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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 3, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4
+       "Basso-relievo" to "Bedfordshire"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2010 [EBook #34405]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 3 SLICE 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BATHS: "Separate baths used to be of wood, painted; they
+      are now most frequently of metal, painted or lined with porcelain
+      enamel." 'porcelain' amended from 'procelain'.
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME III, SLICE IV
+
+        Basso-relievo to Bedfordshire
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BASSO-RELIEVO                 BAY ISLANDS
+  BASS ROCK, THE                BAYLE, PIERRE
+  BASSUS, AUFIDIUS              BAYLO
+  BASSUS, CAESIUS               BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES
+  BASSUS, CASSIANUS             BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER
+  BASSUS, SALEIUS               BAYONET
+  BASSVILLE, JEAN HUGON DE      BAYONNE (town of France)
+  BASTAR                        BAYONNE (New Jersey, U.S.A.)
+  BASTARD                       BAYOU
+  BASTARNAE                     BAYREUTH
+  BASTI                         BAZA
+  BASTIA                        BAZAAR
+  BASTIAN, ADOLF                BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANÇOIS
+  BASTIAT, FRÉDÉRIC             BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM
+  BASTIDE, JULES                BAZARD, AMAND
+  BASTIDE                       BAZAS
+  BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES         BAZIGARS
+  BASTILLE                      BAZIN, RENÉ
+  BASTINADO                     BAZIRE, CLAUDE
+  BASTION                       BDELLIUM
+  BASTWICK, JOHN                BEACH
+  BASUTOLAND                    BEACHY HEAD
+  BAT                           BEACON
+  BATAC                         BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI
+  BATALA                        BEACONSFIELD (town of Tasmania)
+  BATALHA                       BEACONSFIELD (town of South Africa)
+  BATANGAS                      BEACONSFIELD (town of England)
+  BATARNAY, IMBERT DE           BEAD
+  BATAVIA (residency of Java)   BEADLE
+  BATAVIA (city of Java)        BEAK
+  BATAVIA (New York, U.S.A.)    BEAKER
+  BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM   BEALE, DOROTHEA
+  BATEMENT LIGHTS               BEAM
+  BATES, HARRY                  BEAN
+  BATES, HENRY WALTER           BEAN-FEAST
+  BATES, JOHN                   BEAR
+  BATES, JOSHUA                 BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING
+  BATES, WILLIAM                BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK
+  BATESON, THOMAS               BEARD
+  BATH, THOMAS THYNNE           BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT
+  BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY        BEARDSTOWN
+  BATH (county of England)      BEARER
+  BATH (Maine, U.S.A.)          BEARINGS
+  BATH-CHAIR                    BEAR-LEADER
+  BATHGATE                      BÉARN
+  BATHOLITE                     BEAS
+  BATHONIAN SERIES              BEAT
+  BÁTHORY, SIGISMUND            BEATIFICATION
+  BATHOS                        BEATON, DAVID
+  BATHS                         BEATRICE
+  BATHURST, EARLS               BEATTIE, JAMES
+  BATHURST                      BEATUS
+  BATHVILLITE                   BEAUCAIRE
+  BATHYBIUS                     BEAUCE
+  BATHYCLES                     BEAUCHAMP
+  BATLEY                        BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE
+  BATON                         BEAUFORT
+  BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO       BEAUFORT, FRANÇOIS DE VENDÔME
+  BATON ROUGE                   BEAUFORT, HENRY
+  BATRACHIA                     BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE
+  BATRACHOMYOMACHIA             BEAUFORT SCALE
+  BATTA                         BEAUFORT WEST
+  BATTAGLIA                     BEAUGENCY
+  BATTAKHIN                     BEAUHARNAIS
+  BATTALION                     BEAUHARNAIS, EUGÈNE DE
+  BATTAMBANG                    BEAUJEU
+  BATTANNI                      BEAULIEU
+  BATTAS                        BEAULY
+  BATTEL                        BEAUMANOIR
+  BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM           BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE RÉMI
+  BATTEN                        BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE
+  BATTENBERG                    BEAUMARIS
+  BATTER                        BEAUMONT (English family)
+  BATTERING RAM                 BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE
+  BATTERSEA                     BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN
+  BATTERY                       BEAUMONT and FLETCHER
+  BATTEUX, CHARLES              BEAUMONT (Texas, U.S.A.)
+  BATTHYANY, LOUIS              BEAUNE
+  BATTICALOA                    BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE
+  BATTISHILL, JONATHAN          BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT
+  BATTLE (town of England)      BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE
+  BATTLE (military engagement)  BEAUVAIS
+  BATTLE ABBEY ROLL             BEAUVILLIER
+  BATTLE CREEK                  BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE
+  BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK    BEAUX, CECILIA
+  BATTLEMENT                    BEAVER (animal)
+  BATTUE                        BEAVER (part of the helmet)
+  BATTUS                        BEAVER DAM
+  BATU                          BEAVER FALLS
+  BATUM                         BEAWAR
+  BATWA                         BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST
+  BATYPHONE                     BECCAFICO
+  BAUAN                         BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE
+  BAUBLE                        BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
+  BAUCHI                        BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE
+  BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE    BECCLES
+  BAUDIER, MICHEL               BECERRA, GASPAR
+  BAUDRILLART, HENRI LÉON       BÊCHE-DE-MER
+  BAUDRY, OF BOURGUEIL          BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM
+  BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIMÉ     BECHUANA
+  BAUER, BRUNO                  BECHUANALAND
+  BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON        BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL
+  BAUFFREMONT                   BECK, DAVID
+  BAUHIN, GASPARD               BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND
+  BAULK                         BECKENHAM
+  BAUMBACH, RUDOLF              BECKER, HEINRICH
+  BAUMÉ, ANTOINE                BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF
+  BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER         BECKET, THOMAS
+  BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL           BECKFORD, WILLIAM
+  BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG    BECKINGTON, THOMAS
+  BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN     BECKMANN, JOHANN
+  BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGÈNE MARIE   BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL
+  BAUTZEN                       BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY
+  BAUXITE                       BECKX, PIERRE JEAN
+  BAVAI                         BECQUE, HENRY FRANÇOIS
+  BAVARIA                       BÉCQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO
+  BAVENO                        BECQUEREL
+  BAWBEE                        BED (furniture)
+  BAXTER, ANDREW                BED (layer of rock)
+  BAXTER, RICHARD               BEDARESI, YEDAIAH
+  BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY         BÉDARIEUX
+  BAXTER, WILLIAM               BEDDGELERT
+  BAY                           BEDDOES, THOMAS
+  BAYAMO                        BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL
+  BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL        BEDE
+  BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS        BEDE, CUTHBERT
+  BAYAZID                       BEDELL, WILLIAM
+  BAYBAY                        BEDESMAN
+  BAY CITY                      BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF
+  BAYEUX                        BEDFORD (town of England)
+  BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE          BEDFORD (Indiana, U.S.A.)
+  BAYEZID I                     BEDFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
+  BAYEZID II                    BEDFORDSHIRE
+
+
+
+
+BASSO-RELIEVO (Ital. for "low relief"), the term applied to sculpture in
+which the design projects but slightly from the plane of the background.
+The relief may not project at all from the original surface of the
+material, as in the sunken reliefs of the Egyptians, and may be nearly
+flat, as in the Panathenaic procession of the Parthenon. In the early
+19th century the term _basso-relievo_, or "low relief," came to be
+employed loosely for all forms of relief, the term _mezzo-relievo_
+having already dropped out of general use owing to the difficulty of
+accurate application.
+
+
+
+
+BASS ROCK, THE, a small island in the Firth of Forth, about 2 m. from
+Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, Scotland. It is circular in shape, measuring
+a mile in circumference, and is 350 ft. high. On three sides the cliffs
+are precipitous, but they shelve towards the S.W., where landing is
+effected. The Bass Rock is an intrusive mass of phonolitic trachyte or
+orthophyre. No nepheline has been detected in the rock, but analcite is
+present in small quantity together with abundant orthoclase and green
+soda-augite. It bears a close resemblance to the eruptive masses of
+North Berwick Law and Traprain Law, but is non-porphyritic. It is
+regarded by Sir A. Geikie as a plug filling an old volcanic vent, from
+which lava emanated during the Calciferous Sandstone period. It used to
+be grazed by sheep, of which the mutton was thought to be unusually
+good, but its principal denizens are sea-birds, chiefly solan geese,
+which haunt the rock in vast numbers. A lighthouse with a six-flash
+lantern of 39,000 candle power was opened in 1002. For a considerable
+distance E. and W. there runs through the rock a tunnel, about 15 ft.
+high, accessible at low water. St Baldred, whose name has been given to
+several of the cliffs on the shore of the mainland, occupied a hermitage
+on the Bass, where he died in 756. In the 14th century the island became
+the property of the Lauders, called afterwards Lauders of the Bass, from
+whom it was purchased in 1671 by government, and a castle with dungeons
+was erected on it, in which many Covenanters were imprisoned. Among them
+were Alexander Peden (1626-1686), for four years, and John Blackadder
+(1615-1686), who died there after five years' detention. At the
+Revolution four young Jacobites captured the Rock, and having been
+reinforced by a few others, held it for King James from June 1691 to
+April 1694, only surrendering when threatened by starvation. Thus the
+island was the last place in Great Britain to submit to William III.
+Dismantled of its fortifications in 1701, the Bass passed into the
+ownership of Sir Hew Dalrymple, to whose family it belongs. It is let on
+annual rental for the feathers, eggs, oil and young of the sea-birds and
+for the fees of visitors, who reach it usually from Canty Bay and North
+Berwick.
+
+
+
+
+BASSUS, AUFIDIUS, a Roman historian, who lived in the reign of Tiberius.
+His work, which probably began with the civil wars or the death of
+Caesar, was continued by the elder Pliny, who, as he himself tells us,
+carried it down at least as far as the end of Nero's reign. The _Bellum
+Germanicum_ of Bassus, which is commended, may have been either a
+separate work or a section of his general history. The elder Seneca
+speaks highly of him as an historian, but the fragments preserved in
+that writer's _Suasoriae_ (vi. 23) relating to the death of Cicero, are
+characterized by an affected style.
+
+  Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, praefatio, 20; Tacitus, _Dialogus de Oratoribus_,
+  23; Quintilian, _Instit_, x. 1. 103.
+
+
+
+
+BASSUS, CAESIUS, a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign of Nero. He
+was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated his sixth satire to
+him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on Persius, vi. 1). He is said to
+have lost his life in the eruption of Vesuvius (79). He had a great
+reputation as a poet; Quintilian (_Instit_, x. 1. 96) goes so far as to
+say that, with the exception of Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth
+reading. He is also identified with the author of a treatise _De
+Metris_, of which considerable fragments, probably of an abbreviated
+edition, are extant (ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally
+in verse, and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used
+as an instruction book. A worthless and scanty account of some of the
+metres of Horace (in Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi. 305), bearing the
+title _Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris_ is not by him, but chiefly borrowed
+by its unknown author from the treatise mentioned above.
+
+
+
+
+BASSUS, CASSIANUS, called SCHOLASTICUS (lawyer), one of the _geoponici_
+or writers on agricultural subjects. He lived at the end of the 6th or
+the beginning of the 7th century A.D. He compiled from earlier writers a
+collection of agricultural literature (_Geoponica_) which was afterwards
+revised by an unknown editor and published about the year 950, in the
+reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, to whom the work itself has been
+ascribed. It contains a full list of the authorities drawn upon, and the
+subjects treated include agriculture, birds, bees, horses, cattle,
+sheep, dogs, fishes and the like.
+
+  COMPLETE EDITIONS.--Needham (1704), Niclas (1781), Beckh (1895); see
+  also Gemoll in _Berliner Studien_, i. (1884); Oder in _Rheinisches
+  Museum_, xlv. (1890), xlviii. (1893), and De Raynal in _Annuaire de
+  l'Assoc. pour l'Encouragement des Études Grecques_, viii. (1874).
+
+
+
+
+BASSUS, SALEIUS, Roman epic poet, a contemporary of Valerius Flaccus, in
+the reign of Vespasian. Quintilian credits him with a vigorous and
+poetical genius (_Instit_, x. 1. 90) and Julius Secundus, one of the
+speakers in Tacitus _Dialogus de Oratoribus_ (5; see also 9) styles him
+a perfect poet and most illustrious bard. He was apparently overtaken by
+poverty, but was generously treated by Vespasian, who made him a present
+of 500,000 sesterces. Nothing from his works has been preserved; the
+_Laus Pisonis_, which has been attributed to him, is probably by Titus
+Calpurnius Siculus (J. Held, _De Saleio Basso_. 1834).
+
+
+
+
+BASSVILLE, or BASSEVILLE, NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE (d. 1793), French
+journalist and diplomatist, was born at Abbeville on the 7th of February
+1753. He was trained for the priesthood, taught theology in a provincial
+seminary and then went to Paris. Here in 1784 he published _Éléments de
+mythologie_ and some poems, which brought him into notice. On the
+recommendation of the prince of Condé he became tutor to two young
+Americans travelling in Europe. With them he visited Berlin, made the
+acquaintance there of Mirabeau, and became a member of the Berlin
+Academy Royal. At the outbreak of the Revolution he turned to
+journalism, becoming editor of the _Mercure international_. Then,
+through the Girondist minister Lebrun-Tondu, he entered the diplomatic
+service, went in May, 1792, as secretary of legation to Naples and was
+shortly afterwards sent, without official status, to Rome. Here his
+conduct was anything but diplomatic. He at once announced himself as the
+protector of the extreme Jacobins in Rome, demanded the expulsion of the
+French _émigrés_ who had taken refuge there, including the "demoiselles
+Capet," and ordered the _fleur-de-lys_ on the escutcheon of the French
+embassy to be replaced by a picture of Liberty painted by a French art
+student. He talked at large of the "purple geese of the Capitol" and met
+the remonstrances of Cardinal Zelada, the papal secretary of state, with
+insults. This enraged the Roman populace; a riot broke out on the 13th
+of January 1793, and Bassville, who was driving with his family to the
+Corso, was dragged from his carriage and so roughly handled that he
+died. The affair was magnified in the Convention into a deliberate
+murder of the "representative of the Republic" by the pope's orders. In
+1797 by an article of the treaty of Tolentino the papal government
+agreed to pay compensation to Bassville's family. Among his writings we
+may also mention _Memoires historiques, critiques el politiques sur la
+Révolution de France_ (Paris 1790; English trans. London, 1790).
+
+  See F. Masson, _Les Diplomates de la Révolution_ (Paris, 1882);
+  Silvagni, _La Carte e la Società romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX._
+  (Florence, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+BASTAR, a feudatory state of British India, in the Chattisgarh division
+of the Central Provinces; area, 13,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
+306,501, showing a decrease of 1% compared with an apparent increase of
+58% in the preceding decade. Estimated revenue £22,000; tribute £1100.
+The eastern part of Bastar is a flat elevated plateau, from 1800 to 2000
+ft. above the level of the sea, the centre and N.W. portions are very
+mountainous, and the southern parts consist of hills and plains. On the
+plateau there are but few hills; the streams run slowly and the country
+is a mixture of plain and undulating ground covered by dense _sál_
+forests. Principal mountains of the district: (1) a lofty range which
+separates it from the Sironcha district; (2) a range of equal height
+called the Bela Dila lying in the centre of the district; (3) a range
+running N. and S. near Narayanpur; (4) Tangri Dongri range, running E.
+and W.; (5) Tulsi Dongri, bordering on the Sabari river and the Jaipur
+state. There is also a small range running from the river Indravati to
+the Godavari. The Indravati, the Sabari and the Tal or Talper, are the
+chief rivers of the district; all of them affluents of the Godavari. The
+soil throughout the greater portion of Bastar consists of light clay,
+with an admixture of sand, suited for raising rice and wet crops. In
+the jungles the Marias, who are among the aboriginal tribes of Gond
+origin, raise kosra (_Panicum italicum_) and other inferior grains.
+Aboriginal races generally follow the migratory system of tillage,
+clearing the jungle on selected patches, and after taking crops for two
+or three years abandoning them for new ground. They do not use the
+plough; nor do they possess buffaloes, bullocks or cows; their only
+agricultural implement is a long-handled iron hoe. They are a timid,
+quiet, docile race, and although addicted to drinking not quarrelsome.
+They inhabit the densest jungles and are very shy, avoiding contact with
+strangers, and flying to the hills on the least alarm; but they bear a
+good character for honesty and truthfulness. They are very scantily
+dressed, wear a variety of trinkets, with a knife, hatchet, spear, bow
+and arrows, the only weapons they use. Their hair is generally shaved,
+excepting a topknot; and when not shaved it gets into a matted, tangled
+mass, gathered into a knot behind or on the crown. The Marias and the
+Jhurias are supposed to be a subdivision of the true Gond family. All
+the aboriginal tribes of Bastar worship the deities of the Hindu
+pantheon along with their own national goddess Danteswari.
+
+Bastar is divided into two portions--that held by the Raja or chief
+himself, and that possessed by feudatory chiefs under him. The climate
+is unhealthy--fever, smallpox, dysentery and rheumatism being the
+prevailing diseases. Jagdalpur, Bijapur, Madder and Bhupalpatnam are the
+only places of any note in the dependency, the first (on the Indravati
+river) being the residence of the raja and the chief people of the
+state. The principal products are rice, oil-seeds, lac, tussur silk,
+horns, hides, wax and a little iron. Teak timber is floated down the
+rivers to the Madras coast. A good road has brought Jagdalpur into
+connexion with the railway at Raipur.
+
+
+
+
+BASTARD (O. Fr. _bastard_, mod. _bâtard = fils de bast_, "pack-saddle
+child," from _bast_, saddle), a person born out of legal wedlock.
+Amongst the Romans, bastards were classified as _nothi_, children born
+in concubinage, and _spurii_, those not so born. Both classes had a
+right of succession to their mother, and the _nothi_, were entitled to
+support from their father, but had no rights of inheritance from him.
+Both, however, had in other respects most of the rights of citizenship.
+The Germanic law was based upon an entirely different principle. It
+recognized as legitimate only those whose parents were of the same
+social rank. All others were regarded as bastards, and took the status
+of the parent of inferior rank. The aim of all the Germanic codes was to
+preserve purity of race, not to improve morals, for incestuous unions
+are not censured. The influence of the Germanic law lasted throughout
+the early feudal period, and bastards were debarred rights of
+inheritance. In the 13th century the influence of Roman law tended again
+to modify this severity. An exception was probably made in the case of
+those whose fathers were of royal blood, in which case it even seems
+that no stigma was attached to the accident of their birth, nor did they
+suffer from the usual disabilities as to inheritance which attended
+those of illegitimate birth (Gregory of Tours, v. 25). Among the Franks
+we find Theodoric I., a natural son of Clovis, sharing the kingdom with
+the legitimate sons; Zwentibold, natural son of Arnulf, was created king
+of Lorraine by his father in 895; and even William the Conqueror
+actually assumed the appellation of bastard.
+
+In English law a bastard still retains certain disabilities. His rights
+are only such as he can acquire; for civilly he can inherit nothing,
+being looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes called _filius
+nullius_, sometimes _filius populi_. This, however, does not hold as to
+moral purposes, e.g. he cannot marry his mother or bastard sister. Yet
+he may gain a surname by reputation though he has none by inheritance,
+and may even be made legitimate and capable of inheriting by the
+transcendent power of an act of parliament.
+
+For poor-law purposes, all legitimate children take the settlement of
+their father, but a bastard takes the settlement of its mother. The
+mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to its custody in preference
+to the father, and consequently the responsibility of its support falls
+primarily on her. But the English law has always recognized the
+principle that to a certain extent the father must share in that
+responsibility. This, however, was imposed not with the idea of
+furnishing the woman with a civil remedy, nor to have a penal effect
+against the man, but solely to prevent the cost of maintenance of the
+bastard child from falling upon the parish. Indeed, the legislation upon
+the subject, which dates back to 1576, was until 1845 an intimate part
+of the poor law. The act of 1576, the basis of English bastardy law,
+empowered justices to take order for the punishment of the mother and
+reputed father of every bastard child left to the care of the parish,
+and to charge the mother and reputed father with the payment of a weekly
+sum or other needful sustenance. Other acts were passed in 1609 and
+1733, enabling the mother of any child chargeable or likely to become
+chargeable to the parish to secure the apprehension, and even the
+imprisonment, of the father until he should indemnify the parish,
+provisions which were made somewhat more stringent by acts passed in
+1809 and 1810. In 1832 a commission was appointed to inquire into the
+operation of the poor laws, and the commissioners in their report gave
+great attention to the subject of bastardy. They reviewed the various
+acts from 1576 downwards and gave examples of their operation. The
+conclusion to which the commissioners came was that the laws "which
+respect bastardy appear to be pre-eminently unwise," and that they gave
+rise to many abuses. For example, the weekly payment recovered by the
+parish was usually transferred to the mother; even in many cases
+guaranteed. The commissioners recommended that the mother alone should
+be responsible for the maintenance of the child. "This," they said, "is
+now the position of a widow, and there can be no reason for giving to
+vice privileges which we deny to misfortune." Acting on the
+recommendation of the commissioners the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834
+endeavoured to discourage the principle of making the putative father
+contribute by introducing a somewhat cumbersome method of procedure. The
+trend of public opinion proved against the discouragement of
+affiliation, and an act of 1839 transferred jurisdiction in affiliation
+cases from quarter-sessions to petty-sessions. A commission of inquiry
+on the working of the bastardy acts in 1844 recommended "that
+affiliation should be facilitated," and, accordingly, by the Bastardy
+Act of 1845 effect was given to this recommendation by giving the mother
+an independent civil remedy against the putative father and dissociating
+the parish altogether from the proceedings. Subsequently, legislation
+gave the parish the right of attaching, and in some cases suing for,
+money due from the putative father for the maintenance of the child. The
+existing law is set out under AFFILIATION.
+
+The incapacities attaching to a bastard consist principally in this,
+that he cannot be heir to any one; for being _nullius filius_, he is
+therefore of kin to nobody, and has no ancestor from whom an inheritable
+blood can be derived. Therefore, if there be no other claimant upon an
+inheritance than such illegitimate child, it escheats to the lord. And
+as bastards cannot be heirs themselves, so neither can they have any
+heirs but those of their own bodies; for as all collateral kindred
+consists in being derived from the same common ancestor, and as a
+bastard has no legal ancestor, he can have no collateral kindred, and
+consequently no legal heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent
+from himself. And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised
+therefor without issue and intestate, the land escheats to the lord of
+the fee. Originally a bastard was deemed incapable of holy orders, and
+disqualified by the fact of his birth from holding any dignity in the
+church; but this doctrine is now obsolete, and in all other respects
+there is no distinction between a bastard and another man. By the law of
+Scotland a bastard is not only excluded from his father's succession,
+because the law knows no father who is not marked out by marriage; and
+from all heritable succession, whether by the father or mother, because
+he cannot be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest in terms of the
+brief; but also from the movable succession of his mother, because he is
+not her lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all succession
+deferred by the law. But a bastard, although he cannot succeed _jure
+sanguinis_, may succeed by destination, where he is specially called to
+the succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as in England, a
+bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his own body; and hence,
+failing his lawful issue, the king succeeds to him as last heir.
+Formerly bastards in Scotland without issue of their own could not make
+a will, but this disability was removed by a statute of 1835. If
+bastards or other persons without kindred die intestate without wife or
+child, their effects go to the king as _ultimus haeres_; but a grant is
+usually made of them by letters patent, and the grantee becomes entitled
+to the administration.
+
+According to the common law, which is the law of England, a bastard
+cannot be divested of his state of illegitimacy, unless by the supreme
+power of an act of parliament. But in those countries which have
+followed the Roman or civil law, a bastard's status may be provisional,
+and he can be made legitimate by the subsequent marriage of his parents.
+(See LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION; and, for statistics, ILLEGITIMACY.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Bacquet, _Traité de la bâtardise_ (1608); Du Cange,
+  _Gloss. Lat._, infra "Bastardus"; L.G. Koenigswater, _Histoire de
+  l'organisation de la famille en France_ (1851), and _Essai sur les
+  enfants nés hors mariage_ (1842); E.D. Glasson, _Histoire des droits
+  et des institutions de l'Angleterre_ (6 vols., 1882-1883), _Histoire
+  du droit et des institutions de la France_ (1887); Pollock and
+  Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898); Stephen's _Commentaries_;
+  Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_ (3 vols.,
+  1898).
+
+
+
+
+BASTARNAE, the easternmost people of the Germanic race, the first to
+come into contact with the ancient world and the Slavs. Originally
+settled in Galicia and the Bukovina, they appeared on the lower Danube
+about 200 B.C., and were used by Philip V. of Macedon against his
+Thracian neighbours. Defeated by these the Bastarnae returned north,
+leaving some of their number (hence called Peucini) settled on Peuce, an
+island in the Danube. Their main body occupied the country between the
+eastern Carpathians and the Danube. As allies of Perseus and of
+Mithradates the Great, and lastly on their own account, they had hostile
+relations with the Romans who in the time of Augustus defeated them, and
+made a peace, which was disturbed by a series of incursions. In these
+the Bastarnae after a time gave place to the Goths, with whom they seem
+to have amalgamated, and we last hear of them as transferred by the
+emperor Probus to the right bank of the Danube. Polybius and the authors
+who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; Strabo, having learned of
+the Romans to distinguish Celts and Germans, first allows a German
+element; Tacitus expressly declares their German origin but says that
+the race was degraded by intermarriage with Sarmatians. The descriptions
+of their bodily appearance, tribal divisions, manner of life and methods
+of warfare are such as are applied to either race. No doubt they were an
+outpost of the Germans, and so had absorbed into themselves strong
+Getic, Celtic and Sarmatian elements.     (E. H. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BASTI, a town and district of British India, in the Gorakhpur division
+of the United Provinces. The town, a collection of villages, is on the
+river Kuana, 40 m. from Gorakhpur by railway. The population in 1901 was
+14,761. It has no municipality. The district has an area of 2792 sq. m.
+It stretches out in one vast marshy plain, draining towards the
+south-east, and traversed by the Rapti, Kuana, Banganga, Masdih, Jamwar,
+Ami and Katneihia rivers. The tract lying between these streams consists
+of a rich alluvial deposit, more or less subject to inundations, but
+producing good crops of rice, wheat and barley. In 1901 the population
+was 1,846,153, showing an increase of 3% in the decade. A railway from
+Gorakhpur to Gonda runs through the district, and the river Gogra is
+navigable. A large transit trade is conducted with Nepal. The export
+trade of the district itself is chiefly in rice, sugar and other
+agricultural produce.
+
+
+
+
+BASTIA, a town and seaport on the eastern coast of the island of
+Corsica, 98 m. N.N.E. of Ajaccio by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,509. Bastia,
+the chief commercial town in Corsica, consists of the densely-populated
+quarter of the old port with its labyrinth of steep and narrow streets,
+and of a more modern quarter to the north, which has grown up round the
+new port. La Traverse, a fine boulevard, intersects the town from north
+to south. Rising from the sea-shore like an amphitheatre, Bastia
+presents an imposing appearance, which is enhanced by the loftiness of
+its houses; it has, however, little of architectural interest to offer.
+Its churches, of which the largest is San Giovanni Battista, are florid
+in decoration, as are the law-court, the theatre and the hôtel-de-ville.
+The citadel, which dominates the old port, has a keep of the 14th
+century. As capital of an arrondissement, Bastia is the seat of a
+tribunal of first instance and a sub-prefect, while it is also the seat
+of the military governor of Corsica, of a court of appeal for the whole
+island, of a court of assizes, and of a tribunal and a chamber of
+commerce, and has a lycée, a branch of the Bank of France, and a library
+with between 30,000 and 40,000 volumes. The town has active commerce,
+especially with Italy. The new port has 1100 ft. of quayage, served by a
+railway, and with a depth alongside of 25 ft. The total number of
+vessels entered in 1907 was 721 with a tonnage of 337,551, of which
+203,950 were French. The chief exports are chestnut extract for tanning,
+cedrates, citrons, oranges, early vegetables, fish, copper ore and
+antimony ore. Imports include coal, grain, flour and wine. Industry
+consists chiefly in fishing (sardines, &c., and coral), the manufacture
+of tobacco, oil-distilling, tanning, and the preparation of preserved
+citrons and of macaroni and similar provisions.
+
+Bastia dates from the building of the Genoese fortress or "bastille" by
+Lionello Lomellino in 1383. Under the Genoese it was long the principal
+stronghold in the north of the island, and the residence of the
+governor; and in 1553 it was the first town attacked by the French. On
+the division of the island in 1797 into the two departments of Golo and
+Liamone, Bastia remained the capital of the former; but when the two
+were again united Ajaccio obtained the superiority. The city was taken
+by the English in 1745 and again in 1794.
+
+
+
+
+BASTIAN, ADOLF (1826-   ), German ethnologist, was born at Bremen on the
+26th of June 1826. He was educated as a physician, but from his early
+years devoted himself to travel. Proceeding to Australia in 1851 as
+surgeon on a vessel, he had visited almost every part of the world
+before his return in 1859. In 1861 he made an expedition to the Far East
+which lasted five years. Upon his return he commenced the publication of
+his great work on _The Peoples of Eastern Asia_, an immense storehouse
+of facts owing little to arrangement or style. He settled in Berlin,
+where he was made professor of ethnology at the university and keeper of
+the ethnological museum. He succeeded R. Virchow as president of the
+Berlin Anthropological Society, and to him was largely due the formation
+in 1878 of the German Africa Society of Berlin, which did much to
+encourage German colonization in Africa. Later he undertook further
+scientific travels in Africa, South America and India. The results of
+these explorations were made public in a long series of separate
+publications comprising several on Buddhism, and on the psychological
+problems presented by native superstitions. Bastian also edited the
+_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_ from 1869, in conjunction with Virchow and
+Robert von Hartmann. On his seventieth birthday, 1896 (during which year
+he started on an expedition to Malaysia), he was presented with a volume
+of essays composed by the most distinguished ethnologists in celebration
+of the event and dedicated to him. Among his more important works may be
+mentioned:--_Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1860); _Die Völker
+des östlichen Asien_ (Jena, 1866-1871); _Ethnologische Forschungen_
+(Leipzig, 1871-1873); _Die Kulturländer des alten Amerika_ (Berlin,
+1878); _Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologie_ (Berlin, 1881);
+_Indonesien_ (Leipzig, 1884); _Der Fetisch an der Küste Guineas_
+(Berlin, 1885); _Die mikronesischen Kolonien_ (1899-1900); _Die
+wechselnden Phasen im geschichtlichen Sehkreis und ihre Rückwirkung auf
+die Völkerkunde_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+BASTIAT, FRÉDÉRIC (1801-1850), French economist, was the son of a
+merchant of Bayonne, and was born in that town on the 29th of June 1801.
+Educated at the colleges of Saint-Sever and of Sorèze, he entered in
+1818 the counting-house of his uncle at Bayonne. The practical routine
+of mercantile life being distasteful to him, in 1825 he retired to a
+property at Mugron, of which he became the owner on the death of his
+grandfather. Here Bastiat occupied himself with farming, his leisure
+being devoted to study and meditation. He welcomed with enthusiasm the
+Revolution of 1830. In 1831 he became a _juge de paix_ of his canton,
+and in 1832 a member of the _conseil général_ of the Landes. In 1834 he
+published his first pamphlet, and between 1841 and 1844 three others,
+all on questions of taxation affecting local interests. During this
+period an accidental circumstance led him to become a subscriber to an
+English newspaper, the _Globe and Traveller_, through which he was made
+acquainted with the nature and progress of the crusade of the
+Anti-Corn-Law League against protection. After studying the movement for
+two years, he resolved to inaugurate a similar movement in France. To
+prepare the way, he contributed in 1844 to the _Journal des Économistes_
+an article "Sur l'influence des tarifs anglais et français," which
+attracted great attention, and was followed by others, including the
+first series of his brilliant _Sophismes Économiques_.
+
+In 1845 Bastiat came to Paris in order to superintend the publication of
+his _Cobden et la Ligue, ou l'agitation anglaise pour la liberté des
+échanges_, and was very cordially received by the economists of the
+capital. From Paris he went to London and Manchester, and made the
+personal acquaintance of Cobden, Bright and other leaders of the league.
+When he returned to France he found that his writings had been exerting
+a powerful influence; and in 1846 he assisted in organizing at Bordeaux
+the first French Free-Trade Association (Association pour la Liberté des
+Échanges). The rapid spread of the movement soon required him to abandon
+Mugron for Paris.
+
+During the eighteen months which followed this change his labours were
+prodigious. He acted as secretary of the central committee of the
+association, organized and corresponded with branch societies, waited on
+ministers, procured subscriptions, edited a weekly paper, the
+_Libre-Échange_, contributed to the _Journal des Économistes_ and to
+three other periodicals, addressed meetings in Paris and the provinces,
+and delivered a course of lectures on the principles of political
+economy to students of the schools of law and of medicine. The cause to
+which he thus devoted himself at the expense of his health and life
+appeared for a time as if it would be successful; but the forces in its
+favour were much weaker and those opposed to it were much stronger in
+France than in England, and this became more apparent as the struggle
+proceeded, until it was brought to an abrupt end by the Revolution of
+February 1848. This event made the socialistic and communistic
+principles, which had been gathering and spreading during the previous
+thirty years, temporarily supreme. (See NATIONAL WORKSHOPS.) In this
+grave crisis Bastiat nobly performed his duty. Although exhausted by the
+far too heavy labours in which he had been engaged, although robbed of
+his voice by the malady which was preying upon him, so that he could do
+but little to defend the truth from the tribune of the Constituent
+Assembly, he could still suggest wise counsels in the committee of
+finance of which he was vice-president, and he could still use his pen
+with a vigour and dexterity which made him capable of combating
+single-handed many opponents.
+
+He wrote in rapid succession a series of brilliant and effective
+pamphlets and essays, showing how socialism was connected with
+protection, and exposing the delusions on which it rested. Thus within
+the space of two years there appeared _Propriété et Loi, Justice et
+Fraternité, Propriété et Spoliation, L'État, Baccalauréat et Socialisme,
+Protectionisme et Communisme, Capital et Rente, Maudit Argent,
+Spoliation et Loi, Gratuité du Credit_, and _Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on
+ne voit pas_. While thus occupied he was meditating the composition of a
+great constructive work, meant to renovate economical science by basing
+it on the principle that "interests, left to themselves, tend to
+harmonious combinations, and to the progressive preponderance of the
+general good." The first volume of this work _Les Harmonies économiques_
+was published in the beginning of 1850. In the autumn of that year, when
+working on the second volume, the increase of his malady compelled him
+to go to Italy. After lingering at Pisa and Florence he reached Rome,
+but only to die there on the 24th of December 1850 in the fiftieth year
+of his age.
+
+The life-work of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated, requires to
+be considered in three aspects. (1) He was the advocate of free-trade,
+the opponent of protection. The general principles of free-trade had, of
+course, been clearly stated and solidly established before he was born,
+but he did more than merely restate them. He showed, as no one before
+him had done, how they were practically applicable to French
+agriculture, trade and commerce; and in the _Sophismes Économiques_ we
+have the completest and most effective, the wisest and the wittiest
+exposure of protectionism in its principles, reasonings and consequences
+which exists in any language. (2) He was the opponent of socialism. In
+this respect also he had no equal among the economists of France. He
+alone fought socialism hand to hand, body to body, as it were, not
+caricaturing it, not denouncing it, not criticizing under its name some
+merely abstract theory, but taking it as actually presented by its most
+popular representatives, considering patiently their proposals and
+arguments, and proving conclusively that they proceeded on false
+principles, reasoned badly and sought to realize generous aims by
+foolish and harmful means. Nowhere will reason find a richer armoury of
+weapons available against socialism than in the pamphlets published by
+Bastiat between 1848 and 1850. (3) He attempted to expound in an
+original and independent manner political economy as a science. In
+combating, first, the Protectionists, and, afterwards, the Socialists,
+there gradually rose on his mind a conception which seemed to him to
+shed a flood of light over the whole of economical doctrine, and,
+indeed, over the whole theory of society, viz. the harmony of the
+essential tendencies of human nature. The radical error, he became
+always more convinced, both of protectionism and socialism, was the
+assumption that human interests, if left to themselves would inevitably
+prove antagonistic and anti-social, capital robbing labour, manufactures
+ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the native, the consumer the
+producer, &c.; and the chief weakness of the various schools of
+political economy, he believed, he had discovered in their imperfect
+apprehension of the truth that human interests, when left to themselves,
+when not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered with, tend to harmonious
+combination, to the general good.
+
+  His _OEuvres complètes_ are in 7 vols. The first contains an
+  interesting _Memoir_ by M. Paillottet.
+
+
+
+
+BASTIDE, JULES (1800-1879), French publicist, was born at Paris on the
+22nd of November 1800. He studied law for a time, and afterwards engaged
+in business as a timber merchant. In 1821 he became a member of the
+French Carbonari, and took a prominent part in the Revolution of 1830.
+After the "July Days" he received an artillery command in the national
+guard. For his share in the _émeute_ in Paris (5th of June 1832) on the
+occasion of the funeral of General Maximilien Lamarque, Bastide was
+sentenced to death but escaped to London. On his return to Paris in 1834
+he was acquitted, and occupied himself with journalism, contributing to
+the _National_, a republican journal of which he became editor in 1836.
+In 1847 he founded the _Revue nationale_ with the collaboration of P.J.
+Buchez (q.v.), with whose ideas he had become infected. After the
+Revolution of February 1848 Bastide's intimate knowledge of foreign
+affairs gained for him a secretarial post in the provisional government,
+and, after the creation of the executive commission, he was made
+minister of foreign affairs. At the close of 1848 he threw up his
+portfolio, and, after the _coup d'état_ of December 1851, retired into
+private life. He died on the 2nd of March 1879. His writings comprise
+_De l'éducation publique en France_ (1847); _Histoire de l'assemblée
+législative_ (1847); _La République française et l'Italie en 1848_
+(1858); _Histoire des guerres religieuses en France_ (1859).
+
+
+
+
+BASTIDE (Provençal _bastida_, building), a word applied to the fortified
+towns founded in south-western France in the middle ages, and
+corresponding to the _villes neuves_ of northern France. They were
+established by the abbeys, the nobles and the crown, frequently by two
+of these authorities in co-operation, and were intended to serve as
+defensive posts and centres of population for sparsely-inhabited
+districts. In addition, they formed a source of revenue and power for
+their founders, who on their part conceded liberal charters to the new
+towns. They were built on a rectangular plan, with a large central
+square and straight thoroughfares running at right angles or parallel to
+one another, this uniformity of construction being well exemplified in
+the existing _bastide_ of Monpazier (Dordogne) founded by the English in
+1284. Mont-de-Marsan, the oldest of the bastides, was founded in 1141,
+and the movement for founding them lasted during the 12th, 13th and 14th
+centuries, attaining its height between 1250 and 1350.
+
+  See E. Ménault, _Les Villes Neuves, leur origine et leur influence
+  dans le mouvement communal_ (Paris, 1868); Curie-Seimbres, _Essai sur
+  les villes fondées dans le sud-ouest de la France sous le nom de
+  bastides_ (Toulouse, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES (1848-1884), French painter, was born in the
+village of Damvillers, Meuse, France, on the 1st of November 1848 and
+spent his childhood there. He first studied at Verdun, and prompted by a
+love of art went in 1867 to Paris, where he was admitted to the École
+des Beaux-arts, working under Cabanel. After exhibiting in the Salons of
+1870 and 1872 works which attracted no attention, in 1874 he made his
+mark with his "Song of Spring," a study of rural life, representing a
+peasant girl sitting on a knoll looking down on a village. His "Portrait
+of my Grandfather," exhibited in the same year, was not less remarkable
+for its artless simplicity and received a third-class medal. This
+success was confirmed in 1875 by the "First Communion," a picture of a
+little girl minutely worked up as to colour, and a "Portrait of M.
+Hayem." In 1875 he took the second Prix de Rome with his "Angels
+appearing to the Shepherds," exhibited again in 1878. His next endeavour
+to win the Grand Prix de Rome in 1876 with "Priam at the Feet of
+Achilles" was again unsuccessful (it is in the Lille gallery), and the
+painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon of 1877 he
+sent a full-length "Portrait of Lady L." and "My Parents"; and in 1878 a
+"Portrait of M. Theuriet" and "The Hayfield." The last picture, now in
+the Luxembourg, is regarded as a typical work from its stamp of
+realistic truth. Thenceforth Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as
+the leader of a school, and his "Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt"
+(1879), painted in a light key, won him the cross of the Legion of
+Honour. In 1880 he exhibited a small portrait of M. Andrieux and "Joan
+of Arc listening to the Voices"; and in the same year, at the Royal
+Academy, the little portrait of the "Prince of Wales." In 1881 he
+painted "The Beggar" and the "Portrait of Albert Wolf"; in 1882 "Le Père
+Jacques"; in 1883 "Love in a Village," in which we find some trace of
+Courbet's influence. His last dated work is "The Forge" (1884). The
+artist, long ailing, had tried in vain to re-establish his health in
+Algiers. He died in Paris on the 10th of December 1884, when planning a
+new series of rural subjects. Among his more important works may also be
+mentioned the portrait of "Mme J. Drouet" (1883); "Gambetta on his
+death-bed," and some landscapes; "The Vintage" (1880), and "The Thames
+at London" (1882). "The Little Chimney-Sweep" was never finished. An
+exhibition of his collected works was opened in March and April 1885.
+
+  See A. Theuriet, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885--English edition, 1892); L. de
+  Fourcaud, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885).     (H. Fr.)
+
+
+
+
+BASTILLE (from Fr. _bastir_, now _bâtir_, to build), originally any
+fortified building forming part of a system of defence or attack; the
+name was especially applied to several of the principal points in the
+ancient fortifications of Paris. In the reign of King John, or even
+earlier, the gate of Saint Antoine was flanked by two towers; and about
+1369 Hugues Aubriot, at the command of Charles V., changed it into a
+regular bastille or fort by the addition of six others of massive
+structure, the whole united by thick walls and surrounded by a ditch 25
+ft. wide. Various extensions and alterations were afterwards effected;
+but the building remained substantially what it was made by the vigorous
+provost, a strong and gloomy structure, with eight stern towers. As the
+ancient fortifications of the city were superseded, the use of the word
+bastille as a general designation gradually died out, and it became
+restricted to the castle of Saint Antoine, the political importance of
+which made it practically, long before it was actually, the only
+bastille of Paris. The building had originally a military purpose, and
+it appears as a fortress on several occasions in French history. When
+Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, his opponents in the
+city took refuge in the Bastille, which they were prepared to defend
+with vigour, but the want of provisions obliged them to capitulate. In
+1588 the duke of Guise took possession of the Bastille, gave the command
+of it to Bussy-Leclerc, and soon afterwards shut up the whole parlement
+within its walls, for having refused their adherence to the League. When
+Henry IV. became master of Paris he committed the command of the
+Bastille to Sully, and there he deposited his treasures, which at the
+time of his death amounted to the sum of 15,870,000 livres. On the 11th
+of January 1649 the Bastille was invested by the forces of the Fronde,
+and after a short cannonade capitulated on the 13th of that month. The
+garrison consisted of only twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a
+peace with the court on the 11th of March; but it was stipulated by
+treaty that they should retain possession of the Bastille, which in fact
+was not restored to the king till the 21st of October 1651.
+
+At a very early period, however, the Bastille was employed for the
+custody of state prisoners, and it was ultimately much more of a prison
+than a fortress. According to the usual account, which one is tempted to
+ascribe to the popular love of poetical justice, the first who was
+incarcerated within its walls was the builder himself, Hugues Aubriot.
+Be this as it may, the duke of Nemours spent thirteen years there in one
+of those iron cages which Louis XI. called his _fillettes_; and Jacques
+d'Armagnac, Poyet and Chabot were successively prisoners. It was not
+till the reign of Louis XIII. that it became recognized as a regular
+place of confinement; but from that time till its destruction it was
+frequently filled to embarrassment with men and women of every age and
+condition. Prisoners were detained without trial on _lettres de cachet_
+for different reasons, to avoid a scandal, either public or private, or
+to satisfy personal animosities. But the most frequent and most
+notorious use of the Bastille was to imprison those writers who attacked
+the government or persons in power. It was this which made it so hated
+as an emblem of despotism, and caused its capture and demolition in the
+Revolution.
+
+Of the treatment of prisoners in the Bastille very various accounts have
+been given even by those who speak from personal experience, for the
+simple reason that it varied greatly in different cases. The prisoners
+were divided into two main classes, those who were detained on grounds
+of precaution or by way of admonitory correction, and those who lay
+under presumption or proof of guilt. The former were subject to no
+investigation or judgment, and the length of their imprisonment depended
+on the will of the king; the latter were brought to trial in the
+ordinary courts or before special tribunals, such as that of the
+Arsenal--though even in their case the interval between their arrest and
+their trial was determined solely by the royal decree, and it was quite
+possible for a man to grow old in the prison without having the
+opportunity of having his fate decided. Until guilt was established, the
+prisoner was registered in the king's name, and--except in the case of
+state-prisoners of importance, who were kept with greater strictness and
+often in absolute isolation--he enjoyed a certain degree of comfort and
+freedom. Visitors were admitted under restrictions; games were allowed;
+and, for a long time at least, exercise was permitted in open parts of
+the interior. Food was both abundant and good, at least for the better
+class of prisoners; and instances were not unknown of people living
+below their allowance and, by arrangement with the governor, saving the
+surplus. When the criminality of the prisoner was established, his name
+was transferred to the register of the "commission," and he became
+exposed to numerous hardships and even barbarities, which however
+belonged not so much to the special organization of the Bastille as to
+the general system of criminal justice then in force.
+
+Among the more distinguished personages who were confined in this
+fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV. and XVI., were the famous
+_Man of the Iron Mask_ (see IRON MASK), Foucquet, the marshal Richelieu,
+Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville, Voltaire, Latude, Le Prévôt de
+Beaumont, Labourdonnais, Lally, Cardinal de Rohan, Linguet and La
+Chalotais. While no detestation is too great for that system of "royal
+pantheism" which led to the unjust and often protracted imprisonment of
+even men of great ability and stainless character, it is unnecessary to
+give implicit credence to all the tales of horror which found currency
+during the excitement of the Revolution, and which historical evidence,
+as well as _a priori_ considerations, tends to strip of their more
+dreadful features, and even in many cases to refute altogether. Much
+light of an unexpected kind has in modern times been shed on the history
+of the Bastille from the pages of its own records. These documents had
+been flung out into the courts of the building by the revolutionary
+captors, and after suffering grievous diminution and damage were finally
+stored up and forgotten in the vaults of the library of the (so-called)
+Arsenal. Here they were discovered in 1840 by François Ravaisson, who
+devoted himself to their arrangement, elucidation and publication.
+
+At the breaking out of the Revolution the Bastille was attacked by the
+Parisians; and, after a vigorous resistance, it was taken and razed to
+the ground on the 14th of July 1789. At the time of its capture only
+seven prisoners were found in it. A very striking account of the siege
+will be found in Carlyle's _French Revolution_, vol. i. The site of the
+building is now marked by a lofty column of bronze, dedicated to the
+memory of the patriots of July 1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded
+figure of the genius of liberty.
+
+  See the _Memoirs_ of Linguet (1783), and Latude (ed. by Thierry, tome
+  iii. 18mo, 1791-1793); also François Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la
+  Bastille_ (16 vols. 8vo, 1866-1886); Delort, _Histoire de la détention
+  des philosophes à la Bastille_ (3 vols., 1829); F. Bournon, _La
+  Bastille_ (1893); Fr. Funck-Brentano, _Les Lettres de cachet à Paris,
+  étude suivie d'une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille_ (1904); G.
+  Lecocq, _La Prise de la Bastille_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+BASTINADO (Span. _baston_, Fr. _bâton_, a stick, cudgel), the European
+name for a form of punishment common in the east, especially in Turkey,
+Persia and China. It consists in blows with a light stick or lath of
+bamboo upon the soles of the feet or on the buttocks. The terror of the
+punishment lies not in the severity of the blows, which are on the
+contrary scarcely more than tapping, but in its long continuation. A
+skilful bastinadoist can kill his victim after hours of torture.
+
+
+
+
+BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. _bastire_, to build), a work
+forming part of a line of fortifications. The general trace of a bastion
+is similar to an irregular pentagon formed by a triangle and a narrow
+rectangle, the base of the triangle coinciding with the long side of the
+rectangle. The two sides of the triangle form the "faces" of the
+bastion, which join at the "salient" angle, the short sides of the
+rectangle form the "flanks." Bastions were arranged so that the fire
+from the flanks of each protected not only the front of the curtain but
+also the faces of the adjacent bastions. A "tower bastion" is a
+case-mated tower built in bastion form; a "demi-bastion" is a work
+formed by half a bastion (bisected through the salient angle) and by a
+parapet along the line of bisection; a "flat bastion" is a bastion built
+on a curtain and having a very obtuse salient angle.
+
+
+
+
+BASTWICK, JOHN (1593-1654), English physician and religious zealot, was
+born at Writtle, in Essex, in 1593, and after a brief education at
+Cambridge, wandered on the continent and graduated in medicine at Padua.
+On his return he settled in Colchester. His celebrity rests on his
+strong opposition to the Roman Catholic ceremonial. About 1633 he
+printed in Holland two Latin treatises, entitled _Elenchus Religionis
+Papisticae_, and _Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Latialium_; and as
+Laud and other English prelates thought themselves aimed at, he was
+fined £1000 in the court of high commission, excommunicated and
+prohibited from practising physic, while his books were ordered to be
+burnt and the author himself consigned to prison. Instead of recanting,
+however, he wrote _Apologeticus ad Praesules Anglicanos_, and another
+book called _The Litany_, in which he exclaimed vehemently against the
+proceedings of the court, and charged the bishops with being the enemies
+of God and "the tail of the beast." William Prynne and Henry Burton
+coming under the lash of the star-chamber court at the same time, they
+were all censured as turbulent and seditious persons, and condemned to
+pay a fine of £5000 each, to be set in the pillory, to lose their ears,
+and to undergo imprisonment for life in remote parts of the kingdom,
+Bastwick being sent to Scilly. The parliament in 1640 reversed these
+proceedings, and ordered Bastwick a reparation of £5000 out of the
+estates of the commissioners and lords who had sentenced him. He joined
+the parliamentary army, but in later years showed bitter opposition to
+the Independents. He died in the latter part of 1654.
+
+
+
+
+BASUTOLAND (officially "The Territory of Basutoland"), an inland state
+and British crown colony of S.E. Africa, situated between 28° 35' and
+30° 30' S. and 27° and 29° 25' E. It has an area of 10,293 sq. m., being
+somewhat smaller than Belgium, and is bounded S., S.E., and N.E. by the
+Drakensberg, N. and N.W. by the Caledon river, S.W. by a range of low
+hills extending from the Caledon above Wepener to the Orange river, and
+south of the Orange by the Telle or Tees river to its source in the
+Drakensberg. Its greatest length S.W. to N.E. is 145 m.; its greatest
+breadth N. to S. 120 m. On every side it is surrounded by British
+colonies, north by the Orange River Colony, south-west and south by Cape
+Colony, and east by Natal.
+
+Basutoland, or Lesuto (Lesotho) as the natives call it, forms the
+south-eastern edge of the interior tableland of South Africa, and has a
+rugged and broken surface with a mean elevation of 6000 ft. The
+Drakensberg (q.v.) forming the buttress of the plateau seaward, attain
+their highest elevation on the Basuto-Natal border. The frontier line
+follows the crest of the mountains, three peaks some 10,000 or more ft.
+high--Giant's Castle, Champagne Castle or Cathkin Peak and Mont aux
+Sources--towering high above the general level. Mount Hamilton, which
+lies north of the waterparting, is over 9000 ft. high. From Mont aux
+Sources, table-shaped, and called by the Basutos _Potong_ (Antelope), a
+second range of mountains, the Maluti, runs S.W. through the entire
+length of Basutoland. The crest of the Maluti is in few places lower
+than 7000 ft. whilst Machacha, the culminating point, is about 10,500
+ft. From the tableland north of the Maluti several isolated hills rise,
+the most noted being the almost inaccessible Thaba Bosigo--the rallying
+place of the Basuto in many of their wars. Shut off from the adjacent
+Indian Ocean by its mountain barrier, the drainage of the country is
+westward to the distant Atlantic. As its name implies, the chief rivers
+rise in Mont aux Sources. From the inner sides of that mountain descend
+the Caledon and the Senku, whilst from its seaward face the Tugela flows
+through Natal to the Indian Ocean. The Caledon runs north of the Maluti,
+the Senku south of that range. From the slopes of the Maluti descend
+many streams, the largest being the Kornet Spruit, which joins the Senku
+and other torrents from the Drakensberg to form the upper Orange
+(q.v.). The Caledon also, sweeping southward, unites with the Orange
+beyond the frontiers of Basutoland. Ordinarily shallow, the rivers after
+heavy rain fill with great rapidity, sweeping away everything in their
+path. In the richer soil they cut deep channels; the denudation thus
+caused threatens to diminish seriously the area of arable and pasture
+land. The river beds contain dangerous quicksands.
+
+The aspect of the country is everywhere grand, and often beautiful,
+fully justifying the title, "The Switzerland of South Africa," often
+applied to it. Viewed from a distance the mountains appear as dark
+perpendicular barriers, quite impenetrable; but narrow paths lead round
+the precipitous face of the hills, and when the inner side is gained a
+wonderful panorama opens out. In every direction can be seen luxuriant
+valleys through which rivers thread their silvery way, wild chasms,
+magnificent waterfalls--that of Maletsunyane has an unbroken leap of
+over 600 ft.--and, above all, hill crest after hill crest in seeming
+endless succession. In winter the effect is heightened by the snow which
+caps all the higher peaks.
+
+_Geology._--Basutoland is entirely occupied by the upper division
+(Stormberg series) of the Karroo formation. The highest strata (Volcanic
+group) form the rugged elevated spurs of the Drakensberg mountains which
+extend along the eastern territorial boundary. It has been suggested
+that these spurs represent the sites of vents or fissures of eruption.
+The upper part of the Maluti range consists of flows of melaphyres and
+diabases belonging to the volcanic beds. Among these lavas is the "pipe"
+amygdaloid of which many blocks have been transported great distances
+down the Vaal river. The amygdales are three or four inches long and
+about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Heulandite, with thomsonite,
+stilbite, scolecite, calcite and chalcedony, occur as infilling
+minerals.
+
+_Climate._--The climate is excellent, invigorating alike for Europeans
+and natives. The mean annual temperature is about 60° F. The four
+seasons are distinctly marked, a rarity in South Africa, where the
+transition from summer to winter is generally very rapid. The heat of
+summer (December-March, which is the rainy season) is tempered by cool
+breezes; winter (May-September, inclusive) is dry, cold and bracing, and
+frost prevails for prolonged periods. The average annual rainfall is
+about 30 in. The general health conditions are good. Malaria is almost
+unknown and chest complaints are rare. Epidemics of smallpox and typhoid
+occur; and leprosy, imported from the Orange River and Cape Colonies,
+has taken firm hold on the Basuto, of whom about 91 per 1000 are
+sufferers from this disease.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--A few kloofs are wooded, but of forest land there is
+none. Along the upper courses of the rivers are willows and wild olive
+trees; round the chief settlements the eucalyptus and the pine have been
+planted. Heaths, generally somewhat rare in South Africa outside the
+Cape peninsula, are abundant in Basutoland. The Alpine flora is very
+beautiful. There are few wild animals; but the eland, hartebeest and
+smaller antelopes are found, as well as the leopard and the jackal.
+Mountain hares, partridges and quails afford good sport; baboons and
+great hawks live in the mountains. The few fish include the barbel.
+Swarms of locusts occasionally visit the country; the locusts are eaten
+by the Basuto.
+
+_Population and Towns._--Considering the extensive area of uninhabitable
+mountain land it contains, the Territory supports a large population.
+The inhabitants increased from 128,206 in 1875 to 348,848 in 1904. The
+females outnumber the males by about 20,000, which is, however, about
+the number of adult males away from the country at any given period. The
+majority live in the district between the Maluti mountains and the
+Caledon river. The great bulk of the people are Basuto, but there are
+some thousands of Barolong and other Kaffirs. The Basuto proper are a
+branch of the Bechuana family of Bantu-Negroids. The white inhabitants
+in 1904 numbered 895, and there were 222 coloured persons other than
+natives. The seat of government is Maseru, on the left bank of the
+Caledon, with a population of about 1000 including some 100 Europeans.
+Mafeteng, in the N.W. near the Cape frontier, is a thriving agricultural
+centre, as is Butha Buthe in the N.E. Morija, some 16 m. S.E. of Maseru,
+is the oldest mission station in the Territory, having been founded by
+the Paris Society about 1833. Three miles from Morija is Matsieng, the
+kraal of the paramount chief Lerothodi (who died in August 1905). There
+are numerous mission stations throughout Basutoland, to several of which
+Biblical names have been given, such as Shiloh, Hermon, Cana, Bethesda,
+Berea.
+
+_Agriculture and Trade._--Basutoland is one of the greatest
+grain-growing countries of South Africa. The richest tract of land is
+that between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon river. In summer the
+country appears as one waving field of wheat, millet and mealies; whilst
+on the mountain slopes and on their flat tops are large flocks of sheep,
+cattle and goats, and troops of ponies. The Basuto ponies, said to be
+descended from Shetland ponies which, imported to the Cape in 1840,
+strayed into the mountains, are short-legged, strong-bodied,
+sure-footed, and noted for their hardiness. Improvements in the breed
+have been effected by the introduction of Arab stallions. Nearly every
+Basuto is an agriculturist; there are no manufactories, and the
+minerals, in accordance with the desire of the people, are not worked.
+The land is wholly in the possession of the natives, who hold it on the
+communal system. Whites and Indians are allowed to establish trading
+stations on obtaining special permits from the government, and the
+Indians absorb much of the retail trade. The chief exports are wheat,
+mealies, Kaffir corn, wool, mohair, horses and cattle. The great bulk of
+the imports are textiles. The value of the trade depends on regular
+rains, so that in seasons of drought the exports seriously diminish. The
+average annual value of trade for the five years ending the 30th of June
+1905 was:--Exports £215,668, imports £203,026. Trade is almost entirely
+with Orange River Colony and Cape Colony. The Territory is a member of
+the South African Customs Union. Some 60,000 Basuto (annual average)
+find employment outside the Territory, more than half of whom seek farm
+and domestic service. A small proportion go to the Johannesburg gold
+mines, and others obtain employment on the railways.
+
+Communication over the greater part of the Territory is by road; none of
+the rivers is navigable. A state-owned railway, 16½ m. long, starting
+from Maseru crosses the Caledon river and joins the line connecting
+Bloemfontein and Ladysmith. This railway follows, N.E. of Maseru, the
+right bank of the Caledon, and affords a ready means of transport for
+the cereals raised on the left or Basuto side of the river. Highroads,
+maintained by the government, traverse every part of the country, and
+bridges have been built across the Caledon. The usual mode of conveyance
+is by ox-waggon or light cart. Several passes through the Drakensberg
+into Griqualand East and Natal exist, but are little used. There is a
+complete postal and telegraphic service and a telephone line connects
+all government stations.
+
+_Government and Finance._--Basutoland is a crown colony, of which the
+high commissioner for South Africa is governor. In him resides the
+legislative power, exercised by proclamation. The Territory is
+administered, under the direction of the governor, by a resident
+commissioner, who is also the chief judicial officer. He is aided by a
+government secretary and by assistant commissioners. Under the British
+officials the country is governed by hereditary native chiefs, over whom
+is a paramount chief. The chiefs have jurisdiction in cases affecting
+natives, but there is a right of appeal to the courts of the
+commissioners, who try all cases in which any of the parties are
+European. A national council (_pitso_), representative of all the native
+tribes, meets annually for the free discussion of public affairs. For
+administrative purposes the Territory is divided into the seven
+districts of Maseru, Leribe, Mohales Hoek, Berea, Mafeteng, Quthing and
+Qacha's Nek, each of which is subdivided into wards presided over by
+Basuto chiefs.
+
+Revenue is obtained from a hut tax of £1 per hut; the sale of licences
+to trade; customs and post office receipts. Seven-eighths of the revenue
+comes from the hut tax and customs. The average annual revenue for the
+five years 1901-1905 was £96,880; the average annual expenditure
+£69,559. Basutoland has no public debt.
+
+_Education and Social Condition._--Education is given in schools founded
+by missionary societies, of which the chief is the Société des Missions
+Évangéliques de Paris. A large proportion of the people can read and
+write Sesuto (as the Basuto language is called) and English, and speak
+Dutch, whilst a considerable number also receive higher education. Many
+Basuto at the public examinations take higher honours than competitors
+of European descent. There are over 200 schools, with an average
+attendance exceeding 10,000. Nine-tenths of the scholars are in the
+schools of the French Protestant Mission, which are conducted by
+English, or English-speaking, missionaries. A government grant is made
+towards the cost of upkeep. A government industrial school (opened in
+1906) is maintained at Maseru, and the Paris Society has an industrial
+school at Leloaleng. The social condition of the people is higher than
+that of the majority of South African natives. Many Basuto profess
+Christianity and have adopted European clothing. Serious crime is rare
+among them and "deliberate murder is almost unknown." [1] They are, like
+mountaineers generally, of a sturdy, independent spirit, and are given
+to the free expression of their views, generally stated with good sense
+and moderation. These views found a new medium of publicity in 1904 when
+an independent native newspaper was started, called _Naledi ea Lesotha_
+(Star of Basutoland). The publication of this paper was followed in 1906
+by the adoption of a uniform system of Sesuto orthography. A book on
+national customs, the first work in the vernacular by a South African
+native, was published in 1893. The brandy-drinking habit, which, when
+the imperial government assumed control of the administration in 1884,
+threatened the existence of the nation, has been very largely checked. A
+strong beer, brewed from Kaffir corn, is a favourite drink.
+
+
+  Moshesh forms the Basuto nation.
+
+_History._--Until the beginning of the 19th century Basutoland appears
+to have been uninhabited save by wandering Bushmen, whose rude rock
+pictures are to be found in several parts of the Drakensberg. About 1800
+the country was occupied by various tribes of Bechuana, such as Batau,
+Basuto, Baputi, who then possessed the greater part of what is now
+Orange River Colony. They appear to have recognized the paramount
+authority of a family descended from a chief named Monaheng. By the wars
+of the Zulu chiefs Chaka, Matiwana and Mosilikatze, these tribes were
+largely broken up and their power destroyed. One tribe, living in the
+Maluti mountains, was reduced to cannibalism. From their chief Machacha
+mountain takes its name. At this period a young man named Moshesh (born
+about 1790), who was of the family of Monaheng and already noted as
+hunter and warrior, gathered round him the remnants of several broken
+clans, out of which he welded the existing Basuto nation. He established
+himself in 1824 on the rock-fortress of Thaba Bosigo, where, in 1831, he
+successfully defended himself against Mosilikatze; and thereafter became
+second only to that chief among the natives north of the Orange River.
+In 1833 Moshesh invited the missionaries of the Société des Missions
+Evangéliques of Paris to settle in his country, and from that day until
+his death proved their firm friend. A few years later, in 1836-1837,
+large parties of emigrant Boers settled north of the Orange, and before
+long disputes arose between them and Moshesh, who claimed a great part
+of the land on which the white farmers had settled. The Basuto acquired
+an unenviable notoriety as a race of bold cattle lifters and raiders,
+and the emigrant Boers found them extremely troublesome neighbours. At
+the same time, if the Basuto were eager for cattle, the Boers were eager
+for land; and their encroachments on the territories of the Basuto led
+to a proclamation in 1842 from Sir George Napier, the then governor of
+Cape Colony, forbidding further encroachments on Basutoland. In 1843 a
+treaty was signed with Moshesh on the lines of that already arranged
+with Waterboer, the Griqua chief (see GRIQUALAND), creating Basutoland a
+native state under British protection.
+
+
+  Annexation to Great Britain.
+
+To the quarrels between Basuto and Boers were added interminable
+disputes between the Basuto and other Bechuana tribes, which continued
+unabated after the proclamation of British sovereignty over the Orange
+river regions by Sir Harry Smith in 1848. In 1849, however, Moshesh was
+unwillingly induced by Sir Harry to surrender his claims to part of the
+territory recognized as his by the Napier treaty. The British continued
+to intervene in the inter-tribal disputes, and in 1851 Major H.D. Warden
+led against the Basuto a commando composed of British soldiers, farmers
+and a native contingent. This commando was defeated at Viervoet, near
+Thaba Nchu, by the Basuto, who thereafter raided and plundered the
+natives opposed to them and the farmers who had helped the British.
+Attempts were made to come to terms with Moshesh and the justice of many
+of his complaints was admitted. The efforts at accommodation failed, and
+in 1852 General Sir George Cathcart, who had succeeded Sir Harry Smith
+as governor of Cape Colony, decided to take strong measures with the
+tribe, and proceeded with three small divisions of troops against
+Moshesh. The expedition was by no means a success, but Moshesh, with
+that peculiar statecraft for which he was famous, saw that he could not
+hope permanently to hold out against the British troops, and followed up
+his successful skirmishes with General Cathcart by writing him a letter,
+in which he said: "As the object for which you have come is to have a
+compensation for Boers, I beg you will be satisfied with what you have
+taken. You have shown your power, you have chastised; I will try all I
+can to keep my people in order in the future." General Cathcart accepted
+the offer of Moshesh and peace was proclaimed, the Basuto power being
+unbroken. Fourteen months later (February 1854) Great Britain renounced
+sovereignty over the farmers settled beyond the Orange, and Moshesh
+found himself face to face with the newly constituted Free State.
+Boundary disputes at once arose but were settled (1858) by the mediation
+of Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony. In 1865 a fresh feud
+occurred between the Orange Free State Boers and the Basuto. The latter
+applied to Sir Philip Wodehouse at the Cape for protection, but he
+declined to interfere. The Boers proved more successful than they had
+been in the past, and occupied several of the Basuto strongholds. They
+also annexed a certain fertile portion of Basuto territory, and finally
+terminated the strife by a treaty at Thaba Bosigo, by which Moshesh gave
+up the tract of territory taken by the Boers and professed himself a
+subject of the Free State. Seeing that the struggle against the Boers
+was hopeless, no fewer than 2000 Basuto warriors having been killed,
+Moshesh again appealed for protection to the British authorities,
+saying: "Let me and my people rest and live under the large folds of the
+flag of England before I am no more." In response to this request, the
+British authorities decided to take over Basutoland, and a proclamation
+of annexation was issued on the 12th of March 1868. At the same time the
+Boer commandoes were requested to leave the country. The Free State
+strongly resented the British annexation of Basutoland, but much
+negotiation the treaty of Aliwal North was concluded (1869) between the
+Free State and the high commissioner. This treaty defined the boundary
+between the Free State and Basutoland, whereby the fertile strip of
+country west of the Caledon river, known as the Conquered Territory, was
+finally transferred to the Free State, and the remainder of Basutoland
+was recognized as a portion of the British dominions.
+
+Moshesh, who for nearly fifty years had led his people so skilfully and
+well, died in 1870. He was one of the rare instances among the Kaffirs
+of a leader endowed with intellectual gifts which placed him on a level
+with Europeans, and his life-work has left a permanent mark on South
+African history. In diplomacy he proved fully the equal of all--white or
+black--with whom he had to deal, while he ruled with a rare combination
+of vigour and moderation over the nation which he had created.
+
+
+  The "gun" war.
+
+In 1871 Basutoland was annexed to Cape Colony, the area at that time
+being given as 10,300 sq. m. The turbulent Basuto warriors did not
+remain quiet for any length of time, and in 1879 Moirosi, a chief
+residing in the southern portion of Basutoland, openly repudiated
+colonial rule. An expedition was despatched from Cape Colony and severe
+fighting followed. Moirosi's stronghold was captured and the chief
+himself was killed. Immediately after the war, strife occurred among the
+Basuto themselves over the question of the partition of Moirosi's
+territory, which had been decided on as one of the results of the war.
+In 1880 the Cape government felt sufficiently strong to extend to
+Basutoland the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878. This act provided
+for the disarmament of natives, and had already been put in force
+successfully among some of the Kaffir tribes on the Cape eastern
+frontier. Its execution in Basutoland, however, proved an extremely
+difficult task, and was never entirely accomplished. Desultory warfare
+was carried on between the colonial troops and the Basuto until 1881,
+when the intervention of the high commissioner, Sir Hercules Robinson
+(afterward Lord Rosmead), was asked for. Peace in Basutoland was not
+announced until the end of 1882. In the following year a form of
+self-government was established, but was once more followed by internal
+strife among the petty chieftains.
+
+
+  A crown colony.
+
+The subjection of Basutoland to the control of the Cape government had
+by this time proved unsatisfactory, both to the Basuto and to Cape
+Colony. The Cape government therefore offered no opposition to the
+appeal made by the Basuto themselves to the imperial government to take
+them over, and, moreover, Cape Colony undertook to pay towards the cost
+of administration an annual contribution of £18,000. Consequently, in
+1884, Basutoland ceased to be a portion of the Cape Colony and became a
+British crown colony. Native laws and customs were interfered with as
+little as possible and the authority of the chiefs--all members of the
+Moshesh family--was maintained. Moshesh had been succeeded as paramount
+chief by his son, Letsie, and he in turn was succeeded in 1891 by
+Lerothodi (c. 1837-1905). These chieftains acted in concert with the
+British representative in the country, to whom was given the title of
+resident commissioner. The first commissioner was Sir Marshall Clarke,
+to whose tact and ability the country owed much. The period of warfare
+over, the Basuto turned their attention more and more to agricultural
+pursuits and also showed themselves very receptive of missionary
+influence. Trade increased, and in 1891 Basutoland was admitted to the
+customs union, which already existed between Orange Free State, Cape
+Colony and British Bechuanaland. When Lord (then Sir Alfred) Milner
+visited Basutoland in 1898, on his way to Bloemfontein, he was received
+by 15,000 mounted Basuto. The chiefs also attended a large meeting at
+Maseru, and gave expression to their gratitude for the beneficent
+character of Queen Victoria's rule and protection. On the outbreak of
+the Boer War in 1899, these same chiefs, at a great meeting held in the
+presence of the resident commissioner, gave a further protestation of
+their loyalty to Her Majesty. They remained passive throughout the War
+and the neutrality of the country was respected by both armies. One
+chief alone sought to take advantage of the situation by disloyal
+action, and his offence was met by a year's imprisonment. The conversion
+of Basutoland into a crown colony contributed alike to the prosperity of
+the Basuto, the security of the property of neighbouring colonists and a
+peaceful condition among the natives of South Africa generally. In
+pursuance of the policy of encouraging the self-governing powers of the
+Basuto, a national council was instituted and held its first sitting in
+July 1903. In August 1905 the paramount chief Lerothodi died. In early
+life he had distinguished himself in the wars with the Boers, and in
+1880 he took an active part in the revolt against the Cape government.
+Since 1884 he had been a loyal supporter of the imperial authorities,
+being unwavering in his adherence in critical times. Fearless and
+masterful he also possessed high diplomatic gifts, and though on
+occasion arbitrary and passionate he was neither revengeful nor cruel.
+On the 19th of September following Lerothodi's death, the national
+council, with the concurrence of the imperial government, elected his
+son Letsie as paramount chief. The completion in October 1905 of a
+railway putting Maseru in connexion with the South African railway
+system proved a great boon to the community. During the rebellion of the
+natives in Natal and Zululand in 1906 the Basuto remained perfectly
+quiet.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_The Basutos_ (2 vols., London, 1909), a standard
+  history, and "Basutoland and the Basutos" in _Jnl. Ryl. Col. Inst._
+  1901, both by Sir G. Lagden, resident-commissioner, 1893-1901; E.
+  Jacottet, "Moeurs, coutumes et superstitions des Ba-Souts," in _Bull.
+  Soc. neuchâteloise Géog._, vol. ix. pp. 107-151, 1897; G.M. Theal,
+  _Basutoland Records_ (Cape Town, 1883); E. Casalis, _Les Bassutos_
+  (Paris, 1859), a description of exploration, manners and customs, the
+  result of twenty-three years' residence in the country; Minnie Martin,
+  _Basutoland: its Legends and Customs_ (London, 1903); Mrs F.A. Barkly,
+  _Among Boers and Basutos_ (new ed., London, 1897), a record, chiefly,
+  of the Gun War of 1880-1882; C.W. Mackintosh, _Coillard of the
+  Zambesi_ (London, 1907). For geology consult E. Cohen,
+  "Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Sud-Afrika," _Neues Jahrb.
+  f. Min._, 1874, and _N. Jahrb. Beil._, Bd. v., 1887; D. Draper, "Notes
+  on the Geology of South-eastern Africa," _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._,
+  vol. 1., 1894; Hatch-Corstorphine. _The Geology of South Africa_
+  (London, 1905). For current information see the annual report on
+  Basutoland (Colonial Office, London). Many books dealing with South
+  Africa generally have chapters relating to Basutoland, e.g. A.P.
+  Hillier, _South African Studies_ (London, 1900); James Bryce,
+  _Impressions of South Africa_ (3rd ed., London, 1899). Consult also
+  Theal's _History of South Africa_ (1908-9 ed.).
+       (F. R. C.; A. P. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Report by resident-commissioner H.C. Sloley, for 1902-1903.
+
+
+
+
+BAT,[1] a name for any member of the zoological order Chiroptera (q.v.).
+Bats are insectivorous animals modified for flight, with slight powers
+of progression on the ground; the patagium or "flying-membrane" of some
+squirrels and of _Galeopithecus_ (q.v.) probably indicates the way in
+which the modification was effected. They are distributed throughout the
+world, but are most abundant in the tropics and the warmer parts of the
+temperate zones; within these limits the largest forms occur. There is
+great variation in size; the Malay "flying-fox" (_Pteropus edulis_)
+measures about a foot in the head and body, and has a wing-spread of 5
+ft.; while in the smaller forms the head and body may be only about 2
+in., and the wing-spread no more than a foot. The coloration is
+generally sombre, but to this there are exceptions; the fruit-bats are
+brownish yellow or russet on the under surface; two South American
+species are white; Blainville's chin-leafed bat is bright orange; and
+the Indian painted bat (_Cerivoula picta_) with its deep orange dress,
+spotted with black on the wing-membranes, has reminded observers of a
+large butterfly. In habits bats are social, nocturnal and crepuscular;
+the insect-eating species feed on the wing, in winter in the temperate
+regions they migrate to a warmer climate, or hibernate, as do the
+British bats. The sense-organs are highly developed; the wing-membranes
+are exceedingly sensitive; the nose-leaf is also an organ of perception,
+and the external ear is specially modified to receive sound-waves. Most
+bats are insect-eaters, but the tropical "flying foxes" or fox-bats of
+the Old World live on fruit; some are blood-suckers, and two feed on
+small fish. Twelve species are British, among which are the pipistrelle
+(_Pipistrellus pygmaeus_, or _P. pipistrellus_), the long-eared bat
+(_Plecotus auritus_), the noctule (_Pipistrellus [Pterygistes]
+noctulus_) the greater and lesser horseshoe bats (_Rhinolophus
+ferrum-equinum_ and _R. hipposiderus_), &c. (See FLYING-FOX and
+VAMPIRE.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] M. E. _bakke_, the change to "bat" having apparently been
+    influenced by Lat. _batta_, _blatta_, moth. The word is thus distinct
+    from the other common term "bat," the implement for striking, which
+    is probably connected with Fr. _battre_, though a Celtic or simply
+    onomatopoetic origin has been suggested.
+
+
+
+
+BATAC, a town of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine
+Islands, 10 m. S. of Laoag, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,524;
+subsequently, in October 1903, the town of Banna (pop. 4015) was
+annexed. Cacao, tobacco, cotton, rice and indigo are grown in the
+neighbouring country, and the town has a considerable trade in these and
+other commodities; it also manufactures sugar, fans and woven fabrics.
+Batac was founded in 1587. It is the birthplace and home of Archbishop
+Gregorio Aglipay (b. 1860), the founder of an important sect of Filipino
+Independent Catholics.
+
+
+
+
+BATALA, a town of British India, in the Gurdaspur district of the
+Punjab, with a station on a branch of the North-Western railway, 24 m.
+from Amritsar. Pop. (1901) 27,365. It is an important centre of trade,
+with manufactures of cotton and silk goods, shawls, brass-ware, soap and
+leather. There are two mission schools.
+
+
+
+
+BATALHA (i.e. battle), a town of Portugal, in the district of Leiria,
+formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 8 m. S. of Leiria.
+Pop. (1900) 3858. Batalha, which occupies the site of the medieval
+Canoeira, is chiefly interesting for its great Dominican monastery of
+Santa Maria da Victoria ("St Mary of the Victory"), also known as
+Batalha. Both town and monastery owe their names to the battle fought on
+the plain between Canoeira and Aljubarrota, 9 m. S. W., in which John I.
+of Portugal defeated John I. of Castile in 1385 and secured the
+independence of his kingdom. The monastery is built of golden-brown
+limestone, resembling marble, and richly sculptured. In size and beauty
+it excels all the other buildings of Portugal in which Gothic and
+Moorish architecture are combined. Its ground-plan may be roughly
+described as a parallelogram, measuring about 500 ft. from north to
+south, and 445 from east to west; with the circular annexe of the royal
+mausoleum on the east, and the Founder's chapel at the south-western
+corner. In the centre is the royal cloister, which is flanked by the
+refectory, now a museum, on the west; and by the chapter-house, on the
+east. Two smaller cloisters, named respectively after Alphonso V. and
+John III., form the northern division of the parallelogram; its southern
+division is the Gothic church. The Founder's chapel contains the tomb of
+John I. (d. 1433) and Philippa of Lancaster (d. 1416), his queen, with
+the tomb of Prince Henry the Navigator (d. 1460). Like the royal
+mausoleum, where several later monarchs are buried, it is remarkable
+for the intricacy and exquisite finish of its carved stonework. The
+monastery was probably founded in 1388. Plans and masons were procured
+from England by Queen Philippa, and the work was entrusted to A.
+Domingues, a native architect, and Huetor Houguet, an Irishman. Only the
+royal cloister, church and Founder's chapel were included in the
+original design; and all three show signs of English influence. Various
+additions were made up to 1551, beginning with the royal mausoleum and
+ending with the cloister of John III. Considerable damage was inflicted
+by the earthquake of 1755; and in 1810 the monastery was sacked by the
+French. It was secularized in 1834 and declared a national monument in
+1840. Thenceforward it was gradually restored.
+
+
+
+
+BATANGAS, a town, port of entry, and the capital of the province of
+Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the Batangas river, about 1 m.
+from its mouth on the E. coast of the Gulf of Batangas, and about 65 m.
+S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 33,131. The United States government has
+established a military post here, and the town has numerous fine public
+buildings and private residences. It is the most important port of a
+province noted for the fertility of its soil and the industry of its
+inhabitants. Its exports, which are large, include rice, coffee of
+excellent quality, cacao, sugar, Indian corn, horses and cattle. The
+horses of Batangas are unusually strong and active. Cotton is produced,
+and is woven into fabrics by the women. The language is Tagalog.
+
+
+
+
+BATARNAY, IMBERT DE (? 1438-1523), French statesman, was born of an old
+but obscure family in Dauphiné, about the year 1438. In consequence of a
+chance circumstance he entered into relations with the dauphin Louis, at
+that time (1455) in arms against the king his father; he attached
+himself to the prince, and followed him on his retreat into Burgundy.
+From the beginning of his reign Louis XI. loaded Batarnay with favours:
+he married him to a rich heiress, Georgette de Montchenu, lady of Le
+Bouchage; besides making him captain of Mont Saint Michel and giving him
+valuable estates, with, later, the titles of counsellor and chamberlain
+to the king. In 1469 Batarnay was sent to keep watch upon the duke of
+Guienne's intrigues, which began to appear dangerous. As
+lieutenant-general in Roussillon in 1475 he protected the countryside
+against the wrath of the king, who wished to repress with cruel severity
+a rebellion of the inhabitants. He was present at the interview between
+Louis XI. and Edward IV. of England at Picquigny, and was afterwards
+employed on negotiations with the duke of Burgundy. In accordance with
+the recommendations of his father, Charles VIII. kept the lord of Le
+Bouchage in his confidential service. During the differences that arose
+in 1485 between the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and the dukes of Orleans,
+Brittany and Alençon, Imbert de Batarnay kept the inhabitants of Orleans
+faithful to the king. He proved his skill in the negotiations concerning
+the marquisate of Saluzzo and the town of Genoa. During the Naples
+expedition he was in charge of the dauphin, Charles Orland, who died in
+1495. He treated with Maximilian of Austria to prevent him from entering
+Picardy during the war with Naples, and then proceeded to Castile to
+claim promised support. Under Louis XII. he took part in the expedition
+against the Genoese republic in 1507. Francis I. employed him to
+negotiate the proposed marriage of Charles of Austria with Renée of
+France, daughter of Louis XII., and appointed him governor to the
+dauphin Francis in 1518. He died on the 12th of May 1523.
+
+  See also B. de Mandrot's _Ymbert de Batarnay_ (Paris, 1886).
+       (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BATAVIA, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded
+E., S. and W. by the residencies of Krawana, Preanger and Bantam, and N.
+by the Java Sea. It also comprises a number of small islands in the Java
+Sea, including the Thousand Islands group, with a total area of 24 sq.
+m. The population in 1898 was 1,313,383, including 12,434 Europeans,
+82,510 Chinese, 3426 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The natives
+belong to a Sundanese group, but in the north contain a large admixture
+of Malays. The northern half of the province is flat, and even marshy
+along the coast, and consists of a broad band of alluvium formed by the
+series of parallel rivers descending from the south. The southern half
+on the other hand is covered by a mountain range whose chief peaks are
+situated along the southern border, namely Halimun mountain, the
+volcanoes Salak, Pangerango and Gede, and the Megamendung. The soil is
+fertile, and whereas rice is mainly grown on the lowlands the highlands
+are especially suitable for the cultivation of coffee, tea, tobacco,
+cinchona and vanilla. Extensive cocoanut plantations are also found in
+the plains, and market-gardening is practised in the neighbourhood of
+the towns. Sugar was formerly cultivated. The government of the
+residency of Batavia differs from that of the other residencies in
+having no native regencies, the lands being privately owned. The
+divisions of the residency are Batavia, town and surroundings,
+Tangerang, Meester Cornelis and Buitenzorg, the first being directly
+governed by a resident and the remainder by assistant residents. As
+early as the second half of the 17th century the Dutch East India
+Company began the practice of selling portions of the land to private
+persons, and of granting other portions as the reward of good services.
+A large strip of hill-country, almost corresponding to the present
+southern or Buitenzorg division of the residency, was appropriated by
+the governor-general in 1745 and attached to that office. In 1808,
+however, Marshal Daendels disposed of this property to various
+purchasers, including the Dutch government, and thus the whole of the
+residency gradually passed into private hands. Hence the administration
+of the residency is largely confined to police duties. The principal
+towns are Batavia (q.v.), which is the capital of the residency, as well
+as the seat of government of the whole Dutch East Indies, Meester
+Cornelis, Tangerang, Bekasi and Buitenzorg (q.v.). Tangerang and Bekasi
+are important centres of trade. The Buitenzorg hill-country is much
+visited on account of its beauty, and cool and healthy climate. Gadok is
+a health resort 6 m. south-east of Buitenzorg.
+
+
+
+
+BATAVIA, a city and seaport on the north coast of the island of Java,
+and the capital of all the Dutch settlements in the East. The population
+in 1880 was 96,957; in 1898, 115,567; including 9423 Europeans, 26,433
+Chinese, 2828 Arabs and 132 other Asiatic foreigners. It is situated on
+both sides of the river Jacatra or Jilivong, in a swampy plain at the
+head of a capacious bay. The streets are for the most part straight and
+regular, and many of them have a breadth of from 100 to 200 ft. In
+several cases there is a canal in the centre lined with stone, and
+protected by low parapets or banks, while almost every street and square
+is fringed with trees. The old town has greatly changed from its
+condition in the 18th century. It was then surrounded by strong
+fortifications, and contained a number of important buildings, such as
+the town-house (built in 1652 and restored in 1706), the exchange, the
+infirmary and orphan asylum, and the European churches. But the ramparts
+were long ago demolished; only natives, Malays, Arabs and Chinese live
+here, and the great European houses have either fallen into decay or
+been converted into magazines and warehouses. The European inhabitants
+live principally in the new town, which was gradually formed by the
+integration of Weltevreden (_Well-content_), Molenvliet (_Mill-stream_),
+Rijswijk (_Rice-town_), Noordwijk (_North-town_), Koningsplein (_King's
+square_), and other suburban villages or stations. The situation of this
+modern part is higher and healthier. The imitation of Dutch arrangements
+has been avoided, and the natural advantages of the situation and
+climate have been turned to account. The houses, generally of a single
+storey or two at most, are frequently separated from each other by rows
+of trees. Batavia contains numerous buildings connected with the civil
+and military organisation of the government. The governor-general's
+palace and the government buildings are the most important of these; in
+the district of Weltevreden are also the barracks, and the artillery
+school, as well as the military and civil hospital, and not far off is
+the Frederik-Hendrik citadel built in 1837. Farther inland, at Meester
+Cornelis, are barracks and a school for under-officers. The
+Koningsplein is a large open square surrounded by mansions of the
+wealthier classes. Noordwijk is principally inhabited by lesser
+merchants and subordinate officials. There is an orphan asylum in the
+district of Parapatna. Batavia has various educational and scientific
+institutions of note. In 1851 the government founded a medical school
+for Javanese, and in 1860 the "Gymnasium William III." in which a
+comprehensive education is bestowed. A society of arts and sciences
+(which possesses an excellent museum) was established in 1778, a royal
+physical society in 1850, and a society for the promotion of industry
+and agriculture in 1853. In addition to the _Transactions_ of these
+societies--many of which contain valuable contributions to their
+respective departments in their relation to the East Indies--a
+considerable number of publications are issued in Batavia. Among
+miscellaneous buildings of importance may be mentioned the public hall
+known as the _Harmonie_, the theatre, club-house and several fine
+hotels.
+
+The population of Batavia is varied, the Dutch residents being a
+comparatively small class, and greatly intermixed with Portuguese and
+Malays. Here are found members of the different Indian nations,
+originally slaves; Arabs, who are principally engaged in navigation, but
+also trade in gold and precious stones; Javanese, who are cultivators;
+and Malays, chiefly boatmen and sailors, and adherents of Mahommedanism.
+The Chinese are both numerous and industrious. They were long greatly
+oppressed by the Dutch government, and in 1740 they were massacred to
+the number of 12,000.
+
+Batavia Bay is rendered secure by a number of islands at its mouth, but
+grows very shallow towards the shore. The construction of the new
+harbour at Tanjong Priok, to the east of the old one, was therefore of
+the first importance. The works, begun in 1877 and completed in 1886,
+connect the town with Tanjong ("cape") Priok by a canal, and include an
+outer port formed by two breakwaters, 6072 ft. long, with a width at
+entrance of 408 ft. and a depth of 27 ft. throughout. The inner port has
+3282 ft. of quayage; its length is 3609 ft., breadth 573 ft. and depth
+24 ft. There is also a coal dock, and the port has railway and roadway
+connexion with Batavia. The river Jilivong is navigable 2 m. inland for
+vessels of 30 or 40 tons, but the entrance is narrow, and requires
+continual attention to keep it open.
+
+The exports from Batavia to the other islands of the archipelago, and to
+the ports in the Malay Peninsula, are rice, sago, coffee, sugar, salt,
+oil, tobacco, teak timber and planks, Java cloths, brass wares, &c., and
+European, Indian and Chinese goods. The produce of the Eastern Islands
+is also collected at its ports for re-exportation to India, China and
+Europe--namely, gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benzoin and other drugs;
+edible bird-nests, trepang, rattans, beeswax, tortoise-shell, and dyeing
+woods from Borneo and Sumatra; tin from Banka; spices from the Moluccas;
+fine cloths from Celebes and Bali; and pepper from Sumatra. From Bengal
+are imported opium, drugs and cloths; from China, teas, raw silk, silk
+piece-goods, coarse China wares, paper, and innumerable smaller articles
+for the Chinese settlers. The tonnage of vessels clearing from Batavia
+to countries beyond the archipelago had increased from 879,000 tons in
+1887 to nearly 1,500,000 tons by the end of the century. The old and new
+towns are connected by steam tramways. The Batavia-Buitenzorg railway
+passes the new town, thus connecting it with the main railway which
+crosses the island from west to east.
+
+Almost the only manufactures of any importance are the distillation of
+arrack, which is principally carried on by Chinese, the burning of lime
+and bricks, and the making of pottery. The principal establishment for
+monetary transactions is the Java Bank, established in 1828 with a
+capital of £500,000.
+
+Batavia owes its origin to the Dutch governor-general Pieter Both, who
+in 1610 established a factory at Jacatra (which had been built on the
+ruins of the old Javanese town of Sunda Calappa), and to his successor,
+Jan Pieters Coen, who in 1619 founded in its stead the present city,
+which soon acquired a flourishing trade and increased in importance. In
+1699 Batavia was visited by a terrible earthquake, and the streams were
+choked by the mud from the volcano of Gunong Salak; they overflowed the
+surrounding country and made it a swamp, by which the climate was so
+affected that the city became notorious for its unhealthiness, and was
+in great danger of being altogether abandoned. In the twenty-two years
+from 1730 to 1752, 1,100,000 deaths are said to have been recorded.
+General Daendels, who was governor from 1808 to 1811, caused the
+ramparts of the town to be demolished, and began to form the nucleus of
+a new city at Weltevreden. By 1816 nearly all the Europeans had left the
+old town. In 1811 a British armament was sent against the Dutch
+settlements in Java, which had been incorporated by France, and to this
+force Batavia surrendered on the 8th of August. It was restored,
+however, to the Dutch by the treaty of 1814.
+
+
+
+
+BATAVIA, a village and the county-seat of Genesee county, New York,
+U.S.A., about 36 m. N.E. of Buffalo, on the Tonawanda Creek. Pop. (1890)
+7221; (1900) 9180, of whom 1527 were foreign-born; (1910), 11,613.
+Batavia is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Erie, and
+the Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of the New York State School
+for the Blind, and of St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic), and has a
+historical museum, housed in the Old Holland Land Office (1804),
+containing a large collection of relics of the early days of New York,
+and a memorial library erected in 1889 in memory of a son by Mary E.
+Richmond, the widow of Dean Richmond; the building contained in 1908
+more than 14,000 volumes. The public schools are excellent; in them in
+1898 Superintendent John Kennedy (b. 1846) introduced the method of
+individual instruction now known as the "Batavia scheme," under which in
+rooms of more than fifty pupils there is, besides the class teacher, an
+"individual" teacher who helps backward children in their studies. Among
+Batavia's manufactures are harvesters, ploughs, threshers and other
+agricultural implements, firearms, rubber tires, shoes, shell goods,
+paper-boxes and inside woodwork. In 1905 the city's factory products
+were valued at $3,589,406, an increase of 39.5% over their value in
+1900. Batavia was laid out in 1801 by Joseph Ellicott (1760-1826), the
+engineer who had been engaged in surveying the land known as the
+"Holland Purchase," of which Batavia was a part. The village was
+incorporated in 1823. Here lived William Morgan, whose supposed murder
+(1826) by members of the Masonic order led to the organization of the
+Anti-Masonic party. Batavia was the home during his last years of Dean
+Richmond (1804-1866), a capitalist, a successful shipper and wholesaler
+of farm produce, vice-president (1853-1864) and president (1864-1866) of
+the New York Central railway, and a prominent leader of the Democratic
+party in New York state.
+
+  See O. Turner, _History of the Holland Purchase_ (Buffalo, 1850).
+
+
+
+
+BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM (1812-1875), American actor and manager, was
+born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 6th of December 1812. He was
+intended for an engineer, but in 1832 became an actor, playing with
+Ellen Tree (afterwards Mrs Charles Kean) in juvenile leads. In 1855 he
+was manager of the St Louis theatre for a few years and in 1859 moved to
+New York. In 1866 he was manager for his daughter Kate, and in 1871
+returned to London, where he took the Lyceum theatre. Here he engaged
+Henry Irving, presenting him first in _The Bells_, with great success.
+He died on the 22nd of March 1875.
+
+His wife, SIDNEY FRANCES (1823-1881), daughter of Joseph Cowell, an
+English actor who had settled in America, was also an actress and the
+author of several popular plays, in one of which, _Self_ (1857), she and
+her husband made a great success. After her husband's death Mrs Bateman
+continued to manage the Lyceum till 1875. She later took the Sadler's
+Wells theatre, which she managed until her death on the 13th of January
+1881. She was the first to bring to England an entire American company
+with an American play, Joaquin Miller's _The Danites_.
+
+Mr and Mrs Bateman had eight children, three of the four daughters being
+educated for the stage. The two oldest, Kate Josephine (b. 1842), and
+Ellen (b. 1845), known as the "Bateman children," began their theatrical
+career at an early age. In 1862 Kate played in New York as Juliet and
+Lady Macbeth, and in 1863 had a great success in London as Leah in
+Augustin Daly's adaptation of Mosenthal's _Deborah_. In 1866 she married
+George Crowe, but returned to the stage in 1868, playing later as Lady
+Macbeth with Henry Irving, and in 1875 in the title-part of Tennyson's
+_Queen Mary_. When her mother opened the Sadler's Wells theatre in 1879
+Miss Bateman appeared as Helen Macgregor in _Rob Roy_, and in 1881 as
+Margaret Field in Henry Arthur Jones' _His Wife_. Her daughter, Sidney
+Crowe (b. 1871), also became an actress. Virginia Bateman (b. 1854), a
+younger sister of Kate, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, went on the stage as a
+child, and first appeared in London in the title-part of her mother's
+play, _Fanchette_, in 1871. She created a number of important parts
+during several seasons at the Lyceum and elsewhere. She married Edward
+Compton the actor. Another sister was Isabel (b. 1854), well known on
+the London stage.
+
+
+
+
+BATEMENT LIGHTS, in architecture the lights in the upper part of a
+perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of those below.
+
+
+
+
+BATES, HARRY (1850-1899), British sculptor, was born at Stevenage,
+Herts, on the 26th of April 1850. He began his career as a carver's
+assistant, and before beginning the regular study of plastic art he
+passed through a long apprenticeship in architectural decoration. In
+1879 he came to London and entered the Lambeth School of Art, studying
+under Jules Dalou and Rodin, and winning a silver medal in the national
+competition at South Kensington. In 1881 he was admitted to the Royal
+Academy schools, where in 1883 he won the gold medal and the travelling
+scholarship of £200 with his relief of "Socrates teaching the People in
+the Agora," which showed grace of line and harmony of composition. He
+then went to Paris and studied under Rodin. A head and three small
+bronze panels (the "Odyssey,") executed by Bates in Paris, were
+exhibited at the Royal Academy, and selected for purchase by the
+Chantrey trustees; but the selection had to be cancelled because they
+had not been modelled in England. His "Aeneas" (1885), "Homer" (1886),
+three "Psyche" panels and "Rhodope" (1887) all showed marked advance in
+form and dignity; and in 1892, after the exhibition of his vigorously
+designed "Hounds in Leash," Bates was elected A.R.A. This and his
+"Pandora," in marble and ivory, which was bought in the same year for
+the Chantrey Bequest, are now in the Tate Gallery. The portrait-busts of
+Harry Bates are good pieces of realism--strong, yet delicate in
+technique, and excellent in character. His statues have a
+picturesqueness in which the refinement of the sculptor is always felt.
+Among the chief of these are the fanciful "Maharaja of Mysore," somewhat
+overladen with ornament, and the colossal equestrian statue of Lord
+Roberts (1896) upon its important pedestal, girdled with a frieze of
+figures, now set up in Calcutta, and a statue of Queen Victoria for
+Dundee. But perhaps his masterpiece, showing the sculptor's delicate
+fancy and skill in composition, was an allegorical presentment of "Love
+and Life"--a winged male figure in bronze, with a female figure in ivory
+being crowned by the male. Bates died in London on the 30th of January
+1899, his premature death robbing English plastic art of its most
+promising representative at the time. (See SCULPTURE.)
+
+
+
+
+BATES, HENRY WALTER (1825-1892), English naturalist and explorer, was
+born at Leicester on the 8th of February 1825. His father, a
+manufacturing hosier, intended him for business, and for a time the son
+yielded to his wishes, escaping as often as he could into the
+neighbouring country to gratify his love of botany and entomology. In
+1844 he met a congenial spirit in Alfred Russel Wallace, and the result
+was discussion and execution of a plan to explore some then little-known
+region of the globe. The banks of the Amazons was the district chosen,
+and in April 1848 the two friends sailed in a trader for Pará. They had
+little or no money, but hoped to meet their expenses by the sale of
+duplicate specimens. After two years Bates and Wallace agreed to collect
+independently, Wallace taking the Rio Negro and the upper waters of the
+Orinoco, while Bates continued his route up the great river for 1400 m.
+He remained in the country eleven years, during which time he collected
+no fewer than 8000 species of insects new to science. His long residence
+in the tropics, with the privations which it entailed, undermined his
+health. Nor had the exile from home the compensation of freeing him from
+financial cares, which hung heavy on him till he had the good fortune to
+be appointed in 1864 assistant-secretary of the Royal Geographical
+Society, a post which, to the inestimable gain of the society, and the
+advantage of a succession of explorers, to whom he was alike Nestor and
+Mentor, he retained till his death on the 16th of February 1892. Bates
+is best known as the auther of one of the most delightful books of
+travel in the English language, _The Naturalist on the Amazons_ (1863),
+the writing of which, as the correspondence between the two has shown,
+was due to Charles Darwin's persistent urgency. "Bates," wrote Darwin to
+Sir Charles Lyell, "is second only to Humboldt in describing a tropical
+forest." But his most memorable contribution to biological science, and
+more especially to that branch of it which deals with the agencies of
+modification of organisms, was his paper on the "Insect Fauna of the
+Amazon Valley," read before the Linnaean Society in 1861. He therein, as
+Darwin testified, clearly stated and solved the problem of "mimicry," or
+the superficial resemblances between totally different species and the
+likeness between an animal and its surroundings, whereby it evades its
+foes or conceals itself from its prey. Bates's other contributions to
+the literature of science and travel were sparse and fugitive, but he
+edited for several years a periodical of _Illustrated Travels_. A man of
+varied tastes, he devoted the larger part of his leisure to entomology,
+notably to the classification of coleoptera. Of these he left an
+extensive and unique collection, which, fortunately for science, was
+purchased intact by René Oberthur of Rennes.
+
+
+
+
+BATES, JOHN. A famous case in English constitutional history, tried
+before the court of exchequer in November 1606, arose out of the refusal
+of a merchant of the Levant Company, John Bates, to pay an extra duty of
+5s. per cwt. on imported currants levied by the sole authority of the
+crown in addition to the 2s. 6d. granted by the Statute of Tonnage and
+Poundage, on the ground that such an imposition was illegal without the
+sanction of parliament. The unanimous decision of the four barons of the
+exchequer in favour of the crown threatened to establish a precedent
+which, in view of the rapidly increasing foreign trade, would have made
+the king independent of parliament. The judgments of Chief Baron Fleming
+and Baron Clark are preserved. The first declares that "the king's power
+is double, ordinary and absolute, and they have several laws and ends.
+That of the ordinary is for the profit of particular subjects, for the
+execution of civil justice ... in the ordinary courts, and by the
+civilians is nominated _jus privatum_, and with us common law; and these
+laws cannot be changed without parliament.... The absolute power of the
+king is not that which is converted or executed to private uses to the
+benefit of particular persons, but is only that which is applied to the
+general benefit of the people and is _salus populi_; and this power is
+not guided by the rules which direct only at the common law, and is most
+properly named policy or government; and as the constitution of this
+body varieth with the time, so varieth this absolute law, according to
+the wisdom of the king, for the common good; and these being general
+rules, and true as they are, all things done within these rules are
+lawful. The matter in question is material matter of state, and ought to
+be ruled by the rules of policy, and if it be so, the king hath done
+well to execute his extraordinary power. All customs (i.e. duties levied
+at the ports), be they old or new, are no other but the effects and
+issues of trades and commerce with foreign nations; but all commerce and
+affairs with foreigners, all wars and peace, all acceptance and
+admitting for foreign current coin, all parties and treaties whatsoever
+are made by the absolute power of the king; and he who hath power of
+causes hath power also of effects." Baron Clark, in his judgment,
+concurred, declaring that the seaports were the king's ports, and that,
+since foreign merchants were admitted to them only by leave of the
+crown, the crown possessed also the right of fixing the conditions under
+which they should be admitted, including the imposition of a money
+payment. Incidentally, Baron Clark, in reply to the argument that the
+king's right to levy impositions was limited by the statute of
+1370-1371, advanced a principle still more dangerous to constitutional
+liberty. "The statute of the 45 Edward III. cap. 4," he said, "which
+hath been so much urged, that no new imposition shall be imposed upon
+wool-fells, wool or leather, but only the custom and subsidy granted to
+the king--this extends only to the king himself and shall not bind his
+successors, for it is a principal part of the crown of England, which
+the king cannot diminish."
+
+  See _State Trials_ (ed. 1779), xi. pp. 30-32; excerpts in G.W.
+  Prothero, _Statutes and Constitutional Documents_ (Clarendon Press,
+  1894); G.B. Adams and H. Morse Stephens, _Select Documents of Eng.
+  Const. Hist._ (New York, 1901); cf. T.P. Taswell-Langmead, _Eng.
+  Const. Hist._ (London, 1905), p. 393.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+BATES, JOSHUA (1788-1864), American financier, was born in Weymouth,
+Massachusetts, on the 10th of October 1788, of an old Massachusetts
+family prominent in colonial affairs. After several winters' schooling
+in his native town, he entered the counting-house of William Gray & Son
+in Boston. In 1809 he began business on his own account, but failed
+during the War of 1812 and again became associated with the Grays, then
+the largest shipowners in America, by whom a few years later he was sent
+to London in charge of their European business. There he came into
+relations with the Barings, and in 1826 formed a partnership with John,
+a son of Sir Thomas Baring. Two years later both partners were admitted
+to the firm of Baring Brothers & Company, of which Bates eventually
+became senior partner, occupying in consequence an influential position
+in the British financial world. In 1853-1854 he acted with rare
+impartiality and justice as umpire of the international commission
+appointed to settle claims growing out of the War of 1812. In 1852-1855
+he contributed $100,000 in books and in cash for a public library in
+Boston, the money to be invested and the annual income to be applied to
+the purchase of books. Upon his death the "upper hall," or main
+reference-room (opened in 1861) in the building erected in 1858 by the
+order of the library trustees, was named Bates Hall; and upon the
+opening of the new building in 1895 this name was transferred to its
+principal reading-room, one of the finest library halls in the world.
+During the Civil War Bates's sympathies were strongly with the Union,
+and besides aiding the United States government fiscal agents in various
+ways, he used his influence to prevent the raising of loans for the
+Confederacy. He died in London on the 24th of September 1864.
+
+  See _Memorial of Joshua Bates_ (Boston, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+BATES, WILLIAM (1625-1699), English nonconformist divine, was born in
+London in November 1625. He was admitted to Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
+and removed thence to King's College in 1644. Of Presbyterian belief, he
+held the rich living of St Dunstan's-in-the-West, London. He was one of
+the commissioners at the conference in the Savoy, for reviewing the
+public liturgy, and was concerned in drawing up the exceptions to the
+Book of Common Prayer. Notwithstanding this he was appointed chaplain to
+Charles II., and was offered the deanery of Lichfield and Coventry, but
+he came out in 1662 as one of the 2000 ejected ministers. Bates was of
+an amiable character, and enjoyed the friendship of the lord-keeper
+Bridgeman, the lord-chancellor Finch, the earl of Nottingham and
+Archbishop Tillotson. With other moderate churchmen he made several
+efforts towards a comprehensive settlement, but the bishops were
+uncompromising. He addressed William and Mary on their accession in
+behalf of the dissenters. After some years of pastoral service at
+Hackney he died there on the 14th of July 1699. Bates published _Select
+Lives of Illustrious and Pious Persons_ in Latin; and after his death
+all his works, except this, were printed in 1 vol. fol.; again in 1723;
+and in 4 vols. 8vo in 1815. They treat of practical theology and include
+_Considerations on the Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul_
+(1676), _Four Last Things_ (1691), _Spiritual Perfection_ (1699).
+
+
+
+
+BATESON (BATSON or BETSON), THOMAS, an English writer of madrigals in
+the early 17th century. He is said to have been organist of Chester
+cathedral in 1599, and is believed to have been the first musical
+graduate of Trinity College, Dublin. He is known to have written church
+music, but his fame rests on his madrigals, which give him an important
+place among Elizabethan composers. He published a set of madrigals in
+1604 and a second set in 1618, and both collections have been reprinted
+in recent years. He died in 1630.
+
+
+
+
+BATH, THOMAS THYNNE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1734-1796), English politician,
+was the elder son of Thomas Thynne, 2nd Viscount Weymouth (1710-1751),
+and the great-grandnephew of Thomas Thynne (c. 1640-1714), the friend of
+Bishop Ken, who was created Baron Thynne and Viscount Weymouth in 1682.
+His mother was Louisa (d. 1736), daughter of John Carteret, 1st Earl
+Granville, and a descendant of the family of Granville who held the
+earldom of Bath from 1661 to 1711. The Thynnes are descended from Sir
+John Thynne, the builder of Longleat, the splendid seat of the family in
+Wiltshire. Sir John, owed his wealth and position to the favour of his
+master, the protector Somerset; he was comptroller of the household of
+the princess Elizabeth, and was a person of some importance after the
+princess became queen. He died in April 1580. Another famous member of
+this family was Thomas Thynne (1648-1682), called on account of his
+wealth "Tom of Ten Thousand." He is celebrated by Dryden as Issachar in
+_Absalom and Achitophel_, and was murdered in London by some Swedes in
+February 1682.
+
+Born on the 13th of September 1734, Thomas Thynne succeeded, his father
+as 3rd Viscount Weymouth in January 1751, and was lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland for a short time during 1765, although he never visited that
+country. Having, however, become prominent in English politics he was
+appointed secretary of state for the northern department in January
+1768; he acted with great promptitude during the unrest caused by John
+Wilkes and the Middlesex election of 1768. He was then attacked and
+libelled by Wilkes, who was consequently expelled from the House of
+Commons. Before the close of 1768 he was transferred, from the northern
+to the southern department, but he resigned in December 1770 in the
+midst of the dispute with Spain over the possession of the Falkland
+Islands. In November 1775 Weymouth returned to his former office of
+secretary for the southern department, undertaking in addition the
+duties attached to the northern department for a few months in 1779, but
+he resigned both positions in the autumn of this year. In 1789 he was
+created marquess of Bath, and he died on the 19th of November 1796.
+Weymouth was a man of considerable ability especially as a speaker, but
+according to more modern standards his habits were very coarse,
+resembling those of his friend and frequent companion, Charles James
+Fox. Horace Walpole refers frequently to his idleness and his
+drunkenness, and in early life at least "his great fortune he had
+damaged by such profuse play, that his house was often full of
+bailiffs." He married Elizabeth (d. 1825), daughter of William Bentinck,
+2nd duke of Portland, by whom he had three sons and ten daughters. His
+eldest son Thomas (1765-1837) succeeded to his titles, while the two
+younger ones, George (1770-1838) and John (1772-1849), succeeded in turn
+to the barony of Carteret of Hawnes, which came to them from their
+uncle, Henry Frederick Thynne (1735-1826). Weymouth's great-grandson,
+John Alexander, 4th marquess of Bath (1831-1896), the author of
+_Observations on Bulgarian affairs_ (1880), was succeeded as 5th
+marquess by his son Thomas Henry (b. 1862).
+
+  See B. Botfield, _Stemmata Botevilliana_ (1858).
+
+
+
+
+BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY, 1ST EARL OF (1684-1764), generally known by the
+surname of PULTENEY, English politician, descended from an ancient
+family of Leicestershire, was the son of William Pulteney by his first
+wife, Mary Floyd, and was born in April 1684. The boy was sent to
+Westminster school, and from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford,
+matriculating the 31st of October 1700. At these institutions he
+acquired his deep classical knowledge. On leaving Oxford he made the
+usual tour on the continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by
+Henry Guy (secretary of the treasury, 1679-1688, and June 1691 to
+February 1695) for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at his death on
+the 23rd of February 1710 inherited an estate of £500 a year and
+£40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him without a break until 1734.
+Throughout the reign of Queen Anne William Pulteney played a prominent
+part in the struggles of the Whigs, and on the prosecution of
+Sacheverell he exerted himself with great zeal against that violent
+divine. When the victorious Tories sent his friend Robert Walpole to the
+Tower in 1712, Pulteney championed his cause in the House of Commons and
+with the leading Whigs Visited him in his prison-chamber. He held the
+post of secretary of war from 1714 to 1717 in the first ministry of
+George I., and when the committee of secrecy on the Utrecht treaty was
+formed in April 1715 the list included the flame of William Pulteney.
+Two years later (6th of July 1716), he became one of the privy council.
+When Townshend was dismissed, in April 1717, from his post of
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Walpole resigned his places, they were
+followed in their retirement by Pulteney. The crash of the South Sea
+Company restored Walpole to the highest position, but all that he
+offered to Pulteney was a peerage. The offer was rejected, but in May
+1723 Pulteney stooped to accept the lucrative but insignificant post of
+cofferer of the household. In this obscure position he was content for
+some time to await the future; but when he found himself neglected he
+opposed the proposition of Walpole to discharge the debts of the civil
+list, and in April 1725 was dismissed from his sinecure. From the day of
+his dismissal to that of his ultimate triumph Pulteney remained in
+opposition, and, although Sir Robert Walpole attempted in 1730 to
+conciliate him by the offer of Townshend's place and of a peerage, all
+his overtures were spurned. Pulteney's resentment was not confined to
+his speeches in parliament. With Bolingbroke he set on foot in December
+1726 the well-known periodical called the _Craftsman_, and in its pages
+the minister was incessantly denounced for many years. Lord Hervey
+published an attack on the _Craftsman_, and Pulteney, either openly or
+behind the person of Amhurst, its editor, replied to the attack. Whether
+the question at issue was the civil list, the excise, the income of the
+prince of Wales, or the state of domestic affairs Pulteney was ready
+with a pamphlet, and the minister or one of his friends came out with a
+reply. For his "Proper reply to a late scurrilous libel" (_Craftsman_,
+1731), an answer to "Sedition and defamation displayed," he was
+challenged to a duel by Lord Hervey; for another, "An answer to one part
+of an infamous libel entitled remarks on the _Craftsman's_ indication of
+his two honourable patrons," he was in July 1731 struck off the roll of
+privy councillors and dismissed from the commission of the peace in
+several counties. In print Pulteney was inferior to Bolingbroke alone
+among the antagonists of Walpole, but in parliament, from which St John
+was excluded, he excelled all his comrades. When the sinking fund was
+appropriated in 1733 his voice was the foremost in denunciation; when
+the excise scheme in the same year was stirring popular feeling to its
+lowest depths the passion of the multitude broke out in his oratory.
+Through Walpole's prudent withdrawal of the latter measure the fall, of
+his ministry was averted. Bolingbroke withdrew to France on the
+suggestion, it is said, of Pulteney, and the opposition was weakened by
+the dissensions of the leaders.
+
+From the general election of 1734 until his elevation to the peerage
+Pulteney sat for Middlesex. For some years after this election the
+minister's assailants made little progress in their attack, but in 1738
+the troubles with Spain supplied them with the opportunity which they
+desired. Walpole long argued for peace, but he was feebly supported in
+his own cabinet, and the frenzy of the people for War knew no bounds. In
+an evil moment for his own reputation he consented to remain in office
+and to gratify popular passion with a war against Spain. His downfall
+was not long deferred. War was declared in 1739; a new parliament was
+summoned in the summer of 1741, and over the divisions on the election
+petitions the ministry of Walpole fell to pieces. The task of forming
+the new administration was after some delay entrusted to Pulteney, who
+weakly offered the post of first lord of the treasury to that harmless
+politician the earl of Wilmington, and contented himself with a seat in
+the cabinet and a peerage thinking that by this action he would preserve
+his reputation for consistency in disdaining office and yet retain his
+supremacy in the ministry. At this act popular feeling broke out into
+open indignation, and from the moment of his elevation to the Upper
+House Pulteney's influence dwindled to nothing. Horace Walpole asserts
+that when Pulteney wished to recall his desire for a peerage it was
+forced upon him through the ex-minister's advice by the king, and
+another chronicler of the times records that when victor and vanquished
+met in the House of Lords, the one as Lord Orford, the other as the earl
+of Bath, the remark was made by the exulting Orford: "Here we are, my
+lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England." On the 14th of
+July 1742 Pulteney was created Baron Pulteney of Hedon, Co. York,
+Viscount Pulteney of Wrington, Co. Somerset, and earl of Bath. On the
+20th of February he had been restored to his rank in the privy council.
+At Wilmington's death in 1743 he made application to the king for the
+post of first lord of the treasury, only to find that it had been
+conferred on Henry Pelham. For two days, 10th-12th February 1746, he was
+at the head of a ministry, but in "48 hours, three quarters, seven
+minutes, and eleven seconds" it collapsed. An occasional pamphlet and an
+infrequent speech were afterwards the sole fruits of Lord Bath's
+talents. His praises whilst in retirement have been sung by two bishops,
+Zachary Pearce and Thomas Newton. He died on the 7th of July 1764, and
+was buried on the 17th of July in his own vault in Islip chapel,
+Westminster Abbey. He married on the 27th of December 1714 Anna Maria,
+daughter and co-heiress of John Gumley of Isleworth, commissary-general
+to the army who was often satirized by the wits of the day (_Notes and
+Queries_, 3rd S. ii. 402-403, iii. 490). She died on the 14th of
+September 1758, and their only son William died unmarried at Madrid on
+the 12th of February 1763. Pulteney's vast fortune came in 1767 to
+William Johnstone of Dumfries (third son of Sir James Johnstone), who
+had married Frances, daughter and co-heiress of his cousin, Daniel
+Pulteney, a bitter antagonist of Walpole in parliament, and had taken
+the name of Pulteney.
+
+Pulteney's eloquence was keen and incisive, sparkling with vivacity and
+with allusions drawn from the literature of his own country and of Rome.
+Of business he was never fond, and the loss in 1734 of his trusted
+friend John Merrill, who had supplied the qualities which he lacked, was
+feelingly lamented by him in a letter to Swift. His chief weakness was a
+passion for money. Lord Bath has left no trace of the possession of
+practical statesmanship.
+
+
+
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Wm. Coxe's _Memoirs_ of Sir Robert Walpole (1816), and
+  of Henry Pelham (1829); John Morley's _Walpole_ (1889); Walter
+  Sichel's _Bolingbroke_ (1901-1902); A. Ballantyne's _Carteret_ (1887);
+  _Eng. Hist. Rev._ iv. 749-753, and the general political memoirs of
+  the time.     (W. P. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BATH, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and health
+resort of Somersetshire, England, on the Great Western, Midland, and
+Somerset & Dorset railways, 107½ m. W. by S. of London. Pop. (1901)
+49,839. Its terraces and crescents, built mostly of grey freestone,
+cover the slopes and heights of the abrupt hills which rise like an
+amphitheatre above the winding valley of the river Avon. The climate is
+pleasant, and the city, standing amidst fine scenery, itself possesses a
+number of beautiful walks and gardens. Jointly with Wells, it is an
+episcopal see of the Church of England. The abbey church of St Peter and
+St Paul occupies the site of earlier Saxon and Norman churches, founded
+in connexion with a 7th-century convent, which was transferred for a
+time to a body of secular canons, and from about 970 until the
+Dissolution, to Benedictine monks. The present cruciform building dates
+from the 15th century, being a singularly pure and ornate example of
+late Perpendicular work. From the number of its windows, it has been
+called "The Lantern of the West," and especially noteworthy is the great
+west window, with seven lights, and flanking turrets on which are carved
+figures of the angels ascending and descending on Jacob's Ladder. Within
+are the tombs of James Quin, the actor, with an epitaph by Garrick;
+Richard Nash; Thomas Malthus the economist; William Broome the poet, and
+many others. Some of the monuments are the work of Bacon, Flaxman and
+Chantrey. Slight traces of the previous Norman building remain. There
+are many other churches and chapels in Bath, the oldest being that of St
+Thomas of Canterbury, and one of the most interesting St Swithin's,
+which contains the tombs of Christopher Anstey and Madame d'Arblay.
+Among educational institutions may be mentioned the free grammar school,
+founded by Edward VI., the Wesleyan College, originally established at
+Bristol by John Wesley, and the Roman Catholic College. The hospital of
+St John was founded in the 12th century. The public buildings include a
+guild hall, assembly rooms, Jubilee hall, art gallery and library,
+museum, literary and scientific institute, and theatres. In the populous
+suburb of Twerton (pop. 11,098), there are lias quarries, and bricks and
+woollen cloths are manufactured. The parliamentary borough returns two
+members. The city is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
+councillors. Area, 3382 acres.
+
+The mineral springs supply several distinct establishments. The
+temperature varies in the different springs from 117° to 120° F, and the
+specific gravity of the hot baths is 1.002. The principal substances in
+solution are calcium and sodium sulphates, and sodium and magnesium
+chlorides. Traces of radium have been revealed, and the gases contain
+argon and helium. The waters are very beneficial in cases of rheumatism,
+gout, neuralgia, sciatica, diseases of the liver, and cutaneous and
+scrofulous affections. The highest archaeological interest, moreover,
+attaches to the baths in view of the magnificent Roman remains
+testifying to the early recognition of the value of the waters. It may
+here be noted that two distinct legends ascribe the foundation of Bath
+to a British king Bladud. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth this monarch
+gave its healing power to the water by his spells. According to a later
+version, he was banished as a leper, and made the discovery leading to
+his cure, and to the origin of Bath, whilst wandering as a swineherd in
+863 B.C. This, at least, is the date inscribed on a statue of Bladud
+placed in the Pump Room in 1699. There is, however, no real evidence of
+a British settlement. By the Romans Bath was named _Aquae Sulis_, the
+name indicating the dedication to a British goddess Sul or Sulis, whom
+the Romans considered the counterpart of Minerva. There were a temple of
+the goddess and a few houses for priests, officials and visitors,
+besides the large baths, and the place was apparently walled; but it did
+not contain a large resident population. Many relics have been
+disinterred, such as altars, inscriptions, fragments of stone carvings
+and figures, Samian ware, and others. The chief buildings were
+apparently grouped near the later abbey churchyard, and included,
+besides two temples, a magnificent bath, discovered when the duke of
+Kingston pulled down the old priory in 1755 to form the Kingston Baths.
+Successive excavations have rendered accessible a remarkable series of
+remains, including several baths, a _sudarium_, and conduits. The main
+bath still receives its water (now for the purpose of cooling) through
+the original conduit. The fragmentary colonnade surrounding this
+magnificent relic still supports the street and buildings beneath which
+it lies, the Roman foundations having been left untouched. The remains
+of the bath and of the temple are among the most striking Roman
+antiquities in western Europe.
+
+Bath (variously known as Achemann, Hat Bathun, Bathonea, Batha) was a
+place of note in Saxon times, King Edgar being crowned there in 973. It
+was a royal borough governed by a reeve, with a burg mote in 907.
+Richard I. granted the first charter in 1189, which allowed the same
+privileges as Winchester to the members of the merchant gild. This was
+confirmed by Henry III. in 1236, 1247 and 1256, by charters giving the
+burgesses of Bath the right to elect coroners, with freedom from arrest
+for the debts of others, and from the interference of sheriffs or kings'
+bailiffs. Charters were granted by succeeding kings in 1312, 1322, 1341,
+1382, 1399, 1414, 1432, 1447, 1466 and 1545. The existence of a
+corporation being assumed in the earliest royal charter, and a common
+seal having been used since 1249, there was no formal incorporation of
+Bath until the charter of 1590, 1794 and 1835. Parliamentary
+representation began in 1297. Various fairs were granted to Bath, to be
+held on the 29th of August, the 9th of August, the 30th of June to the
+8th of July (called Cherry Fair), the 1st of February to the 6th of
+February, in 1275, 1305, 1325 and 1545 respectively. Fairs are now held
+on the 4th of February and on the Monday after the 9th of December.
+These fairs were flourishing centres of the cloth trade in the middle
+ages, but this industry has long departed. Bath "beaver," however, was
+known throughout England, and Chaucer makes his "Wife of Bath" excel the
+cloth-weavers "of Ypres and of Gaunt." The golden age of Bath began in
+the 18th century, and is linked with the work of the two architects Wood
+(both named John), of Ralph Allen, their patron, and of Richard Nash,
+master of the ceremonies. Previously the baths had been ill-kept, the
+lodging poor, the streets beset by footpads. All this was changed by the
+architectural scheme, including Queen Square, the Royal Crescent and the
+North and South Parades, which was chiefly designed by the elder Wood,
+and chiefly executed by his son. Instead of the booth which did duty as
+a gaming club and chocolate house, Nash provided the assembly rooms
+which figure largely in the pages of Fielding, Smollett, Burney, Dickens
+and their contemporaries. Anstey published his _New Bath Guide_ to
+ridicule the laws of taste which "Beau" Nash dictated; but two royal
+visits, in 1734 and 1738, established Bath as a centre of English
+fashion. The weekly markets granted on Wednesday and Saturday in 1305
+are still held.
+
+  See R. Warner, _History and Antiquities of Bath_ (1801); C.E. Davis,
+  _Ancient Landmarks of Bath; The Mineral Baths of Bath_ (1883);
+  _Excavations of Roman Baths_ (1895), and _The Saxon Cross_ (1898); Sir
+  G. Jackson, _Archives of Bath_ (2 vols., 1873); R.E.M. Peach, _Rambles
+  about Bath_ (1875), _Bath Old and New_ (1888), _Collections of Books
+  belonging to the City_ (1893), &c.; H. Scarth, _Aquae Solis, or
+  Notices of Roman Bath_ (1864); A. Barbeau, _Life and Letters at Bath
+  in the 18th Century_ (from the French _Une Ville d'eaux anglaise au
+  XVIII^e siècle_) (London, 1904); A.H. King, _Charter of Bath
+  Corporation_.
+
+
+
+
+BATH, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Sagadahoc county,
+Maine, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river, 12 m. from its
+mouth and 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 8723; (1900) 10,477, of
+whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 9396. It is served by the
+Maine Central railway, by steamboat lines to Boston, and by inter-urban
+electric railway. The city covers an area of about 9 sq. m., and extends
+along the W. bank of the river for about 5 m.; the business district is
+only a few feet above sea-level, but most of the residences are on
+higher ground. The streets are well shaded, chiefly with elms. At Bath
+are the state military and naval orphan asylum, two homes for the aged,
+and a soldiers' monument. Bath has a good harbour and its principal
+industry is the building of ships, both of wood and of iron and steel,
+several vessels of the United States navy have been built here. In 1905
+three-fourths of the city's wage-earners were employed in this industry.
+Bath also manufactures lumber, iron and brass goods, and has a
+considerable trade in ice, coal, lumber and iron and steel. First
+settled about 1660, Bath was a part of Georgetown until 1781, when it
+was incorporated as a separate town; in 1789 it was made a port of
+entry, and in 1847 was chartered as a city.
+
+
+
+
+BATH-CHAIR, a vehicle with a folding hood, which can be used open or
+closed, and a glass front, mounted on three or four wheels and drawn or
+pushed by hand. If required to be drawn by a donkey or small pony it is
+then mounted on four wheels, with the usual turning arrangement. James
+Heath, of Bath, who flourished rather before the middle of the 18th
+century, was the inventor.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+BATHGATE, a municipal and police burgh of Linlithgowshire, Scotland, 19
+m. W. by S. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 7549.
+The district is rich in limestone, coal, ironstone, shale and fireclay,
+all of which are worked. Silver also was once mined. The manufactures
+include paraffin, paper, glass, chemicals, flour and whisky, and
+freestone is quarried. The burgh is a considerable centre for
+agricultural produce. Bathgate became a burgh of barony in 1824 and a
+police burgh in 1865. Although it was not until the development of its
+mineral wealth that it attained to commercial importance, it is a place
+of some antiquity, and formed the dowry of Marjory, Robert Bruce's
+daughter, who married Walter, the hereditary steward of Scotland, in
+1315.
+
+
+
+
+BATHOLITE (from Gr. [Greek: bothus], deep, and [Greek: lithus], a
+stone), in geology, a term given to certain intrusive rock masses.
+Especially in districts which are composed principally of rocks
+belonging to the older geological systems extensive areas of granite
+frequently occur. By their relations to the strata around them, it is
+clear that these granites have been forced into their present positions
+in a liquid state, and under great pressure. The bedding planes of
+stratified rocks are wedged apart and tongues of granite have been
+injected into them, while cracks have been opened up and filled with
+intrusions in the shape of igneous veins. Great masses of the strata
+which the granite has invaded are often floated off, and are found lying
+in the heart of the granite much altered by the heat to which they have
+been exposed, and traversed by the igneous rock in ramifying threads.
+Such granite intrusions are generally known as bosses from their rounded
+surfaces, and the frequency with which they form flattish dome-shaped
+hills, rising above the older rocks surrounding them. At one time many
+geologists held that in certain situations the granite had arisen from
+the complete fusion and transformation of the stratified rocks over a
+limited area of intense metamorphism. The chemical no less than the
+structural relations of the two sets of rocks, however, preclude the
+acceptance of this hypothesis. Obviously the granite is an intruder
+which has welled up from below, and has cooled gradually, and solidified
+in its present situation.
+
+Regarding the mechanism of this process there are two theories which
+hold the field, each having a large number of supporters. One school
+considers that they are mostly "batholites" or conical masses rising
+from great depths and eating up the strata which lie above and around
+them. The frequency of inclusions of the surrounding rocks, their
+rounded shapes indicating that they have been partly dissolved by the
+igneous magma, the intense alteration which they have undergone pointing
+to a state approaching actual fusion, the extensive changes induced in
+the rocks which adjoin the granite, the abundance of veins, and the
+unusual modifications of the granite which occur where it comes in
+contact with the adjacent strata, are adduced as evidence that there has
+been absorption and digestion of the country rock by the intrusive mass.
+These views are in favour especially in France; and instances are cited
+in which as the margins of the granite are approached diorites and other
+rocks make their appearance, which are ascribed to the effect which
+admixture with dissolved sedimentary material has had on the composition
+of the granite magma; at the same time the schists have been permeated
+with felspar from the igneous rocks, and are said to have been
+felspathized.
+
+The opponents of this theory hold these granitic masses to be
+"laccolites" (Gr. [Greek: lakkos], a cistern), or great cake-shaped
+injections of molten rock, which have been pressed from below into
+planes of weakness in the upper portions of the earth's crust, taking
+the lines of least resistance, and owing their shape to the varying
+flexibility of the strata they penetrated. The modifications of the
+granite are ascribed to magmatic segregation (chemical and physical
+processes which occasioned diffusion of certain components towards the
+cooling surfaces). Absorption of country rock is held to be unimportant
+in amount, and insufficient to account for the great spaces in the
+schists which are occupied by the granite. Those who support this theory
+leave the question of the ultimate source of the granite unanswered, but
+consider that it is of deep-seated origin, and the bosses which now
+appear at the surface are only comparatively superficial manifestations.
+
+The bulk of the evidence is in favour of the laccolitic theory; in fact
+it has been clearly demonstrated in many important cases. Still it is
+equally clear that many granites are not merely passive injections, but
+have assimilated much foreign rock. Possibly much depends on the
+chemical composition of the respective masses, and on the depths and
+temperatures at which the intrusion took place. Increase of pressure and
+of temperature, which we know to take place at great depths, would
+stimulate resorption of sedimentary material, and by retarding cooling
+would allow time for dissolved foreign substances to diffuse widely
+through the magma.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+BATHONIAN SERIES, in geology. The typical Bathonian is the Great Oolite
+series of England, and the name was derived from the "Bath Oolite," so
+extensively mined and quarried in the vicinity of that city, where the
+principal strata were first studied by W. Smith. The term was first used
+by J. d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1843 (_Precis Geol_.) as a synonym for
+"Dogger"; but it was limited in 1849 by A. d'Orbigny (_Pal. Franc. Jur_.
+i. p. 607). In 1864 Mayer-Eymar (_Tabl. Synchron_.) used the word
+"Bathien" = Bajocian + Bathonian (sen. str.). According to English
+practice, the Bathonian includes the following formations in descending
+order: Cornbrash, Forest Marble with Bradford Clay, Great or Bath
+Oolite, Stonesfield Slate and Fullers' Earth. (The Fullers' Earth is
+sometimes regarded as constituting a separate stage, the "Fullonian.")
+The "Bathonien" of some French geologists differs from the English
+Bathonian in that it includes at the base the zone of the ammonite
+_Parkinsonia Parkinsoni_, which in England is placed at the summit of
+the Inferior Oolite. The Bathonian is the equivalent of the upper part
+of the "Dogger" (Middle Jurassic) of Germany, or to the base of the
+Upper Brown Jura (substage "E" of Quenstedt).
+
+Rocks of Bathonian age are well developed in Europe: in the N.W. and
+S.W. oolite limestones are characteristically associated with
+coral-bearing, crinoidal and other varieties, and with certain beds of
+clay. In the N. and N.E., Russia, &c., clays, sandstones and ferruginous
+oolites prevail, some of the last being exploited for iron. They occur
+also in the extreme north of America and in the Arctic regions,
+Greenland, Franz Josef Land, &c.; in Africa, Algeria, German East
+Africa, Madagascar and near the Cape (Enon Beds); in India, Rajputana
+and Gulf of Cutch, and in South America.
+
+The well-known Caen stone of Normandy and "Hauptrogenstein" of Swabia,
+as well as the "Eisenkalk" of N.W. Germany, and "Klaus-Schichten" of the
+Austrian Alps, are of Bathonian age.
+
+  For a general account, see A. de Lapparent, _Traité de géologie_ (5th
+  ed., 1906), vol. ii.; see also the article JURASSIC.     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BÁTHORY, SIGISMUND (ZSIGMOND), (1572-1613), prince of Transylvania, was
+the son of Christopher, prince of Transylvania, and Elizabeth Bocskay,
+and nephew of the great Stephen Báthory. He was elected prince in his
+father's lifetime, but being quite young at his father's death (1581),
+the government was entrusted to a regency. In 1588 he attained his
+majority, and, following the advice of his favourite councillor Alfonso
+Carillo, departed from the traditional policy of Transylvania in its
+best days (when friendly relations with the Porte were maintained as a
+matter of course, in order to counterpoise the ever hostile influence of
+the house of Habsburg), and joined the league of Christian princes
+against the Turk. The obvious danger of such a course caused no small
+anxiety in the principality, and the diet of Torda even went so far as
+to demand a fresh coronation oath from Sigismund, and, on his refusal to
+render it, threatened him with deposition. Ultimately Báthory got the
+better of his opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands
+(1595). Nevertheless, if anybody could have successfully carried out an
+anti-Turkish policy, it was certainly Báthory. He had inherited the
+military genius of his uncle, and his victories astonished contemporary
+Europe. In 1595 he subdued Walachia and annihilated the army of Sinan
+Pasha at Giurgevo (October 28th). The turning-point of his career was
+his separation from his wife, the archduchess Christina of Austria, in
+1599, an event followed by his own abdication the same year, in order
+that he might take orders. It was on this occasion that he offered the
+throne of Transylvania to the emperor Rudolph II., in exchange for the
+duchy of Oppeln. In 1600, however, at the head of an army of Poles and
+Cossacks, he attempted to recover his throne, but was routed by Michael,
+voivode of Moldavia, at Suceava. In February 1601 the diet of
+Klausenburg reinstated him, but again he was driven out by Michael,
+never to return. He died at Prague in 1613. Báthory's indisputable
+genius must have been warped by a strain of madness. His
+incalculableness, his savage cruelty (like most of the princes of his
+house he was a fanatical Catholic and persecutor) and his perpetual
+restlessness point plainly enough to a disordered mind.
+
+  See Ignaz Acsády, _History of the Hungarian State_ (Hung.) vol. ii.,
+  (Budapest, 1904).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BATHOS (Gr. [Greek: bathos]), properly depth, the bottom or lowest part
+of anything. The current usage for an anticlimax, a descent "from the
+sublime to the ridiculous," from the elevated to the commonplace in
+literature or speech, is due to Pope's satire on _Bathos_
+(_Miscellanies_, 1727-1728), "the art of sinking in poetry." The title
+was a travesty of Longinus's essay, _On the Sublime_, [Greek: Peri
+hupsous].
+
+
+
+
+BATHS. In the ordinary acceptation of the word a bath is the immersion
+of the body in a medium different from the ordinary one of atmospheric
+air, which medium is usually common water in some form. In another sense
+it includes the different media that may be used, and the various
+arrangements by which they are applied.
+
+_Ancient Baths._--Bathing, as serving both for cleanliness and for
+pleasure, has been almost instinctively practised by nearly every
+people. The most ancient records mention bathing in the rivers Nile and
+Ganges. From an early period the Jews bathed in running water, used both
+hot and cold baths, and employed oils and ointments. So also did the
+Greeks; their earliest and commonest form of bathing was swimming in
+rivers, and bathing in them was practised by both sexes. Warm baths
+were, according to Homer, used after fatigue or exercise. The Athenians
+appear for a long time to have had only private baths, but afterwards
+they had public ones: the latter seem to have originated among the
+Lacedaemonians, who invented the hot-air bath, at least the form of it
+called after them the _laconicum_. Although the baths of the Greeks were
+not so luxurious as those of some other nations, yet effeminate people
+were accused among them of using warm baths in excess; and the bath
+servants appear to have been rogues and thieves, as in later and larger
+establishments. The Persians must have had handsomely equipped baths,
+for Alexander the Great admired the luxury of the bath of Darius.
+
+But the baths of the Greeks, and probably of all Eastern nations, were
+on a small scale as compared with those which eventually sprang up among
+the Romans. In early times the Romans used after exercise to throw
+themselves into the Tiber. Next, when ample supplies of water were
+brought into the city, large _piscinae_, or cold swimming baths, were
+constructed, the earliest of which appear to have been the _piscina
+publica_ (312 B.C.), near the Circus Maximus, supplied by the Appian
+aqueduct, the _lavacrum_ of Agrippina, and a bath at the end of the
+Clivus Capitolinus. Next, small public as well as private baths were
+built; and with the empire more luxurious forms of bathing were
+introduced, and warm became far more popular than cold baths.
+
+Public baths (_balneae_) were first built in Rome after Clodius brought
+in the supply of water from Praeneste, After that date baths began to be
+common both in Rome and in other Italian cities; and private baths,
+which gradually came into use, were attached to the villas of the
+wealthy citizens. Maecenas was one of the first who built public baths
+at his own expense. After his time each emperor, as he wished to
+ingratiate himself with the people, lavished the revenues of the state
+in the construction of enormous buildings, which not only contained
+suites of bathing apartments, but included gymnasia, and sometimes even
+theatres and libraries. Such enormous establishments went by the name of
+_thermae_. The principal thermae were those of Agrippa 21 B.C., of Nero
+65 A.D., of Titus 81, of Domitian 95, of Commodus 185, of Caracalla 217,
+and still later those of Diocletian 302, and of Constantine. The
+technical skill displayed by the Romans in rendering their walls and the
+sides of reservoirs impervious to moisture, in conveying and heating
+water, and in constructing flues for the conveyance of hot air through
+the walls, was of the highest order.
+
+The Roman baths contained swimming baths, warm baths, baths of hot air,
+and vapour baths. The chief rooms (which in the largest baths appear to
+have been mostly distinct, whereas in smaller baths one chamber was made
+to do duty for more than a single purpose) were the following:--(1) The
+_apodyterium_ or _spoliatorium_, where the bathers undressed; (2) the
+_alipterium_ or _unctuarium_, where oils and ointments were kept
+(although the bathers often brought their own pomades), and where the
+_aliptae_, anointed the bathers; (3) the _frigidarium_, or cool room,
+_cella frigida_, in which usually was the cold bath, the _piscina_ or
+_baptisterium_; (4) the _tepidarium_, a room moderately heated, in which
+the bathers rested for a time, but which was not meant for bathing; (5)
+the _calidarium_ or heating room, over the _hypocaustum_ or furnace;
+this in its commonest arrangement had at one end a warm bath, the
+_alveus_ or _calida lavatio_; at the other end in a sort of alcove was
+(6) the _sudatorium_ or _laconicum_, which usually had a _labrum_ or
+large vessel containing water, with which bathers sprinkled themselves
+to help in rubbing off the perspiration. In the largest baths the
+laconicum was probably a separate chamber, a circular domical room with
+recesses in the sides, and a large opening in the top; but there is no
+well-preserved specimen, unless that at Pisa may be so regarded. In the
+drawing of baths from the thermae of Titus (fig. 1), the laconicum is
+represented as a small cupola rising in a corner of the calidarium. It
+is known that the temperature of the laconicum was regulated by drawing
+up or down a metallic plate or _clypeus_. Some think that this clypeus
+was directly over the flames of the hypocaustum, and that when it was
+withdrawn, the flames must have sprung into the laconicum. Others, and
+apparently they have Vitruvius on their side, think that the clypeus was
+drawn up or down only from the aperture in the roof, and that it
+regulated the temperature simply by giving more or less free exit to the
+hot air. If the laconicum was only one end of the calidarium, it is
+difficult to see how that end of the room was kept so much hotter than
+the rest of it; on the other hand, to have had flames actually issuing
+from the laconicum must have caused smoke and soot, and have been very
+unpleasant. The most usual order in which the rooms were employed seems
+to have been the following, but there does not appear to have been any
+absolute uniformity of practice then, any more than in modern Egyptian
+and Turkish baths. Celsus recommends the bather first to sweat a little
+in the tepidarium with his clothes on, to be anointed there, and then to
+pass into the calidarium; after he has sweated freely there he is not to
+descend into the solium or cold bath, but to have plenty of water poured
+over him from his head,--first warm, then tepid, and then cold
+water--the water being poured longer over his head than on the rest of
+the body; next to be scraped with the strigil, and lastly to be rubbed
+and anointed.
+
+The warmest of the heated rooms, i.e. the calidarium and laconicum, were
+heated directly from the hypocaustum, over which they were built or
+suspended (_suspensura_); while from the hypocaustum tubes of brass, or
+lead, or pottery carried the hot air or vapour to the walls of the other
+rooms. The walls were usually hollow, so that the hot air could readily
+circulate.
+
+The water was heated ingeniously. Close to the furnace, about 4 in. off,
+was placed the calidarium, the copper (_ahenum_) for boiling water, near
+which, with the same interval between them, was the copper for warm
+water, the _tepidarium_, and at the distance of 2 ft. from this was the
+receptacle for cold water, or the _frigidarium_, often a plastered
+reservoir. A constant communication was kept up between these vessels,
+so that as fast as hot water was drawn off from the calidarium a supply
+was obtained from the tepidarium, which, being already heated, but
+slightly reduced the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium,
+again, was supplied from the frigidarium, and that from an aqueduct. In
+this way the heat which was not taken up by the first boiler passed on
+to the second, and instead of being wasted, helped to heat the second--a
+principle which has only lately been introduced into modern furnaces. In
+the case of the large thermae the water of an aqueduct was brought to
+the _castellum_ or top of the building and was allowed to descend into
+chambers over the hypocaustum, where it was heated and transmitted in
+pipes to the central buildings. Remains of this arrangement are to be
+seen in the baths of Caracalla. The general plan of such buildings may
+be more clearly understood by the accompanying illustrations. In the
+well-known drawing (fig. 1) found in the baths of Titus, the name of
+each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small dome inscribed
+laconicum directly over the furnace, and having the clypeus over it,
+will be observed in the corner of the chamber named concamerata sudatio.
+The vessels for water are inscribed, according to their temperature,
+with the same names as some of the chambers, frigidarium, tepidarium and
+calidarium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--Roman baths.]
+
+The baths of Pompeii (as shown in fig. 2) were a double set, and were
+surrounded with tabernae or shops, which are marked by a lighter shade.
+There were streets on four sides; and the reservoir supplying water was
+across the street in the building on the left hand of the cut. There
+were three public entrances--21a, 21b, 21c--to the men's baths and one
+to the women's. The furnaces (9) heated water, which was conveyed on one
+side to the larger baths of the men, on the other to the women's.
+Entering from the street at 21c there was a latrina on the left hand
+(22). From this entrance it was usual to proceed to a court (20)
+surrounded by pillars, where servants were in attendance. There is some
+doubt as to the purpose to which the room (19) was devoted. Leaving the
+hall a passage conducted to the apodyterium or dressing-room (17), at
+one end of it is the frigidarium, baptisterium or cold plunge bath (18).
+Entering out of the apodyterium is the tepidarium or warming-room (15),
+which most probably was also used as the alipterium or anointing-room.
+From it bathers passed into the hot room or calidarium (12), which had
+at one end the alveus or calida lavatio (13), at the other end the
+labrum (14). This end of the calidarium served as the laconicum. The
+arrangements of the women's baths were similar, but on a smaller scale.
+The calidarium (5) had the labrum (7) at one end, and the alveus (6) was
+in one side of the room. The general arrangements of a calidarium are
+well illustrated by the accompanying section (fig. 3) of a bath
+discovered at Tusculum. The disposition of the parts is the same as at
+Pompeii. We here have the calidarium supported on the pillars of the
+fornax, the suspensura. The alveus (3) is at one end, and the labrum (4)
+at the other. (1) and (2) are the vessels for water over the fornax; and
+the passages in the roof and walls for the escape of heated air will be
+observed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ground plan of the baths of Pompeii.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of bath discovered at Tusculum, showing
+the calidarium (hot room).]
+
+A clear idea of the relative position of the different rooms, and some
+slight indication of their ornamentation, will be obtained from fig. 4.
+The flues under the calidarium and the labrum (1) may be observed, as
+also the opening in the roof above. (2), (3) and (4) mark the vessels
+for water which are placed between the men's baths on the left and the
+women's on the right.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of baths of Pompeii.]
+
+The arrangements of the _thermae_ were mainly those of the balneae on a
+larger scale. Some idea of their size may be gathered from such facts as
+these, that in the baths of Diocletian one room has been transmuted into
+a church of most imposing proportions, and that the outside walls of
+the baths of Caracalla extend about a quarter of a mile on each of the
+four sides. A visit to the remains of the baths of Titus, of Diocletian,
+or of Caracalla impresses the mind strongly with a sense of the vast
+scale on which they were erected, and Ammianus's designation of them as
+provinces appears scarcely exaggerated. It is said that the baths of
+Caracalla contained 1600, and those of Diocletian 3200 marble seats for
+the use of the bathers. In the largest of the thermae there was a
+stadium for the games of the young men, with raised seats for the
+spectators. There were open colonnades and seats for philosophers and
+literary men to sit and discourse or read their productions aloud or for
+others to discuss the latest news. Near the porticoes, in the interior
+open space, rows of trees were planted. There was a _sphaeristerium_ or
+place for playing ball, which was often over the apodyterium; but it
+must be confessed that the purposes of many portions of these large
+edifices have not been made out in as satisfactory a way as those of
+smaller baths. A more definite idea of the thermae can be best got by an
+examination of the accompanying plan of the baths of Caracalla (fig. 5).
+A good deal of the plan is conjectural, the restorations being marked by
+lighter shading.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Ground plan of the baths of Caracalla.]
+
+  At the bottom of the plan is shown a long colonnade, which faces the
+  street, behind which was a series of chambers, supposed to have been
+  separate bathing-rooms. Entering by the opening in its centre, the
+  visitor passes what was probably an inner colonnade round the main
+  building. Passing in by either of the gates (2, 2), he reaches the
+  large chamber (3), which has been variously called the natatio or
+  large swimming-bath, or the tepidarium. The great central room (4) in
+  all probability was the calidarium, with two labra (6, 6) on opposite
+  sides, and with four alvei, one in each corner, represented by small
+  circular dots. (9) has been regarded by some as the laconicuim,
+  although it appears very large for that purpose. The rooms (15, 15)
+  have been variously described as baptisteria and as laconica. Most
+  authors are agreed in thinking that the large rooms (13) and (16) were
+  the sphaeristeria or places for playing ball.
+
+  Returning to the outside, (1) and (18) and the corresponding places on
+  the other side are supposed to have been the exedrae for philosophers,
+  and places corresponding to the Greek xysti. (20) and (19) have been
+  considered to be servants' rooms. (22) was the stadium, with raised
+  seats for the spectators. The space between this and the large central
+  hall (9) was planted with trees, and at (21) the aqueduct brought
+  water into the castellum or reservoir, which was on an upper storey.
+  There were upper storeys in most portions of the building, and in
+  these probably were the libraries and small theatres.
+
+The piscinae were often of immense size--that of Diocletian being 200
+ft. long--and were adorned with beautiful marbles. The halls were
+crowded with magnificent columns and were ornamented with the finest
+pieces of statuary. The walls, it has been said, were covered with
+exquisite mosaics that imitated the art of the painter in their elegance
+of design and variety of colour. The Egyptian syenite was encrusted with
+the precious green marbles of Numidia. The rooms contained the works of
+Phidias and Praxiteles. A perpetual stream of water was poured into
+capacious basins through the wide mouths of lions of bright and polished
+silver, water issued from silver, and was received on silver. "To such a
+pitch of luxury have we reached," says Seneca, "that we are dissatisfied
+if we do not tread on gems in our baths."
+
+The richer Romans used every variety of oils and pomades (_smegmata_);
+they scarcely had true soaps. The poorer class had to be content with
+the flour of lentils, an article used at this day for the same purpose
+by Orientals. The most important bath utensil was the strigillus, a
+curved instrument made of metal, with which the skin was scraped and all
+sordes removed.
+
+The bath servants assisted in anointing, in using the strigillus and in
+various other menial offices. The poorer classes had to use their
+strigils themselves. The various processes of the aliptae seem to have
+been carried on very systematically.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.[1] Ring on which are suspended some of the
+articles in use in the Alipterium]
+
+The hot baths appear to have been open from 1 P.M. till dark. It was
+only one of the later emperors that had them lighted up at night. When
+the hot baths were ready (for, doubtless, the plunge baths were
+available at an earlier hour), a bell or _aes_ was rung for the
+information of the people. Among the Greeks and Romans the eighth hour,
+or 1 o'clock, before their dinner, was the commonest hour for bathing.
+The bath was supposed to promote appetite, and some voluptuaries had one
+or more baths after dinner, to enable them to begin eating again; but
+such excesses, as Juvenal tells us, occasionally proved fatal. Some of
+the most effeminate of the emperors are said to have bathed seven or
+eight times in the course of the day. In early times there was delicacy
+of feeling about the sexes bathing together--even a father could not
+bathe with his sons; but latterly, under most of the emperors, men and
+women often used the same baths. There frequently were separate baths
+for the women, as we see at Pompeii or at Badenweiler; but although
+respectable matrons would not go to public baths, promiscuous bathing
+was common during the Empire.
+
+The public baths and thermae were under the more immediate
+superintendence of the aediles. The charge made at a public bath was
+only a quadrans or quarter of an as, about half a farthing. Yet cheap
+though this was, the emperors used to ingratiate themselves with the
+populace, by making the baths at times gratuitous.
+
+Wherever the Romans settled, they built public baths; and wherever they
+found hot springs or natural stufae, they made use of them, thus saving
+the expense of heating, as at the _myrteta_ of Baiae or the _Aquae
+Sulis_ of Bath. In the cities there appear to have been private baths
+for hire, as well as the public baths; and every rich citizen had a set
+of baths attached to his villa, the fullest account of which is given in
+the _Letters_ of Pliny, or in Ausonius's _Account of a Villa on the
+Moselle_, or in Statius's _De Balneo Etrusco_. Although the Romans never
+wholly gave up cold bathing, and that practice was revived under
+Augustus by Antonius Musa, and again under Nero by Charmis (at which
+later time bathing in the open sea became common), yet they chiefly
+practised warm bathing (_calida lavatio_). This is the most luxurious
+kind of bathing, and when indulged in to excess is enervating. The women
+were particularly fond of these baths, and were accused, at all events
+in some provincial cities, of drunkenness in them.
+
+The unbounded license of the public baths, and their connexion with
+modes of amusement that were condemned, led to their being to a
+considerable extent proscribed by the early Christians. The early
+Fathers wrote that bathing might be practised for the sake of
+cleanliness or of health, but not of pleasure; and Gregory the Great saw
+no objection to baths being used on Sunday. About the 5th century many
+of the large thermae in Rome fell into decay. The cutting off of the
+aqueducts by the Huns, and the gradual decrease of the population,
+contributed to this. Still it is doubtful whether bathing was ever
+disused to the extent that is usually represented. It was certainly kept
+up in the East in full vigour at Alexandria and at Brusa. Hot bathing,
+and especially hot air and vapour baths, were adopted by the
+Mahommedans; and the Arabs brought them with them into Spain. The Turks,
+at a later time, carried them high up the Danube, and the Mahommedans
+spread or, it may be more correct to say, revived their use in Persia
+and in Hindustan. The Crusaders also contributed to the spread of baths
+in Europe, and hot vapour baths were specially recommended for the
+leprosy so prevalent in those days. After the commencement of the 13th
+century there were few large cities in Europe without hot vapour baths.
+We have full accounts of their regulations--how the Jews were only
+allowed to visit them once a week, and how there were separate baths for
+lepers. In England they were called hothouses. Erasmus, at the date of
+the Reformation, spoke of them as common in France, Germany and Belgium;
+he gives a lively account of the mixture of all classes of people to be
+found in them, and would imply that they were a common adjunct to inns.
+They seem after a time to have become less common, though Montaigne
+mentions them as being still in Rome in his day. In England the next
+revival of baths was at the close of the 17th century, under the Eastern
+name of _Hummums_ or the Italian name of Bagnios. These were avowedly on
+the principle of the Turkish baths described below. But there were
+several considerable epochs in the history of baths, one in the
+commencement of the 18th century, when Floyer and others recalled
+attention to cold bathing, of which the virtues had long been
+overlooked. In the middle of the century also, Russell and others
+revived sea-bathing in England, and were followed by others on the
+continent, until the value of sea-bathing became fully appreciated.
+Later in the same century the experiments of James Currie on the action
+of complete or of partial baths on the system in disease attracted
+attention; and though forgotten for a while, they bore abundant fruit in
+more recent times.
+
+_Modern Baths._--It is uncertain how far the Turkish and Egyptian and
+even the Russian baths are to be regarded merely as successors of the
+Roman baths, because the principle of vapour baths has been known to
+many nations in a very early period of civilization. Thus the Mexicans
+and Indians were found using small vapour baths. The ancient inhabitants
+of Ireland and of Scotland had some notion of their use, and the large
+vapour baths of Japan, now so extensively employed, are probably of
+independent origin.
+
+The following accounts of Turkish and Russian baths illustrate the
+practices of the ancient Roman and also of modern Turkish baths. In
+Lane's _On the Modern Egyptians_ we read: "The building consists of
+several apartments, all of which are paved with marble, chiefly white.
+The inner apartments are covered with domes, which have a number of
+small glazed apertures for the admission of light. The bather, on
+entering, if he has a watch or purse, gives them in charge to the keeper
+of the bath. The servant of the bath takes off his shoes and supplies
+him with a pair of wooden clogs. The first apartment has generally three
+or four _leewans_ (raised parts of the floor used as couches) cased with
+marble, and a fountain of cold water, which rises from an octagonal
+basement in the centre. One of the leewans, which is meant for the
+higher classes, is furnished with cushions or mats. In warm weather
+bathers usually undress in this room; in winter they undress in an inner
+room, called the _beytowwal_ or first chamber, between which and the
+last apartment there is a passage often with two or three latrines off
+it. This is the first of the heated chambers. It generally has two
+raised seats. The bather receives a napkin in which to put his clothes
+and another to put round his waist--this reaches to the knees; a third,
+if he requires it, is brought him to wind round his head, leaving the
+top of it bare; a fourth to put over his chest; and a fifth to cover his
+back. When the bather has undressed, the attendant opens to him the door
+of the inner and principal apartment. This in general has four leewans,
+which gives it the form of a cross, and in the centre a fountain of hot
+water rises from a small shallow basin. The centre room, with the
+adjoining ones, forms almost a square. The beytowwal already mentioned
+is one of them. Two small chambers which adjoin each other, one
+containing a tank of hot water, the other containing a trough, over
+which are two taps, one of hot and one of cold water, occupy the two
+other angles; while the fourth angle of the square is occupied by the
+chamber which contains the fire, over which is the boiler. The bather
+having entered this apartment soon perspires profusely from the humid
+heat which is produced by the hot water of tanks and fountains, and by
+the steam of the boiler. The bather sits on one of the marble seats, or
+lies on the leewan or near one of the tanks, and the operator then
+commences his work. The operator first cracks aloud every joint in the
+body. He makes the vertebrae of the back and even of the neck crack. The
+limbs are twisted with apparent violence, but so skilfully, that no harm
+is ever done. The operator next kneads the patient's flesh. After this
+he rubs the soles of the feet with a kind of rasp of baked clay. There
+are two kinds of rasps, one porous and rough, one of fine smooth clay.
+Those used by ladies are usually encased in thin embossed silver. The
+next operation is rubbing the bather's flesh with a small coarse woollen
+bag, after which the bather dips himself in one of the tanks. He is next
+taken to one of the chambers in the corner, and the operator lathers the
+bather with fibres of the palm tree, soap and water. The soap is then
+washed off with water, when the bather having finished washing, and
+enveloped himself in dry towels, returns to the beytowwal and reclines.
+Here he generally remains an hour to an hour and a half, sipping coffee
+and smoking, while an attendant rubs the soles of the feet and kneads
+the body and limbs. The bather then dresses and goes out."
+
+The following description of a Russian bath is from Kohl's _Russia_
+(1842): "The passage from the door is divided into two behind the
+check-taker's post, one for the male, one for the female guests. We
+first enter an open space, in which a set of men are sitting in a state
+of nudity on benches, those who have already bathed dressing, while
+those who are going to undergo the process take off their clothes. Round
+this space or apartment are the doors leading to the vapour-rooms. The
+bather is ushered into them, and finds himself in a room full of vapour,
+which is surrounded by a wooden platform rising in steps to near the
+roof of the room. The bather is made to lie down on one of the lower
+benches, and gradually to ascend to the higher and hotter ones. The
+first sensation on entering the room amounts almost to a feeling of
+suffocation. After you have been subjected for some time to a
+temperature which may rise to 145° the transpiration reaches its full
+activity, and the sensation is very pleasant. The bath attendants come
+and flog you with birchen twigs, cover you with the lather of soap,
+afterwards rub it off, and then hold you over a jet of ice-cold water.
+The shock is great, but is followed by a pleasant feeling of great
+comfort and of alleviation of any rheumatic pains you may have had. In
+regular establishments you go after this and lie down on a bed for a
+time before issuing forth. But the Russians often dress in the open air,
+and instead of using the jet of cold water, go and roll themselves at
+once in the snow."
+
+Turkish baths have, with various modifications, become popular in
+Europe. The Russian baths were introduced into German towns about 1825.
+They had a certain limited amount of popularity, but did not take firm
+root. Another class practically owes its origin to Dr Barter and David
+Urquhart. It professed to be founded on the Turkish bath, but in reality
+it was much more of a hot air bath, i.e. more devoid of vapour than
+either Roman or Turkish baths ever were, for it is doubtful whether in
+any case the air of the laconicum was free from vapour. These baths,
+with their various modifications, have become extremely popular in Great
+Britain, in Germany and in northern Europe, but have, curiously enough,
+never been used extensively in France, notwithstanding the familiarity
+of the French with Turkish baths in Algiers.
+
+In England hot air baths are now employed very extensively. They are
+often associated with Turkish and electric baths.
+
+Bathing among the ancients was practised in various forms. It was
+sometimes a simple bath in cold or in tepid water; but at least, in the
+case of the higher orders, it usually included a hot air or vapour bath,
+and was followed by affusion of cold or warm water, and generally by a
+plunge into the piscina. In like manner the order varies in which the
+different processes are gone through in Turkish baths in modern Europe.
+Thus in the baths in Vienna, the process begins by immersion in a large
+basin of warm water. Sudation is repeatedly interrupted by cold douches
+at the will of the bathers, and after the bath they are satisfied with a
+short stay in the cooling-room, where they have only a simple sheet
+rolled round them. In Copenhagen and in Stockholm the Oriental baths
+have been considerably modified by their association with hydropathic
+practices.
+
+This leads us to notice the introduction of the curiously misnamed
+system known as hydropathy (q.v.). Although cold baths were in vogue
+for a time in Rome, warm baths were always more popular. Floyer, as we
+have seen, did something to revive their use in England; but it was
+nearly a century and a half afterwards that a Silesian peasant,
+Priessnitz, introduced, with wonderful success, a variety of operations
+with cold water, the most important of which was the packing the patient
+in a wet sheet, a process which after a time is followed by profuse
+sudation. Large establishments for carrying out this mode of bathing and
+its modifications were erected in many places on the continent and in
+Great Britain, and enjoyed at one time a large share of popularity. The
+name "hydropathic" is still retained for these establishments, though
+hydropathy so-called is no longer practised within them to any extent.
+
+But the greatest and most important development of ordinary baths in
+modern times was in England, though it has extended gradually to some
+parts of the continent. The English had long used affusion and
+swimming-baths freely in India. Cold and hot baths and shower baths have
+been introduced into private houses to an extent never known before;
+and, since 1842, public swimming-baths, besides separate baths, have
+been supplied to the public at very moderate rates, in some cases
+associated with wash-houses for the poorer classes. Their number has
+increased rapidly in London and in the principal continental cities.
+Floating-baths in rivers, always known in some German towns, have become
+common wherever there are flowing streams. The better supply of most
+European cities with water has aided in this movement. Ample enclosed
+swimming-baths have been erected at many seaside places. When required,
+the water, if not heated in a boiler, is raised to a sufficient
+temperature by the aid of hot water pipes or of steam. Separate baths
+used to be of wood, painted; they are now most frequently of metal,
+painted or lined with porcelain enamel. The swimming-baths are lined
+with cement, tiles or marble and porcelain slabs; and a good deal of
+ornamentation and painting of the walls and ceiling of the apartments,
+in imitation of the ancients, has been attempted.
+
+We have thus traced in outline the history of baths through successive
+ages. The medium of the baths spoken of thus far has been water, vapour
+or dry hot air. But baths of more complex nature, and of the greatest
+variety, have been in use from the earliest ages. The best known media
+are the various mineral waters and sea-water. Of baths of _mineral_
+substances, those of sand are the oldest and best known; the practice of
+_arenation_ or of burying the body in the sand of the sea-shore, or in
+heated sand near some hot spring, is very ancient, as also that of
+applying heated sand to various parts of the body. Baths of _peat_ earth
+are of comparatively recent origin. The peat earth is carefully prepared
+and pulverized, and then worked up with water into a pasty consistence,
+of which the temperature can be regulated before the patient immerses
+himself in it.
+
+There are various terms that may be termed _chemical_, in which chlorine
+or hydrochloric acid is added to the water of the bath, or where fumes
+of sulphur are made to rise and envelop the body.
+
+Of _vegetable_ baths the number is very large. Lees of wine, in a state
+of fermentation, have been employed. An immense variety of aromatic
+herbs have been used to impregnate water with. At one time fuci or
+sea-weed were added to baths, under the idea of conveying into the
+system the iodine which they contain; but by far the most popular of all
+vegetable baths are those made with an extract got by distilling certain
+varieties of pine leaves.
+
+The strangeness of the baths of _animal_ substances, that have been at
+various times in use, is such that their employment seems scarcely
+credible. That baths of milk or of whey might be not unpopular is not
+surprising, but baths of blood, in some cases even of human blood, have
+been used; and baths of horse dung were for many ages in high favour,
+and were even succeeded for a short time by baths of guano.
+
+_Electrical_ baths are now largely used, a current being passed through
+the water; and electrical _massage_, by the d'Arsonval or other system,
+is colloquially termed a "bath."
+
+Baths also of _compressed air_, in which the patient is subjected to the
+pressure of two or three atmospheres, were formerly employed in some
+places.
+
+A _sun_ bath (_insolatio_ or _heliosis_), exposing the body to the sun,
+the head being covered, was a favourite practice among the Greeks and
+Romans.
+
+Some special devices require a few words of explanation.
+
+_Douches_ were used by the ancients, and have always been an important
+mode of applying water to a circumscribed portion of the body. They are,
+in fact, spouts of water, varying in size and temperature, applied by a
+hose-pipe with more or less force for a longer or shorter time against
+particular parts. A douche exercises a certain amount of friction, and a
+continued impulse on the spot to which it is applied, which stimulate
+the skin and the parts beneath it, quickening the capillary circulation.
+The effects of the douche are so powerful that it cannot be applied for
+more than a few minutes continuously. The alternation of hot and cold
+douches, which for some unknown reason has got the name of _Écossaise_,
+is a very potent type of bath from the strong action and reaction which
+it produces. The _shower_ bath may be regarded as a union of an immense
+number of fine douches projected on the head and shoulders. It produces
+a strong effect on the nervous system. An ingenious contrivance for
+giving circular _spray_ baths, by which water is propelled laterally in
+fine streams against every portion of the surface of the body, is now
+common.
+
+To all these modes of acting on the cutaneous surface and circulation
+must be added dry rubbing, as practised by the patient with the flesh
+glove, but much more thoroughly by the bath attendants, if properly
+instructed (see also MASSAGE).
+
+_Action of Baths on the Human System._--The primary operation of baths
+is the action of heat and cold on the cutaneous surfaces through the
+medium of water.
+
+The first purpose of baths is simply that of abstersion and cleanliness,
+to remove any foreign impurity from the surface, and to prevent the
+pores from being clogged by their own secretions or by desquamations of
+cuticle. It need scarcely be said that such objects are greatly promoted
+by the action of the alkali of soaps and by friction; that the use of
+warm water, owing to its immediate stimulation of the skin, promotes the
+separation of sordes, and that the vapour of water is still more
+efficient than water itself.
+
+It has been supposed that water acts on the system by being absorbed
+through the skin, but, under ordinary circumstances, no water is
+absorbed, or, if any, so minute a quantity as not to be worth
+considering. No dissolved substances, under the ordinary circumstances
+of a bath, are actually absorbed into the system; although when a
+portion of skin has been entirely cleared of its sebaceous secretion, it
+is possible that a strong solution of salts may be partially absorbed.
+In the case of medicated baths we therefore only look (in addition to
+the action of heat and cold, or more properly to the abstraction or
+communication and retention of heat) to any stimulant action on the skin
+that the ingredients of the bath may possess.
+
+The powerful influence of water on the capillaries of the skin, and the
+mode and extent of that operation, depend primarily on the temperature
+of the fluid. The human system bears changes of temperature of the air
+much better than changes of the temperature of water. While the
+temperature of the air at 75° may be too warm for the feelings of many
+people, a continued bath at that temperature is felt to be cold and
+depressing. Again, a bath of 98° to 102° acts far more excitingly than
+air of the same temperature, both because, being a better conductor,
+water brings more heat to the body and because it suppresses the
+perspiration which is greatly augmented by air of that temperature.
+Further, a temperature a few degrees below blood heat is that of
+indifferent baths, which can be borne longest without natural
+disturbance of the system.
+
+_Cold baths_ act by refrigeration, and their effects vary according to
+the degree of temperature. The effects of a cold bath, the temperature
+not being below 50°, are these:--there is a diminution of the
+temperature of the skin and of the subjacent tissues; there is a certain
+feeling of shock diffused over the whole surface, and if the cold is
+intense it induces a slight feeling of numbness in the skin. It becomes
+pale and its capillaries contract. The further action of a cold bath
+reaches the central nervous system, the heart and the lungs, as
+manifested by the tremor of the limbs it produces, along with a certain
+degree of oppression of the chest and a gasping for air, while the pulse
+becomes small and sinks. After a time reaction takes place, and brings
+redness to the skin and an increase of temperature.
+
+The colder the water is, and the more powerful and depressing its
+effects, the quicker and more active is the reaction. Very cold baths,
+anything below 50°, cannot be borne long. Lowering of the temperature of
+the skin may be borne down to 9°, but a further reduction may prove
+fatal. The diminution of temperature is much more rapid when the water
+is in motion, or when the bather moves about; because, if the water is
+still, the layer of it in immediate contact with the body is warmed to a
+certain degree.
+
+A great deal depends on the form of the cold bath; thus one may
+have--(1) Its depressing operation,--with a loss of heat, retardation of
+the circulation, and feeling of weariness, when the same water remains
+in contact with the skin, and there is continuous withdrawal of heat
+without fresh stimulation. This occurs with full or sitz baths, with
+partial or complete wrapping up the body in a wet sheet which remains
+unchanged, and with frictions practised without removing the wet sheets.
+(2) Its exciting operation,--with quickening of the action of the heart
+and lungs, and feeling of glow and of nervous excitement and of
+increased muscular power. These sensations are produced when the layer
+of water next the body and heated by it is removed, and fresh cold water
+causes fresh stimulus. These effects are produced by full baths with the
+water in motion used only for a short time, by frictions when the wet
+sheet is removed from the body, by douches, shower baths, bathing in
+rivers, &c. The depressing operation comes on much earlier in very cold
+water than in warmer; and in the same way the exciting operation comes
+on faster with the colder than with the warmer water. The short duration
+of the bath makes both its depressing and its exciting action less; its
+longer duration increases them; and if the baths be continued too long,
+the protracted abstraction of animal heat may prove very depressing.
+
+_Tepid baths_, 85° to 95°.--The effects of a bath of this temperature
+are confined to the peripheral extremities of the nerves, and are so
+slight that they do not reach the central system. There is no reaction,
+and the body temperature remains unchanged. Baths of this kind can be
+borne for hours with impunity.
+
+_Warm baths_ from 96° to 104°.--In these the action of the heat on the
+peripheral surface is propagated to the central system, and causes
+reaction, which manifests itself in moderately increased flow of the
+blood to the surface, and in an increased frequency of pulse.
+
+With a _hot bath_ from 102° up to 110° the central nervous and
+circulating systems are more affected. The frequency of the pulse
+increases rapidly, the respiration becomes quickened, and is interrupted
+by deep inspirations. The skin is congested, and there is profuse
+perspiration.
+
+_Very hot baths._--Everything above 110° feels very hot; anything above
+120° almost scalding. Baths of from 119° to 126° have caused a rise of
+2° to 4½° in the temperature of the blood. Such a bath can be borne for
+only a few minutes. It causes great rapidity of the pulse, extreme
+lowering of the blood-pressure, excessive congestion of the skin, and
+violent perspiration.
+
+In the use of hot baths a certain amount of vapour reaches the parts of
+the body not covered by the water, and is also inhaled.
+
+_Vapour_ baths produce profuse perspiration and act in cleansing the
+skin, as powerful hot water baths do. Vapour, owing to its smaller
+specific heat, does not act so fast as water on the body. A vapour bath
+can be borne for a much longer time when the vapour is not inhaled.
+Vapour baths can be borne hotter than water baths, but cannot be
+continued too long, as vapour, being a bad conductor, prevents radiation
+of heat from the body. A higher heat than 122° is not borne comfortably.
+The vapour bath though falling considerably short of the temperature of
+the hot air bath, raises the temperature much more.
+
+_Hot air_ baths differ from vapour baths in not impeding the respiration
+as the latter do, by depositing moisture in the bronchial tubes. The
+lungs, instead of having to heat the inspired air, are subjected to a
+temperature above their own. Hot air baths, say of 135°, produce more
+profuse perspiration than vapour baths. If very hot, they raise the
+temperature of the body by several degrees. Vapour baths, hot air baths,
+and hot water baths agree in producing violent perspiration. As
+perspiration eliminates water and effete matter from the system, it is
+obvious that its regulation must have an important effect on the
+economy.
+
+In comparing the general effects of cold and hot baths, it may be said
+that while the former tend to check perspiration, the latter favour it.
+
+The warm bath causes swelling and congestion of the capillaries of the
+surface in the first instance; when the stimulus of heat is withdrawn
+their contraction ensues. A cold bath, again, first causes a contraction
+of the capillaries of the surface, which is followed by their expansion
+when reaction sets in. A warm bath elevates the temperature of the body,
+both by bringing a supply of heat to it and by preventing the radiation
+of heat from it. It can be borne longer than a cold bath. It draws blood
+to the surface, while a cold bath favours internal congestions.
+
+But baths often produce injurious effects when used injudiciously. Long
+continued warm baths are soporific, and have, owing to this action,
+often caused death by drowning. The effects of very hot baths are
+swimming in the head, vomiting, fainting, congestion of the brain, and,
+in some instances, apoplexy.
+
+The symptoms seem to point to paralysis of the action of the heart. It
+is therefore very evident how cautious those should be, in the use of
+hot baths, who have weak hearts or any obstruction to the circulation.
+Fat men, and those in whom the heart or blood-vessels are unsound,
+should avoid them. Protracted indulgence in warm baths is relaxing, and
+has been esteemed a sign of effeminacy in all ages. Sleepiness, though
+it will not follow the first immersion in a cold bath, is one of the
+effects of protracted cold baths; depression of the temperature of the
+surface becomes dangerous. The risk in cold baths is congestion of the
+internal organs, as often indicated by the lips getting blue. Extremely
+cold baths are always dangerous.
+
+For the medical use of baths see BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS.
+
+_Public Baths._--It was not till 1846 that it was deemed advisable in
+England, for the "health, comfort, and welfare" of the inhabitants of
+towns and populous districts, to encourage the establishment therein of
+baths by the local authority acting through commissioners. A series of
+statutes, known collectively as "The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to
+1896," followed. By the Public Health Act 1875, the urban authority was
+declared to be the authority having power to adopt and proceed under
+the previous acts, and in 1878 provision was for the first time
+expressly made for the establishment of swimming baths, which might be
+used during the winter as gymnasia, and by an amending act of 1899, for
+music or dancing, provided a licence is obtained. By the Local
+Government Act 1894, it was provided that the parish meeting should be
+the authority having exclusive power of adopting the Baths and
+Wash-houses Acts in rural districts, which should, if adopted, be
+carried into effect by the parish council. Up to 1865 it seems as if
+only twenty-five boroughs had cared to provide bathing accommodation for
+their inhabitants. There is no complete information as to the number of
+authorities who have adopted the acts since 1865, but a return of
+reproductive undertakings presented to the House of Commons in 1899
+shows that no local authorities outside the metropolis applied for power
+to raise loans to provide baths, of whom 48 applied before 1875 and 62
+after 1875. In the year 1907 the loans sanctioned for the purpose
+amounted to £53,026. The revenues of parish councils are so limited that
+it has not been possible for them to take much advantage of the acts. In
+the metropolis, by the Local Government Act of 1894, the power of
+working the act was given to vestries, and by the act of 1899 this power
+was transferred to the borough councils. There are 35 parishes in London
+in which the acts have been adopted, all of which except 11 have taken
+action since 1875. These establishments, according to the return made in
+1908, provided 3502 private baths and 104 swimming baths. The maximum
+charge for a second-class cold bath is 1d., for a hot bath 2d. In
+1904-1905 the number of bathers was 6,342,158, of whom 3,064,998 were
+bathers in private baths and 3,277,160 bathers in swimming baths. In
+1896-1897 the gross total had been only 2,000,000. In cases where the
+proportion between the sexes has been worked out, it is found that only
+18% of the users of private baths, and 10% of the users of swimming
+baths, are females. In 1898 the School Board was authorized to pay the
+fees for children using the baths if instruction in swimming were
+provided, and in 1907-1908 the privilege was used by 1,556,542 children.
+The cost of this public provision in London--water being supplied by
+measure--is over £80,000 a year. No account can be given of the numbers
+using the ponds and lakes in the parks and open spaces, but it is
+computed that on a hot Sunday 25,000 people bathe in Victoria Park,
+London, some of the bathers starting as early as four o'clock in the
+morning. These returns show how great is the increase of the habit of
+bathing, but they also show how even now the habit is limited to a
+comparatively small part of the population. People require to be tempted
+to the use of water, at any rate at the beginning. There are still
+authorities in London responsible for 800,000 persons who have provided
+no baths, and those who have made provision have not always done so in a
+sufficiently liberal and tempting way. The comparison between English
+great towns and those of the continent is not in favour of the former.
+
+  For the literature of baths in earlier periods we may refer to the
+  _Architecture_ of Vitruvius, and to Lucian's _Hippias_; see art.
+  "Bäder" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_ (1896), by A. Mau;
+  "Balneum" in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. des antiquités_ J. Marquardt
+  _Das Privalleben der Romer_ (1886), pp. 269-297; Backer's _Gallus_,
+  and the article "Balneae" by Rich, in Dr Smith's _Dictionary of Greek
+  and Roman Antiquities_ (rev. ed. 1890); also the bibliography to
+  HYDROPATHY.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The figure represents four strigils, in which the hollow for
+    collecting the oil or perspiration from the body may be observed.
+    There is also a small ampulla or vessel containing oil, meant to keep
+    the strigils smooth, and a small flat patera or drinking vessel out
+    of which it was customary to drink after the bathing was finished.
+
+
+
+
+BATHURST, EARLS. ALLEN BATHURST, 1st Earl Bathurst (1684-1775), was the
+eldest son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst (d. 1704), by his wife, Frances (d.
+1727), daughter of Sir Allen Apsley of Apsley, Sussex, and belonged to a
+family which is said to have settled in Sussex before the Norman
+Conquest. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and became member
+of parliament for Cirencester in May 1705, retaining his seat until
+December 1711, when he was created Baron Bathurst of Battlesden,
+Bedfordshire. As a zealous Tory he defended Atterbury, bishop of
+Rochester, and in the House of Lords was an opponent of Sir Robert
+Walpole. After Walpole left office in 1742 he was made a privy
+councillor, and in August 1772 was created Earl Bathurst, having
+previously received a pension of £2000 a year chargeable upon the Irish
+revenues. He died on the 16th of September 1775, and was buried in
+Cirencester church. In July 1704 Bathurst married his cousin, Catherine
+(d. 1768), daughter of Sir Peter Apsley, by whom he had four sons and
+five daughters. The earl associated with the poets and scholars of the
+time. Pope, Swift, Prior, Sterne, and Congreve were among his friends.
+He is described in Sterne's _Letters to Eliza_; was the subject of a
+graceful reference on the part of Burke speaking in the House of
+Commons; and the letters which passed between him and Pope are published
+in Pope's _Works_, vol. viii. (London, 1872).
+
+HENRY, 2nd Earl Bathurst (1714-1794), was the eldest surviving son of
+the 1st earl. Educated at Balliol College, Oxford, he was called to the
+bar, and became a K.C. in 1745. In April 1735 he had been elected member
+of parliament for Cirencester, and was rewarded for his opposition to
+the government by being made solicitor-general and then attorney-general
+to Frederick, prince of Wales. Resigning his seat in parliament in April
+1754 he was made a judge of the court of common pleas in the following
+month, and became lord high chancellor in January 1771, when he was
+raised to the peerage as Baron Apsley. Having become Earl Bathurst by
+his father's death in September 1775, he resigned his office somewhat
+unwillingly in July 1778 to enable Thurlow to join the cabinet of Lord
+North. In November 1779 he was appointed lord president of the council,
+and left office with North in March 1782. He died at Oakley Grove near
+Cirencester on the 6th of August 1794. Bathurst was twice married, and
+left two sons and four daughters. He was a weak lord chancellor, but
+appears to have been just and fair in his distribution of patronage.
+
+HENRY, 3rd Earl Bathurst (1762-1834), the elder son of the second earl,
+was born on the 22nd of May 1762. In April 1789 he married Georgiana (d.
+1841), daughter of Lord George Henry Lennox, and was member of
+parliament for Cirencester from 1783 until he succeeded to the earldom
+in August 1794. Owing mainly to his friendship with William Pitt, he was
+a lord of the admiralty from 1783 to 1789; a lord of the treasury from
+1789 to 1791; and commissioner of the board of control from 1793 to
+1802. Returning to office with Pitt in May 1804 he became master of the
+mint, and was president of the Board of Trade and master of the mint
+during the ministries of the duke of Portland and Spencer Perceval, only
+vacating these posts in June 1812 to become secretary for war and the
+colonies under the earl of Liverpool. For two months during the year
+1809 he was in charge of the foreign office. He was secretary for war
+and the colonies until Liverpool resigned in April 1827; and deserves
+some credit for improving the conduct of the Peninsular War, while it
+was his duty to defend the government concerning its treatment of
+Napoleon Bonaparte. Bathurst's official position caused his name to be
+mentioned frequently during the agitation for the abolition of slavery,
+and with regard to this traffic he seems to have been animated by a
+humane spirit. He was lord president of the council in the government of
+the duke of Wellington from 1828 to 1830, and favoured the removal of
+the disabilities of Roman Catholics, but was a sturdy opponent of the
+reform bill of 1832. The earl, who had four sons and two daughters, died
+on the 27th of July 1834. Bathurst was made a knight of the Garter in
+1817, and held several lucrative sinecures.
+
+His eldest son, HENRY GEORGE, 4th Earl Bathurst (1790-1866), was member
+of parliament for Cirencester from 1812 to 1834. He died unmarried on
+the 25th of May 1866, and was succeeded in the title by his brother,
+WILLIAM LENNOX, 5th Earl Bathurst (1791-1878), member of parliament for
+Weobley from 1812 to 1816, and clerk of the privy council from 1827 to
+1860, who died unmarried on the 24th of February 1878.
+
+ALLEN ALEXANDER. 6th Earl Bathurst (1832-1892), was the son of Thomas
+Seymour Bathurst, and grandson of the 3rd earl. He was member of
+parliament for Cirencester from 1857 until he became Earl Bathurst in
+February 1878, and died on the 2nd of August 1892, when his eldest son,
+SEYMOUR HENRY (b. 1864), became 7th Earl Bathurst.
+
+
+
+
+BATHURST, a city of Bathurst county, New South Wales, Australia, 144 m.
+by rail W.N.W. of Sydney on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9223.
+It is situated on the south bank of the Macquarie river, at an elevation
+of 2153 ft., in a fertile undulating plain on the west side of the Blue
+Mountains. Bathurst has broad streets,, crossing one another at right
+angles, with a handsome park in the centre of the town, while many of
+the public buildings, specially the town hall, government buildings, and
+Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, are noteworthy. Bathurst is the
+centre of the chief wheat-growing district of New South Wales, while
+gold, copper and silver are extensively mined in its vicinity. There are
+railway works, coach factories, tanneries, breweries, flour-mills and
+manufactures of boots and shoes and other commodities. The town was
+founded in 1815 by Governor Macquarie, taking its name from the 3rd Earl
+Bathurst, then secretary of state for the colonies, and it has been a
+municipality since 1862.
+
+
+
+
+BATHVILLITE, a naturally occurring organic substance. It is an
+amorphous, opaque, and very friable material of fawn-brown colour,
+filling cavities in the torbanite or Boghead coal of Bathville,
+Scotland. It has a specific gravity of 1.01, and is insoluble in
+benzene.
+
+
+
+
+BATHYBIUS ([Greek: bathis], deep, and [Greek: bios], life), a slimy
+substance at one time supposed to exist in great masses in the depths of
+the ocean and to consist of undifferentiated protoplasm. Regarding it as
+an organism which represented the simplest form of life, Huxley about
+1868 named it _Bathybius Haeckelii_. But investigations carried out in
+connexion with the "Challenger" expedition indicated that it was an
+artificial product, composed of a flocculent precipitate of gypsum
+thrown down from sea-water by alcohol, and the hypothesis of its organic
+character was abandoned by most biologists, Huxley included.
+
+
+
+
+BATHYCLES, an Ionian sculptor of Magnesia, was commissioned by the
+Spartans to make a marble throne for the statue of Apollo at Amyclae,
+about 550 B.C. Pausanias (iii. 18) gives us a detailed description of
+this monument, which is of the greatest value to us, showing the
+character of Ionic art at the time. It was adorned with scenes from
+mythology in relief and supporting figures in the round.
+
+  For a reconstruction, see Furtwängler, _Meisterwerke der griech
+  Plastik_, p. 706.
+
+
+
+
+BATLEY, a municipal borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+within the parliamentary borough of Dewsbury, 8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on
+the Great Northern, London & North Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire
+railways. Pop. (1900) 30,321. Area 2039 acres. The church of All Saints
+is mainly Perpendicular, and contains some fine woodwork, mostly of the
+17th century, and some good memorial tombs. The market square contains
+an excellent group of modern buildings, including the town hall, public
+library, post office and others. The town is a centre of the heavy
+woollen trade, and has extensive manufactures of army cloths, pilot
+cloths, druggets, flushings, &c. The working up of old material as
+"shoddy" is largely carried on. There are also iron foundries,
+manufactures of machinery, and stone quarries. The town lies on the
+south-west Yorkshire coalfield, and there are a number of collieries in
+the district. The borough is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and
+eighteen councillors.
+
+
+
+
+BATON (Fr. _bâton_, _baston_, from Late Lat. _basto_, a stick or staff),
+the truncheon carried by a field marshal as a sign of authority, by a
+police constable, &c.; in music, the stick with which the conductor of
+an orchestra beats time; in heraldry, the fourth part of a bend,
+frequently broken off short at the ends so as to be shaped like a rod;
+in English coats of arms, only as a mark of illegitimacy, the "baton
+sinister."
+
+
+
+
+BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO (1708-1787), Italian painter, was born at Lucca.
+He was regarded in Italy as a great painter in the 18th century, and
+unquestionably did much to rescue the art from the intense mannerism
+into which it had fallen during the preceding century. His paintings,
+however, are not of the highest order of merit, though they are
+generally graceful, well designed, and harmoniously coloured. His best
+production is thought to be his group of "Peace and War." Batoni painted
+an unusual number of pictures, and was also celebrated for his
+portraits.
+
+
+
+
+BATON ROUGE, the capital of Louisiana, U.S.A., and of East Baton Rouge
+parish, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 70 m. N.W. of New
+Orleans. Pop. (1890) 10,478; (1900) 11,269, of whom 6596 were of negro
+descent; (1910 census) 14,897. It is served by the Yazoo & Mississippi
+Valley railway and by the Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company; and
+the Texas & Pacific enters Port Alien, just across the river. The city
+lies on the river bluff, secure against the highest floods. Old houses
+in the Spanish style give quaintness to its appearance. The state
+capitol was built in 1880-1882, replacing another burned in 1862. At
+Baton Rouge is the State University and Agricultural and Mechanical
+College (1860), of which the Audubon Sugar School, "for the highest
+scientific training in the growing of sugar cane and in the technology
+of sugar manufacture," is an important and distinctive feature. The
+university grew out of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning and
+Military Academy, founded in 1855 near Alexandria and opened in 1860
+under the charge of W.T. Sherman. In 1869 the institution was removed to
+Baton Rouge, and in 1877 it was united with the Agricultural and
+Mechanical College, established in 1873 and in 1874 opened at New
+Orleans. The campus of the university is the former barracks of the
+Baton Rouge garrison, occupied by the college since 1886 and transferred
+to it by the Federal government in 1902. The enrolment of the university
+in 1907-1908 was 636. Other important institutions at Baton Rouge are a
+State Agricultural Experiment Station, asylums and schools for the deaf
+and dumb, for the blind, and for orphans, and the state penitentiary.
+The surrounding bluff and alluvial country is very rich. Sugar and
+cotton plantations and sub-tropic fruit orchards occupy the front-lands
+on the river. The manufactures include lumber and cotton seed products,
+and sugar. The value of the city's factory products increased from
+$717,368 in 1900 to $1,383,061 in 1905 or 92.8%. The city is governed
+under a charter granted by the legislature in 1898. This charter is
+peculiar in that it gives to the city council the power to elect various
+administrative boards--of police, finance, &c.--from which the
+legislative council of most cities is separated.
+
+Baton Rouge was one of the earliest French settlements in the state. As
+a part of West Florida, it passed into the hands of the British in 1763,
+and in 1779 was captured by Bernardo Galvez, the Spanish governor of
+Louisiana. The town was incorporated in 1817. In 1849 it was made the
+state capital, remaining so until 1862, when Shreveport became the
+Confederate state capital. In 1864 the Unionists made New Orleans the
+seat of government. The Secession Ordinance of Louisiana was passed on
+the 26th of January 1861 by a convention that met at Baton Rouge. On the
+and of May 1862 the city was captured by the forces of the United States
+under Col. Benjamin H. Grierson (b. 1826), who had led raiders thither
+from Tennessee; on the 12th of May it was formally occupied by troops
+from New Orleans, and was successfully defended by Brig.-Gen. Thomas
+Williams (1815-1862) against an attack by Confederate forces under
+General John C. Breckinridge on the 5th of August 1862; Gen. Williams,
+however, was killed during the attack. Baton Rouge was soon abandoned
+for a month, was then reoccupied, and was held throughout the rest of
+the war. It became the state capital again in 1882, in accordance with
+the state constitution of 1879. For several years after 1840 Zachary
+Taylor made his home on a plantation near Baton Rouge.
+
+
+
+
+BATRACHIA. The arguments adduced by T.H. Huxley, in his article on this
+subject in the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, for
+applying the name Amphibia to those lung-breathing, pentadactyle
+vertebrates which had been first severed from the Linnaean Amphibia by
+Alexandre Brongniart, under the name of _Batrachia_, have not met with
+universal acceptance. Although much used in text-books and anatomical
+works in Great Britain and in Germany, the former name has been
+discarded in favour of the latter by the principal authors on
+systematic herpetology, such as W. Peters, A. Günther and E.D. Cope, and
+their lead is followed in the present article. Bearing in mind that
+Linnaeus, in his use of the name Amphibia, was not alluding to the
+gill-breathing and air-breathing periods through which most frogs and
+newts pass in the course of their existence, but only wished to convey
+the fact that many of the constituents of the group resort to both land
+and water (e.g. crocodiles), it seems hard to admit that the term may be
+thus diverted from its original signification, especially when such a
+change results in discarding the name expressly proposed by Brongniart
+to denote the association which has ever since been universally adopted
+either as an order, a sub-class or a class. Many authors who have
+devoted special attention to questions of nomenclature therefore think
+_Reptilia_ and _Batrachia_ the correct names of the two great classes
+into which the Linnaean _Amphibia_ have been divided, and consider that
+the latter term should be reserved for the use of those who, like that
+great authority, the late Professor Peters, down to the time of his
+death in 1883, would persist in regarding reptiles and batrachians as
+mere sub-classes (1). However extraordinary it may appear, especially to
+those who bring the living forms only into focus, that opposition should
+still be made to Huxley's primary division of the vertebrates other than
+mammals into _Sauropsida_ (birds and reptiles) and _Ichthyopsida_
+(batrachians and fishes), it is certain that recent discoveries in
+palaeontology have reduced the gap between batrachians and reptiles to
+such a minimum as to cause the greatest embarrassment in the attempt to
+draw a satisfactory line of separation between the two; on the other
+hand the hiatus between fishes and batrachians remains as wide as it was
+at the time Huxley's article Amphibia (_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th
+ed.) was written.
+
+The chief character which distinguishes the Batrachians from the
+reptiles, leaving aside the metamorphoses, lies in the arrangement of
+the bones of the palate, where a large parasphenoid extends forwards as
+far or nearly as far as the vomers and widely separates the pterygoids.
+The bones which bear the two occipital condyles have given rise to much
+discussion, and the definition given by Huxley in the previous
+edition--"two occipital condyles, the basi-occipital region of the skull
+either very incompletely or not at all ossified"--requires revision.
+Some authors have held that the bone on which the occipital condyles
+have been found most developed in some labyrinthodonts (2) represents a
+large basi-occipital bearing two knobs for the articulation with the
+first vertebra, whilst the skull of the batrachians of the present day
+has lost the basi-occipital, and the condyles are furnished by the
+exoccipitals. On the other hand, some reptiles have the occipital
+condyle divided into two and produced either by the basi-occipital or by
+the exoccipitals. But the recent find of a well preserved skull of a
+labyrinthodont (_Capitosaurus stantonensis_) from the Trias of
+Staffordshire has enabled A.S. Woodward (3) to show that, in that form
+at any rate, the condyles are really exoccipital, although they are
+separated by a narrow basi-occipital. It is therefore very probable that
+the authors quoted in (2) were mistaken in their identification of the
+elements at the base of the foramen magnum. The fact remains, however,
+that some if not all of the stegocephalous batrachians have an ossified
+basi-occipital.
+
+As a result of his researches on the anomodont reptiles and the
+Stegocephalia (4), as the extinct order that includes the well known
+labyrinthodonts is now called, we have had the proposal by H.G. Seeley
+(5) to place the latter with the reptiles instead of with the
+batrachians, and H. Gadow, in his most recent classification (6), places
+some of them among the reptiles, others being left with the batrachians;
+whilst H. Credner, basing his views on the discovery by him of various
+annectent forms between the Stegocephalia and the Rhynchocephalian
+reptiles, has proposed a class, _Eotetrapoda_, to include these forms,
+ancestors of the batrachians proper on the one hand, of the reptiles
+proper on the other. Yet, that the Stegocephalia, notwithstanding their
+great affinity to the reptiles, ought to be included in the batrachians
+as commonly understood, seems sufficiently obvious from the mere fact of
+their passing through a branchiate condition, i.e. undergoing
+metamorphosis (7). The outcome of our present knowledge points to the
+Stegocephalia, probably themselves derived from the Crossopterygian
+fishes (8), having yielded on the one hand the true batrachians
+(retrogressive series), with which they are to a certain extent
+connected through the _Caudata_ and the _Apoda_, on the other hand the
+reptiles (progressive series), through the Rhynchocephalians and the
+Anomodonts, the latter being believed, on very suggestive evidence, to
+lead to the mammals (9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Upper view of _Archegosaurus Decheni_.
+
+  (Outlines after Gredner.)
+
+  pm, Praemaxilla.      st, Supratemporal.
+  n, Nasal.             sq, Squamosal.
+  m, Maxilla.           pto, Postorbital.
+  l, Lachrymal.         qj, Quadrato-jugal.
+  pf, Praefrontal.      o, Occipital.
+  f, Frontal.           pt, Post-temporal.
+  j, Jugal.             q, Quadrate.
+  ptf, Postfrontal.
+  p, Parietal.]
+
+The division of the class Amphibia or Batrachia into four orders, as
+carried out by Huxley, is maintained, with, however, a change of names:
+_Stegocephalia_, for the assemblage of minor groups that cluster round
+the _Labyrinthodonta_ of R. Owen, which name is restricted to the forms
+for which it was originally intended; _Peromela_, _Urodela_, _Anura_,
+are changed to _Apoda_, _Caudata_, _Ecaudata_, for the reason that
+(unless obviously misleading, which is not the case in the present
+instance) the first proposed name should supersede all others for higher
+groups as well as for genera and species, and the latter set have the
+benefit of the law of priority. In the first subdivision of the
+batrachians into two families by C. Duméril in 1806 (_Zool. Anal_. pp.
+90-94) these are termed "Anoures" and "Urodeles" in French, _Ecaudati_
+and _Caudati_ in Latin. When Duméril's pupil, M. Oppel, in 1811 (_Ordn.
+Rept_. p. 72), added the Caecilians, he named the three groups _Apoda_,
+_Ecaudata_ and _Caudata_. The Latin form being the only one entitled to
+recognition in zoological nomenclature, it follows that the
+last-mentioned names should be adopted for the three orders into which
+recent batrachians are divided.
+
+  I. STEGOCEPHALIA (10).--Tailed, lacertiform or serpentiform
+  batrachians, with the temporal region of the skull roofed over by
+  postorbital, squamosal, and supratemporal plates similar to the same
+  bones in Crossopterygian fishes, and likewise with paired dermal bones
+  (occipitals and post-temporals) behind the parietals and
+  supratemporals. A parietal foramen; scales or bony scutes frequently
+  present, especially on the ventral region, which is further protected
+  by three large bony plates--interclavicle and clavicles, the latter in
+  addition to cleithra.
+
+  Extinct, ranging from the Upper Devonian to the Trias. Our knowledge
+  of Devonian forms is still extremely meagre, the only certain proof of
+  the existence of pentadactyle vertebrates at that period resting on
+  the footprints discovered in Pennsylvania and described by O.C. Marsh
+  (11) as _Tinopus antiquus_. Sundry remains from Belgium, as to the
+  identification of which doubts are still entertained, have been
+  regarded by M. Lohest (12) as evidence of these batrachians in the
+  Devonian. Over 200 species are now distinguished, from the
+  Carboniferous of Europe and North America, the Permian of Spitsbergen,
+  Europe, North America and South Africa, and the Trias of Europe,
+  America, South Africa, India and Australia. The forms of batrachians
+  with which we are acquainted show the vertebral column to have been
+  evolved in the course of time from a notochordal condition with
+  segmented centra similar to that of early bony ganoid fishes (e.g.
+  _Caturus_, _Eurycormus_), to biconcave centra, and finally to the
+  socket-and-ball condition that prevails at the present day. However,
+  owing to the evolution of the vertebral column in various directions,
+  and to the inconstant state of things in certain annectent groups, it
+  is not possible, it seems, to apply the vertebral characters to
+  taxonomy with that rigidity which E.D. Cope and some other recent
+  authors have attempted to enforce. This is particularly evident in
+  the case of the Stegocephalians; and recent batrachians, tailed and
+  tailless, show the mode of articulation of the vertebrae, whether
+  amphicoelous, opisthocoelous or procoelous, to be of but secondary
+  systematic importance in dealing with these lowly vertebrates. The
+  following division of the Stegocephalians into five sub-orders is
+  therefore open to serious criticism; but it seems on the whole the
+  most natural to adopt in the light of our present knowledge.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 2.--A, Dorsal vertebrae. B, Caudal vertebra of
+  _Archegosaurus_. na, Neural arch; ch, chorda; pl, pleurocentrum; ic,
+  intercentrum.
+
+  (Outline after Jaekel.)]
+
+  A. Rhachitomi, (figs. 1, 2), in which the spinal cord rests on the
+  notochord, which persists uninterrupted and is surrounded by three
+  bony elements in addition to the neural arch: a so-called
+  pleurocentrum on each side, which appears to represent the centrum
+  proper of reptiles and mammals, and an intercentrum or hypocentrum
+  below, which may extend to the neural arch, and probably answers to
+  the hypapophysis, as it is produced into chevrons in the caudal
+  region. Mostly large forms, of Carboniferous and Permian age, with a
+  more or less complex infolding of the walls of the teeth. Families:
+  ARCHEGOSAURIDAE, ERYOPIDAE, TRIMERORHACHIDAE, DISSORHOPHIDAE. The last
+  is remarkable for an extraordinary endo- and exo-skeletal carapace,
+  _Dissorhophus_ being described by Cope (13) as a "batrachian
+  armadillo."
+
+  B. Embolomeri, with the centra and intercentra equally developed
+  disks, of which there are thus two to each neural arch; these disks
+  perforated in the middle for the passage of the notochord. This type
+  may be directly derived from the preceding, with which it appears to
+  be connected by the genus _Diplospondylus_. Fam.: CRICOTIDAE, Permian.
+
+  C. Labyrinthodonta, with simple biconcave vertebral disks, very
+  slightly pierced by a remnant of the notochord and supporting the
+  loosely articulated neural arch. This condition is derived from that
+  of the _Rhachitomi_, as shown by the structure of the vertebral column
+  in young specimens. Mostly large forms from the Trias (a few Permian),
+  with true labyrinthic dentition. Families: LABYRINTHODONTIDAE,
+  ANTHRACOSAURIDAE, DENDRERPETIDAE, NYRANIIDAE.
+
+  D. Microsauria, nearest the reptiles, with persistent notochord
+  completely surrounded by constricted cylinders on which the neural
+  arch rests. Teeth hollow, with simple or only slightly folded walls.
+  Mostly of small size and abundant in the Carboniferous and Lower
+  Permian. Families: UROCORDYLIDAE, LIMNERPETIDAE, HYLONOMIDAE (fig. 3),
+  MICROBRACHIDAE, DOLICHOSOMATIDAE, the latter serpentiform, apodal.
+
+  E. Branchiosauria, nearest to the true batrachians; with persistent
+  non-constricted notochord, surrounded by barrel-shaped, bony cylinders
+  formed by the neural arch above and a pair of intercentra below, both
+  these elements taking an equal share in the formation of a transverse
+  process on each side for the support of the rib. This plan of
+  structure, apparently evolved out of the rhachitomous type by
+  suppression of the pleurocentra and the downward extension of the
+  neural arch, leads to that characteristic of frogs in which, as
+  development shows, the vertebra is formed wholly or for the greater
+  part by the neural arch (14). Small forms from the Upper Carboniferous
+  and Permian formations. A single family: BRANCHIOSAURIDAE.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--A, Dorsal vertebra of _Hylonomus_ (side view
+  and front view). B, Dorsal vertebra of _Branchiosaurus_ (side view and
+  front view). n, Neural canal; ch, chorda.
+
+  (After Credner.)]
+
+  II. APODA (15).--No limbs. Tail vestigial or absent. Frontal bones
+  distinct from parietals; palatines fused with maxillaries. Male with
+  an intromittent copulatory organ. Degraded, worm-like batrachians of
+  still obscure affinities, inhabiting tropical Africa, south-eastern
+  Asia and tropical America. Thirty-three species are known. No fossils
+  have yet been discovered. It has been attempted of late to do away
+  with this order altogether and to make the Caecilians merely a family
+  of the Urodeles. This view has originated out of the very remarkable
+  superficial resemblance between the _Ichthyophis_-larva and the
+  _Amphiuma_. Cope (16) regarded the Apoda as the extremes of a line of
+  degeneration from the Salamanders, with _Amphiuma_ as one of the
+  annectent forms. In the opinion of P. and F. Sarasin (17), whose great
+  work on the development of _Ichthyophis_ is one of the most important
+  recent contributions to our knowledge of the batrachians, _Amphiuma_
+  is a sort of neotenic Caecilian, a larval form become sexually mature
+  while retaining the branchial respiration. If the absence of limbs and
+  the reduction of the tail were the only characteristic of the group,
+  there would be, of course, no objection to unite the Caecilians with
+  the Urodeles; but, to say nothing of the scales, present in many
+  genera of Apodals and absent in all Caudates, which have been shown by
+  H. Credner to be identical in structure with those of Stegocephalians,
+  the Caecilian skull presents features which are not shared by any of
+  the tailed batrachians. G.M. Winslow (18), who has made a study of the
+  chondrocranium of _Ichthyophis_, concludes that its condition could
+  not have been derived from a Urodele form, but points to some more
+  primitive ancestor. That this ancestor was nearly related to, if not
+  one of, the Stegocephalians, future discovery will in all probability
+  show.
+
+  III. CAUDATA (19).--Tailed batrachians, with the frontals distinct
+  from the parietals and the palatines from the maxillary. Some of the
+  forms breathe by gills throughout their existence, and were formerly
+  regarded as establishing a passage from the fishes to the
+  air-breathing batrachians. They are now considered as arrested larvae
+  descended from the latter. One of the most startling discoveries of
+  the decade 1890-1900 was the fact that a number of forms are devoid of
+  both gills and lungs, and breathe merely by the skin and the buccal
+  mucose membrane (20). Three blind cave-forms are known: one
+  terrestrial--_Typhlotriton_, from North America, and two
+  perennibranchiate--_Proteus_ in Europe and _Typhlomolge_ in North
+  America.
+
+  This order contains about 150 species, referred to five families:
+  HYLAEOBATRACHIDAE, SALAMANDRIDAE, AMPHIUMIDAE, PROTEIDAE, SIRENIDAE.
+
+  Fossil remains are few in the Upper Eocene and Miocene of Europe and
+  the Upper Cretaceous of North America. The oldest Urodele known is
+  _Hylaeobatrachus_ Dollo (21) from the Lower Wealden of Belgium. At
+  present this order is confined to the northern hemisphere, with the
+  exception of two _Spelerpes_ from the Andes of Ecuador and Peru, and a
+  _Plethodon_ from Argentina.
+
+  IV. ECAUDATA (22).--Frogs and toads. Four limbs and no tail. Radius
+  confluent with ulna, and tibia with fibula; tarsus (astragalus and
+  calcaneum) elongate, forming an additional segment in the hind limb.
+  Caudal vertebrae fused into a urostyle or coccyx. Frontal bones
+  confluent with parietals.
+
+  This order embraces about 1300 species, of which some 40 are fossil,
+  divided into two sub-orders and sixteen families:--
+
+  A. Aglossa,--Eustachian tubes united into a single ostium pharyngeum;
+  no tongue. DACTYLETHRIDAE, PIPIDAE.
+
+  B. Phaneroglossa,--Eustachian tubes separated; tongue present.
+  DISCOGLOSSIDAE, PELOBATIDAE, HEMIPHRACTIDAE, AMPHIGNATHODONTIDAE,
+  HYLIDAE, BUFONIDAE, DENDROPHRYNISCIDAE, CYSTIGNATHIDAE, DYSCOPHIDAE,
+  GENYOPHRYNIDAE, ENGYSTOMATIDAE, CERATOBATRACHIDAE, RANIDAE,
+  DENDROBATIDAE.
+
+  The Phaneroglossa are divided into two groups; _Arcifera_ and
+  _Firmisternia_, representing two stages of evolution. The family
+  characters are mainly derived from the dilatation or non-dilatation of
+  the sacral diapophyses, and the presence of teeth in one or both jaws,
+  or their absence. The _Discoglossidae_ are noteworthy for the presence
+  of short ribs to some of the vertebrae, and in some other points also
+  they approach the tailed batrachians; they may be safely regarded as,
+  on the whole, the most generalized of known Ecaudata. Distinct ribs
+  are present at an early age in the Aglossa, as discovered by W.G.
+  Ridewood (23). The recent addition of a third genus of Aglossa,
+  _Hymenochirus_ (24) from tropical Africa, combining characters of
+  _Pipa_ and _Xenopus_, has removed every doubt as to the real affinity
+  which connects these genera. _Hymenochirus_ is further remarkable for
+  the presence of only six distinct pieces in the vertebral column,
+  which is thus the most abbreviated among all the vertebrata.
+
+  Frogs and toads occur wherever insect food is procurable, and their
+  distribution is a world-wide one, with the exception of many islands.
+  Thus New Caledonia, which has a rich and quite special lizard-fauna,
+  has no batrachians of its own, although the Australian _Hyla aurea_
+  has been introduced with success. New Zealand possesses only one
+  species (_Liopelma hochstetteri_), which appears to be rare and
+  restricted to the North Island. The forest regions of southern Asia,
+  Africa and South America are particularly rich in species.
+
+  According to our present knowledge, the Ecaudata can be traced about
+  as far back in time as the Caudata. An unmistakable batrachian of this
+  order, referred by its describer to _Palaeobatrachus_, a determination
+  which is only provisional, has been discovered in the Kimmeridgian of
+  the Sierra del Montsech, Catalonia (25), in a therefore somewhat older
+  formation than the Wealden Caudata _Hylaeobatrachus_.
+
+  Apart from a few unsatisfactory remains from the Eocene of Wyoming,
+  fossil tailless batrachians are otherwise only known from the
+  Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene of Europe and India. These forms
+  differ very little from those that live at the present day in the same
+  part of the world, and some of the genera (_Discoglossus, Bufo,
+  Oxyglossus, Rana_) are even identical. _Palaeobatrachus_ (26), of
+  which a number of species represented by skeletons of the perfect form
+  and of the tadpole have been described from Miocene beds in Germany,
+  Bohemia and France, seems to be referable to the _Pelobatidae_; this
+  genus has been considered as possibly one of the Aglossa, but the
+  absence of ribs in the larvae speaks against such an association.
+
+  Numerous additions have been made to our knowledge of the development
+  and nursing habits, which are extremely varied, some forms dispensing
+  with or hurrying through the metamorphoses and hopping out of the egg
+  in the perfect condition (27).
+
+  _Skeleton._--In the earliest forms of this order, the Stegocephalia,
+  we meet with considerable variety in the constitution of the
+  vertebrae, and these modifications have been used for their
+  classification. All agree, however, in having each vertebra formed of
+  at least two pieces, the suture between which persists throughout
+  life. In this they differ from the three orders which have living
+  representatives. Even the inferior arches or chevrons of the tail of
+  salamanders are continuously ossified with the centra. As a matter of
+  fact, these vertebrae have no centra proper, that part which should
+  correspond with the centrum being formed, as a study of the
+  development has shown (H. Gadow, 14), by the meeting and subsequent
+  complete co-ossification of the two chief dorsal and ventral pairs of
+  elements (tail-vertebrae of Caudata), or entirely by the pair of
+  dorsal elements. In the Ecaudata, the vertebrae of the trunk are
+  formed on two different plans. In some the notochord remains for a
+  long time exposed along the ventral surface, and, owing to the absence
+  of cartilaginous formation around it, disappears without ever becoming
+  invested otherwise than by a thin elastic membrane; it can be easily
+  stripped off below the vertebrae in larval specimens on the point of
+  metamorphosing. This has been termed the _epichordal_ type. In others,
+  which represent the _perichordal_ type, the greater share of the
+  formation of the whole vertebra falls to the (paired) dorsal
+  cartilage, but there is in addition a narrow ventral or hypochordal
+  cartilage which fuses with the dorsal or becomes connected with it by
+  calcified tissue; the notochord is thus completely surrounded by a
+  thick sheath in tadpoles with imperfectly developed limbs. This mode
+  of formation of both the arch and the greater part or whole of the
+  so-called centrum from the same cartilage explains why there is never
+  a neuro-central suture in these batrachians.
+
+  During segmentation of the dorsal cartilages mentioned above, which
+  send out the transverse processes of diapophyses, there appears
+  between each two centra an intervertebral cartilage, out of which the
+  articulating condyle of the centrum is formed, and becomes attached
+  either to the vertebra anterior (precoelous type) or posterior
+  (opisthocoelous type) to it, if not remaining as an independent,
+  intervertebral, ossified sphere, as we sometimes find in specimens of
+  _Pelobatidae_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The first two vertebrae of _Necturus_. Vt^1,
+  Atlas; Vt^2, second vertebrae; a, intercondyloid process of the atlas;
+  b, the articular surfaces for the occipital condyles. The ribs of the
+  second vertebra are not represented. A, Dorsal; B, ventral; C, lateral
+  view. ]
+
+  In the Caudata and Apoda, cartilage often persists between the
+  vertebrae; this cartilage may become imperfectly separated into a
+  cup-and-ball portion, the cup belonging to the posterior end of the
+  vertebra. In such cases the distinction between amphicoelous and
+  opisthocoelous vertebrae rests merely on a question of ossification,
+  and has occasionally given rise to misunderstandings in the use of
+  these terms.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Necturus_. Posterior (A) and ventral (B)
+  views of the sacral vertebrae (S.V.); S.R.^1, S.R.^2, sacral ribs; Il,
+  ilium; Is, ischium.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.-Vertebral column of _Hymenochtrus_ (ventral
+  view).]
+
+  Amphicoelous (bi-concave) vertebrae are found in the Apoda and in some
+  of the Caudata; opisthocoelous (convexo-concave) vertebrae in the
+  higher Caudata and in the lower Ecaudata; whilst the great majority of
+  the Ecaudata have procoelous (concavo-convex) vertebrae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Chondrocranium of _Rana esculenta_--ventral
+  aspect.
+
+    rp,     The rhinal process.
+    pnl,    The praenasal processes.
+    an,     The alinasal processes, shown by the removal of part of the
+              floor of the left nasal chamber.
+    AO.,    The antorbital process.
+    pd,     The pedicle of the suspensorium continued into cv, the
+              ventral crus of the suspensorium.
+    cd,     Its dorsal crus.
+    tt,     The tegmen tympani.
+    SE,     The sphen-ethmoid.
+    EO.,    The exoccipitals.
+    Qu.J.,  The quadratojugal.
+    II. V. VI. Foramina by which the optic, trigeminal and abortio dura,
+                 and abducens nerves leave the skull.]
+
+  All living batrachians, and some of the Stegocephalia, have transverse
+  processes on the vertebrae that succeed the atlas (fig. 4), some of
+  which, in the Caudata, are divided into a dorsal and a ventral
+  portion. Ribs are present in the lower Ecaudata (_Discoglossidae_ and
+  larval Aglossa), but they are never connected with a sternum. It is in
+  fact doubtful whether the so-called sternum of batrachians, in most
+  cases a mere plate of cartilage, has been correctly identified as
+  such. When limbs are present, one vertebra, rarely two (fig. 5) or
+  three, are distinguished as sacral, giving attachment to the ilia. In
+  the Ecaudata, the form of the transverse processes of the sacral
+  vertebra varies very considerably, and has afforded important
+  characters to the systematist. In accordance with the saltatorial
+  habits of the members of this order, the vertebrae, which number from
+  40 to 60 in the Caudata, to upwards of 200 in the Apoda, have become
+  reduced to 10 as the normal number, viz., eight praecaudal, one sacral
+  and an elongate coccyx or urostyle, formed by coalescence of at least
+  two vertebrae. In some genera this coccyx is fused with the ninth
+  vertebra, and contributes to the sacrum, whilst in a few others the
+  number of segments is still further reduced by the co-ossification of
+  one or two vertebrae preceding that corresponding to the normal sacral
+  and by the fusion of the two first vertebrae, the extreme of reduction
+  being found in the genus _Hymenochirus_, the vertebral column of which
+  is figured here (fig 6.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--The skull of _Ichthyophis glutinosus_ A,
+  Dorsal; B, ventral; C, lateral view. The letters have the same
+  signification as below.]
+
+  As stated above in the definition of the order, the Stegocephalia have
+  retained most of the cranial bones which are to be found in the
+  Crossopterygian fishes, and it is worthy of note that the bones termed
+  post-temporals may give attachment to a further bone so prolonged
+  backwards as to suggest the probability of the skull being connected
+  with the shoulder-girdle, as in most teleostome fishes. This
+  supposition is supported by a specimen from the Lower Permian of
+  Autun, determined as _Actinodon frossardi_, acquired in 1902 by the
+  British Museum, which shows a bone, similar to the so-called "epiotic
+  cornu" of the microsaurians, _Ceraterpeton_ and _Scincosaurus_, to
+  have the relations of the supra-cleithrum of fishes, thus confirming a
+  suggestion made by C.W. Andrews (28). As in fishes also, the sensory
+  canal system must have been highly developed on the skulls of many
+  labyrinthodonts, and the impressions left by these canals have been
+  utilized by morphologists for homologizing the various elements of the
+  cranial roof with those of Crossopterygians. The pineal foramen, in
+  the parietal bones, is as constantly present as it is absent in the
+  other orders. Although not strictly forming part of the skull,
+  allusion should be made here to the ring of sclerotic plates which has
+  been found in many of the Stegocephalia, and which is only found
+  elsewhere in a few Crossopterygian fishes as well as in many reptiles
+  and birds.
+
+  In the orders which are still represented at the present day, the
+  bones of the skull are reduced in number and the "primordial skull,"
+  or chondrocranium (fig. 7), remains to a greater or less extent
+  unossified, even in the adult. Huxley's figures of the skull of a
+  caccilian (_Ichthyophis glutinosus_), fig. 8, of a perennibranchiate
+  urodele (_Necturus maculosus = Menobranchus lateralis_), fig. 9, and
+  of a frog (_Rana esculenta_), fig. 10, are here given for comparison.
+
+  The skull, in the _Apoda_, is remarkably solid and compact, and it
+  possesses a postorbital or postfrontal bone (marked 1 in the figure)
+  which does not exist in any of the other living batrachians. The
+  squamosal bone is large and either in contact with the frontals and
+  parietals or separated from them by a vacuity; the orbit is sometimes
+  roofed over by bone. The presence, in some genera, of a second row of
+  mandibular teeth seems to indicate the former existence of a splenial
+  element, such as exists in _Siren_ among the Caudata and apparently in
+  the labyrinthodonts.
+
+  In the Caudata, the frontals remain likewise distinct from the
+  parietals, whilst in the Ecaudata the two elements are fused into one,
+  and in a few forms (Aglossa, some _Pelobalidae_) the paired condition
+  of these bones has disappeared in the adult. Prefrontal bones are
+  present in the _Salamandridae_ and _Amphiumidae_, but absent (or fused
+  with the nasals) in the other Caudata and in the Ecaudata. In most of
+  the former the palatines fuse with the vomers, whilst they remain
+  distinct, unless entirely lost, in the latter. The vomer is single, or
+  absent, in the Aglossa. In the lower jaw of most of the Ecaudata the
+  symphysial cartilages ossify separately from the dentary bones,
+  forming the so-called mento-meckelian bones; but these symphysial
+  bones, so distinct in the frog, are less so in the _Hylidae_ and
+  _Bufonidae_, almost indistinguishable in the _Pelobatidae_ and
+  _Discoglossidae_, whilst in the Aglossa they do not exist any more
+  than in the other orders of batrachians.
+
+  No batrachian is known to possess an ossified azygous supra-occipital.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lateral, dorsal and ventral views of the
+  cranium of _Necturus maculosus_. In the dorsal view, the bones are
+  removed from the left half of the skull, in the ventral view, the
+  parasphenoid, palato-pterygoid, and vomers are given in outline. The
+  letters have, for the most part, the same signification as before.
+
+    VII.p, Posterior division of the seventh nerve.
+    VII. Chorda tympani
+    V^1, V^2, V^3, First, second and third divisions of the trigeminal.
+    s.s.l, Stapedio-suspensorial ligament.
+    h.s.l, Hyo-suspensorial ligament.
+    m.h.l, Mandibulo-hyoid ligament.
+    a, Ascending process of the suspensorium.
+    p, Pterygo-palatine process.
+    q, Quadrate process.
+    o, Otic process.
+    Na, Posterior nares.
+    Mck, Meckel's cartilage.
+    Gl (fig. 10), The position of the glottis.
+    Bb^1, Bb^2, Basilbranchials.]
+
+  Although there are four branchial arches in all the larval forms of
+  the three orders, and throughout life in the _Sirenidae_, the
+  perennibranchiate _Proteidae_ have only three (see fig. 11). In the
+  adult Apoda these arches and the hyoid fuse into three transverse,
+  curved or angular bones (see fig. 13), the two posterior disconnected
+  from the hyoid. In the Ecaudata, as shown by F. Gaupp (29) and by W.G.
+  Ridewood (30), the whole hyobranchial apparatus forms a cartilaginous
+  continuum, and during metamorphosis the branchialia disappear without
+  a trace. The hyoid of the adult frog (fig. 12) consists of a plate of
+  cartilage with two slender cornua, three processes on each side, and
+  two long bony rods behind, termed the thyro-hyals, which embrace the
+  larynx. In the Aglossa, which are remarkable for the large size and
+  complexity of the larynx, the thyro-hyal bones are incorporated into
+  the laryngeal apparatus, whilst the recently discovered _Hymenochirus_
+  is further remarkable for the large size and ossification of the
+  hyoidean cornua (ceratohyals), a feature which, though not uncommon
+  among the salamanders, is unique among the Ecaudata (31).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10--Dorsal, ventral, lateral, and posterior views
+  of the skull of _Rana esculenta_. The letters have the same
+  signification throughout.
+
+    Pmx, Premaxilla.
+    Mx, Maxilla.
+    Vo, Vomer.
+    Na, Nasal.
+    S.e, Sphen-ethmoid.
+    Fr, Frontal.
+    Pa, Parietal.
+    E.O, Exoccipital.
+    Ep, Epiotic process.
+    Pr.O, Pro-otic.
+    t.t, Tegmentympani.
+    Sq, Squamosal.
+    Q.J, Quadrato-jugal.
+    Pt1, Pterygoid, anterior process.
+    Pt2, Internal process.
+    Pt3, Posterior or external process.
+    Ca, Columella auris.
+    St, Stapes.
+    Hy, Hyoidean cornu.
+    P.S, Parasphenoid.
+    An, Angulate.
+    D, Dentale.
+    V, Foramen of exit of the trigeminal.
+    H, Of the optic.
+    X, Of the pneumogastric and glosso-pharyngeal nerves.
+    V1. Foramen by which the orbito-nasal or first division of the fifth
+          passes to the nasal cavity.]
+
+  The pectoral girdle of the Stegocephalia is, of course, only known
+  from the ossified elements, the identification of which has given rise
+  to some diversity of opinion. But C. Gegenbaur's (32) interpretation
+  may be regarded as final. He has shown that, as in the Crossopterygian
+  and Chondrostean ganoid fishes, there are two clavicular elements on
+  each side; the lower corresponds to the clavicle of reptiles and
+  higher vertebrates, whilst the upper corresponds to the clavicle of
+  teleostean fishes, and has been named by him "cleithrum." As stated
+  above, there is strong evidence in favour of the view that some forms
+  at least possessed in addition a "supracleithrum," corresponding to
+  the supra-clavicle of bony fishes. The element often termed "coracoid"
+  in these fossils would be the scapula. The clavicles rest on a large
+  discoidal, rhomboidal, or T-shaped median bone, which clearly
+  corresponds to the interclavicle of reptiles.
+
+  The pectoral girdle of the living types of batrachians is
+  distinguishable into a scapular, a coracoidal, and a praecoracoidal
+  region. In most of the Caudata the scapular region alone ossifies, but
+  in the Ecaudata the coracoid is bony and a clavicle is frequently
+  developed over the praecoracoid cartilage. In these batrachians the
+  pectoral arch falls into two distinct types--the _arciferous_, in
+  which the precoracoid (+clavicle) and coracoid are widely separated
+  from each other distally and connected by an arched cartilage (the
+  epicoracoid), the right usually overlapping the left; and the
+  _firmisternal_, in which both precoracoid and coracoid nearly abut on
+  the median line, and are only narrowly separated by the more or less
+  fused epicoracoids. The former type is exemplified by the toads and
+  the lower Ecaudata, whilst the latter is characteristic of the true
+  frogs (_Ranidae_), although when quite young these batrachians present
+  a condition similar to that which persists throughout life in their
+  lower relatives. A cartilage in the median line in front of the
+  precoracoids, sometimes supported by a bony style, is the so-called
+  Omosternum; a large one behind the cora-coids, also sometimes provided
+  with a bony style, has been called the sternum. But these names will
+  probably have to be changed when the homologies of these parts are
+  better understood.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Hyoid and branchial apparatus of _Necturus
+  maculosus_.
+
+    Hh, Hypo-hyal.
+    Ch, Cerato-hyal.
+    Bb^1, First basibranchial.
+    Bb^2, Ossified second basibranchial.
+    Ep.b^1, Ep.b^2, Ep.b^3, First, second and third epibranchials.
+    Gl, Glottis.]
+
+  The pelvic arch of some of the Stegocephalia contained a well ossified
+  pubic element, whilst in all other batrachians only the ilium, or the
+  ilium and the ischium are ossified. In the Ecaudata the ilium is
+  greatly elongated and the pubis and ischium are flattened, discoidal,
+  and closely applied to their fellows by their inner surfaces; the
+  pelvic girdle looks like a pair of tongs.
+
+  The long bones of the limbs consist of an axis of cartilage; the
+  extremities of the cartilages frequently undergo calcification and are
+  thus converted into epiphyses. In the Ecaudata the radius and ulna
+  coalesce into one bone. The carpus, which remains cartilaginous in
+  many of the Stegocephalia and Caudata, contains six to eight elements
+  when the manus is fully developed, whilst the number is reduced in
+  those forms which have only two or three digits. Except in some of the
+  Stegocephalia, there are only four functional digits in the manus, but
+  the Ecaudata have a more or less distinct rudiment of pollex; in the
+  Caudata it seems to be the outer digit which has been suppressed, as
+  atavistic reappearance of a fifth digit takes place on the outer side
+  of the manus, as it does on the pes in those forms in which the toes
+  are reduced to four. The usual number of phalanges is 2, 2, 3, 2 in
+  the Stegocephalia and Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 3 in the Ecaudata. In the foot
+  the digits usually number five, and the phalanges 2, 2, 3, 3, 2 in the
+  Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3 in the Stegocephalia and Ecaudata. There are
+  occasionally intercalary ossifications between the two distal
+  phalanges (33). There are usually nine tarsal elements in the Caudata;
+  this number is reduced in the Ecaudata, in which the two bones of the
+  proximal row (sometimes coalesced) are much elongated and form an
+  additional segment to the greatly lengthened hind-limb, a sort of
+  _crus secundarium_. In the Ecaudata also, the tibia and fibula
+  coalesce into one bone, and two or three small bones on the inner side
+  of the tarsus form what has been regarded as a rudimentary digit or
+  "prehallux."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Ventral view of the hyoid of _Rana
+  esculenta_. a, Anterior; b, lateral; c, posterior processes; d,
+  thyro-hyals.]
+
+  _Integument._--In all recent batrachians, the skin is naked, or if
+  small scales are present, as in many of the Apoda, they are concealed
+  in the skin. The extinct Stegocephalia, on the other hand, were mostly
+  protected, on the ventral surface at least, by an armour of
+  overlapping round, oval, or rhomboidal scales, often very similar to
+  those of Crossopterygian or ganoid fishes, and likewise disposed in
+  transverse oblique lines converging forwards on the middle line of the
+  belly. Sometimes these scales assumed the importance of scutes and
+  formed a carapace, as in the "batrachian armadillo" discovered by E.D.
+  Cope. A few frogs have the skin of the back studded with stellate bony
+  deposits (_Phyllomedusa, Nototrema_), whilst two genera are remarkable
+  for possessing a bony dorsal shield, free from the vertebrae
+  (_Ceratorphrys_) or ankylosed to them (_Brachycephalus_). None of the
+  Stegocephalia appears to have been provided with claws, but some
+  living batrachians (_Onychodactylus, Xenopus, Hymenochirus_) have the
+  tips of some or all of the digits protected by a claw-like horny
+  sheath.
+
+  The integument of tailed and tailless batrachians is remarkable for
+  the great abundance of follicular glands, of which there may be two
+  kinds, each having a special secretion, which is always more or less
+  acrid and irritating, and affords a means of defence against the
+  attacks of many carnivorous animals. A great deal has been published
+  on the poisonous secretion of batrachians (34), which is utilized by
+  the Indians of South America for poisoning their arrows. Some of the
+  poison-secreting glands attain a greater complication of structure and
+  are remarkable for their large size, such as the so-called "parotoid"
+  glands on the back of the head in toads and salamanders.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Ventral view of the head and trunk of
+  _Ichthyophis glutinosus_.
+
+    Mn, Mandible.
+    Hy, Hyoid.
+    Br^1 Br^2, Br^3, Branchial arches.
+    Gl, Glottis.
+    Tr, Trachea.
+    Ivc, Inferior vena cava.
+    V, Ventricle.
+    Au, Auricles.
+    Rsvc, Lsvc, right and left superior cavae.
+    Ta, Truncus arteriosus.
+    Ao, Left aortic arch.
+    P.A. Right pulmonary artery. The pericardium (lightly shaded)
+           extends as far as the bifurcation of the synangium.]
+
+  In all larval forms, in the Caudata, and in a few of the Ecaudata
+  (_Xenopus_, for instance), the epidermis becomes modified in relation
+  with the termination of sensory nerves, and gives rise to organs of
+  the same nature as those of the lateral line of fishes. In addition to
+  diffuse pigment (mostly in the epidermis), the skin contains granular
+  pigment stored up in cells, the chromatophores, restricted to the
+  cutis, which are highly mobile and send out branches which, by
+  contraction and expansion, may rapidly alter the coloration, most
+  batrachians being in this respect quite comparable to the famous
+  chameleons. Besides white (guanine) cells, the pigment includes black,
+  brown, yellow and red. The green and blue, so frequent in frogs and
+  newts, are merely subjective colours, due to interference. On the
+  mechanism of the change of colour, cf. W. Biedermann (35).
+
+  One of the interesting recent discoveries is that of the "hairy" frog
+  (_Trichobatrachus_), in which the sides of the body and limbs are
+  covered with long villosities, the function of which is still unknown
+  (36).
+
+  The nuptial horny asperities with which the males of many batrachians
+  are provided, for the purpose of clinging to the females, will be
+  noticed below, under the heading _Pairing and Oviposition_.
+
+  _Dentition._--In the Microsauria and Branchiosauria among the
+  Stegocephalia, as in the other orders, the hollow, conical or slightly
+  curved teeth exhibit simple or only slightly folded walls. But in the
+  Labyrinthodonta, grooves are more or less marked along the teeth and
+  give rise to folds of the wall which, extending inwards and ramifying,
+  produce the complicated structure, exhibited by transverse sections,
+  whence these batrachians derive their name; a somewhat similar
+  complexity of structure is known in some holoptychian (dendrodont)
+  Crossopterygian fishes. In the remarkable salamander _Autodax_, the
+  teeth in the jaws are compressed, sharp-edged, lancet shaped. The
+  teeth are not implanted in sockets, but become ankylosed with the
+  bones that bear them, and are replaced by others developed at their
+  bases. Teeth are present in the jaws of all known Stegocephalia and
+  Apoda and of nearly all Caudata, _Siren_ alone presenting plates of
+  horn upon the gingival surfaces of the premaxillae and of the dentary
+  elements of the mandible. But they are nearly always absent in the
+  lower jaw of the Ecaudata (exceptions in _Hemiphractus,
+  Amphignathodon, Amphodus, Ceratobatrachus_, the male of
+  _Dimorphognathus_), many of which (toads, for instance) are entirely
+  edentulous.
+
+  There is great variety in the distribution of the teeth on the palate.
+  They may occur simultaneously on the vomers, the palatines, the
+  pterygoids and the parasphenoid in some of the Stegocephalia
+  (_Dawsonia, Seeleya, Acanthostoma_), on the vomers, palatines and
+  parasphenoid in many salamandrids (_Plethodontinae_ and
+  _Desmognathinae_), on the vomers, pterygoids and parasphenoid (some
+  _Pelobates_), on the vomers and parasphenoid (_Triprion, Amphodus_),
+  whilst in the majority or other batrachians they are confined to the
+  vomers and palatines or to the vomers alone (37).
+
+  As regards the alimentary organs, it will suffice to state, in this
+  very brief sketch, that all batrachians being carnivorous in their
+  perfect condition, the intestine is never very long and its
+  convolutions are few and simple. But the larvae of the Ecaudata are
+  mainly herbivorous and the digestive tract is accordingly extremely
+  elongate and coiled up like the spring of a watch. The gullet is
+  short, except in the Apoda. The tongue is rudimentary in the
+  perennibranchiatea Caudata, well developed, and often protrusile, in
+  the _Salamandridae_ and most of the Ecaudata, totally absent in the
+  Aglossa.
+
+  The organs of circulation cannot be dealt with here; the most
+  important addition made to our knowledge in recent years being found
+  in the contributions of F. Hochstetter (38) and of G.B. Howes (39),
+  dealing with the azygous (posterior) cardinal veins in salamanders and
+  some of the Ecaudata. The heart is situated quite forward, in the
+  gular or pectoral region, even in those tailed batrachians which have
+  a serpentiform body, whilst in the Apoda (fig. 13) it is moved back to
+  a distance which is comparable to that it occupies in most of the
+  snakes.
+
+  _The Respiratory Organs._--The larynx, which is rudimentary in most of
+  the Caudata and in the Apoda, is highly developed in the Ecaudata, and
+  becomes the instrument of the powerful voice with which many of the
+  frogs and toads are provided. The lungs are long simple tubes in some
+  of the perennibranchiate Caudata; they generally shorten or become
+  cellular in the salamandrids, and attain their highest development in
+  the Ecaudata, especially in such forms as the burrowing _Pelobates_.
+  Although the lungs are present in such forms as preserve the gills
+  throughout life, it is highly remarkable that quite a number of
+  abranchiate salamanders, belonging mostly to the subfamilies
+  _Desmognathinae_ and _Plethodontinae_, are devoid of lungs and breathe
+  entirely by the skin and by the bucco-pharyngeal mucose membrane (20).
+  Some of the _Salamandrinae_ show the intermediate conditions which
+  have led to the suppression of the trachea and lungs. In the Apoda, as
+  in many serpentiform reptiles, one of the lungs, either the right or
+  the left, is much less developed than the other, often very short.
+
+  _Urino-genital Organs._--The genital glands, ovaries and testes, are
+  attached to the dorsal wall of the body-cavity, in the immediate
+  vicinity of the kidneys, with which the male glands are intimately
+  connected. The oviducts are long, usually more or less convoluted
+  tubes which open posteriorly into the cloaca, while their anterior
+  aperture is situated far forward, sometimes close to the root of the
+  lung; their walls secrete a gelatinous substance which invests the ova
+  as they descend. In most male batrachians the testes are drained by
+  transverse canals which open into a longitudinal duct, which also
+  receives the canals of the kidneys, so that this common duct conveys
+  both sperma and urine. In some of the discogloesid frogs, however, the
+  seminal duct is quite independent of the kidney, which has its own
+  canal, or true ureter. Many of the Ecaudata have remnants of oviducts,
+  or Mullerian ducts, most developed in _Bufo_, which genus is also
+  remarkable as possessing a problematic organ, Bidder's organ, situated
+  between the testis and the adipose or fat-bodies that surmount it.
+  This has been regarded by some anatomists as a rudimentary ovary.
+  Female salamandrids are provided with a _receptaculum seminis_.
+  Copulatory organs are absent, except in the Apoda, in which a portion
+  of the cloaca can be everted and acts as a penis. The urinary bladder
+  is always large.
+
+  The spermatozoa have received a great share of attention, on the part
+  not only of anatomists and physiologists, but even of systematic
+  workers (40). This is due to the great amount of difference in
+  structure and size between these elements in the various genera, and
+  also to the fact that otherwise closely allied species may differ very
+  considerably in this respect. The failure to obtain hybrids between
+  certain species of _Rana_ has been attributed principally to these
+  differences. The spermatozoa of _Discoglossus_ are remarkable for
+  their great size, measuring three millimetres in length.
+
+  _Pairing and Oviposition_--Batrachians may be divided into four
+  categories under this head:--(1) no amplexation; (2) amplexation
+  without internal fecundation; (3) amplexation with internal
+  fecundation; (4) copulation proper. The first category embraces many
+  aquatic newts, the second nearly all the Ecaudata, the third the rest
+  of the Caudata, and the fourth the Apoda.
+
+  In the typical newts (_Molge_) of Europe, the males are adorned during
+  the breeding season with bright colours and crests or other ornamental
+  dermal appendages, and, resorting to the water, they engage in a
+  lengthy courtship accompanied by lively evolutions around the females,
+  near which they deposit their spermatozoa in bundles on a gelatinous
+  mass, the spermatophore, probably secreted by the cloacal gland. This
+  arrangement facilitates the internal fecundation of the female without
+  copulation, the female absorbs the spermatozoa by squeezing them out
+  of the spermatophore between the cloacal lips. Other newts, and many
+  salamanders, whether terrestrial or aquatic, pair, the male embracing
+  the female about the fore limbs or in the pelvic region, and the males
+  of such forms are invariably devoid of ornamental secondary sexual
+  characters; but in spite of this amplexation the same mode of
+  fecundation by means of a spermatophore is resorted to, although it
+  may happen that the contents of the spermatophore are absorbed direct
+  from the cloaca of the male. The spermatozoa thus reach the eggs in
+  the oviducts, where they may develop entirely, some of the salamanders
+  being viviparous.
+
+  In all the tailless batrachians (with the exception of a single known
+  viviparous toad), the male clings to the female round the breast, at
+  the arm-pits, or round the waist, and awaits, often for hours or days,
+  the deposition of the ova, which are immediately fecundated by several
+  seminal emissions.
+
+  The fourth category is represented by the Apoda or Caecilians in
+  which, as we have stated above, the male is provided with an
+  intromittent organ. Some of these batrachians are viviparous.
+
+  In those species in which the embrace is of long duration the limbs
+  of the male, usually the fore limbs (pleurodele newt, Ecaudata),
+  rarely the hind limbs (a few American and European newts), according
+  to the mode of amplexation, acquire a greater development, and are
+  often armed with temporary horny excrescences which drop off after the
+  pairing season. These asperities usually form brush-like patches on
+  the inner side of one or more of the digits, but may extend over the
+  inner surface of the limbs and on the breast and chin; the use of them
+  on these parts is sufficiently obvious, but they are sometimes also
+  present, without apparent function, on various parts of the foot, as
+  in _Discoglossus, Bombinator_, and _Pelodytes_. In some species of the
+  South American frogs of the genus _Leptodactylus_ the breast and hands
+  are armed with very large spines, which inflict deep wounds on the
+  female held in embrace.
+
+  In most of the Caudata, the eggs are deposited singly in the axils of
+  water plants or on leaves which the female folds over the egg with her
+  hind limbs. The eggs are also deposited singly in some of the lower
+  Ecaudata. In many of the Ecaudata, and in a few of the Caudata and
+  Apoda, the eggs are laid in strings or bands which are twined round
+  aquatic plants or carried by the parent; whilst in other Ecaudata they
+  form large masses which either float on the surface of the water or
+  sink to the bottom.
+
+  A few batrachians retain the ova within the oviducts until the young
+  have undergone part or the whole of the metamorphosis. Viviparous
+  parturition is known among the Caudata (_Salamandra, Spelerpes
+  fuscus_), and the Apoda (_Dermophis thomensis, Typhlonectes
+  compressicauda_); also in a little toad (_Pseudophryne vivipara_)
+  recently discovered in German East Africa (41).
+
+  _Development and Metamorphosis._--In a great number of batrachians,
+  including most of the European species, the egg is small and the
+  food-yolk is in insufficient quantity to form an external appendage of
+  the embryo. But in a few European and North American species, and in a
+  great many inhabitants of the tropics, the egg is large and a
+  considerable portion of it persists for a long time as a yolk-sac.
+  Although the segmentation is always complete, it is very irregular in
+  these types, some of which make a distinct approach to the meroblastic
+  egg.
+
+  With the exception of a number of forms in which the whole development
+  takes place within the egg or in the body of the mother, batrachians
+  undergo metamorphoses, the young passing through a free-swimming,
+  gill-breathing period of considerable duration, during which their
+  appearance, structure, and often their _régime_, are essentially
+  different from those of the mature form. Even the fossil Stegocephalia
+  underwent metamorphosis, as we know from various larval remains first
+  described as _Branchiosaurus_. They are less marked or more gradual in
+  the Apoda and Caudata than in Ecaudata, in which the stage known as
+  tadpole is very unlike the frog or toad into which it rather suddenly
+  passes (see TADPOLE). In the Caudata, external gills (three on each
+  side) persist until the close of the metamorphosis, whilst in the
+  Apoda and Ecaudata they exist only during the earlier periods, being
+  afterwards replaced by internal gills.
+
+  Many cases are known in which the young batrachian enters the world in
+  the perfect condition, as in the black salamander of the Alps
+  (_Salamandra atra_), the cave salamander (_Spelerpes fuscus_), the
+  caecinan _Typhlonectes_, and a number of frogs, such as _Pipa,
+  Rhinoderma, Hylodes_, some _Nototrema, Rana opisthodon_, &c. A fairly
+  complete bibliographical index to these cases and the most remarkable
+  instances of parental care in tailless batrachians will be found in
+  the interesting articles by Lilian V. Sampson (42), and by G. Brandes
+  and W. Schoenichen (43). It will suffice to indicate here in a
+  synoptic form, as was done by the present writer many years ago, when
+  our knowledge of these wonders of batrachian life was far less
+  advanced than it is now, the principal modes of protection which are
+  resorted to:--
+
+  1. Protection by means of nests or nurseries.
+
+    A. In enclosures in the water.--_Hylafaber_.
+    B. In nests in holes near the water.--_Rhacophorus, Leptodactylus_.
+    C. In nests overhanging the water.--_Rhacophorus, Chiromantis,
+         Phyllpmedusa_.
+    D. On trees or in moss away from the water.--_Rana opisthodon,
+         Hylodes, Hylelia platycephala_.
+    E. In a gelatinous bag in the water.--_Phrynixalus, Salamandrella_.
+
+  2. Direct nursing by the parents.
+
+    A. Tadpoles transported from one place to another.--_Dendrebates,
+         Phyllobates, Sooglossus_.
+    B. Eggs protected by the parents who coil themselves round or "sit"
+         on them.--_Mantophryne, Desmognathus, Autodax, Plethodon,
+         Cryptobranchus, Amphiuma, Ichthyophis, Hypogeophis, Siphonops_.
+    C. Eggs carried by the parents.
+        (a) Round the legs, by the male.--_Alytes_.
+        (b) On the back, by the female.
+            (1) Exposed.--_Hyla goeldii, H. evansii, Ceratohyla_.
+            (2) In cell-like pouches.--_Pipa_.
+            (3) In a common pouch.--_Nototrema, Amphignathodon_.
+        (c) On the belly.
+            (1) Exposed, by the female.--_Rhacophorus reticulatus_.
+            (2) In a pouch (the produced vocal sac), by the
+                male.--_Rhinoderma_.
+        (d) In the mouth, by the female.--_Hylambates brevirostris_.
+
+  _Geographical Distribution._--If a division of the world according to
+  its batrachian faunae were to be attempted, it would differ very
+  considerably from that which would answer for the principal groups of
+  reptiles, the lizards especially. We should have four great
+  realms:--(1) Europe and Northern and Temperate Asia, Africa north of
+  the Sahara (palaearctic region) and North and Central America
+  (nearctic region); (2) Africa and South-Eastern Asia (Ethiopian and
+  Indian region); (3) South America (neotropical region); and (4)
+  Australia (Australian region). The first would be characterized by the
+  Caudata, which are almost confined to it (although a few species
+  penetrate into the Indian and neotropical regions), the
+  _Discoglossidae_, mostly Europaeo-Asiatic, but one genus in
+  California, and the numerous _Pelobatidae_; the second by the presence
+  of Apoda, the prevalence of firmisternal Ecaudata and the absence of
+  _Hylidae_; the third by the presence of Apoda, the prevalence of
+  arciferous Ecaudata and the scarcity of _Ranidae_, the fourth by the
+  prevalence of arciferous Ecaudata and the absence of _Ranidae_, as
+  well as by the absence of either Caudata or Apoda. Madagascar might
+  almost stand as a fifth division of the world, characterized by the
+  total absence of Caudata, Apoda, and arciferous Ecaudata. But the
+  close relation of its very rich frog-fauna to that of the Ethiopian
+  and Indian regions speaks against attaching too great importance to
+  these negative features. It may be noted here that no two parts of the
+  world differ so considerably in their Ecaudata as do Madagascar and
+  Australia, the former having only Firmisternia, the latter only
+  Arcifera. Although there is much similarity between the Apoda of
+  Africa and of South America, one genus being even common to both parts
+  of the world, the frogs are extremely different, apart from the
+  numerous representatives of the widely distributed genus _Bufo_. It
+  may be said that, on the whole, the distribution of the batrachians
+  agrees to some extent with that of fresh-water fishes, except for the
+  much less marked affinity between South America and Africa, although
+  even among the former we have the striking example of the distribution
+  of the very natural group of the aglossal batrachians, represented by
+  _Pipa_ in South America and by _Xenopus_ and _Hymenochirus_ in Africa.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(1) On the use of the names _Batrachia_ and _Amphibia_,
+  cf. E.D. Cope, _Geol. Mag._ (3) ii., 1885, p. 575; G. Baur, _Science_
+  (2), vi., 1897, pp. 170, 372; B.G. Wilder, t.c. p. 295; T Gill, t.c.
+  p. 446; O.P. Hay, t.c. p. 773; T. Gill, _Science_ (2), xx., 1900, p.
+  730; L. Steineger, op. cit. xx., 1904, p. 924. (2) E. Fraas, "Die
+  Labyrinthodonten der schwäbischen Trias," _Palaeontogr._ xxxvi., 1889,
+  p. 1. (3) _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1904, ii. p. 170. (4) E.D. Cope,
+  "Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia of North America," _Proc. Ac.
+  Philad._, 1868, p. 208. (5) "Researches on the Structure, Organization
+  and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia, vii" _Phil. Trans._
+  clxxxiii. (B), 1892, p. 311. (6) _Cambridge Natural History_, viii.
+  (1901). (7) "Die Urvierfüssler (Eotetrapoda) des sächsischen
+  Rotliegenden," _Allgem. verständl. naturh. Abh._, Berlin, 1891, No.
+  15; "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte von Branchiosaurus amblystomus,"
+  _Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges._, 1886, p. 576. (8) C. Emery, "Über die
+  Beziehungen des Chiropterygium zum Ichthyopterygium," _Zool. Anz._ x.,
+  1887, p. 185; E.D. Cope, "On the Phylogeny of the Vertebrata," _Proc.
+  Amer. Philos. Soc._ xxx., 1892, p. 280; H.B. Pollard, "On the Anatomy
+  and Phylogenetic Position of _Polypterus_," _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ v.,
+  1892, p. 414; G. Baur, "The Stegocephali: a Phylogenetic Study,"
+  _Anat. Anz._ xi., 1896, p. 657; L. Dollo, "Sur le phylogénie des
+  dipneustes," _Mém. soc. belge géol._ ix., 1895, p. 79; T. Gill, "On
+  the Derivation of the Pectoral Member in Terrestrial Vertebrates,"
+  _Rep. Brit. Ass._, 1897, p. 697. (9) E.D. Cope, "The Origin of the
+  Mammalia," _Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc._ xxii., 1884, p. 43; cf.
+  Discussion on Origin of Mammals, _Proc. Intern. Congr. Zool._,
+  Cambridge, 1898; also H. Gadow, "The Origin of the _Mammalia_," _Z. f.
+  Morphol._ iv., 1902, p. 345; and R. Broom, _Rep. Brit. Ass._, 1905, p.
+  437. (10) A. Fritsch, _Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksleine der
+  Permformation Böhmens_, vols. i. and ii (Prague, 1879-1885, 4to); H.
+  Credner, "Die Stegocephalen aus dem Rotliegenden des Plauenschen
+  Grundes bei Dresden," _Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges._, 1881-1894; J.W.
+  Dawson, "On the Results of Recent Explorations of Erect Trees
+  containing Animal Remains in the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia,"
+  _Phil. Trans._ clxxiii., 1882, p. 621; H.B. Geinitz and J.V.
+  Deichmüller, "Die Saurier der unteren Dyas von Sachsen,"
+  _Palaeontogr._ xxix., 1882, p. 1; A. Gaudry, _Les Enchaînements du
+  monde animal dans les temps géologiques, fossiles primaires_ (Paris,
+  1883, 8vo), p. 251; E.D. Cope, "The Batrachia of the Permian Period of
+  North America," _Amer. Nat._ xviii., 1884, p. 26; E. Fraas, "Die
+  Labyrinthodonten der schwäbischen Trias," _Palaeontogr._ xxxvi., 1889,
+  p. 1; L.v. Ammon, _Die permischen Amphibien der Rheinpfalz_ (Munich,
+  1889-1891, 4to); R. Lydekker, _Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and
+  Amphibia in the British Museum_, part iv. (London, 1890, 8vo); E.
+  Fraas, _Die schwäbischen Trias-Saurier nach dem Material der k.
+  Naturalien-Sammlung in Stuttgart zusammengestellt_ (Stuttgart, 1896,
+  4to); O. Jaekel, "Die Organization von _Archegosaurus_," _Zeitschr.
+  deutsch. geol. Ges_. xlviii., 1896, p. 505; F. Broili, "Ein Beitrag
+  zur Kenntnis von _Eryops megacephalus_," _Palaeontogr_. xlvi., 1899,
+  p. 61. (11) "Amphibian Footprints from the Devonian," _Amer. Journ.
+  Sci_. ii., 1896, p. 374. (12) "Découverte du plus ancien amphibien
+  connu ... dans le famennien supérieur de Modave," _Bull. soc. beige
+  géol_. xv., 1888, p. cxx, (13) "A Batrachian Armadillo," _Amer. Nat_.
+  xxix., 1895, p. 998. (14) C. Gegenbaur, _Untersuchungen zur
+  vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelsaule bei Amphibien und Reptilien_
+  (Leipzig, 1862, 4to); H. Gadow, "On the Evolution of the Vertebral
+  Column of Amphibia and Amniota," _Phil. Trans_. clxxxvii. (B), 1896,
+  p. 1. (15) R. Wiedersheim, _Die Anatomie der Gymnophionen_ (Jena,
+  1879, 4to); W. Peters, "Über die Einteilung der Caecilien," _Mon.
+  Berl. Ac_., 1879, p. 924; G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue of Batrachia
+  Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the
+  British Museum_ (London, 1882, 8vo), and "A Synopsis of the Genera and
+  Species of Apodal Batrachians," _P. Z. S_., 1895, p. 401. (16) "On the
+  Structure and Affinities of the _Amphiumidae_" _Proc. Amer. Philos.
+  Soc._ xxiii., 1886, p. 442. (17) _Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher
+  Forschungen auf Ceylon_, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890, 4to), (18) "The
+  Chondrocranium of the Ichthyopsida," _Stud. Biol. Lab. Tufts Coll_.
+  No. 5, 1898, p. 147. (19) G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue, &c._, 1882. (20)
+  H.H. Wilder, "Lungenlose Salamandriden," _Anat. Anz_. ix., 1894, p.
+  216; L. Camerano, "Ricerche anatomofisiologiche intorno ai
+  Salamandridi normalmente apneumoni," _Atti Acc. Torin_. xxix., 1894,
+  p. 705, and xxxi., 1896, p. 512; H.H. Wilder, "Lungless Salamanders,"
+  _Anat. Anz_. xii., 1896, p. 182; E. Loennberg, "Notes on Tailed
+  Batrachians without Lungs," _Zool. Anz_. xix., 1896, p. 33. (21) "Note
+  sur le batracien de Bernissart," _Bull. mus. belg_. iii., 1884, p. 85.
+  (22) G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue of Batrachia Salientia s. Ecaudata in
+  the Collection of the British Museum_ (London, 1882, 8vo). (23) "On
+  the Development of the Vertebral Column in _Pipa_ and _Xenopus_,"
+  _Anat. Anz_. xiii., 1898, p. 359. (24) G.A. Boulenger, "On
+  _Hymenochirus_, a New Type of Aglossal Batrachians," _Ann. and Mag. N.
+  H._ (7), iv., 1899, p. 122. (25) L.M. Vidal, _Mem. Ac. Barcelona_ (3),
+  iv., 1902, No. 18, pl. iv. (26) W. Wolterstorff, "Über fossile
+  Frösche, insbesondere Palaeobatrachus," _Jahresb. Nat. Ver. Magdeb_.,
+  1885 and 1886. (27) W. Peters, "Über die Entwickelung eines
+  Batrachiers. _Hylodes martinicensis_, ohne Metamorphose," _Mon. Berl.
+  Ac_., 1876, p. 709; A. Kappler, "Die Tierwelt im holländischen
+  Guiana," _Das Ausland_, 1885, p. 358; G.A. Boulenger, "Reptiles and
+  Batrachians of the Solomon Islands," _Trans. Zool. Soc_. xii., 1886,
+  p. 51; H. v. Ihering, "On the Oviposition of _Phyllomedusa
+  iheringii_," _Ann. and Mag. N.H._ (5), xvii., 1886, p. 461; H.H.
+  Smith, "On Oviposition and Nursing in the Batrachian genus
+  _Dendrobates_," _Amer. Nat_. xxi., 1887, p. 307; G.B. Howes, "Notes on
+  the Gular Brood-pouch of _Rhinoderma darwini_," _P.Z.S_., 1888, p.
+  231; W.J. Holland, "Arboreal Tadpoles," _Amer. Nat_. xxiii., 1889, p.
+  383; E.A. Goeldi, "Contribution to the Knowledge of the Breeding
+  Habits of some Tree-frogs of the Serra dos Orgaos, Rio de Janeiro,
+  Brazil," _P.Z.S_., 1895. p. 89; G.A. Boulenger, "On the Nursing Habits
+  of two South American Frogs," _P.Z.S_., 1895, p. 209; A. Brauer, "Ein
+  neuer Fall von Brutpflege bei Fröschen," _Zool. Jahrb. Syst_. xi.,
+  1898, p. 89; S. Ikeda, "Notes on the Breeding Habit and Development of
+  _Rhacophorus schlegelii_," _Annot. Zool. Japan_, i., 1898, p. 113; G.
+  Brandes, "Larven zweier Nototrema-Arten," _Verh. deutsch. zool. Ges_.,
+  1899, p. 288; L. v. Méhely, "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Engystomatiden
+  von Neu-Guinea," _Termes. Fuzetek, Budapest_, xxiv., 1901, p. 216;
+  G.A. Boulenger, "_Ceratohyla bubalus_ carrying eggs on its back,"
+  _P.Z.S_., 1903, ii. p. 115; _Idem_. "Description of a new Tree-frog of
+  the genus _Hyla_, from British Guiana, carrying eggs on the back,"
+  _op. cit_., 1904, ii. p. 106; H.S. Ferguson, "Travancore Batrachians,"
+  _J. Bombay N.H. Soc_. xv., 1904, p. 499. (28) _Geol. Mag_. iv., ii.,
+  1895, p. 83. (29) "Das Hyobranchial-Skelett der Anura," _Morph. Arb_.
+  iii., 1894, p. 399. (30) "On the Structure and Development of the
+  Hyobranchial Skeleton of the Parsley Frog," _P.Z.S_., 1897, p. 577.
+  (31) W.G. Ridewood, "On the Hyobrachial Skeleton and Larynx of
+  _Hymenochirus_," _J. Linn. Soc_. xxviii., 1899, p. 454. (32) _Morphol.
+  Jahrb_. xxiii., 1895, p. 1. (33) G.B. Howes and A.M. Davies, _P.Z.S_.,
+  1888, p. 495. (34) G.A. Boulenger, "The Poisonous Secretion of
+  Batrachians," _Nat. Science_, i., 1892, p. 185; F. Gidon, _Venins
+  multiples et toxicité humorale chez les batraciens_ (Paris, 1897,
+  8vo). (35) _Arch. Ges. Physiol_. li., 1892, p. 455. (36) G.A.
+  Boulenger, _P.Z.S_., 1900, p. 433, and 1901, ii. p. 709; H. Gadow,
+  _Anat. Anz_. xviii., 1900, p. 588. (37) G.A. Boulenger, "On the
+  Presence of Pterygoid Teeth in a Tailless Batrachian, with remarks on
+  the Localization of Teeth on the Palate," _P.Z.S_., 1890, p. 664. (38)
+  _Morphol. Jahrb_. xiii., 1887, p. 119. (39) _P.Z.S_., 1888, p. 122.
+  (40) G.A. Boulenger, _Tailless Batrachians of Europe_ (1897), p. 75.
+  (41) G. Tornier, "Pseudophryne vivipara, ein lebendig gebärender
+  Frosch," _Sitzb. Ak. Ber_. xxxix., 1905, p. 855. (42) "Unusual Modes
+  of Breeding and Development among _Anura_," _Amer. Nat_. xxxiv., 1900,
+  p. 405. (43) "Brutpflege der schwanzlosen Batrachier," _Abh. Nat.
+  Ges_. Halle, xxii., 1901, p. 395.     (G. A. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BATRACHOMYOMACHIA (Gr. [Greek: Batrachos], "frog," [Greek: mus],
+"mouse," and [Greek: machae], "battle"), the "Battle of Frogs and Mice,"
+a comic epic or parody on the _Iliad_, definitely attributed to Homer by
+the Romans, but according to Plutarch (_De Herodoti Malignitate_, 43)
+the work of Pigres of Halicarnassus, the brother (or son) of Artemisia,
+queen of Caria and ally of Xerxes. Some modern scholars, however, assign
+it to an anonymous poet of the time of Alexander the Great.
+
+  Edition by A. Ludwich (1896).
+
+
+
+
+BATTA, an Anglo-Indian military term, probably derived from the Canarese
+_bhatta_ (rice in the husk), meaning a special allowance made to
+officers, soldiers, or other public servants in the field.
+
+
+
+
+BATTAGLIA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Padua, 11 m.
+S.S.W. by rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4456. It lies at the edge of the
+volcanic Euganean Hills, and is noted for its warm saline springs and
+natural vapour grotto. A fine palace was erected in the Palladian style
+in the 17th century by Marchese Benedetto Selvatico-Estense, then owner
+of the springs.
+
+
+
+
+BATTAKHIN, African "Arabs" of Semitic stock. They occupy the banks of
+the Blue Nile near Khartum, and it was against them that General Gordon
+fought most of his battles near the town. Their sheikh, El Obeid, routed
+Gordon's troops on the 4th of September 1884, a defeat which led to the
+close investment of Khartum. In the 18th century James Bruce described
+them as "a thieving, pilfering lot."
+
+
+
+
+BATTALION, a unit of military organization consisting of four or more
+companies of infantry. The term is used in nearly every army, and is
+derived through Fr. from It. _battaglione_, Med. Lat. _battalia_ (see
+BATTLE). "Battalion" in the 16th and 17th centuries implied a unit of
+infantry forming part of the line of battle, but at first meant an
+unusually large _battalia_ or a single large body of men formed of
+several _battalias_. In the British regular service the infantry
+battalion is commanded by a lieut.-colonel, who is assisted by an
+adjutant, and consists at war strength of about 1000 bayonets in eight
+companies. Engineers, train, certain kinds of artillery, and more rarely
+cavalry are also organized in battalions in some countries.
+
+
+
+
+BATTAMBANG, or BATTAMBONG (locally _Phralabong_), the chief town of the
+north-western division of Cambodia, formerly capital of Monton Kmer,
+i.e. "The Cambodian Division," one of the eastern provinces of Siam, now
+included in the French protectorate of Cambodia. It is situated in 103°
+6' E., 13° 6' N., in the midst of a fertile plain and on the river Sang
+Ke, which flows eastwards and falls into the Tonle or Talé Sap, the
+great lake of Cambodia. The town is a collection of bamboo houses of no
+importance, but there is a walled enceinte of some historical interest.
+Trade is small and is carried on by Chinese settlers, chiefly overland
+with Bangkok, but to a small extent also by water with Saigon. The
+population is about 5000, two-thirds Cambodian and the remainder Chinese
+and Siamese. The language is Cambodian.
+
+Battambang was taken by the Siamese when they overran the kingdom of
+Cambodia towards the end of the 18th century, and was recognized by the
+French as belonging to Siam when the frontier of Cambodia was adjusted
+by treaty in 1867-1872. In another treaty in 1893, Siam bound herself to
+maintain no armed forces there other than police, but this arrangement
+was annulled by the treaty of 1904, by which Battambang was definitely
+admitted to lie within the French sphere of influence. Under a further
+treaty in March 1907 (see SIAM), the district of Battambang was finally
+ceded to the French.
+
+
+
+
+BATTANNI, or BHITANI, a small tribe on the Waziri border of the
+North-West Frontier Province of India. The Battannis hold the hills on
+the borders of Tank and Bannu in the Dera Ismail Khan district, from the
+Gabar mountain on the north to the Gomal valley on the south. They are
+only 3000 fighting men strong, and are generally regarded as the jackals
+of the Waziris. Their chief importance arises from the fact that no
+raids can be carried into British districts by the Mahsud Waziris
+without passing through Battanni territory. A small British expedition
+against the Battannis was led by Lt.-Col. Rynd in 1880. Under the
+excitement caused by the preaching of a fanatical mullah the Mahsud
+Waziris had attacked the town of Gomal. The Battannis failed to supply
+information as to their movements, and gave them a passage through
+their lands. The British troops accordingly stormed the Hinis Tangi
+defile in face of opposition, and burned the village of Jandola.
+
+
+
+
+BATTAS (Dutch _Battaks_), the inhabitants of the formerly independent
+Batta country, in the central highlands of Sumatra, now for the most
+part subjugated to the Dutch government. The still independent area
+extends from 98°-99° 35' E., and 2°-3° 25' S. North-east of Toba Lake
+dwell the Timor Battas, and west of it the Pakpak, but on its north (in
+the mountains which border on the east coast residency) the Karo Battas
+form a special group, which, by its dialects and ethnological character,
+appears to be allied to the Gajus and Allas occupying the interior of
+Achin. The origin of the Battas is doubtful. It is not known whether
+they were settled in Sumatra before the Hindu period. Their language
+contains words of Sanskrit origin and others referable to Javanese,
+Malay and Tagal influence. Their domain has been doubtless much
+curtailed, and their absorption into the Achin and Malay population
+seems to have been long going on. The Battas are undoubtedly of Malayan
+stock, and by most authorities are affiliated to that Indonesian
+pre-Malayan race which peopled the Indian Archipelago, expelling the
+aboriginal negritos, and in turn themselves submitting to the civilized
+Malays. In many points the Battas are physically quite different from
+the Malay type. The average height of the men is 5 ft. 4 in.; of the
+women 4 ft. 8 in. In general build they are rather thickset, with broad
+shoulders and fairly muscular limbs. The colour of the skin ranges from
+dark brown to a yellowish tint, the darkness apparently quite
+independent of climatic influences or distinction of race. The skull is
+rather oval than round. In marked contrast to the Malay type are the
+large, black, long-shaped eyes, beneath heavy, black or dark brown
+eyebrows. The cheek-bones are somewhat prominent, but less so than among
+the Malays. The Battas are dirty in their dress and dwellings and eat
+any kind of food, though they live chiefly on rice. They are remarkable
+as a people who in many ways are cultured and possess a written language
+of their own, and yet are cannibals. The more civilized of them around
+Lake Toba are good agriculturists and stock-breeders, and understand
+iron-smelting. They weave and dye cotton, make jewellery and krisses
+which are often of exquisite workmanship, bake pottery, and build
+picturesque chalet-like houses of two storeys. They have an organized
+government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a written civil
+and penal code. There is even an antiquated postal system, the
+letter-boxes being the hollow tree trunks at crossroads. Yet in spite of
+this comparative culture the Battas have long been notorious for the
+most revolting forms of cannibalism. (See _Memoirs of the Life, &c., of
+Sir T.S. Raffles_, 1830.)
+
+The Battas are the only lettered people of the Indian Archipelago who
+are not Mahommedans. Their religion is mainly confined to a belief in
+evil spirits; but they recognize three gods, a Creator, a Preserver and
+a Destroyer, a trinity suggestive of Hindu influence.
+
+Up to the publication of Dr H.N. van der Tuuk's essay, _Over schrift en
+uitspraak der Tobasche taal_ (1855), our knowledge of the Batta language
+was confined to lists of words more or less complete, chiefly to be
+found in W. Marsden's _Miscellaneous Works_, in F.W. Junghuhn's
+_Battalander_, and in the _Tijdschrift van het Bataviaasch Genootschap,
+_vol. iii. (1855). By his exhaustive works (_Bataksch Leesboek_, in 4
+vols., 1861-1862; _Bataksch-nederduitsch Woordenboek_, 1861; _Tobasche
+Spraakkunst_, 1864-1867) van der Tuuk made the Batta language the most
+accessible of the various tongues spoken in Sumatra. According to him,
+it is nearest akin to the old Javanese and Tagal, but A. Schreiber (_Die
+Battas in ihrem Verhältnis zu den Malaien von Sumatra_, 1874)
+endeavoured to prove its closer affinity with the Malay proper. Like
+most languages spoken by less civilized tribes, Batta is poor in general
+terms, but abounds in terms for special objects. The number of dialects
+is three, viz. the Toba, the Mandailing and the Dairi dialects; the
+first and second have again two subdivisions each. The Battas further
+possess six peculiar or recondite modes of speech, such as the _hata
+andung_, or language of the wakes, and the _hata poda_ or the
+soothsayer's language. A fair acquaintance with reading and writing is
+very general among them. Their alphabet is said, with the Rejang and
+Lampong alphabets, to be of Indian origin. The language is written on
+bark or bamboo staves from bottom to top, the lines being arranged from
+left to right. The literature consists chiefly in books on witchcraft,
+in stories, riddles, incantations, &c., and is mostly in prose,
+occasionally varied by verse.[1]
+
+  See also "Reisen nach dem Toba See," _Petermanns Mitteil_. (1883);
+  Modigliani, _Fra i Batacchi indipendenti_ (Rome, 1892); Neumann, "Het
+  Pane- en Bilastroomgebied," _Tydschr. Aardr. Gen._, 1885-1887; Van
+  Dijk in the same periodical (1890-1895); Wing Easton in the _Jaarboek
+  voor het Mynwezen_, 1894; Niemann in the _Encyclopaedia van
+  Nederlandsch-Indie_, under the heading _Bataks_, with very detailed
+  bibliography; Baron J. v. Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen
+  Sumatras_ (Würzburg, 1893); H. Breitenstein, _21 Jahre in Indien,
+  Java, Sumatra_ (Leipzig, 1899-1900); G.P. Rouffaer, _Die Batik-Kunst
+  in niederlandisch-Indien und ihre Geschichte_ (Haarlem, 1899).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Mr C.A. van Ophuijsen has published (in _Bijd. tot Land-, Taalen
+    Volken-Kunde_, 1886) an interesting collection of Battak poetry. He
+    describes a curious leaf language used by Battak lovers, in which the
+    name of some leaf or plant is substituted for the word with which it
+    has greatest phonetic similarity.
+
+
+
+
+BATTEL, or BATTELS (of uncertain origin, possibly connected with
+"battle," a northern English word meaning to feed, or "batten"), a word
+used at Oxford University for the food ordered by members of the college
+as distinct from the usual "commons"; and hence college accounts for
+board and provisions supplied from kitchen and buttery, and, generally,
+the whole of a man's college accounts. "Batteler," now a resident in a
+college, was originally a rank of students between commoners and
+servitors who, as the name implies, were not supplied with "commons,"
+but only such provisions as they ordered for themselves.
+
+
+
+
+BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM (_floruit_ 1626-1667), British sailor, son of Andrew
+Batten, master in the royal navy, first appears as taking out letters of
+marque in 1626, and in 1638 he obtained the post of surveyor to the
+navy, probably by purchase. In March 1642 he was appointed
+second-in-command under the earl of Warwick, the parliamentary admiral
+who took the fleet out of the king's hands. It was Vice-Admiral Batten's
+squadron which bombarded Scarborough when Henrietta Maria landed there.
+He was accused (it appears unjustly) by the Royalists of directing his
+fire particularly on the house occupied by the queen, and up to the end
+of the First Civil War showed himself a steady partisan of the
+parliament. To the end of the First Civil War, Batten continued to
+patrol the English seas, and his action in 1647 in bringing into
+Portsmouth a number of Swedish ships of war and merchantmen, which had
+refused the customary salute to the flag, was approved by parliament.
+When the Second Civil War began he was distrusted by the Independents
+and removed from his command, though he confessed his continued
+willingness to serve the state. When part of the fleet revolted against
+the parliament, and joined the prince of Wales in Holland, May 1648,
+Batten went with them. He was knighted by the prince, but being
+suspected by the Royalists, was put ashore mutinously in Holland and
+returned to England. He lived in retirement during the Commonwealth
+period. At the Restoration Sir William Batten became once more surveyor
+of the navy. In this office he was in constant intercourse with Pepys,
+whose diary frequently mentions him; but the insinuations of Pepys
+against him must not be taken too seriously, as there is no evidence to
+show that Batten in making a profit from his office fell below the
+standards of the time. In 1661 he became M.P. for Rochester, and in 1663
+he was made master of the Trinity House. He died in 1667.
+
+  There is no separate life of Batten, but many notices of him will be
+  found in Penn's _Life of Sir W. Penn_, and in Pepys' _Diary_.
+
+
+
+
+BATTEN, (1) A term (a form of "baton") used in joinery (q.v.) for a
+board not more than 4 to 7 in. broad or 3 in. thick, used for various
+purposes, such as for strengthening or holding together laths and other
+wood-work; and specially, on board ship, a strip of wood nailed to a
+mast to prevent rubbing, or fixing down a tarpaulin over a hatchway, in
+rough weather, to keep out water. (2) A verb (the root is found in words
+of several Teutonic languages meaning profit or improvement, and also in
+the English "better" and "boot") meaning to improve in condition,
+especially in the case of animals by feeding; so, to feed gluttonously;
+the word is used figuratively of prospering at the expense of another.
+
+
+
+
+BATTENBERG, the name of a family of German counts which died out about
+1314, whose seat was the castle of Kellerburg, near Battenberg, a small
+place now in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. The title was
+revived in 1851, when Alexander (1823-1888), a younger son of Louis II.,
+grand-duke of Hesse, contracted a morganatic marriage with a Polish
+lady, Countess Julia Theresa von Haucke (1825-1895), who was then
+created countess of Battenberg. Raised to the rank of a princess in
+1858, the countess and her children were allowed to style themselves
+princes and princesses of Battenberg, with the addition of _Durchlaucht_
+or Serene Highness. The eldest son of this union, Louis Alexander (b.
+1854), married in 1884 Victoria, daughter of Louis IV., grand-duke of
+Hesse, and became an admiral in the British navy. The second son,
+Alexander Joseph (q.v.), was prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886. The
+third son, Henry Maurice, was born in 1858, and married on the 23rd of
+July 1885 Beatrice, youngest daughter of Victoria, queen of England. He
+died at sea on the 20th of January 1896 when returning from active
+service with the British troops during the Ashanti War, and left three
+sons and a daughter, Victoria Eugénie, who was married in 1906 to
+Alphonso XIII., king of Spain. The fourth son, Francis Joseph, born in
+1861, married in 1897 Anna, daughter of Nicholas I., prince of
+Montenegro, and is the author of _Die volkswirtschaftliche Entwickelung
+Bulgariens von 1879 bis zur Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1891). The only
+daughter of the princess of Battenberg, Marie Caroline, born in 1852,
+was married in 1871 to Gustavus Ernest, prince and count of
+Erbach-Schönberg.
+
+
+
+
+BATTER, an architectural term of unknown origin, used of the face of a
+wall which is slightly inclined to the perpendicular. It is most
+commonly employed in retaining walls, the lower courses of which are
+laid at right angles to the batter, so as to resist the thrust of the
+earth inside. For aesthetic reasons it is often adopted in the lowest or
+basement porticos of a great building. From a historical point of view
+it is the most ancient system employed, as throughout Egypt and Chaldaea
+all the temples built in unburnt brick were perforce obliged to be
+thicker at the bottom, and this gave rise to the batter or raking side
+which was afterwards in Egypt copied in stone. For defensive purposes
+the walls of the lower portions of a fortress were built with a batter
+as in the case of the tower of David and some of the walls built by
+Herod at Jerusalem. The Crusaders also largely adopted the principle,
+which was followed in some of the castles of the middle ages throughout
+Europe.
+
+
+
+
+BATTERING RAM (Lat. _aries_, ram), a military engine used before the
+invention of cannon, for beating down the walls of besieged fortresses.
+It consisted of a long heavy beam of timber, armed at the extremity with
+iron fashioned something like the head of a ram. In its simplest form
+the beam was carried in the hands of the soldiers, who assailed the
+walls with it by main force. The improved ram was composed of a longer
+beam, in some cases extending to 120 ft., shod with iron at one end, and
+suspended, either by the middle or from two points, from another beam
+laid across two posts. This is the kind described by Josephus as having
+been used at the siege of Jerusalem (_B.J._ iii. 7. 19). The ram was
+shielded from the missiles of the besieged by a penthouse (_vinea_) or
+other overhead protection. It was often mounted on wheels, which greatly
+facilitated its operations. A hundred soldiers at a time, and sometimes
+even a greater number, were employed to work it, and the parties were
+relieved in constant succession. No wall could resist the continued
+application of the ram, and the greatest efforts were always made to
+destroy it by various means, such as dropping heavy stones on the head
+of the ram and on the roof of the penthouse; another method being to
+seize the ram head with grapnels and then haul it up to a vertical
+position by suitable windlasses on the wall of the fortress. Sometimes
+the besieged ran countermines under the ram penthouse; this if
+successful would cause the whole engine to fall into the excavation. In
+medieval warfare the low penthouse, called _cat_, was generally employed
+with some form of ram.
+
+
+
+
+BATTERSEA, a south-western metropolitan borough of London, England,
+bounded N. by the Thames, N.E. by Lambeth, and S.E., S., and W. by
+Wandsworth. Pop. (1901) 168,907. The principal thoroughfares are
+Wandsworth Road and Battersea Park and York Roads from east to west,
+connected north and south with the Victoria or Chelsea, Albert and
+Battersea bridges over the Thames. The two first of these three are
+handsome suspension bridges; the third, an iron structure, replaced a
+wooden bridge of many arches which was closed in 1881, after standing a
+little over a century. Battersea is a district mainly consisting of
+artisans' houses, and there are several large factories by the river.
+The parish church of St Mary, Church Road (1776), preserves from an
+earlier building stained glass and monuments, including one to Henry St
+John, Viscount Bolingbroke (d. 1751), and his second wife, who had a
+mansion close by. Of this a portion remains on the riverside, containing
+a room associated with Pope, who is said to have worked here upon the
+"Essay on Man." Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common (220 acres) lie
+partly within the borough, but the principal public recreation ground is
+Battersea Park, bordering the Thames between Albert and Victoria
+Bridges, beautifully laid out, containing a lake and subtropical garden,
+and having an area of nearly 200 acres. It was constructed with
+difficulty by embanking the river and raising the level of the formerly
+marshy ground, and was opened in 1858. Among institutions are the
+Battersea Polytechnic, the Royal Masonic Institution for girls, founded
+in 1788, and Church of England and Wesleyan Training Colleges. Battersea
+is in the parliamentary borough of Battersea and Clapham, including the
+whole of the Battersea division and part of the Clapham division. The
+borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors.
+Area, 2160.3 acres.
+
+An early form of the name is _Patricsey_ or Peter's Island; the manor at
+the time of the Domesday survey, and until the suppression of the
+monasteries, belonging to the abbey of St Peter, Westminster. It next
+passed to the crown, and subsequently to the family of St John and to
+the earls Spencer. York Road recalls the existence of a palace of the
+archbishops of York, occasionally occupied by them between the reigns of
+Edward IV. and Mary. Battersea Fields, bordering the river, were
+formerly a favourite resort, so that the park also perpetuates a memory.
+The art of enamelling was introduced, c. 1750, at works in Battersea,
+examples from which are highly valued.
+
+
+
+
+BATTERY (Fr. _batterie_, from _battre_, to beat), the action of beating,
+especially in law the unlawful wounding of another (see ASSAULT). The
+term is applied to the apparatus used in battering, hence its use in
+military organization for the unit of mobile artillery of all kinds.
+This consists of from four to eight guns with their _personnel_, wagons
+and train. In the British service the term is applied to field, horse,
+field-howitzer, heavy and mountain artillery units. "Battery" is also
+used to imply a mass of guns in action, especially in connexion with the
+military history of the 18th and early 19th centuries. In siegecraft, a
+battery is simply an emplacement for guns, howitzers or mortars,
+constructed for the purposes of the siege, and protected as a rule by a
+parapet. In fortification the term is applied similarly to permanent or
+semi-permanent emplacements for the artillery of the defence. In all
+these senses the presence of artillery is implied in the use of the word
+(see ARTILLERY, and FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). The word is also used
+for the "pitcher" and "catcher" in baseball; for a collection of
+utensils, primarily of hammered copper or brass, especially in the
+French term _batterie de cuisine_; and for the instruments of percussion
+in an orchestra.
+
+_Electric Battery_--This term was applied by the old electricians to a
+collection of Leyden jars, but is now used of a device for generating
+electricity by chemical action, or more exactly, of a number of such
+devices joined up together. There are two main classes of electric
+battery. In _primary_ batteries, composed of a number of galvanic or
+voltaic "cells," "couples" or "elements," on the completion of the
+interactions between the substances on which the production of
+electricity depends, the activity of the cells comes to an end, and can
+only be restored with the aid of a fresh supply of those substances; in
+_secondary_ batteries, also called storage batteries or accumulators
+(q.v.), the substances after the exhaustion of the cells can be brought
+back to a condition in which they will again yield an electric current,
+by means of an electric current passed through them in the reverse
+direction. The first primary battery was constructed about 1799 by
+Alessandro Volta. In one form, the "voltaic pile," he placed a series of
+pairs of copper and zinc disks one above the other, separating each pair
+from the one above it by a piece of cloth moistened with a solution of
+common salt. In another form, the "couronne de tasses," he took a number
+of vessels or cells containing brine or dilute acid, and placed in each
+a zinc plate and a copper plate; these plates were not allowed to touch
+each other within the vessels, but each zinc plate was connected to the
+copper plate of the adjoining vessel. In both these arrangements an
+electric current passes through a wire which is connected to the
+terminal plates at the two ends of the series. The direction of this
+current is from copper to zinc; within each cell itself it is from zinc
+to copper. The plate to which the current flows within the cell is the
+_negative plate_, and that from which it flows the _positive plate_; but
+the point on the negative plate at which the current enters the external
+wire is the _positive pole_, and the point on the positive plate at
+which it leaves the external circuit the _negative pole_. During the
+time that the external connexion is maintained between the two poles and
+the current passes in the wire, the zinc or positive plates are
+gradually dissolved, and hydrogen gas is liberated at the surface of the
+copper or negative plates; but when the external connexion is broken
+this action ceases. If the materials used in the cells were perfectly
+pure, probably the cessation would be complete. In practice, however,
+only impure commercial zinc is available, and with this corrosion
+continues to some extent, even though the external circuit is not
+closed, thus entailing waste of material. This "local action" is
+explained as due to the fact that the impurities in the zinc plate form
+miniature voltaic couples with the zinc itself, thus causing its
+corrosion by voltaic action; and an early improvement in the voltaic
+cell was the discovery, applied by W. Sturgeon in 1830, that the evil
+was greatly reduced if the surface of the zinc plates was amalgamated,
+by being rubbed with mercury under dilute sulphuric acid. Another
+disadvantage of the simple cell composed of copper and zinc in dilute
+acid is that the current it yields rapidly falls off. The hydrogen
+formed by the operation of the cell does not all escape, but some
+adheres as a film to the negative plate, and the result is the
+establishment of a counter or reverse electromotive force which opposes
+the main current flowing from the zinc plate and diminishes its force.
+This phenomenon is known as "polarization," and various remedies have
+been tried for the evils it introduces in the practical use of primary
+batteries. Alfred Smee in 1839 modified the simple copper-zinc couple
+excited by dilute sulphuric acid by substituting for the copper thin
+leaves of platinum or platinized silver, whereby the elimination of the
+hydrogen is facilitated; and attempts have also been made to keep the
+plates free from the gas by mechanical agitation. The plan usually
+adopted, however, is either to prevent the formation of the film, or to
+introduce into the cell some "depolarizer" which will destroy it as it
+is formed by oxidizing the hydrogen to water (see also ELECTROLYSIS).
+
+The former method is exemplified in the cell invented by J.F. Daniell in
+1836. Here the zinc stands in dilute sulphuric acid (or in a solution of
+zinc sulphate), and the copper in a saturated solution of copper
+sulphate, the two liquids being separated by a porous partition. The
+hydrogen formed by the action of the cell replaces copper in the copper
+sulphate, and the displaced copper, instead of the hydrogen, being
+deposited on the copper plate polarization is avoided. The electromotive
+force is about one volt. This cell has been constructed in a variety of
+forms to suit different purposes. In a portable form, designed by Lord
+Kelvin in 1858, the copper plate, soldered to a gutta-percha covered
+wire, is placed at the bottom of a glass vessel and covered with
+crystals of copper sulphate; over these wet sawdust is sprinkled, and
+then mere sawdust, moistened with solution of zinc sulphate, upon which
+is placed the zinc plate. The Minotto cell is similar, except that sand
+is substituted for sawdust. In these batteries the sawdust or sand takes
+the place of the porous diaphragm. In another class of batteries the
+diaphragm is dispensed with altogether, and the action of gravity alone
+is relied upon to retard the interdiffusion of the liquids. The cell of
+J.H. Meidinger, invented in 1859, may be taken as a type of this class.
+The zinc is formed into a ring which fits the upper part of a glass
+beaker filled with zinc sulphate solution. At the bottom of the beaker
+is placed a smaller beaker, in which stands a ring of copper with an
+insulated connecting wire. The mouth of the beaker is closed by a lid
+with a hole in the centre, through which passes the long tapering neck
+of a glass balloon filled with crystals of copper sulphate; the narrow
+end of this neck dips into the smaller beaker, the copper sulphate
+slowly runs out, and being specifically heavier than the zinc sulphate
+it collects at the bottom about the copper ring. In Lord Kelvin's
+tray-cell a large wooden tray is lined with lead, and is covered at the
+bottom with copper by electrotyping. The zinc plate is enveloped in a
+piece of parchment paper bent into a tray shape, the whole resting on
+little pieces of wood placed on the bottom of the leaden tray. Copper
+sulphate is fed in at the edge of the tray and zinc sulphate is poured
+upon the parchment. A battery is formed by arranging the trays in a
+stack one above the other.
+
+Various combinations have been devised in which the hydrogen is got rid
+of more or less completely by oxidation. Sir W.R. Grove in 1839 employed
+nitric acid as the oxidizing agent, his cell consisting of a zinc
+positive plate in dilute sulphuric acid, separated by a porous diaphragm
+of unglazed earthenware from a platinum negative immersed in
+concentrated nitric acid. Its electromotive force is nearly two volts,
+but it has the objection of giving off disagreeable nitrous fumes. R.W.
+von Bunsen modified Grove's cell by replacing the platinum with the much
+cheaper material, gas carbon. Chromic acid is much used as a
+depolarizer, and cells in which it is employed are about as powerful as,
+and more convenient than, either of the preceding. In its two-fluid form
+the chromic acid cell consists of a porous pot containing amalgamated
+zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, and a carbon plate surrounded with
+sulphuric acid and a solution of potassium or sodium bichromate or of
+chromic acid. But it is commonly used in a one-fluid form, the porous
+pot being dispensed with, and both zinc and carbon immersed in the
+chromic acid solution. Since the zinc is dissolved even when the circuit
+is not closed, arrangements are frequently provided by which either the
+zinc plate alone or both plates can be lifted out of the solution when
+the cell is not in use. In preparing the solution the sodium salt is
+preferable to the potassium, and chromic acid to either. In the cell
+devised by Georges Leclanché in 1868 a solid depolarizer is employed, in
+the shape of manganese dioxide packed with fragments of carbon into a
+porous pot round a carbon plate. A zinc rod constitutes the positive
+plate, and the exciting fluid is a solution of sal-ammoniac. Sometimes
+no porous pot is employed, and the manganese dioxide and granulated
+carbon are agglomerated into a solid block round the carbon plate. The
+electromotive force is about one and a half volt. The cell is widely
+used for such purposes as ringing electric bells, where current is
+required intermittently, and for such service it will remain effective
+for months or years, only needing water to be added to the outer jar
+occasionally to replace loss by evaporation. On a closed circuit the
+current rapidly falls off, because the manganese dioxide is unable to
+oxidize all the hydrogen formed, but the cell quickly recovers after
+polarization. The so-called "dry cells," which came into considerable
+use towards the end of the 19th century, are essentially Leclanché cells
+in which the solution is present, not as a liquid, but as a paste formed
+with some absorbent material or gelatinized. Black oxide of copper is
+another solid depolarizer, employed in the Lalande cell. In the
+Edison-Lalande form the copper oxide is suspended in a light copper
+frame. The exciting solution consists of one part of caustic soda
+dissolved in three parts by weight of water, and to prevent it from
+being acted on by the carbonic acid of the air it is covered with a
+layer of petroleum oil. Sodium zincate, which is soluble, is formed by
+the action of the cell, and the hydrogen produced is oxidized by oxygen
+from the copper oxide. The electromotive force may be about one volt
+initially, but in practice only about three-quarters of a volt can be
+relied on.
+
+Primary cells form a convenient means of obtaining electricity for
+laboratory experiments, and for such light services as working
+telegraphs, bells, &c.; but as a source of the heavy currents required
+for electric lighting and traction they are far too expensive in
+operation, apart from other considerations, to compete with
+dynamoelectric machinery driven by steam or water power. Certain forms,
+known as "standard cells," are also used in electrical measurements as
+standards of electromotive force (see POTENTIOMETER).
+
+  See W.R. Cooper, _Primary Batteries_ (London, 1901); Park Benjamin,
+  _The Voltaic Cell_ (New York, 1893); W.E. Ayrton, _Practical
+  Electricity_ (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BATTEUX, CHARLES (1713-1780), French philosopher and writer on
+aesthetics, was born near Vouziers (Ardennes), and studied theology at
+Reims. In 1739 he came to Paris, and after teaching in the colleges of
+Lisieux and Navarre, was appointed to the chair of Greek and Roman
+philosophy in the Collège de France. In 1746 he published his treatise
+_Les Beaux-Arts réduits à un même principe_, an attempt to find a unity
+among the various theories of beauty and taste, and his views were
+widely accepted. The reputation thus gained, confirmed by his
+translation of Horace (1750), led to his becoming a member of the
+Académie des Inscriptions (1754) and of the French Academy (1761). His
+_Cours de belles lettres_ (1765) was afterwards included with some minor
+writings in the large treatise, _Principes de la liltérature_ (1774).
+The rules for composition there laid down are, perhaps, somewhat
+pedantic. His philosophical writings were _La Morale d'Épicure tirée de
+ses propres écrits_ (1758), and the _Histoire des causes premières_
+(1769). In consequence of the freedom with which in this work he
+attacked the abuse of authority in philosophy, he lost his professorial
+chair. His last and most extensive work was a _Cours d'études à l'usage
+des élèves de l'école militaire_ (45 vols.). In the _Beaux-Arts_,
+Batteux developed a theory which is derived from Locke through
+Voltaire's sceptical sensualism. He held that Art consists in the
+faithful imitation of the beautiful in nature. Applying this principle
+to the art of poetry, and analysing, line by line and even word by word,
+the works of great poets, he deduced the law that the beauty of poetry
+consists in the accuracy, beauty and harmony of individual expression.
+This narrow and pedantic theory had at least the merit of insisting on
+propriety of expression. His _Histoire des causes premières_ was among
+the first attempts at a history of philosophy, and in his work on
+Epicurus, following on Gassendi, he defended Epicureanism against the
+general attacks made against it.
+
+  See Dacier et Dupuy, "Éloges," in _Mémoires de l'Académie des
+  Inscriptions_.
+
+
+
+
+BATTHYANY, LOUIS (LAJOS), COUNT (1806-1849), Hungarian statesman, was
+born at Pressburg in 1806. He supplied the defects of an indifferent
+education while serving in garrison in Italy as a lieutenant of hussars,
+and thenceforward adopted all the new ideas, economical and political.
+According to Széchenyi, he learnt much from a German tutor of the
+radical school, but it was not till after his marriage with the
+noble-minded and highly-gifted countess Antonia Zichy that he began
+working earnestly for the national cause. When Széchenyi drew nearer to
+the court in 1839-1840, Batthyány became the leader of the opposition in
+the Upper House, where his social rank and resolute character won for
+him great influence. Despite his "sardanapalian inclinations," he
+associated himself unreservedly with the extremists, and spent large
+sums for the development of trade and industry. In 1847 he fiercely
+opposed the government, procured the election of Kossuth as the
+representative of Pest, took part in the Great Deputation of the 15th of
+March, and on the 31st of March 1848 became the first constitutional
+prime-minister of Hungary. His position became extremely difficult when
+Jellachich and the Croats took up arms. Convinced that the rigid
+maintenance of the constitution was the sole panacea, he did his utmost,
+in his frequent journeys to Innsbruck, to persuade the court to condemn
+Jellachich and establish a strong national government at Pest.
+Unfortunately, however, he was persuaded to consent to the despatch of
+Magyar troops to quell the Italian rising, before the Croat difficulty
+had been adjusted, and thenceforth, despite his perfect loyalty, and his
+admirable services as Honvéd minister in organizing the national forces,
+his authority in Hungary declined before the rising star of Kossuth.
+When Jellachich invaded Hungary, Batthyány resigned with the intention
+of forming a new ministry excluding Kossuth, but this had now become
+impossible. Then Batthyány attempted to mediate between the two extreme
+parties, and subsequently raised a regiment from among his peasantry and
+led them against the Croats. On the 11th of October he was incapacitated
+for active service by a fall from his horse which broke his arm. On his
+recovery he returned to Pest, laboured hard to bring about peace, and
+was a member of the deputation from the Hungarian diet to Prince
+Windischgrätz, whom the Austrian commander refused to receive. A few
+days later (8th of January 1849) he was arrested at Pest. As a magnate
+he was only indictable by the grand justiciary, as a minister he was
+responsible to the diet alone. At Laibach, whither he was taken, he
+asked that Deák might be his advocate, but this being refused he wrote
+his own defence. Sentence of hanging was finally pronounced upon him at
+Olmtitz for violating the Pragmatic Sanction, overthrowing the
+constitution, and aiding and abetting the rebellion. To escape this fate
+he Stabbed himself with a small concealed dagger, and bled to death in
+the night of the 5th of October 1849.
+
+  See Bertalan Szemere, _Batthyány, Kossuth, Gorgei_ (Ger.), (Hamburg,
+  1853).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BATTICALOA, the provincial capital of the eastern province of Ceylon, on
+the E. coast, 69 m. S.S.E. of Trincomalee, situated on an island in lat.
+7° 44' N. and long. 81° 52' E. It is of importance for its haven and the
+adjacent salt lagoons. The population of the town in 1901 was 9969; of
+the district (2872 sq. m.) 143,161. The old Dutch fort dates from 1682.
+Batticaloa is the seat of a government agent and district judge;
+criminal sessions of the supreme court are also held. Rice and cocoanuts
+are the two staples of the district, and steamers trading round the
+island call regularly at the port. The lagoon is famous for its "singing
+fish," supposed to be shell-fish which give forth musical notes. The
+district has a remnant of Veddahs or wild men of the wood. The average
+annual rainfall is 55½ in.; the average temperature 80.4° F.
+
+
+
+
+BATTISHILL, JONATHAN (1738-1801), one of the best 18th century English
+composers of church music. Until 1764 he wrote chiefly for the theatre
+(incidental songs, pantomime music, and an opera in collaboration with
+Michael Arne, the son of Thomas Arne), but his later compositions are
+chiefly glees, part-songs and church music. In 1763 he had married a
+singer at Covent Garden theatre where he was harpsichordist. She retired
+from her profession when she married; and her death in 1777 so crushed
+him that he composed no more.
+
+
+
+
+BATTLE, a market-town in the Rye parliamentary division of Sussex,
+England, 54½ m. S.E. by S. from London by the South Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2996. It is pleasantly situated
+in an undulating well-wooded district, 7 m. from the sea at Hastings.
+Its name is derived from the conflict in 1066, which insured to William
+the Norman the crown of England (see also BATTLE ABBEY ROLL). Before the
+battle, in which King Harold fell, William vowed to build an abbey on
+the spot if he should prove victorious, and in 1094 the consecration
+took place with great pomp. The gatehouse, forming a picturesque
+termination to the main street of the town, is Decorated; and there also
+remain parts of the foundations of the Norman church, of the
+Perpendicular cloisters, and of the Early English refectory. A mansion
+occupies part of the site, and incorporates some of the ancient
+building. The church of St Mary is of various dates, the earliest
+portions being transitional Norman.
+
+  See _Chronicles of Battle Abbey_. 1066-1176, translated, &c., by M.A.
+  Lower (London, 1851).
+
+
+
+
+BATTLE, a general engagement between the armed forces, naval or
+military, of enemies. The word is derived from the Fr. _bataille_, and
+this, like the Ital. _battaglia_, and Span. _batalla_, comes from the
+popular Lat. _battalia_ for _battualia_. Cassiodorus Senator (480-?575)
+says: _Battualia quae vulgo Batalia dicuntur ... exercitationes militum
+vel gladiatorum significant_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.
+_Batalia_). The verb _battuere_, cognate with "beat," is a rare word,
+found in Pliny, used of beating in a mortar or of meat before cooking.
+Suetonius (_Caligula_, 54-32) uses it of fencing, _battuebat pugnatoriis
+armis_, i.e. not with blunted weapons or foils. _Battalia_ or _batalia_
+was used for the array of troops for battle, and hence was applied to
+the body of troops so arranged, or to a division of an army, whence the
+use of the word "battalion" (q.v.).
+
+A "pitched battle," loosely used as meaning almost a decisive
+engagement, is strictly, as the words imply, one that is fought on
+ground previously selected ("pitched" meaning arranged in a fixed order)
+and in accordance with the intentions of the commanders of both sides;
+the French equivalent is _bataille arrangée_, opposed to _bataille
+manoeuvrée_, which is prearranged but may come off on any ground. With
+"battle," in its usual meaning of a general engagement of hostile
+forces, are contrasted "skirmish,"[1] a fight between small bodies
+("skirmishing" technically means fighting by troops in extended or
+irregular order), and "action," a more or less similar engagement
+between large bodies of troops. (See also TACTICS and STRATEGY.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This is the same word as "scrimmage," and is derived from the
+    Anglo-French _eskrimir_, modern _escrimer_, properly to fight behind
+    cover, now to fence. The origin of this is the Old High German
+    _scirman_, to fight behind a shield, _scirm_. Modern German _Schirm_.
+
+
+
+
+BATTLE ABBEY ROLL. This is popularly supposed to have been a list of
+William the Conqueror's companions preserved at Battle Abbey, on the
+site of his great victory over Harold. It is known to us only from 16th
+century versions of it published by Leland, Holinshed and Duchesne, all
+more or less imperfect and corrupt. Holinshed's is much the fullest, but
+of its 629 names several are duplicates. The versions of Leland and
+Duchesne, though much shorter, each contain many names found in neither
+of the other lists. It was so obvious that several of the names had no
+right to figure on the roll, that Camden, as did Dugdale after him, held
+them to have been interpolated at various times by the monks, "not
+without their own advantage." Modern writers have gone further, Sir
+Egerton Brydges denouncing the roll as "a disgusting forgery," and E.A.
+Freeman dismissing it as "a transparent fiction." An attempt to
+vindicate the roll was made by the last duchess of Cleveland, whose
+_Battle Abbey Roll_ (3 vols., 1889) is the best guide to its contents.
+
+It is probable that the character of the roll has been quite
+misunderstood. It is not a list of individuals, but only of family
+surnames, and it seems to have been intended to show which families had
+"come over with the Conqueror," and to have been compiled about the 14th
+century. The compiler appears to have been influenced by the French
+sound of names, and to have included many families of later settlement,
+such as that of Grandson, which did not come to England from Savoy till
+two centuries after the Conquest. The roll itself appears to be unheard
+of before and after the 16th century, but other lists were current at
+least as early as the 15th century, as the duchess of Cleveland has
+shown. In 1866 a list of the Conqueror's followers, compiled from
+Domesday and other authentic records, was set up in Dives church by M.
+Leopold Delisle, and is printed in the duchess' work. Its contents are
+naturally sufficient to show that the Battle Roll is worthless.
+
+  See Leland, _Collectanea_; Holinshed, _Chronicles of England_;
+  Duchesne, _Historia Norm. Scriptores_; Brydges, _Censura Literaria_;
+  Thierry, _Conquête de l'Angleterre_, vol. ii. (1829); Burke, _The Roll
+  of Battle Abbey_ (annotated, 1848); Planché, _The Conqueror and His
+  Companions_ (1874); duchess of Cleveland, _The Battle Abbey Roll_
+  (1889); Round, "The Companions of the Conqueror" (_Monthly Review_,
+  1901, iii. pp. 91-111).     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BATTLE CREEK, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A., at the
+confluence of the Kalamazoo river with Battle Creek, about 48 m. S. of
+Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 13,197; (1900) 18,563, of whom 1844 were
+foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,267. It is served by the Michigan
+Central and the Grand Trunk railways, and by interurban electric lines.
+Here are the hospital and laboratories of the American Medical
+Missionary College (of Chicago) and the Battle Creek Sanitarium,
+established in 1866, which was a pioneer in dietetic reform, and did
+much to make Battle Creek important in the manufacture of health foods,
+and in the publication of diet-reform literature. Among the principal
+buildings, besides the hospital and the sanitarium, are several fine
+churches, the central high school, the Post tavern and the Post theatre.
+The city is a trading centre for the rich agricultural and fruit-growing
+district by which it is surrounded, has good water-power, and is an
+important manufacturing centre, its chief manufactured products being
+cereal health foods, for which it has a wide reputation, and the
+manufacture of which grew out of the dietetic experiments made in the
+laboratories of the sanitarium; and threshing machines and other
+agricultural implements, paper cartons and boxes, flour, boilers,
+engines and pumps. Extensive locomotive and car shops of the Grand Trunk
+railway are here. In 1904 the total factory product of Battle Creek was
+valued at $12,298,244, an increase of 95% over that for 1900; and of the
+total in 1904 $5,191,655 was the value of food preparations, which was
+8.5% of the value of food preparations manufactured in the United
+States, Battle Creek thus ranking first among American cities in this
+industry. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality,
+the water being obtained from Lake Goguac, a summer pleasure resort
+about 2 m. from the city. Battle Creek, said to have been named from
+hostilities here between some surveyors and Indians, was settled in
+1831, incorporated as a village in 1850, and chartered as a city in
+1859, the charter of that year being revised in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK, a game played by two persons with small
+rackets, called battledores, made of parchment or rows of gut stretched
+across wooden frames, and shuttlecocks, made of a base of some light
+material, like cork, with trimmed feathers fixed round the top. The
+object of the players is to bat the shuttlecock from one to the other as
+many times as possible without allowing it to fall to the ground. There
+are Greek drawings extant representing a game almost identical with
+battledore and shuttlecock, and it has been popular in China, Japan,
+India and Siam for at least 2000 years. In Europe it has been played by
+children for centuries. A further development is Badminton.
+
+
+
+
+BATTLEMENT (probably from a lost Fr. form _bastillement_, cf. mod. Fr.
+_bastille_, from Med. Lat. _bastilia_, towers, which is derived from
+Ital. _bastire_, to build, cf. Fr. _bâtir_; the English word was,
+however, early connected with "battle"), a term given to a parapet of a
+wall, in which portions have been cut out at intervals to allow the
+discharge of arrows or other missiles; these cut-out portions are known
+as "crenels"; the solid widths between the "crenels" are called
+"merlons." The earliest example in the palace at Medinet-Abu at Thebes
+in Egypt is of the inverted form, and is said to have been derived from
+Syrian fortresses. Through Assyria they formed the termination of all
+the walls surrounding the towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud and
+elsewhere. Traces of them have been found at Mycenae, and they are
+suggested on Greek vases. In the battlements of Pompeii, additional
+protection was given by small internal buttresses or spur walls against
+which the defender might place himself so as to be protected completely
+on one side. In the battlements of the middle ages the crenel was about
+one-third of the width of the merlon, and the latter was in addition
+pierced with a small slit. The same is also found in Italian
+battlements, where the merlon is of much greater height and is capped in
+a peculiar fashion. The battlements of the Mahommedans had a more
+decorative and varied character, and were retained from the 13th century
+onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to
+their walls. They may be regarded therefore in the same light as the
+cresting found in the Spanish renaissance. The same retention of the
+battlement as a purely decorative feature is found throughout the
+Decorated and Perpendicular periods, and not only occurs on parapets
+but on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and on
+screens. A further decorative treatment was given in the elaborate
+panelling of the merlons and that portion of the parapet walls rising
+above the cornice, by the introduction of quatrefoils and other
+conventional forms filled with foliage and shields.
+
+
+
+
+BATTUE (from Fr. _battre_, to beat), the beating of game from cover
+under the sportsmen's fire; by analogy the word is used to describe any
+slaughter of defenceless crowds.
+
+
+
+
+BATTUS, the legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene in Libya
+(about 630 B.C.). The Greeks who accompanied him were, like himself,
+natives of Thera, and descended partly from the race of the Minyae.
+Various accounts are given both of the founding of Cyrene and of the
+origin of the founder's name. According to the Cyrenaeans (Herod, iv.
+150-156), Battus, having an impediment in his speech, consulted the
+oracle at Delphi, and was told to found a colony in Libya; according to
+the Theraeans, Battus was entrusted with this mission by their aged king
+Grinus. In another version, there was civil war in Thera; Battus, leader
+of one party, was banished, and, on applying to the oracle, was
+recommended to take out a colony to "the continent" (Schol. Pindar,
+_Pyth._ iv. 10). In any case the foundation is attributed to the direct
+instructions of Apollo. The name was connected by some with [Greek:
+battarizo], ("stammer"), but Herodotus (iv. 155) says that it was the
+Libyan word for "king," that Battus was not called by the name until
+after his arrival at Libya, and that the oracle addressed him as
+"Battus" by anticipation. This, however, would imply on the part of the
+oracle a knowledge of Libya, which was not shared by the rest of Greece
+(Herod. _l.c._), and it is noteworthy that the name occurs in Arcadian
+and Messenian legends. Herodotus does not know his real name, but Pindar
+(_Pyth._ v. 116), no doubt rightly, calls the founder of the colony
+Aristoteles, while Justin (xiii. 7) gives his name as Aristaeus who was
+worshipped at Cyrene. Four kings named Battus, alternating with four
+named Arcesilaus, ruled in Cyrene (q.v.) till the fall of the dynasty
+about 450 B.C.
+
+  See R.W. Macan's _Herodotus IV.-VI._ (1895), vol. i. pp. 104 seq. and
+  notes.
+
+
+
+
+BATU, or ROCK ISLANDS (Dutch _Batoe_), a group of three greater and
+forty-eight lesser islands in the Dutch East Indies, W. of Sumatra,
+between 0° 10' N. to 0° 45' S. and 97° 50'-98° 35' E., belonging to the
+Ayerbangi district of the lowlands of Padang (Sumatra). They are
+separated by the strait of Sibirut from the Mentawi group. The three
+chief islands, from N. to S., are Pini or Mintao, Masa, and Bala. The
+total land area of the group is 445 sq. m. The islands are generally
+low, and covered with forest, in which the cocoanut palm is conspicuous.
+There is trade in cocoanuts, oil, and other forest produce. The natives,
+about 3000 in number, are of Malayan or pre-Malayan stock, akin to those
+of the island of Nias to the north-west. Only about twenty of the
+smaller islands are inhabited.
+
+
+
+
+BATUM, a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of and 90
+m. by rail S.W. of the city of Kutais, on the S.E. shore of the Black
+Sea, in 41° 39' N. and 41° 38' E. Pop. (1875) 2000; (1900) 28,512, very
+mixed. The bay is being filled up by the sand carried into it by several
+small rivers. The town is protected by strong forts, and the anchorage
+has been greatly improved by artificial works. Batum possesses a
+cathedral, finished in 1903, and the Alexander Park, with sub-tropical
+vegetation. The climate is very warm, lemon and orange trees, magnolias
+and palms growing in the open air; but it is at the same time extremely
+wet and changeable. The annual rainfall (90 in.) is higher than anywhere
+in Caucasia, but it is very unequally distributed (23 in. in August and
+September, sometimes 16 in. in a couple of days), and the place is still
+most unhealthy. The town is connected by rail with the main
+Transcaucasian railway to Tiflis, and is the chief port for the export
+of naphtha and paraffin oil, carried hither in great part through pipes
+laid down from Baku, but partly also in tank railway-cars; other exports
+are wheat, manganese, wool, silkworm-cocoons, liquorice, maize and
+timber (total value of exports nearly 5½ millions sterling annually).
+The imports, chiefly tin plates and machinery, amount to less than half
+that total. Known as Bathys in antiquity, as Vati in the middle ages,
+and as Bathumi since the beginning of the 17th century, Batum belonged
+to the Turks, who strongly fortified it, down to 1878, when it was
+transferred to Russia. In the winter of 1905-1906 Batum was in the hands
+of the revolutionists, and a "reign of terror" lasted for several weeks.
+
+
+
+
+BATWA, a tribe of African pygmies living in the mountainous country
+around Wissmann Falls in the Kasai district of the Belgian Congo. They
+were discovered in 1880 by Paul Pogge and Hermann von Wissmann, and have
+been identified with Sir H.M. Stanley's Vouatouas. They are typical of
+the negrito family south of the Congo. They are well made, with limbs
+perfectly proportioned, and are seldom more than 4 ft. high. Their
+complexion is a yellow-brown, much lighter than their Bantu-Negroid
+neighbours. They have short woolly hair and no beard. They are feared
+rather than despised by the Baluba and Bakuba tribes, among whom they
+live. They are nomads, cultivating nothing, and keeping no animals but a
+small type of hunting-dog. Their weapon is a tiny bow, the arrows for
+which are usually poisoned. They build themselves temporary huts of a
+bee-hive shape. As hunters they are famous, bounding through the jungle
+growth "like grasshoppers" and fearlessly attacking elephants and
+buffalo with their tiny weapons. Their only occupation apart from
+hunting is the preparation of palm-wine which they barter for grain with
+the Baluba. They are monogamous and display much family affection. See
+further PYGMY; AKKA; WOCHUA; BAMBUTE.
+
+  See A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_ (Eng. ed., 1895); Sir H.H.
+  Johnston, _Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); Hermann von Wissmann, _My
+  Second Journey through Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+BATYPHONE (Ger. and Fr. _Batyphon_), a contrabass clarinet which was the
+outcome of F.W. Wieprecht's endeavour to obtain a contrabass for the
+reed instruments. The batyphone was made to a scale twice the size of
+the clarinet in C, the divisions of the chromatic scale being arranged
+according to acoustic principles. For convenience in stopping holes too
+far apart to be covered by the fingers, crank or swivel keys were used.
+The instrument was constructed of maple-wood, had a clarinet mouthpiece
+of suitable size connected by means of a cylindrical brass crook with
+the upper part of the tube, and a brass bell. The pitch was two octaves
+below the clarinet in C, the compass being the same, and thus
+corresponding to the modern bass tuba. The tone was pleasant and full,
+but not powerful enough for the contrabass register in a military band.
+The batyphone had besides one serious disadvantage: it could be played
+with facility only in its nearly related keys, G and F major. The
+batyphone was invented and patented in 1839 by F.W. Wieprecht, director
+general of all the Prussian military bands, and E. Skorra, the court
+instrument manufacturer of Berlin. In practice the instrument was found
+to be of little use, and was superseded by the bass tuba. A similar
+attempt was made in 1843 by Adolphe Sax, and met with a similar fate.
+
+A batyphone bearing the name of its inventors formed part of the Snoeck
+collection which was acquired for Berlin's collection of ancient musical
+instruments at the Technische Hochschule für Musik. The description of
+the batyphone given above is mainly derived from a MS. treatise on
+instrumentation by Wieprecht, in 1909 in the possession of Herr Otto
+Lessmann (Berlin), and reproduced by Capt. C.R. Day, in _Descriptive
+Catalogue of the Musical Instruments of the Royal Military Exhibition,
+London, 1890_ (London, 1891), p. 124.     (K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BAUAN (or BAUN), a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine
+Islands, at the head of Batangas Bay, about 54 m. S. of Manila. Pop.
+(1903) 39,094. A railway to connect the town with Manila was under
+construction in 1908. Bauan has a fine church and is known as a market
+for "sinamay" or hemp cloth, the hemp and cotton being imported and dyed
+and woven by the women in their homes. Palm-fibre mats and hats, fans,
+bamboo baskets and cotton fish-nets are woven here. There is excellent
+fishing in the bay. Hogs and horses are raised for the Manila market.
+The surrounding country is fertile and grows cacao, indigo, oranges,
+sugar-cane, corn and rice. The language is Tagalog.
+
+
+
+
+BAUBLE (probably a blend of two different words, an old French _baubel_,
+a child's plaything, and an old English _babyll_, something swinging to
+and fro), a word applied to a stick with a weight attached, used in
+weighing, to a child's toy, and especially to the mock symbol of office
+carried by a court jester, a baton terminating in a figure of Folly with
+cap and bells, and sometimes having a bladder fastened to the other end;
+hence a term for any triviality or childish folly.
+
+
+
+
+BAUCHI, a province in the highlands of the British protectorate of
+Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between 11° 15' and 9° 15' N.
+and 11° 15' and 8° 30' E. Bauchi is bounded N. by the provinces of Kano,
+Katagum and Bornu; E. by Bornu, S. by Yola and Muri, and W. by the
+provinces of Zaria and Nassarawa. The province has an area of about
+21,000 sq. m. The altitude rises from 1000 ft. above the sea in its
+north-eastern corner to 4000 ft. and 6000 ft. in the south-west. The
+province is traversed diagonally from N.E. to S.W. by a belt of mountain
+ranges alternating with fertile plateaus. Towards the south the country
+is very rugged and a series of extinct volcanic craters occur.
+
+Amongst the more important plateaus are the Assab or Kibyen country,
+having a general level of upwards of 4000 ft., and the Sura country,
+also reaching to elevations of from 3000 to 5000 ft. Both these
+extensive plateaus are situated in the south-west portion of the
+province. Their soil is fertile, they possess an abundance of pure
+water, the air is keen and bracing, and the climate is described as
+resembling in many respects that of the Transvaal. They form the
+principal watershed not only of the province of Bauchi, but of the
+protectorate of Northern Nigeria. The Gongola, flowing east and south to
+the Benue, rises in the Sura district, and from the Kibyen plateau
+streams flow north to Lake Chad, west to the Kaduna, and south to the
+Benue. The soil is generally fertile between the hills, and in the
+volcanic districts the slopes are cultivated half-way up the extinct
+craters. The climate in the western parts is temperate and healthy. In
+the winter months of November and December the thermometer frequently
+falls to freezing-point, and in the hottest months the maximum on the
+Kibyen plateau has been found to be rarely over 85°.
+
+The population of Bauchi is estimated at about 1,000,000 and is of a
+very various description. The upper classes are Fula, and there are some
+Hausa and Kanuri (Bornuese), but the bulk of the people are pagan tribes
+in a very low state of civilization. Sixty-four tribes sufficiently
+differentiated from each other to speak different languages have been
+reported upon. Hausa is the _lingua franca_ of the whole. The pagan
+population has been classified for practical purposes as Hill pagans and
+Plains pagans, Mounted pagans and Foot pagans. The Foot pagans of the
+plains were brought under the Fula yoke in the beginning of the 19th
+century and have never cast it off. The Hill pagans were partly
+conquered, but many remained independent or have since succeeded in
+asserting their freedom. The Mounted pagans are confined to the healthy
+plateaus of the south-west corner of the province. They are independent
+and there is considerable variety in the characteristics of the
+different tribes. The better types are hardy, orderly and agriculturally
+industrious. They are intelligent and have shown themselves peaceful and
+friendly to Europeans. Others are, on the contrary, disposed to be
+turbulent and warlike. Amongst the different tribes many are cannibals.
+They all go practically naked. They are essentially horsemen, and have a
+cruel habit of gashing the backs of their ponies that they may get a
+good seat in the blood. They are armed with bows and arrows, but depend
+almost entirely in battle on the charges of their mounted spearmen.
+
+The native name "Bauchi," which is of great antiquity, Signifies the
+"Land of Slaves," and from the earliest times the uplands which now form
+the principal portion of the province been the hunting ground of the
+slave raider, while the hill fastnesses have offered defensible refuge
+to the population. So entirely was slavery a habit of the people, that
+as late as 1905, after the slave-trade had been abolished for three
+years, it was found that, in consequence of a famine which rendered food
+difficult to obtain, a whole tribe (the Tangali) were selling themselves
+as slaves to their neighbours. Children are readily sold by their
+parents at a price varying from the equivalent of one shilling to one
+and sixpence.
+
+The province of Bauchi was conquered by the Fula at the beginning of the
+19th century, and furnished them with a valuable slave preserve. But the
+more civilized portion had already, under enlightened native rulers,
+attained to a certain degree of prosperity and order. Mahommedanism was
+partly adopted by the upper classes in the 18th century, if not earlier,
+and the son of a Mahommedan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted
+the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula. The name
+of this remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba (Jacob). His father's
+name was Daouad (David), and his grandfather was Abdullah, all names
+which indicate Arab or Mahommedan influence. The town of Bauchi and
+capital of the province was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the
+emirate remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year, in
+consequence of determined slave-raiding and the defiant misrule of the
+emir, a British expedition was sent against the capital, which submitted
+without fighting. The emir was deposed, and the country was brought
+under British control. A new emir was appointed, but he died within a
+few months. The slave-trade was immediately abolished, and the
+slave-market which was held at Bauchi, as in all Fula centres, was
+closed. The Kano-Sokoto campaign in 1903 rendered necessary a temporary
+withdrawal of the British resident from Bauchi, and comparatively little
+progress was made until the following year. In 1904 the province was
+organized for administration on the same system as the rest of Northern
+Nigeria, and the reigning emir took the oath of allegiance to the
+British crown. The province has been subdivided into thirteen
+administrative districts, which again have been grouped into their
+principal divisions, with their respective British headquarters at
+Bauchi, Kanan and Bukuru. The Fula portion of this province, held like
+the other Hausa states under a feudal system of large landowners or
+fief-holders, has been organized and assessed for taxation on the system
+accepted by the emirs throughout the protectorate, and the populations
+are working harmoniously under British rule. Roads and telegraphs are in
+process of construction, and the province is being gradually opened to
+trade. Valuable indications of tin have been found to the north of the
+Kibyen plateau, and have attracted the attention of the Niger Company.
+
+Bauchi is a province of special importance from the European point of
+view because, with free communication from the Benue assured, it is
+probable that on the Kibyen and Sura plateaus, which are the healthiest
+known in the protectorate, a sanatorium and station for a large civil
+population might be established under conditions in which Europeans
+could live free from the evil effects of a West African climate.
+
+The emirate of Gombe, which is included in the first division of the
+Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the emirs of Bauchi.
+It forms a rich and important district, and its chiefs held themselves
+in a somewhat sullen attitude of hostility to the British. It was at
+Burmi in this district that the last stand was made by the religious
+following of the defeated sultan of Sokoto, and here the sultan was
+finally overthrown and killed in July 1903. Gombe has now frankly
+accepted British rule.     (F. L. L.)
+
+
+
+
+BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE (1821-1867), French poet, was born in Paris
+on the 9th of April 1821. His father, who was a civil servant in good
+position and an amateur artist, died in 1827, and in the following year
+his mother married a lieutenant-colonel named Aupick, who was afterwards
+ambassador of France at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons
+and at the Collège Louis-le Grand in Paris. On taking his degree in 1839
+he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next two
+years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his guardians, in
+1841, to send him on a voyage to India. When he returned to Paris, after
+less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his
+extravagance threatened to exhaust his small patrimony, and his family
+obtained a decree to place his property in trust. His _salons_ of 1845
+and 1846 attracted immediate attention by the boldness with which he
+propounded many views then novel, but since generally accepted. He took
+part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years interested
+himself in republican politics but his permanent convictions were
+aristocratic and Catholic. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker,
+and it was not until 1857 that he produced his first and famous volume
+of poems, _Fleurs du mal_. Some of these had already appeared in the
+_Revue des deux mondes_ when they were published by Baudelaire's friend
+Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at
+Alençon. The consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by
+a limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse
+selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word for
+unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo, writing to the
+poet, said, "Vous dotez le ciel de l'art d'un rayon macabre, vous créez
+un frisson nouveau." Baudelaire, the publisher, and the printer were
+successfully prosecuted for offending against public morals. The
+obnoxious pieces were suppressed, but printed later as _Les Épaves_
+(Brussels, 1866). Another edition of the _Fleurs du mal_, without these
+poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1861.
+
+Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found some of
+his favourite reading in the English "Satanic" romances, such as Lewis's
+_Monk_. In 1846-1847 he became acquainted with the works of Edgar Allan
+Poe, in which he discovered romances and poems which had, he said, long
+existed in his own brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till
+1865 he was largely occupied with his version of Poe's works, producing
+masterpieces of the art of translation in _Histoires extraordinaires_
+(1852), _Nouvelles Histoires extraordinaires_ (1857), _Adventures
+d'Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka_, and _Histoires grotesques et sérieuses_
+(1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his _Oeuvres complètes_
+(vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial difficulties grew upon him.
+He was involved in the failure of Poulet Malassis in 1861, and in 1864
+he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the vain hope of disposing of his
+copyrights. He had for many years a _liaison_ with a coloured woman,
+whom he helped to the end of his life in spite of her gross conduct. He
+had recourse to opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess.
+Paralysis followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in
+_maisons de santé_ in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on the 31st
+of August 1867.
+
+His other works include:--_Petits Poèmes en prose_; a series of art
+criticisms published in the _Pays, Exposition universelle_; studies on
+Gustave Flaubert (in _L'artiste_, 18th of October 1857); on Théophile
+Gautier (_Revue contemporaine_, September 1858); valuable notices
+contributed to Eugène Crépet's _Poètes français_; _Les Paradis
+artificiels opium et haschisch_ (1860); _Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser à
+Paris_ (1861); _Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac_
+(1880), originally an article entitled "Comment on paye ses dettes quand
+on a du génie," in which his criticism is turned against his friends H.
+de Balzac, Théophile Gautier, and Gérard de Nerval.
+
+
+
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An edition of his _Lettres_ (1841-1866) was issued by
+  the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His _Oeuvres complètes_ were
+  edited (1868-1870) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a preface by
+  Théophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vindication of his
+  character from the attacks made upon it in his _Charles Baudelaire, sa
+  vie, son oeuvre_ (1869). He left some material of more private
+  interest in a MS. entitled _Baudelaire_. See _Charles Baudelaire,
+  souvenirs, correspondance, bibliographie_ (1872), by Charles Cousin
+  and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; _Charles Baudelaire, oeuvres posthumes et
+  correspondances inédites_ (1887), containing a journal entitled _Mon
+  coeur mis à nu_, and a biographical study by Eugène Crépet; also _Le
+  Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire_ (1896), a collection of pieces
+  unpublished or prohibited during the author's lifetime, edited by S.
+  Mallarmé and others, with a study of the text of the _Fleurs du mal_
+  by Prince A. Ourousof; Féli Gautier, _Charles Baudelaire_ (Brussels,
+  1904), with facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la
+  Fitzelière and C. Decaux, _Charles Baudelaire_ (1868) in the series of
+  _Essais de bibliographie contemporaine_; essays by Paul Bourget,
+  _Essais de psychologie conlemporaine_ (1883), and Maurice Spronck,
+  _Les Artistes littéraires_ (1889). Among English translations from
+  Baudelaire are _Poems in Prose_, by A. Symons (1905), and a selection
+  for the _Canterbury Poets_ (1904), by F.P. Sturm.
+
+
+
+
+BAUDIER, MICHEL (c. 1589-1645), French historian, was born in Languedoc.
+During the reign of Louis XIII. he was historiographer to the Court of
+France. He contributed to French history by writing _Histoire de la
+guerre de Flandre 1559-1609_ (Paris, 1615); _Histoire de
+l'administration du cardinal d'Amboise, grand ministre d'état en France_
+(Paris, 1634), a defence of the cardinal; and _Histoire de
+l'administration de l'abbé Suger_ (Paris, 1645). Taking an especial
+interest in the Turks he wrote _Inventaire général de l'histoire des
+Turcs_ (Paris, 1619); _Histoire générale de la religion des Turcs avec
+la vie de leur prophète Mahomet_ (Paris, 1626); and _Histoire générale
+du sérail et de la cour du grand Turc_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. by
+E. Grimeston, London, 1635). Having heard the narrative of a Jesuit who
+had returned from China, Baudier wrote _Histoire de la cour du roi de
+Chine_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. in vol. viii. of the _Collection of
+Voyages and Travels_ of A. and J. Churchill, London, 1707-1747). He also
+wrote _Vie du cardinal Ximénès_ (Paris, 1635), which was again published
+with a notice of the author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious
+romance entitled _Histoire de l'incomparable administration de Romieu,
+grand ministre d'état de Raymond Bérenger, comte de Provence_ (Paris,
+1635).
+
+  See J. Lelong, _Bibliothèque historique de la France_ (Paris,
+  1768-1778); L. Moréri, _Le Grand Dictionnaire historique_ (Amsterdam,
+  1740).
+
+
+
+
+BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LÉON (1821-1892), French economist, was born
+in Paris on the 28th of November 1821. His father, Jacques Joseph
+(1774-1832), was a distinguished writer on forestry, and was for many
+years in the service of the French government, eventually becoming the
+head of that branch of the department of agriculture which had charge of
+the state forests. Henri was educated at the Collège Bourbon, where he
+had a distinguished career, and in 1852 he was appointed assistant
+lecturer in political economy to M. Chevalier at the Collège de France.
+In 1866, on the creation of a new chair of economic history, Baudrillart
+was appointed to fill it. His first work was an _Éloge de Turgot_
+(1846), which at once won him notice among the economists. In 1853 he
+published an erudite work on _Jean Bodin et son temps_; then in 1857 a
+_Manuel d'économie politique_; in 1860, _Des rapports de la morale et de
+l'économie politique_; in 1865, _La Liberté du travail_; and from 1878
+to 1880, _L'Histoire du luxe ... depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos
+jours_, in four volumes. At the instance of the Académie des Sciences
+Morales et Politiques he investigated the condition of the farming
+classes of France, and published the results in four volumes (1885, _et
+seq_.). From 1855 to 1864 he directed the _Journal des économistes_, and
+contributed many articles to the _Journal des débats_ and to the _Revue
+des deux mondes_. His writings are distinguished by their style, as well
+as by their profound erudition. In 1863 he was elected member of the
+Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques; in 1870 he was appointed
+inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1881 he succeeded J.
+Garnier as professor of political economy at the École des Ponts et
+Chaussées. Baudrillart was made an officer of the Legion of Honour in
+1889. He died in Paris on the 24th of January 1892.
+
+
+
+
+BAUDRY, or BALDERICH, OF BOURGUEIL (1046 or 1047-1130), archbishop of
+Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-sur-Loire, where he passed
+his early days. Educated at Meung and at Angers, he entered the
+Benedictine abbey of Bourgueil, and in 1079 became abbot of this place,
+but his time was devoted to literary pursuits rather than to his
+official duties. Having failed to secure the bishopric of Orleans in
+1097, he became archbishop of Dol in 1107, and went to Rome for his
+pallium in 1108. The bishopric of Dol had been raised to the rank of an
+archbishopric during the 10th century by Nomenoé, king of Brittany, but
+this step had been objected to by the archbishops of Tours. Consequently
+the position of the see was somewhat ambiguous, and Baudry is referred
+to both as archbishop and as bishop of Dol. He appears to have striven
+earnestly to do something for the education of the ignorant inhabitants
+of Brittany but his efforts were not very successful, and he soon
+abandoned the task. In 1116 he attended the Lateran council, and in 1119
+the council of Reims, after which he paid a visit of two years' duration
+to England. Returning to France he neglected the affairs of his diocese,
+and passed his time mainly at St Samson-sur-Risle in Normandy. He died
+on the 5th or 7th of January 1130.
+
+Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent quality. The
+most important of these, from the historical point of view, have been
+published in the _Historiae Francorum Scriptores_, tome iv., edited by
+A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry's prose works are more important.
+The best known of these is his _Historiae Hierosolymitance_, a history
+of the first crusade from 1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books,
+the material for which was mainly drawn from the anonymous _Gesta
+Francorum_, but some valuable information has been added by Baudry. It
+was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by Ordericus
+Vitalis for his _Historiae ecclesiasticae_; by William, archbishop of
+Tyre, for his _Belli sacri historia_; and by Vincent of Beauvais for his
+_Speculum historiale_. The best edition is that by C. Thurot, which
+appears in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_, tome iv. (Paris,
+1841-1887), Other works probably by Baudry are _Epistola ad Fiscannenses
+monachos_, a description of the monastery of Fécamp; _Vita Roberti de
+Arbrissello; Vita S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio
+capitis Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relatio de scuto et
+gladio_, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and _Vita S. Samsonis
+Dolensis episcopi_. Other writings which on very doubtful authority have
+been attributed to Baudry are _Acta S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De
+visitatione infirmorum; Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S.
+Maclovii, Alectensis episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium_;
+and _Confirmatio bonorum monasterii S. Florentii_. Many of these are
+published by J.P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tomes 160, 162 and
+166 (Paris 1844).
+
+  See _Histoire littéraire de la France_, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869);
+  H. von Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); A.
+  Thurot, "Études critiques sur les historiens de la première croisade;
+  Baudri de Bourgueil" in the _Revue historique_ (Paris, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIMÉ (1828-1886), French painter, was born at La
+Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendée). He studied under Drolling, a sound but
+second-rate artist, and carried off the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his
+picture of "Zenobia found on the banks of the Araxes." His talent from
+the first revealed itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and
+grace, but somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence
+in Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with the
+mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works he exhibited
+in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for the Luxembourg: "The
+Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin" and "The Child." His "Leda," "St John the
+Baptist," and a "Portrait of Beulé," exhibited at the same time, took a
+first prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry commonly
+selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most noteworthy
+being "The Pearl and the Wave." Once only did he attempt an historical
+picture, "Charlotte Corday after the murder of Marat" (1861), and
+returned by preference to the former class of subjects or to painting
+portraits of illustrious men of his day--Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond
+About. The works that crowned Baudry's reputation were his mural
+decorations, which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for
+colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de Cassation,
+at the château of Chantilly, and some private residences--the hôtel
+Fould and hôtel Paiva--but, above all, in the decorations of the _foyer_
+of the Paris opera house. These, more than thirty paintings in all, and
+among them compositions figurative of dancing and music, occupied the
+painter, for ten years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of
+the Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of his
+colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating with his
+brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to him in Paris
+(1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-Yonne (1897) is by Gérôme.
+
+  See H. Delaborde, _Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry_
+  (1886); Ch. Ephrussi, _Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1887).
+       (H. Fr.)
+
+
+
+
+BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882), German theologian and historian, was born on
+the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a porcelain factory,
+at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied at Berlin, where he attached
+himself to the "Right" of the Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In
+1834 he began to teach in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in
+1839 was transferred to Bonn. In 1838 he published his _Kritische
+Darstellung der Religion des Alten Testaments_ (2 vols.), which shows
+that at that date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon
+afterwards his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the
+Fourth Gospel, _Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes_
+(1840), and the other on the Synoptics, _Kritik der evangelischen
+Geschichte der Synoptiker_ (1841), as well as in his _Herr Hengstenberg,
+kritische Briefe über den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des Evangeliums_,
+he announced his complete rejection of his earlier orthodoxy. In 1842
+the government revoked his license and he retired for the rest of his
+life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Henceforward he took a deep interest in
+modern history and politics, as well as in theology, and published
+_Geschichte der Politik, Kultur und Aufklärung des 18ten Jahrhunderts_
+(4 vols. 1843-1845), Geschichte der französischen Revolution (3 vols.
+1847), and _Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer
+Imperialismus_ (1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the
+gospels and a history of their origin, _Kritik der Evangelien und
+Geschichte ihres Ursprungs_ (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the
+Apostles, _Apostelgeschichte_ (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline
+epistles, _Kritik der paulinischen Briefe_ (1850-1852). He died at
+Rixdorf on the 13th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament
+was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his _Life of Jesus_
+had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious products of
+the mythic instinct in the early Christian communities. Bauer ridiculed
+Strauss's notion that a community could produce a connected narrative.
+His own contention, embodying a theory of C.G. Wilke (_Der
+Urevangelist_, 1838), was that the original narrative was the Gospel of
+Mark; that this was composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after
+this the other narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however,
+"regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the creator
+of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction and Christianity
+the invention of a single original evangelist" (Pfleiderer). On the same
+principle the four principal Pauline epistles were regarded as forgeries
+of the 2nd century. He argued further for the preponderance of the
+Graeco-Roman element, as opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian
+writings. The writer of Mark's gospel was "an Italian, at home both in
+Rome and Alexandria"; that of Matthew's gospel "a Roman, nourished by
+the spirit of Seneca"; the Pauline epistles were written in the West in
+antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on. Christianity is
+essentially "Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish garb." This line of
+criticism has found few supporters, mostly in the Netherlands. It
+certainly had its value in emphasizing the importance of studying the
+influence of environment in the formation of the Christian Scriptures.
+Bauer was a man of restless, impetuous activity and independent, if
+ill-balanced, judgment, one who, as he himself perceived, was more in
+place as a free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came
+in the end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not
+afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the Jewish
+question (_Die Judenfrage_, 1843).
+
+  His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the
+  _Jewish Encyclopedia_. See generally Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_;
+  and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, _Development of Theology_, p. 226; Carl
+  Schwarz, _Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_, pp. 142 ff.; and F.
+  Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology in the 19th Century_
+  (1889), pp. 374-378.
+
+
+
+
+BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON (1802-1890), Austrian dramatist, was born at
+Vienna on the 13th of January 1802. Having studied jurisprudence at the
+university of Vienna, he entered the government service in a legal
+capacity, and after holding various minor offices was transferred in
+1843 to a responsible post on the Lottery Commission. He had already
+embarked upon politics, and severely criticized the government in a
+pamphlet, _Pia Desideria eines österreichischen Schriftstellers_ (1842);
+and in 1845 he made a journey to England, after which his political
+opinions became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he
+quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely to
+letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the 9th of August 1890,
+and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies and farces,
+Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German playwrights of the century;
+his plots are clever, the situations witty and natural and the diction
+elegant. His earliest essays, the comedies _Leichtsinn aus Liebe_
+(1831); _Das Liebes-Protokoll_ (1831) and _Die ewige Liebe_ (1834);
+_Bürgerlich und Romantisch_, (1835) enjoyed great popularity. Later he
+turned his attention to so-called _Salonstücke_ (drawing-room pieces),
+notably _Aus der Gesellschaft_ (1866); _Moderne Jugend_ (1869), and _Der
+Landfrieden_ (1869), in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy
+sallies the social conditions of the capital in which he lived.
+
+  A complete edition of Bauernfeld's works, _Gesammelte Schriften_,
+  appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Dramatischer Nachlass_, ed.
+  by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols.,
+  1905). See A. Stern, _Bauernfeld, Ein Dichterportrat_ (1890), R. von
+  Gottschall, "E. von Bauernfeld" (in _Unsere Zeit_, 1890), and E.
+  Horner, _Bauernfeld_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+BAUFFREMONT, a French family which derives its name from a village in
+the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In consequence of an alliance
+with the house of Vergy the Bauffremonts established themselves in
+Burgundy and Franche-Comté. In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of
+Charny, married Maríe, a legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke
+of Burgundy. Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson
+Henri, all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588
+and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre Emmanuel
+Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, was
+created a peer of France in 1817, and duke in 1818. After having served
+in the army of the princes he returned to France under the Empire, and
+had been made a count by Napoleon.     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BAUHIN, GASPARD (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anatomist, was the son
+of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-1582), who had to leave his
+native country on becoming a convert to Protestantism. He was born at
+Basel on the 17th of January 1560, and devoting himself to medicine, he
+pursued his studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated
+schools in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to the
+degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and anatomy. In
+1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship in that university, and
+in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and botany. He was afterwards made city
+physician, professor of the practice of medicine, rector of the
+university, and dean of his faculty. He died at Basel on the 5th of
+December 1624. He published several works relative to botany, of which
+the most valuable was his _Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in
+Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo
+scripserunt opera_ (1596). Another great work which he planned was a
+_Theatrum Botanicum_, meant to be comprised in twelve parts folio, of
+which he finished three; only one, however, was published (1658). He
+also gave a copious catalogue of the plants growing in the environs of
+Basel, and edited the works of P.A. Mattioli (1500-1577) with
+considerable additions. He likewise wrote on anatomy, his principal work
+on this subject being _Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum_
+(1592).
+
+His son, JEAN GASPARD BAUHIN (1606-1685), was professor of botany at
+Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, JEAN BAUHIN (1541-1613),
+after studying botany at Tübingen under Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and
+travelling with Conrad Gesner, began to practise medicine at Basel,
+where he was elected professor of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he
+was invited to become physician to the duke of Württemberg at
+Montbéliard, where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted
+himself chiefly to botany. His great work, _Historia plantarum nova et
+absolutissima_, a compilation of all that was then known about botany,
+was not complete at his death, but was published at Yverdon in
+1650-1651, the _Prodromus_ having appeared at the same place in 1619. He
+also wrote a book _De aquis medicatis_ (1605).
+
+
+
+
+BAULK, or BALK (a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning a ridge,
+partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughed between furrows or
+ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip of land used as a boundary
+in the "open-field" system of agriculture. From the meaning of something
+left untouched comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse
+stopping short of an obstacle, of the "baulk-line" in billiards, or of
+the deceptive motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original
+meaning, i.e. "beam," comes the use of the word for the cross or
+tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one or one
+and a half foot square section (see JOINERY).
+
+
+
+
+BAUMBACH, RUDOLF (1840-1905), German poet, was born at Kranichfeld on
+the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September 1840, the son of a local
+medical practitioner, and received his early schooling at the gymnasium
+of Meiningen, to which place his father had removed. After studying
+natural science in various universities, he engaged in private tuition,
+both independently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz,
+Brünn, Görz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular
+taste with an Alpine legend, _Zlatorog_ (1877), and songs of a
+journeyman apprentice, _Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_ (1878), both of
+which have run into many editions. Their success decided him to embark
+upon a literary career. In 1885 he returned to Meiningen, where he
+received the title of _Hofrat_, and was appointed ducal librarian. His
+death occurred on the 14th of September 1905.
+
+Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and wrote, in
+imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel, many excellent
+drinking songs, among which _Die Lindenwirtin_ has endeared him to the
+German student world. But his real strength lay in narrative verse,
+especially when he had the opportunity of describing the scenery and
+life of his native Thuringia. Special mention may be made of _Frau
+Holde_ (1881), _Spielmannslieder_ (1882), _Von der Landstrasse_ (1882),
+_Thüringer Lieder_ (1891), and his prose, _Sommermärchen_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+BAUMÉ, ANTOINE (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at Senlis on the
+26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to the chemist Claude Joseph
+Geoffroy, and in 1752 was admitted a member of the École de Pharmacie,
+where in the same year he was appointed professor of chemistry. The
+money he made in a business he carried on in Paris for dealing in
+chemical products enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote
+himself to applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was
+obliged to return to a commercial career. He devised many improvements
+in technical processes, e.g. for bleaching silk, dyeing, gilding,
+purifying saltpetre, &c., but he is best known as the inventor of the
+hydrometer associated with his name (often in this connexion improperly
+spelt Beaumé). Of the numerous books and papers he wrote the most
+important is his _Élémens de pharmacie théorique et pratique_ (9
+editions, 1762-1818). He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in
+1772, and an associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the
+15th of October 1804.
+
+
+
+
+BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB (1714-1762), German philosopher, born at
+Berlin. He studied at Halle, and became professor of philosophy at Halle
+and at Frankfort on the Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple
+of Leibnitz and Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been
+the first to establish the _Theory of the Beautiful_ as an independent
+science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics (q.v.) from
+the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out a definite object
+for its researches. The very name (_Aesthetics_), which Baumgarten was
+the first to use, indicates the imperfect and partial nature of his
+analysis, pointing as it does to an element so variable as _feeling_ or
+_sensation_ as the ultimate ground of judgment in questions pertaining
+to beauty. It is important to notice that Baumgarten's first work
+preceded those of Burke, Diderot, and P. André, and that Kant had a
+great admiration for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the
+following: _Dispulationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus_ (1735);
+_Aesthetics; Metaphysica_ (1739; 7th ed. 1779); _Ethica philosophica_
+(1751, 2nd ed. 1763); _Initia philosophiae practicae primae_ (1760).
+After his death, his pupils published a _Philosophia Generalis_ (1770)
+and a _Jus Naturae_ (1765), which he had left in manuscript.
+
+  See Meyer, _Baumgarten's Leben_ (1763); Abbt, _Baumgarten's Leben und
+  Charakler_ (1765); H.G. Meyer, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (1874); J.
+  Schmidt, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (Halle, 1875); and article
+  AESTHETICS.
+
+His brother, SIEGMUND JACOB BAUMGARTEN (1706-1757), was professor of
+theology at Halle, and applied the methods of Wolff to theology. His
+chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.), is sometimes called, the
+father of German rationalism. Baumgarten, though he did not renounce the
+Pietistic doctrine, began the process which Semler completed. His works
+include _Evangelische Glaubenslehre_ (1759); _Auszug der
+Kirchengeschichte_ (1743-1762); _Primae lineae breviarii anliquitatum
+Christianarum_ (1747); _Geschichte der Religionsparteien_ (1760);
+_Nachricht van merkwürdigen Buchern_ (1752-1757); _Nachrichten van einer
+hallischen Bibliothek_ (1748-1751).
+
+  See life by Semler (Halle, 1758).
+
+
+
+
+BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL (1812-1889), German Protestant theologian, was born
+at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of March 1812. He studied
+at Kiel University (1832), and became professor ordinarius of theology
+at Rostock (1850). A liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854
+through a work, _Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus
+der Gegenwart_, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament and
+assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every kind. At a
+pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended evangelical freedom as
+regards the legal sanctity of Sunday. This, with other attempts to
+liberalize religion, brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical
+authorities of Mecklenburg, and in 1858 he was deprived of his
+professorship. He then travelled throughout Germany, demanding justice,
+telling the story of his life (_Christliche Selbstgespräche_, 1861), and
+lecturing on the life of Jesus (_Die Geschichte Jesu. Für das
+Verständniss der Gegenwart_, 1859). In 1865 he helped to found the
+_Deutsche Protestantenverein_, but withdrew from it in 1877. On several
+occasions (1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of
+the progressive party. He died on the 21st of July 1889. Other works:
+_Apostelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche van Jerusalem bis
+Rom_ (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and _Doktor Martin Luther, ein Volksbuch_
+(1883).
+
+  H.H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see also C.
+  Schwartz, _Neueste Theologie_ (1869); Lichtenberger, _Hist. Germ.
+  Theol._, 1889; Calwer-Zeller, _Kirchen-Lexikon_.
+
+
+
+
+BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO (1788-1842), German Protestant
+divine, was born at Merseburg. In 1805 he entered the university of
+Leipzig and studied theology and philology. After acting as
+_Privatdocent_ at Leipzig, he was, in 1812, appointed professor
+extraordinarius of theology at Jena, where he remained to the end of his
+life, rising gradually to the head of the theological faculty. He died
+on the 31st of May 1842. With the exception of Church history, he
+lectured on all branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially
+on New Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the
+history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate scholarship
+and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his lectures and treatises,
+especially those on the development of church doctrine. His published
+works are many, the most important being:--_Lehrbuch der christtichen
+Sittenlehre_ (1826); _Grundzuge der biblischen Theologie_ (1828);
+_Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_ (1832); _Compendium der
+Dogmengeschichte_ (1840). The last, perhaps his best work, was left
+unfinished, but was completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.
+
+
+
+
+BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN (1792-1860), leader of the Tübingen school of
+theology, was born at Schmiden, near Canstatt, on the 21st of June 1792.
+After receiving an early training in the theological seminary at
+Blaubeuren, he went in 1809 to the university of Tübingen. Here he
+studied for a time under Ernst Bengel, grandson of the eminent New
+Testament critic, Johann Albrecht Bengel, and at this early stage in his
+career he seems to have been under the influence of the old Tübingen
+school. But at the same time the philosophers Immanuel Fichte and
+Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide and deep impression. In 1817
+Baur returned to the theological seminary at Blaubeuren as professor.
+This move marked a turning-point in his life, for he was now able to set
+to work upon those investigations on which his reputation rests. He had
+already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser's _Biblische Theologie_
+for Bengel's _Archiv für Theologie_ (ii. 656); its tone was moderate and
+conservative. When, a few years after his appointment at Blaubeuren, he
+published his first important, work, _Symbolik und Mythologie oder die
+Naturreligion des Altertums_ (1824-1825), it became evident that he had
+made a deeper study of philosophy, and had come under the influence of
+Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher. The
+learning of the work was fully recognized, and in 1826 the author was
+called to Tübingen as professor of theology. It is with Tübingen that
+his greatest literary achievements are associated. His earlier
+publications here treated of mythology and the history of dogma. _Das
+manichäische Religionssystem_ appeared in 1831, _Apollonius von Tyana_
+in 1832, _Die christliche Gnosis_ in 1835, and _Über das Christliche im
+Platonismus oder Socrates und Christus_ in 1837. As Otto Pfleiderer
+(_Development of Theology_, p. 285) observes, "the choice not less than
+the treatment of these subjects is indicative of the large breadth of
+view and the insight of the historian into the comparative history of
+religion." Meantime Baur had exchanged one master in philosophy for
+another, Schleiermacher for Hegel. In doing so, he had adopted
+completely the Hegelian philosophy of history. "Without philosophy," he
+has said, "history is always for me dead and dumb." The change of view
+is illustrated clearly in the essay, published in the _Tubinger
+Zeitschrift_ for 1831, on the Christ-party in the Corinthian Church,
+_Die Chrislusparlei in der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz des
+paulinischen und petrinischen in der älsten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus
+in Rom_, the trend of which is suggested by the title. Baur contends
+that St Paul was opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party which
+wished to set up its own form of Christian religion instead of his
+universal Christianity. He finds traces of a keen conflict of parties in
+the post-apostolic age. The theory is further developed in a later work
+(1835, the year in which David Strauss' _Leben Jesu_ was published),
+_Über die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe_. In this Baur attempts to prove
+that the false teachers mentioned in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus
+are the Gnostics, particularly the Marcionites, of the second century,
+and consequently that the Epistles were produced in the middle of this
+century in opposition to Gnosticism. He next proceeded to investigate
+the Pauline Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles in the same manner,
+publishing his results in 1845 under the title _Paulus, der Apostel Jesu
+Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre_. In this
+he contends that only the Epistles to the Galatians, Corinthians and
+Romans are genuinely Pauline, and that the Paul of Acts is a different
+person from the Paul of these genuine Epistles, the author being a
+Paulinist who, with an eye to the different parties in the Church, is at
+pains to represent Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as
+far as possible as a Petrinist. Thus it becomes clear that Baur is
+prepared to apply his theory to the whole of the New Testament; in the
+words of H.S. Nash, "he carried a sweeping hypothesis into the
+examination of the New Testament." Those writings alone he considers
+genuine in which the conflict between Jewish-Christians and
+Gentile-Christians is clearly marked. In his _Kritische Untersuchungen
+über die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss zu einander, ihren
+Charakter und Ursprung_ (1847) he turns his attention to the Gospels,
+and here again finds that the authors were conscious of the conflict of
+parties; the Gospels reveal a mediating or conciliatory tendency
+(_Tendenz_) on the part of the writers or redactors. The Gospels, in
+fact, are adaptations or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the
+Gospel of the Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites.
+The Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original
+Gospel (_Urevangelium_); the Pauline Luke is later and arose
+independently; Mark represents a still later development; the account in
+John is idealistic: it "does not possess historical truth, and cannot
+and does not really lay claim to it." Baur's whole theory indeed starts
+with the supposition that Christianity was gradually developed out of
+Judaism. Before it could become a universal religion, it had to struggle
+with Jewish limitations and to overcome them. The early Christians were
+Jewish-Christians, to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other
+hand, represented a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus
+there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter, James and
+John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle continued down to
+the middle of the 2nd century. In short, the conflict between Petrinism
+and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz puts it, the key to the literature of
+the 1st and 2nd century.
+
+But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical critic. As
+early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work, _Gegensatz des
+Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der
+beiden Lehrbegriffe_, a strong defence of Protestantism on the lines of
+Schleiermacher's _Glaubenslehre_, and a vigorous reply to J. Möhler's
+_Symbolik_ (1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma,
+_Die christliche Lehre van der Versöhnung in ihrer geschichtlichen
+Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (1838), _Die christliche Lehre von
+der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer geschichtlichen
+Entwicklung_ (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the _Lehrbuch der christlichen
+Dogmengeschichte_ (1847). The value of these works is impaired somewhat
+by Baur's habit of making the history of dogma conform to the formulae of
+Hegel's philosophy, a procedure "which only served to obscure the truth
+and profundity of his conception of history as a true development of the
+human mind" (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon came to attach more
+importance to personality, and to distinguish more carefully between
+religion and philosophy. The change is marked in his _Epochen der
+kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung_ (1852), _Das Christenthum und die
+christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte_ (1853), and _Die
+christliche Kirche von Anfang des vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten
+Jahrhunderts_ (1859), works preparatory to his _Kirchengeschichte_, in
+which the change of view is specially pronounced. The _Kirchengeschichte_
+was published in five volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur
+himself, partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard
+Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him.
+Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as "a
+classic for all time." "Taken as a whole, it is the first thorough and
+satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity and the Church
+on _strictly historical_ lines, i.e. as a natural development of the
+religious spirit of our race under the combined operation of various
+human causes" (_Development of Theology_, p. 288). Baur's lectures on the
+history of dogma, _Ausführlichere Vorlesungen über die christliche
+Dogmengeschichte_, were published later by his son (1865-1868).
+
+Baur's views were revolutionary and often extreme; but, whatever may be
+thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic he rendered a great
+service to theological science. "One thing is certain: New Testament
+study, since his time, has had a different colour" (H.S. Nash). He has
+had a number of disciples or followers, who have in many cases modified
+his positions.
+
+  A full account of F.C. Baur's labours, and a complete list of his
+  writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_, in which his work is divided into three periods:
+  (1) "Philosophy of Religion," (2) "Biblical criticism," (3) "Church
+  History." See also H.S. Nash, _The History of the Higher Criticism of
+  the New Testament_ (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, _The Development
+  of Theology in Germany since Kant_ (trans., 1890); Carl Schwarz, _Zur
+  Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_ (Leipzig, 1869); R.W. Mackay, _The
+  Tübingen School and its Antecedents_ (1863); A.S. Farrar, _A Critical
+  History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion_
+  (Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on "The Tübingen
+  Historical School," in _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862.
+       (M. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGÈNE MARIE (1796-1867), French philosopher and
+theologian, was born at Paris. At the École Normale he came under the
+influence of Cousin. In 1816 he adopted the profession of higher
+teaching, and was soon after called to the chair of philosophy in the
+university of Strassburg. He held this position for many years, and gave
+a parallel course of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in
+the same city. The reaction against speculative philosophy, which
+carried away De Maistre and Lamennais, influenced him also. In 1828 he
+took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For several years
+he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty and at the college
+of Juilly, but in 1840 he set out for Paris as vicar of the diocese. At
+Paris he obtained considerable reputation as an orator, and in 1853 was
+made professor of moral theology at the theological faculty. This post
+he held till his death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason
+and faith, and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise
+unattainable, which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods.
+Theology and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science. Yet Bautain
+was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he exalted faith above
+reason. He pointed out, following chiefly the Kantian criticism, that
+reason can never yield knowledge of things in themselves. But there
+exists in addition to reason another faculty which may be called
+intelligence, through which we are put in connexion with spiritual and
+invisible truth. This intelligence does not of itself yield a body of
+truth; it merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are
+made productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts. This
+fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the departments of
+psychology and morals. The details of this theology are highly
+imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a spirit of the world
+and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth to a physical and
+psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the animal and vegetable
+spirits. His theories may well be compared with the arbitrary mysticism
+of van Helmont and the Gnostics. The most important of his works
+are:--_Philosophie du Christianisme_ (1835); _Psychologic expérimentale_
+(1839), new edition entitled _Esprit humain et ses facultés_ (1859);
+_Philosophie morale_ (1840); _Religion et liberté_ (1848); _La Morale de
+l'évangile comparée aux divers systèmes de morale_ (Strassburg, 1827;
+Paris, 1855); _De l'éducation publique en France au XIX^e siècle_
+(Paris, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BAUTZEN (Wendish _Budissin_, "town"), a town of Germany, in the kingdom
+of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515;
+(1905) 29,412. It occupies an eminence on the right bank of the Spree,
+680 ft. above the level of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the
+Dresden-Görlitz-Breslau main line of railway, and at the junction of
+lines from Schandau and Königswartha. The town is surrounded by walls,
+and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned into
+promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the left bank of
+the river. Among its churches the most remarkable is the cathedral of St
+Peter, dating from the 15th century, with a tower 300 ft. in height. It
+is used by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, an iron screen
+separating the parts assigned to each. There are five other churches, a
+handsome town hall, an orphan-asylum, several hospitals, a mechanics'
+institute, a famous grammar school (gymnasium), a normal and several
+other schools, and two public libraries. The general trade and
+manufactures are considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth),
+linen and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It has
+also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar
+factories, &c.
+
+Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler, conquered
+Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under Otto I., his
+successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth and importance, for
+a good share of which it was indebted to the pilgrimages which were made
+to the "arm of St Peter," preserved in one of the churches. It suffered
+greatly during the Hussite war, and still more during the Thirty Years'
+War, in the course of which it was besieged and captured by the elector
+of Brandenburg, John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wallenstein
+(1633), and, in the following year was burned by its commander before
+being surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in
+1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity.
+
+
+  Battle of Bautzen, 1813.
+
+The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 20th and 21st
+of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of Russians and
+Prussians (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The position chosen by the allies
+as that in which to receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from
+Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right. Bautzen
+itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing (Russians), the
+main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near Jenkwitz. On the
+heights of Burk, 2½ m. N.E. of Bautzen, was Kleist's Prussian corps,
+with Yorck's in support. On Kleist's right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of
+Burk) lay Blücher's corps, and on Blücher's right, formed at an angle to
+him, and refused towards Gleina (7 m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the
+Russians of Barclay de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought
+abounded in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as
+battlegrounds of the Seven Years' War. The whole line was covered by the
+river Spree, which served as an immediate defence for the left and
+centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to attack the right;
+moreover the interval between the river and the position on this side
+was covered with a network of ponds and watercourses. Napoleon's right
+and centre approached (on a broad front owing to the want of cavalry)
+from Dresden by Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was
+separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at Luckau, was
+ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and Klix to strike the allies'
+right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon, after a prolonged reconnaissance,
+advanced the main army against Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy's
+right to be dealt with by Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the
+extreme left of the allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to
+move his artillery and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot's
+(XII.) corps, the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly
+country to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald's (XI.) corps was to
+assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the Spree and
+attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three corps were directed
+by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand's (IV.) corps was held back to
+connect with Ney, who had then reached Weissig with the head of his
+column. The Guard and other general reserves were in rear of Macdonald
+and Marmont. Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont
+easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the other
+bank of the river by about 4 P.M. A heavy and indecisive combat took
+place in the evening between Oudinot and the Russian left, directed by
+the tsar in person, in which Oudinot's men made a little progress
+towards Jenkwitz. Marmont's battle was more serious. The Prussians were
+not experienced troops, but were full of ardour and hatred of the
+French. Kleist made a most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and
+Bertrand's corps was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but
+part of Blücher's corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not
+taken till 7 P.M. The French attack was much impeded by the ground and
+by want of room to deploy between the river and the enemy. But
+Napoleon's object in thus forcing the fighting in the centre was
+achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the French attack,
+gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and right to sustain the
+shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were in possession of the French,
+and the allied line now stretched from Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz,
+Blücher and Barclay maintaining their original positions at Pliskowitz
+and Gleina. The night of the 20th-21st was spent by both armies on the
+battlefield. Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost
+fought out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive
+point was to be Barclay's position. Soon after daybreak fighting was
+renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep until the
+time appointed for Ney's attack. To a heavy counter-stroke against
+Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal from the ground won on the
+20th, the emperor paid no more heed than to order Macdonald to support
+the XII corps. For in this second position of the allies, which was far
+more formidable than the original line, the decisive result could be
+brought about only by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the
+corps of Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total
+force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had been
+sharply engaged on the 19th, but had spent the 20th in calculated
+inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened; Ney and Lauriston
+moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and Victor operated by a wide
+turning movement against Barclay's right rear. The advance was carried
+out with precision; the Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was now
+closing upon the rear of Blücher's corps at the village of Preititz.
+Napoleon at once ordered Soult's four corps to renew their attacks in
+order to prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the
+critical moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at 11 A.M.
+and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite of an hour
+enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was checked
+until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could come upon the
+scene. At 1 P.M., when Ney resumed his advance, it was too late to cut
+off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now made his final stroke. The
+Imperial Guard and all other troops in the centre, 80,000 strong and
+covered by a great mass of artillery, moved forward to the attack; and
+shortly the allied centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent
+to oppose Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Blücher, now
+almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make head
+against Soult, and Ney's four corps then carried all before them.
+Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney's appearance,
+to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered a general retreat
+eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and bravery directing the
+rearguard. Thus the allies drew off unharmed, leaving no trophies in the
+hands of Napoleon, whose success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a
+variety of reasons, and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a _coup
+manqué_ strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side
+163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses
+respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded.
+
+
+
+
+BAUXITE, a substance which has been considered to be a mineral species,
+having the composition Al2O(OH)4 (corresponding with alumina 73.9, water
+26.1%), and thus to be distinct from the crystallized aluminium
+hydroxides, diaspore (AlO(OH)) and gibbsite (= hydrargillite, Al(OH)3).
+It was first described by P. Berthier in 1821 as "alumine hydratée de
+Beaux," and was named beauxite by P.A. Dufrénoy in 1847 and bauxite by
+E.H. Sainte-Claire Deville in 1861; this name being derived from the
+original locality, the village of Les Baux (or Beaux), near Arles, dep.
+Bouches-du-Rhône in the south of France, where the material has been for
+many years extensively mined as an ore of aluminium. It is never found
+in a crystallized state, but always as earthy, clay-like or
+concretionary masses, often with a pisolitic structure. In colour it
+varies from white through yellow and brown to red, depending on the
+amount and the degree of hydration of the iron present. The specific
+gravity also varies with the amount of iron; that of the variety known
+as wocheinite (from near Lake Wochein, near Radmannsdorf, in northern
+Carniola) is given as 2.55. The numerous chemical analyses, which have
+mostly been made for technical purposes, show that material known as
+bauxite varies very widely in composition, the maximum and minimum
+percentages of each constituent being as follows: alumina (Al2O3)
+33.2-76.9; water (H2O) 8.6-31.4; iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.1-48.8; silica
+(SiO2) 0.3-37.8; titanic acid (TiO2) up to 4. The material is thus
+usually very impure, being mixed with clay, quartz-sand and hydroxides
+of iron in variable amounts, the presence of which may be seen by a
+microscopical examination. Analyses of purer material often approximate
+to diaspore or gibbsite in composition, and minute crystalline scales of
+these minerals have been detected under the microscope.
+
+Bauxite can therefore scarcely be regarded as a simple mineral, but
+rather as a mixture of gibbsite and diaspore with various impurities; it
+is in fact strikingly like laterite, both in chemical composition and in
+microscopical structure. Laterite is admittedly a decomposition-product
+of igneous or other crystalline rocks, and the same is no doubt also
+true of bauxite. The deposits in Co. Antrim occur with pisolitic iron
+ore inter-bedded with the Tertiary basalts, and similar deposits are met
+with in connexion with the basaltic rocks of the Westerwald in Germany.
+On the other hand, the more extensive deposits in the south of France
+(departments Bouches-du-Rhône, Ariège, Hérault, Var) and the southern
+United States (Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas) are often associated with
+limestones; in this case the origin of the bauxite has been ascribed to
+the chemical action of solutions of aluminium sulphate on the
+limestones.
+
+Bauxite is of value chiefly as a source of metallic aluminium (q.v.);
+the material is first purified by chemical processes, after which the
+aluminium hydroxide is reduced in the electric furnace. Bauxite is also
+largely used in the manufacture of alum and other aluminium salts used
+in dyeing. Its refractory qualities render it available for the
+manufacture of fire-bricks and crucibles.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BAVAI, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 15 m. E.S.E.
+of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1622. The town carries on the
+manufacture of iron goods and of fertilizers. Under the name of
+_Bagacum_ or _Bavacum_ it was the capital of the Nervii and, under the
+Romans, an important centre of roads, the meeting-place of which was
+marked by a milestone, destroyed in the 17th century and replaced in the
+19th century by a column. Bavai was destroyed during the barbarian
+invasions and never recovered its old importance. It suffered much
+during the wars of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.
+
+
+
+
+BAVARIA (Ger. _Bayern_), a kingdom of southern Germany, next to Prussia
+the largest state of the German empire in area and population. It
+consists of two distinct and unequal portions. Bavaria proper, and the
+Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from 25 to 40 m. W. apart and are
+separated by the grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse.
+
+_Physical Features._--Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by the Alps,
+on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a long range of mountains known as the
+Böhmerwald, on the N. by the Fichtelgebirge and the Frankenwald, which
+separate it from the kingdom of Saxony, the principality of Reuss, the
+duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Meiningen and the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Cassel. The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.;
+but the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain an
+elevation of 9000 or 10,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded by
+Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. The country mainly belongs to
+the basins of the Danube and the Main; by far the greater portion being
+drained by the former river, which, entering from Swabia as a navigable
+stream, traverses the entire breadth of the kingdom, with a winding
+course of 200 m., and receives in its passage the Iller, the Lech, the
+Isar and the Inn from the south, and the Naab, the Altmühl and the
+Wörnitz from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian
+territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river flowing
+from Upper Austria. The Isar does not become navigable till it has
+passed Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar size. The Main
+traverses the northern regions, or Upper and Lower Franconia, with a
+very winding course and greatly facilitates the trade of the provinces.
+The district watered by the southern tributaries of the Danube consists
+for the most part of an extensive plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390
+ft. In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous lakes and
+in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy ground. The
+smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is bounded on the E. by the
+Rhine, which divides it from the grand-duchy of Baden, on the S. by
+Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a lofty range of hills, the
+Haardtgebirge, which separate it from Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine
+province.
+
+The climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the character of the
+region, being cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the plains
+adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the temperature is in
+the winter months considerably colder than that of England, and a good
+deal hotter during summer and autumn.
+
+_Area and Population._--Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion, contains
+an area of 26,998 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western, 2288 sq. m.,
+making the whole extent of the kingdom about 29,286 sq. m. The total
+population, according to the census of 1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a
+quarter of the inhabitants live in towns, of which Munich and Nuremberg
+have populations exceeding 100,000, Augsburg, Würzburg, Fürth and
+Ludwigshafen between 50,000 and 100,000, while twenty-six other towns
+number from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants.
+
+Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various ancient tribes;
+Germanized Slavs in the north-east, Swabians and Franks in the centre,
+Franks towards the west, and, in the Palatinate, Walloons. Politically,
+the country is divided into eight provinces, as follows:--
+
+
+  +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+
+  |                  |            |Pop. of Province| Area in |
+  |    Provinces.    |  Capital.  |    in 1905.    |  sq. m. |
+  +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+
+  | Upper Bavaria    | Munich     |   1,410,763    |  6,456  |
+  | Lower Bavaria    | Landshut   |     706,345    |  4,152  |
+  | Upper Palatinate | Regensburg |     573,476    |  3,728  |
+  | Upper Franconia  | Bayreuth   |     637,239    |  2,702  |
+  | Middle Franconia | Ansbach    |     868,072    |  2,925  |
+  | Lower Franconia  | Würzburg   |     680,769    |  3,243  |
+  | Swabia           | Augsburg   |     750,880    |  3,792  |
+  | The Palatinate   | Spires     |     885,280    |  2,288  |
+  |                  |            +----------------+---------+
+  |                  |   Total    |   6,512,824    | 29,286  |
+  +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+
+
+_Religion._--The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are Roman
+Catholics. The Protestant-Evangelical Church claims about 29%, while
+Jews, and a very small number of other sects, account for the remainder.
+
+The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate
+are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in the Rhine Palatinate, Upper
+Franconia, and especially Middle Franconia, the preponderance is on the
+side of the Protestants. The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is
+altogether free. The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Roman
+Catholics, and the sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or Protestant.
+Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads are the two archbishops of
+Munich-Freising and Bamberg, and the six bishops of Eichstätt, Spires,
+Würzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg and Passau, of whom the first three are
+suffragans of Bamberg. The "Old Catholic" party, under the bishop of
+Bonn, has failed, despite its early successes, to take deep root in the
+country. Among the Protestants the highest authority is the general
+consistory of Munich. The numbers of the different religions in 1900
+were as follows:--Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants, 1,749,206;
+Jews, 54,928.
+
+_Education._--Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has recently done
+much in this connexion. The state has two Roman Catholic universities,
+Munich and Würzburg, and a Lutheran, Erlangen; in Munich there are a
+polytechnic, an academy of sciences and an academy of art.
+
+_Agriculture._--Of the total surface of Bavaria about one-half is under
+cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth mostly pasture.
+The level country, including both Lower Bavaria (extending northwards to
+the Danube) and the western and middle parts of Franconia, is productive
+of rye, oats, wheat, barley and millet, and also of hemp, flax, madder
+and fruit and vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the
+Lake of Constance, on the banks of the Main, in the lower part of its
+course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively grown
+in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Germany) round Nuremberg and
+in the Palatinate, which also largely produces the sugar-beet. Potatoes
+are cultivated in all the provinces, but especially in the Palatinate
+and in the Spessart district, which lies in the north-west within a
+curve of the Main. The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria,
+where pasture-land predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and the
+dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in large numbers.
+
+The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of Bavaria.
+This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly and mountainous
+country, the thinness of the population and the necessity of keeping a
+given extent of ground under wood for the supply of fuel. More than a
+third of the forests are public property and furnish a considerable
+addition to the revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces
+of Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine. The
+forests are well stocked with game, deer, chamois (in the Alps), wild
+boars, capercailzie, grouse, pheasants, &c. being plentiful. The greater
+proportion of the land throughout the kingdom is in the hands of peasant
+proprietors, the extent of the separate holdings differing very much in
+different districts. The largest peasant property may be about 170
+acres, and the smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50.
+
+_Minerals._--The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria are coal, iron ore,
+graphite and salt. The coal mines lie principally in the districts of
+Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the Rhine Palatinate. Salt is
+obtained on a large scale partly from brine springs and partly from
+mines, the principal centres being Halle, Berchtesgaden, Traunstein and
+Rosenheim. The government monopoly which had long existed was abolished
+in 1867 and free trade was established in salt between the members of
+the customs-union. Of quicksilver there are several mines, chiefly in
+the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of copper, manganese
+and cobalt are obtained. There are numerous quarries of excellent
+marble, alabaster, gypsum and building stone; and the porcelain-clay is
+among the finest in Europe. To these may be added emery, steatite,
+barytes, felspar and ochre, in considerable quantities; excellent
+lithographic stone is obtained at Solenhofen; and gold and silver are
+still worked, but to an insignificant extent.
+
+_Manufactures and Trade._--A great stimulus was given to manufacturing
+industry in Bavaria by the law of 1868, which abolished the last remains
+of the old restrictions of the gilds, and gave the whole country the
+liberty which had been enjoyed by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief
+centres of industry are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Fürth, Erlangen,
+Aschaffenburg, Regensburg, Würzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and Hof
+in Bavaria proper, and in the Palatinate Spires and the Rhine port of
+Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware industry are Munich,
+Nuremberg, Augsburg and Fürth; the two first especially for locomotives
+and automobiles, the last for tinfoil and metal toys. Aschaffenburg
+manufactures fancy goods, Augsburg and Hof produce excellent cloth, and
+Munich has a great reputation for scientific instruments. In Franconia
+are numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is largely
+carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. A considerable
+quantity of glass is made, particularly in the Böhmerwald. Brewing forms
+an important industry, the best-known breweries being those of Munich,
+Nuremberg, Erlangen and Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are
+leather, tobacco, porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nuremberg),
+plate-glass, sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets. The
+commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist chiefly of
+corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods, glass, fancy
+wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat of the hop-trade is
+Nuremberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports comprise sugar, tobacco,
+cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron.
+
+_Communications._--Trade is served by an excellent railway system and
+there are steamboat services on the navigable rivers, to the east by way
+of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by Ludwigshafen. The high roads
+of Bavaria, many of which are military roads laid out at the beginning
+of the 19th century, extend in all over about 10,000 m. There were 4377
+m. of railways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the
+hands of the state, and about 440 m. belonged to the private system of
+the Palatinate. The principal canal is the Ludwigskanal, which connects
+the Rhine with the Danube, extending from Bamberg on the Regnitz to
+Dietfurt on the Altmühl. There is an extensive network of telegraph and
+telephone lines. All belong to the government post office, which forms
+an administrative system independent of the imperial German post office.
+
+_Constitution and Administration._--By the treaty of Versailles (23rd
+November 1870) and the imperial constitution of the 16th of April 1871,
+Bavaria was incorporated with the German empire, reserving, however,
+certain separate privileges (_Sonderrechte_) in respect of the
+administration of the army, the railways and the posts, the excise
+duties on beer, the rights of domicile and the insurance of real estate.
+The king is the supreme chief of the army, and matters requiring
+adjudication in the adjutant-general's court are referred to a special
+Bavarian court attached to the supreme imperial military tribunal in
+Berlin. Bavaria is represented in the Bundesrat by six votes and sends
+forty-eight deputies to the imperial diet. The Bavarian constitution is
+mainly founded on the constitutional act of the 26th of May 1818,
+modified by subsequent acts--that of the 9th of March 1828 as affecting
+the upper house, and those of the 4th of June 1848 and of the 21st of
+March 1881 as affecting the lower--and is a limited monarchy, with a
+legislative body of two houses. The crown is hereditary in the house of
+Wittelsbach, according to the rights of primogeniture, females being
+excluded from succession so long as male agnates of equal birth exist.
+The title of the sovereign is king of Bavaria, that of his presumptive
+heir is crown-prince of Bavaria, and during the minority or incapacity
+of the sovereign a regency is declared, which is vested in the nearest
+male agnate capable of ascending the throne. Such a regency began on the
+10th of June 1886, at first for King Louis II., and after the 14th of
+the same month for King Otto I., in the person of the prince regent
+Luitpold. The executive power resides in the king and the responsibility
+for the government of the kingdom in his ministers. The royal family is
+Roman Catholic, and the seat of government is Munich, the capital.
+
+The upper house of the Bavarian parliament (_Kammer der Reichsräte_) is
+composed of (1) the princes of the blood royal (being of full age), (2)
+the ministers of the crown, (3) the archbishops of Munich, Freising and
+Bamberg, (4) the heads of such noble families as were formerly
+"immediate" so long as they retain their ancient possessions in Bavaria,
+(5) of a Roman Catholic bishop appointed by the king for life, and of
+the president for the time being of the Protestant consistory, (6) of
+hereditary counsellors (_Reichsräte_) appointed by the king, and (7) of
+other counsellors appointed by the king for life. The lower house
+(_Kammer der Abgeordneten_) or chamber of representatives, consists,
+since 1881, of 159 deputies, in proportion of one--reckoned on the
+census of 1875--to every 31,500 inhabitants. A general election takes
+place every six years, and, under the electoral law of 1906, is direct.
+Qualifications for the general body of electors are full age of
+twenty-five years, Bavarian citizenship of one year at least, and
+discharge of all rates and taxes. Parliament must be assembled every
+three years, but as the budget is taken every two years, it is regularly
+called together within that period. No laws affecting the liberty or
+property of the subject can be passed without the sanction of
+parliament.
+
+_Revenue._--The following is a fairly typical statement of the budget
+estimates (1902-1903), in marks (= 1 shilling sterling):--
+
+
+    Receipts.
+                                     Mks.
+  Direct taxes                    38,199,000
+  Customs and indirect taxes      50,900,990
+  State railways                 184,551,000
+  Posts and telegraphs            41,665,100
+  Forests and agricultural dues   37,395,000
+  Imperial assignments            62,571,605
+                                ------------
+                                 415,282,695
+                                 ===========
+                               = £20,764,135
+
+    Disbursements.
+                                     Mks.
+  Civil list                       5,402,475
+  State debt                      51,323,200
+  Ministry of the Royal house
+    and of Foreign dept.             688,398
+  Ministry of Justice             20,615,299
+  Ministry of interior            30,055,338
+  Public worship and education    34,667,673
+  Minister of finance              6,696,780
+  Constribution to imperial
+    exchequer                     72,647,090
+                                ------------
+                                 222,296,253
+                                 ===========
+                               = £11,114,813
+
+
+The public debt amounts to about £95,000,000, of which over 75% was
+incurred for railways.
+
+_Army._--The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the army of the
+German empire, with a separate administration, but in time of war is
+under the supreme command of the German emperor. The regulations
+applicable to other sections of the whole imperial army are, however,
+observed. It consists, on a peace footing, of three army corps, 1st, 2nd
+and 3rd Royal Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of
+which are in Munich, Nuremberg and Würzburg respectively. The Bavarian
+army comprises sixty-seven battalions of infantry, two battalions of
+rifles, ten regiments of cavalry (two heavy, two Ulan and six
+Chevauxlegers), a squadron of mounted infantry (_Jäger-zu-pferde_),
+twelve field- and two foot-artillery regiments, three battalions of
+engineers, three of army service, and a balloon section; in all 60,000
+men with 10,000 horses. In time of war the total force is trebled.
+     (P. A. A.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called Bavaria
+were a people, probably of Celtic extraction, who were subdued by the
+Romans just before the opening of the Christian era, when colonies were
+founded among them and their land was included in the province of
+Raetia. During the 5th century it was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer
+and, after being almost denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes
+who, pushing along the valley of the Danube, settled there between A.D.
+488 and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the race and
+origin of these people, who were certainly a new and composite social
+aggregate. Most likely they were descendants of the Marcomanni, Quadi
+and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or Swabian race, with possibly a small
+intermixture of Gothic or Celtic elements. They were called _Baioarii,
+Baiowarii, Bawarii_ or _Baiuwarii_, words derived most probably from
+_Baja_ or _Baya_, corruptions of _Bojer_, and given to them because they
+came from _Bojerland_ or _Bohemia_. Another but less probable
+explanation derives the name from a combination of the old high German
+word _uuâra_, meaning league, and _bai_, a Gothic word for both. The
+Bavarians are first mentioned in a Frankish document of 520, and twenty
+years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east of the Swabians. Their
+country bore some traces of Roman influence, and its main boundaries
+were the Enns, the Danube, the Lech and the Alps; but its complete
+settlement was a work of time.
+
+
+  Frankish influence.
+
+The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks, probably
+without a serious struggle; and were ruled from 555 to 788 by dukes of
+the Agilolfing family, who were possibly of Frankish descent. For a
+century and a half a succession of dukes resisted the inroads of the
+Slavs on their eastern frontier, and by the time of Duke Theodo I., who
+died in 717, were completely independent of the feeble Frankish kings.
+When Charles Martel became the virtual ruler of the Frankish realm he
+brought the Bavarians into strict dependence, and deposed two dukes
+successively for contumacy. Pippin the Short was equally successful in
+maintaining his authority, and several marriages took place between the
+family to which he belonged and the Agilolfings, who were united in a
+similar manner with the kings of the Lombards. The ease with which
+various risings were suppressed by the Franks gives colour to the
+supposition that they were rather the outcome of family quarrels than
+the revolt of an oppressed people. Between the years 739 and 748 the
+Bavarian law was committed to writing and supplementary clauses were
+afterwards added, all of which bear evident traces of Frankish
+influence. Thus, while the dukedom belongs to the Agilolfing family, the
+duke must be chosen by the people and his election confirmed by the
+Frankish king, to whom he owes fealty. He has a fivefold wergild,
+summons the nobles and clergy for purposes of deliberation, calls out
+the host, administers justice and regulates finance. There are five
+noble families, possibly representing a former division of the people,
+after whom come the freeborn, and then the freedmen. The country is
+divided into _gaus_ or counties, under their counts, who are assisted by
+judges responsible for declaring the law.
+
+
+  Christianity.
+
+Christianity had lingered in Bavaria from Roman times; but a new era set
+in when Rupert, bishop of Worms, came to the country at the invitation
+of Duke Theodo I. in 696. He founded several monasteries, and a similar
+work was also performed by St Emmeran, bishop of Poitiers; with the
+result that before long the bulk of the people professed Christianity
+and relations were established between Bavaria and Rome. The 8th century
+witnessed indeed a heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival
+in Bavaria about 734 of St. Boniface, who organized the Bavarian church
+and founded or restored bishoprics at Salzburg, Freising, Regensburg and
+Passau.
+
+
+  Frankish conquest.
+
+Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749, recognized the
+supremacy of the Frankish king Pippin the Short in 757, but soon
+afterwards refused to furnish a contribution to the war in Aquitaine.
+Moreover, during the early years of the reign of Charlemagne, Tassilo
+gave decisions in ecclesiastical and civil causes in his own name,
+refused to appear in the assemblies of the Franks, and in general acted
+as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the Alpine passes,
+as an ally of the Avars, and as son-in-law of the Lombard king
+Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Frankish kingdom that
+Charlemagne determined to crush him. The details of this contest are
+obscure. Tassilo appears to have done homage in 781, and again in 787,
+probably owing to the presence of Frankish armies. But further trouble
+soon arose, and in 788 the duke was summoned to Ingelheim, where on a
+charge of treachery he was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned
+by the king; and he then entered a monastery and formally renounced his
+duchy at Frankfort in 794. The country was ruled by Gerold, a
+brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till his death in a battle with the Avars
+in 799, when its administration was entrusted to Frankish counts and
+assimilated with that of the rest of the Carolingian empire, while its
+condition was improved by the measures taken by Charlemagne for the
+intellectual progress and material welfare of his realm. The Bavarians
+offered no resistance to the change which thus abolished their dukedom;
+and their incorporation with the Frankish dominions, due mainly to the
+unifying influence of the church, was already so complete that
+Charlemagne did not find it necessary to issue more than two
+capitularies dealing especially with Bavarian affairs.
+
+
+  Union with Carolingian Empire.
+
+  Part of the German Kingdom.
+
+  The duchy passes to the Welfs.
+
+The history of Bavaria for the ensuing century is bound up with that of
+the Carolingian empire. Given at the partition of 817 to the king of the
+East Franks, Louis the German, it formed part of the larger territories
+which were confirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of Verdun, Louis made
+Regensburg the centre of his government, and was active in improving the
+condition of Bavaria, and providing for its security by numerous
+campaigns against the Slavs. When he divided his possessions in 865 it
+passed to his eldest son, Carloman, who had already undertaken its
+government, and after his death in 880 it formed part of the extensive
+territories of the emperor Charles the Fat. Its defence was left by this
+incompetent emperor to Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, and it
+was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that Arnulf was able to
+take the field against Charles in 887, and to secure his own election as
+German king in the following year. Bavaria, which was the centre of the
+East Frankish kingdom, passed in 899 to Louis the Child, during whose
+reign it was constantly ravaged by the Hungarians. The resistance to
+these inroads became gradually feebler, and it is said that on the 5th
+of July 907 almost the whole of the Bavarian race perished in battle
+with these formidable enemies. For the defence of Bavaria the mark of
+Carinthia had been erected on the south-eastern frontier, and during the
+reign of Louis the Child this was ruled by Liutpold, count of Scheyern,
+who possessed large domains in Bavaria. He was among those who fell in
+the great fight of 907; but his son Arnulf, surnamed the Bad, rallied
+the remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was chosen duke
+of the Bavarians in 911, when Bavaria and Carinthia were united under
+his rule. Refusing to acknowledge the supremacy of the German king
+Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully attacked by the latter, and in 920 was
+recognized as duke by Conrad's successor, Henry I., the Fowler, who
+admitted his right to appoint the bishops, to coin money and to issue
+laws. A similar conflict took place between Arnulf's son and successor
+Eberhard and Otto the Great; but Eberhard was less successful than his
+father, for in 938 he was driven from Bavaria, which was given by Otto
+with reduced privileges to the late duke's uncle, Bertold; and a count
+palatine in the person of Eberhard's brother Arnulf was appointed to
+watch the royal interests. When Bertold died in 947 Otto conferred the
+duchy upon his own brother Henry, who had married Judith, a daughter of
+Duke Arnulf. Henry was disliked by the Bavarians and his short reign was
+spent mainly in disputes with his people. The ravages of the Hungarians
+ceased after their defeat on the Lechfeld in 955, and the area of the
+duchy was temporarily increased by the addition of certain adjacent
+districts in Italy. In 955 Henry was succeeded by his young son Henry,
+surnamed the Quarrelsome, who in 974 was implicated in a conspiracy
+against King Otto II. The reason for this rising was that the king had
+granted the duchy of Swabia to Henry's enemy, Otto, a grandson of the
+emperor Otto the Great, and had given the new Bavarian East Mark,
+afterwards known as Austria, to Leopold I., count of Babenberg. The
+revolt was, however, soon suppressed; but Henry, who on his escape from
+prison renewed his plots, was formally deposed in 976 when Bavaria was
+given to Otto, duke of Swabia. At the same time Carinthia was made into
+a separate duchy, the office of count palatine was restored, and the
+church was made dependent on the king instead of on the duke. Restored
+in 985, Henry proved himself a capable ruler by establishing internal
+order, issuing important laws and taking measures to reform the
+monasteries. His son and successor, who was chosen German king as Henry
+II. in 1002, gave Bavaria to his brother-in-law Henry of Luxemburg;
+after whose death in 1026 it passed successively to Henry, afterwards
+the emperor Henry III., and to another member of the family of
+Luxemburg, as Duke Henry VII. In 1061 the empress Agnes, mother of and
+regent for the German king Henry IV., entrusted the duchy to Otto of
+Nordheim, who was deposed by the king in 1070, when the duchy was
+granted to Count Welf, a member of an influential Bavarian family. In
+consequence of his support of Pope Greegory VII. in his quarrel with
+Henry, Welf lost but subsequently regained Bavaria; and was followed
+successively by his sons, Welf II. in 1101, and Henry IX. in 1120, both
+of whom exercised considerable influence among the German princes. Henry
+was succeeded in 1126 by his son Henry X., called the Proud, who
+obtained the duchy of Saxony in 1137. Alarmed at this prince's power,
+King Conrad III. refused to allow two duchies to remain in the same
+hands; and, having declared Henry deposed, he bestowed Bavaria upon
+Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. When Leopold died in 1141, the king
+retained the duchy himself; but it continued to be the scene of
+considerable disorder, and in 1143 he entrusted it to Henry II.,
+surnamed Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria. The struggle for its
+possession continued until 1156, when King Frederick I. in his desire to
+restore peace to Germany persuaded Henry to give up Bavaria to Henry the
+Lion, a son of Duke Henry the Proud.
+
+
+  Then to the Wittelsbachs.
+
+  Area of Bavaria.
+
+A new era of government set in when, in consequence of Henry being
+placed under the imperial ban in 1180, the duchy was given by Frederick
+I. to Otto, a member of the old Bavarian family of Wittelsbach (q.v.),
+and a descendant of the counts of Scheyern. During the years following
+the destruction of the Carolingian empire the borders of Bavaria were
+continually changing, and for a lengthened period after 955 this process
+was one of expansion. To the west the Lech still divided Bavaria from
+Swabia, but on three other sides the opportunities for extension had
+been taken advantage of, and the duchy embraced an area of considerable
+dimensions north of the Danube. During the later years of the rule of
+the Welfs, however, a contrary tendency had operated, and the extent of
+Bavaria had been reduced. The immense energies of Duke Henry the Lion
+had been devoted to his northern rather than his southern duchy, and
+when the dispute over the Bavarian succession was settled in 1156 the
+district between the Enns and the Inn had been transferred to Austria.
+The increasing importance of the mark of Styria, erected into a duchy in
+1180, and the county of Tirol, had diminished both the actual and the
+relative strength of Bavaria, which was now deprived on almost all sides
+of opportunities for expansion. The neighbouring duchy of Carinthia, the
+great temporal possessions of the archbishop of Salzburg, as well as a
+general tendency to independence on the part of both clerical and lay
+nobles, were additional forces of similar influence.
+
+
+  Rule of the Wittelsbachs.
+
+  Division of the duchy.
+
+  Upper Bavaria.
+
+When Otto of Wittelsbach was invested with Bavaria at Altenburg in
+September 1180 the duchy was bounded by the Böhmerwald, the Inn, the
+Alps and the Lech; and the power of the duke was practically confined to
+his extensive private domains around Wittelsbach, Kelheim and Straubing.
+Otto only enjoyed his new dignity for three years, and was succeeded in
+1183 by his son Louis I., who took a leading part in German affairs
+during the earlier years of the reign of the emperor Frederick II., and
+was assassinated at Kelheim in September 1231. His son Otto II., called
+the Illustrious, was the next duke, and his loyalty to the Hohenstaufen
+caused him to be placed under the papal ban, and Bavaria to be laid
+under an interdict. Like his father, Otto increased the area of his
+lands by purchases; and he had considerably strengthened his hold upon
+the duchy before he died in November 1253. The efforts of the dukes to
+increase their power and to give unity to the duchy had met with a fair
+measure of success; but they were soon vitiated by partitions among
+different members of the family which for 250 years made the history of
+Bavaria little more than a jejune chronicle of territorial divisions
+bringing war and weakness in their train. The first of these divisions
+was made in 1255 between Louis II. and Henry I., the sons of Duke Otto
+II., who for two years after their father's death had ruled Bavaria
+jointly; and by it Louis obtained the western part of the duchy,
+afterwards called Upper Bavaria, and Henry secured eastern or Lower
+Bavaria. In the course of a long reign Louis, who was called the Stern,
+became the most powerful prince in southern Germany. He was the uncle
+and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, and when this prince was put
+to death in Italy in 1268, Louis and his brother Henry inherited the
+domains of the Hohenstaufen in Swabia and elsewhere. He supported
+Rudolph, count of Habsburg, in his efforts to secure the German throne
+in 1273, married the new king's daughter Mechtild, and aided him in
+campaigns in Bohemia and elsewhere. For some years after Louis' death in
+1294 his sons Rudolph I. and Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV.,
+ruled their duchy in common; but as their relations were never
+harmonious a division of Upper Bavaria was made in 1310, by which
+Rudolph received the land east of the Isar together with the town of
+Munich, and Louis the district between the Isar and the Lech. It was not
+long, however, before this arrangement led to war between the brothers,
+the outcome of which was that in 1317, three years after he had been
+chosen German king, Louis compelled Rudolph to abdicate, and for twelve
+years ruled alone over the whole of Upper Bavaria. But in 1329 a series
+of events induced him to conclude the treaty of Pavia with Rudolph's
+sons, Rudolph and Rupert, to whom he transferred the Palatinate of the
+Rhine, which had been in the possession of the Wittelsbach family since
+1214, and also a portion of Upper Bavaria north of the Danube, which was
+afterwards called the Upper Palatinate. At the same time it was decided
+that the electoral vote should be exercised by the two lines
+alternately, and that in the event of either branch of the family
+becoming extinct the surviving branch should inherit its possessions.
+
+
+  Lower Bavaria.
+
+  Reunion of the duchy.
+
+Henry I. of Lower Bavaria spent most of his time in quarrels with his
+brother, with Ottakar II. of Bohemia and with various ecclesiastics.
+When he died in February 1200 Lower Bavaria was ruled by his three sons,
+Otto III., Louis III. and Stephen I. Louis died childless in 1296;
+Stephen left two sons at his death in 1310, namely, Henry II. and Otto
+IV., and Otto, who was king of Hungary from 1305 to 1308, died in 1312,
+leaving a son, Henry III. Lower Bavaria was governed by these three
+princes until 1333, when Henry III. died, followed in 1334 by his cousin
+Otto; and as both died without sons the whole of Lower Bavaria then
+passed to Henry II. Dying in 1339, Henry left an only son, John I., who
+died childless in the following year, when the emperor Louis IV., by
+securing Lower Bavaria for himself, united the whole of the duchy under
+his sway. The consolidation of Bavaria under Louis lasted for seven
+years, during which the emperor was able to improve the condition of the
+country. When he died in 1347 he left six sons to share his possessions,
+who agreed upon a division of Bavaria in 1349. Its history, however, was
+complicated by its connexion with Brandenburg, Holland and Tirol, all of
+which had also been left by the emperor to his sons. All the six
+brothers exercised some authority in Bavaria; but three alone left
+issue, and of these the eldest, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, died in
+1361; and two years later was followed to the grave by his only son
+Meinhard, who was childless. The two remaining brothers, Stephen II. and
+Albert I., ruled over Bavaria-Landshut and Bavaria-Straubing
+respectively, and when Stephen died in 1375 his portion of Bavaria was
+governed jointly by his three sons. In 1392, when all the lines except
+those of Stephen and Albert had died out, an important partition took
+place, by which the greater part of the duchy was divided among
+Stephen's three sons, Stephen III., Frederick and John II., who founded
+respectively the lines of Ingolstadt, Landshut and Munich. Albert's
+duchy of Bavaria-Straubing passed on his death in 1404 to his son
+William II., and in 1417 to his younger son John, who resigned the
+bishopric of Liége to take up his new position. When John died in 1425
+this family became extinct, and after a contest between various
+claimants Bavaria-Straubing was divided between the three remaining
+branches of the family.
+
+
+  Internal condition 1392.
+
+  Intestine troubles.
+
+The main result of the threefold division of 1392 was a succession of
+civil wars which led to the temporary eclipse of Bavaria as a force in
+German politics. Neighbouring states encroached upon its borders, and
+the nobles ignored the authority of the dukes, who, deprived of the
+electoral vote, were mainly occupied for fifty years with intestine
+strife. This condition of affairs, however, was not wholly harmful. The
+government of the country and the control of the finances passed mainly
+into the hands of an assembly called the _Landtag_ or _Landschaft_,
+which had been organized in 1392. The towns, assuming a certain
+independence, became strong and wealthy as trade increased, and the
+citizens of Munich and Regensburg were often formidable antagonists to
+the dukes. Thus a period of disorder saw the growth of representative
+institutions and the establishment of a strong civic spirit. Stephen
+III., duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, was distinguished rather as a soldier
+than as a statesman; and his rule was marked by struggles with various
+towns, and with his brother, John of Bavaria-Munich. Dying in 1413 he
+was followed by his son, Louis, called the Bearded, a restless and
+quarrelsome prince, who before his accession had played an important
+part in the affairs of France, where his sister Isabella was the queen
+of King Charles VI. About 1417 he became involved in a violent quarrel
+with his cousin, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, fell under both the papal
+and the imperial ban, and in 1439 was attacked by his son Louis the
+Lame. This prince, who had married a daughter of Frederick I. of
+Hohenzollern, margrave of Brandenburg, was incensed at the favour shown
+by his father to an illegitimate son. Aided by Albert Achilles,
+afterwards margrave of Brandenburg, he took the elder Louis prisoner and
+compelled him to abdicate in 1443. When Louis the Lame died in 1445 his
+father came into the power of his implacable enemy, Henry of
+Bavaria-Landshut, and died in prison in 1447. The duchy of
+Bavaria-Ingolstadt passed to Henry, who had succeeded his father
+Frederick as duke of Bavaria-Landshut in 1393, and whose long reign was
+almost entirely occupied with family feuds. He died in July 1450, and
+was followed by his son, Louis IX. (called the Rich), and about this
+time Bavaria began to recover some of its former importance. Louis IX.
+expelled the Jews from his duchy, did something for the security of
+traders, and improved both the administration of justice and the
+condition of the finances. In 1472 he founded the university of
+Ingolstadt, attempted to reform the monasteries, and was successful in a
+struggle with Albert Achilles of Brandenburg. On his death in January
+1479 he was succeeded by his son George, also called the Rich; and when
+George, a faithful adherent of the German king Maximilian I., died
+without sons in December 1503, a war broke out for the possession of his
+duchy.
+
+
+  War over the succession to Bavaria-Landshut.
+
+  Reigns of Albert the Wise and William IV.
+
+Bavaria-Munich passed on the death of John II. in 1397 to his sons
+Ernest and William III., but they only obtained possession of their
+lands after a struggle with Stephen of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Both brothers
+were then engaged in warfare with the other branches of the family and
+with the citizens of Munich. William, a loyal servant of the emperor
+Sigismund, died in 1435, leaving an only son, Adolf, who died five years
+later; and Ernest, distinguished for his bodily strength, died in 1438.
+In 1440 the whole of Bavaria-Munich came to Ernest's son Albert, who had
+been estranged from his father owing to his union with the unfortunate
+Agnes Bernauer (q.v.). Albert, whose attempts to reform the monasteries
+earned for him the surname of Pious, was almost elected king of Bohemia
+in 1440. He died in 1460, leaving five sons, the two elder of whom, John
+IV. and Sigismund, reigned in common until the death of John in 1463.
+The third brother, Albert, who had been educated for the church, joined
+his brother in 1465, and when Sigismund abdicated two years later became
+sole ruler in spite of the claims of his two younger brothers. Albert,
+who was called the Wise, added the district of Abensberg to his
+possessions, and in 1504 became involved in the war which broke out for
+the possession of Bavaria-Landshut on the death of George the Rich.
+Albert's rival was George's son-in-law, Rupert, formerly bishop of
+Freising, and son of Philip, count palatine of the Rhine; and the
+emperor Maximilian I., interested as archduke of Austria and count of
+Tirol, interfered in the dispute. Rupert died in 1504, and the following
+year an arrangement was made at the diet of Cologne by which the emperor
+and Philip's grandson, Otto Henry, obtained certain outlying districts,
+while Albert by securing the bulk of George's possessions united Bavaria
+under his rule. In 1506 Albert decreed that the duchy should pass
+undivided according to the rules of primogeniture, and endeavoured in
+other ways also to consolidate Bavaria. He was partially successful in
+improving the condition of the country; and in 1500 Bavaria formed one
+of the six circles into which Germany was divided for the maintenance of
+peace. He died in March 1508, and was succeeded by his son, William IV.,
+whose mother, Kunigunde, was a daughter of the emperor Frederick III. In
+spite of the decree of 1506 William was compelled in 1516, after a
+violent quarrel, to grant a share in the government to his brother
+Louis, an arrangement which lasted until the death of Louis in 1545.
+
+
+  Roman Catholicism in Bavaria.
+
+  Reign of Maximillian I. and the Thirty Years' War.
+
+William followed the traditional Wittelsbach policy, opposition to the
+Habsburgs, until in 1534 he made a treaty at Linz with Ferdinand, king
+of Hungary and Bohemia. This was strengthened in 1546, when the emperor
+Charles V. obtained the help of the duke during the war of the league of
+Schmalkalden by promising him in certain eventualities the succession to
+the Bohemian throne, and the electoral dignity enjoyed by the count
+palatine of the Rhine. William also did much at a critical period to
+secure Bavaria for Catholicism. The reformed doctrines had made
+considerable progress in the duchy when the duke from the pope extensive
+rights over the bishoprics and monasteries, and took measures to repress
+the reformers, many of whom were banished; while the Jesuits, whom he
+invited into the duchy in 1541, made the university of Ingolstadt their
+headquarters for Germany. William, whose death occurred in March 1550,
+was succeeded by his son Albert IV., who had married a daughter of
+Ferdinand of Habsburg, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I. Early in his
+reign Albert made some concessions to the reformers, who were still
+strong in Bavaria; but about 1563 he changed his attitude, favoured the
+decrees of the council of Trent, and pressed forward the work of the
+Counter-Reformation. As education passed by degrees into the hands of
+the Jesuits the progress of Protestantism was effectually arrested in
+Bavaria. Albert IV. was a great patron of art. His court at Munich was
+the resort of artists of all kinds, and the city was enriched with
+splendid buildings; while artistic works were collected from Italy and
+elsewhere. The expenses of a magnificent court led the duke to quarrel
+with the _Landschaft_, to oppress his subjects, and to leave a great
+burden of debt when he died in October 1579. The succeeding duke was
+Albert's son, William V. (called the Pious), who was educated by the
+Jesuits and was keenly attached to their tenets. He secured the
+archbishopric of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this
+dignity remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years.
+In 1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian I., and retired
+into a monastery, where he died in 1626. Maximilian found the duchy
+encumbered with debt and filled with disorder, but ten years of his
+vigorous rule effected a remarkable change. The finances and the
+judicial system were reorganized, a class of civil servants and a
+national militia founded, and several small districts were brought under
+the duke's authority. The result was a unity and order in the duchy
+which enabled Maximilian to play an important part in the Thirty Years'
+War; during the earlier years of which he was so successful as to
+acquire the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity which had been
+enjoyed since 1356 by the elder branch of the Wittelsbach family. In
+spite of subsequent reverses these gains were retained by Maximilian at
+the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the later years of this war
+Bavaria, especially the northern part, suffered severely. In 1632 it was
+invaded by the Swedes, and, when Maximilian violated the treaty of Ulm
+in 1647, was ravaged by the French and the Swedes. After repairing this
+damage to some extent, the elector died at Ingolstadt in September 1651,
+leaving his duchy much stronger than he had found it. The recovery of
+the Upper Palatinate made Bavaria compact; the acquisition of the
+electoral vote made it influential; and the duchy was able to play a
+part in European politics which intestine strife had rendered impossible
+for the past four hundred years.     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+  Beginning of modern period.
+
+  Re-union of the Palatinate.
+
+Whatever lustre the international position won by Maximilian I. might
+add to the ducal house, on Bavaria itself its effect during the next two
+centuries was more dubious. Maximillian's son, Ferdinand Maria
+(1651-1679), who was a minor when he succeeded, did much indeed to
+repair the wounds caused by the Thirty Years' War, encouraging
+agriculture and industries, and building or restoring numerous churches
+and monasteries. In 1669, moreover, he again called a meeting of the
+diet, which had been suspended since 1612. His good work, however, was
+largely undone by his son Maximilian II. Emmanuel (1679-1726), whose
+far-reaching ambition set him warring against the Turks and, on the side
+of France, in the great struggle of the Spanish succession. He shared in
+the defeat at Höchstädt on the 13th of August 1704; his dominions were
+temporarily partitioned between Austria and the elector palatine, and
+only restored to him, harried and exhausted, at the peace of Baden in
+1714. Untaught by Maximilian Emmanuel's experience, his son, Charles
+Albert (1726-1745), devoted all his energies to increasing the European
+prestige and power of his house. The death of the emperor Charles VI.
+was his opportunity; he disputed the validity of the Pragmatic Sanction
+which secured the Habsburg succession to Maria Theresa, allied himself
+with France, conquered Upper Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia at
+Prague and, in 1742, emperor at Frankfort. The price he had to pay,
+however, was the occupation of Bavaria itself by Austrian troops; and,
+though the invasion of Bohemia in 1744 by Frederick II. of Prussia
+enabled him to return to Munich, at his death on the 20th of January
+1745 it was left to his successor to make what terms he could for the
+recovery of his dominions. Maximilian III. Joseph (1745-1777), by the
+peace of Füssen signed on the 22nd of April 1745, obtained the
+restitution of his dominions in return for a formal acknowledgment of
+the Pragmatic Sanction. He was a man of enlightenment, did much to
+encourage agriculture, industries and the exploitation of the mineral
+wealth of the country, founded the Academy of Sciences at Munich, and
+abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. At his death, without
+issue, on the 30th of December 1777, the Bavarian line of the
+Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed to Charles
+Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of four and a half
+centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Jülich and Berg had
+been added, was thus reunited with Bavaria. So great an accession of
+strength to a neighbouring state, whose ambition she had so recently had
+just reason to fear, was intolerable to Austria, which laid claim to a
+number of lordships--forming one-third of the whole Bavarian
+inheritance--as lapsed fiefs of the Bohemian, Austrian, and imperial
+crowns. These were at once occupied by Austrian troops, with the secret
+consent of Charles Theodore himself, who was without legitimate heirs,
+and wished to obtain from the emperor the elevation of his natural
+children to the status of princes of the Empire. The protests of the
+next heir, Charles, duke of Zweibrücken (Deux-Ponts), supported by the
+king of Prussia, led to the war of Bavarian succession. By the peace of
+Teschen (May 13th, 1779) the Inn quarter was ceded to Austria, and the
+succession secured to Charles of Zweibrücken. For Bavaria itself Charles
+Theodore did less than nothing. He felt himself a foreigner among
+foreigners, and his favourite scheme, the subject of endless intrigues
+with the Austrian cabinet and the immediate cause of Frederick II.'s
+League of Princes (_Fürstenbund_) of 1785, was to exchange Bavaria for
+the Austrian Netherlands and the title of king of Burgundy. For the
+rest, the enlightened internal policy of his predecessor was abandoned.
+The funds of the suppressed order of Jesus, which Maximilian Joseph had
+destined for the reform of the educational system of the country, were
+used to endow a province of the knights of St John of Jerusalem, for the
+purpose of combating the enemies of the faith. The government was
+inspired by the narrowest clericalism, which culminated in the attempt
+to withdraw the Bavarian bishops from the jurisdiction of the great
+German metropolitans and place them directly under that of the pope. On
+the eve of the Revolution the intellectual and social condition of
+Bavaria remained that of the middle ages.
+
+
+  The revolutionary wars.
+
+In 1792 the revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in 1795 the
+French, under Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced to Munich--where
+they were received with joy by the long-suppressed Liberals--and laid
+siege to Ingolstadt. Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent
+or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony, leaving a regency, the
+members of which signed a convention with Moreau, by which he granted an
+armistice in return for a heavy contribution (September 7th, 1796).
+Immediately afterwards he was forced to retire.
+
+Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in an evil case.
+Before the death of Charles Theodore (February 16th, 1799) the Austrians
+had again occupied the country, preparatory to renewing the war with
+France. Maximilian IV. Joseph (of Zweibrücken), the new elector,
+succeeded to a difficult inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and
+those of his all-powerful minister, Max Josef von Montgelas (q.v.),
+were, if anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the
+Bavarian finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered
+and disorganized, placed him helpless in the hands of Austria; on the
+2nd of December 1800 the Bavarian arms were involved in the Austrian
+defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more occupied Munich. By the
+treaty of Lunéville (February 9th, 1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and
+the duchies of Zweibrücken and Jülich.
+
+
+  French influence.
+
+In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of the
+Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of Bavaria lay
+in a frank alliance with the French republic; he succeeded in overcoming
+the reluctance of Maximilian Joseph; and, on the 24th of August, a
+separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at Paris.
+By the third article of this the First Consul undertook to see that the
+compensation promised under the 7th article of the treaty of Lunéville
+for the territory ceded on the left bank of the Rhine, should be carried
+out at the expense of the Empire in the manner most agreeable to Bavaria
+(de Martens, _Recueil_, vol. vii. p. 365). In 1803, accordingly, in the
+territorial rearrangements consequent on Napoleon's suppression of the
+ecclesiastical states, and of many free cities of the Empire, Bavaria
+received the bishoprics of Würzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg and Freisingen,
+part of that of Passau, the territories of twelve abbeys, and seventeen
+cities and villages, the whole forming a compact territory which more
+than compensated for the loss of her outlying provinces on the Rhine.[1]
+Montgelas' ambition was now to raise Bavaria to the rank of a first-rate
+power, and he pursued this object during the Napoleonic epoch with
+consummate skill, allowing fully for the preponderance of France--so
+long as it lasted--but never permitting Bavaria to sink, like so many of
+the states of the confederation of the Rhine, into a mere French
+dependency. In the war of 1805, in accordance with a treaty of alliance
+signed at Würzburg on the 23rd of September, Bavarian troops, for the
+first time since Charles VII., fought side by side with the French, and
+by the treaty of Pressburg, signed on the 26th of December, the
+principality of Eichstädt, the margraviate of Burgau, the lordship of
+Vorarlberg, the countships of Hohenems and Königsegg-Rothenfels, the
+lordships of Argen and Tetnang, and the city of Lindau with its
+territory were to be added to Bavaria. On the other hand Würzburg,
+obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria to the elector of Salzburg
+in exchange for Tirol. By the 1st article of the treaty the emperor
+acknowledged the assumption by the elector of the title of king, as
+Maximilian I.[2] The price which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for
+this accession of dignity was the marriage of his daughter Augusta with
+Eugène Beauharnais.
+
+For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French alliance had
+noteworthy consequences. Maximilian himself was an "enlightened" prince
+of the 18th-century type, whose tolerant principles had already
+grievously offended his clerical subjects; Montgelas was a firm believer
+in drastic reform "from above," and, in 1803, had discussed with the
+rump of the old estates the question of reforms. But the revolutionary
+changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on the 1st of May 1808
+were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean sweep was made of
+the medieval polity surviving in the somnolent local diets and
+corporations. In place of the old system of privileges and exemptions
+were set equality before the law, universal liability to taxation,
+abolition of serfdom, security of person and property, liberty of
+conscience and of the press. A representative assembly was created on
+paper, based on a narrow franchise and with very limited powers, but was
+never summoned.
+
+
+  Treaty of Ried.
+
+In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on the side of
+France, and by the treaty signed at Paris on the 28th of February 1810
+ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some small districts to Württemberg,
+receiving as compensation parts of Salzburg, the quarters of the Inn and
+Hausrück and the principalities of Bayreuth and Regensburg. So far the
+policy of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful; but the star of
+Napoleon had now reached its zenith, and already the astute opportunist
+had noted the signs of the coming change. The events of 1812 followed;
+in 1813 Bavaria was summoned to join the alliance against Napoleon, the
+demand being passionately backed by the crown prince Louis and by
+Marshal Wrede; on the 8th of October was signed the treaty of Ried, by
+which Bavaria threw in her lot with the Allies. Montgelas announced to
+the French ambassador that he had been compelled temporarily to bow
+before the storm, adding "Bavaria has need of France." (For Bavaria's
+share in the war see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.)
+
+
+  Relations with Austria.
+
+Immediately after the first peace of Paris (1814), Bavaria ceded to
+Austria Tirol and Vorarlberg; by the congress of Vienna it was decided
+that she was to add to these the greater part of Salzburg and the
+quarters of the Inn and Hausrück, receiving as compensation, besides
+Würzburg and Aschaffenburg, the Palatinate on the left bank of the Rhine
+and certain districts of Hesse and of the former abbacy of Fulda. But
+with the collapse of France the old fear and jealousy of Austria had
+revived in full force, and Bavaria only agreed to these cessions (treaty
+of Munich, April 16th, 1816) on Austria promising that, in the event of
+the powers ignoring her claim to the Baden succession in favour of that
+of the line of the counts of Hochberg, she should receive also the
+Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine. The question was thus left
+open, the tension between the two powers remained extreme, and war was
+only averted by the authority of the Grand Alliance. At the congress of
+Aix (1818) the question of the Baden succession was settled in favour of
+the Hochberg line, without the compensation stipulated for in the treaty
+of Munich; and by the treaty of Frankfort, signed on behalf of the four
+great powers on the 20th of July 1819, the territorial questions at
+issue between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the protests
+of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement made at Vienna. A
+small strip of territory was added, to connect Bavaria with the
+Palatinate, and Bavarian troops were to garrison the federal fortress of
+Mainz.
+
+
+  Constitution of 1818.
+
+  Lola Montez.
+
+Meanwhile, on the 1st of February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed;
+and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform. This
+implied no breach with the European policy of the fallen minister. In
+the new German confederation Bavaria had assumed the rôle of defender of
+the smaller states against the ambitions of Austria and Prussia, and
+Montgelas had dreamed of a Bavarian hegemony in South Germany similar to
+that of Prussia in the north. It was to obtain popular support for this
+policy and for the Bavarian claims on Baden that the crown prince
+pressed for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to
+concede it being the cause of his dismissal. On the 26th of May 1818 the
+constitution was proclaimed. The parliament was to consist of two
+houses; the first comprising the great hereditary landowners, government
+officials and nominees of the crown; the second, elected on a very
+narrow franchise, representatives of the small land-owners, the towns
+and the peasants. By additional articles the equality of religions was
+guaranteed and the rights of Protestants safeguarded, concessions which
+were denounced at Rome as a breach of the Concordat, which had been
+signed immediately before. The result of the constitutional experiment
+hardly justified the royal expectations; the parliament was hardly
+opened (February 5th, 1819) before the doctrinaire radicalism of some of
+its members, culminating in the demand that the army should swear
+allegiance to the constitution, so alarmed the king, that he appealed to
+Austria and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures
+they might recommend. Prussia, however, refused to approve of any _coup
+d'état_; the parliament, chastened by the consciousness that its life
+depended on the goodwill of the king, moderated its tone; and Maximilian
+ruled till his death as a model constitutional monarch. On the 13th of
+October 1825, he was succeeded by his son, Louis I., an enlightened
+patron of the arts and sciences, who transferred the university of
+Landshut to Munich, which, by his magnificent taste in building, he
+transformed into one of the most beautiful cities of the continent. The
+earlier years of his reign were marked by a liberal spirit and the
+reform, especially, of the financial administration; but the revolutions
+of 1831 frightened him into reaction, which was accentuated by the
+opposition of the parliament to his expenditure on building and works of
+art. In 1837 the Ultramontanes came into power with Karl von Abel
+(1788-1859) as prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand;
+one by one the liberal provisions of the constitution were modified or
+annulled; the Protestants were harried and oppressed; and a rigorous
+censorship forbade any free discussion of internal politics. The
+collapse of this régime was due, not to popular agitation, but to the
+resentment of Louis at the clerical opposition to the influence of his
+mistress, Lola Montez. On the 17th of February 1847, Abel was dismissed,
+for publishing his memorandum against the proposal to naturalize Lola,
+who was an Irishwoman; and the Protestant Georg Ludwig von Maurer
+(q.v.) took his place. The new ministry granted the certificate of
+naturalization; but riots, in which ultramontane professors of the
+university took part, were the result. The professors were deprived, the
+parliament dissolved, and, on the 27th of November, the ministry
+dismissed. Lola Montez, created Countess Landsfeld, was supreme in the
+state; and the new minister, Prince Ludwig von Oettingen-Wallerstein
+(1791-1870), in spite of his efforts to enlist Liberal sympathy by
+appeals to pan-German patriotism, was powerless to form a stable
+government. His cabinet was known as the "Lolaministerium"; in February
+1848, stimulated by the news from Paris, riots broke out against the
+countess; on the 11th of March the king dismissed Oettingen, and on the
+20th, realizing the force of public opinion against him, abdicated in
+favour of his son, Maximilian II.
+
+
+  Anti-Prussian policy.
+
+Before his abdication Louis had issued, on the 6th of March, a
+proclamation promising the zealous co-operation of the Bavarian
+government in the work of German freedom and unity. To the spirit of
+this Maximilian was faithful, accepting the authority of the central
+government at Frankfort, and (19th of December) sanctioning the official
+promulgation of the laws passed by the German parliament. But Prussia
+was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In refusing to agree to the offer
+of the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., Maximilian had the
+support of his parliament. In withholding his assent to the new German
+constitution, by which Austria was excluded from the Confederation, he
+ran indeed counter to the sentiment of his people; but by this time the
+back of the revolution was broken, and in the events which led to the
+humiliation of Prussia at Olmütz in 1851, and the restoration of the old
+diet of the Confederation, Bavaria was safe in casting in her lot with
+Austria (see GERMANY: _History_). The guiding spirit in this
+anti-Prussian policy, which characterized Bavarian statesmanship up to
+the war of 1866, was Ludwig Karl Heinrich von der Pfordten (1811-1880),
+who became minister for foreign affairs on the 19th of April 1849. His
+idea for the ultimate solution of the question of the balance of power
+in Germany was the so-called _Trias_, i.e. a league of the Rhenish
+states as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and Prussia. In
+internal affairs his ministry was characterized by a reactionary policy
+less severe than elsewhere in Germany, which led none the less from 1854
+onward to a struggle with the parliament, which ended in the dismissal
+of Pfordten's ministry on the 27th of March 1859. He was succeeded by
+Karl Freiherr von Schrenk auf Notzing (1806-1884), an official of
+Liberal tendencies who had been Bavarian representative in the diet of
+the Confederation. Important reforms were now introduced, including the
+separation of the judicial and executive powers and the drawing up of a
+new criminal code. In foreign affairs Schrenk, like his predecessor,
+aimed at safeguarding the independence of Bavaria, and supported the
+idea of superseding the actual constitution of the Confederation by a
+supreme directory, in which Bavaria, as leader of the purely German
+states, would hold the balance between Prussia and Austria. Bavaria
+accordingly opposed the Prussian proposals for the reorganization of the
+Confederation, and one of the last acts of King Maximilian was to take a
+conspicuous part in the assembly of princes summoned to Frankfort in
+1863 by the emperor Francis Joseph (see GERMANY).
+
+Maximilian was succeeded on the 10th of March 1864 by his son Louis II.,
+a youth of eighteen. The government was at first carried on by Schrenk
+and Pfordten in concert. Schrenk soon retired, when the Bavarian
+government found it necessary, in order to maintain its position in the
+Prussian _Zollverein_, to become a party to the Prussian commercial
+treaty with France, signed in 1862. In the complicated Schleswig-Holstein
+question (q.v.) Bavaria, under Pfordten's guidance, consistently opposed
+Prussia, and headed the lesser states in their support of Frederick of
+Augustenburg against the policy of the two great German powers. Finally,
+in the war of 1866, in spite of Bismarck's efforts to secure her
+neutrality, Bavaria sided actively with Austria.
+
+
+  Union with German Empire.
+
+The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation of Bismarck
+paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria's relation to Prussia
+and the German question. The South German Confederation, contemplated by
+the 6th article of the treaty of Prague, never came into being; and,
+though Prussia, in order not prematurely to excite the alarm of France,
+opposed the suggestion that the southern states should join the North
+German Confederation, the bonds of Bavaria, as of the other southern
+states, with the north, were strengthened by an offensive and defensive
+alliance with Prussia, as the result of Napoleon's demand for
+"compensation" in the Palatinate. This was signed at Berlin on the 22nd
+of August 1866, on the same day as the signature of the formal treaty of
+peace between the two countries. The separatist ambitions of Bavaria
+were thus formally given up; she had no longer "need of France"; and in
+the war of 1870-71, the Bavarian army marched, under the command of the
+Prussian crown prince, against the common enemy of Germany. It was on
+the proposal of King Louis II. that the imperial crown was offered to
+King William.
+
+This was preceded, on the 23rd of November 1870, by the signature of a
+treaty between Bavaria and the North German Confederation. By this
+instrument, though Bavaria became an integral part of the new German
+empire, she reserved a larger measure of sovereign independence than any
+of the other constituent states. Thus she retained a separate diplomatic
+service, military administration, and postal, telegraph and railway
+systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian chambers on the 21st of
+January 1871, though not without considerable opposition on the part of
+the so-called "patriot" party. Their hostility was increased by the
+_Kulturkampf_, due to the promulgation in 1870 of the dogma of papal
+infallibility. Munich University, where Döllinger (q.v.) was professor,
+became the centre of the opposition to the new dogma, and the "old
+Catholics" (q.v.) were protected by the king and the government. The
+federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on the 6th
+of September 1871 and was extended to the Redemptorists in 1873. On the
+31st of March 1871, moreover, the bonds with the rest of the empire had
+been drawn closer by the acceptance of a number of laws of the North
+German Confederation, of which the most important was the new criminal
+code, which was finally put into force in Bavaria in 1879. The
+opposition of the "patriot" party, however, reinforced by the strong
+Catholic sentiment of the country, continued powerful, and it was only
+the steady support given by the king to successive Liberal ministries
+that prevented its finding disastrous expression in the parliament,
+where it remained in a greater or less majority till 1887, and has
+since, as the "centre," continued to form the most compact party in an
+assembly made up of "groups."
+
+Meanwhile the royal dreamer, whose passion for building palaces was
+becoming a serious drain on the treasury, had been declared insane, and,
+on the 7th of June 1886, the heir-presumptive, Prince Luitpold, was
+proclaimed regent. Six days later, on the 13th of June, Louis committed
+suicide. His brother, Otto I., being also insane, the regency was
+confirmed to Prince Luitpold.
+
+Since 1871 Bavaria has shared to the full in the marvellous development
+of Germany; but her "particularism," founded on traditional racial and
+religious antagonism to the Prussians, was by no means dead, though it
+exhibited itself in no more dangerous form than the prohibition,
+reissued in 1900, to display any but the Bavarian flag on public
+buildings on the emperor's birthday; a provision which has been since so
+far modified as to allow the Bavarian and imperial flags to be hung side
+by side.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Monumenta Boica_ (44 vols., Munich, 1763-1900); G.T.
+  Rudhart, _Aelteste Geschichte Bayerns_ (Hamburg, 1841); A. Quitzmann,
+  _Abstammung, Ursitz, und älteste Geschichte der Bairwaren_ (Munich,
+  1857), and _Die älteste Geschichte der Baiern bis 911_ (Brunswick,
+  1873); S. Riezler, _Geschichte Bayerns_ (Gotha, 1878-1899); Ad.
+  Brecher, _Darstellung der geschichtlichen Entwickelung des bayrischen
+  Staatsgebiets_, map (Berlin, 1890); E. Rosenthal, _Geschichte des
+  Gerichtswesens und der Verwaltungsorganisation Bayerns_ (Würzburg,
+  1889); A. Buchner, _Geschichte von Baiern_ (Munich, 1820-1853);
+  _Forschungen zur Geschichte Bayerns_, edited by K. von
+  Reinhardstottner (Berlin, 1897 fol.). Much valuable detail will be
+  found in the lives of Bavarian princes and statesmen in the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (Leipzig, 1875-1906 in progr.)
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _Recès de la députation de l'empire ... du 25 févr, 1803_,
+    &c., § II. vol. vii. p. 453 of G.F. de Martens, _Recueil des
+    Traités_, &c. (Gottingue, 1831).
+
+  [2] Text in de Martens' _Recueil_, viii. p. 388.
+
+
+
+
+BAVENO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Novara, on the
+west shore of Lago Maggiore, 13 m. N.N.W. of Arona by rail. Pop. (1901)
+2502. It is much frequented as a resort in spring, summer and autumn,
+and has many beautiful villas. To the north-west are the famous red
+granite quarries, which have supplied the columns for the cathedral of
+Milan, the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, the Galleria
+Vittorio Emanuele at Milan, and other important buildings.
+
+
+
+
+BAWBEE (of very doubtful origin, the most plausible conjecture being
+that the word is a corruption from the name of the mint master
+Sillebawby, by whom they were first issued, c. 1541), the Scottish name
+for a halfpenny or other small coin, and hence used of money generally.
+A writer in 1573, quoted in Tytler's _History of Scotland_, speaks of "a
+coin called a bawbee, ... which is in value English one penny and a
+quarter." The word was sometimes written "babie," and has therefore been
+identified merely with a "baby coin," but this etymology is less
+probable.
+
+
+
+
+BAXTER, ANDREW (1686-1750), Scottish metaphysician, was born in Aberdeen
+and educated at King's College. He maintained himself by acting as tutor
+to noblemen's sons. From 1741 to 1747 he lived with Lord Blantyre and Mr
+Hay of Drummelzier at Utrecht, and made excursions in Flanders, France
+and Germany. Returning to Scotland, he lived at Whittingehame, near
+Edinburgh, till his death in 1750. At Spa he had met John Wilkes, then
+twenty years of age, and formed a lasting friendship with him. His chief
+work, _An Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul_ (editions 1733,
+1737 and 1745; with appendix added in 1750 in answer to an attack in
+Maclaurin's Account of Sir I. Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, and
+dedication to John Wilkes), examines the properties of matter. The one
+essential property of matter is its inactivity, _vis inertiae_ (accepted
+later by Monboddo). All movement in matter is, therefore, caused by some
+immaterial force, namely, God. But the movements of the body are not
+analogous to the movements of matter; they are caused by a special
+immaterial force, the soul. The soul, as being immaterial, is immortal,
+and its consciousness does not depend upon its connexion with the body.
+The argument is supported by an analysis of the phenomena of dreams,
+which are ascribed to direct spiritual influences. Lastly Baxter
+attempted to prove that matter is finite. His work is an attack on
+Toland's _Letters to Serena_ (1704), which argued that motion is
+essential to matter, and on Locke and Berkeley. His criticism of
+Berkeley (in the second volume) is, however, based on the common
+misinterpretation of his theory (see BERKELEY). Sir Leslie Stephen
+speaks of him as a curious example of "the effects of an exploded
+metaphysics on a feeble though ingenious intellect."
+
+Beside the _Inquiry_, Baxter wrote _Matho sive Cosmotheoria Puerilis_
+(an exposition in Latin of the elements of astronomy written for his
+pupils--editions in English 1740, 1745 and 1765, with one dialogue
+re-written); _Evidence of Reason in Proof of the Immortality of the
+Soul_ (published posthumously from MSS. by Dr Duncan in 1779).
+
+  See life in _Biographia Britannica_; McCosh's _Scottish Philosophy_,
+  pp. 42-49.
+
+
+
+
+BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691), English puritan divine, called by Dean
+Stanley "the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen," was born at Rowton,
+in Shropshire, at the house of his maternal grandfather, in November
+(probably the 12th) 1615. His ancestors had been gentlefolk, but his
+father had reduced himself to hard straits by loose living. About the
+time of Richard's birth, however, he changed decisively for the better.
+The boy's early education was poor, being mainly in the hands of the
+illiterate and dissolute clergy and readers who held the neighbouring
+livings at that time. He was better served by John Owen, master of the
+free school at Wroxeter, where he studied from about 1629 to 1632, and
+made fair progress in Latin. On Owen's advice he did not proceed to
+Oxford (a step which he afterwards regretted), but went to Ludlow Castle
+to read with Richard Wickstead, the council's chaplain there. Wickstead
+neglected his pupil entirely, but Baxter's eager mind found abundant
+nourishment in the great library at the castle. He was persuaded--against
+his will--to turn his attention to a court life, and he went to London
+under the patronage of Sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels, to follow
+that course; but he very soon returned home with a fixed
+resolve--confirmed by the death of his mother--to study divinity. After
+three months' schoolmastering for Owen at Wroxeter he read theology, and
+especially the schoolmen, with Francis Garbet, the local clergyman. About
+this time (1634) he met Joseph Symonds and Walter Cradock, two famous
+Nonconformists, whose piety and fervour influenced him considerably. In
+1638 he was nominated to the mastership of the free grammar school,
+Dudley, in which place he commenced his ministry, having been ordained
+and licensed by John Thornborough, bishop of Worcester. His success as a
+preacher was, at this early period, not very great; but he was soon
+transferred to Bridgnorth (Shropshire), where, as assistant to a Mr
+Madstard, he established a reputation for the vigorous discharge of the
+duties of his office.
+
+He remained at Bridgnorth nearly two years, during which time he took a
+special interest in the controversy relating to Nonconformity and the
+Church of England. He soon, on some points, especially matters of
+discipline, became alienated from the Church; and after the requirement
+of what is called "the _et cetera_ oath," he rejected episcopacy in its
+English form. He could not, however, be called more than a moderate
+Nonconformist; and such he continued to be throughout his life. Though
+commonly denominated a Presbyterian, he had no exclusive attachment to
+Presbyterianism, and often manifested a willingness to accept a modified
+Episcopalianism. All forms of church government were regarded by him as
+subservient to the true purposes of religion.
+
+One of the first measures of the Long Parliament was to effect the
+reformation of the clergy; and, with this view, a committee was
+appointed to receive complaints against them. Among the complainants
+were the inhabitants of Kidderminster, a town which had become famous
+for its ignorance and depravity. This state of matters was so clearly
+proved that an arrangement was agreed to on the part of the vicar
+(Dance), by which he allowed £60 a year, out of his income £200, to a
+preacher who should be chosen by certain trustees. Baxter was invited to
+deliver a sermon before the people, and was unanimously elected as the
+minister of the place. This happened in April 1641, when he was
+twenty-six years of age.
+
+His ministry continued, with very considerable interruptions, for about
+nineteen years; and during that time he accomplished a work of
+reformation in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood which is as notable
+as anything of the kind upon record. Civilized behaviour succeeded to
+brutality of manners; and, whereas the professors of religion had been
+but small exceptions to the mass, the unreligious people became the
+exceptions in their turn. He formed the ministers in the country around
+him into an association for the better fulfilment of the duties of their
+calling, uniting them together irrespective of their differences as
+Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Independents. The spirit in which he
+acted may be judged of from _The Reformed Pastor_, a book published in
+relation to the general ministerial efforts he promoted. It drives home
+the sense of clerical responsibility with extraordinary power. The
+result of his action is that, to this day his memory is cherished as
+that of the true apostle of the district where he laboured.
+
+The interruptions to which his Kidderminster life was subjected arose
+from the condition of things occasioned by the civil war. Baxter blamed
+both parties, but Worcestershire was a cavalier county, and a man in his
+position was, while the war continued, exposed to annoyance and danger
+in a place like Kidderminster. He therefore removed to Gloucester, and
+afterwards (1643-1645) settled in Coventry, where he preached regularly
+both to the garrison and the citizens. After the battle of Naseby he
+took the situation of chaplain to Colonel Whalley's regiment, and
+continued to hold it till February 1647. During these stormy years he
+wrote his _Aphorisms of Justification_, which on its appearance in 1649
+excited great controversy.
+
+Baxter's connexion with the Parliamentary army was a very characteristic
+one. He joined it that he might, if possible, counteract the growth of
+the sectaries in that field, and maintain the cause of constitutional
+government in opposition to the republican tendencies of the time. He
+regretted that he had not previously accepted an offer of Cromwell to
+become chaplain to the Ironsides, being confident in his power of
+persuasion under the most difficult circumstances. His success in
+converting the soldiery to his views does not seem to have been very
+great, but he preserved his own consistency and fidelity in a remarkable
+degree. By public disputation and private conference, as well as by
+preaching, he enforced his doctrines, both ecclesiastical and political,
+and shrank no more from urging what he conceived to be the truth upon
+the most powerful officers than he did from instructing the meanest
+followers of the camp. Cromwell disliked his loquacity and shunned his
+society; but Baxter having to preach before him after he had assumed the
+Protectorship, chose for his subject the old topic of the divisions and
+distractions of the church, and in subsequent interviews not only
+opposed him about liberty of conscience, but spoke in favour of the
+monarchy he had subverted. There is a striking proof of Baxter's insight
+into character in his account of what happened under these
+circumstances. Of Cromwell he says, "I saw that what he learned must be
+from himself." It is worthy of notice that this intercourse with
+Cromwell occurred when Baxter was summoned to London to assist in
+settling "the fundamentals of religion," and made the memorable
+declaration, in answer to the objection that what he had proposed as
+fundamental "might be subscribed by a Papist or Socinian,"--"So much the
+better, and so much the fitter it is to be the matter of concord." In
+1647 he was staying at the home of Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, and there,
+in much physical weakness, wrote a great part of his famous work, _The
+Saints' Everlasting Rest_ (1650). On his recovery he returned to his
+charge at Kidderminster, where he also became a prominent political
+leader, his sensitive conscience leading him into conflict with almost
+every one of the contending parties in state and church. His conduct
+now, as at all times, did "credit to his conscientiousness rather than
+to his wisdom."
+
+After the Restoration in 1660 Baxter, who had helped to bring about that
+event, settled in London. He preached there till the Act of Uniformity
+took effect in 1662, and was employed in seeking for such terms of
+comprehension as would have permitted the moderate dissenters with whom
+he acted to have remained in the Church of England. In this hope he was
+sadly disappointed. There was at that time on the part of the rulers of
+the church no wish for such comprehension, and their object in the
+negotiations that took place was to excuse the breach of faith which
+their rejection of all reasonable methods of concession involved. The
+chief good that resulted from the Savoy conference was the production of
+Baxter's _Reformed Liturgy_, a work of remarkable excellence, though it
+was cast aside without consideration. The same kind of reputation which
+Baxter had obtained in the country he secured in the larger and more
+important circle of the metropolis. The power of his preaching was
+universally felt, and his capacity for business placed him at the head
+of his party. He had been made a king's chaplain, and was offered the
+bishopric of Hereford, but he could not accept the offer without
+virtually assenting to things as they were. This he could not do, and
+after his refusal he was not allowed, even before the passing of the Act
+of Uniformity, to be a curate in Kidderminster, though he was willing to
+serve that office gratuitously. Bishop Morley even prohibited him from
+preaching in the diocese of Worcester. Baxter, however, found much
+consolation in his marriage on the 24th of September 1662 with Margaret
+Charlton, a woman like-minded with himself. She died in 1681.
+
+From the ejectment of 1662 to the indulgence of 1687, Baxter's life was
+constantly disturbed by persecution of one kind or another. He retired
+to Acton in Middlesex, for the purpose of quiet study, and was dragged
+thence to prison for keeping a conventicle. The _mittimus_ was
+pronounced illegal and irregular, and Baxter procured a _habeas corpus_
+in the court of common pleas. He was taken up for preaching in London
+after the licences granted in 1672 were recalled by the king. The
+meetinghouse which he had built for himself in Oxendon Street was closed
+against him after he had preached there but once. He was, in 1680,
+seized in his house, and conveyed away at the risk of his life; and
+though he was released that he might die at home, his books and goods
+were distrained. He was, in 1684, carried three times to the sessions
+house, being scarcely able to stand, and without any apparent cause was
+made to enter into a bond for £400 in security for his good behaviour.
+
+But his worst encounter was with the chief justice, Sir George Jeffreys,
+in May 1685. He had been committed to the king's bench prison on the
+ridiculous charge of libelling the Church in his _Paraphrase on the New
+Testament_, and was tried before Jeffreys on this accusation. The trial
+is well known as among the most brutal perversions of justice which have
+occurred in England, though it must be remembered that no authoritative
+report of the trial exists. If the partisan account on which tradition
+is based is to be accepted, it would appear that Jeffreys himself acted
+like an infuriated madman. (See JEFFREYS, SIR GEORGE.) Baxter was
+sentenced to pay 500 marks, to lie in prison till the money was paid,
+and to be bound to his good behaviour for seven years. It was even
+asserted at the time that Jeffreys proposed he should be whipped at the
+cart's tail through London. The old man, for he was now seventy,
+remained in prison for eighteen months, when the government, vainly
+hoping to win his influence to their side, remitted the fine and
+released him.
+
+During the long time of oppression and injury which followed the
+ejectment, Baxter was sadly afflicted in body. His whole life was indeed
+one continued illness, but in this part of it his pain and languor had
+greatly increased. Yet this was the period of his greatest activity as a
+writer. He was a most voluminous author, his separate works, it is said,
+amounting to 168. They are as learned as they are elaborate, and as
+varied in their subjects as they are faithfully composed. Such treatises
+as the _Christian Directory_, the _Methodus Theologiae Christianae_, and
+the _Catholic Theology_, might each have occupied the principal part of
+the life of an ordinary man. His _Breviate of the Life of Mrs Margaret
+Baxter_ records the virtues of his wife, and reveals on the part of
+Baxter a tenderness of nature which might otherwise have been unknown.
+His editors have contented themselves with re-publishing his "Practical
+Works," and his ethical, philosophical, historical and political
+writings still await a competent editor.
+
+The remainder of Baxter's life, from 1687 onwards, was passed in peace
+and honour. He continued to preach and to publish almost to the end. He
+was surrounded by attached friends, and reverenced by the religious
+world. His saintly behaviour, his great talents, and his wide influence,
+added to his extended age, raised him to a position of unequalled
+reputation. He helped to bring about the downfall of James II. and
+complied with the Toleration Act under William and Mary. He died in
+London on the 8th of December 1691, and his funeral was attended by
+churchmen as well as dissenters. A similar tribute of general esteem was
+paid to him nearly two centuries later, when a statue was erected to his
+memory at Kidderminster in July 1875.
+
+Baxter was possessed by an unconquerable belief in the power of
+persuasive argument. He thought every one was amenable to
+reason--bishops and levellers included. And yet he was as far as
+possible from being a quarrelsome man. He was at once a man of fixed
+belief and large appreciation, so that his dogmatism and his liberality
+sometimes came into collision. His popularity as a preacher was
+deservedly pre-eminent; but no more diligent student ever shut himself
+up with his books. He was singularly fitted for intellectual debate, but
+his devotional tendency was equally strong with his logical aptitude.
+Some of his writings, from their metaphysical subtilty, will always
+puzzle the learned; but he could write to the level of the common heart
+without loss of dignity or pointedness. His _Reasons for the Christian
+Religion_ is still, for its evidential purpose, better than most works
+of its kind. His _Poor Man's Family Book_ is a manual that continues to
+be worthy of its title. His _Saints' Everlasting Rest_ will always
+command the grateful admiration of pious readers. It is also charged
+with a robust and manly eloquence and a rare and unsought felicity of
+language that make it a masterpiece of style. Perhaps no thinker has
+exerted so great an influence upon nonconformity as Baxter has done, and
+that not in one direction only, but in every form of development,
+doctrinal, ecclesiastical and practical. He is the type of a distinct
+class of the Christian ministry--that class which aspires after
+scholarly training, prefers a broad to a sectarian theology, and adheres
+to rational methods of religious investigation and appeal. The rational
+element in him was very strong. He had a settled hatred of fanaticism.
+Even Quakerism he could scarcely endure. Religion was with him all and
+in all--that by which all besides was measured, and to whose interests
+all else was subordinated. Isaac Barrow said that "his practical
+writings were never minded, and his controversial ones seldom confuted,"
+and John Wilkins, bishop of Chester, asserted that "if he had lived in
+the primitive time he had been one of the fathers of the church."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Our most valuable source is Baxter's autobiography,
+  called _Reliquiae Baxterianae or Mr Richard Baxter's Narrative of the
+  most memorable Passages of his Life and Times_ (published by Matthew
+  Sylvester in 1696). Edmund Calamy abridged this work (1702). The
+  abridgment forms the first volume of the account of the ejected
+  ministers, but whoever refers to it should also acquaint himself with
+  the reply to the accusations which had been brought against Baxter,
+  and which will be found in the second volume of Calamy's Continuation.
+  William Orme's _Life and Times of Richard Baxter_ appeared in 2 vols.
+  in 1830; it also forms the first volume of "Practical Works" (1830,
+  reprinted 1868). Sir James Stephen's interesting paper on Baxter,
+  contributed originally to the _Edinburgh Review_, is reprinted in the
+  second volume of his _Essays_. More recent estimates of Baxter are
+  those given by John Tulloch in his _English Puritanism and its
+  Leaders_, and by Dean Stanley in his address at the inauguration of
+  the statue to Baxter at Kidderminster (see _Macmillan's Magazine_,
+  xxxii. 385).
+
+  There is a good portrait of Baxter in the Williams library, Gordon
+  Square, London.
+
+
+
+
+BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY (1827-1875), English economist and statistician,
+was born at Doncaster in 1827. He was educated privately and at Trinity
+College, Cambridge. He studied law and entered his father's firm of
+Baxter & Co., solicitors, with which he was connected till his death.
+Though studiously attentive to business, he was enabled, as a member of
+the Statistical and other learned societies, to accomplish much useful
+economic work. His principal economic writings were _The Budget and the
+Income Tax_ (1860), _Railway Extension and its Results_ (1866), _The
+National Income_ (1868), _The Taxation of the United Kingdom_ (1869),
+_National Debts of the World_ (1871), _Local Government and Taxation_
+(1874), and his purely political writings included _The Volunteer
+Movement_ (1860), _The Redistribution of Seats and the Counties_ (1866),
+_History of English Parties and Conservatism_ (1870), and _The Political
+Progress of the Working Classes_ (1871).
+
+
+
+
+BAXTER, WILLIAM (1650-1723), British antiquarian, critic and grammarian,
+nephew of Richard Baxter, the divine, was born at Llanllugan,
+Montgomeryshire. When he went to Harrow school, at the age of eighteen,
+he was unable to read, and could speak no language except Welsh. His
+progress must have been remarkable, since he published his Latin grammar
+about ten years afterwards. During the greater part of his life Baxter
+was a schoolmaster, and was finally headmaster of the Mercers' school,
+where he remained till shortly before his death on the 31st of May 1723.
+He was an accomplished linguist, and his learning was undoubtedly very
+great. His published works are: _De Analogia_ (1679), an advanced Latin
+grammar; _Anacreontis Teii Carmina_, including two odes of Sappho (1695;
+reprinted in 1710, "with improvements," which he was accused of having
+borrowed from the edition of Joshua Barnes); _Horace_ (1701 and
+subsequent editions, regarded as remarkable for its abuse of Bentley);
+_Glossarium Antiquitatum Britannicarum_ (1719); and _Glossarium
+Antiquitatum Romanarum_ (1826). The last two works were published by the
+Rev. Moses Williams, the second (which goes no farther than the letter
+A) under the title of _Reliquiae Baxterianae_, including an
+autobiographical fragment. Baxter also contributed to a joint
+translation of Plutarch's _Moralia_, and left notes on Juvenal and
+Persius.
+
+
+
+
+BAY, a homonymous term of which the principal branches are as follows,
+(1) The name of the sweet laurel (_Laurus nobilis_) or bay tree (see
+LAUREL); this word is derived through the O. Fr. _baie_, from Lat.
+_baca_, berry, the bay bearing a heavy crop of dark purple berries. The
+leaves of the bay were woven in garlands to crown poets, and hence the
+word is often used figuratively in the sense of fame and reward. (2) A
+wide opening or indentation in a coast line. This may be of the same
+origin as "bay," in the architectural sense, or from a Latin word which
+is seen in the place name Baiae. (3) The name of a colour, of a reddish
+brown, principally used of the colour in horses; there are various
+shades, light bay, bright bay, &c. This word is derived from the Latin
+_badius_, which is given by Varro (in _Nonnius_, pp. 80-82) as one of
+the colours of horses. The word is also seen in baize (q.v.). (4) The
+deep bark of dogs. This word is also seen in the expression "at bay,"
+properly of a hunted animal who at the last turns on the "baying" hounds
+and defends itself. The origin of the word is the O. Fr. _bayer,
+abayer_, Lat. _badare_, properly to gape, open wide the mouth. (5) An
+architectural term (Fr. _travée_, Ital. _compartimento_, Ger.
+_Abteilung_) for any division or compartment of an arcade, roof, &c.
+Each space from pillar to pillar in a cathedral, church or other
+building is called a "bay" or "severy." This word is also to be referred
+to _bayer_, to gape.
+
+A "bay-window" or "bow-window" is a window projecting outwards and
+forming a recess in the apartment. Bay-windows may be rectangular,
+polygonal or semicircular in plan, in the last case being better known
+as bow-windows. The bay-window would seem to have been introduced in the
+15th century, but the earliest examples of importance are those which
+were built during the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), when it was
+largely employed in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and in the
+feudal castles of the period. Examples are found in the palace at
+Eltham, Cowdray Castle in Sussex, Thornbury Castle in Gloucestershire,
+and in the George Inn at Glastonbury; one of the finest of a later date
+is that of the Banqueting Hall at Hampton Court, some 50 ft. high. In
+the great entrance halls of ancient mansions the floor of the last bay
+of the hall was generally raised two or three steps, and this portion
+was reserved for the lord of the manor and his guests, and was known as
+the dais. The usual position of the bay-window is at one end of this
+dais, and occasionally but rarely at both ends. The sills of the windows
+are at a lower level than those in the hall, and, raised on one or two
+steps, are seats in the recess. The recess of the bay-window was
+generally covered with a ribbed vault of elaborate design, and the
+window itself subdivided by mullions and transoms. In some of the larger
+windows such as those at Cowdray and Hampton Court there are no fewer
+than five transoms, and this sub-division gave great scale to the
+design. The same feature when employed in an upper storey and supported
+by corbels or brackets is known as an oriel window. (See also DAIS and
+HALL.)
+
+
+
+
+BAYAMO, an old inland city on the N. slope of the Sierra Maestra in
+Santiago province, Cuba. Pop. (1907) 4102. It lies on a plain by the
+Bayamo river, in a fertile country, but isolated from sea and from
+railway. Its older parts are extraordinarily irregular. The streets are
+of all widths, and of all degrees of crookedness, and run in all
+directions. Bayamo was the third of the seven cities founded by Diego
+Velazquez, and was established in 1513. During much of the 16th century
+it was one of the most important agricultural and commercial settlements
+of the island. Its inland situation gave it relative security against
+the pirates who then infested West Indian seas, and the misfortunes of
+Santiago were the fortunes of Bayamo. Down the river Cauto, then open to
+the sea for vessels of 200 tons, and through Manzanillo, Bayamo drove a
+thriving contraband trade that made it at the opening of the 17th
+century the leading town of Cuba. A tremendous flood, in 1616, choking
+the Cauto with trees and wrecked vessels, cut it off from direct access
+to the sea; but through Manzanillo it continued a great clandestine
+traffic with Curaçao, Jamaica, and other foreign islands all through the
+17th and 18th centuries. Bayamo was then surrounded by fine plantations.
+It was a rich and turbulent city. In the war of 1868-78 it was an
+insurgent stronghold; near it was fought one of the most desperate
+conflicts of the war, and it was nearly destroyed by the opposing
+parties. Bayamo was the birthplace and the home of Carlos Manuel de
+Céspedes (1819-1874), first president of the "first" Cuban republic,
+and was also the birthplace and home of Tomás Estrada Palma
+(1835-1908), first president of the present Cuban republic.
+
+
+
+
+BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL, SEIGNEUR DE (1473-1524), French soldier, the
+descendant of a noble family, nearly every head of which for two
+centuries past had fallen in battle, was born at the château Bayard,
+Dauphiné (near Pontcharra, Isère), about 1473. He served as a page to
+Charles I., duke of Savoy, until Charles VIII. of France, attracted by
+his graceful bearing, placed him among the royal followers under the
+seigneur (count) de Ligny (1487). As a youth he was distinguished for
+comeliness, affability of manner, and skill in the tilt-yard. In 1494 he
+accompanied Charles VIII. into Italy, and was knighted after the battle
+of Fornova (1495), where he had captured a standard. Shortly afterwards,
+entering Milan alone in ardent pursuit of the enemy, he was taken
+prisoner, but was set free without a ransom by Lodovico Sforza. In 1502
+he was wounded at the assault of Canossa. Bayard was the hero of a
+celebrated combat of thirteen French knights against an equal number of
+Germans, and his restless energy and valour were conspicuous throughout
+the Italian wars of this period. On one occasion it is said that,
+single-handed, he made good the defence of the bridge of the Garigliano
+against about 200 Spaniards, an exploit that brought him such renown
+that Pope Julius II. sought to entice him into the papal service, but
+unsuccessfully. In 1508 he distinguished himself again at the siege of
+Genoa by Louis XII., and early in 1509 the king made him captain of a
+company of horse and foot. At the siege of Padua he won further
+distinction, not only by his valour, but also by his consummate skill.
+He continued to serve in the Italian wars up to the siege of Brescia in
+1512. Here his intrepidity in first mounting the rampart cost him a
+severe wound, which obliged his soldiers to carry him into a
+neighbouring house, the residence of a nobleman, whose wife and
+daughters he protected from threatened insult. Before his wound was
+healed, he hurried to join Gaston de Foix, under whom he served in the
+terrible battle of Ravenna (1512). In 1513, when Henry VIII. of England
+routed the French at the battle of the Spurs (Guinegate, where Bayard's
+father had received a lifelong injury in a battle of 1479), Bayard in
+trying to rally his countrymen found his escape cut off. Unwilling to
+surrender, he rode suddenly up to an English officer who was resting
+unarmed, and summoned him to yield; the knight complying, Bayard in turn
+gave himself up to his prisoner. He was taken into the English camp, but
+his gallantry impressed Henry as it had impressed Lodovico, and the king
+released him without ransom, merely exacting his parole not to serve for
+six weeks. On the accession of Francis I. in 1515 Bayard was made
+lieutenant-general of Dauphiné; and after the victory of Marignan, to
+which his valour largely contributed, he had the honour of conferring
+knighthood on his youthful sovereign. When war again broke out between
+Francis I. and Charles V., Bayard, with 1000 men, held Mézières, which
+had been declared untenable, against an army of 35,000, and after six
+weeks compelled the imperial generals to raise the siege. This stubborn
+resistance saved central France from invasion, as the king had not then
+sufficient forces to withstand the imperialists. All France rang with
+the achievement, and Francis gained time to collect the royal army which
+drove out the invaders (1521). The parlement thanked Bayard as the
+saviour of his country; the king made him a knight of the order of St
+Michael, and commander in his own name of 100 _gens d'armes_, an honour
+till then reserved for princes of the blood. After allaying a revolt at
+Genoa, and striving with the greatest assiduity to check a pestilence in
+Dauphiné, Bayard was sent, in 1523, into Italy with Admiral Bonnivet,
+who, being defeated at Robecco and wounded in a combat during his
+retreat, implored Bayard to assume the command and save the army. He
+repulsed the foremost pursuers, but in guarding the rear at the passage
+of the Sesia was mortally wounded by an arquebus ball (April 30th,
+1524). He died in the midst of the enemy, attended by Pescara, the
+Spanish commander, and by his old comrade the constable de Bourbon. His
+body was restored to his friends and interred at Grenoble. Chivalry,
+free of fantastic extravagance, is perfectly mirrored in the character
+of Bayard. As a soldier he was one of the most skilful commanders of the
+age. He was particularly noted for the exactitude and completeness of
+his information of the enemy's movements; this he obtained both by
+careful reconnaissance and by a well-arranged system of espionage. In
+the midst of mercenary armies Bayard remained absolutely disinterested,
+and to his contemporaries and his successors he was, with his romantic
+heroism, piety and magnanimity, the fearless and faultless knight, _le
+chevalier sans peur et sans reproche_. His gaiety and kindness won him,
+even more frequently, another name bestowed by his contemporaries, _le
+bon chevalier_.
+
+  Contemporary lives of Bayard are the following:--"_Le loyal
+  serviteur_" (? Jacques de Maille); _La très joyeuse, plaisante, et
+  récréative histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du
+  bon chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de
+  Bayart_ (original edition printed at Paris, 1527; the modern editions
+  are very numerous, those of M.J. Roman and of L. Larchey appeared in
+  1878 and 1882); Symphorien Champier, _Les Gestes, ensemble la vie du
+  preulx chevalier Bayard_ (Lyons, 1525); Aymar du Rivail, _Histoire des
+  Allobroges_ (edition of de Terrebasse, 1844); see _Bayard_ in
+  _Répertoire des sources historiques_, by Ulysse Chevalier, and in
+  particular A. de Terrebasse, _Hist. de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de
+  Bayart_ (1st ed., Paris, 1828; 5th ed., Vienna, 1870).
+
+
+
+
+BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1828-1898), American diplomatist, was born in
+Wilmington, Delaware, on the 29th of October 1828. His great-grandfather,
+Richard Bassett (1745-1815), governor of Delaware; his grandfather, James
+Asheton Bayard (1767-1815), a prominent Federalist, and one of the United
+States commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent with Great
+Britain after the War of 1812; his uncle, Richard Henry Bayard
+(1796-1868); and his father, James Asheton Bayard (1799-1880), a
+well-known constitutional lawyer, all represented Delaware in the United
+States Senate. Intending to go into business, he did not receive a
+college education; but in 1848 he began the study of law in the office of
+his father, and was admitted to the bar in 1851. Except from 1855 to
+1857, when he was a partner of William Shippen in Philadelphia, he
+practised chiefly in Wilmington. He was a United States senator from
+Delaware from 1869 to 1885, and in 1881 was (October 10th to 13th)
+president _pro tempore_ of the Senate. His abilities made him a leader of
+the Democrats in the Senate, and his views on financial and legal
+questions gave him a high reputation for statesmanship. He was a member
+of the electoral commission of 1877. In the Democratic national
+conventions of 1872, 1876, 1880 and 1884 he received votes for nomination
+as the party candidate for the presidency. He was secretary of state,
+1885-1889, during the first administration of President Cleveland, and
+pursued a conservative policy in foreign affairs, the most important
+matter with which he was called upon to deal being the Bering Sea
+controversy. As ambassador to Great Britain, 1893-1897, his tall
+dignified person, unfailing courtesy, and polished, if somewhat
+deliberate, eloquence made him a man of mark in all the best circles. He
+was considered indeed by many Americans to have become too partial to
+English ways; and, for the expression of some criticisms regarded as
+unfavourable to his own countrymen, the House of Representatives went so
+far as to pass, on the 7th of November 1895, a vote of censure on him.
+The value of Mr Bayard's diplomacy was, however, fully recognized in the
+United Kingdom, where he worthily upheld the traditions of a famous line
+of American ministers. He was the first representative of the United
+States in Great Britain to hold the diplomatic rank of an ambassador. He
+died in Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 28th of September 1898.
+
+  See Edward Spencer, _Public Life and Services of T.F. Bayard_ (New
+  York, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BAYAZID, or BAJAZET, a border fortress of Asiatic Turkey, chief town of
+a sanjak of the Erzerum vilayet, situated close to the frontiers of
+Russia and Persia, and looking across a marshy plain to the great cone
+of Ararat, at a general altitude of 6000 ft. It occupies a site of great
+antiquity, as the cuneiform inscriptions on the neighbouring rocks
+testify; it stands on the site of the old Armenian town of Pakovan. It
+is picturesquely situated in an amphitheatre of sharp, rocky hills. The
+great trade route from Trebizond by Erzerum into N.W. Persia crosses the
+frontier at Kizil Dize a few miles to the south and does not enter the
+town. A knoll above the town is occupied by the half-ruined fort or
+palace of former governors, built for Mahmud Pasha by a Persian
+architect and considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Turkey.
+It contains two churches and a monastery, the Kasa Kilissa, famous for
+its antiquity and architectural grandeur. The cuneiform inscriptions are
+on the rock pinnacles above the town, with some rock chambers,
+indicating a town or fortress of the Vannic period. The population has
+lately decreased and now numbers about 4000. A Russian consul resides
+here and the town is a military station. It was captured during the
+Russian campaigns of 1828 and 1854, also in 1878, but was then
+recaptured by the Turks, who subjected the Russian garrison to a long
+siege; the place was ultimately relieved, but a massacre of Christians
+then took place in the streets. Bayazid was restored to Turkey by the
+treaty of Berlin.
+
+
+
+
+BAYBAY, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine
+Islands, on the W. coast. Pop. (1903) 22,990. The town proper is
+situated at the mouth of the Pagbañganan river, 45 m. S.S.W. of
+Tacloban, the provincial capital. A superior grade of hemp is exported.
+Other products are rice, corn, copra, cacao, sugar, cattle and horses.
+The Cebú dialect of the Visayan language is spoken.
+
+
+
+
+BAY CITY, a city and the county seat of Bay county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
+the Saginaw river, about 2 m. from its entrance into Saginaw Bay and
+about 108 m. N.N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 27,839; (1900) 27,628, of
+whom 8483 were foreign-born, including 2413 English-Canadians, 1743
+Germans, 1822 Poles--the city has a Polish weekly newspaper--and 1075
+French-Canadians; (1910, census) 45,166. Bay City is served by the
+Michigan Central, the Père Marquette, the Grand Trunk and the Detroit &
+Mackinac railways, and by lake steamers. The city extends for several
+miles along both sides of the river, and is in a good farming district,
+with which it is connected by stone roads. Among the public buildings
+are the Federal building, the city hall and the public library. The city
+has lumber and fishing interests (perch, whitefish, sturgeon, pickerel,
+bass, &c. being caught in Saginaw Bay), large machine shops and
+foundries (value of products in 1905, $1,743,155, or 31% of the total of
+the city's factory products), and various manufactures, including ships
+(wooden and steel), wooden ware, wood-pipe, veneer, railroad machinery,
+cement, alkali and chicory. A salt basin underlies the city, and, next
+to the lumber industry, the salt industry was the first to be developed,
+but its importance has dwindled, the product value in 1905 being $20,098
+out of $5,620,866 for all factory products. Near the city are valuable
+coal mines, and there is one within the city limits. At Essexville (pop.
+in 1910, 1477), N.E., at Banks, N.W., and at Salzbury, S.W. of Bay City,
+are beet-sugar factories--sugar beets are extensively grown in the
+vicinity. Alcohol is made from the refuse molasses obtained from these
+beet-sugar factories. The municipality owns and operates the water-works
+and electric-lighting plant. The settlements of Lower Saginaw and
+Portsmouth were made in 1837, and were later united to form Bay City,
+which was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered as a city in
+1865. In 1905 West Bay City (pop. 1900, 13,119) and Bay City were
+consolidated.
+
+
+
+
+BAYEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Calvados, 18 m. N.W. of Caen on the Western railway.
+Pop. (1906) 6930. Bayeux is situated on the Aure, 5 m. from the English
+Channel. Its majestic cathedral was built in the 13th century on the
+site of a Romanesque church, to which the lateral arcades of the nave
+and the two western towers with their high stone spires belonged. A
+third and still loftier tower, the upper part of which, in the florid
+Gothic style, is modern, surmounts the crossing. The chancel, surrounded
+with radiating chapels, is a fine example of early Gothic. Underneath it
+there is a crypt of the 11th century restored in the 15th century. The
+oak stalls in the choir are fine examples of late 16th-century carving.
+The former bishop's palace, parts of which are of great age though the
+main building is of the 18th century, serves as law-court and hôtel de
+ville. Bayeux possesses many quaint, timbered houses and stone mansions
+in its quiet streets. The museum contains the celebrated Bayeux tapestry
+(see below). The town is the seat of a bishop and of a sub-prefect; it
+has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, an ecclesiastical
+seminary, a communal college and a chamber of arts and manufactures.
+Dyeing, leather-dressing, lace-making and the manufacture of porcelain
+for household and laboratory purposes are carried on.
+
+Till the 4th century Bayeux bore the name of _Augustodurum_, but
+afterwards, when it became the capital of the two tribes of the
+Baiocasses and Viducasses, took the name of Civitas Baiocassium. Its
+bishopric dates from the latter half of the 4th century. Before the
+Norman invasion it was governed by counts. Taken in 890 by the
+Scandinavian chief, Rollo, it was soon after peopled by the Normans and
+became a residence of the dukes of Normandy, one of whom, Richard I.,
+built about 960 a castle which survived till the 18th century. During
+the quarrels between the sons of William the Conqueror it was pillaged
+and sacked by Henry I. in 1106, and in later times it underwent siege
+and capture on several occasions during the Hundred Years' War and the
+religious wars of the 16th century. Till 1790 it was the capital of the
+Bessin, a district of lower Normandy.
+
+
+
+
+BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE. This venerable relic consists of a band of linen,
+231 ft. long and 20 in. wide, now light brown with age, on which have
+been worked with a needle, in worsteds of eight colours, scenes
+representing the conquest of England by the Normans. Of these scenes
+there are seventy-two, beginning with Harold's visit to Bosham on his
+way to Normandy, and ending with the flight of the English from the
+battle of Hastings, though the actual end of the strip has perished.
+Along the top and the bottom run decorative borders with figures of
+animals, scenes from fables of Aesop and of Phaedrus, from husbandry and
+the chase, and occasionally from the story of the Conquest itself (see
+EMBROIDERY; Plate I. fig. 7). Formerly known as the _Toile de St Jean_,
+it was used on certain feast days to decorate the nave of Bayeux
+cathedral. Narrowly escaping the perils of the Revolution, it was
+exhibited in Paris, by Napoleon's desire, in 1803-1804, and has since
+been in civil custody at Bayeux, where it is now exhibited under glass.
+In the Franco-German War (1871) it was hastily taken down and concealed.
+
+"The noblest monument in the world relating to our old English history,"
+as William Stukeley described it in 1746, it has been repeatedly
+described, discussed and reproduced, both in France and in England since
+1730. The best coloured reproduction is that by C.A. Stothard in 1818,
+published in the sixth volume of _Vetusta Monumenta_; but in 1871-1872
+the "tapestry" was photographed for the English education authorities by
+E. Dossetter.
+
+Local tradition assigned the work to the Conqueror's wife. F. Pluquet,
+in his _Essai historique sur la ville de Bayeux_ (Caen, 1829), was the
+first to reject this belief, and to connect it with the Conqueror's
+half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and this view, which is now
+accepted, is confirmed by the fact that three of the bishop's followers
+mentioned in Domesday Book are among the very few named figures on the
+tapestry. That Odo had it executed for his cathedral seems tolerably
+certain, but whether it was worked by English fingers or not has been
+disputed, though some of the words upon it have been held to favour that
+view. Freeman emphatically pronounced it to be "a contemporary work,"
+and historically "a primary authority ... in fact the highest authority
+on the Norman side." As some of its evidence is unique, the question of
+its authority is important, and Freeman's conclusions have been
+practically confirmed by recent discussion. In 1902 M. Marignan
+questioned, on archaeological grounds, the date assigned to the
+tapestry, as the Abbé de la Rue had questioned it ninety years before;
+but his arguments were refuted by Gaston Paris and M. Lanore, and the
+authority of the tapestry was vindicated. The famous relic appears to be
+the solitary survivor of a class, for Abbot Baudri described in Latin
+verse a similar work executed for Adela, daughter of the Conqueror, and
+in earlier days the widow of Brihtnoth had wrought a similar record of
+her husband's exploits and death at the hard-fought battle of Maldon
+(991).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  1. SIEGE OF DINANT. Note the wooden castle on a mound, and the knight
+  handing over the keys on his lance tip.
+
+  2. THE FUNERAL OF EDWARD THE CONFESSOR AT WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+
+  3. CORONATION OF HAROLD.
+
+  4. APPEARANCE OF HALLEY'S COMET.
+
+  5. THE NORMANS CARRY THEIR ARMS TO THE SHIPS. (_By permission of G,
+  Bell & Sons._)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  6. THE NORMANS CROSS TO PEVENSEY.
+
+  7. BUILDING OF HASTINGS CASTLE.
+
+  8. HAROLD'S ADVANCE ANNOUNCED TO WILLIAM. THE BURNING OF HASTINGS.
+
+  9. THE NORMAN CAVALRY ATTACKS THE ENGLISH SHIELD WALL.
+
+  10. WILLIAM RAISES HIS HELMET TO RALLY HIS MEN.
+
+  11. ODO, BISHOP OF BAYEUX, WIELDING HIS MACE.
+
+  (_By permission of G. Bell & Sons._)]
+
+  See E.A. Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vol. iii. (ed. 1875), with
+  summary of the discussion to date; _Archaeologia_, vols. xvii.--xix.;
+  Dawson Turner, _Tour in Normandy_ (1820); C.A. Stothard's
+  illustrations in _Vetusta Monumenta_, vol. vi.; _Gentleman's
+  Magazine_, 1837; Bolton Corney, _Researches and Conjectures on the
+  Bayeux Tapestry_ (1836-1838); A. de Caumont, "Un mot sur ... la
+  tapisserie de Bayeux," in _Bulletin monumental de Vinstilut des
+  provinces_, vol. viii. (1841); J. Laffetay, _Notice historique et
+  descriptive sur la tapisserie_ ... (1874); J. Comte, _Tapisserie de
+  Bayeux_; F.R. Fowke, _The Bayeux Tapestry_ (ed. 1898); Marignan,
+  _Tapisserie de Bayeux_ (1902); G. Pans, "Tapisserie de Bayeux," in
+  _Romania_, vol. xxxi.; Lanore, "La Tapisserie de Bayeux," in
+  _Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes_, vol. lxiv. (1903); and J.H.
+  Round, "The Bayeux Tapestry," in _Monthly Review_, xvii. (1904).
+       (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BAYEZID I. (1347-1403), Ottoman sultan, surnamed YILDERIM or
+"LIGHTNING," from the great rapidity of his movements, succeeded his
+father Murad I. on the latter's assassination on the field of Kossovo,
+1389, and signalized his accession by ordering at once the execution of
+his brother Yakub, who had distinguished himself in the battle. His arms
+were successful both in Europe and Asia, and he was the first Ottoman
+sovereign to be styled "sultan," which title he induced the titular
+Abbasid caliph to confer on him. After routing the chivalry of
+Christendom at the battle of Nikopoli in 1396, he pursued his victorious
+career in Greece, and Constantinople would doubtless have fallen before
+his attack, had not the emperor Manuel Palaeologus bought him off by
+timely concessions which reduced him practically to the position of
+Bayezid's vassal. But his conquests met with a sudden and overpowering
+check at the hands of Timur (Tamerlane). Utterly defeated at Angora by
+the Mongol invader, Bayezid became his prisoner, and died in captivity
+some months later, in March 1403.
+
+Bayezid first married Devlet Shah Khatun, daughter of the prince of
+Kermian, who brought him in dowry Kutaiah and its dependencies. Two
+years before his accession he also married a daughter of the emperor
+John Palaeologus.
+
+
+
+
+BAYEZID II. (1447-1512), sultan of Turkey, was the son of Mahommed II.,
+whom he succeeded in 1481, but only after gaining over the janissaries
+by a large donative, which henceforth became for centuries the
+invariable prerogative of that undisciplined body on the accession of a
+new sultan. Before he could establish himself on the throne a long
+struggle ensued with his brother Prince Jem. Being routed, Jem fled for
+refuge to the knights of St John at Rhodes, who, in spite of a
+safe-conduct granted to him, accepted a pension from Bayezid as the
+price for keeping him a close prisoner. (See AUBUSSON, PIERRE D'.)
+
+So long as Jem lived he was a perpetual menace to the sultan's peace,
+and there was considerable rivalry among the sovereigns of Europe for
+the possession of so valuable an instrument for bringing pressure to
+bear upon the Porte for the purpose of extracting money or concessions.
+By common consent the prince was ultimately entrusted to Pope Innocent
+VIII., who used him not only to extract an annual tribute out of the
+sultan, but to prevent the execution of Bayezid's ambitious designs in
+the Mediterranean. His successor, Alexander VI., used him for a more
+questionable purpose, namely, not only to extract the arrears of the
+pension due for Jem's safe-keeping, but, by enlarging on Charles V.'s
+intention of setting him up as sultan, to persuade Bayezid to aid him
+against the emperor. There appears, however, to be no truth in the
+report that Bayezid succeeded in bribing the pope to have Jem poisoned.
+The prince, who had lived on excellent terms with Alexander, died at
+Naples in February 1495, possibly as the result of excesses in which he
+had been deliberately encouraged by the pope.
+
+Whether as a result of his fear of the rivalry of Jem, or of his
+personal character, Bayezid showed little of the aggressive spirit of
+his warlike predecessors; and Machiavelli said that another such sultan
+would cause Turkey to cease being a menace to Europe. He abandoned the
+attack on Rhodes at the first check, made concessions, for the sake of
+peace, to Venice and reduced the tribute due fiom Ragusa. His wars were
+of the nature of raids, on the Dalmatian coast and into Croatia,
+Hungary, Moldavia and Poland. The threat of the growing power in the
+Aegean of Venice, which had acquired Cyprus in 1489, at last roused him
+to a more serious effort; and in 1499 the war broke out with the
+republic, which ended in 1502 by the annexation to Turkey of Lepanto and
+Modon, Coron and Navarino in the Morea. Bayezid himself conducted the
+siege of Modon in 1500.
+
+The comparative inactivity of Bayezid in the direction of Europe was
+partly due to preoccupation elsewhere. In the south he was threatened by
+the dangerous rivalry of Kait Bey, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, who had
+extended his power northwards as far as Tarsus and Adana. In 1488 he
+gained a great victory over the Ottomans, and in 1491 a peace was made
+which was not again broken till after Bayezid's death. On the side of
+Persia too, where the decisive battle of Shurur (1502) had raised to
+power Ismail, the first of the modern line of shahs, danger threatened
+the sultan, and the latter years of his reign were troubled by the
+spread, under the influence of the new Persian power, of the Shi'ite
+doctrine in Kurdistan and Asia Minor. The forces destined to maintain
+his authority in Asia had been entrusted by Bayezid to his three sons,
+Ahmed, Corcud and Selim; and the sultan's declining years were
+embittered by their revolts and rivalry. Soon after the great earthquake
+of 1509, which laid Constantinople in ruins, Selim, the ungovernable
+pasha of Trebizond, whose vigorous rule in Asia had given Europe an
+earnest of his future career as sultan, appeared before Adrianople,
+where Bayezid had sought refuge. The sultan had designated Ahmed as his
+successor, but Selim, though temporarily defeated, succeeded in winning
+over the janissaries. On the 25th of April 1512 Bayezid was forced to
+abdicate in his favour, and died a few days later.
+
+  See J.B. Bury in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. i. chap. iii.
+  and bibliography p. 700.
+
+
+
+
+BAY ISLANDS (ISLAS DE LA BAHÍA), a small archipelago in the Caribbean
+Sea, off the coast of Honduras, of which country it forms an
+administrative district. Pop. (1905) about 3000, including 500 Indians.
+The archipelago consists of Roatan or Ruatan, Guanaja or Bonacca,
+Utilla, Barbareta, Helena, Morat, the Puercos or Hog Islands, and many
+_cays_ or islets. The Bay Islands have a good soil, a fine climate and
+an advantageous position. Roatan, the largest, is about 30 m. long by 9
+m. broad, with mountains rising to the height of 900 ft., covered with
+valuable woods and abounding with deer and wild hogs. Its chief towns
+are Coxen Hole and Puerto Real. Its trade is chiefly with New Orleans in
+plantains, cocoa-nuts, pineapples and other fruit. Guanaja is 9 m. long
+by 5 m. broad; it lies 15 m. E.N.E. of Roatan. Wild hogs abound in its
+thickly-wooded limestone hills. The other islands are comparatively
+small, and may, in some cases, be regarded as detached parts of Roatan,
+with which they are connected by reefs. Guanaja was discovered in 1502
+by Columbus, but the islands were not colonized until the 17th century,
+when they were occupied by British logwood cutters from Belize, and
+pearlers from the Mosquito Coast. Forts were built on Roatan in 1742,
+but abandoned in 1749. In 1852 the islands were annexed by Great
+Britain. In 1859 they were ceded to Honduras.
+
+
+
+
+BAYLE, PIERRE (1647-1706), French philosopher and man of letters, was
+born on the 18th of November 1647, at le Carla-le-Comte, near Pamiers
+(Ariège). Educated by his father, a Calvinist minister, and at an
+academy at Puylaurens, he afterwards entered a Jesuit college at
+Toulouse, and became a Roman Catholic a month later (1669). After
+seventeen months he resumed his former religion, and, to avoid
+persecution, fled to Geneva, where he became acquainted with
+Cartesianism. For some years he acted under the name of Bèle as tutor in
+various Parisian families, but in 1675 he was appointed to the chair
+of philosophy at the Protestant university of Sedan. In 1681 the
+university at Sedan was suppressed, but almost immediately afterwards
+Bayle was appointed professor of philosophy and history at Rotterdam.
+Here in 1682 he published his famous _Pensées diverses sur la comète de
+1680_ and his critique of Maimbourg's work on the history of Calvinism.
+The great reputation achieved by this critique stirred the envy of
+Bayle's colleague, P. Jurieu, who had written a book on the same
+subject. In 1684 Bayle began the publication of his _Nouvelles de la
+république des lettres_, a kind of journal of literary criticism. In
+1690 appeared a work entitled _Avis important aux refugiés_, which
+Jurieu attributed to Bayle, whom he attacked with animosity. After a
+long quarrel Bayle was deprived of his chair in 1693. He was not
+depressed by this misfortune, especially as he was at the time closely
+engaged in the preparation of the _Historical and Critical Dictionary_
+(_Dictionnaire historique et critique_). The remaining years of Bayle's
+life were devoted to miscellaneous writings, arising in many instances
+out of criticisms made upon his _Dictionary_. He died in exile at
+Rotterdam on the 28th of December 1706. In 1906 a statue in his honour
+was erected at Pamiers, "la réparation d'un long oubli." Bayle's
+erudition, despite the low estimate placed upon it by Leclerc, seems to
+have been very considerable. As a constructive thinker, he did little.
+As a critic he was second to none in his own time, and even yet one can
+admire the delicacy and the skill with which he handles his subject. The
+_Nouvelles de la république des lettres_ (see Louis P. Betz, _P. Bayle
+und die Nouvelles de la république des lettres_, Zürich, 1896) was the
+first thorough-going attempt to popularize literature, and it was
+eminently successful. The _Dictionary_, however, is Bayle's masterpiece.
+
+  EDITIONS.--_Historical and Critical Dictionary_ (1695-1697; 1702,
+  enlarged; best that of P. des Maizeaux, 4 vols., 1740); _Les Oeuvres
+  de Bayle_ (3 vols., The Hague); see des Maizeaux, _Vie de Bayle_; L.A.
+  Feuerbach, _Pierre Bayle_ (1838); Damiron, _La Philosophie en France
+  au XVII^e siècle_ (1858-1864); Sainte-Beuve, "Du génie critique et de
+  Bayle" (_Revue des deux mondes_, 1st Dec. 1835); A. Deschamps, _La
+  Génèse du scepticisme érudit chez Bayle_ (Liége, 1878); J. Denis,
+  _Bayle et Jurieu_ (Paris, 1886); F. Brunetière, _La Critique
+  littéraire au XVIII^e siècle_ (vol. i., 1890), and _La Critique de
+  Bayle_ (1893); Émile Gigas, _Choix de la correspondance inédite de
+  Pierre Bayle_ (Paris, 1890, reviewed in _Revue critique_, 22nd Dec.
+  1890); de Budé, _Lettres inédites adressées à J.A. Turretini_ (Paris,
+  1887); J.F. Stephen, _Horae Sabbaticae_ (London, 1892, 3rd ser. pp.
+  174-192); A. Cazes, _P. Bayle, sa vie, ses idées_, &c. (1905).
+
+
+
+
+BAYLO (Lat. _bajulus_ or _baillivus_; cf. Ital. _balio_, Fr. _bailli_,
+Eng. _bailiff_), in diplomacy, the title borne by the Venetian
+representative at Constantinople. His functions were originally in the
+nature of those of a consul-general, but from the 16th century onwards
+he had also the rank and functions of a diplomatic agent of the first
+class. "Under the name of bayle," says A. de Wicquefort, "he performs
+also the functions of consul and judge; not only between members of his
+own nation, but also between all the other merchants who trade in the
+Levant under the flag of St Mark." (See DIPLOMACY.)
+
+
+
+
+BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES (1797-1839), English songwriter and dramatist, was
+born at Bath on the 13th of October 1797. He was educated at Winchester
+and at St Mary Hall, Oxford, with a view to entering the church. While
+on a visit to Dublin, however, he discovered his ability to write
+ballads, and on his return to England in 1824 he quickly gained a wide
+reputation with "I'd be a butterfly," following this up with "We
+met--'twas in a crowd," "She wore a wreath of roses," "Oh, no, we never
+mention her," and other light and graceful songs for which his name is
+still remembered. He set some of his songs to music himself; a
+well-known example is "Gaily the troubadour." Bayly also wrote two
+novels, _The Aylmers_ and _A Legend of Killarney_, and numerous plays.
+His most successful dramatic piece was _Perfection_, which was produced
+by Madame Vestris and received high praise from Lord Chesterfield. Bayly
+had married in 1826 an Irish heiress, but her estates were mismanaged
+and the anxiety caused by financial difficulties undermined his health.
+He died on the 22nd of April 1839.
+
+  His _Collected Works_ (1844) contain a memoir by his wife.
+
+
+
+
+BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER (1823-1887), English editor and man of letters,
+the son of a Baptist minister, was born at Wellington, Somerset, on the
+24th of March 1823. He studied at Edinburgh University, where he was a
+pupil of Sir William Hamilton, whose assistant he became and of whose
+views on logic he became the authorized exponent. This teaching was
+embodied in his _Essay on the New Analytic of Logical Forms_, published
+in 1850, the same year in which he took his London University degree.
+This was followed in the next year by a translation of Arnauld's _Port
+Royal Logic_. In 1850 he had become editor of the _Edinburgh Guardian_,
+but after four years' work his health gave way. He spent two years in
+Somerset and then went to London, becoming, in 1858, assistant editor of
+the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed professor of logic
+metaphysics and English literature at the university of St Andrews, and
+in 1873 the editorship of the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_ was entrusted to him. He conducted it singly until 1881,
+when the decline of his health rendered it necessary to provide him with
+a coadjutor in the person of Prof. W. Robertson Smith. Baynes, however,
+continued to be engaged upon the work until his death on the 31st May
+1887, shortly before its completion. His article on Shakespeare
+(_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th ed.) was republished in 1894, along
+with other essays on Shakespearian topics and a memoir by Prof. Lewis
+Campbell.
+
+
+
+
+BAYONET, a short thrusting weapon, fixed to the muzzle or fore-end of a
+rifle or musket and carried by troops armed with the latter weapons. The
+origin of the word is disputed, but there is some authority for the
+supposition that the name is derived from the town of Bayonne, where the
+short dagger called _bayonnette_ was first made towards the end of the
+15th century. The elder Puységur, a native of Bayonne, says (in his
+_Memoirs_, published posthumously in Paris, 1747) that when he was
+commanding the troops at Ypres in 1647 his musketeers used bayonets
+consisting of a steel dagger fixed in a wooden haft, which fitted into
+the muzzle of the musket--in fact plug-bayonets. Courts-martial were
+held on some English soldiers at Tangier in 1663-1664 for using their
+daggers on their comrades. As bayonets were at first called daggers, and
+as there were few or no pikemen in Tangier until 1675, the probable
+conclusion is that the troops in Tangier used plug-bayonets. In 1671
+plug-bayonets were issued to the French regiment of fusiliers then
+raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment raised
+in 1672 and disbanded in 1674, and to the Royal Fusiliers when raised in
+1685. The danger incurred by the use of this bayonet (which put a stop
+to all fire) was felt so early that the younger Puységur saw a
+ring-bayonet in 1678 which could be fixed without stopping the fire. The
+English defeat at Killiecrankie in 1689 was due (among other things) to
+the use of the plug-bayonet; and shortly afterwards the defeated leader,
+General Mackay, introduced a ring-bayonet of his own invention. A trial
+with badly-fitting socket or zigzag bayonets was made after the battle
+of Fleurus, 1690, in the presence of Louis XIV., who refused to adopt
+them. Shortly after the peace of Ryswick (1697) the English and Germans
+abolished the pike and introduced these bayonets, and plates of them are
+given in Surirey de St Remy's _Mémoires d'Artillerie_, published in
+Paris in that year; but owing to a military cabal they were not issued
+to the French infantry until 1703. Henceforward the bayonet became, with
+the musket or other firearm, the typical weapon of infantry. This
+bayonet remained in the British service until 1805, when Sir John Moore
+introduced a bayonet fastened to the musket by a spring clip. The
+triangular bayonet (so called from the cross-section of its blade) was
+used in the British army until the introduction of the magazine rifle,
+when it was replaced by the sword-bayonet or dagger-bayonet.
+Sword-bayonets--weapons which could be used as sword or dagger apart
+from the rifle--had long been in use by special troops such as engineers
+and rifles, and many ingenious attempts have been made to produce a
+bayonet fitted for several uses. A long curved sword-bayonet with a
+saw-edged back was formerly used by the Royal Engineers, but all troops
+are now supplied with the plain sword-bayonet. The bayonet is usually
+hung in a scabbard on the belt of the soldier and only fixed during the
+final stages of a battle; the reason for this is that the "jump" of the
+rifle due to the shock of explosion is materially altered by the extra
+weight at the muzzle, which thus deranges the sighting. In the short
+Lee-Enfield rifle of 1903, the bayonet, not being directly attached to
+the barrel, does not influence accuracy, but with the long rifles, when
+the bayonet is fixed, the sight must be raised by two or three
+graduations to ensure correct elevation. In the Russian army troops
+almost invariably carry the bayonet (triangular) fixed; the model (1891)
+of Italian carbine has an inseparable bayonet; the United States rifle
+(the new short model of 1903) has a knife bayonet, the model of 1905,
+which is 20.5875 in. long, with the lower edge of the blade sharpened
+along its entire length and the upper edge sharpened 5 in. from the
+point; this bayonet is carried in a wooden and leather scabbard attached
+to the cartridge belt. The British bayonet (pattern 1903) has a blade 1
+ft. in length. The length of the rifle and bayonet together, considered
+as an _arme blanche_, varies considerably, that of the French Lebel
+pattern of 1886 being 6 ft., as against the 4 ft. 8¾ in. of the British
+short Lee-Enfield of 1903. The German rifles (1898) have a length with
+bayonet of 5 ft. 9¾ in.; the Russian (1894) 5 ft. 9 in.; and the
+Japanese 5 ft. 5½ in. In 1908 a new British bayonet was approved, 5 in.
+longer than its predecessor of 1903, the shape of the point being
+modified to obtain the thrusting effect of a spear or lance head.
+
+
+
+
+BAYONNE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Basses-Pyrénées, 66 m. W.N.W. of Pau on the Southern
+railway. Pop. (1906) 21,779. Bayonne, a first-class fortified place, is
+situated at the confluence of the Adour and its left-hand tributary, the
+Nive, about 3 m. from the sea. The two rivers divide the town into three
+nearly equal parts, communicating with each other by bridges. Grand
+Bayonne lies on the left bank of the Nive; the two squares which lie
+close together at the mouth of that river constitute the most animated
+quarter of the town. Petit Bayonne lies between the right bank of the
+Nive and the Adour; Saint Esprit, dominated by a citadel which is one of
+the finest works of Vauban, occupies the right bank of the Adour. The
+last is inhabited partly by a colony of Jews dating at least from the
+early 16th century. To the north-west of the town are the Allées
+Marines, fine promenades which border the Adour for a mile and a
+quarter, and the Allées Paulmy, skirting the fortifications. The
+cathedral of Ste Marie in Grand Bayonne is an imposing Gothic structure
+of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. It consists of a choir with
+deambulatory and apsidal chapels (the oldest part of the church), a
+transept, nave and aisles. The towers at the west end were only
+completed during the general restoration which took place in the latter
+half of the 19th century. A fine cloister of the 13th century adjoins
+the south side of the church. Ste Marie contains glass windows of the
+15th and 16th centuries and other rich decoration. The Vieux-Château,
+also in Grand Bayonne, dates from the 12th and 15th centuries and is
+built upon a portion of the old Roman fortifications; it is used for
+military purposes. The Château Neuf (15th and 16th centuries) serves as
+barracks and prison. Bayonne is the seat of a bishopric and of a
+sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
+chamber of commerce, a lycée, a school of music, a library, an art
+museum with a large collection of the works of the painter Léon Bonnat,
+and a branch of the Bank of France. There are consulates of the chief
+nations of Europe, of the United States of America and of several
+Central and South American republics. The town also possesses an
+important military arsenal and military hospital. The commerce of
+Bayonne is much more important than its industries, which include the
+manufacture of leather and of chocolate. The port consists of an outer
+harbour, the so-called "rade" (roadstead) and the port proper, and
+occupies the course of the Adour from its mouth, which is obstructed by
+a shifting bar, to the Pont St Esprit, and the course of the Nive as far
+as the Pont Mayou. Above these two bridges the rivers are accessible
+only to river navigation. Vessels drawing from 16 to 22 ft. can make the
+port in normal weather. In the five years 1901-1905 the average value of
+the imports was £502,000, of the exports £572,000; for the five years
+1896-1900 the average value of imports was £637,000, of exports
+£634,000. Exports include timber, mine-props, turpentine, resinous
+material from the Pyrénées and Landes and zinc ore; leading imports are
+the coal and Spanish minerals which supply the large metallurgical works
+of Le Boucau at the mouth of the river, the raw material necessary for
+the chemical works of the same town, wine, and the cereals destined for
+the flour mills of Pau, Peyrehorade and Orthez. During the early years
+of the 20th century the shipping of the port increased considerably in
+tonnage. In 1900 there entered 741 vessels, tonnage 277,959; and cleared
+743, tonnage 276,992. In 1907 there entered 661 vessels, tonnage,
+336,773; cleared 650, tonnage 335,849.
+
+In the 3rd century Bayonne (_Lapurdum_) was a Roman military post and
+the principal port of Novempopulana. In the middle ages it belonged to
+the dukes of Aquitaine and then to the kings of England, one of whom,
+John, granted it full communal rights in 1216. In 1451 it offered a
+strenuous opposition to the French, by whom it was eventually occupied.
+By this time its maritime commerce had suffered disaster owing to the
+silting up of its port and the deflection of the Adour. New
+fortifications were constructed under Louis XII. and Francis I., and in
+1523 the town was able to hold out against a Spanish army. In 1565 it
+was the scene of an interview between Charles IX. and Catherine de'
+Medici on the one hand and Elizabeth, queen of Spain, and the duke of
+Alva on the other. It is thought that on this occasion the plans were
+formed for the massacres of St Bartholomew, a crime in which Bayonne
+took no part, in 1572. In 1808 Napoleon met Charles IV., king of Spain,
+and his son Ferdinand at the Château de Marrac, near the town, and
+induced them to renounce their rights to the crown of Spain, which fell
+to Napoleon's brother Joseph. In 1814, after a severe siege, Bayonne was
+occupied by the English (see PENINSULAR WAR).
+
+  See J. Balasque and E. Dulaurens, _Études historiques sur la ville de
+  Bayonne_ (3 vols., Bayonne, 1862-1875); E. Ducéré, _Bayonne historique
+  et pittoresque_ (Bayonne, 1893), _Histoire topographigue et
+  anecdotique des rues de Bayonne_ (Bayonne, 1894); H. Léon, _Histoire
+  des juifs de Bayonne_ (Paris, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+BAYONNE, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., occupying the
+peninsula (about 5½ m. long and about ¾ m. wide) between New York
+harbour and Newark Bay, and immediately adjoining the south boundary of
+Jersey City, from which it is partly separated by the Morris Canal. It
+is separated from Staten Island only by the narrow strip of water known
+as the Kill van Kull, and it has a total water frontage of about 10 m.
+Pop. (1890) 19,033; (1900) 32,722, of whom 10,786 were foreign-born
+(3168 Irish, 1868 Russian, 1656 German); (1910) 55,545. Land area about
+4 sq. m. Bayonne is served by the Central of New Jersey and by the
+Lehigh Valley railways (the latter for freight only), and by electric
+railway lines to Newark and Jersey City. The principal public buildings
+are the city hall, the public library, the post-office and the city
+hospital. Besides having a considerable share in the commerce of the
+port of New York, Bayonne is an important manufacturing centre; among
+its manufactures are refined petroleum, refined copper and nickel (not
+from the ore), refined borax, foundry and machine-shop products, tubular
+boilers, electric launches and electric motors, chemicals (including
+ammonia and sulphuric and nitric acids), iron and brass products, wire
+cables and silk goods. In 1905 the value of its factory product was
+$60,633,761, an increase of 57.1% over that of 1900, Bayonne ranking
+third in 1905 among the manufacturing cities of the state. It is the
+principal petroleum-distributing centre on the Atlantic seaboard, the
+enormous refineries and storehouses of the Standard Oil Company, among
+the largest in the world, being located here; there are connecting pipe
+lines with the Ohio and Pennsylvania oil fields, and with New York,
+Baltimore, Philadelphia and Washington. Much coal is shipped from the
+city. Bayonne, which comprises several former villages (Bayonne, Bergen
+Point, Pamrapo and Centerville), was settled about 1665-1670 by the
+Dutch. Originally a part of Bergen, it was set off as a township in
+1861. It was chartered as a city in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+BAYOU (pronounced bai-yoo, probably a corruption of Fr. _boyau_, gut),
+an "ox-bow" lake left behind by a river that has abandoned its old
+channel in the lower stages of its course. Good examples are found in
+Palmyra Lake, in the Mississippi valley below Vicksburg, and in Osage
+river, Missouri. As a river swings from side to side in a series of
+curves which widen laterally where the current is slow and the country
+more or less level, there is a tendency in flood times for the water to
+impinge more strongly upon the convex bank where the curve leaves the
+main channel. This bank will be eaten away, and the process will be
+repeated until the base of the "isthmus" is cut through, and the
+descending channel meets the returning curve, which is thus left
+stranded and filled with dead water, while the stream runs directly past
+it in the shorter course cut by the flood waters that deepen the new
+channel, and leave an isolated ox-bow lake in the old curve.
+
+
+
+
+BAYREUTH, or BAIREUTH, a town of Bavaria, Germany, district of Upper
+Franconia, 58 m. by rail N.N.E. from Nuremberg. Pop. (1900) 29,384. In
+Richard-Wagner-strasse is Wagner's house, with his grave in the garden.
+Franz Liszt (1811-1886) is buried here, as well as Jean Paul Friedrich
+Richter, who is commemorated by a monument (1841). His house was in
+Friedrichstrasse. Most of the buildings are of comparatively modern
+date, the city having suffered severely from the Hussites in 1430 and
+from a conflagration in 1621. There should be mentioned the palace of
+Duke Alexander of Württemberg, the administrative offices, the statue of
+King Maximilian II. (1860) and the collections of the historical society
+Among the ecclesiastical buildings, the _Stadt-Pfarrkirche_, dating from
+1439, and containing the monuments of the margraves of Bayreuth, is the
+most important. Bayreuth is a railway junction and has an active trade,
+chiefly in grain and horses. It manufactures woollen, linen and cotton
+goods, leather, delft and other earthenware, and tobacco, and has also
+several breweries and distilleries. The village of St Georgen is a
+suburb to the north east noted for its marble works; and about 2 m. to
+the east is the Hermitage, a fanciful building, erected in 1715 by the
+margrave George William (d. 1726), with gardens containing terraces,
+statues and fountains. Bayreuth was formerly the capital of a
+principality of the same name, which was annexed in 1791 to the kingdom
+of Prussia. In 1807 it was ceded by Prussia to France, which kept
+possession of it till 1810, when it was transferred to Bavaria.
+
+_The Wagner Theatre._--Among the many advantages which Wagner gained
+from his intimacy with Ludwig II., king of Bavaria, not the least was
+the practical support given to his plan of erecting a theatre for the
+ideal performance of his own music-dramas. The first plan of building a
+new theatre for the purpose in Munich itself was rejected, because
+Wagner rightly felt that the appeal of his advanced works, like the
+Nibelungen trilogy, would be far stronger if the comparatively small
+number of people who wished to hear them were removed from the
+distractions of a large capital; Bayreuth possessed the desired
+seclusion, being on a line of railway that could not be approached from
+any quarter without changing. The municipality furthered Wagner's scheme
+in every way, and in May 1872 the foundation stone of the Festspielhaus
+was laid, the event being commemorated by a notable performance of
+Beethoven's Choral Symphony in the old opera-house. The funds for the
+erection of the theatre were raised in part by the issue of 1000
+certificates of patronage (_Patronatscheine_), but the bulk of the sum
+was raised by founding "Wagner Societies" from St Petersburg to Cairo,
+from London to New York; these societies sprang up with such success
+that the theatre was opened in the summer of 1876 with the first
+complete performance of _Der Ring des Nibelungen_. The theatre, which
+stands on a height a little under a mile from the town, is built from
+the plans of Gustav Semper, the idea of the design being Wagner's own,
+an experiment indeed, but one which succeeded beyond all expectation.
+The seats are arranged on a kind of sloping wedge, in such a manner that
+every one has an almost equally good view of the stage, for there are no
+boxes, and the only galleries are quite at the back, one, the
+_Fürstenloge_, being reserved for distinguished guests, the other, above
+it, for the townspeople. Immediately in front of the foremost row of
+seats a hood or sloping screen of wood covers a part of the orchestra,
+and another hood of similar shape starts from the front of the stage at
+a slightly lower level. Thus there is left a space between the two hoods
+through which the sound of the orchestra ascends with wonderfully
+blended effect; the conductor, sitting at the highest point of the
+orchestra, though under the screen, has a complete view of the stage as
+well as of his instrumentalists, and the sound of the orchestra is sent
+most forcibly in the direction of the stage, so that the voices are
+always well supported.
+
+  As an important addition to the work of the theatre, a permanent
+  school has been established at Bayreuth for the sake of training young
+  musicians to take part in the festival performances, which were at
+  first exclusively, and then partially, undertaken by artists from
+  other German and foreign theatres. The special feature upon which most
+  stress has been laid, ever since Wagner's death in 1883, has been not
+  so much the musical as the dramatic significance of the works; it is
+  contended by the inmost circle of Wagnerian adherents that none but
+  they can fully realize the master's intentions or hand down his
+  traditions. What is called the "Bayreuth Idea" is set forth in much
+  detail from this point of view by Houston Stewart Chamberlain, in his
+  _Richard Wagner_ (1897 and 1900).
+
+
+
+
+BAZA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; in the Hoya
+de Baza, a fruitful valley of the Sierra Nevada, not far from the small
+river Gallego, and at the terminus of a railway from Lorca. Pop. (1900)
+12,770. The dome-shaped mountain of Javaleon (4715 ft.) overlooks the
+town from the north-west. The ancient collegiate church of San Maximo
+occupies the traditional site of a cathedral founded by the Visigothic
+king Reccared about 600, and afterwards converted into a mosque. There
+is a brisk local trade in farm produce, and in the linen, hempen goods
+and pottery manufactured in Baza. The town nearly doubled its population
+in the last quarter of the 10th century. Sulphurous springs exist in the
+vicinity.
+
+Baza is the Roman _Basti_, the medieval _Basta_ or _Bastiana_; and
+numerous relics of antiquity, both Roman and medieval, have been found
+in the neighbourhood. Its bishopric was founded in 306. Under Moorish
+rule (c. 713-1489) it was one of the three most important cities in
+the kingdom of Granada, with an extensive trade, and a population
+estimated at 50,000. In 1489, after a stubborn defence lasting seven
+months, it was captured by the Spaniards under Isabella of Castile,
+whose cannon still adorn the _Alameda_ or public promenade. On the 10th
+of August 1810 the French under Marshal Soult defeated a large Spanish
+force close to the town.
+
+
+
+
+BAZAAR (Pers. _bazar_, market), a permanent market or street of shops,
+or a group of short narrow streets of stalls under one roof. The word
+has spread westward into Arabic, Turkish and, in special senses, into
+European languages, and eastward it has invaded India, where it has been
+generally adopted. In southern India and Ceylon bazaar means a single
+shop or stall. The word seems to have early reached South Europe
+(probably through Turkish), for F. Balducci Pegolotti in his mercantile
+handbook (c. 1340) gives "bazarra" as a Genoese word for market-place.
+The Malayan peoples have adopted the word as _pazar_. The meaning of the
+word has been much extended in English, where it is now equivalent to
+any sale, for charitable or mere commercial purposes, of mixed goods and
+fancy work.
+
+
+
+
+BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANÇOIS (1811-1888), marshal of France, was born at
+Versailles on the 13th of February 1811. He entered the army as a
+private soldier in 1831, with a view to service in Algeria, and received
+a commission as sub-lieutenant in 1833. By his gallantry in action he
+won the cross of the Legion of Honour, and he was promoted lieutenant in
+1835. He served two campaigns with the Foreign Legion against the
+Carlists in Spain in 1837-38, returning to Africa as captain in 1839.
+During the succeeding decade he saw continual active service in Africa,
+and rose to be a brigadier-general with the charge of the district of
+Tlemçen. In the Crimean War he commanded a brigade, and maintained his
+reputation in the trenches before Sevastopol. On the capture of the
+south side he was appointed governor of the place, and was promoted
+general of division. He also commanded the French forces in the
+expedition to Kinburn. In Lombardy in 1859 he was wounded when in
+command of a division at Melegnano, and took a conspicuous part in the
+battle of Solferino. For his services in the campaign he received the
+grand cross of the Legion of Honour, of which he was already (1855) a
+commander. He commanded with great distinction the first division under
+General (afterwards marshal) Forey in the Mexican expedition in 1862,
+succeeded him in supreme command in 1863, and became marshal and senator
+of France in the following year. He at first pursued the war with great
+vigour and success, entering Mexico in 1863 and driving President Juarez
+to the frontier. The marshal's African experience as a soldier and as an
+administrator stood him in good stead in dealing with the guerrilleros
+of the Juarez party, but he was less successful in his relations with
+Maximilian, with whose court the French headquarters was in constant
+strife. Here, as later in his own country, Bazaine's policy seems to
+have been directed, at least in part, to his own establishment in the
+rôle of a mayor of the palace. His own army thought that he aspired to
+play the part of a Bernadotte. His marriage to a rich Mexican lady,
+whose family were supporters of Juarez, still further complicated his
+relations with the unfortunate emperor, and when at the close of the
+American Civil War the United States sent a powerful war-trained army to
+the Mexican frontier, the French forces were withdrawn (see MEXICO,
+_History_). Bazaine skilfully conducted the retreat and embarkation at
+Vera Cruz (1867). On his return to Paris he was but coldly received by
+his sovereign; public opinion was, however, in his favour, and he was
+held to have been made a scapegoat for the faults of others.
+
+At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) Marshal Bazaine was
+placed in command of the III. corps of the Army of the Rhine. He took no
+part in the earlier battles, but Napoleon III. soon handed over the
+chief command of the army to him. How far his inaction was the cause of
+the disaster of Spicheren is a matter of dispute. The best that can be
+said of his conduct is that the evil traditions of warfare on a small
+scale and the mania for taking up "strong positions," common to the
+French generals of 1870, were in Bazaine's own case emphasized by his
+personal dislike for the "schoolmaster" Frossard, lately the Prince
+Imperial's tutor and now commander of the army corps posted at
+Spicheren. Frossard himself, the leader of the "strong positions"
+school, could only blame his own theories for the paralysis of the rest
+of the army, which left the corps at Spicheren to fight unsupported.
+Bazaine, indeed, when called upon for help, moved part of his corps
+forward, but only to "take up strong positions," not to strike a blow on
+the battlefield. A few days later he took up the chief command, and his
+tenure of it is the central act in the tragedy of 1870. He found the
+army in retreat, ill-equipped and numerically at a great disadvantage,
+and the generals and staffs discouraged and distrustful of one another.
+There was practically no chance of success. The question was one of
+extricating the army and the government from a disastrous adventure, and
+Bazaine's solution of it was to bring back his army to Metz. For the
+events which led up to the battles before Metz and the investment of
+Bazaine's whole army in the fortress, see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR and METZ,
+_Battles_.
+
+It seems to be clearly established that the charges of treason to which
+later events gave so strong a colour had, as yet, no foundation in fact.
+Nor, indeed, can his unwillingness to leave the Moselle region, while
+there was yet time to slip past the advancing enemy, be considered even
+as proof of special incompetence. The resolution to stay in the
+neighbourhood of Metz was based on the knowledge that if the slow-moving
+French army ventured far out it would infallibly be headed off and
+brought to battle in the open by superior numbers. In "strong positions"
+close to his stronghold, however, Bazaine hoped that he could inflict
+damaging repulses and heavy slaughter on the ardent Germans, and in the
+main the result justified the expectation. The scheme was creditable,
+and even heroic, but the execution throughout all ranks, from the
+marshal to the battalion commanders, fell far short of the idea. The
+minutely cautious methods of movement, which Algerian experience had
+evolved suitable enough for small African desert columns, which were
+liable to surprise rushes and ambushes, reduced the mobility of a large
+army, which had favourable marching conditions, to 5 m. a day as against
+the enemy's rate of 15. When, before he had finally decided to stay in
+Metz, Bazaine attempted half-heartedly to begin a retreat on Verdun, the
+staff work and organization of the movement over the Moselle was so
+ineffective that when the German staff calculated that Bazaine was
+nearing Verdun, the French had in reality barely got their artillery and
+baggage trains through the town of Metz. Even on the battlefield the
+marshal forbade the general staff to appear, and conducted the fighting
+by means of his personal orderly officers. After the cumbrous army had
+passed through Metz it encountered an isolated corps of the enemy, which
+was commanded by the brilliant leader Constantin von Alvensleben, and
+promptly attacked the French. At almost every moment of the day victory
+was in Bazaine's hands. Two corps of the Germans fought all day for bare
+existence. But Bazaine had no confidence in his generals or his troops,
+and contented himself with inflicting severe losses on the most
+aggressive portions of the German army. Two days later, while the French
+actually retreated on Metz--taking seven hours to cover 5 to 6 m.--the
+masses of the Germans gathered in front of him, intercepting his
+communication with the interior of France. This Bazaine expected, and
+feeling certain that the Germans would sooner or later attack him in his
+chosen position, he made no attempt to interfere with their
+concentration. The great battle was fought, and having inflicted severe
+punishment on his assailants, Bazaine fell back within the entrenched
+camp of Metz. But although he made no appeals for help, public opinion,
+alarmed and excited, condemned the only remaining army of France,
+Marshal MacMahon's "Army of Châlons," to rescue Bazaine at all costs.
+The adventure ended at Sedan, and with Sedan the Third Empire collapsed.
+
+Up to this point Bazaine had served his country perhaps as well as
+circumstances allowed, and certainly with enough skill and a sufficient
+measure of success to justify his appointment. His experience, wide as
+it was, had not fitted him for the command of a large army in a delicate
+position. Since his Mexican expedition, moreover, he had himself fallen
+into a state of moral and physical lethargy, which, imperceptible on the
+field of battle, because his reputation for impassive bearing under fire
+was beyond question, was only too obvious in the staff offices, where
+the work of manoeuvring the army and framing plans and orders was
+chiefly done. But, in spite of these defects, it cannot be asserted that
+any one of Bazaine's subordinates would have done better, with the
+possible exception of Ladmirault, and Ladmirault was one of the junior
+corps commanders.
+
+Bazaine, therefore, in the main justified his reputation for ability. He
+was now to justify his reputation for intriguing and underhand
+diplomacy. If in Mexico he aspired to the rôle of mayor of the palace,
+it was far more so in Metz, where, as commander of the only organized
+army of France, he conceived himself to be the ruler of the country's
+destiny. Accordingly he engaged in a series of diplomatic intrigues,
+some of which to this day have never been properly cleared up.
+Negotiations passed between the outer world and the besieged commander,
+the purport of which remains still to some extent obscure, but it is
+beyond question that he proposed with the permission of the Germans to
+employ his army in "saving France from herself." The scheme, however,
+collapsed, and the army of the Rhine became prisoners of war to the
+number of 140,000. At the moment of the surrender a week's further
+resistance would have enabled the levies of the National Defence
+government to crush the weak forces of the Germans on the Loire and to
+relieve Paris. But the army of Prince Frederick Charles, set free by the
+surrender, hurried up in time to check and to defeat the great effort at
+Orleans (q.v.). The responsibility for this crushing blow was naturally
+enough, and justly enough, placed on Bazaine's shoulders, and although,
+when he returned from captivity, the marshal enjoyed a brief immunity,
+he was in 1873 brought to trial before a military court. He was found
+guilty of negotiating with and capitulating to the enemy before doing
+all that was prescribed by duty and honour, and sentenced to degradation
+and death, but very strongly recommended to mercy. His sentence was
+commuted to twenty years' seclusion, and the humiliating ceremonies
+attending degradation were dispensed with. He was incarcerated in the
+Ile Sainte-Marguérite and treated rather as an exile than as a convict;
+thence he escaped in 1874 to Italy. He finally took up his abode in
+Madrid, where he was treated with marked respect by the government of
+Alfonso XII. He died there on the 23rd of September 1888. He published
+_Épisodes de la guerre de 1870_ (Madrid, 1883). He also wrote _L'Armée
+du Rhin_ (Paris, 1872).
+
+  See the bibliography appended to the article FRANCO-GERMAN WAR; also
+  memoir by C. Pelletan in _La Grande Encyclopédie_; for Bazaine's
+  conduct see _Bazaine et l'armée du Rhin_ (1873); J. Valfrey, _Le
+  Maréchal et l'armée du Rhin_ (1873); Count A. de la Guerronière,
+  _L'Homme de Metz_ (1871); Rossel, _Les Derniers Jours de Metz_ (1871).
+  See also the article BOURBAKI for the curious Regnier episode
+  connected with the surrender of Metz.
+
+
+
+
+BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1819-1891), English engineer, was born
+at Enfield on the 28th of March 1819. At the age of seventeen he was
+articled to an engineer, and a few years later he began to practise
+successfully on his own account. His name is best known for the
+engineering works he carried out in London, especially for the
+construction of the main drainage system and the Thames embankment. In
+1848 the control of London drainage, which had hitherto been divided
+among eight distinct municipal bodies, was consolidated under twelve
+commissioners, who were in 1849 superseded by a second commission. Under
+the latter Bazalgette accepted an appointment which he continued to hold
+under the three successive commissions which in the course of a year or
+two followed the second one, and when finally in 1855 these bodies were
+replaced by the Metropolitan Board of Works, he was at once appointed
+its chief engineer. His plans were ready, but the work was delayed by
+official obstruction and formality until 1858. Once begun, however, it
+was vigorously pushed on, and in 1865 the system was formally opened. It
+consisted of 83 m. of large intercepting sewers, draining more than 100
+sq. m. of buildings, and calculated to deal with 420 million gallons a
+day. The cost was £4,600,000. Almost simultaneously Bazalgette was
+engaged on the plans for the Thames embankment. The section between
+Westminster and Vauxhall on the Surrey side was built between 1860 and
+1869, and the length between Westminster and Blackfriars was declared
+open by the prince of Wales in 1870. The Chelsea embankment followed in
+1871-1874, and in 1876 Northumberland Avenue was formed. The total
+outlay on the scheme exceeded £2,000,000. Bazalgette was also
+responsible for various other engineering works in the metropolitan
+area, designing, for example, new bridges at Putney and Battersea, and
+the steam ferry between north and south Woolwich. He also prepared plans
+for a bridge over the river near the Tower and for a tunnel under it at
+Blackwall, but did not live to see either of these projects carried out.
+He died on the 15th of March 1891 at Wimbledon.
+
+
+
+
+BAZARD, AMAND (1791-1832), French socialist, the founder of a secret
+society in France corresponding to the Carbonari of Italy, was born at
+Paris. He took part in the defence of Paris in 1815, and afterwards
+occupied a subordinate situation in the prefecture of the Seine. About
+1820 he united some patriotic friends into a society, called _Amis de la
+vérité_. From this was developed a complete system of Carbonarism, the
+peculiar principles of which were introduced from Italy by two of
+Bazard's friends. Bazard himself was at the head of the central body,
+and, while taking a general lead, contributed extensively to the
+Carbonarist journal, _L'Aristarque_. An unsuccessful outbreak at Belfort
+ruined the society, and the leaders were compelled to conceal
+themselves. Bazard, after remaining for some time in obscurity in Paris,
+came to the conclusion that the ends of those who wished well to the
+people would be most easily attained, not through political agitation,
+but by effecting a radical change in their social condition. This train
+of thinking naturally drew him towards the socialist philosophers of the
+school of Saint-Simon, whom he joined. He contributed to their journal,
+_Le Producteur_; and in 1828 began to give public lectures on the
+principles of the school (see SAINT-SIMON). His opposition to the
+emancipation of women brought about a quarrel with Enfantin (q.v.) in
+1831, and Bazard found himself almost deserted by the members of the
+society. He attacked Enfantin violently, and in a warm discussion
+between them he was struck down by apoplexy. After lingering for a few
+months he died on the 29th of July 1832.
+
+
+
+
+BAZAS, a town of south-western France, in the department of Gironde, 38½
+m. S.S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 2505; commune, 4684.
+The town, which was the seat of a bishop from at least the beginning of
+the 6th century till 1790, has a Gothic church (formerly the cathedral)
+dating from the 13th to the 16th centuries. There are remains of
+ramparts (15th and 16th centuries) and several old houses of the 16th
+century. The vineyards of the vicinity produce white wine. The town is
+capital of an arrondissement, and carries on tanning, &c., and trade in
+the well-known Bazadais cattle.
+
+Bazas (_Cossio_) was capital of the ancient tribe of the _Vasates_, and
+under the Romans one of the twelve cities of Novempopuluna. In later
+times it was capital of the district of Bazadais. It was the scene of
+much bloodshed during the religious wars of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+BAZIGARS, a nomad gipsy-folk of India, found throughout the peninsula,
+and variously known as Bazigars, Panchpiri, Nats, Bediyas, &c. They live
+a life apart from the surrounding Hindu population, and still preserve a
+certain ethnical identity, scarcely justified by any indications given
+by their physique. They make a living as jugglers, dancers,
+basket-weavers and fortune-tellers; and in true European gipsy fashion
+each clan has its king.
+
+
+
+
+BAZIN, RENÉ (1853-   ), French novelist and man of letters, was born at
+Angers on the 26th of December 1853. He studied law in Paris, and on his
+return to Angers became professor of law in the Catholic university
+there. He contributed to Parisian journals a series of sketches of
+provincial life and descriptions of travel, but he made his reputation
+by _Une Tache d'encre_ (1888), which received a prize from the Academy.
+Other novels of great charm and delicacy followed: _La Sarcelle bleue_
+(1892); _Madame Corentine_ (1893); _Humble Amour_ (1894); _De toute son
+âme_ (1897); _La Terre qui meurt_ (1899); _Les Oberle_ (1901), an
+Alsatian story which was dramatized and acted in the following year;
+_L'Âme alsacienne_ (1903); _Donatienne_ (1903); _L'Isolee_ (1905); _Le
+Blé qui lève_ (1907); _Mémoires d'une vieille fille_ (1908). _La Terre
+qui meurt_, a picture of the decay of peasant farming and a story of La
+Vendée, is an indirect plea for the development of provincial France. A
+volume of _Questions littéraires et sociales_ appeared in 1906. René
+Bazin was admitted to the Academy on the 28th of April 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BAZIRE, CLAUDE (1764-1794), French revolutionist, was deputy for the
+Côte d'Or in the Legislative Assembly, and made himself prominent by
+denouncing the court and the "Austrian committee" of the Tuileries. On
+the 20th of June 1792 he spoke in favour of the deposition of the king.
+In the Convention he sat with the Mountain, opposed adjourning the trial
+of Louis XVI., and voted for his death. He joined in the attack upon the
+Girondists, but, as member of the committee of general security, he
+condemned the system of the Terror. He was implicated by François Chabot
+in the falsification of a decree relative to the East India Company, and
+though his share seems to have been simply that he did not reveal the
+plot, of which he knew but part, he was accused before the Revolutionary
+Tribunal at the same time as Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and was
+executed on the 5th of April 1794.
+
+
+
+
+BDELLIUM ([Greek: bdellion], used by Pliny and Dioscorides as the name
+of a plant which exuded a fragrant gum), a name applied to several gums
+or gum-resins that simulate and are sometimes found as adulterants of
+true myrrh (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+BEACH, a word of unknown origin; probably an old dialect word meaning
+shingle, hence, by transference, the place covered by shingle. Beach
+sometimes denotes the material thrown up by the waves, sometimes the
+long resulting ridge, but more frequently the area between high and low
+water, or even the area between land and sea covered with material
+thrown up by exceptional storms.
+
+The actual character of beach material depends upon the nature and
+structure of the rocks inshore, the strength and direction of currents,
+and the force of the waves. The southern shore of the Isle of Wight
+furnishes a good example. The island ends westward in the well-known
+"Needles," consisting of chalk with flints. The disintegration of this
+rock by wave action separates the finer chalk, which is carried seawards
+in suspension, from the hard flint, which is piled in rough shingle upon
+the shore. The currents sweep constantly eastward up channel, and the
+rough flint shingle is rolled along by wave action toward the Ventnor
+rampart, and ground finer and finer until it arrives as a very fine
+flinty gravel at Ventnor pier. The sweep of Sandown Bay follows, where
+the cliffs are composed for the most part of greensand, and here the
+beach at low water is sandy and smooth. The eastern end of the island is
+again composed of chalk with flints, and here the beach material as at
+the western end consists of very coarse flint shingle. In this, as in
+similar cases, the material has been dragged seawards from the land by
+constant action of the undertow that accompanies each retreating tide
+and each returning wave. The resulting accumulated ridge is battered by
+every storm, and thrown above ordinary high-water mark in a ridge such
+as the Chesil Bank or the long grass-grown mound that has blocked the
+old channel of the Yar and diverted its waters into Yaverland Bay.
+Sandown furnishes an instructive example of the power of the eastward
+currents carrying high-storm waves. The groins built to preserve the
+foreshore are piled to the top with coarse shingle on the western side,
+while there is a drop of over 8 ft. on to the sands east of the wall,
+many thousands of tons of shingle having been moved bodily by the waves
+and deposited against each groin. The force of the waves has been
+measured on the west coast of Scotland and found to be as much as 3 tons
+per square foot. Against these forces the preservation of the shore from
+the advance of the sea becomes an extremely difficult and often a
+hopeless undertaking, since blocks of rock over 100 tons in weight have
+been moved by the waves. The beach is therefore unstable in its
+position. It advances in front of the encroaching sea, burying former
+beaches under the sand and mud of the now deeper water, or it retreats
+when the sea is withdrawn from the land or the land rises locally,
+leaving the old shingle stranded in a "raised beach," but its formation
+is in all cases due to the form and structure of the shore, the sapping
+action of the waves, the backward drag of the undertow plastering the
+shore with material, which is in turn bombarded by waves and swept by
+currents that cover the finer débris of the undertow with a layer of
+coarse fragments that are re-sorted by the daily action of currents and
+tides.
+
+
+
+
+BEACHY HEAD, a promontory on the coast of Sussex, England, S.W. of
+Eastbourne, about 3 m. from the centre of the town. It consists of a
+perpendicular chalk cliff 532 ft. high, and forms the eastern
+termination of the hill-range known as the South Downs. The old Bell
+Tout lighthouse, 285 ft. above high-water mark, erected in 1831 on the
+second cliff to the westward, in 0° 10' 18" E., 50° 43' 30" N., has been
+superseded by a new lighthouse built in the sea at the foot of the head
+itself.
+
+_Battle of Beachy Head._--This naval battle, known to the French as
+Bévisier (a corruption of Pevensey), was fought on the 30th of June
+1690. An allied force of 37 British sail of the line, under command of
+the earl of Torrington (Arthur Herbert), and of 22 Dutch under C.
+Evertsen, was at anchor under the headland, while a French fleet of over
+70 sail, commanded by the comte de Tourville, was anchored some miles
+off to the south-west. The French fleet had orders to co-operate with an
+expected Jacobite rising in England. Torrington, to whom the general
+direction of the allied fleet belonged, was much disturbed by the
+enemy's superiority in number, and on the 26th had written to the
+Council of Regency suggesting that he ought to retire to the Gunfleet at
+the mouth of the Thames, and observe the enemy from a distance till he
+could be reinforced. The council, which had the support of Admiral
+Russell, afterwards earl of Orford, considered that a retreat to the
+Gunfleet would have fatal consequences, by which they no doubt meant
+that it would leave the French free to land troops for the support of
+the Jacobites. They therefore ordered Herbert not to lose sight of the
+enemy, but rather to fight if he could secure an advantage of position.
+The admiral, who was on very bad terms with the council, elected to
+treat this as a peremptory order to fight. At daybreak on the 30th he
+got under way and bore down on the enemy. The wind was at north-east and
+gave him the weather-gage. As his fleet was only 57 sail in all he was
+not able to engage the enemy from end to end, but as the French were
+arranged in a line from east to west he could have fallen on the end
+nearest him, and could have guarded himself by telling off a part of his
+ships to watch the remainder. Torrington preferred to bring his fleet
+down in such a way that his van, consisting of the Dutch ships, should
+be opposite the enemy's van, his centre opposite their centre, and his
+rear should engage their rear. The inferiority of the allies in numbers
+made it therefore inevitable that there should be gaps between the
+different divisions. As the fleets actually did come to action, the
+Dutch with a few English ships pressed on the French van, their leading
+ship being abreast of the ninth or tenth Frenchman. Torrington took his
+station opposite the rear of the French centre, leaving a great gap
+between himself and the ships in the van. Being apprehensive that the
+French centre would tack and pass this gap so as to put him between two
+fires, he kept a long way off so as to be free to manoeuvre against them
+if they made the attempt. The English rear division, consisting of the
+English blue squadron under Sir Ralph Delaval, fought a close action
+with the French opposite to them. In the meantime the French ships,
+ahead of the leading Dutchman, succeeded in turning to windward and
+putting part of Evertsen's squadron between two fires. The Dutch ships
+suffered heavily, and one of them which was dismasted drifted among the
+French and was taken. More severe loss would have followed if the better
+average seamanship of the English and Dutch had not stood them in good
+stead. The tide turned from flood to ebb during the action, and the
+surface current which in the Channel sets to the west with the ebb began
+to carry the fleets with it. The Dutch and English dropped anchor. The
+French, who were not equally alert, did not and were carried westward.
+When the tide turned the allies retreated to the Thames, abandoning
+several of the most damaged ships in Pevensey Bay. The pursuit of the
+French was ineffective, for Tourville persisted in keeping his ships in
+line of battle, which forced them to regulate their speed by the slowest
+among them. Torrington was tried for his conduct but acquitted.
+
+  A full account of the battle of Beachy Head, written with ample
+  quotation of documents, and for the purpose of vindicating Herbert,
+  will be found in Admiral Colomb's _Naval Warfare_ (London, 1899).
+       (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BEACON (from the O. Eng. _béacn_, a sign, cf. "beckon," another form of
+the same word), a signal, especially a fire lit on a high hill,
+structure or building for the purpose of sending a message of alarm or
+of important news over long distances. Such was the courier-fire
+([Greek: aggaros pur]) that brought the news of the fall of Troy to
+Argos (Aeschylus, _Agamemnon_), or the chain of signals that told of the
+approach of the Spanish Armada, or which circled the British Isles in
+the jubilee years of 1887 and 1897. The word occurs in many names for
+lofty and conspicuous hills, such as Dunkery Beacon in Somerset, the
+highest point on Exmoor. On many such hills the remains of old beacon
+towers and cressets are still found. The word is used generally of a
+lighthouse, but technically it means either a small unattended light, a
+superstructure on a floating buoy, such as a staff and cage, or staff
+and globe, or an unlighted structure, forming a conspicuous object at
+sea, used in each case to guide or warn sailors. (See LIGHTHOUSE and
+BUOY.)
+
+
+
+
+BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, EARL OF (1804-1881), British statesman,
+second child and eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli (q.v.) and Maria Basevi,
+who were married in 1802, was born at No. 6 John Street, Bedford Row, on
+the 21st of December 1804. Of Isaac D'Israeli's other children, Sarah
+was born in 1802, Naphtali in 1807, Ralph (Raphael) in 1809, and James
+(Jacob) in 1813. None of the family was akin to Benjamin for genius and
+character, except Sarah, to whom he was deeply indebted for a wise,
+unswerving and sympathetic devotion, when, in his earlier days, he
+needed it most. All Isaac D'Israeli's children were born into the Jewish
+communion, in which, however, they were not to grow up. It is a
+reasonable inference from Isaac's character that he was never at ease in
+the ritual of Judaism. His father died in the winter of 1816, and soon
+afterwards Isaac formally withdrew with all his household from the
+Jewish church. His son Benjamin, who had been admitted to it with the
+usual rites eight days after his birth, was baptized at St Andrew's
+church in Holborn on the 31st of July 1817. One of Isaac D'Israeli's
+reasons for quitting the tents of his people was that rabbinical
+Judaism, with its unyielding laws and fettering ceremonies, "cuts off
+the Jews from the great family of mankind." Little did he know, when
+therefore he cut off the D'Israeli family from Judaism, what great
+things he was doing for one small member of it. The future prime
+minister was then short of thirteen years old, and there was yet time to
+provide the utmost freedom which his birth allowed for the faculties and
+ambitions he was born with. Taking the worldly view alone, of course,
+most fortunate for his aspirations in youth was his withdrawal from
+Judaism in childhood. That it was fully sanctioned by his intellect at
+maturity is evident; but the vindication of unbiased choice would not
+have been readily accepted had Disraeli abandoned Judaism of his own
+will at the pushing _Vivian Grey_ period or after. And though a mind
+like Disraeli's might work to satisfaction with Christianity as
+"completed Judaism," it could but dwell on a breach of continuity which
+means so much to Jews and which he was never allowed to forget amongst
+Christians. With all, he was proud of his race as truly, if not as
+vehemently, as his paternal grandmother detested it. Family pride
+contributed to the feeling in his case; for in his more speculative
+moods he could look back upon an ancestry which was of those, perhaps,
+who colonized the shores of the Mediterranean from before the time of
+the Captivity. More definite is the history of descent from an ennobled
+Spanish family which escaped from the Torquemada persecutions to Venice,
+there found a new home, took a new name, and prospered for six
+generations. The Benjamin D'Israeli, Lord Beaconsfield's grandfather,
+who came to England in 1748, was a younger son sent at eighteen to try
+his fortune in London. "A man of ardent character, sanguine, courageous,
+speculative, fortunate, with a temper which no disappointment could
+disturb" (so Lord Beaconsfield described him), he soon made the
+beginnings of a handsome fortune and turned country gentleman. That his
+grandson exaggerated his prosperity is highly probable; but that he
+became a man of wealth and consideration is certain. He married twice.
+His second wife was Sarah Siprout de Gabay, "a beautiful woman of strong
+intellect" and importunate ambitions, who hated the race she belonged to
+because it was despised by others. She felt so keenly the social
+disabilities it brought upon her, and her husband's indifference to
+them, that "she never pardoned him his name." Her literary son Isaac
+suffered equally or even more; for though he had ambitions he had none
+that she could recognize as such. She could ridicule him for the
+aspirations which he had not and for those which he had; on the other
+hand, he never heard from her a tender word "though she lived to be
+eighty." Nor did any other member of her family, according to her
+grandson.
+
+
+  "The Representative."
+
+Isaac D'Israeli was devoted to the reading and writing of books in
+domestic quiet; and his son Benjamin suffered appreciably from his
+father's gentle preoccupations. As a child--unruly and disturbing no
+doubt--he was sent to a school of small account at Blackheath, and was
+there "for years" before he was recalled at the age of twelve on the
+death of his grandfather. Isaac D'Israeli was his father's sole heritor,
+but change of fortune seems to have awakened in him no ambitions for the
+most hopeful of his sons. At fifteen, not before, Benjamin was sent to a
+Unitarian school at Walthamstow--a well-known school, populous enough to
+be a little world of emulation and conflict but otherwise unfit. Not
+there, nor in any similar institution at that illiberal time, perhaps,
+was a Jewish boy likely to make a fortunate entry into "the great family
+of mankind." His name, the foreign look of him, and some pronounced
+incompatibilities not all chargeable to young Disraeli (as afterwards
+the name came to be spelt), soon raised a crop of troubles. His stay at
+Walthamstow was brief, his departure abrupt, and he went to school no
+more. With the run of his father's library, and the benefits of that
+born bookman's guidance, he now set out to educate himself. This he did
+with an industry stiffened by matchless self-confidence and by ambitions
+fully mature before he was eighteen. Yet he yielded to an attempt to
+make a man of business of him. He was barely seventeen when (in November
+1821) he was taken into the office of Messrs Swain, Stevens and Co.,
+solicitors, in Frederick's Place, Old Jewry. Here he remained for three
+years--"most assiduous in his attention to business," said one of the
+partners, "and showing great ability in the transaction of it." It was
+then determined that he should go to the bar; and accordingly he was
+entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1824. But Disraeli had found other studies
+and an alien use for his pen. Though "assiduous in his attention to
+business" in Frederick's Place, he found time to write for the printer.
+Dr Smiles, in his _Memoirs of John Murray_, tells of certain pamphlets
+on the brightening prospects of the Spanish South American colonies,
+then in the first enjoyment of emancipation--pamphlets seemingly written
+for a Mr Powles, head of a great financial firm, whose acquaintance
+Disraeli had made. In the same year, apparently, he wrote a novel--his
+first, and never published. _Aylmer Papillon_ was the title of it, Dr
+Smiles informs us; and he prints a letter from Disraeli to the John
+Murray of that day, which indicates its character pretty clearly. The
+last chapter, its author says, is taken up with "Mr Papillon's
+banishment under the Alien Act, from a ministerial misconception of a
+metaphysical sonnet." About the same time he edited a _History of Paul
+Jones_, originally published in America, the preface of the English
+edition being Disraeli's first appearance as an author. Murray could not
+publish _Aylmer Papillon_, but he had great hopes of its boyish writer
+(Isaac D'Israeli was an old friend of his), "took him into his
+confidence, and related to him his experiences of men and affairs."
+Disraeli had not completed his twenty-first year when (in 1825) Murray
+was possessed by the idea of bringing out a great daily newspaper; and
+if his young friend did not inspire that idea he keenly urged its
+execution, and was entrusted by Murray with the negotiation of all
+manner of preliminaries, including the attempt to bring Lockhart in as
+editor. The title of the paper, _The Representative_, was Disraeli's
+suggestion. He chose reporters, looked to the setting-up of a
+printing-office, busied himself in all ways to Murray's great
+satisfaction, and, as fully appears from Dr Smiles's account of the
+matter, with extraordinary address. But when these arrangements were
+brought to the point of completion, Disraeli dropped out of the scheme
+and had nothing more to do with it. He was to have had a fourth share of
+the proprietorship, bringing in a corresponding amount of capital. His
+friend Mr Powles, whom he had enlisted for the enterprise, was to have
+had a similar share on the same conditions. Neither seems to have paid
+up, and that, perhaps, had to do with the quarrel which parted Benjamin
+Disraeli and John Murray before a sheet of the luckless _Representative_
+was printed. Many years afterwards (1853) Disraeli took an active
+interest in _The Press_, a weekly journal of considerable merit but
+meagre fortunes.
+
+
+  "Vivan Grey."
+
+At the death of the elder Benjamin (1817), his son Isaac had moved from
+the King's Road, Gray's Inn (now Theobald's Road), to No. 6 Bloomsbury
+Square. Here he entertained the many distinguished friends, literary and
+political, who had been drawn to him by his "Curiosities" and other
+ingenious works, and here his son Benjamin also had their acquaintance
+and conversation. In Bloomsbury Square lived the Austens, and to their
+house, a great resort of similar persons, Mrs Austen cordially welcomed
+him. Murray's friendship and associations helped him in like manner, no
+doubt; and thus was opened to Disraeli the younger a world in which he
+was to make a considerable stir. The very much smaller society of that
+day was, of course, more comprehensible to sight and hearing, when once
+you were within its borders, than the society of this. Reverberations of
+the gossip of St James's and Mayfair extended to Bloomsbury in those
+days. Yet Disraeli's range of observation must have been not only brief
+but limited when he sat down at twenty or twenty-one to write _Vivian
+Grey_. It is therefore a probable conjecture that Mrs Austen, a clever
+woman of the world, helped him from her knowledge. His own strongly
+perceptive imagination (the gift in which he was to excel every other
+politician of his time) and the bent of political reading and aspiration
+from boyhood completed his equipment; and so the wonder that so young a
+man in Disraeli's social position should write a book like _Vivian Grey_
+is accounted for. It was published in 1826. The success of this
+insolently clever novel, the immediate introduction of its author to the
+great world, and the daring eccentricities of dress, demeanour, and
+opinion by which he fixed attention on himself there, have always been
+among the most favourite morsels of Disraeli's history. With them it
+began, and successive generations of inquirers into a strange career and
+a character still shrouded and baffling refer to them as settled
+starting-points of investigation. What was the man who, in such a
+society and with political aspirations to serve, could thrive by such
+vagaries as these, or in spite of them? If unaffected, what is to be
+thought of them as keys to character? If affected, what then? Inquiry
+still takes this shape, and when any part of Disraeli's career is
+studied, the laces and essences, the rings over gloves, the jewelled
+satin shirt-fronts, the guitareries and chibouqueries of his early days
+are never remote from memory. The report of them can hardly be doubted;
+and as the last relation was made (to the writer of this article) not
+with intent to ridicule Mr Disraeli's taste but to illustrate his
+conquering abilities, the story is repeated here. One of Disraeli's
+first friends in the world of fashion and genius was Sir Edward Lytton
+Bulwer. "And," said Sir Henry Bulwer ("Pelham's" brother), "we heard so
+much at the time of Edward's amazingly brilliant new friend that we were
+the less inclined to make his acquaintance." At length, however, Sir
+Edward got up a little dinner-party to convince the doubters. It was to
+meet at the early hour of those days at one of the Piccadilly hotels.
+"There was my brother, Alexander Cockburn, myself and (I think) Milnes;
+but for a considerable time no Mr Disraeli. Waiting for Mr Disraeli did
+not enhance the pleasure of meeting him, nor when he did arrive did his
+appearance predispose us in his favour. He wore green velvet trousers, a
+canary-coloured waistcoat, low shoes, silver buckles, lace at his
+wrists, and his hair in ringlets." The description of the coat is
+forgotten. "We sat down. Not one of us was more than five-and-twenty
+years old. We were all--if you will allow me to include myself--on the
+road to distinction, all clever, all ambitious, and all with a perfect
+conceit of ourselves. Yet if on leaving the table we had been severally
+taken aside and asked which was the cleverest of the party, we should
+have been obliged to say 'the man in the green velvet trousers.'" This
+story is a little lamp that throws much light. Here we see at their
+sharpest the social prejudices that Disraeli had to fight against,
+provocation of them carried to its utmost in every way open to him, and
+complete conquest in a company of young men less likely to admit
+superiority in a wit of their own years, probably, than any other that
+could have been brought together at that time.
+
+
+  Travel.
+
+Soon after the publication of _Vivian Grey_, Disraeli, who is said by
+Froude to have been "overtaken by a singular disorder," marked by fits
+of giddiness ("once he fell into a trance, and did not recover for a
+week"), went with the Austens on a long summer tour in France,
+Switzerland and Italy. Returning to a quiet life at Bradenham--an old
+manor-house near High Wycombe, which his father had taken--Disraeli put
+law in abeyance and resumed novel-writing. His weakest book, and two or
+three other productions, brief, but in every literary sense the finest
+of his works, were written in the next two or three years. But for
+_Ixion in Heaven_, _The Infernal Marriage_, and _Popanilla_, Disraeli
+could not be placed among the greater writers of his kind; yet none of
+his imaginative books have been so little read as these. The mysterious
+malady continued, and Disraeli set out with William Meredith, who was to
+have married Sarah Disraeli, for a tour in southern Europe and the
+nearer East. He saw Cadiz, Seville, Granada, Athens, Constantinople,
+Jerusalem, Cairo, Thebes; played the corsair with James Clay on a yacht
+voyage from Malta to Corfu; visited the terrible Reschid, then with a
+Turkish army in the Albanian capital; landed in Cyprus, and left it with
+an expectation in his singularly prescient mind that the island would
+one day be English. These travels must have profited him greatly, and we
+have our share of the advantage; not so much, however, in _The Wondrous
+Tale of Alroy_ or _Tancred_, or the "Revolutionary Epic" which he was
+inspired to write on "the windy plains of Troy," but in the letters he
+sent home to his sister. These letters, written with the utmost freedom
+and fullness to the one whose affection and intellect he trusted more
+than any, are of the greatest value for interpreting the writer.
+Together with other letters also published some time after Disraeli's
+death, they tell more of him than anything that can be found in print
+elsewhere. They show, for example, that his extraordinary exuberances
+were unforced, leaping by natural impulse from an overcharged source.
+They also show that his Oriental fopperies were not so much "purposed
+affectation" as Froude and others have surmised. That they were so in
+great part is confessed again and again in these letters, but confessed
+in such a way as to reveal that they were permitted for his own
+enjoyment of them as much as planned. The "purposed affectation" sprang
+from an unaffected delight in gauds of attire, gauds of fancy and
+expression. It was not only to startle and impress the world that he
+paraded his eccentricities of splendour. His family also had to be
+impressed by them. It was to his sober father that he wrote, at the age
+of twenty-six: "I like a sailor's life much, though it spoils the
+toilette." It is in a letter from Gibraltar to the same hand that we
+read of his two canes--"a morning and an evening cane"--changed as the
+gun fires. And the same correspondent must be told that "Ralph's
+handkerchief which he brought me from Paris is the most successful thing
+I ever wore."
+
+
+  Literary production.
+
+When Disraeli returned to England in 1831, all thought of the law was
+abandoned. The pen of romance was again taken up--the poet's also and
+the politician's. In the next five years he wrote _Contarini Fleming_,
+the _Revolutionary Epick, Alroy, Henrietta Temple, What is He?_ (a
+pamphlet expository of his opinions), the _Runnymede Letters_, a
+_Vindication of the British Constitution_, and other matter of less
+note. The epic, begun in great hope and confidence, was ended in less,
+though its author was to the last unwilling that it should be forgotten.
+The novels revived the success he had with _Vivian Grey_, and restored
+him to his place among the brilliancies and powers of the time. The
+political writing, too, much of it in a garish, extravagant style,
+exercised his deeper ambitions, and stands as witness to the working of
+original thought and foresight. Both qualities are conspicuous in _What
+is He?_ and the _Vindication_, of which it has been truly said that in
+these pages he "struck the keynote to the explanations he afterwards
+consistently offered of all his apparent inconsistencies." Here an
+interpretation of Tory principles as capable of running with the
+democratic idea, and as called upon to do so, is ingeniously attempted.
+The aristocratic principle of government having been destroyed by the
+Reform Bill, and the House of Lords being practically "abrogated" by
+that measure, it became necessary that Toryism should start from the
+democratic basis, from which it had never been alien. The filched
+liberties of the crown and the people should be restored, and the nation
+redeemed from the oligarchies which had stolen from both. When at the
+beginning of all this writing Disraeli entered the political arena as
+candidate for High Wycombe (1832), he was nominated by a Tory and
+seconded by a Radical--in vain; and vain were two subsequent attempts in
+the autumn of 1832 and in 1834. In the first he was recommended to the
+electors by Daniel O'Connell and the Radical Hume. In his last
+candidature at Wycombe he stood on more independent ground, commending
+himself by a series of speeches which fully displayed his quality,
+though the prescience which gemmed them with more than one prophetic
+passage was veiled from his contemporaries. Among Disraeli's great
+acquaintances were many--Lyndhurst at their head--whose expectations of
+his future were confirmed by the Wycombe speeches. He was "thought of"
+for various boroughs, Marylebone among the number, but his democratic
+Toryism seems to have stood in his way in some places and his inborn
+dislike of Radicalism in others. It was an impracticable situation--no
+getting on from it; and so, at Lyndhurst's persuasion, as he afterwards
+acknowledged, he determined to side with the Tories. Accordingly, when
+in the spring of 1835 a vacancy occurred at Taunton, Disraeli contested
+the seat in the Tory interest with Carlton Club support. Here again he
+failed, but with enhanced reputation as a fighting politician and with
+other consequences good for notoriety. It was at Taunton that Disraeli
+fell upon O'Connell, rather ungratefully; whereupon the Liberator was
+roused to retort on his assailant vehemently as "a liar," and humorously
+as a probable descendant of the impenitent thief. And then followed the
+challenge which, when O'Connell declined it, was fastened on his son
+Morgan, and the interruption of the duel by seizure of Mr Disraeli in
+his bed, and his famous appearance in the Marylebone police court. He
+declared himself very well satisfied with this episode, but nothing in
+it can really have pleased him, not even the noise it made.
+
+
+  Enters Parliament.
+
+Here the first period of Disraeli's public life came to an end, a period
+of preliminaries and flourishes, and of what he himself called sowing
+his political wild oats. It was a more mature Disraeli who in the
+general election of 1837 was returned for Maidstone as the colleague of
+his providential friend Mr Wyndham Lewis. Though the fortunes of the
+Tory party were fast reviving under Peel's guidance, the victory was
+denied him on this occasion; but, for once, the return of the Whigs to
+power was no great disappointment for the junior member for Maidstone.
+To gain a footing in the House of Commons was all that his confident
+spirit ever asked, and Froude vouches for it that he succeeded only just
+in time to avert financial ruin. His electioneering ventures, the
+friendly backing of bills, and his own expense in keeping up
+appearances, had loaded him with debt. Yet (mark his worldly wisdom) "he
+had never entangled his friends in his financial dealings. He had gone
+frankly to the professional money-lenders, who made advances to him in a
+speculation on his success": they were to get their money back with
+large interest or lose it altogether. Such conditions were themselves
+incitement enough to a prompt redemption of the promise of parliamentary
+distinction, even without the restless spurring of ambition. And
+Disraeli had another promise to redeem: that which he uttered when he
+told O'Connell that they would meet again at Philippi. Therefore when,
+three weeks after the session began, a debate on Irish election
+petitions gave him opportunity, Disraeli attempted that first House of
+Commons speech which imagination still dwells upon as something wondrous
+strange. That he should not have known better, even by hearsay, than to
+address the House of Commons in fantastic phrase from the mouth of a
+fantastic figure is indeed remarkable, but not that he retained
+self-confidence enough to tell the unwitting crew who laughed him down
+that a time would come when they would hear him. It was one of the least
+memorable of his prophecies. The speech was a humiliating but not an
+oppressive failure. In about a week afterwards he spoke again, which
+shows how little damage he felt, while the good sense, brevity, and
+blameless manner of the speech (on a copyright bill) announced that he
+could learn. And for some time thereafter he affected no importance in
+the House, though not as withdrawing from attention.
+
+
+  Mental characteristics.
+
+Meanwhile, consciously and unconsciously, as is the way with men of
+genius, his mind was working upon problems of government, the magnitude,
+the relations and the natural developments of which he was more sensible
+of than any known politician of his time. "Sensible of," we say, to mark
+the difference between one sort of understanding and another which comes
+of labour and pains alone. Disraeli studied too, no doubt, reading and
+inquiring and applying set thought, but such means were insufficient to
+put into his mind all that he found there. It seems that opinions may be
+formed of inquiry and study alone, which are then constructive; but
+where intuitive perception or the perceptive imagination is a robust
+possession, the fruits of research become assimilative--the food of a
+divining faculty which needs more or less of it according to the power
+of divination. The better judgment in all affairs derives from this
+quality, which has some very covetable advantages for its possessor. His
+judgments may be held with greater confidence, which is an intellectual
+advantage; and, standing in his mind not so much an edifice as a natural
+growth, they cannot be so readily abandoned at the call of ease or
+self-interest. They may be denied assertion or even outraged for a
+purpose, but they cannot be got rid of,--which is a moral advantage.
+Disraeli's mind and its judgments were of this character. Its greatest
+gift was not the romantic imagination which he possessed abundantly and
+employed overmuch, but the perceptive, interpretative, judicial or
+divining imagination, without which there can be no great man of
+affairs. Breadth of view, insight, foresight, are more familiar but less
+adequate descriptions of a faculty which Disraeli had in such force that
+it took command of him from first to last. Although he knew and acted on
+the principle that "a statesman is a practical character," whose
+business is to "serve the country according to its present necessities,"
+he was unable to confine his vision to the nearer consequences of
+whatever policy, or course of action, or group of conditions it rested
+on. Without effort, and even without intention probably, it looked
+beyond first consequences to the farther or the final outcome; and to
+complete the operation, the faculty which detected the remoter
+consequences did not allow them to remain in obscurity, but brought them
+out as actualities no less than the first and perhaps far more important
+than the first. Moreover, it did not allow him to keep silence where the
+remoter consequences were of that character, and ought to be provided
+for betimes. Of course silence was always possible. These renderings to
+foresight might be denied assertion either for the sake of present ease
+(and Disraeli's prescience of much of his country's later troubles only
+made him laughed at) or in deference to hopes of personal advancement.
+But the same divining imagination which showed him these things also
+showed him the near time when it would be too late to speak of them, and
+when not to have spoken would leave him irredeemably in the common herd
+of hand-to-mouth politicians. Therefore he spoke.
+
+
+  "Coningsby," "Sybil."
+
+Remembrance of these characteristics--remembrance, too, that his mind,
+which was neither English nor European, worked in absolute
+detachment--should accompany the traveller through all the turns and
+incidents of Disraeli's long career. They are sometimes puzzling, often
+speculative; yet nearly all that is obscure in them becomes clear, much
+apparent contradiction disappears, when read by these persistent
+unvarying lights. The command which his idiosyncrasies had upon him is
+shown, for example, by reproachful speeches on the treatment of Ireland,
+and by a startling harangue on behalf of the Chartists, at a time when
+such irregularities could but damage him, a new man, where he hoped for
+influence and office. At about the same time his political genius
+directed him to open a resolute critical campaign against the
+Conservatism of the party he proposed to thrive in, and he could but
+obey. This he did in writing _Coningsby_, a novel of the day and for the
+day, but commended to us of a later generation not only by the undimmed
+truth of its character-portraits, but by qualities of insight and
+foresight which we who have seen the proof of them can measure as his
+contemporaries could not. _Sybil_, which was written in the following
+year (1845), is still more remarkable for the faculties celebrated in
+the preceding paragraph. When _Sybil_ was written a long historic day
+was ending in England, a new era beginning; and no eyes saw so clearly
+as Disraeli's the death of the old day, the birth of the new, or what
+and how great their differences would be. In _Coningsby_ the political
+conditions of the country were illustrated and discussed from the
+constitutional point of view, and by light of the theory that for
+generations before the passing of the Reform Bill the authority of the
+crown and the liberties of the people had been absorbed and extinguished
+in an oligarchic system of government, itself become fossilized and
+soulless. In _Sybil_ were exhibited the social relations of rich and
+poor (the "two nations") under this régime, and under changes in which,
+while the peasantry were neglected by a shoddy aristocracy ignorant of
+its duties, factory life and a purblind gospel of political economy
+imbruted the rest of the population. These views were enforced by a
+startling yet strictly accurate representation of the state of things in
+the factory districts at that time. Taken from the life by Disraeli
+himself, accompanied by one or two members of the Young England party of
+which he was the head, it was the first of its kind; and the facts as
+there displayed, and Disraeli's interpretation of them--a marvel of
+perceptive and prophetic criticism--opened eyes, roused consciences, and
+led direct to many reforms.
+
+These two books, the _Vindication_, published in 1835, and his speeches
+up to this time and a little beyond, are quite enough to show what
+Disraeli's Tory democracy meant, how truly national was its aim, and how
+exclusive of partisanship for the "landed interest"; though he did
+believe the stability and prosperity of the agricultural class a
+national interest of the first order, not on economic grounds alone or
+even chiefly. And if Disraeli, possessed by these views, became
+aggressively insubordinate some time before Peel's proclaimed conversion
+to Free Trade, we can account for it on reasonable and even creditable
+grounds. Spite, resentment at being passed over when Peel formed the
+1841 government, is one explanation of these outbreaks, and a letter to
+Peel, lately published, is proof to many minds that Disraeli's denial to
+Peel's face in 1846 that he had ever solicited office was daringly
+mendacious. The letter certainly reads like solicitation in the
+customary half-veiled form. All that can be said in doubt is that since
+the '41 government came into existence on the 6th of September, and the
+letter was written on the 5th, its interpretation as complaint of being
+publicly neglected, as a craving for _some_ mark of recognition, is
+possible. More than possible it is if Disraeli knew on the 5th (as he
+very well might from his friend Lyndhurst, Peel's lord chancellor) that
+the appointments were then complete. The pecuniary need of office, if
+that comes into the question, had been lