the 3rd of March +1790. His father was the owner of flour mills at Ipswich and in the +neighbourhood, and was in good circumstances. John was the eldest of +five brothers. One of his brothers, Charles (1799-1874), obtained great +distinction at the bar. John Austin entered the army at a very early +age; he is said to have been only sixteen. He served with his regiment +under Lord William Bentinck in Malta and Sicily. He seems to have liked +his profession, and to have joined in the amusements and even in the +follies of his brother officers. Yet it appears from a journal kept by +him at the time that he occupied himself with studies of a far more +serious kind than is common amongst young officers in the army. He notes +having read in the course of one year Dugald Stewart's _Philosophical +Essays_, Drummond's _Academical Questions_, Enfield's _History of +Philosophy_, and Mitford's _History of Greece_, and upon all of these he +makes observations which disclose much thought and a capacity for +criticism which must have come from extensive reading elsewhere. The +prevailing note of this journal is one of bitter self-depreciation. He +says in it that the retrospect of the past year (1811) "has hardly given +rise to one single feeling of satisfaction," and farther on he says that +"indolence, always the prominent vice of my character," has "assumed +over me an empire I almost despair of shaking off." It is difficult to +believe that a man only just of age, whose serious reading consisted of +such books, and who (as appears from the same journal) was in the habit +of turning to the classics as an alternative, could have deserved the +reproach of indolence. + +In 1812, he resigned his commission in the army, and returned home. He +then began to read law in the chambers of a barrister. He was called to +the bar in the year 1818, and joined the Norfolk circuit, but he never +obtained any large practice, and he finally retired from the bar in +1825. In 1819 he married Sarah Taylor (see AUSTIN, SARAH). + +Although Austin had failed to attain success at the bar it was not long +before he had an opportunity of exercising his abilities and in a manner +peculiarly suited to his particular turn of mind. In 1826 a number of +eminent men were engaged in the foundation of University College, and it +was determined to establish in it a chair of jurisprudence. This chair +was offered to Austin and he agreed to accept it. As he was not called +upon to begin his lectures immediately, he resolved to proceed to +Germany in order to prepare himself for his duties by studying the +method of legal teaching pursued at German universities. He resided +first at Heidelberg, and afterwards at Bonn, where he lived on terms of +intimacy with such distinguished lawyers as Savigny and K.J.A. +Mittermaier; and such eminent men of letters as Niebuhr, Brandis, +Schlegel and A.W. Heffter. He began lecturing in 1828, and at first was +not without encouragement. His class was a peculiarly brilliant one. It +included a number of men who afterwards became eminent in law, politics +and philosophy--Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Charles Buller, Charles +Villiers, Sir Samuel Romilly and his brother Lord Romilly, Edward Strutt +afterwards Lord Belper, Sir William Erie and John Stuart Mill were all +members of his class. All of these have left on record expressions of +the profound admiration which the lectures excited in the minds of those +who heard them. But the members of his class, though exceptional in +quality, were few in number, and as there was no fixed salary attached +to the professorship, Austin could not afford to remain in London, and +in 1832 he resigned. In that year he published his _Province of +Jurisprudence determined_, being the first ten of his delivered lectures +compressed into six. + +There is ample testimony that Austin's lectures were very highly +appreciated by those who heard them. Their one fault was that they were +over-elaborated. In his desire to avoid ambiguity, he repeats his +explanations and qualifications to an extent which must have tired his +hearers. Nevertheless the lectures excited an admiration which almost +amounted to enthusiasm. Nor was Austin's influence confined to his +lectures. Sir William Erle says in a letter written to him in 1844, "The +interchange of mind with you in the days of Lincoln's Inn I regard as a +deeply important event in my life, and I ever remember your friendship +with thankfulness and affection." John Stuart Mill, whose views on +political subjects were entirely opposed to those of Austin, spoke of +him after his death as the man "to whom he (Mill) had been +intellectually and morally most indebted," and he expressed the opinion +"that few men had contributed more by their individual influence, and +their conversation, to the formation and growth of the most active minds +of the generation." + +In 1833 a royal commission was issued to draw up a digest of criminal +law and procedure. Of this commission Austin was a member. The first +report was signed by all the commissioners, and was presented in June +1834. Nevertheless it appears from some notes made at the time that +Austin, though he thought it his duty to sign the report, strongly +objected to some passages which it contained. It is pretty obvious from +the nature of these objections that nothing would have satisfied him +short of a complete recasting of the criminal law, whereas what the +commissioners were ordered to produce was not a code but a digest. +Probably Austin felt, as Mr Justice Wills felt some years later, that +the anomalies which a code would remove would "choke a digest." + +In 1834 the benchers of the Inner Temple appointed Austin to give +lectures on the "General Principles of Jurisprudence and International +Law." He delivered a few lectures in the spring of that year, but in +June the course was by order of the benchers suspended on account of the +smallness of the attendance, and it was never resumed. He then went to +live with his wife and only child Lucie (afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon) at +Boulogne. Here he remained for about a year and a half. He then accepted +an appointment offered him by Sir James Stephen to go as royal +commissioner to Malta in conjunction with Mr (afterward Sir George) +Cornewall Lewis, to inquire into the nature and extent of the grievances +of which the natives of that island complained. + +The Austins remained in Malta until July 1838. After their return they +lived a good deal abroad, and in 1844 they settled in Paris, where they +remained until driven out of France by the revolution of 1848. They then +took a house at Weybridge, and there Austin remained until his death in +December 1859. He was urged by his friends to publish a second edition +of the _Province of Jurisprudence_, which was then out of print, and he +went so far as to allow a prospectus to be issued by Mr Murray of an +extended work on "The Principles and Relations of Jurisprudence and +Ethics." But nothing came of it. + +In 1842 Austin published in the _Edinburgh Review_ an attack upon +Friedrich List's system of trade protection (_Das nationale System der +politischen Okonomie_). And in 1859 he published a pamphlet entitled "A +Plea for the Constitution." This was occasioned by the publication of +Lord Grey's essay on "Parliamentary Government." Its main object was to +show that the consequences to be anticipated from Parliamentary Reform +were all of them either impossible of realization or mischievous. He +thought any attempt on the part of the poorer classes to improve their +position was barred by the inexorable laws of political economy; and +that if they obtained power they would only use it to plunder the rich; +whilst, on the other hand, he seems not to have had any suspicion that +the "proprietary class" were likely to disregard the interests of the +poor. He thinks that political power is safest in the hands of those +possessed of hereditary or acquired property; and that without property +even intelligence and knowledge afford no presumption of political +capacity. Undoubtedly Austin was a utilitarian in the Benthamite sense, +and remained so to the end of his life. It must be remembered that +Bentham's sole and immutable test of human action was the greatest +happiness of the greatest number. This is a principle which an +aristocrat may adopt if he chooses, no less than a democrat; an +individualist no less than a socialist; and there is nothing in the +"Plea for the Constitution" which contravenes this. But Austin thought, +and in this no doubt he differed from Bentham, that the mass of the +people did not know their own interests so well as "an aristocracy of +independent gentlemen" who might be trusted to provide for the wants of +all classes alike. + +Austin's position as a jurist is much more difficult to estimate. Twice +his influence appeared likely to produce some impression upon English +law, but upon both occasions it lasted only a short time, and never +extended very far. The men whom he influenced were very eminent, but in +numbers they were few. As a rule, students for the bar never at any time +paid any attention to his teaching. The first published lectures were +almost forgotten when Mr (afterwards Sir Henry) Maine was appointed to +lecture on jurisprudence at the Inner Temple. Both in his private and +public lectures Maine constantly urged upon his hearers the importance +of Austin's analytical inquiries into the meaning of legal terms. He +used to say that it was Austin's inquiries which had made a philosophy +of law possible. Undoubtedly Maine's influence revived for a short time +the interest in Austin's teaching. Maine was lecturing about the time of +Austin's death, and in 1861 Mrs Austin published a second edition of the +_Province of Jurisprudence_, and this was followed soon after by two +volumes which contained in addition in a fragmentary form the remaining +lectures delivered at University College and other notes (_Lectures on +Jurisprudence; or The Philosophy of Positive Law_). + +It cannot be said that Austin's views of jurisprudence have had, as yet, +any visible influence whatever on the study of English law. But if we +consider what it was that Austin endeavoured to teach, it can hardly be +said that the subject is one which a lawyer can with impunity neglect. +He proposes to distinguish law from morals; to explain the notions +which have been entertained of duty, right, liberty, injury, punishment +and redress; and their connexion with, and relations to, sovereignty; to +examine the distinction between rights _in rem_ and rights _in +personam_, and between rights _ex contractu_ and rights _ex delicto_; +and further to determine the meaning of such terms as right, obligation, +injury, sanction, person, thing, act and forbearance. These are some of +the terms, notions and distinctions which Austin endeavoured to explain. +They are daily in the mouth of every practising lawyer. The only portion +of Austin's work which has attracted much attention of recent years is +his conception of sovereignty, and his dictum that all laws properly so +called must be considered as sanctioned expressly or tacitly by the +sovereign. This has been indignantly denied. It has been considered +enough to justify this denial to point out that there are in existence +states where the seat of sovereignty, and the ultimate source of law, +cannot be accurately indicated. But this criticism is entirely +misplaced; for as pointed out by Maine (_Early History of Institutions_, +Lecture xii.), in an elaborate discussion of Austin's views, which in +the main he accepts, what Austin was engaged upon was not an inquiry +into the nature of sovereignty as it is found to exist, but an inquiry +into what was the connexion between the various forms of political +superiority. And this inquiry was undertaken in order to enable him to +distinguish the province of jurisprudence properly so called from the +province of morality; an inquiry which was hopeless unless the connexion +just stated was clearly conceived. Austin's views of sovereignty, +therefore, was an abstraction, useless it is true for some purposes, but +by no means useless for others. "There is," as Maine says, "not the +smallest necessity for accepting all the conclusions of these great +writers (i.e. Bentham and Austin) with implicit deference, but there +is the strongest necessity for knowing what these conclusions are. They +are indispensable, if for no other object, for the purpose of clearing +the head." These last words exactly express the work which Austin set +himself to do. It was to clear his own head, and the heads of his +hearers, that he laboured so hard. As Austin once said of himself, his +special vocation was that of untying intellectual knots. The +disentangling of classifications and distinctions, the separation of +real from accidental distinctions, the analysis of ideas confusedly +apprehended, these (as has been truly said) were the characteristics of +Austin's work which specially distinguished him. Austin thought that +this somewhat irksome task was a necessary preliminary both to the study +of law as a science, and to the production of a code. It is a curious +reflection that whilst the lectures in which these inquiries were begun +(though not completed) excited the admiration of his contemporaries, +hardly any one now thinks such inquiries worth pursuing. + + The _Lectures on Jurisprudence_ were reviewed by J.S. Mill in the + _Edinburgh Review_ of October 1863, and this review is republished in + Mill's _Dissertations and Discussions_, vol. 3, p. 206. Professor + Jethro Brown has published (1906) an edition of Austin's earlier + lectures, in which they are stated in an abbreviated form. There is a + sketch of his life by his widow in the preface to the _Lectures on + Jurisprudence_, which she published after his death. (W. Ma.) + + + + +AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867), English author, was born in 1793, the +daughter of John Taylor (d. 1826), a wool-stapler and a member of the +well-known Taylor family of Norwich. Her great grandfather, Dr John +Taylor (1694-1761), had been pastor of the Presbyterian church there, +and wrote a once famous polemical work on _The Scripture Doctrine of +Original Sin_ (1738), which called forth celebrated treatises by +Jonathan Edwards on _Original Sin_. Her mother, Susannah Cook, was an +exceedingly clever woman who transmitted both her beauty and her talent +to her daughter. Their friends included Dr Alderson and his daughter Mrs +Opie, Henry Crabbe Robinson, the Gurneys and Sir James Mackintosh. Sarah +Taylor married in 1820 John Austin (q.v.). They lived in Queen Square, +Westminster, where Mrs. Austin, whose tastes, unlike her husband's, were +extremely sociable, gathered round her a large circle, Jeremy Bentham, +James Mill and the Grotes being especially intimate. She received many +Italian exiles, who found a real friend in her. In 1821 was born her +only child, Lucie, afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon. Mrs. Austin never +attempted any considerable original work, contenting herself chiefly +with translations, of which the most important are the _History of the +Reformation in Germany_ and the _History of the Popes_ (1840), from the +German of Leopold von Ranke, _Report on the State of Public Instruction +in Prussia_ (1834) from the French of V. Cousin, and F.W. Carove's _The +Story without an End_ (1864). After her husband's death in 1859 she +edited his _Lectures on Jurisprudence_. She also edited the _Memoirs of +Sydney Smith_ (1855) and Lady Duff-Gordon's _Letters from Egypt_ (1865). +She died at Weybridge on the 8th of August 1867. + + See _Three Generations of Englishwomen_ (1888), by her grand-daughter, + Mrs Janet Ross. + + + + +AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836), American pioneer, was born in +Austinville, Wythe county, Virginia, on the 3rd of November 1793. He was +the son of Moses Austin (1767-1821), a native of Durham, Connecticut, +who in 1820 obtained from Mexico a grant of land for an American colony +in Texas, but died before he could carry out his project. The son was +educated in New London, Connecticut, and at Transylvania University, +Lexington, Kentucky, and settled in Missouri, where he was a member of +the territorial legislature from 1813 to 1819. In 1819 he removed to +Arkansas Territory, where he was appointed a circuit judge. After his +father's death he obtained a confirmation of the Texas grants from the +newly established Mexican government, and in 1821-1823 he established a +colony of several hundred American families on the Brazos river, the +principal town being named, in his honour, San Felipe de Austin. He was +a firm defender of the rights of the Americans in Texas, and in 1833 he +was sent to the city of Mexico to present a petition from a convention +in Texas praying for the erection of a separate state government. While +there, despairing of success for his petition, he wrote home +recommending the organization of a state without waiting for the consent +of the Mexican congress. This letter falling into the hands of the +Mexican government, Austin, while returning home, was arrested at +Saltillo, carried as a prisoner back to Mexico, and imprisoned for a +year without trial. Returning to Texas in 1835, he found the Texans in +armed revolt against Mexican rule, and was chosen commander-in-chief of +the revolutionary forces, but after failing to take San Antonio he +resigned the command, for which he had never considered himself fitted, +and in November 1835 went to the United States as a commissioner to +secure loans and supplies, and to learn the position the United States +authorities would be likely to take in the event of a declaration of +Texan independence. He succeeded in raising large sums, and received +assurances that satisfied him that Americans would look with great +favour on an independent Texas. Returning to Texas in the summer of +1836, he became a candidate, rather reluctantly, for the presidency of +the newly established republic of Texas, but was defeated by Samuel +Houston, under whom he was secretary of state until his sudden death on +the 7th of December 1836. + + See _A Comprehensive History of Texas_, edited by D.G. Wooten (2 + vols., Dallas, 1898). + + + + +AUSTIN, a city and the county-seat of Mower county, Minnesota, U.S.A., +on the Red Cedar river and Turtle creek, (by rail) 105 m. S. of +Minneapolis and 100 m. from St Paul. Pop. (1900) 5474; (1905, state +census) 6489 (913 foreign-born); (1910, U.S. census) 6960. It is served +by the Chicago Great Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul +railways. Austin is the seat of the Southern Minnesota Normal College +and Austin School of Commerce (1896), and has a Carnegie library, court +house and city hall. It is a market for livestock, and for dairy and +farm products, and has slaughtering and packing establishments, flour +mills, creameries and cheese factories, canning and preserving +factories, carriage works, a flax fibre mill and grain elevators. Brick, +tile, sewer-pipe, and hydraulic cement are manufactured, and there are +railway repair shops. A valuable water-power is utilized for +manufacturing purposes. Fresh-water pearls of considerable value and +beauty are found in the Red Cedar river. The city owns and operates its +own water-supply system and electric-lighting plant. Austin was settled +in 1855, was incorporated as a village in 1868, and was chartered as a +city in 1873. + + + + +AUSTIN, the capital of Texas, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Travis +county, on the N. bank of the Colorado river, near the centre of the +state and about 145 m. W.N.W. of Houston. Pop. (1890) 14,575; (1900) +22,258, of whom 5822 were negroes; (1910 census) 29,860. Austin is +served by the Houston & Texas Central, the International & Great +Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. The city is built +on high bluffs 40-120 ft. above the river, which is spanned here by a +bridge, built in 1874. The Texas State Capitol, a handsome building of +red Texas granite, with a dome 318 ft. high, cost more than $3,500,000, +and stands in a square in the centre of the city. It was built +(1881-1888) by Chicago capitalists in exchange for a land grant of +3,000,000 acres. It is in the form of a Greek cross, with an extreme +length of 556.5 ft. and an extreme width of 288.8 ft. Next to the +National Capitol at Washington, it is the largest capitol building in +the United States, and it is said to be one of the ten largest buildings +in the world. Austin is the seat of the University of Texas (opened in +1883; co-educational); the medical department of the state university is +at Galveston, and the departments in Austin are the college of arts, +department of education, department of engineering, department of law, +school of pharmacy, and school of nursing. The government of the +university is vested in a board of eight regents nominated by the +governor and appointed with the advice and consent of the state senate. +At Austin are also state institutions and asylums for the insane, the +blind, the coloured deaf and blind; the state school for the deaf and +dumb; the state Confederate home; the Confederate woman's home (1907; +for wives and widows of Confederate soldiers and sailors), maintained by +the Daughters of the Confederacy; St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic, +under the supervision of the Sisters of the Holy Cross, founded 1875, +chartered 1886); St Edward's College (Roman Catholic, chartered 1885); +the Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary (Presbyterian Church, +South), opened in 1902 by the Synod of Texas, and after 1905 partly +controlled by the Synod of Arkansas; Tillotson College (a negro school +under Congregational control, founded by the American Missionary +Association, chartered in 1877, and opened in 1881), and Samuel Huston +College (for negroes; Methodist Episcopal; opened in 1900 and named in +honour of an Iowan benefactor). The principal newspapers of Austin are +the _Statesman_ (Democratic, established in 1871), a morning paper, and +the _Tribune_ (Democratic, established in 1891), an evening paper. The +_Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society_ is published here. +Austin is the principal trade and jobbing centre for central and western +Texas, is an important market for livestock, cotton, grain and wool, and +has extensive manufactories of flour, cotton-seed oil, leather goods, +lumber and wooden ware; the value of the factory product in 1905 was +$1,569,353, being 105.2% more than in 1900. The city owns and operates +its water-supply system. In 1890-1893 one of the largest dams in the +world, an immense structure of granite masonry, 1200 ft. long. 60-70 ft. +high, and 18 to 66 ft. thick, was constructed across the Colorado river +2 m. above the city for the purpose of supplying water and power, +creating a reservoir (Lake M'Donald) about 30 m. long. Freshets in the +spring of 1900, however, undermined the wall, and on the 7th of April +the dam broke with a resulting loss of several lives and about +$1,000,000 worth of property. The rebuilding of the dam was projected in +1907. Austin was first settled in 1838 and was named Waterloo, but in +1839, when it was chosen as the site of the capital of the Republic of +Texas, it was renamed in honour of Stephen F. Austin, one of its +founders. Under the influence of General Sam Houston the capital was for +a time in 1842-1845 removed from Austin to Houston, but in 1845 an +ordinance was passed making Austin the capital, and it remained the +state capital after Texas entered the Union, although Huntsville and +Tehuacana Springs in 1850 and Houston in 1872 attempted in popular +elections to be chosen in its place. The first Anglo-American settlement +in Texas, established on the Brazos river in 1823 by members of the +Austin colony, was San Felipe de Austin now San Felipe. In 1909 Austin +adopted a commission form of government. + + + + +AUSTRALASIA, a term used by English geographers in a sense nearly +synonymous with the Oceania of continental writers. It thus comprises +all the insular groups which extend almost continuously from the +south-eastern extremity of Asia to more than half-way across the +Pacific. Its chief divisions are Malaysia with the Philippines; +Australia with Tasmania and New Zealand; Melanesia, that is, New Guinea, +New Britain, New Ireland, Admiralty, the Solomons, New Hebrides, Santa +Cruz, Fiji, Loyalties and New Caledonia; Micronesia, that is, the +Ladrones, Pelew and Carolines, with the Marshall and Gilbert groups; +lastly, Polynesia, that is, Samoa, Tonga, Cook, Tahiti, the Marquesas, +Ellice, Hawaii and all intervening clusters. The term is so far +justified in that it harmonizes better than Oceania did with the names +of the other continents, and also embodies the two essential facts that +it is a south-eastern extension of Asia, and that its central and most +important division is the great island-continent of Australia. In a more +restricted sense the term Australasia corresponds to the large division +including Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. + + See _Australasia_, 2 vols. Stanford Compendium Series, new issue + (London, 1907-1908). + + + + +AUSTRALIA, the only continent entirely in the southern hemisphere. It +lies between 10° 39' and 39° 11½' S., and between 113° 5' and 153° 16' +E. Its greatest length is 2400 m. from east to west, and the greatest +breadth 1971 m. from north to south. The area is, approximately, +2,946,691 sq. m., with a coast line measuring about 8850 m. This is +equal to 1 m. to each 333 sq. m. of land, the smallest proportion of +coast shown by any of the continents. + + +PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY + + General character. + +_Physiography._--The salient features of the Australian continent are +its compact outline, the absence of navigable rivers communicating with +the interior, the absence of active volcanoes or snow-capped mountains, +its isolation from other lands, and its antiquity. Some of the most +profound changes that have taken place on this globe occurred in +Mesozoic times, and a great portion of Australia was already dry land +when vast tracts of Europe and Asia were submerged; in this sense, +therefore, Australia has been rightly referred to as one of the oldest +existing land surfaces. It has been described as at once the largest +island and the smallest continent on the globe. The general contours +exemplify the law of geographers in regard to continents, viz. as to +their having a high border around a depressed interior, and the highest +mountains on the side of the greatest ocean. On the N. Australia is +bounded by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait; on the E. +by the Pacific Ocean; on the S. by Bass Strait and the Southern Ocean; +and on the W. by the Indian Ocean. It stands up from the ocean depths in +three fairly well-marked terraces. The basal plain of these terraces is +the bed of the ocean, which on the Pacific side has an average depth of +15,000 ft. From this profound foundation rise Australia, New Guinea and +Melanesia, in varying slopes. The first ledge rising from the ocean +floor has a depth averaging 8000 ft. below sea-level. The outer edge of +this ledge is roughly parallel to the coast of Western Australia, and +more than 150 m. from the land. Round the Australian Bight it continues +parallel to the coast, until south of Spencer Gulf (the basal ledge +still averaging 8000 ft. in depth) it sweeps southwards to lat. 55°, and +forms a submarine promontory 1000 m. long. The edge of the abysmal area +comes close to the eastern coasts of Tasmania and New South Wales, +approaching to within 60 m. of Cape Howe. The terrace closest to the +land, known as the continental shelf, has an average depth of 600 ft., +and connects Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania in one unbroken sweep. +Compared with other continents, the Australian continental shelf is +extremely narrow, and there are points on the eastern coast where the +land plunges down to oceanic depths with an abruptness rarely +paralleled. Off the Queensland coast the shelf broadens, its outer edge +being lined by the seaward face of the Great Barrier Reef. From Torres +Strait to Dampier Land the shelf spreads out, and connects Australia +with New Guinea and the Malay Archipelago. An elongation of the shelf to +the south joins Tasmania with the mainland. The vertical relief of the +land above the ocean is a very important factor in determining the +climate as well as the distribution of the fauna and flora of a +continent. + + The land mass of Australia rises to a mean height much less than that + of any other continent; and the chief mountain systems are parallel + to, and not far from, the coast-line. Thus, taking the continent as a + whole, it may be described as a plateau, fringed by a low-lying + well-watered coast, with a depressed, and for the most part arid, + interior. A great plain, covering quite 500,000 sq. m., occupies a + position a little to the east of a meridional line bisecting the + continent, and south of the 22nd degree, but portions of it stretch + upwards to the low-lying country south of the Gulf of Carpentaria. The + contour of the continent in latitude 30° 5' is as follows:--a short + strip of coastal plain; then a sharp incline rising to a mountain + range 4000 ft. above sea-level, at a distance of 40 m. from the coast. + From this a gently-sloping plateau extends to almost due north of + Spencer Gulf, at which point its height has fallen almost to + sea-level. Then there is a gentle rise to the low steppes, 500 to 1000 + ft. above sea-level. A further gentle rise in the high steppes leads + to the mountains of the West Australian coast, and another strip of + low-lying coastal land to the sea. + + With a circumference of 8000 m. Australia presents a contour + wonderfully devoid of inlets from the sea except on its northern + shores, where the coast-line is largely indented. The Gulf of + Carpentaria, situated in the north, is enclosed on the east by the + projection of Cape York, and on the west by Arnheim Land, and forms + the principal bay on the whole coast, measuring about 6° of long. by + 6° of lat. Farther to the west, Van Diemen's Gulf, though much + smaller, forms a better-protected bay, having Melville Island between + it and the ocean; while beyond this, Queen's Channel and Cambridge + Gulf form inlets about 14° 50' S. On the north-west of the continent + the coast-line is much broken, the chief indentations being Admiralty + Gulf, Collier Bay and King Sound, on the shores of Tasman Land. + Western Australia, again, is not favoured with many inlets, Exmouth + Gulf and Shark's Bay being the only bays of any size. The same remark + may be made of the rest of the sea-board; for, with the exception of + Spencer Gulf, the Gulf of St Vincent and Port Phillip on the south, + and Moreton Bay, Hervey Bay and Broad Sound on the east, the + coast-line is singularly uniform. There are, however, numerous + spacious harbours, especially on the eastern coast, which are referred + to in the detailed articles dealing with the different states. The + Great Barrier Reef forms the prominent feature off the north-east + coast of Australia; its extent from north to south is 1200 m., and it + is therefore the greatest of all coral reefs. The channel between the + reef and the coast is in places 70 m. wide and 400 ft. deep. There are + a few clear openings in the outer rampart which the reef presents to + the ocean. These are opposite to the large estuaries of the Queensland + rivers, and might be thought to have been caused by fresh water from + the land. The breaks are, however, some 30 to 90 m. away from land and + more probably were caused by subsidence; the old river-channels known + to exist below sea-level, as well as the former land connexion with + New Guinea, seem to point to the conditions assumed in Darwin's + well-known subsidence theory, and any facts that appear to be + inconsistent with the theory of a steady and prolonged subsidence are + explainable by the assumption of a slight upheaval. + + With the exception of Tasmania there are no important islands + belonging geographically to Australia, for New Guinea, Timor and other + islands of the East Indian archipelago, though not removed any great + distance from the continent, do not belong to its system. On the east + coast there are a few small and unimportant islands. In Bass Strait + are Flinders Island, about 800 sq. m. in area, Clarke Island, and a + few other small islands. Kangaroo Island, at the entrance of St + Vincent Gulf, is one of the largest islands on the Australian coast, + measuring 80 m. from east to west with an average width of 20 m. + Numerous small islands lie off the western coast, but none has any + commercial importance. On the north coast are Melville and Bathurst + Islands; the former, which is 75 m. long and 38 m. broad, is fertile + and well watered. These islands are opposite Port Darwin, and to the + westward of the large inlet known as Van Diemen's Gulf. In the Gulf of + Carpentaria are numerous islands, the largest bearing the Dutch name + of Groote Eylandt. + + + Mountains. + + Along the full length of the eastern coast extends a succession of + mountain chains. The vast Cordillera of the Great Dividing Range + originates in the south-eastern corner of the continent, and runs + parallel with and close to the eastern shore, through the states of + Victoria and New South Wales, right up to the far-distant York + Peninsula in Queensland. In Victoria the greatest elevation is reached + in the peaks of Mount Bogong (6508 ft.) and Mount Feathertop (6303 + ft.), both of which lie north of the Dividing Range; in the main range + Mount Hotham (6100 ft.) and Mount Cobberas (6025 ft.) are the highest + summits. In New South Wales, but close to the Victorian border, are + found the loftiest peaks of Australia, Mount Kosciusco and Mount + Townsend, rising to heights of 7328 and 7260 ft. respectively. The + range is here called the Muniong, but farther north it receives the + name of Monaro Range; the latter has a much reduced altitude, its + average being only about 2000 ft. As the tableland runs northward it + decreases both in height and width, until it narrows to a few miles + only, with an elevation of scarcely 1500 ft.; under the name of the + Blue Mountains the plateau widens again and increases in altitude, the + chief peaks being Mount Clarence (4000 ft.), Mount Victoria (3525 + ft.), and Mount Hay (3270 ft.). The Dividing Range decreases north of + the Blue Mountains, until as a mere ridge it divides the waters of the + coastal rivers from those flowing to the Darling. The mass widens out + once more in the Liverpool Range, where the highest peak, Mount Oxley, + reaches 4500 ft., and farther north, in the New England Range, Ben + Lomond reaches an elevation of 5000 ft. Near the Queensland border, + Mount Lindsay, in the Macpherson Range, rises to a height of 5500 ft. + In the latitude of Brisbane the chain swerves inland; no other peak + north of this reaches higher than Mount Bartle Frere in the Bellenden + Ker Range (5438 ft.). The Southern Ocean system of the Victorian + Dividing Range hardly attains to the dignity of high mountains. An + eastern system in South Australia touches at a few points a height of + 3000 ft.; and the Stirling Range, belonging to the south-western + system of South Australia, reaches to 2340 ft. There are no mountains + behind the Great Australian Bight. On the west the Darling Range faces + the Indian Ocean, and extends from Point D'Entrecasteaux to the + Murchison river. North of the Murchison, Mount Augustus and Mount + Bruce, with their connecting highlands, cut off the coastal drainage + from the interior; but no point on the north-west coast reaches a + greater altitude than 4000 ft. Several minor ranges, the topography of + which is little known, extend from Cambridge Gulf, behind a very much + broken coast-line, to Limmen Bight on the Gulf of Carpentaria. Nothing + is more remarkable than the contrast between the aspect of the coastal + ranges on the north-east and on the south-east of the continent. The + higher Australian peaks in the south-east look just what they are, the + worn and denuded stumps of mountains, standing for untold ages above + the sea. Their shoulders are lifted high above the tree-line. Their + summits stand out gaunt and lonely in an unbroken solitude. Having + left the tree-line far behind him, nothing is visible to the traveller + for miles around but barren peaks and torn crags in indescribable + confusion. A verdure of herbage clothes the valleys that have been + scooped from the summits downwards. But there are no perpetual + snow-fields, no glaciers creep down these valleys, and no alpine + hamlets ever appear to break the monotony. The mountains of the + north-east, on the contrary, are clothed to their summits with a rich + and varied flora. Naked crags, when they do appear, lift themselves + from a sea of green, and a tropical vegetation, quite Malaysian in + character, covers everything. + + The absence of active volcanoes in Australia is a state of things, in + a geological sense, quite new to the continent. Some of the volcanoes + of the western districts of Victoria have been in eruption probably + subsequent to the advent of the black-fellow. In some instances the + cones are quite intact, and the beds of ash and scoriae are as yet + almost unaffected by denuding agencies. Late in the Tertiary period + vast sheets of lava poured from many points of the Great Dividing + Range of eastern Australia. But it is notable that all recent volcanic + action was confined to a wide belt parallel to the coast. No evidences + of recent lava flows can be found in the interior over the great + alluvial plain, the Lower, or the Higher Steppes. Nor has the + continent, as a whole, in recent times been subjected to any violent + earth tremors; though in 1873, to the north of Lake Amadeus, in + central Australia, Ernest Giles records the occurrence of earthquake + shocks violent enough to dislodge considerable rock masses. + + Australia possesses one mountain which, though not a volcano, is a + "burning mountain." This is Mount Wingen, situated in a spur of the + Liverpool Range and close to the town of Scone. Its fires are not + volcanic, but result from the combustion of coal some distance + underground, giving off much smoke and steam; geologists estimate that + the burning has been going on for at least 800 years. + + + Rivers. + + The coastal belt of Australia is everywhere well watered, with the + exception of the country around the Great Australian Bight and Spencer + Gulf. Flowing into the Pacific Ocean on the east coast there are some + fine rivers, but the majority have short and rapid courses. In + Queensland a succession of rivers falls into the Pacific from Cape + York to the southern boundary of the state. The Burdekin is the finest + of these, draining an area of 53,500 sq. m., and emptying into Upstart + Bay; it receives numerous tributaries in its course, and carries a + large body of fresh water even in the driest seasons. The Fitzroy + river is the second in point of size; it drains an area of 55,600 sq. + m., and receives several tributary streams during its course to Keppel + Bay. The Brisbane river, falling into Moreton Bay, is important + chiefly from the fact that the city of Brisbane is situated on its + banks. In New South Wales there are several important rivers, the + largest of which is the Hunter, draining 11,000 sq. m., and having a + course of 200 m. Taking them from north to south, the principal rivers + are the Richmond, Clarence, Macleay, Hastings, Manning, Hunter, + Hawkesbury and Shoalhaven. The Snowy river has the greater part of its + course in New South Wales, but its mouth and the last 120 m. are in + Victoria. The other rivers worth mentioning are the Yarra, entering + the sea at Port Phillip, Hopkins and Glenelg. The Murray (q.v.), the + greatest river of Australia, debouches into Lake Alexandrina, and + thence into the sea at Encounter Bay in South Australia. There are no + other rivers of importance in South Australia, but the Torrens and the + Gawler may be mentioned. Westward of South Australia, on the shores of + the Australian Bight, there is a stretch of country 300 m. in length + unpierced by any streams, large or small, but west of the bight, + towards Cape Leeuwin, some small rivers enter the sea. The south-west + coast is watered by a few streams, but none of any size; amongst these + is the Swan, upon which Perth, the capital of Western Australia, is + built. Between the Swan and North-West Cape the principal rivers are + the Greenough, Murchison and Gascoyne; on the north-west coast, the + Ashburton, Fortescue and De Grey; and in the Kimberley district, the + Fitzroy, Panton, Prince Regent and the Ord. In the Northern Territory + are several fine rivers. The Victoria river is navigable for large + vessels for a distance of about 43 m. from the sea, and small vessels + may ascend for another 80 m. The Fitzmaurice, discharging into the + estuary of the Victoria, is also a large stream. The Daly, which in + its upper course is called the Katherine, is navigable for a + considerable distance, and small vessels are able to ascend over 100 + m. The Adelaide, discharging into Adam Bay, has been navigated by + large vessels for about 38 m., and small vessels ascend still farther. + The South Alligator river, flowing into Van Diemen's Gulf, is also a + fine stream, navigable for over 30 m. by large vessels; the East + Alligator river, falling into the same gulf, has been navigated for 40 + m. Besides those mentioned, there are a number of smaller rivers + discharging on the north coast, and on the west shore of the Gulf of + Carpentaria the Roper river discharges itself into Limmen Bight. The + Roper is a magnificent stream, navigable for about 75 or 80 m. by + vessels of the largest tonnage, and light draught vessels can ascend + 20 m. farther. Along the portion of the south shore of the Gulf of + Carpentaria which belongs to Queensland and the east coast, many large + rivers discharge their waters, amongst them the Norman, Flinders, + Leichhardt, Albert and Gregory on the southern shore, and the Batavia, + Archer, Coleman, Mitchell, Staaten and Gilbert on the eastern shore. + The rivers flowing into the Gulf of Carpentaria, as well as those in + the Northern Territory, drain country which is subject to regular + monsoonal rains, and have the general characteristics of sub-tropical + rivers. + + The network of streams forming the tributaries of the Darling and + Murray system give an idea of a well-watered country. The so-called + rivers have a strong flow only after heavy rains, and some of them do + not ever reach the main drainage line. Flood waters disappear often + within a distance of a few miles, being absorbed by porous soil, + stretches of sand, and sometimes by the underlying bed-rocks. In many + cases the rivers as they approach the main stream break up into + numerous branches, or spread their waters over vast flats. This is + especially the case with the tributaries of the Darling on its left + bank, where in seasons of great rains these rivers overspread their + banks and flood the flat country for miles around and thus reach the + main stream. Lieutenant John Oxley went down the Lachlan (1817) during + one of these periods of flood, and the great plains appeared to him to + be the fringe of a vast inland sea. As a matter of fact, they are an + alluvial deposit spread out by the same flood waters. The great rivers + of Australia, draining inland, carve out valleys, dissolve limestone, + and spread out their deposit over the plains when the waters become + too sluggish to bear their burden farther. From a geological + standpoint, the Great Australian Plain and the fertile valley of the + Nile have had a similar origin. Taking the Lachlan as one type of + Australian river, we find it takes its rise amongst the precipitous + and almost unexplored valleys of the Great Dividing Range. With the + help of its tributaries it acts as a denuding agent for 14,000 sq. m. + of country, and carries its burden of sediment westwards. A point is + reached about 200 m. from the Dividing Range, where the river ceases + to act as a denuding agent, and the area of deposition begins, at a + level of 250 ft. above the sea, but before the waters can reach the + ocean they have still to travel about 1000 m. + + The Darling is reckoned amongst the longest rivers in the world, for + it is navigable, part of the year, from Walgett to its confluence with + the Murray, 1758 m., and then to the sea, a further distance of 587 + m.--making in all 2345 m. of navigable water. But this gives no + correct idea of the true character of the Darling, for it can hardly + be said to drain its own watershed. From the sources of its various + tributaries to the town of Bourke, the river may be described as + draining a watershed. But from Bourke to the sea, 550 m. in a direct + line, the river gives rather than receives water from the country it + flows through. + + The annual rainfall and the area of the catchment afford no measure + whatever as to the size of a river in the interior of Australia. The + discharge of the Darling river at Bourke does not amount to more than + 10% of the rainfall over the country which it drains. It was this + remarkable fact which first led to the idea that, as the rainfall + could not be accounted for either by evaporation or by the river + discharge, much of the 90% unaccounted for must sink into the ground, + and in part be absorbed by some underlying bed-rock. All Australian + rivers, except the Murray and the Murrumbidgee, depend entirely and + directly on the rainfall. They are flooded after rain, and in seasons + of drought many of them, especially the tributaries of the Darling, + become chains of ponds. Springs which would equalize the discharge of + rivers by continuing to pour water into their beds after the rainy + season has passed seem entirely absent in the interior. Nor are there + any snowfields to feed rivers, as in the other continents. More + remarkable still, over large tracts of country the water seems + disposed to flow away from, rather than to, the river-beds. As the + low-lying plains are altogether an alluvial deposit, the coarser + sediments accumulate in the regions where the river first overflows + its banks to spread out over the plains. The country nearest the river + receiving the heaviest deposit becomes in this way the highest ground, + and so continues until a "break-away" occurs, when a new river-bed is + formed, and the same process of deposition and accumulation is + repeated. As the general level of the country is raised by successive + alluvial deposits, the more ancient river-beds become buried, but + being still connected with the newer rivers at some point or other, + they continue to absorb water. This underground network of old + river-beds underlying the great alluvial plains must be filled to + repletion before flood waters will flow over the surface. It is not + surprising, therefore, that comparatively little of the rainfall over + the vast extent of the great central plain ever reaches the sea by way + of the river systems; indeed these systems as usually shown on the + maps leave a false impression as to the actual condition of things. + + + Steppes. + + Lakes. + + The great alluvial plain is one of Australia's most notable inland + features; its extent is upwards of 500,000 sq. m., lying east of 135° + W. and extending right across the continent from the Gulf of + Carpentaria to the Murray river. The interior of the continent west of + 135° and north of the Musgrave ranges is usually termed by geographers + the Australian Steppes. It is entirely different in all essential + features from the great alluvial plains. Its prevailing aspect is + characterized by flat and terraced hills, capped by desert sandstone, + with stone-covered flats stretching over long distances. The country + round Lake Eyre, where some of the land is actually below sea-level, + comes under this heading. The higher steppes, as far as they are + known, consist of Ordovician and Cambrian rocks, with an average + elevation of 1500 to 3000 ft. above sea-level. Over this country + water-courses are shown on maps. These run in wet seasons, but in + every instance for a short distance only, and sooner or later they are + lost in sand-hills, where their waters disappear and a line of stunted + gum-trees (_Eucalyptus rostrata_) is all that is present to indicate + that there may be even a soakage to mark the abandoned course. The + steppes cover a surface of 400,000 sq. m., and from this vast expanse + not a drop of the scanty rainfall reaches the sea; there is no leading + drainage system and there are no rivers. Another notable feature of + the interior is the so-called lake area, a district stretching to the + north of Spencer Gulf. These lakes are expanses of brackish waters + that spread or contract as the season is one of drought or rain. In + seasons of drought they are hardly more than swamps and mud flats, + which for a time may become a grassy plain, or desolate coast + encrusted with salt. The country around is the dreariest imaginable, + the surface is a dead level, there is no heavy timber and practically + no settlement. Lake Torrens, the largest of these depressions, + sometimes forms a sheet of water 100 m. in length. To the north again + stretches Lake Eyre, and to the west Lake Gairdner. Some of these + lake-beds are at or slightly below sea-level, so that a very slight + depression of the land to the south of them would connect much of the + interior with the Southern Ocean. (T. A. C.) + + _Geology._--The states of Australia are divided by natural boundaries, + which separate geographical areas having different characters, owing, + mainly, to their different geological structures. Hence the general + stratigraphical geology can be most conveniently summarized for each + state separately, dealing here with the geological history of + Australia as a whole. Australia is essentially the fragment of a great + plateau land of Archean rocks. It consists in the main of an Archean + block or "coign," which still occupies nearly the whole of the western + half of the continent, outcrops in north-eastern Queensland, forms the + foundation of southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria, and is + exposed in western Victoria, in Tasmania, and in the western flank of + the Southern Alps of New Zealand. These areas of Archean rocks were + doubtless once continuous. But they have been separated by the + foundering of the Coral Sea and the Tasman Sea, which divided the + continent of Australia from the islands of the Australasian festoon; + and the foundering of the band across Australia, from the Gulf of + Carpentaria, through western Queensland and western New South Wales, + to the lower basin of the Murray, has separated the Archean areas of + eastern and western Australia. The breaking up of the old Archean + foundation block began in Cambrian and Ordovician times. A narrow + Cambrian sea must have extended across central Australia from the + Kimberley Goldfield in the north-west, through Tempe Downs and the + Macdonnell chain in central Australia, to the South Australian + highlands, central Victoria at Mansfield, and northern Tasmania. + Cambrian rocks occur in each of these districts, and they are best + developed in the South Australian highlands, where they include a long + belt of contemporary glacial deposits. Marine Ordovician rocks were + deposited along the same general course. They are best developed in + the Macdonnell chain in central Australia and in Victoria, where the + fullest sequence is known; while they also extended north-eastward + from Victoria into New South Wales, where, as yet, no Cambrian rocks + have been found. The Silurian system was marked by the retreat of the + sea from central Australia; but the sea still covered a band across + Victoria, from the coast to the Murray basin, passing to the east of + Melbourne. This Silurian sea was less extensive than the Ordovician in + Victoria; but it appears to have been wider in New South Wales and in + Queensland. The best Silurian sequence is in New South Wales. Silurian + rocks are well developed in western Tasmania, and the Silurian sea + must have washed the south-western corner of the continent, if the + rocks of the Stirling Range be rightly identified as of this age. + + [Illustration: Geological map of Australia.] + + The Devonian system includes a complex series of deposits, which are + of most interest in eastern Australia. This period was marked by + intense earth movements, which affected the whole of the east + Australian highlands. The Lower Devonian beds are in the main + terrestrial, or coarse littoral deposits, and volcanic rocks. The + Middle Devonian was marked by the same great transgression as in + Europe and America; it produced inland seas, extending into Victoria, + New South Wales and Queensland, in which were deposited limestones + with a rich coral fauna. The Upper Devonian was a period of marine + retreat; the crustal disturbances of the Lower Devonian were renewed + and great quartz-pebble beaches were formed on the rising shore lines, + producing the West Coast Range conglomerates of Tasmania, and the + similar rocks to the south-east of Mansfield in Victoria. Intrusions + of granitic _massifs_ in the Devonian period formed the primitive + mountain axis of Victoria, which extends east and west across the + state and forms the nucleus of the Victorian highlands. Similar + granitic intrusions occurred in New South Wales and Queensland, and + built up a mountain chain, which ran north and south across the + continent; its worn-down stumps now form the east Australian + highlands. + + The Carboniferous period began with a marine transgression, enabling + limestones to form in Tasmania and New South Wales; and at the same + time the sea first got in along the western edge of the western + plateau, depositing the Carboniferous rocks of the Gascoyne basin and + the coastal plain of north-western Australia. The Upper Carboniferous + period was in the main terrestrial, and during it were laid down the + coal-seams of New South Wales; they are best developed in the basin of + the Hunter river, and they extend southward, covered by Mesozoic + deposits, beyond Sydney. The Coal Measures become narrower in the + south, until, owing to the eastward projection of the highlands, the + Lower Palaeozoic rocks reach the coast. The coal-seams must have been + formed in well-watered, lowland forests, at the foot of a high + mountain range, built up by the Devonian earth movements. The + mountains both in Victoria and New South Wales were snow-capped, and + glaciers flowed down their flanks and laid down Carboniferous glacial + deposits, which are still preserved in basins that flank the mountain + ranges, such as the famous conglomerates of Bacchus Marsh, Heathcote + and the Loddon valley in Victoria, and of Branxton and other + localities in New South Wales. The age of the glacial deposits is + later than the _Glossopteris_ flora and occurs early in the time of + the _Gangamopteris_ flora. Kitson's work in Tasmania shows that there + also the glacial beds may be correlated with the lower or Greta Coal + Measures of New South Wales. + + The Permian deposits are best developed in New South Wales and + Tasmania, where their characters show the continuation of the + Carboniferous conditions. The Mesozoic begins with a Triassic land + period in the mainland of Australia; while the islands of the + Australasian festoon contain the Triassic marine limestones, which + fringe the whole of the Pacific. The Triassic beds are best known in + New South Wales, where round Sydney they include a series of + sandstones and shales. They also occur in northern Tasmania. + + The Jurassic system is represented by two types. In Victoria, + Tasmania, northern New South Wales and Queensland, there are Jurassic + terrestrial deposits, containing the coal seams of Victoria, of the + Clarence basin of north-eastern New South Wales, and of the Ipswich + series in Queensland; the same beds range far inland on the western + slopes of the east Australian highlands in New South Wales and + Queensland and they occur, with coal-seams, at Leigh's Creek, at the + northern foot of the South Australian highlands. They are also + preserved in basins on the western plateau, as shown by brown coal + deposits passed through in the Lake Phillipson bore. The second and + marine type of the Jurassics occurs in Western Australia, on the + coastal plain skirting the western foot of the western plateau. + + The Cretaceous period was initiated by the subsidence of a large area + to the south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, whereby a Lower Cretaceous + sea spread southward, across western Queensland, western New South + Wales and the north-eastern districts of South Australia. In this sea + were laid down the shales of the Rolling Downs formation. The sea does + not appear to have extended completely across Australia, breaking it + into halves, for a projection from the Archean plateau of Western + Australia extended as far east as the South Australian highlands, and + thence probably continued eastward, till it joined the Victorian + highlands. The Cretaceous sea gradually receded and the plains of the + Rolling Downs formation formed on its floor were covered by the + sub-aerial and lacustrine deposits of the Desert Sandstone. + + The Kainozoic period opened with fresh earth movements, the most + striking evidence of which are the volcanic outbreaks all round the + Australian coasts. These movements in the south-east formed the Great + Valley of Victoria, which traverses nearly the whole of the state + between the Victorian highlands to the north, and the Jurassic + sandstones of the Otway Ranges and the hills of south Gippsland. In + this valley were laid down, either in Eocene or Oligocene times, a + great series of lake beds and thick accumulations of brown coal. + Similar deposits, of approximately the same age, occur in Tasmania and + New Zealand; and at about the same time there began the Kainozoic + volcanic period of Australasia. The first eruptions piled up huge + domes of lavas rich in soda, including the geburite-dacites and + sölvsbergites of Mount Macedon in Victoria, and the kenyte and + tephrite domes of Dunedin, in New Zealand. These rocks were followed + by the outpouring of the extensive older basalts in the Great Valley + of Victoria and on the highlands of eastern Victoria, and also in New + South Wales and Queensland. Then followed a marine transgression along + most of the southern coast of Australia. The sea encroached far on the + land from the Great Australian Bight and there formed the limestones + of the Nullarbor Plains. The sea extended up the Murray basin into the + western plains of New South Wales. Farther east the sea was + interrupted by the still existing land-connexion between Tasmania and + Victoria; but beyond it, the marine deposits are found again, fringing + the coasts of eastern Gippsland and Croajingolong. These marine + deposits are not found anywhere along the eastern coast of Australia; + but they occur, and reach about the same height above sea-level, in + New Guinea, and are widely developed in New Zealand. No doubt eastern + Australia then extended far out into the Tasman Sea. The great + monoclinal fold which formed the eastern face of the east Australian + highlands, west of Sydney, is of later age. After this marine period + was brought to a close the sea retreated. Tasmania and Victoria were + separated by the foundering of Bass Strait, and at the same time the + formation of the rift valley of Spencer Gulf, and Lake Torrens, + isolated the South Australian highlands from the Eyre Peninsula and + the Westralian plateau. Earth movements are still taking place both + along Bass Strait and the Great Valley of South Australia, and + apparently along the whole length of the southern coast of Australia. + + _The Flowing Wells of Central Australia._--The clays of the Rolling + Downs formation overlie a series of sands and drifts, saturated with + water under high pressure, which discharges at the surface as a + flowing well, when a borehole pierces the impermeable cover. The first + of these wells was opened at Kallara in the west of New South Wales in + 1880. In 1882, Dr W.L. Jack concluded that western Queensland might be + a deep artesian basin. The Blackhall bore, put down at his advice from + 1885 to 1888, reached a water-bearing layer at the depth of 1645 ft. + and discharged 291,000 gallons a day. It was the first of the deep + artesian wells of the continent. As the plains on the Rolling Downs + formation are mostly waterless, the discovery of this deep reservoir + of water has been of great aid in the development of central + Australia. In Queensland to the 30th of June 1904, 973 wells had been + sunk, of which 596 were flowing wells, and the total flow was + 62,635,722 cub. ft. a day. The deepest well is that at Whitewood, 5046 + ft. deep. In New South Wales by the 30th of June 1903, the government + had put down 101 bores producing 66 flowing wells and 22 sub-artesian + wells, with a total discharge of 54,000,000 gallons a day; and there + were also 144 successful private wells. In South Australia there are + 38 deep bores, from 20 of which there is a flow of 6,250,000 gallons a + day. + + The wells were first called artesian in the belief that the ascent of + the water in them was due to the hydrostatic pressure of water at a + higher level in the Queensland hills. The well-water was supposed to + have percolated underground, through the Blythesdale Braystone, which + outcrops in patches on the eastern edge of the Rolling Downs + formation. But the Blythesdale Braystone is a small local formation, + unable to supply all the wells that have been sunk; and many of the + wells derive their water from the Jurassic shales and mudstones. The + difference in level between the outcrop of the assumed eastern intake + and of the wells is often so small, in comparison with their distance + apart, that the friction would completely sop up the whole of the + available hydrostatic head. Many of the well-waters contain gases; + thus the town of Roma is lighted by natural gas which escapes from its + well. The chemical characters of the well-waters, the irregular + distribution of the water-pressure, the distribution of the + underground thermal gradients, and the occurrence in some of the wells + of a tidal rise and fall of a varying period, are facts which are not + explained on the simple hydrostatic theory. J.W. Gregory has + maintained (_Dead Heart of Australia_, 1906, pp. 273-341) that the + ascent of water in these wells is due to the tension of the included + gases and the pressure of overlying sheets of rocks, and that some of + the water is of plutonic origin.[1] (J. W. G.) + +_Climate._--The Australian continent, extending over 28° of latitude, +might be expected to show a considerable diversity of climate. In +reality, however, it experiences fewer climatic variations than the +other great continents, owing to its distance (28°) from the Antarctic +circle and (11°) from the equator. There is, besides, a powerful +determining cause in the uniform character and undivided extent of its +dry interior. The plains and steppes already described lie either within +or close to the tropics. They present to the fierce play of the sun +almost a level surface, so that during the day that surface becomes +intensely heated and at night gives off its heat by radiation. +Ordinarily the alternate expansion and contraction of the atmosphere +which takes place under such circumstances would draw in a supply of +moisture from the ocean, but the heated interior, covering some 900,000 +sq. m., is so immense, that the moist air from the ocean does not come +in sufficient supply, nor are there mountain chains to intercept the +clouds which from time to time are formed; so that two-fifths of +Australia, comprising a region stretching from the Australian Bight to +20° S. and from 117° to 142° E., receives less than an average of 10 in. +of rain throughout the year, and a considerable portion of this region +has less than 5 in. No part of Victoria and very little of Queensland +and New South Wales lie within this area. The rest of the continent may +be considered as well watered. The north-west coast, particularly the +portions north of Cambridge Gulf and the shores of the Gulf of +Carpentaria, are favoured with an annual visitation of the monsoon from +December to March, penetrating as far as 500 m. into the continent, and +sweeping sometimes across western and southern Queensland to the +northern interior of New South Wales. It is this tropical downpour that +fills and floods the rivers flowing into Lake Eyre and those falling +into the Darling on its right bank. The whole of the east coast of the +continent is well watered. From Cape York almost to the tropic of +Capricorn the rainfall exceeds 50 in. and ranges to over 70 in. At +Brisbane the fall is 50 in., and portions of the New South Wales coast +receive a like quantity, but speaking generally the fall is from 30 in. +to 40 in. The southern shores of the continent receive much less rain. +From Cape Howe to Melbourne the fall may be taken at from 30 in. to 40 +in., Melbourne itself having an average of 25.6 in. West of Port Phillip +the fall is less, averaging 20 in. to 30 in., diminishing greatly away +from the coast. Along the shores of Encounter Bay and St Vincent and +Spencer Gulfs, the precipitation ranges from 10 to 20 in., the yearly +rainfall at Adelaide is a little less than 21 in., while the head of +Spencer Gulf is within the 5 to 10 in. district. The rest of the +southern coast west as far as 124° E., with the exception of the +southern projection of Eyre Peninsula, which receives from 10 to 20 in., +belongs to the district with from 5 to 10 in. annual rainfall. The +south-western angle of the continent, bounded by a line drawn diagonally +from Jurien river to Cape Riche, has an average of from 30 to 40 in. +annual rainfall, diminishing to about 20 to 30 in. in the country along +the diagonal line. The remainder of the south and west coast from 124° +E. to York Sound in the Kimberley district for a distance of some 150 m. +inland has a fall ranging from 10 to 20 in. The 10 to 20 in. rainfall +band circles across the continent through the middle of the Northern +Territory, embraces the entire centre and south-west of Queensland, with +the exception of the extreme south-western angle of the state, and +includes the whole of the interior of New South Wales to a line about +200 m. from the coast, as well as the western and northern portions of +Victoria and South Australia south of the Murray. + + The area of Australia subject to a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in. is + 843,000 sq. m. On the seaward side of this area in the north and east + is the 20 to 30 in. annual rainfall area, and still nearer the sea are + the exceptionally well-watered districts. The following table shows + the area of the rainfall zones in square miles:-- + + Rainfall Area + Rainfall. in sq. m. + + Under 10 inches 1,219,600 + 10 to 20 " 843,100 + 20 to 30 " 399,900 + 30 to 40 " 225,700 + 40 to 50 " 140,300 + 50 to 60 " 47,900 + 60 to 70 " 56,100 + Over 70 " 14,100 + --------- + Total 2,946,700 + + The tropic of Capricorn divides Australia into two parts. Of these the + northern or intertropical portion contains 1,145,000 sq. m., + comprising half of Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the + north-western divisions of Western Australia. The whole of New South + Wales, Victoria and South Australia proper, half of Queensland, and + more than half of Western Australia, comprising 1,801,700 sq. m., are + without the tropics. In a region so extensive very great varieties of + climate are naturally to be expected, but it may be stated as a + general law that the climate of Australia is milder than that of + corresponding lands in the northern hemisphere. During July, which is + the coldest month in southern latitudes, one-half of Australia has a + mean temperature ranging from 45° to 61°, and the other half from 62° + to 80°. The following are the areas subject to the various average + temperatures during the month referred to:-- + + Temperature Area + Fahr. in sq. m. + + 45°-50° 18,800 + 50°-55° 506,300 + 55°-60° 681,800 + 60°-65° 834,400 + 65°-70° 515,000 + 70°-75° 275,900 + 75°-80° 24,500 + + The temperature in December ranges from 60° to above 95° Fahr., half + of Australia having a mean temperature below 84°. Dividing the land + into zones of average summer temperature, the following are the areas + which would fall to each:-- + + Temperature Area + Fahr. in sq. m. + + 60°-65° 67,800 + 65°-70° 63,700 + 70°-75° 352,300 + 75°-80° 439,200 + 80°-85° 733,600 + 85°-90° 570,600 + 90°-95° 584,100 + 95° and over 135,400 + + Judging from the figures just given, it must be conceded that a + considerable area of the continent is not adapted for colonization by + European races. The region with a mean summer temperature in excess of + 95° Fahr. is the interior of the Northern Territory north of the 20th + parallel; and the whole of the country, excepting the seaboard, lying + between the meridians of 120° and 140°, and north of the 25th + parallel, has a mean temperature in excess of 90° Fahr. + + + Queensland. + + The area of Australia is so large that the characteristics of its + climate will not be understood without reference to the individual + states. About one-half of the colony of Queensland lies in the + tropics, the remaining area lying between the tropic and 29° S. The + temperature, however, has a daily range less than that of other + countries under the same isothermal lines. This circumstance is due to + the sea-breezes, which blow with great regularity, and temper what + would otherwise be an excessive heat. The hot winds which prevail + during the summer in some of the other colonies are unknown in + Queensland. Of course, in a territory of such large extent there are + many varieties of climate, and the heat is greater along the coast + than on the elevated lands of the interior. In the northern parts of + the colony the high temperature is very trying to persons of European + descent. The mean temperature at Brisbane, during December, January + and February, is about 76°, while during the months of June, July and + August it averages about 60°. Brisbane, however, is situated near the + extreme southern end of the colony, and its average temperature is + considerably less than that of many of the towns farther north. Thus + the winter in Rockhampton averages nearly 65°, while the summer heat + rises almost to 85°; and at Townsville and Normanton the average + temperature is still higher. The average rainfall along the coast is + high, especially in the north, where it ranges from 60 to 70 in. per + annum, and along a strip of country south from Cape Melville to + Rockingham Bay the average rainfall exceeds 70 in. At Brisbane the + rainfall is about 50 in., taking an average of forty years. A large + area of the interior is watered to the extent of 20 to 30 in. per + annum, but in the west and south, more remote than from 250 to 300 m., + there is a rainfall of less than 20 in. + + + New South Wales. + + Climatically, New South Wales is divided into three marked divisions. + The coastal region has an average summer temperature ranging from 78° + in the north to 67° in the south, with a winter temperature of from + 59° to 52°. Taking the district generally, the difference between the + mean summer and mean winter temperatures may be set down as averaging + not more than 20°, a range smaller than is found in most other parts + of the world. Sydney, situated in latitude 33° 51' S., has a mean + temperature of 62.9° Fahr., which corresponds with that of Barcelona + in Spain and of Toulon in France, the former of these being in + latitude 41° 22' N. and the latter in 43° 7' N. At Sydney the mean + summer temperature is 70.8° Fahr., and that of winter 53.9°. The range + is thus 16.9° Fahr. At Naples, where the mean temperature for the year + is about the same as at Sydney, the summer temperature reaches a mean + of 74.4°, and the mean of winter is 47.6°, with a range 26.8°. The + mean temperature of Sydney for a long series of years was spring 62°, + summer 71°, autumn 64°, winter 54°. + + Passing from the coast to the tableland, a distinct climatic region is + entered. Cooma, with a mean summer temperature of 65.4°, and a mean + winter temperature of 41.4°, may be taken as illustrative of the + climate of the southern tableland, and Armidale of the northern. The + yearly average temperature of the latter is scarcely 65.5°, while the + summer only reaches 67.7°, and the winter falls to 44.4°. + + The climatic conditions of the western districts of the state are + entirely different from those of the other two regions. The summer is + hot, but on the whole the climate is very healthy. The town of Bourke, + lying on the upper Darling, may be taken as an example of many of the + interior districts, and illustrates peculiarly well the defects as + well as the excellencies of the climate of the whole region. Bourke + has exactly the same latitude as Cairo, yet its mean summer + temperature is 1.3° less, and its mean annual temperature 4° less than + that of the Egyptian city. New Orleans, also on the same parallel, is + 4° hotter in summer. As regards winter temperature Bourke leaves + little to be desired. The mean winter reading of the thermometer is + 54.7, and accompanied as this is by clear skies and an absence of + snow, the season is both pleasant and invigorating. The rainfall of + New South Wales ranges from an annual average of 64 in. at various + points on the northern coast, and at Kiandra in the Monaro district, + to 9 in. at Milparinka in the trans-Darling district. The coastal + districts average about 42 in. per annum, the tablelands 32 in., and + the western interior has an average as low as 20 in. At Sydney, the + average rainfall, since observations were commenced, has been 50 in. + + + Victoria. + + The climate of Victoria does not differ greatly from that of New South + Wales. The heat, however, is generally less intense in summer, and the + cold greater in winter. Melbourne, which stands in latitude 37° 50' + S., has a mean temperature of 57.3°, and therefore corresponds with + Washington in the United States, Madrid, Lisbon and Messina. The + difference between summer and winter is, however, less at Melbourne + than at any of the places mentioned, the result of a long series of + observations being spring 57°, summer 65.3°, autumn 58.7°, and winter + 49.2°. The highest recorded temperature in the shade at Melbourne is + 110.7°, and the lowest 27°, but it is rare for the summer heat to + exceed 85°, or for the winter temperature in the daytime to fall below + 40°. Ballarat, the second city of Victoria, lies above 100 m. west + from Melbourne at a height of 1400 ft. above sea-level. It has a + minimum temperature of 29°, and a maximum of 104.5°, the average + yearly mean being 54.1°. The rainfall of Melbourne averages 25.58 in., + the mean number of rainy days being 131. + + + South Australia. + + South Australia proper extends over 26 degrees of latitude, and + naturally presents considerable variations of climate. The coldest + months are June, July and August, during which the temperature is very + agreeable, averaging 53.6°, 51.7°, and 54° in those months + respectively. On the plains slight frosts occur occasionally, and ice + is sometimes seen on the highlands. In summer the sun has great + power, and the temperature reaches 100° in the shade, with hot winds + blowing from the interior. The weather on the whole is remarkably dry. + At Adelaide there are on an average 120 rainy days per annum, with a + mean rainfall of 20-88 in. The country is naturally very healthful, as + evidence of which may be mentioned that no great epidemic has ever + visited the state. + + + Western Australia. + + Western Australia has practically only two seasons, the winter or wet + season, which commences in April and ends in October, and the summer + or dry season, which comprises the remainder of the Year. During the + wet season frequent and heavy rains fall, and thunderstorms, with + sharp showers, occur in the summer, especially on the north-west + coast, which is sometimes visited by hurricanes of great violence. In + the southern and early-settled parts of the state the mean temperature + is about 64°, but in the more northern portions the heat is excessive, + though the dryness of the atmosphere makes it preferable to moist + tropical climates. The average rainfall at Perth is 33 in. per annum. + + The climate of the Northern Territory is extremely not, except on the + elevated tablelands; altogether, the temperature of this part of the + continent is very similar to that of northern Queensland, and the + climate is not favourable to Europeans. The rainfall in the extreme + north, especially in January and February, is very heavy, and the + annual average along the coast is about 63 in. The whole of the + peninsula north of 15° S. has a rainfall considerably exceeding 40 in. + This region is backed by a belt of about 100 m. wide, in which the + rainfall is from 30 to 40 in., from which inwards the rainfall + gradually declines until between Central Mount Stuart and Macdonnell + ranges it falls to between 5 and 10 in. + +_Fauna and Flora._--The origin of the fauna and flora of Australia has +attracted considerable attention. Much accumulated evidence, biological +and geological, has pointed to a southern extension of India, an eastern +extension of South Africa, and a western extension of Australia into the +Indian Ocean. The comparative richness of proteaceous plants in Western +Australia and South Africa first suggested a common source for these +primitive types. Dr H.O. Forbes drew attention to a certain community +amongst birds and other vertebrates, invertebrates, and amongst plants, +on all the lands stretching towards the south pole. A theory was +therefore propounded that these known types were all derived from a +continent which has been named Antarctica. The supposed continent +extended across the south pole, practically joining Australia and South +America. Just as we have evidence of a former mild climate in the arctic +regions, so a similar mild climate has been postulated for Antarctica. +Modern naturalists consider that many of the problems of Australia's +remarkable fauna and flora can be best explained by the following +hypothesis:--The region now covered by the antarctic ice-cap was in +early Tertiary times favoured by a mild climate; here lay an antarctic +continent or archipelago. From an area corresponding to what is now +South America there entered a fauna and flora, which, after undergoing +modification, passed by way of Tasmania to Australia. These immigrants +then developed, with some exceptions, into the present Australian flora +and fauna. This theory has advanced from the position of a disparaged +heresy to acceptance by leading thinkers. The discovery as fossil, in +South America, of primitive or ancestral forms of marsupials has given +it much support. One of these, _Prothylacinus_, is regarded as the +forerunner of the marsupial wolf of Tasmania. An interesting link +between divergent marsupial families, still living in Ecuador, the +_Coenolestes_, is another discovery of recent years. On the Australian +side the fact that Tasmania is richest in marsupial types indicates the +gate by which they entered. It is not to be supposed that this antarctic +element, to which Professor Tate has applied the name _Euronotian_, +entered a desert barren of all life. Previous to its arrival Australia +doubtless possessed considerable vegetation and a scanty fauna, chiefly +invertebrate. At a comparatively recent date Australia received its +third and newest constituent. The islands of Torres Strait have been +shown to be the denuded remnant of a former extension of Cape York +peninsula in North Queensland. Previous to the existence of the strait, +and across its site, there poured into Australia a wealth of Papuan +forms. Along the Pacific slope of the Queensland Cordillera these found +in soil and climate a congenial home. Among the plants the wild banana, +pepper, orange and mangosteen, rhododendron, epiphytic orchids and the +palm; among mammals the bats and rats; among birds the cassowary and +rifle birds; and among reptiles the crocodile and tree snakes, +characterize this element. The numerous facts, geological, geographical +and biological, which when linked together lend great support to this +theory, have been well worked out in Australia by Mr Charles Hedley of +the Australian Museum, Sydney. + + + Fauna. + + The zoology of Australia and Tasmania presents a very conspicuous + point of difference from that of other regions of the globe, in the + prevalence of non-placental mammalia. The vast majority of the + mammalia are provided with an organ in the uterus, by which, before + the birth of their young, a vascular connexion is maintained between + the embryo and the parent animal. There are two orders, the + Marsupialia and the Monotremata, which do not possess this organ; both + these are found in Australia, to which region indeed they are not + absolutely confined. + + The geographical limits of the marsupials are very interesting. The + opossums of America are marsupials, though not showing anomalies as + great as kangaroos and bandicoots (in their feet), and _Myrmecobius_ + (in the number of teeth). Except the opossums, no single living + marsupial is known outside the Australian zoological region. The forms + of life characteristic of India and the Malay peninsula come down to + the island of Bali. Bali is separated from Lombok by a strait not more + than 15 m. wide. Yet this narrow belt of water is the boundary line + between the Australasian and the Indian regions. The zoological + boundary passing through the Bali Strait is called "Wallace's line," + after the eminent naturalist who was its discoverer. He showed that + not only as regards beasts, but also as regards birds, these regions + are thus sharply limited. Australia, he pointed out, has no + woodpeckers and no pheasants, which are widely-spread Indian birds. + Instead of these it has mound-making turkeys, honey-suckers, cockatoos + and brush-tongued lories, all of which are found nowhere else in the + world. + + The marsupials constitute two-thirds of all the Australian species of + mammals. It is the well-known peculiarity of this order that the + female has a pouch or fold of skin upon her abdomen, in which she can + place the young for suckling within reach of her teats. The opossum of + America is the only species out of Australasia which is thus provided. + Australia is inhabited by at least 110 different species of + marsupials, which is about two-thirds of the known species; these have + been arranged in five tribes, according to the food they eat, viz., + the grass-eaters (kangaroos), the root-eaters (wombats), the + insect-eaters (bandicoots), the flesh-eaters (native cats and rats), + and the fruit-eaters (phalangers). + + The kangaroo (_Macropus_) lives in droves in the open grassy plains. + Several smaller forms of the same general appearance are known as + wallabies, and are common everywhere. The kangaroo and most of its + congeners show an extraordinary disproportion of the hind limbs to the + fore part of the body. The rock wallabies again have short tarsi of + the hind legs, with a long pliable tail for climbing, like that of the + tree kangaroo of New Guinea, or that of the jerboa. Of the larger + kangaroos, which attain a weight of 200 lb. and more, eight species + are named, only one of which is found in Western Australia. Fossil + bones of extinct kangaroo species are met with; these kangaroos must + have been of enormous size, twice or thrice that of any species now + living. + + There are some twenty smaller species in Australia and Tasmania, + besides the rock wallabies and the hare kangaroos; these last are + wonderfully swift, making clear jumps 8 or 10 ft. high. Other + terrestrial marsupials are the wombat (_Phascolomys_), a large, + clumsy, burrowing animal, not unlike a pig, which attains a weight of + from 60 to 100 lb.; the bandicoot (_Perameles_), a rat-like creature + whose depredations annoy the agriculturist; the native cat + (_Dasyurus_), noted robber of the poultry yard; the Tasmanian wolf + (_Thylacinus_), which preys on large game; and the recently discovered + _Notoryctes_, a small animal which burrows like a mole in the desert + of the interior. Arboreal species include the well-known opossums + (_Phalanger_); the extraordinary tree-kangaroo of the Queensland + tropics; the flying squirrel, which expands a membrane between the + legs and arms, and by its aid makes long sailing jumps from tree to + tree; and the native bear (_Phascolarctos_), an animal with no + affinities to the bear, and having a long soft fur and no tail. + + The _Myrmecobius_ of Western Australia is a bushy-tailed ant-eater + about the size of a squirrel, and from its lineage and structure of + more than passing interest. It is, Mivart remarks, a survival of a + very ancient state of things. It had ancestors in a flourishing + condition during the Secondary epoch. Its congeners even then lived in + England, as is proved by the fact that their relics have been found in + the Stonesfield oolitic rocks, the deposition of which is separated + from that which gave rise to the Paris Tertiary strata by an abyss of + past time which we cannot venture to express even in thousands of + years. + + We pass on to the other curious order of non-placental mammals, that + of the Monotremata, so called from the structure of their organs of + evacuation with a single orifice, as in birds. Their abdominal bones + are like those of the marsupials; and they are furnished with pouches + for their young, but have no teats, the milk being distilled into + their pouches from the mammary glands. Australia and Tasmania possess + two animals of this order--the echidna, or spiny ant-eater (hairy in + Tasmania), and the _Platypus anatinus_, the duckbilled water mole, + otherwise named the _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_. This odd animal is + provided with a bill or beak, which is not, like that of a bird, + affixed to the skeleton, but is merely attached to the skin and + muscles. + + Australia has no apes, monkeys or baboons, and no ruminant beasts. The + comparatively few indigenous placental mammals, besides the dingo or + wild dog--which, however, may have come from the islands north of this + continent--are of the bat tribe and of the rodent or rat tribe. There + are four species of large fruit-eating bats, called flying foxes, + twenty of insect-eating bats, above twenty of land-rats, and five of + water-rats. The sea produces three different seals, which often ascend + rivers from the coast, and can live in lagoons of fresh water; many + cetaceans, besides the "right whale" and sperm whale; and the dugong, + found on the northern shores, which yields a valuable medicinal oil. + + The birds of Australia in their number and variety of species may be + deemed some compensation for its poverty of mammals; yet it will not + stand comparison in this respect with regions of Africa and South + America in the same latitudes. The black swan was thought remarkable + when discovered, as belying an old Latin proverb. There is also a + white eagle. The vulture is wanting. Sixty species of parrots, some of + them very handsome, are found in Australia. The emu corresponds with + the African and Arabian ostrich, the rhea of South America, and the + cassowary of the Moluccas and New Guinea. In New Zealand this group is + represented by the apteryx, as it formerly was by the gigantic moa, + the remains of which have been found likewise in Queensland. The + graceful _Menura superba_, or lyre-bird, with its tail feathers spread + in the shape of a lyre, is a very characteristic form. The + mound-raising megapodes, the bower-building satin-birds, and several + others, display peculiar habits. The honey-eaters present a great + diversity of plumage. There are also many kinds of game birds, + pigeons, ducks, geese, plovers and quails. The ornithology of New + South Wales and Queensland is more varied and interesting than that of + the other provinces. + + As for reptiles, Australia has a few tortoises, all of one family, and + not of great size. The "leathery turtle," which is herbivorous, and + yields abundance of oil, has been caught at sea off the Illawarra + coast so large as 9 ft. in length. The saurians or lizards are + numerous, chiefly on dry sandy or rocky ground in the tropical region. + The great crocodile of Queensland has been known to attain a length of + 30 ft.; there is a smaller one about 6 ft. in length to be met with in + the shallow lagoons of the interior of the Northern Territory. Lizards + occur in great profusion and variety. The monitor, or fork-tongued + lizard, which burrows in the earth, climbs and swims, is said to grow + to a length of 8 to 9 ft. This species and many others do not extend + to Tasmania. The monitor is popularly known as the goanna, a name + derived from the iguana, an entirely different animal. There are about + twenty kinds of night-lizards, and many which hibernate. One species + can utter a cry when pained or alarmed, and the tall-standing frilled + lizard can lift its forelegs, and squat or hop like a kangaroo. There + is also the _Moloch horridus_ of South and Western Australia, covered + with tubercles bearing large spines, which give it a very strange + aspect. This and some other lizards have power to change their colour, + not only from light to dark, but over some portions of their bodies, + from yellow to grey or red. Frogs of many kinds are plentiful, the + brilliant green frogs being especially conspicuous and noisy. + Australia is rich in snakes, and has more than a hundred different + kinds. Most of these are venomous, but all are not equally dreaded. + Five rather common species are certainly deadly--the death adder, the + brown, the black, the superb and the tiger snakes. During the colder + months these reptiles remain in a torpid state. No certain cure has + been or is likely to be discovered for their poison, but in less + serious cases strychnine has been used with advantage. In tropical + waters a sea snake is found, which, though very poisonous, rarely + bites. Among the inoffensive species are counted the graceful green + "tree snake," which pursues frogs, birds and lizards to the topmost + branches of the forest; also several species of pythons, the commonest + of which is known as the carpet snake. These great reptiles may attain + a length of 10 ft.; they feed on small animals which they crush to + death in their folds. + + The Australian seas are inhabited by many fishes of the same genera as + exist in the southern parts of Asia and Africa. Of those peculiar to + Australian waters may be mentioned the arripis, represented by what is + called among the colonists a salmon trout. A very fine freshwater fish + is the Murray cod, which sometimes weighs 100 lb.; and the golden + perch, found in the same river, has rare beauty of colour. Among the + sea fish, the schnapper is of great value as an article of food, and + its weight comes up to 50 lb. This is the _Pagrus unicolor_, of the + family of _Sparidae_, which includes also the bream. Its colours are + beautiful, pink and red with a silvery gloss; but the male as it grows + old takes on a singular deformity of the head, with a swelling in the + shape of a monstrous human-like nose. These fish frequent rocky shoals + off the eastern coast and are caught in numbers outside Port Jackson + for the Sydney market. Two species of mackerel, differing somewhat + from the European species, are also caught on the coasts. The + so-called red garnet, a pretty fish, with hues of carmine and blue + stripes on its head, is much esteemed for the table. The _Trigla + polyommata_, or flying garnet, is a greater beauty, with its body of + crimson and silver, and its large pectoral fins, spread like wings, of + a rich green, bordered with purple, and relieved by a black and white + spot. Whiting, mullet, gar-fish, rock cod and many others known by + local names, are in the lists of edible fishes belonging to New South + Wales and Victoria. Oysters abound on the eastern coast, and on the + shelving banks of a vast extent of the northern coast the pearl oyster + is the source of a considerable industry. + + Two existing fishes may be mentioned as ranking in interest with the + _Myrmecobius_ (ant-eater) in the eyes of the naturalist. These are the + _Ceratodus Forsteri_ and the Port Jackson shark. The "mud-fish" of + Queensland (_Ceratodus Forsteri_) belongs to an ancient order of + fishes--the Dipnoi, only a few species of which have survived from + past geological periods. The Dipnoi show a distinct transition between + fishes and amphibia. So far the mud-fish has been found only in the + Mary and the Burnett rivers. Hardly of less scientific interest is the + Port Jackson shark (_Heterodontus_). It is a harmless helmeted + ground-shark, living on molluscs, and almost the sole survivor of a + genus abundant in the Secondary rocks of Europe. + + + Flora. + + The eastern parts of Australia are very much richer both in their + botany and in their zoology than any of the other parts. This is due + in part to the different physical conditions there prevailing and in + part to the invasion of the north-eastern portion of the continent by + a number of plants characteristically Melanesian. This element was + introduced via Torres Strait, and spread down the Queensland coast to + portions of the New South Wales littoral, and also round the Gulf of + Carpentaria, but has never been able to obtain a hold in the more arid + interior. It has so completely obliterated the original flora, that a + Queensland coast jungle is almost an exact replication of what may be + seen on the opposite shores of the straits, in New Guinea. This wealth + of plant life is confined to the littoral and the coastal valleys, but + the central valleys and the plateaux have, if not a varied flora, a + considerable wealth of timber trees in every way superior to the flora + inland in the same latitudes. In the interior there is little change + in the general aspect of the vegetation, from the Australian Bight to + the region of Carpentaria, where the exotic element begins. Behind the + luxuriant jungles of the sub-tropical coast, once over the main range, + we find the purely Australian flora with its apparent sameness and + sombre dulness. Physical surroundings rather than latitude determine + the character of the flora. The contour lines showing the heights + above sea-level are the directions along which species spread to form + zones. Putting aside the exotic vegetation of the north and east + coast-line, the Australian bush gains its peculiar character from the + prevalence of the so-called gum-trees (_Eucalyptus_) and the acacias, + of which last there are 300 species, but the eucalypts above all are + everywhere. Dwarfed eucalypts fringe the tree-limit on Mount + Kosciusco, and the soakages in the parched interior are indicated by a + line of the same trees, stunted and straggling. Over the vast + continent from Wilson's Promontory to Cape York, north, south, east + and west--where anything can grow--there will be found a gum-tree. The + eucalypts are remarkable for the oil secreted in their leaves, and the + large quantity of astringent resin of their bark. This resinous + exudation (Kino) somewhat resembles gum, hence the name "gum" tree. It + will not dissolve in water as gums do, but it is soluble in alcohol, + as resin usually is. Many of the gum-trees throw off their bark, so + that it hangs in long dry strips from the trunk and branches, a + feature familiar in "bush" pictures. The bark, resin and "oils" of the + eucalyptus are well known as commercial products. As early as 1866, + tannic acid, gallic acid, wood spirit, acetic acid, essential oil and + eucalyptol were produced from various species of eucalyptus, and + researches made by Australian chemists, notably by Messrs. Baker and + Smith of the Sydney Technical College, have brought to light many + other valuable products likely to prove of commercial value. The genus + _Eucalyptus_ numbers more than 150 species, and provides some of the + most durable timbers known. The iron-bark of the eastern coast uplands + is well known (_Eucalyptus sideroxylon_), and is so called from the + hardness of the wood, the bark not being remarkable except for its + rugged and blackened aspect. Samples of this timber have been studied + after forty-three years' immersion in sea-water. Portions most liable + to destruction, those parts between the tide marks, were found + perfectly sound, and showed no signs of the ravages of marine + organisms. Other valuable timber trees of the eastern portion of the + continent are the blackbutt, tallow-wood, spotted gum, red gum, + mahogany, and blue gum, eucalyptus; and the turpentine (_Syncarpia + laurifolia_), which has proved to be more resistant to the attacks of + teredo than any other timber and is largely used in wharf construction + in infested waters. There are also several extremely valuable soft + timbers, the principal being red cedar (_Cedrela Toona_), silky oak + (_Grevillea robusta_), beech and a variety of teak, with several + important species of pine. The red gum forests of the Murray valley + and the pine forests bordering the Great Plains are important and + valuable. In Western Australia there are extensive forests of + hardwood, principally jarrah (_Eucalyptus marginata_), a very durable + timber; 14,000 sq. m. of country are covered with this species. Jarrah + timber is nearly impervious to the attacks of the teredo, and there is + good evidence to show that, exposed to wear and weather, or placed + under the soil, or used as submarine piles, the wood remained intact + after nearly fifty years' trial. The following figures show the high + density of Australian timber:-- + + Australian Specific + timber. gravity. + + Jarrah 1.12 + Grey iron-bark 1.18 + Red iron-bark 1.22 + Forest oak 1.21 + Tallow wood 1.23 + Mahogany 1.20 + Grey gum .917 + Red gum .995 + + European Specific + timber. gravity. + Ash .753 + Beech .690 + Chestnut .535 + British oak .99 + + The resistance to breaking or rupture of Australian timber is very + high; grey iron-bark with a specific gravity of 1.18 has a modulus of + rupture of 17,900 lb. per sq. in. compared with 11,800 lb. for British + oak with a specific gravity of .69 to .99. No Australian timber in the + foregoing list has a less modulus than 13,100 lb. per sq. in. + + Various "scrubs" characterize the interior, differing very widely from + the coastal scrubs. "Mallee" scrub occupies large tracts of South + Australia and Victoria, covering probably an extent of 16,000 sq. m. + The mallee is a species of eucalyptus growing 12 to 14 ft. high. The + tree breaks into thin stems close to the ground, and these branch + again and again, the leaves being developed umbrella-fashion on the + outer branches. The mallee scrub appears like a forest of dried osier, + growing so close that it is not always easy to ride through it. Hardly + a leaf is visible to the height of one's head; but above, a crown of + thick leather-like leaves shuts out the sunlight. The ground below is + perfectly bare, and there is no water. Nothing could add to the + sterility and the monotony of these mallee scrubs. "Mulga" scrub is a + somewhat similar thicket, covering large areas. The tree in this + instance is one of the acacias, a genus distributed through all parts + of the continent. Some species have rather elegant blossoms, known to + the settlers as "wattle." They serve admirably to break the sombre and + monotonous aspect of the Australian vegetation. Two species of acacia + are remarkable for the delicate and violet-like perfume of their + wood--myall and yarran. The majority of the species of _Acacia_ are + edible and serve as reserve fodder for sheep and cattle. In the + alluvial portions of the interior salsolaceous plants--saltbush, + bluebush, cottonbush--are invaluable to the pastoralist, and to their + presence the pre-eminence of Australia as a wool-producing country is + largely due. + + Grasses and herbage in great variety constitute the most valuable + element of Australian flora from the commercial point of view. The + herbage for the most part grows with marvellous rapidity after a + spring or autumn shower and forms a natural shelter for the more + stable growth of nutritious grasses. + + Under the system of grazing practised throughout Australia it is + customary to allow sheep, cattle and horses to run at large all the + year round within enormous enclosures and to depend entirely upon the + natural growth of grass for their subsistence. Proteaceous plants, + although not exclusively Australian, are exceedingly characteristic of + Australian scenery, and are counted amongst the oldest flowering + plants of the world. The order is easily distinguished by the hard, + dry, woody texture of the leaves and the dehiscent fruits. They are + found in New Zealand and also in New Caledonia, their greatest + developments being on the south-west of the Australian continent. + Proteaceae are found also in Tierra del Fuego and Chile. They are also + abundant in South Africa, where the order forms the most conspicuous + feature of vegetation. The range in species is very limited, no one + being common to eastern and western Australia. The chief genera are + banksia (_honeysuckle_), and hakea (_needle bush_). + + The Moreton Bay pine (_Araucaria Cunninghamii_) is reckoned amongst + the giants of the forest. The genus is associated with one long + extinct in Europe. Moreton Bay pine is chiefly known by the utility of + its wood. Another species, _A. Bidwillii_, or the bunya-bunya, + afforded food in its nut-like seeds to the aborigines. A most + remarkable form of vegetation in the north-west is the gouty-stemmed + tree (_Adansonia Gregorii_), one of the Malvaceae. It is related + closely to the famous baobab of tropical Africa. The "grass-tree" + (_Xanthorrhoea_), of the uplands and coast regions, is peculiarly + Australian in its aspect. It is seen as a clump of wire-like leaves, a + few feet in diameter, surrounding a stem, hardly thicker than a + walking-stick, rising to a height of 10 or 12 ft. This terminates in a + long spike thickly studded with white blossoms. The grass-tree gives + as distinct a character to an Australian picture as the agave and + cactus do to the Mexican landscape. With these might be associated the + gigantic lily of Queensland (_Nymphaea gigantea_), the leaves of which + float on water, and are quite 18 in. across. There is also a gigantic + lily (_Doryanthes excelsa_) which grows to a height of 15 feet. The + "flame tree" is a most conspicuous feature of an Illawarra landscape, + the largest racemes of crimson red suggesting the name. The waratah or + native tulip, the magnificent flowering head of which, with the + kangaroo, is symbolic of the country, is one of the Proteaceae. The + natives were accustomed to suck its tubular flowers for the honey they + contained. The "nardoo" seed, on which the aborigines sometimes + contrived to exist, is a creeping plant, growing plentifully in swamps + and shallow pools, and belongs to the natural order of Marsileaceae. + The spore-cases remain after the plant is dried up and withered. These + are collected by the natives, and are known over most of the continent + as nardoo. + + No speculation of hypothesis has been propounded to account + satisfactorily for the origin of the Australian flora. As a step + towards such hypothesis it has been noted that the Antarctic, the + South African, and the Australian floras have many types in common. + There is also to a limited extent a European element present. One + thing is certain, that there is in Australia a flora that is a remnant + of a vegetation once widely distributed. Heer has described such + Australian genera as Banksia, Eucalyptus, _Grevillea_ and _Hakea_ from + the Miocene of Switzerland. Another point agreed upon is that the + Australian flora is one of vast antiquity. There are genera so far + removed from every living genus that many connecting links must have + become extinct. The region extending round the south-western extremity + of the continent has a peculiarly characteristic assemblage of typical + Australian forms, notably a great abundance of the Proteaceae. This + flora, isolated by arid country from the rest of the continent, has + evidently derived its plant life from an outside source, probably from + lands no longer existing. + + +POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS + +_Population._[2]--The Australian people are mainly of British origin, +only 3¼% of the population of European descent being of non-British +race. It is certain that the aborigines (see the section on Aborigines +below) are very much less numerous than when the country was first +colonized, but their present numbers can be given for only a few of the +states. At the census of 1901, 48,248 aborigines were enumerated, of +whom 7434 were in New South Wales, 652 in Victoria, 27,123 in South +Australia, and 6212 in Western Australia. The assertion by the +Queensland authorities that there are 50,000 aborigines in that state is +a crude estimate, and may be far wide of the truth. In South Australia +and the Northern Territory a large number are outside the bounds of +settlement, and it is probable that they are as numerous there as in +Queensland. The census of Western Australia included only those +aborigines in the employment of the colonists; and as a large part of +this, the greatest of the Australian states, is as yet unexplored, it +may be presumed that the aborigines enumerated were very far short of +the whole number of persons of that race in the state. Taking all things +into consideration, the aboriginal population of the continent may be +set down at something like 180,000. Chinese, numbering about 30,000, are +chiefly found in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, and the Northern +Territory. Of Japanese there were 3500, of Hindu and Sinhalese 4600, +according to recent computation, but the policy of the Commonwealth is +adverse to further immigration of other than whites. South Sea Islanders +and other coloured races, numbering probably about 15,000, were in 1906 +to be found principally in Queensland, but further immigration of +Pacific Islanders to Australia is now restricted, and the majority of +those in the country in 1906 were deported by the middle of 1907. + +At the close of 1906 the population of Australia was approximately +4,120,000, exclusive of aborigines. The increase of population since +1871 was as follows: 1871, 1,668,377; 1881, 2,252,617; 1891, 3,183,237; +1901, 3,773,248. The expansion has been due mainly to the natural +increase; that is, by reason of excess of births over deaths. +Immigration to Australia has been very slight since 1891, owing +originally to the stoppage of progress consequent on the bank crisis of +1893, and, subsequently, to the disinclination of several of the state +governments towards immigration and their failure to provide for the +welfare of immigrants on their arrival. During 1906 a more rational view +of the value of immigration was adopted by the various state governments +and by the federal government, and immigration to Australia is now +systematically encouraged. Australia's gain of population by +immigration,--i.e. the excess of the inward over the outward movement +of a population--since the discovery of gold in 1851, arranged in ten +years periods, was + + 1852-1861 520,713 + 1862-1871 188,158 + 1872-1881 223,326 + 1882-1891 374,097 + 1892-1901 2,377 + +During the five years following the last year of the foregoing table, +there was practically no increase in population by immigration. + +The birth rate averages 26.28 per thousand of the population and the +death rate 12.28, showing a net increase of 14 per thousand by reason of +the excess of births over deaths. The marriage rate varies as in other +countries from year to year according to the degree of prosperity +prevailing. In the five years 1881-1888 the rate was 8.08 marriages +(16.1 persons) per thousand of the population, declining to 6.51 in +1891-1895; in recent years there has been a considerable improvement, +and the Australian marriage rate may be quoted as ranging between 6.75 +and 7.25. The death rate of Australia is much below that of European +countries and is steadily declining. During the twenty years preceding +the census of 1901 there was a fall in the death rate of 3.4 per +thousand, of which, however, 1 per thousand is attributable to the +decline in the birth rate, the balance being attributable to improved +sanitary conditions. + +_Territorial Divisions._--Australia is politically divided into five +states, which with the island of Tasmania form the Commonwealth of +Australia. The area of the various states is as follows: + + Sq. m. + New South Wales 310,700 + Victoria 87,884 + Queensland 668,497 + South Australia 903,690 + Western Australia 975,920 + --------- + 2,946,691 + Tasmania 26,215 + ========= + Commonwealth 2,972,906 + +To the area of the Commonwealth shown in the table might be added that +of New Guinea, 90,000 sq. m.; this would bring the area of the territory +controlled by the Commonwealth to 3,062,906 sq. m. The distribution of +population at the close of 1906 (4,118,000) was New South Wales +1,530,000, Victoria 1,223,000, Queensland 534,000, South Australia +381,000, Western Australia 270,000, Tasmania 180,000. The rate of +increase since the previous census was 1.5% per annum, varying from 0.31 +in Victoria to 2.06 in New South Wales and 6.9 in Western Australia. + +Australia contains four cities whose population exceeds 100,000, and +fifteen with over 10,000. The principal cities and towns are Sydney +(pop. 530,000), Newcastle, Broken Hill, Parramatta, Goulburn, Maitland, +Bathurst, Orange, Lithgow, Tamworth, Grafton, Wagga and Albury, in New +South Wales; Melbourne (pop. 511,900), Ballarat, Bendigo, Geelong, +Eaglehawk, Warrnambool, Castlemaine, and Stawell in Victoria; Brisbane +(pop. 128,000), Rockhampton, Maryborough, Townsville, Gympie, Ipswich, +and Toowoomba in Queensland; Adelaide (pop. about 175,000), Port +Adelaide and Port Pirie in South Australia; Perth (pop. 56,000), +Fremantle, and Kalgoorlie in Western Australia; and Hobart (pop. 35,500) +and Launceston in Tasmania. + +_Defence._--Up to the end of the 19th century, little was thought of any +locally-raised or locally-provided defensive forces, the mother-country +being relied upon. But the Transvaal War of 1899-1902, to which +Australia sent 6310 volunteers (principally mounted rifles), and the +gradual increase of military sentiment, brought the question more to the +front, and more and more attention was given to making Australian +defence a matter of local concern. Naval defence in any case remained +primarily a question for the Imperial navy, and by agreement (1903, for +ten years) between the British government and the governments of the +Commonwealth (contributing an annual subsidy of £200,000) and of New +Zealand (£40,000), an efficient fleet patrolled the Australasian waters, +Sydney, its headquarters, being ranked as a first-class naval station. +Under the agreement a royal naval reserve was maintained, three of the +Imperial vessels provided being utilized as drill ships for crews +recruited from the Australian states. At the end of 1908 the strength of +the naval forces under the Commonwealth defence department was: +permanent, 217, naval militia, 1016; the estimated expenditure for +1908-1909 being £63,531. In 1908-1909 a movement began for the +establishment by Australia of a local flotilla of torpedo-boat +destroyers, to be controlled by the Commonwealth in peace time, but +subject to the orders of the British admiralty in war time, though not +to be removed from the Australian coast without the sanction of the +Commonwealth; and by 1909 three such vessels had been ordered in England +preparatory to building others in Australia. The military establishment +at the beginning of 1909 was represented by a small permanent force of +about 1400, a militia strength of about 17,000, and some 6000 +volunteers, besides 50,000 members of rifle clubs and 30,000 cadets; the +expenditure being (estimate, 1908-1909) £623,946. But a reorganization +of the military forces, on the basis of obligatory national training, +was already contemplated, though the first Bill introduced for this +purpose by Mr Deakin's government (Sept. 1908) was dropped, and in 1909 +the subject was still under discussion. + +_Religion._--There is no state church in Australia, nor is the teaching +of religion in any way subsidized by the state. The Church of England +claims as adherents 39% of the population, and the Roman Catholic Church +22%; next in numerical strength are the Wesleyans and other Methodists, +numbering 12%, the various branches of the Presbyterians 11%, +Congregationalists 2%, and Baptists 2%. These proportions varied very +little between 1881 and 1906, and may be taken as accurately +representing the present strength of the various Christian +denominations. Churches of all denominations are liberally supported +throughout the states, and the residents of every settlement, however +small, have their places of worship erected and maintained by their own +contributions. + +_Instruction._--Education is very widely distributed, and in every state +it is compulsory for children of school ages to attend school. The +statutory ages differ in the various states; in New South Wales and +Western Australia it is from 6 to 13 years inclusive, in Victoria 6 to +12 years, in Queensland 6 to 11 years, and in South Australia 7 to 12 +years inclusive. Religious instruction is not imparted by the state-paid +teachers in any state, though in certain states persons duly authorized +by the religious organizations are allowed to give religious instruction +to children of their own denomination where the parents' consent has +been obtained. According to the returns for 1905 there were 7292 state +schools, with 15,628 teachers and 648,927 pupils, and the average +attendance of scholars was 446,000. Besides state schools there were +2145 private schools, with 7825 teachers and 137,000 scholars, the +average number of scholars in attendance being 120,000. The census of +1901 showed that about 83% of the whole population and more than 91% of +the population over five years of age could read and write. There was, +therefore, a residue of 9% of illiterates, most of whom were not born in +Australia. The marriage registers furnish another test of education. In +1905 only ten persons in every thousand married were unable to sign +their names, thus proving that the number of illiterate adults of +Australian birth is very small. + +Instruction at state schools is either free or at merely nominal cost, +and high schools, technical colleges and agricultural colleges are +maintained by appropriations from the general revenues of the states. +There are also numerous grammar schools and other private schools. +Universities have been established at Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and +Hobart, and are well equipped and numerously attended; they are in part +supported by grants from the public funds and in part by private +endowments and the fees paid by students. The number of students +attending lectures is about 2500 and the annual income a little over +£100,000. The cost of public instruction in Australia averages about +11s. 4d. per inhabitant, and the cost per scholar in average attendance +at state schools is £4:13:9. + +_Pastoral and Agricultural Industries._--The continent is essentially a +pastoral one, and the products of the flocks and herds constitute the +chief element in the wealth of Australia. Practically the whole of the +territory between the 145° meridian and the Great Dividing Range, as +well as extensive tracts in the south and west, are a natural sheep +pasture with climatic conditions and indigenous vegetation pre-eminently +adapted for the growth of wool of the highest quality. Numerically the +flocks of Australia represent one-sixth of the world's sheep, and in +just over half a century (1851-1905) the exports of Australian wool +alone reached the value of £650,000,000. During the same period, owing +to the efforts of pastoralists to improve their flocks, there was a +gradual increase in the weight of wool produced per sheep from 3¼ lb. to +an average of over 7 lb. The cattle and horse-breeding industries are of +minor importance as compared with wool-growing, but nevertheless +represent a great source of wealth, with vast possibilities of expansion +in the over-sea trade. The perfection of refrigeration in over-sea +carriage, which has done so much to extend the markets for Australian +beef and mutton, has also furthered the expansion of dairying, there +being an annual output of over 160 million lb. of butter, valued at +£6,000,000; of this about 64 million lb., valued at £2,500,000, is +exported annually to British markets. + +Next to the pastoral industry, agriculture is the principal source of +Australian wealth. At the close of 1905 the area devoted to tillage was +9,365,000 acres, the area utilized for the production of breadstuffs +being 6,270,000 acres or over two-thirds of the whole extent of +cultivation. At first wheat was cultivated solely in the coastal +country, but experience has shown that the staple cereal can be most +successfully grown over almost any portion of the arable lands within +the 20 to 40 in. rainfall areas. The value of Australian wheat and flour +exported in 1905 was £5,500,000. + +Other important crops grown are--maize, 324,000 acres; oats, 493,000 +acres; other grains, 160,000 acres; hay, 1,367,000 acres; potatoes, +119,000 acres; sugar-cane, 141,000 acres; vines, 65,000 acres; and other +crops, 422,000 acres. The chief wheat lands are in Victoria, South +Australia and New South Wales; the yield averages about 9 bushels to the +acre; this low average is due to the endeavour of settlers on new lands +to cultivate larger areas than their resources can effectively deal +with; the introduction of scientific farming should almost double the +yield. Maize and sugar-cane are grown in New South Wales and Queensland. +The vine is cultivated in all the states, but chiefly in South +Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. Australia produces abundant +quantities and nearly all varieties of fruits; but the kinds exported +are chiefly oranges, pineapples, bananas and apples. Tobacco thrives +well in New South Wales and Victoria, but kinds suitable for exportation +are not largely grown. Compared with the principal countries of the +world, Australia does not take a high position in regard to the gross +value of the produce of its tillage, the standard of cultivation being +for the most part low and without regard to maximum returns, but in +value per inhabitant it compares fairly well; indeed, some of the states +show averages which surpass those of many of the leading agricultural +countries. For 1905 the total value of agricultural produce estimated at +the place of production was £18,750,000 sterling, or about £4:13:4 per +inhabitant. + +_Timber Industry._--Although the timbers of commercial value are +confined practically to the eastern and a portion of the western coastal +belt and a few inland tracts of Australia, they constitute an important +national asset. The early settlement of heavily timbered country was +characterized by wanton destruction of vast quantities of magnificent +timber; but this waste is a thing of the past, and under the pressure of +a demand for sound timber both for local use and for exportation, the +various governments are doing much to conserve the state forests. In +Western Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland there are +many hundreds of well-equipped saw-mills affording employment to about +5000 men. The export of timber is in ordinary years valued at a million +sterling and the total production at £2,250,000. + +_Fisheries._--Excellent fish of many varieties abound in the Australian +seas and in many of the rivers. In several of the states, fish have been +introduced successfully from other countries. Trout may now be taken in +many of the mountain streams. At one time whaling was an important +industry on the coasts of New South Wales and Tasmania, and afterwards +on the Western Australian coasts. The industry gravitated to New +Zealand, and finally died out, chiefly through the wasteful practice of +killing the calves to secure the capture of the mothers. Of late years +whaling has again attracted attention, and a small number of vessels +prosecute the industry during the season. The only source of maritime +wealth that is now being sufficiently exploited to be regarded as an +industry is the gathering of pearl-oysters from the beds off the +northern and north-western coasts of the continent. In Queensland waters +there are about 300 vessels, and on the Western Australian coast about +450 licensed craft engaged in the industry, the annual value of +pearl-shell and pearls raised being nearly half a million sterling. +Owing to the depletion of some of the more accessible banks, and to +difficulties in connexion with the employment of coloured crews, many of +the vessels have now gone farther afield. As the pearl-oyster is +remarkably prolific, it is considered by experts that within a few years +of their abandonment by fishing fleets the denuded banks will become as +abundantly stocked as ever. + + + Gold. + +_Mineral Production._--Australia is one of the great gold producers of +the world, and its yield in 1905 was about £16,000,000 sterling, or +one-fourth of the gold output of the world; and the total value of its +mineral production was approximately £25,000,000. Gold is found +throughout Australia, and the present prosperity of the states is +largely due to the discoveries of this metal, the development of other +industries being, in a country of varied resources, a natural sequence +to the acquisition of mineral treasure. From the date of its first +discovery, up to the close of 1905, gold to the value of £460,000,000 +sterling has been obtained in Australia. Victoria, in a period of +fifty-four years, contributed about £273,000,000 to this total, and is +still a large producer, its annual yield being about 800,000 oz., 29,000 +men being engaged in the search for the precious metal. Queensland's +annual output is between 750,000 and 800,000 oz.; the number of men +engaged in gold-mining is 10,000. In New South Wales the greatest +production was in 1852, soon after the first discovery of the precious +metal, when the output was valued at £2,660,946; the production in 1905 +was about 270,000 oz., valued at £1,150,000. For many years Western +Australia was considered to be destitute of mineral deposits of any +value, but it is now known that a rich belt of mineral country extends +from north to south. The first important discovery was made in 1882, +when gold was found in the Kimberley district; but it was not until a +few years later that this rich and extensive area was developed. In 1887 +gold was found in Yilgarn, about 200 m. east of Perth. This was the +first of the many rich discoveries in the same district which have made +Western Australia the chief gold-producer of the Australian group. In +1907 there were eighteen goldfields in the state, and it was estimated +that over 30,000 miners were actively engaged in the search for gold. In +1905 the production amounted to 1,983,000 oz., valued at £8,300,000. +Tasmania is a gold producer to the extent of about 70,000 or 80,000 oz. +a year, valued at £300,000; South Australia produces about 30,000 oz. + +Gold is obtained chiefly from quartz reefs, but there are still some +important alluvial deposits being worked. The greatest development of +quartz reefing is found in Victoria, some of the mines being of great +depth. There are eight mines in the Bendigo district over 3000 ft. deep, +and fourteen over 2500 ft. deep. In the Victoria mine a depth of 3750 +ft. has been reached, and in Lazarus mine 3424 ft. In the Ballarat +district a depth of 2520 ft. has been reached in the South Star mine. In +Queensland there is one mine 3156 ft. deep, and several others exceed +2000 ft. in depth. A considerable number of men are engaged in the +various states on alluvial fields, in hydraulic sluicing, and dredging +is now adopted for the winning of gold in river deposits. So far this +form of winning is chiefly carried on in New South Wales, where there +are about fifty gold-dredging plants in successful operation. Over +70,000 men are employed in the gold-mining industry, more than +two-thirds of them being engaged in quartz mining. + + + Silver. + + Silver has been discovered in all the states, either alone or in the + form of sulphides, antimonial and arsenical ores, chloride, bromide, + iodide and chloro-bromide of silver, and argentiferous lead ores, the + largest deposits of the metal being found in the last-mentioned form. + The leading silver mines are in New South Wales, the returns from the + other states being comparatively insignificant. The fields of New + South Wales have proved to be of immense value, the yield of silver + and lead during 1905 being £2,500,000, and the total output to the end + of the year named over £40,000,000. The Broken Hill field, which was + discovered in 1883, extends over 2500 sq. m. of country, and has + developed into one of the principal mining centres of the world. It is + situated beyond the river Darling, and close to the boundary between + New South Wales and South Australia. The lodes occur in Silurian + metamorphic micaceous schists, intruded by granite, porphyry and + diorite, and traversed by numerous quartz reefs, some of which are + gold-bearing. The Broken Hill lode is the largest yet discovered. It + varies in width from 10 ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several + miles. Although indications of silver abound in all the other states, + no fields of great importance have yet been discovered. Up to the end + of 1904 Australia had produced silver to the value of £45,000,000. At + Broken Hill mines about 11,000 miners are employed. + + + Copper. + + Copper is known to exist in all the states, and has been mined + extensively in South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and + Tasmania. The low quotations which ruled for a number of years had a + depressing effect upon the industry, and many mines once profitably + worked were temporarily closed, but in 1906 there was a general + revival. The discovery of copper had a marked effect on the fortunes + of South Australia at a time when the young colony was surrounded by + difficulties. The first important mine, the Kapunda, was opened up in + 1842. It is estimated that at one time 2000 tons were produced + annually, but the mine was closed in 1879. In 1845 the celebrated + Burra Burra mine was discovered. This mine proved to be very rich, and + paid £800,000 in dividends to the original owners. For a number of + years, however, the mine has been suffered to remain untouched, as the + deposits originally worked were found to be depicted. For many years + the average output was from 10,000 to 13,000 tons of ore, yielding + from 22 to 23% of copper. For the period of thirty years during which + the mine was worked the production of ore amounted to 234,648 tons, + equal to 51,622 tons of copper, valued at £4,749,924. The Wallaroo and + Moonta mines, discovered in 1860 and 1861, proved to be even more + valuable than the Burra Burra, the Moonta mines employing at one time + upwards of 1600 hands. The dividends paid by these mines amounted to + about £1,750,000 sterling. The satisfactory price obtained during + recent years has enabled renewed attention to be paid to copper mining + in South Australia, and the production of the metal in 1905 was valued + at £470,324. The principal deposits of copper in New South Wales are + found in the central part of the state between the Macquarie, Darling + and Bogan rivers. Deposits have also been found in the New England and + southern districts, as well as at Broken Hill, showing that the + mineral is widely distributed throughout the state. The more important + mines are those of Cobar, where the Great Cobar mine produces annually + nearly 4000 tons of refined copper. In northern Queensland copper is + found throughout the Cloncurry district, in the upper basin of the + Star river, and the Herberton district. The returns from the copper + fields in the state are at present a little over half a million + sterling per annum, and would be still greater if it were not for the + lack of suitable fuel for smelting purposes, which renders the + economical treatment of the ore difficult; the development of the + mines is also retarded by the want of easy and cheaper communication + with the coast. In Western Australia copper deposits have been worked + for some years. Very rich lodes of the metal have been found in the + Northampton, Murchison and Champion Bay districts, and also in the + country to the south of these districts on the Irwin river. Tasmania + is now the largest copper-producing state of the Commonwealth; in 1905 + the output was over £672,010 and in earlier years even larger. The + chief mines belong to the Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co., and are + situated on the west side of the island with an outlet by rail to + Strahan on the west coast. The total value of copper produced in + Australia up to the end of 1905 was £42,500,000 sterling, £24,500,000 + having been obtained in South Australia, £7,500,000 in New South + Wales, £6,400,000 in Tasmania and over £3,500,000 in Queensland. + + + Tin. + + Tin was known to exist in Australia from the first years of + colonization. The wealth of Queensland and the Northern Territory in + this mineral, according to the reports of Dr Jack, late Government + geologist of the former state, and the late Rev. J.E. Tenison-Woods, + appears to be very great. The most important tin-mines in Queensland + are in the Herberton district, south-west of Cairns; at Cooktown, on + the Annan and Bloomfield rivers; and at Stanthorpe, on the border of + New South Wales. Herberton and Stanthorpe have produced more than + three-fourths of the total production of the state. Towards the close + of the 19th century the production greatly decreased in consequence of + the low price of the metal, but in 1899 a stimulus was given to the + industry, and since then the production has increased very + considerably, the output for 1905 being valued at £989,627. In New + South Wales lode tin occurs principally in the granite and stream tin + under the basaltic country in the extreme north of the state, at + Tenterfield, Emmaville, Tingha, and in other districts of New England. + The metal has also been discovered in the Barrier ranges, and many + other places. The value of the output in 1905 was £226,110. The yield + of tin in Victoria is very small, and until lately no fields of + importance have been discovered; but towards the latter end of 1899 + extensive deposits were reported to exist in the Gippsland + district--at Omeo and Tarwin. In South Australia tin-mining is + unimportant. In Western Australia the production from the tin-fields + at Greenbushes and elsewhere was valued at £87,000. Tasmania during + the last few years has attained the foremost position in the + production of tin, the annual output now being about £363,000. The + total value of tin produced in Australia is nearly a million sterling + per annum, and the total production to the end of 1905 was + £22,500,000, of which Tasmania produced about 40%, New South Wales + one-third, Queensland a little more than a fourth. + + + Iron. + + Iron is distributed throughput Australia, but for want of capital for + developing the fields this industry has not progressed. In New South + Wales there are, together with coal and limestone in unlimited supply, + important deposits of rich iron ores suitable for smelting purposes; + and for the manufacture of steel of certain descriptions abundance of + manganese, chrome and tungsten ores are available. The most extensive + fields are in the Mittagong, Wallerawang and Rylstone districts, which + are roughly estimated to contain in the aggregate 12,944,000 tons of + ore, containing 5,853,000 tons of metallic iron. Extensive deposits, + which are being developed successfully, occur in Tasmania, it being + estimated that there are, within easy shipping facilities, 17,000,000 + tons of ore. Magnetite, or magnetic iron, the richest of all iron + ores, is found in abundance near Wallerawang in New South Wales. The + proximity of coal-beds now being worked should accelerate the + development of the iron deposits, which, on an average, contain 41% of + metal. Magnetite occurs in great abundance in Western Australia, + together with haematite, which would be of enormous value if cheap + labour were available. Goethite, limonite and haematite are found in + New South Wales, at the junction of the Hawkesbury sandstone formation + and the Wianamatta shale, near Nattai, and are enhanced in their value + by their proximity to coal-beds. Near Lithgow extensive deposits of + limonite, or clay-band ore, are interbedded with coal. Some samples of + ore, coal and limestone, obtained in the Mittagong district, with + pig-iron and castings manufactured therefrom, were exhibited at the + Mining Exhibition in London and obtained a first award. + + + Other Minerals. + + Antimony is widely diffused throughout Australia, and is sometimes + found associated with gold. In New South Wales the principal centre of + this industry is Hillgrove, near Armidale, where the Eleanora Mine, + one of the richest in the state, is situated. The ore is also worked + for gold. In Victoria the production of antimony gave employment in + 1890 to 238 miners, but owing to the low price of the metal, + production has almost ceased. In Queensland the fields were all + showing development in 1891, when the output exhibited a very large + increase compared with that of former years; but, as in the case of + Victoria, the production of the metal seems to have ceased. Good lodes + of stibnite (sulphide of antimony) have been found near Roebourne in + Western Australia, but no attempt has yet been made to work them. + + Bismuth is known to exist in all the Australian states, but up to the + present time it has been mined for only in three states, viz. New + South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania. It is usually + found in association with tin and other minerals. The principal mine + in New South Wales is situated at Kingsgate, in the New England + district, where the mineral is generally associated with molybdenum + and gold. + + Manganese probably exists in all the states, deposits having been + found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia, + the richest specimens being found in New South Wales. Little, however, + has been done to utilize the deposits, the demands of the colonial + markets being extremely limited. The ore generally occurs in the form + of oxides, manganite and pyrolusite, and contains a high percentage of + sesquioxide of manganese. + + Platinum and the allied compound metal iridosmine have been found in + New South Wales, but so far in inconsiderable quantities. Iridosmine + occurs commonly with gold or tin in alluvial drifts. + + The rare element tellurium has been discovered in New South Wales at + Bingara and other parts of the northern districts, as well as at + Tarana, on the western line, though at present in such minute + quantities as would not repay the cost of working. At many of the + mines at Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, large quantities of ores of + telluride of gold have been found in the lode formations. + + Lead is found in all the Australian states, but is worked only when + associated with silver. In Western Australia the lead occurs in the + form of sulphides and carbonates of great richness, but the quantity + of silver mixed with it is very small. The lodes are most frequently + of great size, containing huge masses of galena, and so little gangue + that the ore can very easily be dressed to 83 or 84%. The association + of this metal with silver in the Broken Hill mines of New South Wales + adds very greatly to the value of the product. + + Mercury is found in New South Wales and Queensland. In New South + Wales, in the form of cinnabar, it has been discovered on the + Cudgegong river, near Rylstone, and it also occurs at Bingara, + Solferino, Yulgilbar and Cooma. In the last-named place the assays of + ore yielded 22% of mercury. + + Titanium, in the minerals known as octahedrite and brookite, is found + in alluvial deposits in New South Wales, in conjunction with diamonds. + + Wolfram (tungstate of iron and manganese) occurs in some of the + states, notably in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland. + Scheelite, another mineral of tungsten, is also found in Queensland. + Molybdenum, in the form of molybdenite (sulphide of molybdenum), is + found in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, associated in the + parent state with tin and bismuth in quartz reefs. + + Zinc ores, in the several varieties of carbonates, silicates, oxide, + sulphide and sulphate of zinc, have been found in several of the + Australian states but have attracted little attention except in New + South Wales, where special efforts are being made successfully to + produce a high-grade zinc concentrate from the sulphide ores. Several + companies are devoting all their energies to zinc extraction, and the + output is now equal to about 5% of the world's production. + + Nickel, so abundant in the island of New Caledonia, has up to the + present been found in none of the Australian states except Queensland + and Tasmania. Few attempts, however, have been made to prospect + systematically for this valuable mineral. + + Cobalt occurs in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, and + efforts have been made in the former state to treat the ore, the metal + having a high commercial value; but the market is small, and no + attempt has been made up to 1907 to produce it on any large scale. The + manganese ores of the Bathurst district of New South Wales often + contain a small percentage of cobalt--sufficient, indeed, to warrant + further attempts to work them. In New South Wales chromium is found in + the northern portion of the state, in the Clarence and Tamworth + districts and also near Gundagai. It is usually associated with + serpentine. In the Gundagai district the industry was rapidly becoming + a valuable one, but the low price of chrome has greatly restricted the + output. Chromium has been discovered in Tasmania also. + + Arsenic, in its well-known and beautiful forms, orpiment and realgar, + is found in New South Wales and Victoria. It usually occurs in + association with other minerals in veins. + + + Fuel. + + The Australian states have been bountifully supplied with mineral + fuel. Five distinct varieties of black coal, of well-characterized + types, may be distinguished, and these, with the two extremes of brown + coal or lignite and anthracite, form a perfectly continuous series. + Brown coal, or lignite, occurs principally in Victoria. Attempts have + frequently been made to use the mineral for ordinary fuel purposes, + but its inferior quality has prevented its general use. Black coal + forms one of the principal resources of New South Wales; and in the + other states the deposits of this valuable mineral are being rapidly + developed. Coal of a very fair description was discovered in the basin + of the Irwin river, in Western Australia, as far back as the year + 1846. It has been ascertained from recent explorations that the area + of carboniferous formation in that state extends from the Irwin + northwards to the Gascoyne river, about 300 m., and probably all the + way to the Kimberley district. The most important discovery of coal in + the state, so far, is that made in the bed of the Collie river, near + Bunbury, to the south of Perth. The coal has been treated and found to + be of good quality, and there are grounds for supposing that there are + 250,000,000 tons in the field. Dr Jack, late government geologist of + Queensland, considers the extent of the coal-fields of that state to + be practically unlimited, and is of opinion that the carboniferous + formations extend to a considerable distance under the Great Western + Plains. It is roughly estimated that the Coal Measures at present + practically explored extend over an area of about 24,000 sq. m. + Coal-mining is an established industry in Queensland, and is + progressing satisfactorily. The mines, however, are situated too far + from the coast to permit of serious competition with Newcastle in an + export trade, and the output is practically restricted to supplying + local requirements. The coal-fields of New South Wales are situated in + three distinct regions--the northern, southern and western districts. + The first of these comprises chiefly the mines of the Hunter river + districts; the second includes the Illawarra district, and, generally, + the coastal regions to the south of Sydney, together with Berrima, on + the tableland; and the third consists of the mountainous regions on + the Great Western railway and extends as far as Dubbo. The total area + of the Carboniferous strata of New South Wales is estimated at 23,950 + sq. m. The seams vary in thickness. One of the richest has been found + at Greta in the Hunter river district; it contains an average + thickness of 41 ft. of clean coal, and the quantity underlying each + acre of ground has been computed to be 63,700 tons. The coal mines of + New South Wales give employment to 14,000 persons, and the annual + production is over 6,600,000 tons. Black coal has been discovered in + Victoria, and about 250,000 tons are now being raised. The principal + collieries in the state are the Outtrim Howitt, the Coal Creek + Proprietary and the Jumbunna. In South Australia, at Leigh's Creek, + north of Port Augusta, coal-beds have been discovered. The quantity of + coal extracted annually in Australia had in 1906 reached 7,497,000 + tons. + + Kerosene shale (torbanite) is found in several parts of New South + Wales. It is a species of cannel coal, somewhat similar to the Boghead + mineral of Scotland, but yielding a much larger percentage of volatile + hydro-carbon than the Scottish mineral. The richest quality yields + about 100 to 130 gallons of crude oil per ton, or 17,000 to 18,000 + cub. ft. of gas, with an illuminating power of 35 to 40 sperm candles, + when gas only is extracted from the shale. + + Large deposits of alum occur close to the village of Bulladelah, 30 m. + from Port Stephens, New South Wales. It is said to yield well, and a + quantity of the manufactured alum is sent to Sydney for local + consumption. Marble is found in many parts of New South Wales and + South Australia. Kaolin, fire-clays and brick-clays are common to all + the states. Except in the vicinity of cities and townships, however, + little use has been made of the abundant deposits of clay. Kaolin, or + porcelain clay, although capable of application to commercial + purposes, has not as yet been utilized to any extent, although found + in several places in New South Wales and in Western Australia. + + Asbestos has been found in New South Wales in the Gundagai Bathurst + and Broken Hill districts--in the last-mentioned district in + considerable quantities. Several specimens of very fair quality have + also been met with in Western Australia. + + + Gems. + + Many descriptions of gems and gem stones have been discovered in + various parts of the Australian states, but systematic search has been + made principally for the diamond and the noble opal. Diamonds are + found in all the states; but only in New South Wales have any attempts + been made to work the diamond drifts. The best of the New South Wales + diamonds are harder and much whiter than the South African diamonds, + and are classified as on a par with the best Brazilian gems, but no + large specimens have yet been found. The finest opal known is obtained + in the Upper Cretaceous formation at White Cliffs, near Wilcannia, New + South Wales, and at these mines about 700 men find constant + employment. Other precious stones, including the sapphire, emerald, + oriental emerald, ruby, opal, amethyst, garnet, chrysolite, topaz, + cairngorm, onyx, zircon, &c., have been found in the gold and tin + bearing drifts and river gravels in numerous localities throughout the + states. The sapphire is found in all the states, principally in the + neighbourhood of Beechworth, Victoria. The oriental topaz has been + found in New South Wales. Oriental amethysts also have been found in + that state, and the ruby has been found in Queensland, as well as in + New South Wales. Turquoises have been found near Wangaratta, in + Victoria, and mining operations are being carried on in that state. + Chrysoberyls have been found in New South Wales; spinel rubies in New + South Wales and Victoria; and white topaz in all the states. + Chalcedony, carnelian, onyx and cat's eyes are found in New South + Wales; and it is probable that they are also to be met with in the + other states, particularly in Queensland. Zircon, tourmaline, garnet + and other precious stones of little commercial value are found + throughout Australia. + +_Commerce._--The number of vessels engaged in the over-sea trade of +Australia in 1905 was 2112, viz. 1050 steamers, with a tonnage of +2,629,000, and 1062 sailers, tonnage 1,090,000; the total of both +classes was 3,719,000 tons. The nationality of the tonnage was, British +2,771,000, including Australian 288,000, and foreign 948,000. The +destination of the shipping was, to British ports 2,360,000 tons, and to +foreign ports 1,350,000 tons. The value of the external trade was +£95,188,000, viz. £38,347,000 imports, and £56,841,000 exports. The +imports represent £9:11:6 per inhabitant and the exports £14:4:2, with a +total trade of £23:15:8. The import trade is divided between the United +Kingdom and possessions and foreign countries as follows:--United +Kingdom £23,074,000, British possessions £5,384,000, and foreign states +£9,889,000, while the destination of the exports is, United Kingdom +£26,703,000, British possessions £12,519,000, and foreign countries +£17,619,000. The United Kingdom in 1905 sent 60% of the imports taken by +Australia, compared with 26% from foreign countries, and 14% from +British possessions; of Australian imports the United Kingdom takes 47%, +foreign countries 31% and British possessions 22%. In normal years (that +is to say, when there is no large movement of capital) the exports of +Australia exceed the imports by some £15,300,000. This sum represents +the interest payable on government loans placed outside Australia, +mainly in England, and the income from British and other capital +invested in the country; the former may be estimated at £7,300,000 and +the latter £8,000,000 per annum. The principal items of export are wool, +skins, tallow, frozen mutton, chilled beef, preserved meats, butter and +other articles of pastoral produce, timber, wheat, flour and fruits, +gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and other metals. In 1905 the value of +the wool export regained the £20,000,000 level, and with the rapid +recovery of the numerical strength of the flocks, great improvements in +the quality and weight of fleeces, this item is likely to show permanent +advancement. The exports of breadstuffs--chiefly to the United +Kingdom--exceed six millions per annum, butter two and a half millions, +and minerals of all kinds, except gold, six millions. Gold is exported +in large quantities from Australia. The total gold production of the +country is from £14,500,000 to £16,000,000, and as not more than +three-quarters of a million are required to strengthen existing local +stocks, the balance is usually available for export, and the average +export of the precious metal during the ten years, 1896-1905, was +£12,500,000 per annum. The chief articles of import are apparel and +textiles, machinery and hardware, stimulants, narcotics, explosives, +bags and sacks, books and paper, oils and tea. + +Lines of steamers connect Australia with London and other British ports, +with Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Japan, China, India, San +Francisco, Vancouver, New York and Montevideo, several important lines +being subsidized by the countries to which they belong, notably Germany, +France and Japan. + +_Railways._--Almost the whole of the railway lines in Australia are the +property of the state governments, and have been constructed and +equipped wholly by borrowed capital. There were on the 30th of June +1905, 15,000 m. open for traffic, upon which nearly £135,000,000 had +been expended. + + The railways are of different gauges, the standard narrow gauge of 4 + ft. 8½ in. prevailing only in New South Wales; in Victoria the gauge + is 5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia 5 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. 6 in., and in + the other states 3 ft. 6 in. Taking the year 1905, the gross earnings + amounted to £11,892,262; the working expenses, exclusive of interest, + £7,443,546; and the net earnings £4,448,716; the latter figure + represents 3.31% upon the capital expended upon construction and + equipment; in the subsequent year still better results were obtained. + In several of the states, New South Wales and South Australia proper, + the railways yield more than the interest paid by the government on + the money borrowed for their construction. The earnings per train-mile + vary greatly; but for all the lines the average is 7s. 1d., and the + working expenses about 4s. 5d., making the net earnings 2s. 8d. per + train-mile. The ratio of receipts from coaching traffic to total + receipts is about 41%, which is somewhat less than in the United + Kingdom; but the proportion varies greatly amongst the states + themselves, the more densely populated states approaching most nearly + to the British standard. The tonnage of goods carried amounts to about + 16,000,000 tons, or 4 tons per inhabitant, which must be considered + fairly large, especially as no great proportion of the tonnage + consists of minerals on which there is usually a low freightage. + Excluding coal lines and other lines not open to general traffic, the + length of railways in private hands is only 382 m. or about 2½% of the + total mileage open. Of this length, 277 m. are in Western Australia. + The divergence of policy of that state from that pursued by the other + states was caused by the inability of the government to construct + lines, when the extension of the railway system was urgently needed in + the interests of settlement. Private enterprise was, therefore, + encouraged by liberal grants of land to undertake the work of + construction; but the changed conditions of the state have now altered + the state policy, and the government have already acquired one of the + two trunk lines constructed by private enterprise, and it is not + likely that any further concessions in regard to railway construction + will be granted to private persons. + + _Posts and Telegraphs._--The postal and telegraphic facilities offered + by the various states are very considerable. There are some 6686 + post-offices throughout the Commonwealth, or about one office to every + 600 persons. The letters carried amount to about 80 per head, the + newspapers to 32 per head and the packets to 15 per head. The length + of telegraph lines in use is 46,300 m., and the length of wire nearly + three times that distance. In 1905 there were about 11,000,000 + telegraphic messages sent, which gives an average of 2.7 messages per + inhabitant. The postal services and the telegraphs are administered by + the federal government. + + _Banking._--Depositors in savings banks represent about twenty-nine in + every hundred persons, and in 1906 the sum deposited amounted to + £37,205,000 in the names of 1,152,000 persons. In ordinary banks the + deposits amounted to £106,625,000, so that the total deposits stood at + £143,830,000, equivalent to the very large sum of £34, 18s. per + inhabitant. The coin and bullion held by the banks varies between 20 + and 24 millions sterling and the note circulation is almost stationary + at about 3¼ millions. + + _Public Finance._--Australian public finance requires to be treated + under the separate headings of Commonwealth and states finance. Under + the Constitution Act the Commonwealth is given the control of the + postal and telegraph departments, public defence and several other + services, as well as the power of levying customs and excise duties; + its powers of taxation are unrestricted, but so far no taxes have been + imposed other than those just mentioned. The Commonwealth is empowered + to retain one-fourth of the net revenue from customs and excise, the + balance must be handed back to the states. This arrangement was to + last until 1910. Including the total receipts derived from the + customs, the Commonwealth revenue, during the year 1906, was made up + as follows:-- + + Customs and excise £8,999,485 + Posts, telegraphs, &c. 2,824,182 + Other revenue 55,676 + ----------- + £11,879,343 + + The return made to the states was £7,385,731, so that the actual + revenue disposed of by the Commonwealth was less by that amount, or + £4,493,612. The expenditure was distributed as follows:-- + + Customs collection £261,864 + Posts, telegraphs, &c. 2,774,804 + Defence 949,286 + Other expenditure 508,887 + --------- + Total £4,494,841 + + The states have the same powers of taxation as the Commonwealth except + in regard to customs and excise, over which the Commonwealth has + exclusive power, but the states are the owners of the crown lands, and + the revenues derived from this source form an important part of their + income. The states have a total revenue, from sources apart from the + Commonwealth, of £23,820,439, and if to this be added the return of + customs duties made by the federal government, the total revenue is + £31,206,170. Although the financial operations of the Commonwealth and + the states are quite distinct, a statement of the total revenue of the + Australian Commonwealth and states is not without interest as showing + the weight of taxation and the different sources from which revenue is + obtained. For 1906 the respective revenues were:-- + + Commonwealth £11,879,343 + States 23,820,439 + ----------- + £35,699,782 + =========== + Direct taxation £3,200,000 + Indirect taxation; customs and excise 8,999,485 + Land revenue 3,500,000 + Post-office and telegraphs 2,824,182 + Railways, &c. 13,650,000 + Other service 3,526,115 + + The revenue from direct taxation is equal to 15s. 10d. per inhabitant, + from indirect taxation £2:4:6, and the total revenue from all sources + £35,699,782, equal to £8:16:2 per inhabitant. The federal government + has no public debt, but each of the six states has contracted debts + which aggregate £237,000,000, equal to about £58, 8s. per inhabitant. + The bulk of this indebtedness has been contracted for the purpose of + constructing railways, tramways, water-supplies, and other + revenue-producing works and services, and it is estimated that only 8% + of the total indebtedness can be set down for unproductive services. + + Information regarding Australian state finance will be found under the + heading of each state. (T. A. C.) + + +ABORIGINES + +The origin of the natives of Australia presents a difficult problem. The +chief difficulty in deciding their ethnical relations is their +remarkable physical difference from the neighbouring peoples. And if one +turns from physical criteria to their manners and customs it is only to +find fresh evidence of their isolation. While their neighbours, the +Malays, Papuans and Polynesians, all cultivate the soil, and build +substantial huts and houses, the Australian natives do neither. Pottery, +common to Malays and Papuans, the bows and arrows of the latter, and the +elaborate canoes of all three races, are unknown to the Australians. +They then must be considered as representing an extremely primitive type +of mankind, and it is necessary to look far afield for their prehistoric +home. + + + Origin. + +Wherever they came from, there is abundant evidence that their first +occupation of the Australian continent must have been at a time so +remote as to permit of no traditions. No record, no folk tales, as in +the case of the Maoris of New Zealand, of their migration, are preserved +by the Australians. True, there are legends and tales of tribal +migrations and early tribal history, but nothing, as A.W. Howitt points +out, which can be twisted into referring even indirectly to their first +arrival. It is almost incredible there should be none, if the date of +their arrival is to be reckoned as only dating back some centuries. +Again, while they differ physically from neighbouring races, while there +is practically nothing in common between them and the Malays, the +Polynesians, or the Papuan Melanesians, they agree in type so closely +among themselves that they must be regarded as forming one race. Yet it +is noteworthy that the languages of their several tribes are different. +The occurrence of a large number of common roots proves them to be +derived from one source, but the great variety of dialects--sometimes +unintelligible between tribes separated by only a few miles--cannot be +explained except by supposing a vast period to have elapsed since their +first settlement. There is evidence in the languages, too, which +supports the physical separation from their New Zealand neighbours and, +therefore, from the Polynesian family of races. The numerals in use were +limited. In some tribes there were only three in use, in most four. For +the number "five" a word meaning "many" was employed. This linguistic +poverty proves that the Australian tongue has no affinity to the +Polynesian group of languages, where denary enumeration prevails: the +nearest Polynesians, the Maoris, counting in thousands. Further evidence +of the antiquity of Australian man is to be found in the strict +observance of tribal boundaries, which would seem to show that the +tribes must have been settled a long time in one place. + +A further difficulty is created by a consideration of the Tasmanian +people, extinct since 1876. For the Tasmanians in many ways closely +approximated to the Papuan type. They had coarse, short, woolly hair and +Papuan features. They clearly had no racial affinities with the +Australians. They did not possess the boomerang or woomerah, and they +had no boats. When they were discovered, a mere raft of reeds in which +they could scarcely venture a mile from shore was their only means of +navigation. Yet while the Tasmanians are so distinctly separated in +physique and customs from the Australians, the fauna and flora of +Tasmania and Australia prove that at one time the two formed one +continent, and it would take an enormous time for the formation of Bass +Strait. How did the Tasmanians with their Papuan affinities get so far +south on a continent inhabited by a race so differing from Papuans? Did +they get to Tasmania before or after its separation from the main +continent? If before, why were they only found in the south? It would +have been reasonable to expect to find them sporadically all over +Australia. If after, how did they get there at all? For it is impossible +to accept the theory of one writer that they sailed or rowed round the +continent--a journey requiring enormous maritime skill, which, according +to the theory, they must have promptly lost. + +Four points are clear: (1) the Australians represent a distinct race; +(2) they have no kinsfolk among the neighbouring races; (3) they have +occupied the continent for a very long period; (4) it would seem that +the Tasmanians must represent a still earlier occupation of Australia, +perhaps before the Bass Strait existed. + +Several theories have been propounded by ethnologists. An attempt has +been made to show that the Australians have close affinities with the +African negro peoples, and certain resemblances in language and in +customs have been relied on. Sorcery, the scars raised on the body, the +knocking out of teeth, circumcision and rules as to marriage have been +quoted; but many such customs are found among savage peoples far distant +from each other and entirely unrelated. The alleged language +similarities have broken down on close examination. A.R. Wallace is of +the opinion that the Australians "are really of Caucasian type and are +more nearly allied to ourselves than to the civilized Japanese or the +brave and intelligent Zulus." He finds near kinsmen for them in the +Ainus of Japan, the Khmers and Chams of Cambodia and among some of the +Micronesian islanders who, in spite of much crossing, still exhibit +marked Caucasic types. He regards the Australians as representing the +lowest and most primitive examples of this primitive Caucasic type, and +he urges that they must have arrived in Australia at a time when their +ancestors had no pottery, knew no agriculture, domesticated no animals, +had no houses and used no bows and arrows. This theory has been +supported by the investigations of Dr Klaatsch, of the university of +Heidelberg, who would, however, date Australian ancestry still farther +back, for his studies on the spot have convinced him that the +Australians are "a generalized, not a specialized, type of +humanity--that is to say, they are a very primitive people, with more of +the common undeveloped characteristics of man, and less of the qualities +of the specialized races of civilization." Dr Klaatsch's view is that +they are survivals of a primitive race which inhabited a vast Antarctic +continent of which South America, South Africa and Australia once formed +a part, as evidenced by the identity of many species of birds and fish. +He urges that the similarities of some of the primitive races of India +and Africa to the aborigines of Australia are indications that they were +peopled from one common stock. This theory, plausible and attractive as +it is, and fitting in, as it does, with the acknowledged primitive +character of the Australian blackfellow, overlooks, nevertheless, the +Tasmanian difficulty. Why should a Papuan type be found in what was +certainly once a portion of the Australian continent? The theory which +meets this difficulty is that which has in its favour the greatest +weight of evidence, viz. that the continent was first inhabited by a +Papuan type of man who made his way thither from Flores and Timor, New +Guinea and the Coral Sea. That in days so remote as to be undateable, a +Dravidian people driven from their primitive home in the hills of the +Indian Deccan made their way south via Ceylon (where they may to-day be +regarded as represented by the Veddahs) and eventually sailed and +drifted in their bark boats to the western and north-western shores of +Australia. It is difficult to believe that they at first arrived in such +numbers as at once to overwhelm the Papuan population. There were +probably several migrations. What seems certain, if this theory is +adopted, is that they did at last accumulate to an extent which +permitted of their mastering the former occupiers of the soil, who were +probably in very scattered and defenceless communities. + +In the slow process of time they drove them into the most southerly +corner of Australia, just as the Saxons drove the Celts into Cornwall +and the Welsh hills. Even if this Dravidian invasion is put subsequent +to the Bass Strait forming, even if one allows the probability of much +crossing between the two races at first, in time the hostilities would +be renewed. With their earliest settlements on the north-north-west +coasts, the Dravidians would probably tend to spread out north, +north-east and east, and a southerly line of retreat would be the most +natural one for the Papuans.[3] When at last they were driven to the +Strait they would drift over on rafts or in clumsy shallops; being +thereafter left in peace to concentrate their race, then possibly only +in an approximately pure state, in the island to which the Dravidians +would not take the trouble to follow them, and where they would have +centuries in which once more to fix their racial type and emphasize over +again those differences, perhaps temporarily marred by crossing, which +were found to exist on the arrival of the Whites. + +This Indo-Aryan origin for the Australian blackfellows is borne out by +their physique. In spite of their savagery they are admitted by those +who have studied them to be far removed from the low or Simian type of +man. Dr Charles Pickering (1805-1878), who studied the Australians on +the spot, writes: "Strange as it may appear, I would refer to an +Australian as the finest model of the human proportions I have ever met; +in muscular development combining perfect symmetry, activity and +strength, while his head might have compared with the antique bust of a +philosopher." Huxley concluded, from descriptions, that "the Deccan +tribes are indistinguishable from the Australian races." Sir W.W. Hunter +states that the Dravidian tribes were driven southwards in Hindustan, +and that the grammatical relations of their dialects are "expressed by +suffixes," which is true as to the Australian languages. He states that +Bishop Caldwell,[4] whom he calls "the great missionary scholar of the +Dravidian tongue," showed that the south and western Australian tribes +use almost the same words for "I, thou, he, we, you, as the Dravidian +fishermen on the Madras coast." When in addition to all this it is found +that physically the Dravidians resemble the Australians; that the +boomerang is known among the wild tribes of the Deccan alone (with the +doubtful exception of ancient Egypt) of all parts of the world except +Australia, and that the Australian canoes are like those of the +Dravidian coast tribes, it seems reasonable enough to assume that the +Australian natives are Dravidians, exiled in remote times from +Hindustan, though when their migration took place and how they traversed +the Indian Ocean must remain questions to which, by their very nature, +there can be no satisfactory answer. + +The low stage of culture of the Australians when they reached their new +home is thus accounted for, but their stagnation is remarkable, because +they must have been frequently in contact with more civilized peoples. +In the north of Australia there are traces of Malay and Papuan blood. +That a far more advanced race had at one time a settlement on the +north-west coast is indicated by the cave-paintings and sculptures +discovered by Sir George Grey. In caves of the valley of the Glenelg +river, north-west Australia, about 60 m. inland and 20 m. south of +Prince Regent's river, are representations of human heads and bodies, +apparently of females clothed to the armpits, but all the faces are +without any indication of mouths. The heads are surrounded with a kind +of head-dress or halo and one wears a necklace. They are drawn in red, +blue and yellow. The figures are almost life-size. Rough sculptures, +too, were found, and two large square mounds formed of loose stones, and +yet perfect parallelograms in outline, placed due east and west. In the +same district Sir George Grey noticed among the blackfellows people he +describes as "almost white." On the Gascoyne river, too, were seen +natives of an olive colour, quite good-looking; and in the neighbourhood +of Sydney rock-carvings have been also found. All this points to a +temporary occupation by a race at a far higher stage of culture than any +known Australians, who were certainly never capable of executing even +the crude works of art described. + + + Physique. + +Physically the typical Australian is the equal of the average European +in height, but is inferior in muscular development, the legs and arms +being of a leanness which is often emphasized by an abnormal corpulence. +The bones are delicately formed, and there is the lack of calf usual in +black races. The skull is abnormally thick and the cerebral capacity +small. The head is long and somewhat narrow, the forehead broad and +receding, with overhanging brows, the eyes sunken, large and black, the +nose thick and very broad at the nostrils. The mouth is large and the +lips thick but not protuberant. The teeth are large, white and strong. +In old age they appear much ground down; particularly is this the case +with women, who chew the different kinds of fibres, of which they make +nets and bags. The lower jaw is heavy; the cheekbones somewhat high, and +the chin small and receding. The neck is thicker and shorter than that +of most Europeans. The colour of the skin is a deep copper or chocolate, +never sooty black. When born, the Australian baby is of a much lighter +colour than its parents and remains so for about a week. The hair is +long, black or very dark auburn, wavy and sometimes curly, but never +woolly, and the men have luxuriant beards and whiskers, often of an +auburn tint, while the whole body inclines to hairiness. On the Balonne +river, Queensland, Baron Mikluho Maclay found a group of hairless +natives. The head hair is usually matted with grease and dirt, but when +clean is fine and glossy. The skin gives out an objectionable odour, +owing to the habit of anointing the body with fish-oils, but the true +fetor of the negro is lacking in the Australian. The voices of the +blackfellows are musical. Their mental faculties, though inferior to +those of the Polynesian race, are not contemptible. They have much +acuteness of perception for the relations of individual objects, but +little power of generalization. No word exists in their language for +such general terms as tree, bird or fish; yet they have invented a name +for every species of vegetable and animal they know. The grammatical +structure of some north Australian languages has a considerable degree +of refinement. The verb presents a variety of conjugations, expressing +nearly all the moods and tenses of the Greek. There is a dual, as well +as a plural form in the declension of verbs, nouns, pronouns and +adjectives. The distinction of genders is not marked, except in proper +names of men and women. All parts of speech, except adverbs, are +declined by terminational inflections. There are words for the +elementary numbers, one, two, three; but "four" is usually expressed by +"two-two." They have no idea of decimals. The number and diversity of +separate languages is bewildering. + + + Character. + +In disposition the Australians are a bright, laughter-loving folk, but +they are treacherous, untruthful and hold human life cheaply. They have +no great physical courage. They are mentally in the condition of +children. None of them has an idea of what the West calls morality, +except the simple one of right or wrong arising out of property. A wife +will be beaten without mercy for unfaithfulness to her husband, but the +same wife will have had to submit to the first-night promiscuity, a +widespread revel which Roth shows is a regular custom in +north-west-central Queensland. A husband claims his wife as his absolute +property, but he has no scruple in handing her over for a time to +another man. There is, however, no proof that anything like community of +women or unlimited promiscuity exists anywhere. It would be wrong, +however, to conclude that moral considerations have led up to this state +of things. Of sexual morality, in the everyday sense of the word, there +is none. In his treatment of women the aboriginal may be ranked lower +than even the Fuegians. Yet the Australian is capable of strong +affections, and the blind (of whom there have always been a great +number) are cared for, and are often the best fed in a tribe. + + + Manners. + +The Australians when first discovered were found to be living in almost +a prehistoric simplicity. Their food was the meat they killed in the +chase, or seeds and roots, grubs or reptiles. They never, in any +situation, cultivated the soil for any kind of food-crop. They never +reared any kind of cattle, or kept any domesticated animal except the +dog, which probably came over with them in their canoes. They nowhere +built permanent dwellings, but contented themselves with mere hovels for +temporary shelter. They neither manufactured nor possessed any chattels +beyond such articles of clothing, weapons, ornaments and utensils as +they might carry on their persons, or in the family store-bag for daily +use. In most districts both sexes are entirely nude. Sometimes in the +south during the cold season they wear a cloak of skin or matting, +fastened with a skewer, but open on the right-hand side. + +When going through the bush they sometimes wear an apron of skins, for +protection merely. No headgear is worn, except sometimes a net to +confine the hair, a bunch of feathers, or the tails of small animals. +The breast or back, of both sexes, is usually tattooed, or rather, +scored with rows of hideous raised scars, produced by deep gashes made +at puberty. Their dwellings for the most part are either bowers, formed +of the branches of trees, or hovels of piled logs, loosely covered with +grass or bark, which they can erect in an hour, wherever they encamp. +But some huts of a more substantial form were seen by Captain Matthew +Flinders on the south-east coast in 1799, and by Captain King and Sir T. +Mitchell on the north-east, where they no longer appear. The ingenuity +of the race is mostly exhibited in the manufacture of their weapons of +warfare and the chase. While the use of the bow and arrow does not seem +to have occurred to them, the spear and axe are in general use, commonly +made of hard-wood; the hatchets of stone, and the javelins pointed with +stone or bone. The characteristic weapon of the Australian is the +boomerang (q.v.). Their nets, made by women, either of the tendons of +animals or the fibres of plants, will catch and hold the kangaroo or the +emu, or the very large fish of Australian rivers. Canoes of bent bark, +for the inland waters, are hastily prepared at need; but the inlets and +straits of the north-eastern sea-coast are navigated by larger canoes +and rafts of a better construction. As to food, they are omnivorous. In +central Queensland and elsewhere, snakes, both venomous and harmless, +are eaten, the head being first carefully smashed to pulp with a stone. + + + Tribal organization. + +The tribal organization of the Australians was based on that of the +family. There were no hereditary or formally elected chiefs, nor was +there any vestige of monarchy. The affairs of a tribe were ruled by a +council of men past middle age. Each tribe occupied a recognized +territory, averaging perhaps a dozen square miles, and used a common +dialect. This district was subdivided between the chief heads of +families. Each family, or family group, had a dual organization which +has been termed (1) the Social, (2) the Local. The first was +matriarchal, inheritance being reckoned through the mother. No +territorial association was needed. All belonged to the same totem or +totemic class, and might be scattered throughout the tribe, though +subject to the same marriage laws. The second was patriarchal and of a +strictly territorial nature. A family or group of families had the same +hunting-ground, which was seldom changed, and descended through the +males. Thus, the sons inherited their fathers' hunting-ground, but bore +their mothers' name and therewith the right to certain women for wives. +The Social or matriarchal took precedence of the Local or patriarchal +organization. In many cases it arranged the assemblies and ceremonial of +the tribe; it regulated marriage, descent and relationship; it ordered +blood feuds, it prescribed the rites of hospitality and so on. +Nevertheless the Local side of tribal life in time tended to overwhelm +the Social and to organize the tribe irrespective of matriarchy, and +inclined towards hereditary chieftainship. + +The most intricate and stringent rules existed as to marriage within and +without the totemic inter-marrying classes. There is said to be but one +exception to the rule that marriage must be contracted outside the totem +name. This exception was discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen among +the Arunta of central Australia, some allied septs, and their nearest +neighbours to the north, the Kaitish. This tribe may legally marry +within the totem, but always avoids such unions. Even in casual amours +these class laws were invariably observed, and the young man or woman +who defied them was punished, he with death, she with spearing or +beating. At the death of a man, his widows passed to his brother of the +same totem class. Such a system gave to the elder men of a tribe a +predominant position, and generally respect was shown to the aged. Laws +and penalties in protection of property were enforced by the tribe. +Thus, among some tribes of Western Australia the penalty for abducting +another's wife was to stand with leg extended while each male of the +tribe stuck his spear into it. Laws, however, did not protect the women, +who were the mere chattels of their lords. Stringent rules, too, +governed the food of women and the youth of both sexes, and it was only +after initiation that boys were allowed to eat of all the game the +forest provided. In every case of death from disease or unknown causes +sorcery was suspected and an inquest held, at which the corpse was asked +by each relative in succession the name of the murderer. This formality +having been gone through, the flight of the first bird which passed over +the body was watched, the direction being regarded as that in which the +sorcerer must be sought. Sometimes the nearest relative sleeps with his +head on the corpse, in the belief that he will dream of the murderer. +The most sacred duty an Australian had to perform was the avenging of +the death of a kinsman, and he was the object of constant taunts and +insults till he had done so. Cannibalism was almost universal, either in +the case of enemies killed in battle or when animal food was scarce. In +the Luritcha tribe it was customary when a child was in weak health to +kill a younger and healthy one and feed the weakling on its flesh. +Cannibalism seems also to have sometimes been in the nature of a funeral +observance, in honour of the deceased, of whom the relatives reverently +ate portions. + + + Religion. + +They had no special forms of religious worship, and no idols. The +evidence on the question of whether they believed in a Supreme Being is +very contradictory. Messrs Spencer and Gillen appear to think that such +rudimentary idea of an All-Father as has, it is thought, been detected +among the blackfellows is an exotic growth fostered by contact with +missionaries. A.W. Howitt and Dr Roth appear to have satisfied +themselves of a belief, common to most tribes, in a mythic being (he has +different names in different tribes) having some of the attributes of a +Supreme Deity. But Mr Howitt finds in this being "no trace of a divine +nature, though under favourable conditions the beliefs might have +developed into an actual religion." Other authorities suggest that it is +going much too far to deny the existence of religion altogether, and +instance as proof of the divinity of the supra-normal anthropomorphic +beings of the Baiame class, the fact that the Yuin and cognate tribes +dance around the image of Daramulun (their equivalent of Baiame) and the +medicine men "invocate his name." A good deal perhaps depends on each +observer's view of what religion really is. The Australians believed in +spirits, generally of an evil nature, and had vague notions of an +after-life. The only idea of a god known to be entertained by them seems +to be that of the Euahlayi and Kamilaori tribe, Baiame, a gigantic old +man lying asleep for ages, with his head resting on his arm, which is +deep in the sand. He is expected one day to awake and eat up the world. +Researches go to show that Baiame has his counterpart in other tribes, +the myth varying greatly in detail. But the Australians are +distinguished by possessing elaborate initiatory ceremonies. +Circumcision of one or two kinds was usual in the north and south, but +not in Western Australia or on the Murray river. In South Australia boys +had to undergo three stages of initiation in a place which women were +forbidden to approach. At about ten they were covered with blood from +head to foot, several elder men bleeding themselves for the purpose. At +about twelve or fourteen circumcision took place and (or sometimes as an +alternative on the east coast) a front tooth was knocked out, to the +accompaniment of the booming of the bullroarer (q.v.). At the age of +puberty the lad was tattooed or scarred with gashes cut in back, +shoulders, arms and chest, and the septum of the nose was pierced. The +gashes varied in patterns for the different tribes. Girls, too, were +scarred at puberty and had teeth knocked out, &c. The ceremonies--known +to the Whites under the native generic term for initiatory rites, +_Bora_,--were much the same throughout Australia. Polygamy was rare, due +possibly to the scarcity of women.[5] Infanticide was universally +recognized. The mode of disposing of the dead varied. Among some tribes +a circular grave was dug and the body placed in it with its face towards +the east, and a high mound covered with bark or thatch raised over it. +In New South Wales the body is often burned and the ashes buried. On the +Lower Murray the body is placed on a platform of sticks and left to +decay. Young children are often not buried for months, but are carried +about by their mothers. At the funeral of men there is much mourning, +the female relatives cutting or tearing their hair off and plastering +their faces with clay, but for women no public ceremonies took place. + +The numbers of the native Australians are steadily diminishing. It was +estimated that when first visited by Europeans the native population +did not much exceed 200,000. A remnant of the race exists in each of the +provinces, while a few tribes still wander over the interior. + + AUTHORITIES.--Dr A.W. Howitt, _The Native Tribes of South-east + Australia_ (1904) and _On the Organization of Australian Tribes_ + (1889); G.T. Bettany, _The Red, Brown and Black Men of Australia_ + (1890); B. Spencer and F.J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central + Australia_ (1899); _The Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, + 1904); E.M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (3 vols., 1886-1887); G.W. + Rusden, _History of Australia_ (1897); _Australasia_, British Empire + Series (Kegan Paul & Co., 1900); A.R. Wallace, _Australasia_ (1880, + new ed., 2 vols., 1893-1895); Rev. Lorimer Fison and Dr A.W. Howitt, + _Kamilaroi and Kurnai, Group Marriage and Relationship_ (Melbourne, + 1880); H. Ling Roth, _Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane, 1897); Carl + Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_ (1889); Walter E. Roth, _Ethnological + Studies among the North-west-central Queensland Aborigines_ (London, + 1897); Mrs K. Langloh Parker, _Euahlayi Tribes_ (1905); F.J. Gillen, + _Notes on Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Macdonnell + Ranges belonging to the Arunta Tribe_; J.E. Frazer, "The Beginnings of + Religion and Totemism among the Australian Aborigines," _Fortnightly + Review_, July 1905; N.W. Thomas, _Native Tribes of Australia_ (1907). + (C. Ar.) + + +HISTORY + +1. _The Discovery of Australia_. + +It is impossible to say who were the first discoverers of Australia, +although there is evidence that the Chinese had some knowledge of the +continent so far back as the 13th century. The Malays, also, would seem +to have been acquainted with the northern coast; while Marco Polo, who +visited the East at the close of the 13th century, makes reference to +the reputed existence of a great southern continent. There is in +existence a map, dedicated to Henry VIII. of England, on which a large +southern land is shown, and the tradition of a Terra Australis appears +to have been current for a long period before it enters into authentic +history. + +In 1503 a French navigator named Binot Paulmyer, sieur de Gonneville, +was blown out of his course, and landed on a large island, which was +claimed to be the great southern land of tradition, although Flinders +and other authorities are inclined to think that it must have been +Madagascar. Some French authorities confidently put forward a claim that +Guillaume le Testu, of Provence, sighted the continent in 1531. The +Portuguese also advance claims to be the first discoverers of Australia, +but so far the evidence cannot be said to establish their pretensions. +As early as 1597 the Dutch historian, Wytfliet, describes the Australis +Terra as the most southern of all lands, and proceeds to give some +circumstantial particulars respecting its geographical relation to New +Guinea, venturing the opinion that, were it thoroughly explored, it +would be regarded as a fifth part of the world. + + + De Torres. + +Early in the 17th century Philip III. of Spain sent out an expedition +from Callao, in Peru, for the purpose of searching for a southern +continent. The little fleet comprised three vessels, with the Portuguese +pilot, De Quiros, as navigator, and De Torres as admiral or military +commander. They left Callao on the 21st of December 1605, and in the +following year discovered the island now known as Espiritu Santo, one of +the New Hebrides group, which De Quiros, under the impression that it +was indeed the land of which he was in search, named _La Austrialia del +Espiritu Santo_. Sickness and discontent led to a mutiny on De Quiros' +vessel, and the crew, overpowering their officers during the night, +forced the captain to navigate his ship to Mexico. Thus, abandoned by +his consort, De Torres, compelled to bear up for the Philippines to +refit, discovered and sailed through the strait that bears his name, and +may even have caught a glimpse of the northern coast of the Australian +continent. His discovery was not, however, made known until 1792, when +Dalrymple rescued his name from oblivion, bestowing it upon the passage +which separates New Guinea from Australia. De Quiros returned to Spain +to re-engage in the work of petitioning the king to despatch an +expedition for the purpose of prosecuting the discovery of the Terra +Australis. He was finally successful in his petitions, but died before +accomplishing his work, and was buried in an unknown grave in Panama, +never being privileged to set his foot upon the continent the discovery +of which was the inspiration of his life. + + + Dutch discoverers. + +During the same year in which De Torres sailed through the strait +destined to make him famous, a little Dutch vessel called the "Duyfken," +or "Dove," set sail from Bantam, in Java, on a voyage of discovery. This +ship entered the Gulf of Carpentaria, and sailed south as far as Cape +Keerweer, or Turn-again. Here some of the crew landed, but, being +attacked by natives, made no attempt to explore the country. In 1616 +Dirk Hartog discovered the island bearing his name. In 1622 the +"Leeuwin," or "Lioness," made some discoveries on the south-west coast; +and during the following year the yachts "Pera" and "Arnheim" explored +the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Arnheim Land, a portion of the +Northern Territory, still appears on many maps as a memento of this +voyage. Among other early Dutch discoverers were Edel; Pool, in 1629, in +the Gulf of Carpentaria; Nuyts, in the "Guide Zeepaard," along the +southern coast, which he called, after himself, Nuyts Land; De Witt; and +Pelsaert, in the "Batavia." Pelsaert was wrecked on Houtman's Abrolhos; +his crew mutinied, and he and his party suffered greatly from want of +water. The record of his voyage is interesting from the fact that he was +the first to carry back to Europe an authentic account of the western +coast of Australia, which he described in any but favourable terms. It +is to Dutch navigators in the early portion of the 17th century that we +owe the first really authentic accounts of the western coast and +adjacent islands, and in many instances the names given by these +mariners to prominent physical features are still retained. By 1665 the +Dutch possessed rough charts of almost the whole of the western +littoral, while to the mainland itself they had given the name of New +Holland. Of the Dutch discoverers, Pelsaert was the only one who made +any detailed observations of the character of the country inland, and it +may here be remarked that his journal contains the first notice and +description of the kangaroo that has come down to us. + +In 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman sailed on a voyage of discovery from +Batavia, the headquarters of the governor and council of the Dutch East +Indies, under whose auspices the expedition was undertaken. He was +furnished with a yacht, the "Heemskirk," and a fly-boat, the "Zeehaen" +(or "Sea Hen"), under the command of Captain Jerrit Jansen. He left +Batavia on what has been designated by Dutch historians the "Happy +Voyage," on the 14th of August 1642. After a visit to the Mauritius, +then a Dutch possession, Tasman bore away to the south-east, and on the +24th of November sighted the western coast of the land which he named +Van Diemen's Land, in honour of the governor under whose directions he +was acting. The honour was later transferred to the discoverer himself, +and the island is now known as Tasmania. Tasman doubled the southern +extremity of Van Diemen's Land and explored the east coast for some +distance. The ceremony of hoisting a flag and taking possession of the +country in the name of the government of the Netherlands was actually +performed, but the description of the wildness of the country, and of +the fabulous giants by which Tasman's sailors believed it to be +inhabited, deterred the Dutch from occupying the island, and by the +international principle of "non-user" it passed from their hands. +Resuming his voyage in an easterly direction, Tasman sighted the west +coast of the South Island of New Zealand on the 13th of December of the +same year, and describes the coast-line as consisting of "high +mountainous country." + + + Dampier. + +The first English navigator to sight the Australian continent was +William Dampier, who made a visit to these shores in 1688, as supercargo +of the "Cygnet," a trader whose crew had turned buccaneers. On his +return to England he published an account of his voyage, which resulted +in his being sent out in the "Roebuck" in 1699 to prosecute his +discoveries further. To him we owe the exploration of the coast for +about 900 m.--from Shark's Bay to Dampier's Archipelago, and thence to +Roebuck Bay. He appears to have landed in several places in search of +water. His account of the country was quite as unfavourable as +Pelsaert's. He described it as barren and sterile, and almost devoid of +animals, the only one of any importance somewhat resembling a raccoon--a +strange creature, which advanced by great bounds or leaps instead of +walking, using only its hind legs, and covering 12 or 15 ft. at a time. +The reference is, of course, to the kangaroo, which Pelsaert had also +remarked and quaintly described some sixty years previously. + +During the interval elapsing between Dampier's two voyages, an accident +led to the closer examination of the coasts of Western Australia by the +Dutch. In 1684 a vessel had sailed from Holland for the Dutch +possessions in the East Indies, and after rounding the Cape of Good +Hope, she was never again heard of. Some twelve years afterwards the +East India Company fitted out an expedition under the leadership of +Commander William de Vlamingh, with the object of searching for any +traces of the lost vessel on the western shores of New Holland. Towards +the close of the year 1696 this expedition reached the island of +Rottnest, which was thoroughly explored, and early the following year a +landing party discovered and named the Swan river. The vessels then +proceeded northward without finding any traces of the object of their +search, but, at the same time, making fairly accurate charts of the +coast-line. + + + Cook. + +The great voyage of Captain James Cook, in 1769-1770, was primarily +undertaken for the purposes of observing the transit of Venus, but he +was also expressly commissioned to ascertain "whether the unexplored +part of the southern hemisphere be only an immense mass of water, or +contain another continent." H.M.S. "Endeavour," the vessel fitted out +for the voyage, was a small craft of 370 tons, carrying twenty-two guns, +and built originally for a collier, with a view rather to strength than +to speed. Chosen by Cook himself, she was renamed the "Endeavour," in +allusion to the great work which her commander was setting out to +achieve. Mr Charles Green was commissioned to conduct the astronomical +observations, and Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander were appointed +botanists to the expedition. After successfully observing the transit +from the island of Tahiti, or Otaheite, as Cook wrote it, the +"Endeavour's" head was turned south, and then north-west, beating about +the Pacific in search of the eastern coast of the great continent whose +western shores had been so long known to the Dutch. On the 6th of +October 1769 the coast of New Zealand was sighted, and two days later +Cook cast anchor in Poverty Bay, so named from the inhospitality and +hostility of the natives. + +After voyaging westward for nearly three weeks, Cook, on the 19th of +April 1770, sighted the eastern coast of Australia at a point which he +named after his lieutenant, who discovered it, Point Hicks, and which +modern geographers identify with Cape Everard. + +The "Endeavour" then coasted northward, and after passing and naming +Mount Dromedary, the Pigeon House, Point Upright, Cape St George and Red +Point, Botany Bay was discovered on the 28th of April 1770, and as it +appeared to offer a suitable anchorage, the "Endeavour" entered the bay +and dropped anchor. The ship brought-to opposite a group of natives, who +were cooking over a fire. The great navigator and his crew, unacquainted +with the character of the Australian aborigines, were not a little +astonished that these natives took no notice of them or their +proceedings. Even the splash of the anchor in the water, and the noise +of the cable running out through the hawse-hole, in no way disturbed +them at their occupation, or caused them to evince the slightest +curiosity. But as the captain of the "Endeavour" ordered out the pinnace +and prepared to land, the natives threw off their nonchalance; for on +the boat approaching the shore, two men, each armed with a bundle of +spears, presented themselves on a projecting rock and made threatening +signs to the strangers. It is interesting to note that the ingenious +_wommera_, or throw-stick, which is peculiar to Australia, was first +observed on this occasion. As the men were evidently determined to +oppose any attempt at landing, a musket was discharged between them, in +the hope that they would be frightened by the noise, but it produced no +effect beyond causing one of them to drop his bundle of spears, of +which, however, he immediately repossessed himself, and with his comrade +resumed the same menacing attitude. At last one cast a stone towards the +boat, which earned him a charge of small shot in the leg. Nothing +daunted, the two ran back into the bush, and presently returned +furnished with shields made of bark, with which to protect themselves +from the firearms of the crew. Such intrepidity is certainly worthy of +passing notice. Unlike the American Indians, who supposed Columbus and +his crew to be supernatural beings, and their ships in some way endowed +with life, and were thrown into convulsions of terror by the first +discharge of firearms which they witnessed, these Australians were +neither excited to wonder by the ship nor overawed by the superior +number and unknown weapons of the strangers. Cook examined the bay in +the pinnace, and landed several times; but by no endeavour could he +induce the natives to hold any friendly communication with him. The +well-known circumstance of the great variety of new plants here +obtained, from which Botany Bay derives its name, should not be passed +over. Before quitting the bay the ceremony was performed of hoisting the +Union Jack, first on the south shore, and then near the north head, +formal possession of the territory being thus taken for the British +crown. During the sojourn in Botany Bay the crew had to perform the +painful duty of burying a comrade--a seaman named Forby Sutherland, who +was in all probability the first British subject whose body was +committed to Australian soil. + +After leaving Botany Bay, Cook sailed northward. He saw and named Port +Jackson, but forbore to enter the finest natural harbour in Australia. +Broken Bay and other inlets, and several headlands, were also seen and +named, but the vessel did not come to an anchor till Moreton Bay was +reached, although the wind prevented Cook from entering this harbour. +Still sailing northward, taking notes as he proceeded for a rough chart +of the coast, and landing at Bustard and Keppel Bays and the Bay of +Inlets, Cook passed over 1300 m. without the occurrence of any event +worthy of being chronicled, till suddenly one night at ten o'clock the +water was found to shoal, without any sign of breakers or land. While +Cook was speculating on the cause of this phenomenon, and was in the act +of ordering out the boats to take soundings, the "Endeavour" struck +heavily, and fell over so much that the guns, spare cables, and other +heavy gear had at once to be thrown overboard to lighten the ship. As +day broke, attempts were made to float the vessel off with the morning +tide; but these were unsuccessful. The water was rising so rapidly in +the hold that with four pumps constantly going the crew could hardly +keep it in check. At length one of the midshipmen suggested the device +of "fothering," which he had seen practised in the West Indies. This +consists of passing a sail, attached to cords, and charged with oakum, +wool, and other materials, under the vessel's keel, in such a manner +that the suction of the leak may draw the canvas into the aperture, and +thus partially stop the vent. This was performed with great success, and +the vessel was floated off with the evening tide. The land was soon +after made near the mouth of a small stream, which Cook called, after +the ship, the Endeavour river. A headland close by he named Cape +Tribulation. The ship was steered into the river, and there careened and +thoroughly repaired. Cook having completed the survey of the east coast, +to which he gave the name of New South Wales, sighted and named Cape +York, the northernmost point of Australia, and took final possession of +his discoveries northward from 38° S. to 10½° S., on a spot which he +named Possession Island, thence returning to England by way of Torres +Straits and the Indian Ocean. + +The great navigator's second voyage, undertaken in 1772, with the +"Resolution" and the "Adventure," is of less importance. The vessels +became separated, and both at different times visited New Zealand. +Captain Tobias Furneaux, in the "Adventure," also found his way to Storm +Bay in Tasmania. In 1777, while on his way to search for a north-east +passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Cook again touched at +the coast of Tasmania and New Zealand. + +On his first voyage, in 1770, Cook had some grounds for the belief that +Van Diemen's Land, as Tasmania was then called, was a separate island. +The observations of Captain Furneaux, however, did not strengthen this +belief, and when making his final voyage, the great navigator appears to +have definitely concluded that it was part of the mainland of Australia. +This continued to be the opinion of geographers until 1798, when Bass +discovered the strait which bears his name. The next recorded expedition +is a memorable one in the annals of Australian history--the despatch of +a British colony to the shores of Botany Bay. The fleet sailed in May +1787, and arrived off the Australian coast early in the following +January. + + +2. _Inland Exploration._ + +For a period of twenty-five years after the first establishment of a +British settlement in Australia, the colonists were only acquainted with +the country along the coast extending northwards about 70 m. from Sydney +and about a like distance to the south and shut in to the west by the +Blue Mountain range, forming a narrow strip not more than 50 m. wide at +its broadest part. + + + Oxley. + +The Blue Mountains attain a height of between 3000 and 4000 ft. only, +but they are intersected with precipitous ravines 1500 ft. deep, which +baffled every effort to reach the interior until in 1813, when a summer +of severe drought had made it of vital importance to find new pastures, +three of the colonists, Messrs Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth, more +fortunate than their predecessors in exploration, after crossing the +Nepean river at Emu Plains and ascending the Dividing Range, were able +to reach a position enabling them to obtain a view of the grassy valley +of the Fish river, which lies on the farther side of the Dividing Range. +The western descent of the mountains appeared to the explorers +comparatively easy, and they returned to report their discovery. A line +of road was constructed across the mountains as far as the Macquarie +river by the surveyor, Mr Evans, and the town of Bathurst laid out. This +marks the beginning of the occupation of the interior of the continent. +Some small expeditions were made from Bathurst, resulting in the +discovery of the Lachlan, and in 1816 the first of the great exploration +expeditions of Australia was fitted out under Lieutenant Oxley, R.N. +Oxley was accompanied by Mr Evans and Mr Allan Cunningham the botanist, +and the object of his expedition was to trace the course of the Lachlan +in a westerly direction. Oxley traced the river until it lost itself in +the swamps east of 147° E., then crossing the river he traversed the +country between the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee as far as 34° S. and 144° +30' E. On his return journey Oxley again crossed the Lachlan about 160 +m., measured along the river, below the point where he left it on his +journey south. Continuing in a north-easterly direction Oxley struck the +Macquarie river at a place he called Wellington, and from this place in +the following year he organized a second expedition in hopes of +discovering an inland sea. He was, however, disappointed in this, as +after descending the course of the Macquarie below Mount Harris, he +found that the river ended in an immense swamp overgrown with reeds. +Oxley now turned aside--led by Mr Evans's report of the country +eastward--crossed the Arbuthnot range, and traversing the Liverpool +Plains, and ascending the Peel and Cockburn rivers to the Blue +Mountains, gained sight of the open sea, which he reached at Port +Macquarie. A valuable extension of geographical knowledge had been +gained by this circuitous journey of more than 800 m. Yet its result was +a disappointment to those who had looked for means of inland navigation +by the Macquarie river, and by its supposed issue in a mediterranean +sea. + +During the next two or three years public attention was occupied with +Captain King's maritime explorations of the north-west coast in three +successive voyages, and by explorations of Western Australia in 1821. +These steps were followed by the foundation of a settlement on Melville +Island, in the extreme north, which, however, was soon abandoned. In +1823 Lieutenant Oxley proceeded to Moreton Bay and Port Curtis, the +first place 500 m., the other 690 m. north of Sydney, to choose the site +of a new penal establishment. From a shipwrecked English sailor he met +with, who had lived with the savages, he heard of the river Brisbane. +About the same time, in the opposite direction, south-west of Sydney, a +large extent of the interior was revealed. Messrs Hamilton Hume and +Hovell set out from Lake George, crossed the Murrumbidgee, and, after +following the river for a short distance, struck south, skirting the +foothills of what are now known as the Australian Alps until they +reached a fine river, which was called the Hume after the leader's +father. Crossing the Murray at Albury, the explorers, bearing to the +south-west, skirted the western shore of Port Philip and reached the +sea-coast near where the town of Geelong now stands. In 1827 and the two +following years, Cunningham prosecuted instructive explorations on both +sides of the Liverpool range, between the upper waters of the Hunter and +those of the Peel and other tributaries of the Brisbane north of New +South Wales. Some of his discoveries, including those of Pandora's Pass +and the Darling Downs, were of great practical utility. + + + Darling. + +By this time much had thus been done to obtain an acquaintance with the +eastern parts of the Australian continent, although the problem of what +could become of the large rivers flowing north-west and south-west into +the interior was still unsolved. With a view to determine this question, +Governor Sir Ralph Darling, in the year 1828, sent out the expedition +under Captain Charles Sturt, who, proceeding first to the marshes at the +end of the Macquarie river, found his progress checked by the dense mass +of reeds in that quarter. He therefore turned westward, and struck a +large river, with many affluents, to which he gave the name of the +Darling. This river, flowing from north-east to south-west, drains the +marshes in which the Macquarie and other streams from the south appeared +to be lost. The course of the Murrumbidgee, a deep and rapid river, was +followed by the same eminent explorer in his second expedition in 1831 +with a more satisfactory result. He travelled on this occasion nearly +2000 m., and discovered that both the Murrumbidgee, carrying with it the +waters of the Lachlan morass, and likewise the Darling, from a more +northerly region, finally joined another and larger river. This stream, +the Murray, in the upper part of its course runs in a north-westerly +direction, but afterwards turning southwards, almost at a right angle, +expands into Lake Alexandrina on the south coast, about 60 m. south-east +of the town of Adelaide, and finally enters the sea at Encounter Bay in +E. long. 139°. + + + Mitchell. + +After gaining a practical solution of the problem of the destination of +the westward-flowing rivers, Sir Thomas Mitchell, in 1833, led an +expedition northward to the upper branches of the Darling; the party met +with a sad disaster in the death of Richard Cunningham, brother of the +eminent botanist, who was murdered by the blacks near the Bogan river. +The expedition reached the Darling on the 25th of May 1833, and after +establishing a depot at Fort Bourke, Mitchell traced the Darling +southwards for 300 m. until he was certain the river was identical with +that reported by Sturt as joining the Murray about 142° E. + + + Eyre. + +Meantime, from the new colony of Adelaide, South Australia, on the +shores of Gulf St Vincent, a series of adventurous journeys to the north +and to the west was begun by Mr Eyre, who explored a country very +difficult of access. In 1840 he performed a feat of extraordinary +personal daring, travelling all the way along the barren sea-coast of +the Great Australian Bight, from Spencer Gulf to King George Sound. Eyre +also explored the interior north of the head of Spencer Gulf, where he +was misled, however, by appearances to form an erroneous theory about +the water-surfaces named Lake Torrens. It was left to the veteran +explorer, Sturt, to achieve the arduous enterprise of penetrating from +the Darling northward to the very centre of the continent. This was in +1845, the route lying for the most part over a stony desert, where the +heat (reaching 131° Fahr.), with scorching winds, caused much suffering +to the party. The most northerly point reached by Sturt on this occasion +was about S. lat. 24° 25'. + +[Illustration: Map: Australia] + + + Leichhardt. + +A military station having been fixed by the British government at Port +Victoria, on the coast of Arnheim Land, for the protection of +shipwrecked mariners on the north coast, it was thought desirable to +find an overland route between this settlement and Moreton Bay, in what +then was the northern portion of New South Wales, now called Queensland. +This was the object of Dr Leichhardt's expedition in 1844, which +proceeded first along the banks of the Dawson and the Mackenzie, +tributaries of the Fitzroy river, in Queensland. It thence passed +farther north to the Burdekin, ascending to the source of that river, +and turned westward across a table-land, from which there was an easy +descent to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Skirting the low shores of this +gulf, all the way round its upper half to the Roper, Leichhardt crossed +Arnheim Land to the Alligator river, which he descended to the western +shore of the peninsula, and arrived at Port Victoria, otherwise Port +Essington, after a journey of 3000 m., performed within a year and three +months. In 1847 Leichhardt undertook a much more formidable task, that +of crossing the entire continent from east to west. His starting-point +was on the Fitzroy Downs, north of the river Condamine, in Queensland, +between the 26th and 27th degrees of S. latitude. But this eminent +explorer had not proceeded far into the interior before he met his +death, his last despatch dating from the Cogoon, 3rd of April 1848. In +the same region, from 1845 to 1847, Sir Thomas Mitchell and Mr E.B. +Kennedy explored the northern tributaries of the Darling, and a river in +S. lat. 24°, named the Barcoo or Victoria, which flows to the +south-west. This river was more thoroughly examined by Mr A.C. Gregory +in 1858. Mr Kennedy lost his life in 1848, being killed by the natives +while attempting to explore the peninsula of Cape York, from Rockingham +Bay to Weymouth Bay. + +Among the performances of less renown, but of much practical utility in +surveying and opening new paths through the country, we may mention that +of Captain Banister, showing the way across the southern part of Western +Australia, from Swan river to King George Sound, and that of Messrs +Robinson and G.H. Haydon in 1844, making good the route from Port +Phillip to Gipps' Land with loaded drays, through a dense tangled scrub, +which had been described by Strzelecki as his worst obstacle. Again, in +Western Australia there were the explorations of the Arrowsmith, the +Murchison, the Gascoyne, and the Ashburton rivers, by Captain Grey, Mr +Roe, Governor Fitzgerald, Mr R. Austin, and the brothers Gregory, whose +discoveries have great importance from a geographical point of view. + + + Stuart. + +These local researches, and the more comprehensive attempts of +Leichhardt and Mitchell to solve the chief problems of Australian +geography, must yield in importance to the grand achievement of Mr +Stuart in 1862. The first of his tours independently performed, in 1858 +and 1859, were around the South Australian lakes, namely, Lake Torrens, +Lake Eyre and Lake Gairdner. These waters had been erroneously taken for +parts of one vast horse-shoe or sickle shaped lake, only some 20 m. +broad, believed to encircle a large portion of the inland country, with +drainage at one end by a marsh into Spencer Gulf. The mistake, shown in +all the old maps of Australia, had originated in a curious optical +illusion. When Mr Eyre viewed the country from Mount Deception in 1840, +looking between Lake Torrens and the lake which now bears his own name, +the refraction of light from the glittering crust of salt that covers a +large space of stony or sandy ground produced an appearance of water. +The error was discovered, after eighteen years, by the explorations of +Mr Babbage and Major Warburton in 1858, while Mr Stuart, about the same +time, gained a more complete knowledge of the same district. + +A reward of £10,000 having been offered by the legislature of South +Australia to the first man who should traverse the whole continent from +south to north, starting from the city of Adelaide, Mr Stuart resolved +to make the attempt. He started in March 1860, passing Lake Torrens and +Lake Eyre, beyond which he found a pleasant, fertile country till he +crossed the Macdonnell range of mountains, just under the line of the +tropic of Capricorn. On the 23rd of April he reached a mountain in S. +lat. nearly 22°, and E. long. nearly 134°, which is the most central +marked point of the Australian continent, and has been named Central +Mount Stuart. Mr Stuart did not finish his task on this occasion, on +account of indisposition and other causes. But the 18th degree of +latitude had been reached, where the watershed divided the rivers of the +Gulf of Carpentaria from the Victoria river, flowing towards the +north-west coast. He had also proved that the interior of Australia was +not a stony desert, like the region visited by Sturt in 1845. On the +first day of the next year, 1861, Mr Stuart again started for a second +attempt to cross the continent, which occupied him eight months. He +failed, however, to advance farther than one geographical degree north +of the point reached in 1860, his progress being arrested by dense +scrubs and the want of water. + + + Burke and Wills. + +Meanwhile, in the province of Victoria, by means of a fund subscribed +among the colonists and a grant by the legislature, the ill-fated +expedition of Messrs Burke and Wills was started. It made for the Barcoo +(Cooper's Creek), with a view to reach the Gulf of Carpentaria by a +northerly course midway between Sturt's track to the west and +Leichhardt's to the east. The leading men of the party were Mr Robert +O'Hara Burke, an officer of police, and Mr William John Wills, of the +Melbourne observatory. Leaving the main body of his party at Menindie on +the Darling under a man named Wright, Burke, with seven men, five horses +and sixteen camels, pushed on for Cooper's Creek, the understanding +being that Wright should follow him in easy stages to the depot proposed +to be there established. Wright frittered away his time in the district +beyond the Darling and did not attempt to follow the party to Cooper's +Creek, and Burke, tired of waiting, determined to push on. Accordingly, +dividing his party, leaving at the depot four men and taking with him +Wills and two men, King and Gray, with a horse and six camels, he left +Cooper's Creek on the 16th of December and crossed the desert traversed +by Sturt fifteen years before. They got on in spite of great +difficulties, past the McKinlay range of mountains, S. lat. 21° and 22°, +and then reached the Flinders river, which flows into the head of the +Gulf of Carpentaria. Here, without actually standing on the sea-beach of +the northern shore, they met the tidal waters of the sea. On the 23rd of +February 1861 they commenced the return journey, having in effect +accomplished the feat of crossing the Australian continent. Gray, who +had fallen ill, died on the 16th of April. Five days later, Burke, Wills +and King had repassed the desert to the place on Cooper's Creek (the +Barcoo, S. lat. 27° 40', E. long. 140° 30'), where they had left the +depot, with the rest of the expedition. Here they experienced a cruel +disappointment. The depot was abandoned; the men in charge had quitted +the place the same day, believing that Burke and those with him were +lost. The men who had thus abandoned the depot rejoined the main body of +the expedition under Wright, who at length moved to Cooper's Creek, and, +incredible to relate, neglected to search for the missing explorers. +Burke, Wills and King, when they found themselves so fearfully left +alone and unprovided in the wilderness, wandered about in that district +till near the end of June. They subsisted miserably on the bounty of +some natives, and partly by feeding on the seeds of a plant called +nardoo. At last both Wills and Burke died of starvation. King, the sole +survivor, was saved by meeting the friendly blacks, and was found alive +in September by Mr A.W. Howitt's party, sent on purpose to find and +relieve that of Burke. + +Four other parties, besides Howitt's, were sent out that year from +different Australian provinces. Three of them, respectively commanded by +Mr Walker, Mr Landsborough, and Mr Norman, sailed to the north, where +the latter two landed on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, while Mr +Walker marched inland from Rockhampton. The fourth party, under Mr J. +McKinlay, from Adelaide, made for the Barcoo by way of Lake Torrens. By +these means, the unknown region of Mid Australia was simultaneously +entered from the north, south, east and west, and important additions +were made to geographical knowledge Landsborough crossed the entire +continent from north to south. between February and June 1862; and +McKinlay, from south to north, before the end of August in that year. +The interior of New South Wales and Queensland, all that lies east of +the 140th degree of longitude, was examined. The Barcoo or Cooper's +Creek and its tributary streams were traced from the Queensland +mountains, holding a south-westerly course to Lake Eyre in South +Australia; the Flinders, the Gilbert, the Gregory, and other northern +rivers watering the country towards the Gulf of Carpentaria were also +explored. These valuable additions to Australian geography were gained +through humane efforts to relieve the lost explorers. The bodies of +Burke and Wills were recovered and brought to Melbourne for a solemn +public funeral, and a noble monument has been erected to their honour. + +Mr Stuart, in 1862, made his third and final attempt to traverse the +continent from Adelaide along a central line, which, inclining a little +westward, reaches the north coast of Arnheim Land, opposite Melville +Island. He started in January, and on the 7th of April reached the +farthest northern point, near S. lat. 17°, where he had turned back in +May of the preceding year. He then pushed on, through a very thick +forest, with scarcely any water, till he came to the streams which +supply the Roper, a river flowing into the western part of the Gulf of +Carpentaria. Having crossed a table-land of sandstone which divides +these streams from those running to the western shores of Arnheim Land, +Mr Stuart, in the month of July, passed down what is called the Adelaide +river of north Australia. Thus he came at length to stand on the verge +of the Indian Ocean; "gazing upon it," a writer has said, "with as much +delight as Balboa, when he crossed the Isthmus of Darien from the +Atlantic to the Pacific." The line crossing Australia which was thus +explored has since been occupied by the electric telegraph connecting +Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and other Australian cities with London. + + + Gosse. + + Warburton. + +A third part, at least, of the interior of the whole continent, between +the central line of Stuart and the known parts of Western Australia, +from about 120° to 134° E. long., an extent of half a million square +miles, still remained a blank in the map. But the two expeditions of +1873, conducted by William Christie Gosse (1842-1881), afterwards deputy +surveyor-general for South Australia, and Colonel (then Major) Egerton +Warburton, made a beginning in the exploration of this _terra incognita_ +west of the central telegraph route. That line of more than 1800 m., +having its southern extremity at the head of Spencer Gulf, its northern +at Port Darwin, in Arnheim Land, passes Central Mount Stuart, in the +middle of the continent, S. lat. 22°, E. long. 134°. Mr Gosse, with men +and horses provided by the South Australian government, started on the +21st of April from the telegraph station 50 m. south of Central Mount +Stuart, to strike into Western Australia. He passed the Reynolds range +and Lake Amadeus in that direction, but was compelled to turn south, +where he found a tract of well-watered grassy land. A singular rock of +conglomerate, 2 m. long, 1 m. wide, and 1100 ft. high, with a spring of +water in its centre, struck his attention. The country was mostly poor +and barren, sandy hillocks, with scanty growth of spinifex. Mr Gosse, +having travelled above 600 m., and getting to 26° 32' S. and 127° E., +two degrees within the Western Australian boundary, was forced to +return. Meantime a more successful attempt to reach the western coast +from the centre of Australia was made by Major Warburton, with thirty +camels, provided by Mr (afterwards Sir) T. Elder, of South Australia. +Leaving the telegraph line at Alice Springs (23° 40' S., 133° 14' E.), +1120 m. north of Adelaide city, Warburton succeeded in making his way to +the De Grey river, Western Australia. Overland routes had now been found +possible, though scarcely convenient for traffic, between all the widely +separated Australian provinces. In northern Queensland, also, there were +several explorations about this period, with results of some interest. +That performed by Mr W. Hann, with Messrs Warner, Tate and Taylor, in +1873, related to the country north of the Kirchner range, watered by the +Lynd, the Mitchell, the Walsh and the Palmer rivers, on the east side of +the Gulf of Carpentaria. The coasting expedition of Mr G. Elphinstone +Dalrymple, with Messrs Hill and Johnstone, finishing in December 1873, +effected a valuable survey of the inlets and navigable rivers in the +Cape York Peninsula. + + + Forrest. + + Giles. + +Of the several attempts to cross Western Australia, even Major +Warburton's expedition, the most successful, had failed in the important +particular of determining the nature of the country through which it +passed. Major Warburton had virtually raced across from the Macdonnell +range in South Australia to the headwaters of the Oakover river on the +north-west coast, without allowing himself sufficient time to note the +characteristics of the country. The next important expedition was +differently conducted. John (afterwards Sir John) Forrest was despatched +by the Perth government with general instructions to obtain information +regarding the immense tract of country out of which flow the rivers +falling into the sea on the northern and western shores of Western +Australia. Leaving Yewin, a small settlement about lat. 28° S., long. +116° E., Forrest travelled north-east to the Murchison river, and +followed the course of that river to the Robinson ranges; thence his +course lay generally eastward along the 26th parallel. Forrest and his +party safely crossed the entire extent of Western Australia, and +entering South Australia struck the overland telegraph line at Peake +station, and, after resting, journeyed south to Adelaide. Forrest +traversed seventeen degrees of desert in five months, a very wonderful +achievement, more especially as he was able to give a full report of the +country through which he passed. His report destroyed all hope that +pastoral settlement would extend to the spinifex region; and the main +object of subsequent explorers was to determine the extent of the desert +in the direction of north and south. Ernest Giles made several attempts +to cross the Central Australian Desert, but it was not until his third +attempt that he was successful. His journey ranks almost with Forrest's +in the importance of its results and the success with which the +appalling difficulties of the journey were overcome. Through the +generosity of Sir Thomas Elder, of Adelaide, Giles's expedition was +equipped with camels. It started on the 23rd of May 1875 from Port +Augusta. Working westerly along the line of the 30th parallel, Giles +reached Perth in about five months. After resting in Perth for a short +time, he commenced the return journey, which was made for the most part +between the 24th and 25th parallels, and again successfully traversed +the desert, reaching the overland telegraph line in about seven months. +Giles's journeys added greatly to our knowledge of the characteristics +of Western and South Australia, and he was able to bear out the common +opinion that the interior of Australia west of 132° E. long, is a sandy +and waterless waste, entirely unfit for settlement. + + + Recent explorers. + +The list of explorers since 1875 is a long one; but after Forrest's and +Giles's expeditions the main object ceased to be the discovery of +pastoral country: a new zest had been added to the cause of exploration, +and most of the smaller expeditions concerned themselves with the search +for gold. Amongst the more important explorations may be ranked those of +Tietkins in 1889, of Lindsay in 1891, of Wells in 1896, of Hübbe in +1896, and of the Hon. David Carnegie in 1896-97. Lindsay's expedition, +which was fitted out by Sir Thomas Elder, the generous patron of +Australian exploration, entered Western Australia about the 26th +parallel south lat., on the line of route taken by Forrest in 1874. From +this point the explorer worked in a south-westerly direction to Queen +Victoria Springs, where he struck the track of Giles's expedition of +1875. From the Springs the expedition went north-west and made a useful +examination of the country lying between 119° and 115° meridians and +between 26° and 28° S. lat. Wells's expedition started from a base about +122° 20' E. and 25° 54' S., and worked northward to the Joanna Springs, +situated on the tropic of Capricorn and near the 124th meridian. From +the springs the journey was continued along the same meridian to the +Fitzroy river. The country passed through was mostly of a forbidding +character, except where the Kimberley district was entered, and the +expedition suffered even more than the usual hardships. The +establishment of the gold-fields, with their large population, caused +great interest to be taken in the discovery of practicable stock routes, +especially from South Australia in the east, and from Kimberley district +in the north. Alive to the importance of the trade, the South Australian +government despatched Hübbe from Oodnadatta to Coolgardie. He +successfully accomplished his journey, but had to report that there was +no practicable route for cattle between the two districts. + +One of the most successful expeditions which traversed Western Australia +was that led and equipped by the Hon. David Carnegie, which started in +July 1896, and travelled north-easterly until it reached Alexander +Spring; then turning northward, it traversed the country between Wells's +track of 1896 and the South Australian border. The expedition +encountered very many hardships, but successfully reached Hall Creek in +the Kimberley district. After a few months' rest it started on the +return journey, following Sturt Creek until its termination in Gregory's +Salt Sea, and then keeping parallel with the South Australian border as +far as Lake Macdonald. Rounding that lake the expedition moved +south-west and reached the settled districts in August 1897. The +distance travelled was 5000 m., and the actual time employed was eight +months. This expedition put an end to the hope, so long entertained, +that it was possible to obtain a direct and practicable route for stock +between Kimberley and Coolgardie gold-fields; and it also proved that, +with the possible exception of small isolated patches, the desert +traversed contained no auriferous country. + +It may be said that exploration on a large scale is now at an end; there +remain only the spaces, nowhere very extensive, between the tracks of +the old explorers yet to be examined, and these are chiefly in the +Northern Territory and in Western Australia north of the tropic of +Capricorn. The search for gold and the quest for unoccupied pasturage +daily diminish the extent of these areas. + + +3. _Political History._ + + Early colonization. + +Of the six Australian states, New South Wales is the oldest. It was in +1788, eighteen years after Captain Cook explored the east coast, that +Port Jackson was founded as a penal station for criminals from England; +and the settlement retained that character, more or less, during the +subsequent fifty years, transportation being virtually suspended in +1839. The colony, however, from 1821 had made a fair start in free +industrial progress. By this time, too, several of the other provinces +had come into existence. Van Diemen's Land, now called Tasmania, had +been occupied as early as 1803. It was an auxiliary penal station under +New South Wales till in 1825 it became a separate government. From this +island, ten years later, parties crossed Bass Strait to Port Phillip, +where a new settlement was shortly established, forming till 1851 a part +of New South Wales, but now the state of Victoria. In 1827 and 1829, an +English company endeavoured to plant a settlement at the Swan river, and +this, added to a small military station established in 1825 at King +George Sound, constituted Western Australia. On the shores of the Gulf +St Vincent, again, from 1835 to 1837, South Australia was created by +another joint-stock company, as an experiment in the Wakefield scheme of +colonization. Such were the political component parts of British +Australia up to 1839. The early history, therefore, of New South Wales +is peculiar to itself. Unlike the other mainland provinces, it was at +first held and used chiefly for the reception of British convicts. When +that system was abolished, the social conditions of New South Wales, +Victoria, and South Australia became more equal. Previous to the gold +discoveries of 1851 they may be included, from 1839, in a general +summary view. + + + Rise of New South Wales. + +The first British governors at Sydney, from 1788, ruled with despotic +power. They were naval or military officers in command of the garrison, +the convicts and the few free settlers. The duty was performed by such +men as Captain Arthur Phillip, Captain Hunter, and others. In the twelve +years' rule of General Macquarie, closing with 1821, the colony made a +substantial advance. By means of bond labour roads and bridges were +constructed, and a route opened into the interior beyond the Blue +Mountains. A population of 30,000, three-fourths of them convicts, +formed the infant commonwealth, whose attention was soon directed to the +profitable trade of rearing fine wool sheep, first commenced by Captain +John McArthur in 1803. During the next ten years, 1821-1831, Sir Thomas +Brisbane and Sir Ralph Darling, two generals of the army, being +successively governors, the colony increased, and eventually succeeded +in obtaining the advantages of a representative institution, by means of +a legislative council. Then came General Sir Richard Bourke, whose wise +and liberal administration proved most beneficial. New South Wales +became prosperous and attractive to emigrants with capital. Its +enterprising ambition was encouraged by taking fresh country north and +south. In the latter direction, explored by Mitchell in 1834 and 1836, +lay Australia Felix, now Victoria, including the well-watered, +thickly-wooded country of Gipps' Land. + + + Growth of Victoria. + +This district, then called Port Phillip, in the time of Governor Sir +George Gipps, 1838-1846, was growing fast into a position claiming +independence. Melbourne, which began with a few huts on the banks of the +Yarra-Yarra in 1835, was in 1840 a busy town of 6000 inhabitants, the +population of the whole district, with the towns of Geelong and +Portland, reaching 12,850; while its import trade amounted to £204,000, +and its exports to £138,000. Such was the growth of infant Victoria in +five years; that of Adelaide or South Australia, in the same period, was +nearly equal to it. At Melbourne there was a deputy governor, Mr +Latrobe, under Sir George-Gipps at Sydney. Adelaide had its own +governors, first Captain Hindmarsh, next Colonel Gawler, and then +Captain George Grey. Western Australia progressed but slowly, with less +than 4000 inhabitants altogether, under Governors Stirling and Hutt. + + + Discovery of gold. + +The general advancement of Australia, to the era of the gold-mining, had +been satisfactory, in spite of a severe commercial crisis, from 1841 to +1843, caused by extravagant land speculations and inflated prices. +Victoria produced already more wool than New South Wales, the aggregate +produce of Australia in 1852 being 45,000,000 lb.; and South Australia, +between 1842 and this date, had opened most valuable mines of copper. +The population of New South Wales in 1851 was 190,000; that of Victoria, +77,000; and that of South Australia about the same. At Summerhill Creek, +20 m. north of Bathurst, in the Macquarie plains, gold was discovered, +in February 1851, by Mr E. Hargraves, a gold-miner from California. The +intelligence was made known in April or May; and then began a rush of +thousands,--men leaving their former employments in the bush or in the +towns to search for the ore so greatly coveted in all ages. In August it +was found at Andersen's Creek, near Melbourne; a few weeks later the +great Ballarat gold-field, 80 m. west of that city, was opened; and +after that, Bendigo to the north. Not only in these lucky provinces, New +South Wales and Victoria, where the auriferous deposits were revealed, +but in every British colony of Australasia, all ordinary industry was +left for the one exciting pursuit. The copper mines of South Australia +were for the time deserted, while Tasmania and New Zealand lost many +inhabitants, who emigrated to the more promising country. The +disturbance of social, industrial and commercial affairs, during the +first two or three years of the gold era, was very great. Immigrants +from Europe, and to some extent from North America and China, poured +into Melbourne, where the arrivals in 1852 averaged 2000 persons in a +week. The population of Victoria was doubled in the first twelvemonth of +the gold fever, and the value of imports and exports was multiplied +tenfold between 1851 and 1853. The colony of Victoria was constituted a +separate province in July 1851, Mr Latrobe being appointed governor, +followed by Sir Charles Hotham and Sir Henry Barkly in succession. + + + Responsible government. + +The separation of the northern part of eastern Australia, under the +name of Queensland, from the original province of New South Wales, took +place in 1859. At that time the district contained about 25,000 +inhabitants; and in the first six years its population was quadrupled +and its trade trebled. At the beginning of 1860, when the excitement of +the gold discoveries was wearing off, five of the states had received +from the home government the boon of responsible government, and were in +a position to work out the problem of their position without external +interference; it was not, however, until 1890 that Western Australia was +placed in a similar position. After the establishment of responsible +government the main questions at issue were the secular as opposed to +the religious system of public instruction, protection as opposed to a +revenue tariff, vote by ballot, adult suffrage, abolition of +transportation and assignment of convicts, and free selection of lands +before survey; these, and indeed all the great questions upon which the +country was divided, were settled within twenty years of the granting of +self-government.[6] With the disposal of these important problems, +politics in Australia became a struggle for office between men whose +political principles were very much alike, and the tenure of power +enjoyed by the various governments did not depend upon the principles of +administration so much as upon the personal fitness of the head of the +ministry, and the acceptability of his ministry to the members of the +more popular branch of the legislature. + + + General Australian problems. + +The two most striking political events in the modern history of +Australia, as a whole, apart from the readiness it has shown to remain a +part of the British empire (q.v.), and to develop along Imperial +lines, are the advent of the Labour party and the establishment of +federation. As regards the last mentioned it may be said that it was +accomplished from within, there being no real external necessity for the +union of the states. Leading politicians have in all the states felt the +cramping effects of mere domestic legislation, albeit on the proper +direction of such legislation depends the well-being of the people; and +to this sense of the limitations of local politics was due, as much as +to anything else, the movement towards federation. + + + Agrarian legislation. + +Before coming, however, to the history of federation, and the evolution +of the Labour party, we must refer briefly to some other questions which +have been of general interest in Australia. Taking the states as a +whole, agrarian legislation has been the most important subject that has +engrossed the attention of their parliaments, and every state has been +more or less engaged in tinkering with its land laws. The main object of +all such legislation is to secure the residence of the owners on the +land. The object of settlers, however, in a great many, perhaps in the +majority of instances, is to dispose of their holdings as soon as +possible after the requirements of the law have been complied with, and +to avoid permanent settlement. This has greatly facilitated the +formation of large estates devoted chiefly to grazing purposes, contrary +to the policy of the legislature, which has everywhere sought to +encourage tillage, or tillage joined to stock-rearing, and to discourage +large holdings. The importance of the land question is so great that it +is hardly an exaggeration to say that it is usual for every parliament +of Australia to have before it a proposal to alter or amend its land +laws. Since 1870 there have been five radical changes made in New South +Wales. In Victoria the law has been altered five times, and in +Queensland and South Australia seven times. + + + Immigration question. + +The prevention or regulation of the immigration of coloured races has +also claimed a great share of parliamentary attention. The agitation +against the influx of Chinese commenced very soon after the gold +discoveries, the European miners objecting strongly to the presence of +these aliens upon the diggings. The allegations made concerning the +Chinese really amounted to a charge of undue industry. The Chinese were +hard-working and had the usual fortune attending those who work hard. +They spent little on drink or with the storekeepers, and were, +therefore, by no means popular. As early as 1860 there had been +disturbances of a serious character, and the Chinese were chased off the +goldfields of New South Wales, serious riots occurring at Lambing Flat, +on the Burrangong goldfield. The Chinese difficulty, so far as the +mining population was concerned, was solved by the exhaustion of the +extensive alluvial deposits; the miners' prejudice against the race, +however, still exists, though they are no longer serious competitors, +and the laws of some of the states forbid any Chinese to engage in +mining without the express authority in writing of the minister of +mines. The nearness of China to Australia has always appeared to the +Australian democracy as a menace to the integrity of the white +settlements; and at the many conferences of representatives from the +various states, called to discuss matters of general concern, the +Chinese question has always held a prominent place, but the absence of +any federal authority had made common action difficult. In 1888 the last +important conference on the Chinese question was held in Sydney and +attended by delegates from all the states. Previously to the meeting of +the conference there had been a great deal of discussion in regard to +the influx of Chinese, and such influx was on all sides agreed to be a +growing danger. The conference, therefore, merely expressed the public +sentiment when it resolved that, although it was not advisable to +prohibit altogether this class of immigration, it was necessary in the +public interests that the number of Chinese privileged to land should be +so limited as to prevent the people of that race from ever becoming an +important element in the community. In conformity with this +determination the various state legislatures enacted new laws or amended +the existing laws to cope with the difficulty; these remained until they +were in effect superseded by Commonwealth legislation. The objection to +admitting immigrants was not only to the Chinese, but extended to all +Asiatics; but as a large proportion of the persons whose entrance into +the colonies it was desired to stop were British subjects, and the +Imperial government refused to sanction any measure directly prohibiting +in plain terms the movement of British subjects from one part of the +empire to another, resort was made to indirect legislation; this was the +more advisable, as the rise of the Japanese power in the East and the +alliance of that country with Great Britain rendered it necessary to pay +attention to the susceptibilities of a powerful nation whose subjects +might be affected by restrictive laws. Eventually the difficulty was +overcome by the device of an educational test based on the provisions of +an act in operation in Natal. It was provided that a person was to be +prohibited from landing in Australia who failed to write in any +prescribed language fifty words dictated to him by the commonwealth +officer supervising immigration. The efficacy of this legislation is in +its administration, the language in which coloured aliens are usually +tested being European. The agitation against the Chinese covered a space +of over fifty years, a long period in the history of a young country, +and was promoted and kept alive almost entirely by the trades unions, +and the restriction acts were the first legislative triumph of the +Labour party, albeit that party was not at the time directly represented +in parliament. + + + Bank crisis of 1893. + +One of the most notable events in the modern history of Australia +occurred shortly after the great strike of 1890. This was what is +ordinarily termed the bank crisis of 1893. Although this crisis followed +on the great strike, the crisis of two things had no real connexion, the +crisis being the natural result of events long anterior to 1890. The +effects of the crisis were mainly felt in the three eastern states, +Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia +being affected chiefly by reason of the fact of their intimate financial +connexion with the eastern states. The approach of the crisis was +heralded by many signs. Deposits were shifted from bank to bank, there +were small runs on several of the savings banks guaranteed by the +government, mortgagees required additional security from their debtors, +bankruptcies became frequent, and some of the banks began to accumulate +gold against the evil day. The building societies and financial +institutions in receipt of deposits, or so many of them as were on an +unsound footing, failed at an early period of the depression, so also +did the weaker banks. There was distrust in the minds of the depositors, +especially those whose holdings were small, and most of the banks were, +at a very early period, subjected to the strain of repaying a large +proportion of their deposits as they fell due. For a time the money so +withdrawn was hoarded, but after a while it found its way back again +into the banks. The crisis was by no means a sudden crash, and even when +the failures began to take place they were spread over a period of +sixteen weeks. + +The first noticeable effect of the crisis was a great scarcity of +employment. Much capital was locked up in the failed banks, and was +therefore not available for distribution amongst wage-earners. Wages +fell precipitately, as also did rents. There was an almost entire +cessation of building, and a large number of houses in the chief cities +remained untenanted, the occupants moving to lodgings and more than one +family living in a single house. Credit became greatly restricted, and +all descriptions of speculative enterprise came to an end. The consuming +power of the population was greatly diminished, and in the year +following the crisis the imports into Australia from abroad diminished +by four and three-quarter millions. In fact, everywhere the demand for +goods, especially of those for domestic consumption, fell away; and +there was a reduction in the average number of persons employed in the +manufacturing industries to the extent of more than 20%. The lack of +employment in factories naturally affected the coal mining industry, and +indeed every industry in the states, except those connected with the +export trade, was severely affected. During the crisis banks having a +paid-up capital and reserves of £5,000,000 and deposits of £53,000,000 +closed their doors. Most of these, however, reopened for business before +many weeks. The crisis was felt in the large cities more keenly than in +the country districts, and in Melbourne more severely than in any other +capital. The change of fortune proved disastrous to many families, +previously to all appearances in opulent circumstances, but by all +classes alike their reverses were borne with the greatest bravery. In +its ultimate effects the crisis was by no means evil. Its true meaning +was not lost upon a business community that had had twenty years of +almost unchecked prosperity. It required the chastening of adversity to +teach it a salutary lesson, and a few years after, when the first +effects of the crisis had passed away, business was on a much sounder +footing than had been the case for very many years. One of the first +results was to put trade on a sound basis and to abolish most of the +abuses of the credit system, but the most striking effect of the crisis +was the attention which was almost immediately directed to productive +pursuits. Agriculture everywhere expanded, the mining industry revived, +and, if it had not been for the low prices of staple products, the +visible effects of the crisis would have passed away within a very few +years. + + + Drought of 1902. + +Another matter which deserves attention was the great drought which +culminated in the year 1902. For some years previously the pastoral +industry had been declining and the number of sheep and cattle in +Australia had greatly diminished, but the year 1902 was one of veritable +drought. The failure of the crops was almost universal and large numbers +of sheep and cattle perished for want of food. The truth is, +pastoralists for the most part carried on their industry trusting very +greatly to luck, not making any special provisions against the +vicissitudes of the seasons. Enormous quantities of natural hay were +allowed every year to rot or be destroyed by bush fires, and the +bountiful provision made by nature to carry them over the seasons of dry +weather absolutely neglected; so that when the destructive season of +1902 fell upon them, over a large area of territory there was no food +for the stock. The year 1903 proved most bountiful, and in a few years +all trace of the disastrous drought of 1902 passed away. But beyond this +the pastoralist learnt most effectually the lesson that, in a country +like Australia, provision must be made for the occasional season when +the rainfall is entirely inadequate to the wants of the farmer and the +pastoralist. + + + Federation. + +The question of federation was not lost sight of by the framers of the +original constitution which was bestowed upon New South Wales. In the +report of the committee of the legislative council appointed in 1852 to +prepare a constitution for that colony, the following passage +occurs:--"One of the most prominent legislative measures required by the +colony, and the colonies of the Australian group generally, is the +establishment at once of a general assembly, to make laws in relation to +those intercolonial questions that have arisen or may hereafter arise +among them. The questions which would claim the exercise of such a +jurisdiction appear to be (1) intercolonial tariffs and the coasting +trade; (2) railways, roads, canals, and other such works running through +any two of the colonies; (3) beacons and lighthouses on the coast; (4) +intercolonial gold regulations; (5) postage between the said colonies; +(6) a general court of appeal from the courts of such colonies; (7) a +power to legislate on all other subjects which may be submitted to them +by addresses from the legislative councils and assemblies of the +colonies, and to appropriate to any of the above-mentioned objects the +necessary sums of money, to be raised by a percentage on the revenues of +all the colonies interested." This wise recommendation received very +scant attention, and it was not until the necessities of the colonies +forced them to it that an attempt was made to do what the framers of the +original constitution suggested. Federation at no time actually dropped +out of sight, but it was not until thirty-five years later that any +practical steps were taken towards its accomplishment. Meanwhile a sort +of makeshift was devised, and the Imperial parliament passed a measure +permitting the formation of a federal council, to which any colony that +felt inclined to join could send delegates. Of the seven colonies New +South Wales and New Zealand stood aloof from the council, and from the +beginning it was therefore shorn of a large share of the prestige that +would have attached to a body speaking and acting on behalf of a united +Australia. The council had also a fatal defect in its constitution. It +was merely a deliberative body, having no executive functions and +possessing no control of funds or other means to put its legislation in +force. Its existence was well-nigh forgotten by the people of Australia +until the occurrence of its biennial meetings, and even then but slight +interest was taken in its proceedings. The council held eight meetings, +at which many matters of intercolonial interest were discussed. The last +occasion of its being called together was in 1899, when the council met +in Melbourne. In 1889 an important step towards federation was taken by +Sir Henry Parkes. The occasion was the report of Major-General Edwards +on the defences of Australia, and Sir Henry addressed the other premiers +on the desirability of a federal union for purposes of defence. The +immediate result was a conference at Parliament House, Melbourne, of +representatives from each of the seven colonies. This conference adopted +an address to the queen expressing its loyalty and attachment, and +submitting certain resolutions which affirmed the desirability of an +early union, under the crown, of the Australasian colonies, on +principles just to all, and provided that the remoter Australasian +colonies should be entitled to admission upon terms to be afterwards +agreed upon, and that steps should be taken for the appointment of +delegates to a national Australasian convention, to consider and report +upon an adequate scheme for a federal convention. In accordance with the +understanding arrived at, the various Australasian parliaments appointed +delegates to attend a national convention to be held in Sydney, and on +the 2nd March 1891 the convention held its first meeting. Sir Henry +Parkes was elected president, and he moved a series of resolutions +embodying the principles necessary to establish, on an enduring +foundation, the structure of a federal government. These resolutions +were slightly altered by the conference, and were adopted in the +following form:-- + + 1. The powers and rights of existing colonies to remain intact, except + as regards such powers as it may be necessary to hand over to the + Federal government. + + 2. No alteration to be made in states without the consent of the + legislatures of such states, as well as of the federal parliament. + + 3. Trade between the federated colonies to be absolutely free. + + 4. Power to impose customs and excise duties to be in the Federal + government and parliament. + + 5. Military and naval defence forces to be under one command. + + 6. The federal constitution to make provision to enable each state to + make amendments in the constitution if necessary for the purposes of + federation. + +Other formal resolutions were also agreed to, and on the 31st of March +Sir Samuel Griffith, as chairman of the committee on constitutional +machinery, brought up a draft Constitution Bill, which was carefully +considered by the convention in committee of the whole and adopted on +the 9th of April, when the convention was formally dissolved. The bill, +however, fell absolutely dead, not because it was not a good bill, but +because the movement out of which it arose had not popular initiative, +and therefore failed to reach the popular imagination. + +Although the bill drawn up by the convention of 1891 was not received by +the people with any show of interest, the federation movement did not +die out; on the contrary, it had many enthusiastic advocates, especially +in the colony of Victoria. In 1894 an unofficial convention was held at +Corowa, at which the cause of federation was strenuously advocated, but +it was not until 1895 that the movement obtained new life, by reason of +the proposals adopted at a meeting of premiers convened by Mr G.H. Reid +of New South Wales. At this meeting all the colonies except New Zealand +were represented, and it was agreed that the parliament of each colony +should be asked to pass a bill enabling the people to choose ten persons +to represent the colony on a federal convention; the work of such +convention being the framing of a federal constitution to be submitted +to the people for approval by means of the referendum. During the year +1896 Enabling Acts were passed by New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, +South Australia and Western Australia, and delegates were elected by +popular vote in all the colonies named except Western Australia, where +the delegates were chosen by parliament. The convention met in Adelaide +on the 22nd of March 1897, and, after drafting a bill for the +consideration of the various parliaments, adjourned until the 2nd of +September. On that date the delegates reassembled in Sydney, and debated +the bill in the light of the suggestions made by the legislatures of the +federating colonies. In the course of the proceedings it was announced +that Queensland desired to come within the proposed union; and in view +of this development, and in order to give further opportunity for the +consideration of the bill, the convention again adjourned. The third and +final session was opened in Melbourne on the 20th of January 1898, but +Queensland was still unrepresented; and, after further consideration, +the draft bill was finally adopted on the 16th of March and remitted to +the various colonies for submission to the people. + +The constitution was accepted by Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania +by popular acclamation, but in New South Wales very great opposition was +shown, the main points of objection being the financial provisions, +equal representation in the Senate, and the difficulty in the way of the +larger states securing an amendment of the constitution in the event of +a conflict with the smaller states. As far as the other colonies were +concerned, it was evident that the bill was safe, and public attention +throughout Australia was fixed on New South Wales, where a fierce +political contest was raging, which it was recognized would decide the +fate of the measure for the time being. The fear was as to whether the +statutory number of 80,000 votes necessary for the acceptance of the +bill would be reached. This fear proved to be well founded, for the +result of the referendum in New South Wales showed 71,595 votes in +favour of the bill and 66,228 against it, and it was accordingly lost. +In Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, on the other hand, the bill +was accepted by triumphant majorities. Western Australia did not put it +to the vote, as the Enabling Act of that colony only provided for +joining a federation of which New South Wales should form a part. The +existence of such a strong opposition to the bill in the mother colony +convinced even its most zealous advocates that some changes would have +to be made in the constitution before it could be accepted by the +people; consequently, although the general election in New South Wales, +held six or seven weeks later, was fought on the federal issue, yet the +opposing parties seemed to occupy somewhat the same ground, and the +question narrowed itself down to one as to which party should be +entrusted with the negotiations to be conducted on behalf of the colony, +with a view to securing a modification of the objectionable features of +the bill. The new parliament decided to adopt the procedure of again +sending the premier, Mr Reid, into conference, armed with a series of +resolutions affirming its desire to bring about the completion of +federal union, but asking the other colonies to agree to the +reconsideration of the provisions which were most generally objected to +in New South Wales. The other colonies interested were anxious to bring +the matter to a speedy termination, and readily agreed to this course of +procedure. Accordingly a premiers' conference was held in Melbourne at +the end of January 1899, at which Queensland was for the first time +represented. At this conference a compromise was effected, something was +conceded to the claims of New South Wales, but the main principles of +the bill remained intact. The bill as amended was submitted to the +electors of each colony and again triumphantly carried in Victoria, +South Australia and Tasmania. In New South Wales and Queensland there +were still a large number of persons opposed to the measure, which was +nevertheless carried in both colonies. New South Wales having decided in +favour of federation, the way was clear for a decision on the part of +Western Australia. The Enabling Bill passed the various stages in the +parliament of that colony, and the question was then adopted by +referendum. + +In accordance with this general verdict of all the states, the colonial +draft bill was submitted to the imperial government for legislation as +an imperial act; and six delegates were sent to England to explain the +measure and to pilot it through the cabinet and parliament. A bill was +presented to the British parliament which embodied and established, with +such variations as had been accepted on behalf of Australia by the +delegates, the constitution agreed to at the premiers' conference of +1899 and speedily became law. Under this act, which was dated the 9th of +July 1900, a proclamation was issued on the 17th of September of the +same year, declaring that, on and after the 1st of January 1901, the +people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, +Tasmania and Western Australia should be united in a federal +commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth of Australia. + + + Provisions of the Act of 1900. + + The six colonies entering the Commonwealth were denominated original + states, and new states might be admitted, or might be formed by + separation from or union of two or more states or parts of states; and + territories (as distinguished from states) might be taken over and + governed under the legislative power of the Commonwealth. The + legislative power is vested in a federal parliament, consisting of the + sovereign, a senate, and a house of representatives, the sovereign + being represented by a governor-general. The Senate was to consist of + the same number of members (not less than six) for each state, the + term of service being six years, but subject to an arrangement that + half the number would retire every three years. The House of + Representatives was to consist of members chosen in the different + states in numbers proportioned to their population, but never fewer + than five. The first House of Representatives was to contain + seventy-five members. For elections to the Senate the governors of + states, and for general elections of the House of Representatives the + governor-general, would cause writs to be issued. The Senate would + choose its own president, and the House of Representatives its + speaker; each house would make its own rules of procedure; in each, + one-third of the number of members would form a quorum; the members of + each must take oath, or make affirmation of allegiance; and all alike + would receive an allowance of £400 a year. The legislative powers of + the parliament have a wide range, many matters being transferred to it + from the colonial parliaments. The more important subjects with which + it deals are trade, shipping and railways; taxation, bounties, the + borrowing of money on the credit of the Commonwealth; the postal and + telegraphic services; defence, census and statistics; currency, + coinage, banking, bankruptcy; weights and measures; copyright, patents + and trade marks; marriage and divorce; immigration and emigration; + conciliation and arbitration in industrial disputes. Bills imposing + taxation or appropriating revenue must not originate in the Senate, + and neither taxation bills nor bills appropriating revenue for the + annual service of the government may be amended in the Senate, but the + Senate may return such bills to the House of Representatives with a + request for their amendment. Appropriation laws must not deal with + other matters. Taxation laws must deal with only one subject of + taxation; but customs and excise duties may, respectively, be dealt + with together. Votes for the appropriation of the revenue shall not + pass unless recommended by the governor-general. The constitution + provides means for the settlement of disputes between the houses, and + requires the assent of the sovereign to all laws. The executive power + is vested in the governor-general, assisted by an executive council + appointed by himself. He has command of the army and navy, and + appoints federal ministers and judges. The ministers are members of + the executive council, and must be, or within three months of their + appointment must become, members of the parliament. The judicial + powers are vested in a high court and other federal courts, and the + federal judges hold office for life or during good behaviour. The High + Court has appellate jurisdiction in cases from other federal courts + and from the supreme courts of the states, and it has original + jurisdiction in matters arising under laws made by the federal + parliament, in disputes between states, or residents in different + states, and in matters affecting the representatives of foreign + powers. Special provisions were made respecting appeals from the High + Court to the sovereign in council. The constitution set forth + elaborate arrangements for the administration of finance and trade + during the transition period following the transference of departments + to the Commonwealth. Within two years uniform customs duties were to + be imposed; thereafter the parliament of the Commonwealth had + exclusive power to impose customs and excise duties, or to grant + bounties; and trade within the Commonwealth was to be absolutely free. + Exceptions were made permitting the states to grant bounties on mining + and (with the consent of the parliament) on exports of produce or + manufactures--Western Australia being for a time partially exempted + from the prohibition to impose import duties. + + The constitution, parliament and laws of each state, subject to the + federal constitution, retained their authority; state rights were + carefully safeguarded, and an inter-state commission was given powers + of adjudication and of administration of the laws relating to trade, + transport and other matters. Provision was made for necessary + alteration of the constitution of the Commonwealth, but so that no + alteration could be effected unless the question had been directly + submitted to, and the change accepted by the electorate in the states. + The seat of government was to be within New South Wales, not less than + 100 m. distant from Sydney, and of an area not less than 100 sq. m. + Until other provision was made, the governor-general was to have a + salary of £10,000, paid by the Commonwealth. Respecting the salaries + of the governors of states, the constitution made no provision. + +The choice of governor-general of the new Commonwealth fell upon Lord +Hopetoun (afterwards Lord Linlithgow), who had won golden opinions as +governor of Victoria a few years before; Mr (afterwards Sir Edmund) +Barton, who had taken the lead among the Australian delegates, became +first prime minister; and the Commonwealth was inaugurated at the +opening of 1901. The first parliament under the constitution was elected +on the 29th and 30th of March 1901, and was opened by the prince of +Wales on the 9th of May following. In October 1908 the Yass-Canberra +district, near the town of Yass, N.S.W., was at length selected by both +federal houses to contain the future federal capital. + + + Labour movement. + + The Great Strike of 1890. + +The Labour movement in Australia may be traced back to the early days +when transportation was in vogue, and the free immigrant and the +time-expired convict objected to the competition of the bond labourer. +The great object of these early struggles being attained, Labour +directed its attention mainly to securing shorter hours. It was aided +very materially by the dearth of workers consequent on the gold +discoveries, when every man could command his own price. When the +excitement consequent on the gold finds had subsided, there was a +considerable reaction against the claims of Labour, and this was greatly +helped by the congested state of the labour market; but the principle of +an eight-hours day made progress, and was conceded in several trades. In +the early years of the 'seventies the colonies entered upon an era of +well-being, and for about twelve years every man, willing to work and +capable of exerting himself, readily found employment. The Labour unions +were able to secure in these years many concessions both as to hours and +wages. In 1873 there was an important rise in wages, in the following +year there was a further advance, and another in 1876; but in 1877 wages +fell back a little, though not below the rate of 1874. In 1882 there was +a very important advance in wages; carpenters received 11s. a day, +bricklayers 12s. 6d., stone-masons 11s. 6d., plasterers 12s., painters +11s., blacksmiths 10s., and navvies and general labourers 8s., and work +was very plentiful. For five years these high wages ruled; but in 1886 +there was a sharp fall, though wages still remained very good. In 1888 +there was an advance, and again in 1889. In 1890 matters were on the eve +of a great change and wages fell, in most cases to a point 20% below the +rates of 1885. During the whole period from 1873 onwards, prices, other +than of labour, were steadily tending downwards, so that the cost of +living in 1890 was much below that of 1873. Taking everything into +consideration the reduction was, perhaps, not less than 20%, so that, +though the nominal or money wages in 1873 and 1890 were the same, the +actual wages were much higher in the latter year. Much of the +improvement in the lot of the wage-earners has been due to the Labour +organizations, yet so late as 1881 these organizations were of so little +account, politically, that when the law relating to trades unions was +passed in New South Wales, the English law was followed, and it was +simply enacted that the purposes of any trades union shall not be deemed +unlawful (so as to render a member liable to criminal prosecution for +conspiracy or otherwise) merely by reason that they are in restraint of +trade. After the year 1884 Labour troubles became very frequent, the New +South Wales coal miners in particular being at war with the colliery +owners during the greater part of the six years intervening between then +and what is called the Great Strike. The strong downward tendency of +prices made a reduction of wages imperative; but the labouring classes +failed to recognize any such necessity, and strongly resented any +reductions proposed by employers. It was hard indeed for a carter +drawing coal to a gasworks to recognize the necessity which compelled a +reduction in his wages because wool had fallen 20%. Nor were other +labourers, more nearly connected with the producing interests, satisfied +with a reduction of wages because produce had fallen in price all round. +Up to 1889 wages held their ground, although work had become more +difficult to obtain, and some industries were being carried on without +any profit. It was at such an inopportune time that the most extensive +combination of Labour yet brought into action against capital formulated +its demands. It is possible that the London dockers' strike was not +without its influence on the minds of the Australian Labour leaders. +That strike had been liberally helped by the Australian unions, and it +was confidently predicted that, as the Australian workers were more +effectively organized than the English unions, a corresponding success +would result from their course of action. A strike of the Newcastle +miners, after lasting twenty-nine weeks, came to an end in January 1890, +and throughout the rest of the year there was great unrest in Labour +circles. On the 6th of September the silver mines closed down, and a +week later a conference of employers issued a manifesto which was met +next day by a counter-manifesto of the Intercolonial Labour Conference, +and almost immediately afterwards by the calling out of 40,000 men. The +time chosen for the strike was the height of the wool season, when a +cessation of work would be attended with the maximum of inconvenience. +Sydney was the centre of the disturbance, and the city was in a state of +industrial siege, feeling running to dangerous extremes. Riotous scenes +occurred both in Sydney and on the coal-fields, and a large number of +special constables were sworn in by the government. Towards the end of +October 20,000 shearers were called out, and many other trades, +principally concerned with the handling or shipping of wool, joined the +ranks of the strikers, with the result that the maritime and pastoral +industries throughout the whole of Australia were most injuriously +disturbed. The Great Strike terminated early in November 1890, the +employers gaining a decisive victory. The colonies were, however, to +have other and bitter experiences of strikes before Labour recognized +that of all means for settling industrial disputes strikes are, on the +whole, the most disastrous that it can adopt. The strikes of the years +1890 and 1892 are just as important on account of their political +consequences as from the direct gains or losses involved. + + + Political consequences. + +As one result of the strike of 1890 a movement was set afoot by a number +of enthusiasts, more visionary than practical, that has resulted in a +measure of more or less disaster. This was the planting of a colony of +communistic Australians in South America. After much negotiation the +leader, Mr William Lane, a Brisbane journalist, decided on Paraguay, and +he tramped across the continent, preaching a new crusade, and gathering +in funds and recruits in his progress. On the 16th of July 1893 the +first little army of "New Australians" left Sydney in the "Royal Tar," +which arrived at Montevideo on the 31st of August. Other consignments of +intending settlers in "New Australia" followed; but though the +settlement is still in existence it has completely failed to realize the +impracticable ideals of its original members. The Queensland government +assisted some of the disillusioned to escape from the paradise which +proved a prison; some managed to get away on their own account; and +those that have remained have split into as many settlements almost as +there are settlers. Another effect of the Great Strike was in a more +practical direction. New South Wales was the first country which +endeavoured to settle its labour grievances through the ballot-box and +to send a great party to parliament as the direct representation of +Labour, pledged to obtain through legislation what it was unable to +obtain by strikes and physical force. The principle of one-man one-vote +had been persistently advocated without arousing any special +parliamentary or public enthusiasm until the meeting of the Federal +Convention in 1891. The convention was attended by Sir George Grey, who +was publicly welcomed to the colony by New Zealanders resident in +Sydney, and by other admirers, and his reception was an absolute +ovation. He eloquently and persistently advocated the principle of +one-man one-vote as the bed-rock of all democratic reform. This +subsequently formed the first plank of the Labour platform. Several +attempts had been made by individuals belonging to the Labour party to +enter the New South Wales parliament, but it was not until 1891 that the +occurrence of a general election gave the party the looked-for +opportunity for concerted action. The results of the election came as a +complete surprise to the majority of the community. The Labour party +captured 35 seats out of a House of 125 members; and as the old parties +almost equally divided the remaining seats, and a fusion was impossible, +the Labour representatives dominated the situation. It was not long, +however, before the party itself became divided on the fiscal question; +and a Protectionist government coming into power, about half the Labour +members gave it consistent support and enabled it to maintain office for +about three years, the party as a political unit being thus destroyed. +The events of these three years taught the Labour leaders that a +parliamentary party was of little practical influence unless it was able +to cast on all important occasions a solid vote, and to meet the case a +new method was devised. The party therefore determined that they would +refuse to support any person standing in the Labour interests who +refused to pledge himself to vote on all occasions in such way as the +majority of the party might decide to be expedient. This was called the +"solidarity pledge," and, united under its sanction, what was left of +the Labour party contested the general election of 1894. The result was +a defeat, their numbers being reduced from 35 to 19; but a signal +triumph was won for solidarity. Very few of the members who refused to +take the pledge were returned and the adherents of the united party were +able to accomplish more with their reduced number than under the old +conditions. + + The two features of the Labour party in New South Wales are its + detachment from other parties and the control of the caucus. The + caucus, which is the natural corollary of the detachment, determines + by majority the vote of the whole of the members of the party, + independence of action being allowed on minor questions only. So far + the party has refrained from formal alliance with the other great + parties of the state. It supports the government as the power alone + capable of promoting legislation, but its support is given only so + long as the measures of the government are consistent with the Labour + policy. This position the Labour party has been able to maintain with + great success, owing to the circumstance that the other parties have + been almost equally balanced. + + + Parliamentary Labour party. + +The movement towards forming a parliamentary Labour party was not +confined to New South Wales; on the contrary, it was common to all the +states, having its origin in the failure of the Great Strike of 1890. +The experience of the party was also much the same as in New South +Wales, but its greatest triumphs were achieved in South Australia. The +Labour party has been in power in Queensland, Western Australia and +South Australia, and has, on many occasions, decided the fate of the +government on a critical division in all the states except Tasmania and +Victoria. Different ideals dominate the party in the different states. +The one ideal which has just been described represents the Labour party +from the New South Wales standpoint. The only qualification worth +mentioning is the signing of the pledge of solidarity. The other ideal, +typified by the South Australian party, differs from this in one +important respect. To the Labour party in that state are admitted only +persons who have worked for their living at manual labour, and this +qualification of being an actual worker is one that was strongly +insisted upon at the formation of the party and strictly adhered to, +although the temptation to break away from it and accept as candidates +persons of superior education and position has been very great. On the +formation of the Commonwealth a Labour party was established in the +federal houses. It comprises one-third of the representation in the +House of Representatives, and perhaps a still larger proportion in the +Senate. The party is, however, formed on a broader basis than the state +parties, the solidarity pledge extends only to votes upon which the fate +of a government depends. Naturally, however, as the ideals of the +members of the party are the same, the members of the Labour party will +be generally found voting together on all important divisions, the chief +exception being with regard to free trade or protection. The Labour +party held power in the Commonwealth for a short period, and has had the +balance of power in its hands ever since the formation of the +Commonwealth. (T. A. C.) + + + Recent legislation. + +Australian legislation in the closing years of the 19th century and the +first decade of the 20th bore the most evident traces of the Labour +party's influence. In all the colonies a complete departure from +principles laid down by the leading political economists of the 19th +century was made when acts were passed subjecting every branch of +domestic industry to the control of specially constituted tribunals, +which were empowered among other important functions to fix the minimum +rate of wages to be paid to all grades of workmen. (See also the +articles ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION; TRADE UNIONS; LABOUR +LEGISLATION.) + + + Victoria. + + Victoria was the pioneer in factory legislation, the first Victorian + act of that character dating from 1873. In 1884 a royal commission, + appointed two years earlier to inquire into the conditions of + employment in the colony and certain allegations of "sweating" that + had then recently been made, reported that:--"The most effective mode + of bringing about industrial co-operation and mutual sympathy between + employers and employed, and thus obviating labour conflicts in the + future, is by the establishment of courts of conciliation in Victoria, + whose procedure and awards shall have the sanction and authority of + law." This report led to the passing of a number of acts which, + proving ineffectual, were followed by the Factories and Shops Act of + 1896, passed by the ministry of Mr (afterwards Sir Alexander) Peacock. + This measure, together with several subsequent amending acts, of which + the most important became law in 1903, 1905 and 1907, forms a complete + industrial code in which the principle of state regulation of wages is + recognized and established. Its central enactment was to bring into + existence (1) "Special Boards," consisting of an equal number of + representatives of employers and workmen respectively in any trade, + under the presidency of an independent chairman, and (2) a Court of + Industrial Appeals. A special board may be formed at the request of + any union of employers or of workmen, or on the initiative of the + Labour department. After hearing evidence, which may be given on oath, + the special board issues a "determination," fixing the minimum rate of + wages to be paid to various classes of workers of both sexes and + different ages in the trade covered by the determination, including + apprentices; and specifying the number of hours per week for which + such wages are payable, with the rates for overtime when those hours + are exceeded. The determination is then gazetted, and it becomes + operative over a specified area, which varies in different cases, on a + date fixed by the board. Either party, or the minister for Labour, may + refer a determination to the court of industrial appeals, and the + court, in the event of a special board failing to make a + determination, may itself be called upon to frame one. The general + administration of the Factories and Shops Acts, to which the special + boards owe their being, is vested in a chief inspector of factories, + subject to the control of the minister of Labour in matters of policy. + Before the end of 1906 fifty-two separate trades in Victoria had + obtained special boards, by whose determinations their operations were + controlled. + + + South Australia. + + A similar system was introduced into South Australia by an act passed + in 1900 amending the Factory Act of 1894, which was the first + legislation of the sort passed in that state. + + + Queensland. + + In Queensland, where the earliest factory legislation dates from 1896, + keen parliamentary conflict raged round the proposal in 1907 to + introduce the special boards system for fixing wages. More than one + change of government occurred before the bill became law in April + 1908. + + + New South Wales. + + In New South Wales, whose example was followed by Western Australia, + the machinery adopted for fixing the statutory rate of wages was of a + somewhat different type. The model followed in these two states was + not Victoria but New Zealand, where an Industrial Conciliation and + Arbitration Act was passed in 1894. A similar measure, under the + guidance of the attorney-general, the Hon. B.R. Wise, was carried + after much opposition in New South Wales in 1901, to remain in force + till the 30th of June 1908. By it an arbitration court was instituted, + consisting of a president and assessors representing the employers' + unions and the workers' unions respectively; in any trade in which a + dispute occurs, any union of workmen or employers registered under the + act was given the right to bring the matter before the arbitration + court, and if the court makes an award, an application may be made to + it to make the award a "common rule," which thereupon becomes binding + over the trade affected, wherever the act applies. The award of the + court is thus the equivalent of the determination of a special board + in Victoria, and deals with the same questions, the most important of + which are the minimum rates of wages and the number of working hours + per week. The act contained stringent provisions forbidding strikes; + but in this respect it failed to effect its purpose, several strikes + occurring in the years following its enactment, in which there were + direct refusals to obey awards. + + + Western Australia. + + In the years 1900 and 1902 acts were passed in Western Australia still + more closely modelled on the New Zealand act than was the + above-mentioned statute in New South Wales. Unlike the latter, they + reproduced the institution of district conciliation boards in addition + to the arbitration court; but these boards were a failure here as they + were in New Zealand, and after 1903 they fell into disuse. In Western + Australia, too, the act failed to prevent strikes taking place. In + 1907 a serious strike occurred in the timber trade, attended by all + the usual accompaniments, except actual disorder, of an industrial + conflict. + + + Federal Arbitration Act of 1904. + + In all this legislation one of the most hotly contested points was + whether the arbitration court should be given power to lay it down + that workers who were members of a trade union should be employed in + preference to non-unionists. This power was given to the tribunal in + New South Wales, but was withheld in Western Australia. It was the + same question that formed the chief subject of debate over the Federal + Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which, after causing the defeat of + more than one ministry, passed through the Commonwealth parliament in + 1904. It was eventually compromised by giving the power, but only with + safeguarding conditions, to the Federal arbitration court. This + tribunal differs from similar courts in the states inasmuch as it + consists of a single member, called the "president," an officer + appointed by the governor-general from among the justices of the High + Court of Australia. The president has the power to appoint assessors + to advise him on technical points; and considerable powers of + devolution of authority for the purpose of inquiry and report are + conferred upon the court, the main object of which is to secure + settlement by conciliatory methods. The distinctive object of the + Federal Act, as defined in the measure itself, is to provide machinery + for dealing with industrial disputes extending beyond any one state, + examples of which were furnished by the first two important cases + submitted to the court--the one concerning the merchant marine of + Australia, and the other the sheep shearers, both of which were heard + in 1907. An additional duty was thrown on the Federal arbitration + court by the Customs and Excise Tariff Acts of 1906, in which were + embodied the principles known as the "New Protection." By the Customs + Act the duty was raised on imported agricultural implements, while as + a safeguard to the consumer the maximum prices for the retail of the + goods were fixed. In order to provide a similar protection for the + artisans employed in the protected industries, an excise duty was + imposed on the home-produced articles, which was to be remitted in + favour of manufacturers who could show that they paid "fair and + reasonable" wages, and complied with certain other conditions for the + benefit of their workmen. The chief authority for determining whether + these conditions are satisfied or not is the Federal arbitration + court. + + + Old age pensions. + + The same period that saw this legislation adopted was also marked by + the establishment of old age pensions in the three eastern states, and + also in the Commonwealth. By the Federal Act, passed in the session of + 1908, a pension of ten shillings a week was granted to persons of + either sex over sixty-five years of age, or to persons over sixty who + are incapacitated from earning a living. The Commonwealth legislation + thus made provision for the aged poor in the three states which up to + 1908 had not accepted the principle of old age pensions, and also for + those who, owing to their having resided in more than one state, were + debarred from receiving pension in any. + + + Tariff. + +An important work of the Commonwealth parliament was the passing of a +uniform tariff to supersede the six separate tariffs in force at the +establishment of the Commonwealth, but many other important measures +were considered and some passed into law. During the first six years of +federation there were five ministries; the tenure of office under the +three-yearly system was naturally uncertain, and this uncertainty was +reflected in the proposals of whatever ministry was in office. The great +task of adjusting the financial business of the Commonwealth on a +permanent basis was one of very great difficulty, as the apparent +interests of the states and of the Commonwealth were opposed. Up till +1908 it had been generally assumed that the constitution required the +treasurer of the Commonwealth to hand over to the states month by month +whatever surplus funds remained in his hands. But in July 1908 a Surplus +Revenue Act was passed which was based on a different interpretation of +the constitution. Under this act the appropriation of these surplus +funds to certain trust purposes in the Federal treasury is held to be +equivalent to payment to the states. The money thus obtained was +appropriated in part to naval defence and harbours, and in part to the +provision of old age pensions under the Federal Old Age Pension Act of +1908. The act was strongly opposed by the government of Queensland, and +the question was raised as to whether it was based on a true +interpretation of the constitution. The chief external interest, +however, of the new financial policy of the Commonwealth lay in its +relation towards the empire as a whole. At the Imperial Conference in +London in 1907 Mr Deakin, the Commonwealth premier, was the leading +advocate of colonial preference with a view to imperial commercial +union; and though no reciprocal arrangement was favoured by the Liberal +cabinet, who temporarily spoke for the United Kingdom, the colonial +representatives were all agreed in urging such a policy, and found the +Opposition (the Unionist party) in England prepared to adopt it as part +of Mr Chamberlain's tariff reform movement. In spite of the official +rebuff received from the mother-country, the Australian ministry, in +drawing up the new Federal tariff, gave a substantial preference to +British imports, and thus showed their willingness to go farther. (See +the article BRITISH EMPIRE.) (R. J. M.) + + GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For Physical Geography: Barton, _Australian + Physiography_ (Brisbane, 1895); Wall, _Physical Geography of + Australia_ (Melbourne, 1883); Taylor, _Geography of New South Wales_ + (Sydney, 1898); Saville Kent, _The Great Barrier Reef of Australia_ + (London, 1893); A. Agassiz, _Visit to the Barrier Reef_ (Cambridge, + Mass., 1899); J.P. Thomson, _The Physical Geography of Australia_ + (Smithsonian Report, Washington, 1898); J.W. Gregory, _The Dead Heart + of Australia_. For Flora: Maiden, _Useful Native Plants of Australia_ + (Sydney, 1889); Bentham and Mueller, _Flora Australiensis_ (London, + 1863-1878); Fitzgerald, _Australian Orchids_ (Sydney, 1870-1890); + Mueller, _Census of Australian Plants_ (Melbourne, 1889). For Fauna: + Forbes, "The Chatham Islands; their Relation to a former Southern + Continent," _Geographical Journal_, vol. ii. (1893); Hedley, + "Surviving Refugees in Austral Lands of Ancient Antarctic Life," + _Royal Society N.S. Wales_, 1895; "The Relation of the Fauna and Flora + of Australia to those of New Zealand," _Nat. Science_ (1893); + Tenison-Woods, _The Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales_ (Sydney, + 1883); Ogilvy, _Catalogue of Australian Mammals_ (Sydney, 1892); + Aflalo, _Natural History of Australia_ (London, 1896); Flower and + Lydekker, _Mammals, Living and Extinct_ (London, 1891); J. Douglas + Ogilby, _Catalogue of the Fishes of New South Wales_, 4to (Sydney, + 1886). For Statistics and Miscellanea: T.A. Coghlan, _A Statistical + Account of the Seven Colonies of Australasia_, 8vo (Sydney, 1904); G. + Collingridge, _The Discovery of Australia_ (Sydney, 1895); W. Epps, + _The Land Systems of Australia_, 8vo (London, 1894); Ernest Favenc, + _The History of Australasian Exploration_, royal 8vo (Sydney, 1885); + R.R. Garraa, _The Coming Commonwealth: a Handbook of Federal + Government_ (Sydney, 1897); George William Rusden, _History of + Australia_, 3 vols. 8vo (London, 1883); K. Schmeisser, _The Goldfields + of Australasia_, 2 vols. (London, 1899); G.F. Scott, _The Romance of + Australian Exploring_ (London, 1899); H. de R. Walker, _Australasian + Democracy_ (London, 1897); William Westgarth, _Half a Century of + Australian Progress_ (London, 1899); T.A. Coghlan and T.T. Ewing, + _Progress of Australia in the 19th Century_; G.P. Tregarthen, + _Commonwealth of Australia_; Ida Lee, _Early Days of Australia_; W.P. + Reeves, _State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand_; A. Metin, + _La Socialisme sans doctrine_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The literature of the geology of Australia is enumerated, to + 1884, in the bibliography by Etheridge and Jack. A general summary of + the stratigraphical geology was given by R. Tate, _Rep. Austral. + Assoc. Adv. Sci._ vol. v. (1893), pp. 1-69. References to the chief + sources of information regarding the states is given under each of + them. A geological map of the whole continent, on the scale of 50 m. + to the inch, was compiled by A. Everett, and issued in 1887 in six + sheets, by the Geological Survey of Victoria. + + [2] The statistical portion of this article includes Tasmania, which + is a member of the Australian Commonwealth. + + [3] In his _Discoveries in Central Australia_, E.T. Eyre has + ingeniously attempted to reconstruct the routes taken by the + Australians in their advance across the continent. He has relied, + however, in his efforts to link the tribes together, too much on the + prevalence or absence of such customs as circumcision--always very + treacherous evidences--to allow of his hypothetical distribution + being regarded very seriously. The migrations must have always been + dependent upon physical difficulties, such as waterless tracts or + mountain barriers. They were probably not definite massed movements, + such as would permit of the survival of distinctive lines of custom + between tribe and tribe; but rather spasmodic movements, sometimes of + tribes or of groups, sometimes only of families or even couples, the + first caused by tribal wars, the second to escape punishment for some + offence against tribal law, such as the defiance of the rules as to + clan-marriages. + + [4] _The Languages of India_ (1875). + + [5] The existence of "Group Marriage" is a much-controverted point. + This custom, which has been defined as the invasion of actual + marriage by allotting permanent paramours, is confined to a special + set of tribes. + + [6] Australia, it may be noted, has woman's suffrage in all the + states (Victoria, the last, adopting it in November 1908), and for + the federal assembly. + + + + +AUSTRASIA. The word _Austria_ signifies the realm of the east (Ger. _Ost +Reich_). In Gregory of Tours this word is still used vaguely, but the +sense of it is gradually defined, and finally the name of _Austria_ or +_Austrasia_ was given to the easternmost part of the Frankish kingdom. +It usually had Metz for its capital, and the inhabitants of the kingdom +were known as the _Austrasii_. Retrospectively, later historians have +given this name to the kingdom of Theuderich I. (511-534), of his son +Theudebert (534-548), and of his grandson Theudebald (548-555); then, +after the death of Clotaire I., to the kingdom of Sigebert (561-575), +and of his son Childebert (575-597). They have even tried to interpret +the long struggle between Fredegond and Brunhilda as a rivalry between +the two kings of Neustria and Austrasia. When these two words are at +last found in the texts in their precise signification, Austrasia is +applied to that part of the Frankish kingdom which Clotaire II. +entrusted to his son Dagobert, subject to the guardianship of Pippin and +Arnulf (623-629), and which Dagobert in his turn handed on to his son +Sigebert (634-639), under the guardianship of Cunibert, bishop of +Cologne, and Ansegisel, mayor of the palace. After the death of +Dagobert, Austrasia and Neustria almost always had separate kings, with +their own mayors of the palace, and then there arose a real rivalry +between these two provinces, which ended in the triumph of Austrasia. +The Austrasian mayors of the palace succeeded in enforcing their +authority in the western as well as in the eastern part, and in +re-establishing to their own advantage the unity of the Frankish +kingdom. The mayor Pippin the Short was even powerful enough to take the +title of king over the whole. + +At the time of Charlemagne, the word Austrasia underwent a change of +meaning and became synonymous with _Francia orientalis_, and was applied +to the Frankish dominions beyond the Rhine (Franconia). This Franconia +was in 843 included in the kingdom of Louis the German, and was then +increased by the addition of the territories of Mainz, Spires and Worms, +on the right bank of the river. + + See A. Huguenin, _Histoire du royaume mérovingien d'Austrasie_ (Paris, + 1857); Aug. Digot, _Histoire du royaume d'Austrasie_, 4 vols. (Nancy, + 1863); L. Drapeyron, _Essai sur l'origine, le développement et les + résultats de la lutte entre la Neustrie et l'Austrasie_ (Paris, 1867); + Auguste Longnon, _Atlas historique_, 1st and 2nd parts. (C. Pf.) + + + + +AUSTRIA. (Ger. _Österreich_), a country of central Europe, bounded E. by +Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic Sea and Italy, W. by +Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German empire (Bavaria), and N. by +the German empire (Saxony and Prussia) and Russia. It has an area of +115,533 sq. m., or about twice the size of England and Wales together. +Austria is one of the states which constitute the Austro-Hungarian +(Habsburg) monarchy (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_), and is also called +Cisleithania, from the fact that it contains the portion of that +monarchy which lies to the west of the river Leitha. Austria does not +form a geographical unity, and the constituent parts of this empire +belong to different geographical regions. Thus, Tirol, Styria and +Carinthia belong, like Switzerland, to the system of the Alps, but these +provinces together with those lying in the basin of the Danube form, +nevertheless, a compact stretch of country. On the other hand Galicia, +extending on the eastern side of the Carpathians, belongs to the great +plain of Russia; Bohemia stretches far into the body of Germany; while +Dalmatia, which is quite separated from the other provinces, belongs to +the Balkan Peninsula. + + _Coasts._--Austria has amongst all the great European countries the + most continental character, in so far as its frontiers are mostly + land-frontiers, only about one-tenth of them being coast-land. The + Adriatic coast, which stretches for a distance of about 1000 m., is + greatly indented. The Gulf of Trieste on the west, and the Gulf of + Fiume or Quarnero on the east, include between them the peninsula of + Istria, which has many sheltered bays. In the Gulf of Quarnero are the + Quarnero islands, of which the most important are Cherso, Veglia and + Lussin. The coast west of the mouth of the Isonzo is fringed by + lagoons, and has the same character as the Venetian coast, while the + Gulf of Trieste and the Istrian peninsula have a steep coast with many + bays and safe harbours. The principal ports are Trieste, Capodistria, + Pirano, Parenzo, Rovigno and Pola, the great naval harbour and arsenal + of Austria. The coast of Dalmatia also possesses many safe bays, the + principal being those of Zara, Cattaro and Ragusa, but in some places + it is very steep and inaccessible. On the other hand a string of + islands extends along this coast, which offer many safe and easily + accessible places of anchorage to ships during the fierce winter gales + which rage in the Adriatic. The principal are Pago, Pasman, Isola + Lunga and Isola Incoronata, Brazza, Lesina, Curzola and Meleda. + + The political divisions of Austria correspond, for the most part, so + closely to natural physical divisions that the detailed account of the + physical features, natural resources and the movement of the + population has been given under those separate headings. In this + general article the geography of Austria--physical, economical and + political--has been treated in its broad aspects, and those points + insisted upon which give an adequate idea of the country as a whole. + + _Mountains._--Austria is the most mountainous country of Europe after + Switzerland, and about four-fifths of its entire area is more than 600 + ft. above the level of the sea. The mountains of Austria belong to + three different mountain systems, namely, the Alps (q.v.), the + Carpathians (q.v.), and the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains. The Danube, + which is the principal river of Austria, divides the Alpine region, + which occupies the whole country lying at its south, from the + Bohemian-Moravian Mountains and their offshoots lying at its north; + while the valleys of the March and the Oder separate the last-named + mountains from the Carpathians. Of the three principal divisions of + the Alps--the western, the central and the eastern Alps--Austria is + traversed by several groups of the central Alps, while the eastern + Alps lie entirely within its territory. The eastern Alps are continued + by the Karst mountains, which in their turn are continued by the + Dinaric Alps, which stretch through Croatia and Dalmatia. The second + great mountain-system of Austria, the Carpathians, occupy its eastern + and north-eastern portions, and stretch in the form of an arch through + Moravia, Silesia, Galicia and Bukovina, forming the frontier towards + Hungary, within which territory they principally extend. Finally, the + Bohemian-Moravian Mountains, which enclose Bohemia and Moravia, and + form the so-called quadrilateral of Bohemia, constitute the link of + the Austrian mountain-system with the hilly region (the + _Mittelgebirge_) of central Europe. Only a little over 25% of the area + of Austria is occupied by plains. The largest is the plain of Galicia, + which is part of the extensive Sarmatic plain; while in the south, + along the Isonzo, Austria comprises a small part of the + Lombardo-Venetian plain. Several smaller plains are found along the + Danube, as the Tulner Becken in Lower Austria, and the Wiener Becken, + the plain on which the capital is situated; to the north of the Danube + this plain is called the Marchfeld, and is continued under the name of + the Marchebene into Moravia as far north as Olmütz. Along the other + principal rivers there are also plains of more or less magnitude, some + of them possessing tracts of very fertile soil. + + _Rivers._--Austria possesses a fairly great number of rivers, pretty + equally distributed amongst its crown lands, with the exception of + Istria and the Karst region, where there is a great scarcity of even + the smallest rivers. The principal rivers are: the Danube, the + Dniester, the Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine and the Adige or + Etsch. As the highlands of Austria form part of the great watershed of + Europe, which divides the waters flowing northward into the North Sea + or the Baltic from those flowing southward or eastward into the + Mediterranean or the Black Sea, its rivers flow in three different + directions--northward, southward and eastward. With the exception of + the small streams belonging to it which fall into the Adriatic, all + its rivers have their mouths in other countries, and its principal + river, the Danube, has also its source in another country. When it + enters Austria at the gorge of Passau, where it receives the Inn, a + river which has as large a body of water as itself, the Danube is + already navigable. Till it leaves the country at Hainburg, just before + Pressburg, its banks are pretty closely hemmed by the Alps, and the + river passes through a succession of narrow defiles. But the finest + part of its whole course, as regards the picturesqueness of the + scenery on its banks, is between Linz and Vienna. Where it enters + Austria the Danube is 898 ft. above the level of the sea, and where it + leaves it is only 400 ft.; it has thus a fall within the country of + 498 ft., and is at first a very rapid stream, becoming latterly much + slower. The Danube has in Austria a course of 234 m., and it drains an + area of 50,377 sq. m. Its principal affluents in Austria, besides the + Inn, are the Traun, the Enns and the March. The Dniester, which, like + the Danube, flows into the Black Sea, has its source in the + Carpathians in Eastern Galicia, and pursues a very winding course + towards the south-east, passing into Russia. It has in Austria a + course of 370 m. of which 300 are navigable, and drains an area of + 12,000 sq. m. The Vistula and the Oder both fall into the Baltic. The + former rises in Moravia, flows first north through Austrian Silesia, + then takes an easterly direction along the borders of Prussian + Silesia, and afterwards a north-easterly, separating Galicia from + Russian Poland, and leaving Austria not far from Sandomir. Its course + in Austria is 240 m., draining an area of 15,500 sq. m. It is + navigable for nearly 200 m., and its principal affluents are the + Dunajec, the San and the Bug. The Oder has also its source in Moravia, + flows first east and then north-east through Austrian Silesia into + Prussia. Its length within the Austrian territory is only about 55 m., + no part of which is navigable. The only river of this country which + flows into the North Sea is the Elbe. It has its source in the + Riesengebirge, not far from the Schneekoppe, flows first south, then + west, and afterwards north-west through Bohemia, and then enters + Saxony. Its principal affluents are the Adler, Iser and Eger, and, + most important of all, the Moldau. The Elbe has a course within the + Austrian dominions of 185 m., for about 65 of which it is navigable. + It drains an area of upwards of 21,000 sq. m. The Rhine, though + scarcely to be reckoned a river of the country, flows for about 25 m. + of its course between it and Switzerland. The principal river of + Austria which falls into the Adriatic is the Adige or Etsch. It rises + in the mountains of Tirol, flows south, then east, and afterwards + south, into the plains of Lombardy. It has in Austria a course of 138 + m., and drains an area of 4266 sq. m. Its principal affluent is the + Eisak. Of the streams which have their course entirely within the + country, and fall into the Adriatic, the principal is the Isonzo, 75 + m. in length, but navigable only for a short distance from its mouth. + + _Lakes._--Austria does not possess any great lakes; but has numerous + small mountain lakes situated in the Alpine region, the most renowned + for the beauty of their situation being found in Salzburg, + Salzkammergut, Tirol and Carinthia. There should also be mentioned the + periodical lakes situated in the Karst region, the largest of them + being the Lake of Zirknitz. The numerous and large marshes, found now + mostly in Galicia and Dalmatia, have been greatly reduced in the other + provinces through the canalization of the rivers, and other works of + sanitation. + + _Mineral Springs._--No other European country equals Austria in the + number and value of its mineral springs. They are mostly to be found + in Bohemia, and are amongst the most frequented watering-places in the + world. The most important are, the alkaline springs of Carlsbad, + Marienbad, Franzensbad and Bilin; the alkaline acidulated waters of + Giesshubel, largely used as table waters; the iron springs of + Marienbad, Franzensbad and of Pyrawarth in Lower Austria; the bitter + waters of Pullna, Saidschitz and Sedlitz; the saline waters of Ischl + and of Aussee in Styria; the iodine waters of Hall in Upper Austria; + the different waters of Gastein; and lastly the thermal waters of + Teplitz-Schönau, Johannisbad, and of Römerbad in Styria. Altogether + there are reckoned to exist over 1500 mineral springs, of which many + are not used. (O. Br.) + + _Geology._--The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is traversed by the great + belt of folded beds which constitutes the Alps and the Carpathians; a + secondary branch proceeding from the main belt runs along the Adriatic + coast and forms the Julian and Dinaric Alps. In the space which is + thus enclosed, lies the Tertiary basin of the Hungarian plain; and + outside the belt, on the northern side, is a region which, + geologically, is composite, but has uniformly resisted the Carpathian + folding. In the neighbourhood of Vienna a gap in the folded belt--the + gap between the Alps and the Carpathians--has formed a connexion + between these two regions since the early part of the Miocene period. + On its outer or convex side the folded belt is clearly defined by a + depression which is generally filled by modern deposits. Beyond this, + in Russia and Galicia, lies an extensive plateau, much of which is + covered by flat-lying Miocene and Pliocene beds; but in the deep + valleys of the Dniester and its tributaries the ancient rocks which + form the foundation of the plateau are laid bare. Archaean granite is + thus exposed at Yampol and other places in Russia, and this is + followed towards the west by Silurian and Devonian beds in regular + succession--the Devonian being of the Old Red Sandstone type + characteristic of the British Isles and of Northern Russia. + Throughout, the dip is very low and the beds are unaffected by the + Carpathian folds, the strike being nearly from north to south. After + Devonian times the region seems to have been dry land until the + commencement of the Upper Cretaceous period, when it was overspread by + the Cenomanian sea, and the deposits of that sea lie flat upon the + older sediments. + + Some 25 or 30 m. of undulating country separate the Dniester from the + margin of the Carpathian chain, and in this space the Palaeozoic floor + sinks far beneath the surface, so that not even the deep-cut valley of + the Pruth exposes any beds of older date than Miocene. Towards the + north-west, also, the Palaeozoic foundation falls beneath an + increasing thickness of Cretaceous beds and lies buried far below the + surface. At Lemberg a boring 1650 ft. in depth did not reach the base + of the Senonian. West of Cracow the Cretaceous beds are underlaid by + Jurassic and Triassic deposits, the general dip being eastward. It is + not till Silesia that the Palaeozoic formations again rise to the + surface. Here is the margin, often concealed by very modern deposits, + of the great mass of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks which forms nearly + the whole of Bohemia and Moravia. The Palaeozoic beds no longer lie + flat and undisturbed, as in the Polish plain. They are faulted and + folded. But the folds are altogether independent of those of the + Carpathians; they are of much earlier date, and are commonly different + in direction. The principal biding took place towards the close of the + Carboniferous period, and the _massif_ is a fragment of an ancient + mountain chain, the _Variscische Gebirge_ of E. Suess, which in + Permian and Triassic times stretched across the European area from + west to east. + + In Bohemia and Moravia the whole of the beds from the Cambrian to the + Lower Carboniferous are of marine origin; but after the Carboniferous + period the area appears to have been dry land until the beginning of + the Upper Cretaceous period, when the sea again spread over it. The + deposits of this sea are now visible in the large basin of Upper + Cretaceous beds which stretches from Dresden southeastward through + Bohemia. Since the close of the Cretaceous period the Bohemian + _massif_ has remained above the sea; but the depression which lies + immediately outside the Carpathian chain has at times been covered by + an arm of the sea and at other times has been occupied by a chain of + salt lakes, to which the salt deposits of Wieliczka and numerous brine + springs owe their origin. + + [Illustration: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.] + + The large area which is enclosed within the curve of the Carpathians + is for the most part covered by loess, alluvium and other modern + deposits, but Miocene and Pliocene beds appear around its borders. In + the hilly region of western Transylvania a large mass of more ancient + rocks is exposed; the Carboniferous system and all the Mesozoic + systems have been recognized here, and granite and volcanic rocks + occur. In the middle of Hungary a line of hills rises above the plain, + striking from the Platten See towards the north-east, where it merges + into the inner girdle of the Carpathian chain. These hills are largely + formed of volcanic rocks of late Tertiary age; but near the Platten + See Triassic beds of Alpine type are well developed. The Tertiary + eruptions were not confined to this line of hills. They were most + extensive along the inner border of the Carpathians, and they occurred + also in the north of Bohemia. Most of the eruptions took place during + the Miocene and Pliocene periods. + + The mineral wealth of Austria is very great. The older rocks are in + many places peculiarly rich in metalliferous ores of all kinds. + Amongst them may be mentioned the silver-bearing lead ores of + Erzgebirge and of Pribram in Bohemia; the iron ores of Styria and + Bukovina; and the iron, copper, cobalt and nickel of the districts of + Zips and Gomor. The famous cinnabar and mercury mines of Idria in + Carniola are in Triassic beds; and the gold and silver of northern + Hungary and of Transylvania are associated with the Tertiary volcanic + rocks. The Carboniferous coal-fields of Silesia and Bohemia are of the + greatest importance; while Jurassic coal is worked at Steyerdorf and + Funfkirchen in Hungary, and lignite at many places in the Tertiary + beds. The great salt mines of Galicia are in Miocene deposits; but + salt is also worked largely in the Trias of the Alps. (See also ALPS; + CARPATHIANS; HUNGARY and TIROL.) (P. La.) + + _Climate._--The climate of Austria, in consequence of its great + extent, and the great differences in the elevation of its surface, is + very various. It is usual to divide it into three distinct zones. The + most southern extends to 46° N. lat., and includes Dalmatia and the + country along the coast, together with the southern portions of Tirol + and Carinthia. Here the seasons are mild and equable, the winters are + short (snow seldom falling), and the summers last for five months. The + vine and maize are everywhere cultivated, as well as olives and other + southern products. In the south of Dalmatia tropical plants flourish + in the open air. The central zone lies between 46° and 49° N. lat., + and includes Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, + Carniola, Central and Northern Tirol, Southern Moravia and a part of + Bohemia. The seasons are more marked here than in the preceding. The + winters are longer and more severe, and the summers are hotter. The + vine and maize are cultivated in favourable situations, and wheat and + other kinds of grain are generally grown. The northern zone embraces + the territory lying north of 49° N. lat., comprising Bohemia, Northern + Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. The winters are here long and cold; the + vine and maize are no longer cultivated, the principal crops being + wheat, barley, oats, rye, hemp and flax. The mean annual temperature + ranges from about 59° in the south to 48° in the north. In some parts + of the country, however, it is as low as 46° 40' and even 36°. In + Vienna the average annual temperature is 50°, the highest temperature + being 94°, the lowest 2° Fahr. In general the eastern part of the + country receives less rain than the western. In the south the rains + prevail chiefly in spring and autumn, and in the north and central + parts during summer. Storms are frequent in the region of the south + Alps and along the coast. In some parts in the vicinity of the Alps + the rainfall is excessive, sometimes exceeding 60 in. It is less among + the Carpathians, where it usually varies from 30 to 40 in. In other + parts the rainfall usually averages from 20 to 24 in. + + _Flora._--From the varied character of its climate and soil the + vegetable productions of Austria are very diverse. It has floras of + the plains, the hills and the mountains; an alpine flora, and an + arctic flora; a flora of marshes, and a flora of steppes; floras + peculiar to the clay, the chalk, the sandstone and the slate + formations. The number of different species is estimated at 12,000, of + which one-third are phanerogamous, or flowering plants, and two-thirds + cryptogamous, or flowerless. The crown land of Lower Austria far + surpasses in this respect the other divisions of the country, having + about four-ninths of the whole, and not less than 1700 species of + flowering plants. As stated above, Austria is a very mountainous + country and the mountains are frequently covered with vegetation to a + great elevation. At the base are found vines and maize; on the lower + slopes are green pastures, or wheat, barley and other kinds of corn; + above are often forests of oak, ash, elm, &c.; and still higher the + yew and the fir may be seen braving the climatic conditions. Corn + grows to between 3400 and 4500 ft. above the level of the sea, the + forests extend to 5600 or 6400 ft., and the line of perpetual snow is + from 7800 to 8200 ft. + + _Fauna._--The animal kingdom embraces, besides the usual domestic + animals (as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, asses, &c.), wild + boars, deer, wild goats, hares, &c.; also bears, wolves, lynxes, + foxes, wild cats, jackals, otters, beavers, polecats, martens, weasels + and the like. Eagles and hawks are common, and many kinds of singing + birds. The rivers and lakes abound in different kinds of fish, which + are also plentiful on the sea-coast. Among the insects the bee and the + silkworm are the most useful. The leech forms an article of trade. In + all there are 90 different species of mammals, 248 species of birds, + 377 of fishes and more than 13,000 of insects. + + _Divisions._--Austria is composed of seventeen "lands," called also + "crown lands." Of these, three--namely, Bohemia, Galicia and + Lodomeria, and Dalmatia--are kingdoms; two--Lower and Upper + Austria--archduchies; six--Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, + Silesia and Bukovina--duchies; two--Görz-Gradisca and + Tirol--countships of princely rank (_gefurstete Grafschaften_); + two--Moravia and Istria--margraviates (march counties). Vorarlberg + bears the title simply of "land." Trieste, with its district, is a + town treated as a special crown land. For administrative purposes + Trieste, with Görz-Gradisca and Istria, constituting the Küstenland + (the Coast land) and Tirol and Vorarlberg, are each comprehended as + one administrative territory. The remaining lands constitute each an + administrative territory by itself. + +_Population._--Austria had in 1900 a population of 26,107,304 +inhabitants,[1] which is equivalent to 226 inhabitants per sq. m. As +seen from the table below, the density of the population is unequal in +the various crown lands. The most thickly populated province is Lower +Austria; the Alpine provinces are sparsely populated, while Salzburg is +the most thinly populated crown land of Austria. As regards sex, for +every 1000 men there were 1035 women, the female element being the most +numerous in every crown land, except the Küstenland, Bukovina and +Dalmatia. Compared with the census returns of 1890, the population shows +an increase of 2,211,891, or 9.3% of the total population. The increase +between the preceding census returns of 1880 and 1890 was of 1,750,093 +inhabitants, or 7.9% of the total population. A very important factor in +the movement of the population is the large over-sea emigration, mostly +to the United States of America, which has grown very much during the +last quarter of the 19th century, and which shows a tendency to become +still larger. Between 1891 and 1900 the number of over-sea emigrants was +387,770 persons. The movement of the population shown in the other vital +statistics--births, marriages, deaths--are mostly satisfactory, and show +a steady and normal progress. The annual rate per thousand of population +in 1900 was: births, 37.0; still-births, 1.1; deaths, 25.2; marriages, +8.2. The only unsatisfactory points are the great number of illegitimate +births, and the high infant mortality. Of the total population of +Austria 14,009,233 were scattered in 26,321 rural communities with less +than 2000 inhabitants; while the remainder was distributed in 1742 +communities with a population of 2000-5000; in 260 communities with a +population of 5000-10,000; in 96 towns with a population of +10,000-20,000; in 41 towns with a population of 20,000-50,000; in 6 +towns with a population of 50,000-100,000; and in 6 towns with a +population of over 100,000 inhabitants. The principal towns of Austria +are Vienna (1,662,269), Prague (460,849), Trieste (132,879), Lemberg +(159,618), Graz (138,370), Brünn (108,944), Cracow (91,310), Czernowitz +(67,622), Pilsen (68,292) and Linz (58,778). + + +-----------------+----------+-------------------------+------------+ + | | | | Density of | + | Administrative | Areas in | Population. | Population | + | Territories. | Square +------------+------------+ per sq. m. | + | | Miles. | 1890. | 1900. | in 1900. | + +-----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+ + | AUSTRIA-- | + | Lower Austria | 7,654 | 2,661,799 | 3,100,493 | 405 | + | Upper Austria | 4,617 | 785,831 | 809,918 | 175 | + | Salzburg | 2,757 | 173,510 | 193,247 | 69 | + | Styria | 8,642 | 1,282,708 | 1,350,058 | 156 | + | Carinthia | 3,992 | 361,008 | 367,344 | 91 | + | Carniola | 3,844 | 498,958 | 508,348 | 132 | + | Küstenland | 3,074 | 695,384 | 755,183 | 245 | + | Tirol and | | | | | + | Vorarlberg | 11,287 | 928,769 | 979,878 | 86 | + | Bohemia | 19,997 | 5,843,094 | 6,318,280 | 315 | + | Moravia | 8,555 | 2,276,870 | 2,435,081 | 284 | + | Silesia | 1,981 | 605,649 | 680,529 | 342 | + | Galicia | 30,212 | 6,607,816 | 7,295,538 | 241 | + | Bukovina | 4,022 | 646,591 | 729,921 | 181 | + | Dalmatia | 4,923 | 527,426 | 591,597 | 120 | + | +----------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Total | 115,533 | 23,895,413 | 26,107,304 | 226 | + +-----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+ + +[Illustration: Austria-Hungary Distribution of Races.] + +_Races._--From an ethnographical point of view Austria contains a +diversity of races; in fact no other European state contains within its +borders so many nationalities as the Austrian empire. The three +principal races of Europe--the Latin, the Teutonic and the Slavonic--are +all represented in Austria. The Slavonic race, numbering 15,690,000, is +numerically the principal race in Austria, but as it is divided into a +number of peoples, differing from one another in language, religion, +culture, customs and historical traditions, it does not possess a +national unity. Besides, these various nationalities are geographically +separated from one another by other races, and are divided into two +groups. The northern group includes the Czechs, the Moravians, the +Slovaks, the Ruthenians and the Poles; while the southern group contains +the Slovenes, the Servians and the Croats. Just as their historical +traditions are different, so are also the aspirations of these various +peoples of the Slavonic race different, and the rivalries between them, +as for instance between the Poles and the Ruthenians, have prevented +them from enjoying the full political advantage due to their number. The +Germans, numbering 9,171,614, constitute the most numerous nationality +in Austria, and have played and still play the principal role in the +political life of the country. The Germans are in a relative majority +over the other peoples in the empire, their language is the vehicle of +communication between all the other peoples both in official life and in +the press; they are in a relatively more advanced state of culture, and +they are spread over every part of the empire. Historically they have +contributed most to the foundation and to the development of the +Austrian monarchy, and think that for all the above-mentioned reasons +they are entitled to the principal position amongst the various +nationalities of Austria. The Latin race is represented by the Italians, +Ladini and Rumanians. + + The following table gives the numbers of different nationalities, as + determined by the languages spoken by them in 1900:-- + + Germans 9,171,614 + Czechs and Slovaks 5,955,397 + Poles 4,252,483 + Ruthenians 3,381,570 + Slovenes 1,192,780 + Italians and Ladini 727,102 + Servians and Croats 711,380 + Rumanians 230,963 + Magyars 9,516 + + The Germans occupy exclusively Upper Austria, Salzburg, Vorarlberg, + and, to a large extent, Lower Austria; then the north and central part + of Styria, the north and western part of Carinthia, and the north and + central part of Tirol. In Bohemia they are concentrated round the + borders, in the vicinity of the mountains, and they form nearly half + the population of Silesia; besides they are found in every part of the + monarchy. The Czechs occupy the central and eastern parts of Bohemia, + the greatest part of Moravia and a part of Silesia. The Poles are + concentrated in western Galicia, and in a part of Silesia; the + Ruthenians in eastern Galicia and a part of Bukovina; the Slovenes in + Carniola, Görz and Gradisca, Istria, the south of Styria, and the + Trieste territory. The Servians and Croats are found in Istria and + Dalmatia; the Italians and Ladini in southern Tirol, Görz and + Gradisca, Trieste, the coast of Istria, and in the towns of Dalmatia; + while the Rumanians live mostly in Bukovina. + + _Agriculture._--Notwithstanding the great industrial progress made by + Austria during the last quarter of the 19th century, agriculture still + forms the most important source of revenue of its inhabitants. In 1900 + over 50% of the total population of Austria derived their income from + agricultural pursuits. The soil is generally fertile, although there + is a great difference in the productivity of the various crown-lands + owing to their geographical situation. The productive land of Austria + covers 69,519,953 acres, or 93.8% of the total area, which is + 74,102,001 acres; to this must be added 0.4 of lakes and fishponds, + making a total of 94.2% of productive area. The remainder is + unproductive, or used for other, not agricultural purposes. The area + of the productive land has been steadily increasing--it was estimated + to cover about 89% in 1875,--and great improvements in the + agricultural methods have also been introduced. Of the whole + productive area of Austria, 37.6% is laid out in arable land; 34.6% in + woods; 25.2% in pastures and meadows; 1.3% in gardens, 0.9% in + vineyards; and 0.4% in lakes, marshes and ponds. The provinces having + the largest proportion of arable land are Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia + and Lower Austria. The principal products are wheat, rye, barley, + oats, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, and cattle turnip. The produce of + the ploughed land does not, on the whole, suffice for the home + requirements. Large quantities in particular of wheat and maize are + imported from Hungary for home consumption. Only barley and oats are + usually reaped in quantity for export. The provinces which have the + lowest proportion of arable land are Tirol and Salzburg. Besides these + principal crops, other crops of considerable magnitude are: buckwheat + in Styria, Galicia, Carniola and Carinthia; rape and rape-seed in + Bohemia and Galicia, poppy in Moravia and Silesia; flax in Bohemia, + Moravia, Styria and Galicia; hemp in Galicia, chicory in Bohemia; + tobacco, which is a state monopoly, in Galicia, Bukovina, Dalmatia and + Tirol; fuller's thistle in Upper Austria and Styria; hops in Bohemia, + including the celebrated hops round Saaz, in Galicia and Moravia; rice + in the Küstenland; and cabbage in Bohemia, Galicia, Lower Austria and + Styria. The principal garden products are kitchen vegetables and + fruit, of which large quantities are exported. The best fruit + districts are in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Styria. Certain + districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tirol + for apples, Bohemia for plums, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates and + olives. The chestnut, olive and mulberry trees are common in the + south--chiefly in Dalmatia, the Küstenland and Tirol; while in the + south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit. + + The vineyards of Austria covered in 1901 an area of 626,044 acres, the + provinces with the largest proportion of vineyards being Dalmatia, the + Küstenland, Lower Austria, Styria and Moravia. The wines of Dalmatia + are mostly sweet wines, and not suitable to be kept for long periods, + while those of the other provinces are not so sweet, but improve with + age. + + _Forests._--The forests occupy just a little over one-third of the + whole productive area of Austria, and cover 24,157,709 acres. In the + forests tall timber predominates to the extent of 85%, and consists of + conifers much more than of green or leaved trees, in the proportion of + seventy against fifteen out of the 85% of the total forests laid out + in tall timber. Exceptions are the forest lands of the Karst region, + where medium-sized trees and underwood occupy 80%, and of Dalmatia, + where underwood occupies 92.6% of the whole forest land. The Alpine + region is well wooded, and amongst the other provinces Bukovina is the + most densely wooded, having 43.2% of its area under forests, while + Galicia with 25.9% is the most thinly-wooded crown-land of Austria. + The forests are chiefly composed of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and + the like, and constitute one of the great sources of wealth of the + country. Forestry is carried on in a thoroughly scientific manner. + Large works of afforestation have been undertaken in Carinthia, + Carniola and Tirol with a view of checking the periodical inundations, + while similar works have been successfully carried out in the Karst + region. + + _Landed Property._--Of the whole territory of the state, 74,102,001 + acres, about 29%, is appropriated to large landed estates; 71% is + disposed of in medium and smaller properties. Large landed property is + most strongly represented in Bukovina, where it absorbs 46% of the + whole territory, and in Salzburg, Galicia, Silesia and Bohemia. To the + state belongs 4½% of the total territory. The Church, the communities, + and the corporations are also in possession of large areas of land; 4% + (speaking roundly) of the territory of Austria is held on the tenure + of _fidei-commissum_. Of the entire property in large landed estates, + 59% is laid out in woods; of the property in _fidei-commissum_, 66% is + woodland; of the entire forest land, about 10% is the property of the + state; 14.5% is communal property; and 3.8% is the property of the + Church. The whole of the territory in large landed estates includes + 52% of the entire forest land. The forest land held under + _fidei-commissum_ amounts to over 9% of the entire forest land. + + _Live Stock._--Although richly endowed by nature, Austria cannot be + said to be remarkable as a cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except in + certain districts of the Alpine region, where this branch of human + activity is carried on under excellent conditions, there is much room + for improvement. The amount of live stock is registered every ten + years along with the census of the population. + + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1880. | 1890. | 1900. | + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Horses | 1,463,282 | 1,548,197 | 1,711,077 | + | Mules and asses | 49,618 | 57,952 | 66,638 | + | Cattle | 8,584,077 | 8,643,936 | 9,506,626 | + | Goats | 1,006,675 | 1,035,832 | 1,015,682 | + | Sheep | 3,841,340 | 3,186,787 | 2,621,026 | + | Pigs | 2,721,541 | 3,549,700 | 4,682,734 | + | Beehives | 926,312 | 920,640 | 996,139 | + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + Austria is distinguished for the number and superiority of its horses, + for the improvements of which numerous studs exist all over the + country. All kinds of horses are represented from the heaviest to the + lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful horses + are found in Bukovina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg; those of + Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tirol and Upper Austria are also famous. + In Dalmatia, the Küstenland and Southern Tirol, horses are less + numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure take their place. The + finest cattle are to be found in the Alpine region; of the Austrian + provinces, Salzburg and Upper Austria contain the largest proportion + of cattle. The number of sheep has greatly diminished, but much has + been done in the way of improving the breeds, more particularly in + Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Upper and Lower Austria. The main object + has been the improvement of the wool, and with this object the merino + and other fine-woolled breeds have been introduced. Goats abound + mostly in Dalmatia, Bohemia and Tirol. The rearing of pigs is carried + on most largely in Styria, Bohemia, Galicia and Upper and Lower + Austria. Bees are extensively kept in Carinthia, Carniola, Lower + Austria and Galicia. The silk-worm is reared more particularly in + Southern Tirol and in the Küstenland, and the average annual yield is + 5,000,000 lb. of cocoons. In the Alpine region dairy-farming has + attained a great degree of development, and large quantities of + butter and cheese are annually produced. Altogether, the rearing of + cattle, with all its actual shortcomings, constitutes a great source + of revenue, and yields a certain amount for export. + + _Fisheries._--The fisheries of Austria are very extensive, and are + divided into river, lake and sea fisheries. The numerous rivers of + Austria swarm with a great variety of fishes. The lake fisheries are + mostly pursued in Bohemia, where pisciculture is an art of old + standing, and largely developed. The sea fisheries on the coast of + Dalmatia and of the Küstenland constitute an important source of + wealth to the inhabitants of these provinces. About 4000 vessels, with + a number of over 16,000 fishermen are employed, and the average annual + catch realizes £240,000. + + In the mountainous regions of Austria game is plentiful, and + constitutes a large source of income. + + _Minerals._--In the extent and variety of its mineral resources + Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. With the exception + of platinum, it possesses every useful metal; thus, besides the noble + metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less richness + in iron, copper, lead and tin. Rich deposits of coal, both pit coal + and brown coal are to be found, as well as extensive basins of + petroleum, and large deposits of salt. In smaller quantities are found + zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth, chromium, + uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite and asphalt. There are also + marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain-earth, potter's clay, and + precious stones. It is therefore natural that mining operations should + have been carried out in Austria from the earliest times, as, for + instance, the salt mines of Hallstatt in Upper Austria, which had + already been worked during the Celtic and Romanic period. Famous + through the middle ages were also the works, especially for the + extraction of gold and silver, carried out in Bohemia and Moravia, + whose early mining regulations, for instance those of Iglau, were + adopted in other countries. But the great industrial development of + the 19th century, with its growing necessity for fuel, has brought + about the exploitation of the rich coal-fields of the country, and + to-day the coal mines yield the heaviest output of any mineral + products. To instance the rapid growth in the extraction of coal, it + is worth mentioning that in 1825 its output was about 150,000 tons; in + 1875, or only after half a century, the output has become 100 times + greater, namely, over 15,000,000 tons; while in 1900 it was 32,500,000 + tons. Coal is found in nearly every province of Austria, with the + exception of Salzburg and Bukovina, but the richest coal-fields are in + Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Moravia and Carniola in the order named. + Iron ores are found more or less in all the crown-lands except Upper + Austria, the Küstenland and Dalmatia, but it is most plentiful in + Styria, Carinthia, Bohemia and Moravia. Gold and silver ores are found + in Bohemia, Salzburg and Tirol. Quicksilver is found at Idria in + Carniola, which after Almaden in Spain is the richest mine in Europe. + Lead is extracted in Carinthia and Bohemia, while the only mines for + tin in the whole of Austria are in Bohemia. Zinc is mostly found in + Galicia, Tirol and Bohemia, and copper is extracted in Tirol, Moravia + and Salzburg. Petroleum is found in Galicia, where ozocerite is also + raised. Rock-salt is extracted in Galicia, while brine-salt is + produced in Salzburg, Salzkammergut and Tirol. Graphite is extracted + in Bohemia, Moravia, Styria and Lower Austria. Uranium, bismuth and + antimony are dug out in Bohemia, while procelain earth is found in + Bohemia and Moravia. White, red, black and variously-coloured marbles + exist in the Alps, particularly in Tirol and Salzburg; quartz, + felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, and asbestos are found in various + parts; and among precious stones may be specially mentioned the + Bohemian garnets. The total value of the mines and foundry products + throughout Austria in 1875 was £5,000,000. The number of persons + employed in the mines and in the smelting and casting works in the + same year was 94,019. The total value of the mining products + throughout Austria in 1902 was £10,500,000, and the value of the + product of the foundries was £3,795,000. Of this amount £3,150,000 + represents the value of the iron: raw steel and pig iron. The increase + in the value of the mining products during the period 1892-1902 was + 40%; and the increase in the product of the furnaces in the same + period was 35%. The number of persons employed in 1902 in mining was + 140,890; in smelting works 7148; and in the extraction of salt, 7963. + The value of the chief mining products of Austria in 1903 was: Brown + coal (21,808,583 tons), £4,182,516; coal (12,145,000 tons), + £4,059,807; iron ores (1,688,960 tons), £615,273; lead ores, £135,965; + silver ores, £119,637; quicksilver ores, £92,049; graphite, £78,437; + tin ores, £78,275; copper ores, £22,119; manganese ores, £5368; gold + ores, £4407; asphalt, £2250; alum and vitriol slate, £992. The + production of petroleum was 660,000 tons, and of salt 340,000 tons. + The value of the principal products of the smelting furnaces in 1903 + was: Iron (955,543 tons), £2,970,866; coke, £862,137; zinc (metallic), + £174,344; silver, £141,594; copper, £57,542; sulphuric acid, £8488; + copper vitriol, £5710; mineral colours, £5565; lead, £5067; tin, + £4566; gold, £878; iron vitriol, £603; litharge, £384; quicksilver, + £218; coal briquettes, £92,000. + + _Industry._--The manufactures of Austria were much developed during + the last quarter of the 19th century, although Austria as a whole + cannot be said to be an industrial country. Austria possesses many + favourable conditions for a great industrial activity. It possesses an + abundance of raw materials, of fuel--both mineral and wood,--of metals + and minerals, in fact all the necessaries for a great and nourishing + industry; and the rivers can easily be utilized as producers of motive + power. It is besides densely populated, and has an adequate supply of + cheap labour, while the undeveloped industries of the Balkan states + also offer a ready market for its products. The glass manufacture in + Bohemia is very old, and has kept up its leading position in the + markets of the world up to the present day. Industrial activity is + greatly developed in Bohemia, Lower Austria, Silesia, Moravia and + Vorarlberg, while in Dalmatia and Bukovina it is almost non-existent. + The principal branches of manufactures are, the textile industry, the + metallurgic industries; brewing and distilling; leather, paper and + sugar; glass, porcelain and earthenware; chemicals; and scientific and + musical instruments. + + The textile industry in all its branches--cotton, woollen, linen, + silk, flax and hemp--is mostly concentrated in Bohemia, Moravia, + Silesia and Lower Austria. It is an old industry, and one which has + made great progress since 1875. Thus the number of mechanical looms + increased more than threefold during this period, and numbered in 1902 + about 120,000. In the same year the number of spindles at work was + about 3,100,000. Austria had in 1902, 21,837 textile factories with + 337,514 workmen. The principal seat of the manufacture of cotton goods + is in northern Bohemia, from the Eger to Reichenberg, which can be + considered as the Lancashire of Austria, Lower Austria between the + Wiener Wald and the Leitha, and in Vorarlberg. Woollen goods are + manufactured in the above places, and besides in Moravia, at Brünn and + at Iglau; in Silesia; and at Biala in Galicia. Vienna is also + distinguished for its manufacture of shawls. The coarser kind of + woollen goods are manufactured all over the country, principally in + the people's houses as a home industry. The most important places for + the linen industry are in Bohemia at Trautenau; in Moravia and + Silesia, while the commoner kinds of linen are mostly produced as a + home industry by the peasants in the above-mentioned crown-lands. The + manufacture of ribbons, embroidery and lace, the two latter being + carried on principally as a house industry in Vorarlberg and in the + Bohemian Erzgebirge, also thrives. The industry in stitched stuffs is + especially developed in northern Bohemia. Ready-made men's clothes and + oriental caps (fezes) are produced on a large scale in Bohemia and + Moravia. The manufacture of silk goods is mainly carried on in Vienna, + while the spinning of silk has its principal seat in southern Tirol, + and to a smaller extent in the Küstenland. + + The metallurgic industry forms one of the most important branches of + industry, because iron ore of excellent quality is extracted annually + in great quantities. The principal seats of the iron and steel + manufactures are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower + Austria, Styria and Carinthia, which contain extensive iron-works. The + most important manufactured products are cutlery, firearms, files, + wire, nails, tin-plates, scythes, sickles, steel pens, needles, rails, + iron furniture, drains, and kitchen utensils. A famous place for its + iron manufacture is Steyr in Upper Austria. The manufacture of + machinery, for industrial and agricultural purposes, and of railway + engines is mainly concentrated in Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Prague, + Brünn and Trieste; while the production of rolling stock for railways + is carried on in Vienna, Prague and Graz. Ship-building yards for + sea-vessels are at Trieste and Pola; while for river-vessels the + largest yards are at Linz. Among other metal manufactures, the + principal are copper works at Brixlegg and other places in Tirol, and + in Galicia, tin and lead in Bohemia, and metallic alloys, especially + _Packfong_ or German silver, an alloy of nickel and copper, at + Berndorf in Lower Austria. The precious metals, gold and silver, are + principally worked in the larger towns, particularly at Vienna and + Prague. Vienna is also the principal seat for scientific and surgical + instruments. In the manufacture of musical instruments Austria takes a + leading part amongst European states, the principal places of + production being Vienna, Prague, Königgrätz, Graslitz and Schönbach. + + The glass manufacture is one of the oldest industries in Austria, and + is mainly concentrated in Bohemia. Its products are of the best + quality, and rule the markets of the world. In the manufacture of + earthenwares Austria plays also a leading part, and the porcelain + industry round Carlsbad and in the Eger district in Bohemia has a + world-wide reputation. The leather industry is widely extended, and is + principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia and Moravia. Vienna + and Prague are great centres for the boot and shoe trade, and the + gloves manufactured in these towns enjoy a great reputation. The + manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country, and is + very varied. In Vienna and other large towns the production of + ornamental furniture has attained a great development. The industry in + paper has also assumed great proportions, its principal seats being in + Bohemia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria. Of food-stuffs, besides + milling, and other flour products, the principal industry is the + manufacture of sugar from beet-root. The sugar industry is almost + exclusively carried on in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. It + has attained such large proportions that large districts in those + provinces have been converted from wheat-growing districts into fields + for the cultivation of beet-root. Brewing is extensively carried on, + and the beer produced is of a good quality. The largest brewing + establishment is at Schwechat near Vienna, and large breweries are + also found at Pilsen and Budweiss in Bohemia, whose products enjoy a + great reputation abroad. There were in Austria 1341 breweries, which + produced 422,993,120 gallons of beer. in 1902-1903. Distilling is + carried on on a large scale in Galicia, Bukovina, Bohemia, Moravia and + Lower Austria; the number of distilleries being 1257, which produced + 30,435,812 gallons of spirit. Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs + are made in Dalmatia and Moravia. The manufacture as well as the + growth of tobacco is a government monopoly, which has 30 tobacco + factories with over 40,000 work-people, the largest establishment + being at Hainburg in Lower Austria. Other important branches of + industry are the manufacture of chemicals, in Vienna and in Bohemia; + petroleum refineries in Galicia, and the extraction of various + petroleum products; the manufacture of buttons; printing, + lithographing, engraving, and map-making, especially in Vienna, &c. + + In 1900 the various manufacturing industries employed in Austria + 3,138,800 persons, of whom 2,264,871 were workmen and 103,854 were + labourers. Including families and domestic servants, a little over + 7,000,000 were dependent on industry for their livelihood. + + _Commerce._--Austria forms together with Hungary one customs and + commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade are + given under AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Owing to its situation, the bulk of the + Austrian trade is carried on the railways and on the inland navigable + rivers. Only a small portion is sea-borne trade, while the commercial + interchange between the provinces lying on the Adriatic coast is very + small. + + _Commercial Navy._--The commercial sea navy of Austria, excluding + small coasting vessels and fishing-boats, consisted in 1900 of 154 + vessels, with a tonnage of 198,322 tons, of which 123 vessels with a + tonnage of 183,949 were steamers. The greatest navigation company is + the Austrian Lloyd in Trieste, which in 1900 employed 70 steamers of + 165,430 tons. During 1900 the total tonnage of vessels engaged in the + foreign trade, which entered all the Austrian ports, was 1,448,764 + tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 888,707 under foreign flags; + the total tonnage of vessels cleared during the same period was + 1,503,532 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 866,591 under + foreign flags. + +_Government._--Austria is a parliamentary or constitutional (limited) +monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of emperor. The succession to +the throne is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture, in the male +line of the house of Habsburg-Lothringen; and failing this, in the +female line. The monarch must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church. +The emperor of Austria is also king of Hungary, but except for having +the same monarch and a few common affairs (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY), the two +states are quite independent of one another. The emperor has the supreme +command over the armed forces of the country, has the right to confer +degrees of nobility, and has the prerogatives of pardon for criminals. +He is the head of the executive power, and shares the legislative power +with the Reichsrat; and justice is administered in his name. The +constitution of Austria is based upon the following statutes:--(1) the +Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the +19th of April 1713, which regulated the succession to the throne; (2) +the Pragmatic Patent of the emperor Francis II. of the 1st of August +1804, by which he took the title of Emperor of Austria; (3) the Diploma +of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 20th of October 1860, by which +the constitutional form of government was introduced; (4) the Diploma of +the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 26th of February 1861, by which the +provincial diets were created; (5) the six fundamental laws of the 21st +of December 1867, which contain the exposition and guarantee of the +civil and political rights of the citizen, the organization of justice, +the organization and method of election for the Reichsrat, &c. + +The executive power is vested in the council of ministers, at whose head +is the minister-president. There are eight ministries, namely, the +ministry of the interior, of national defence, of worship and +instruction, of finance, of commerce, of agriculture, of justice, and of +railways. There are, further, two ministries, without portfolio, for +Galicia and Bohemia. The civil administration in the different provinces +is carried out by governors or stadtholders (_Statthalter_), to whom are +subordinate the heads of the 347 districts in which Austria was divided +in 1900, and of the 33 towns with special statute, i.e. of the towns +which have also the management of the civil administration. Local +self-government of the provinces, districts and communities is also +granted, and is exercised by various elective bodies. Thus, the +autonomous provincial administration is discharged by the provincial +committees elected by the local diets; and the affairs of the +communities are discharged by an elected communal council. + +The legislative power for all the kingdoms and lands which constitute +Austria is vested in the Reichsrat. It consists of two Houses: an Upper +House (the _Herrenhaus_), and a Lower House (the _Abgeordnetenhaus_). +The Upper House is composed of (1) princes of the imperial house, who +are of age (14 in 1907); (2) of the members of the large landed +nobility, to which the emperor had conferred this right, and which is +hereditary in their family (78 in 1907); (3) of 9 archbishops and 8 +prince-bishops; and (4) of life members nominated by the emperor for +distinguished services (170 in 1907). The Lower House has undergone +considerable changes since its creation in 1861, by the various +modifications of the electoral laws passed in 1867, 1873, 1892, 1896 and +1907. The general spirit of those modifications was to broaden the +electoral basis, and to extend the franchise to a larger number of +citizens. The law of the 26th of January 1907 granted universal +franchise to Austrian male citizens over twenty-four years of age, who +have resided for a year in the place of election. The Lower House +consists of 516 members, elected for a period of six years. The members +receive payment for their services, as well as an indemnity for +travelling expenses. A bill to become law must pass through both Houses, +and must receive the sanction of the emperor. The emperor is bound to +summon the Reichsrat annually. + +According to the imperial Diploma of the 26th February 1861, local diets +have been created for the legislation of matters of local interest. +These provincial parliaments are 17 in number, and their membership +varies from 22 members, which compose the diet of Görz and Gradisca to +the 242 members which constitute that of Bohemia. They assemble annually +and are composed of members elected for a period of six years, and of +members _ex-officio_, namely, the archbishops and bishops of the +respective provinces, and the rector of the local university. + + _Religion._--Religious toleration was secured throughout the Habsburg + dominions by the patent of the 13th of October 1781, but Protestants + were not given full civil rights until the issue of the + _Protestantenpatent_ of the 8th of April 1861, after the promulgation + of the imperial constitution of the 26th of February. The principle + underlying this and all subsequent acts is the guarantee to all + religious bodies _recognized by law_ of freedom of worship, the + management of their own affairs, and the undisturbed possession and + disposal of their property. Though all the churches are, in a sense, + "established," the Roman Catholic Church, to which the sovereign must + belong, is the state religion. The reigning house, however, though + strongly attached to the Roman faith, has always resisted the extreme + claims of the papacy, an attitude which in Joseph II.'s time resulted, + under the influence of Febronianism (q.v.), in what was practically + a national schism. Thus the emperor retains the right to tax church + property, to nominate bishops, and to prohibit the circulation of + papal bulls without his permission. By the concordat of August 18, + 1855, this traditional attitude was to some extent reversed; but this + agreement soon became a dead letter and was formally denounced by the + Austrian government after the promulgation of the dogma of papal + infallibility. + + Of the population of Austria in 1900, 23,796,814 (91%) were Roman + Catholics, including 3,134,439 uniate Greeks and 2096 uniate + Armenians. There were 12,937 Old Catholics, in scattered communities, + 606,764 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, mainly in Bukovina and + Dalmatia, and 698 Armenians, also mainly in Bukovina. The Protestants, + who in the 16th century comprised 90% of the population, are now only + 1.9%. In 1900, 365,505 of them were returned as belonging to the + Augsburg Confession (Lutheran), 128,557 to the Helvetic (Reformed). + Other Christian Confessions in Austria are Herrnhuters (Moravian + Brethren) in Bohemia, Mennonites in Galicia, Lippovanians (akin to the + Russian Skoptsi) in Bukovina, and Anglicans. The Jews compose 4.7% of + the population, and are strongest in Galicia, Lower Austria, Bohemia, + Moravia and Bukovina. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into eight + provinces, seven of the Latin rite--Vienna, Prague, Lemberg, Salzburg, + Olmütz, Görz and Zara--with 23 bishoprics, and one of the Greek rite + (Lemberg), with two bishoprics. The Armenian bishopric of Lemberg and + the Austrian part of the archdiocese of Breslau are under the + immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. The Greek Orthodox Church has + one archbishopric (at Czernowitz) and two bishoprics. There are 559 + communities of the Jewish religion (253 in Galicia, and 255 in + Bohemia). In 1900 there were, belonging to the Roman Catholic Church, + 541 monasteries with 7775 monks, and 877 convents with 19,194 nuns; + while the Greek Orthodox Church had 14 monasteries with 85 members. + The Evangelical Church, according to the constitution granted by + imperial decree on the 9th of April 1861 (modified by those of January + 6, 1866 and December 9, 1891) is organized on a territorial basis, + being administered by 10 superintendents, who are, in their turn, + subject to the Supreme Church Council (_K.K. Oberkirchenrat_) at + Vienna, the emperor as sovereign being technically head of the Church. + The small Anglican community at Trieste is under the jurisdiction of + the Evangelical superintendent of Vienna. + + _Education._--The system of elementary schools dates from the time of + Maria Theresa; the present organization was introduced by the + education law of May 14, 1869 (amended in 1883). By this law the + control of the schools, hitherto in the hands of the Church, was + assumed by the state, every local community being bound to erect and + maintain public elementary schools. These are divided into + _Volksschulen_ (national or primary schools) and _Bürgerschulen_ + (higher elementary schools). Attendance is obligatory on all from the + age of six to fourteen (in some provinces six to twelve). Religious + instruction is given by the parish priest, but in large schools a + special grant is made or a teacher _ad hoc_ appointed in the higher + classes (law of June 17, 1888). Private schools are also allowed + which, if fulfilling the legal requirements, may be accorded the + validity of public primary schools. The language of instruction is + that of the nationality prevalent in the district. In about 40% of the + schools the instruction is given in German; in 26% in Czech; in 28% in + other Slavonic languages, and in the remainder in Italian, Rumanian or + Magyar. In 1903 there were in Austria 20,268 elementary schools with + 78,025 teachers, frequented by 3,618,837 pupils, which compares + favourably with the figures of the year 1875, when there were 14,257 + elementary schools with 27,677 teachers, frequented by 2,050,808 + pupils. About 88% of the children who are of school age actually + attend school, but in some provinces like Upper Austria and Salzburg + nearly the full 100 attend, while in the eastern parts of the monarchy + the percentage is much lower. In 1900 62% of the total population of + Austria could read and write, and 2.9% could only read. In the number + of illiterates are included children under seven years of age. For the + training of teachers of elementary schools there were in 1900 54 + institutions for masters and 38 for mistresses. In these training + colleges, as also in the secondary or "middle" schools + (_Mittelschulen_), religious instruction is also in the hands of the + Roman Catholic Church; but, by the law of June 20, 1870, the state + must provide for such teaching in the event of the Protestant pupils + numbering 20 or upwards (the school authorities usually refuse to take + more than 19 Protestants in consequence). + + Besides the elementary schools three other groups of educational + establishments exist in Austria: "middle" schools (_Mittelschulen_); + "high" schools (_Hochschulen_); professional and technical schools + (_Fachlehranstalten_ and _Gewerbeschulen_). The "middle" schools + include the classical schools (_Gymnasien_), "modern" schools with + some Latin teaching (_Realgymnasien_), and modern schools simply + (Realschulen)--In 1903 there were 202 _Gymnasien_, 19 _Realgymnasien_ + and 117 _Realschulen_, with 7121 teachers and 111,012 scholars. The + "high" schools include the universities and the technical high schools + (_Technische Hochschulen_). Of state universities there are + eight:--Vienna, Gratz, Innsbruck, Prague (German), and Czernowitz, in + which German is the language of instruction; Prague (Bohemian) with + Czech; and Cracow and Lemberg with Polish as the language of + instruction. Each university has four faculties--theology, law and + political science, medicine, and philosophy. In Czernowitz, however, + the faculty of medicine is wanting. Since 1905 an Italian faculty of + law has been added to the university of Innsbruck. The theological + faculties are all Roman Catholic, except Czernowitz, where the + theological faculty is Orthodox Eastern. All the universities are + maintained by the state. The number of professors and lecturers was + about 1596 in 1903; while the number of students was 17,498. + + _Justice._--The judicial authorities in Austria are:--(1) the county + courts, 963 in number; (2) the provincial and district courts, 74 in + number, to which are attached the jury courts,--both these courts are + courts of first instance; (3) the higher provincial courts, 9 in + number, namely, at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbruck, Zara, Prague, + Brünn Cracow and Lemberg; these are the cours of appeal from the lower + courts, and have the supervision of the criminal courts in their + jurisdiction; (4) the supreme court of justice and court of cassation + in Vienna. The judicial organization is independent of the executive + power. There are also special courts for commercial, industrial, + shipping, military and other matters. There is also the court of the + Empire at Vienna, which has the power to decide in case of conflict + between different authorities. + + _Finance._--The growth of the Austrian budget, is shown by the + following figures:-- + + +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | | 1885 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 | + +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Expenditure | £44,121,600 | £55,396,916 | £66,003,494 | £74,013,000 | + | Revenue | £43,714,666 | £57,446,091 | £66,020,475 | £74,079,000 | + +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + + The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, indirect taxes, customs + duties, post and telegraph and post-office savings banks receipts, + railway receipts, and profits or royalties on forests, domains and + mining. The direct taxes are divided into two groups, real and + personal; the former include the land tax and house-rent tax, and the + latter the personal income tax, tax on salaries, tax on commercial and + industrial establishments, tax on all business with properly audited + accounts (like the limited liability companies), and tax on + investments. The principal indirect taxes are the tobacco monopoly, + stamps and fees, excise duties on sugar, alcohol and beer, the salt + monopoly, excise duty on mineral oil, and excise duty on meat and + cattle for slaughtering. + + The national debt of Austria is divided into two groups, a general + national debt, incurred jointly by the two halves of the + Austro-Hungarian monarchy for common affairs, and is therefore jointly + borne by both parts, and a separate debt owed only by Austria alone. + The following table shows the growth of the Austrian debt in millions + sterling:-- + + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | 1885 | 1890 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 | + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | 45. | 88.23 | 119.60 | 140.68 | 167.91 | + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + + At the close of 1903 the debt of Austria was £156,724,000, an increase + since 1900 of £16,044,000. This large increase is due to the great + expenditure on public works, as railways, navigable canals, harbour + works, &c., started by the Austrian government since 1900. + + _Railways._--As regards internal communications, Austria is provided + with an extensive network of railways, the industrial provinces being + specially favoured. This has been accomplished in spite of the + engineering difficulties owing to the mountainous nature of the + country and of the great financial expenses resulting therefrom. The + construction of the Semmering railway, opened in 1854, for instance, + was the first mountain railway built in the European continent, and + marked an epoch in railway engineering. The first railway laid down in + Austria was in 1824 between Budweis and Kerschbaum, over a distance of + 40 m., and was at first used for horse tramway. The first steam + railway was opened in 1837 over a distance of about 10 m. between + Floridsdorf (near Vienna) and Wagram. From the first, the policy of + the Austrian government was to construct and to work the railways + itself; and in granting concessions to private companies it stipulated + among its conditions the reversionary right of the state, whereby the + line becomes the property of the state without compensation after the + lapse of the period of concession. With various modifications, + according to its financial means, it vigorously pursued its policy, by + both building railways itself, and encouraging private companies to + build. In 1905 the total length of railways in Austria was 13,590 m., + of which 5017 m. belonged to and were worked by the state, and 3359 m. + belonged to private companies, but were worked by the state. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Umlauft, _Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns in Wort und + Bild_ (15 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), _Die österreichisch-ungarische + Monarchic_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1896), _Die österreichische Monarchic in + Wort und Bild_ (24 vols., Vienna, 1888-1902), and _Die Volker + Österreich-Ungarns_ (12 vols., Teschen, 1881-1885); A. Supan, + "Österreich-Ungarn" (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhoff's _Länderkunde von + Europa_, vol. ii.); Auerbach, _Les Races et les nationalitiés en + Autriche-Hongrie_ (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, _Österreich-ungarisches + Ortslexikon_ (Vienna, 1896). For geology see C. Diener, &c., _Ban und + Bild Österreichs_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903); F. von Hauer, _Die + Geologie_ (Vienna). The official statistical publications of the + central statistical department, of the ministry of agriculture, and of + the ministry of commerce, appearing annually. (O. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The census returns of 1857, and of 1869, which were the first + systematic censuses taken, gave the population of Austria as + 18,224,500 and 20,394,980 respectively. It must be noticed that + between these two dates Austria lost its Lombardo-Venetian + territories, with a population of about 5,000,000 inhabitants. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOLUME 2 SL 8 *** + +***** This file should be named 34312-8.txt or 34312-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/3/1/34312/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |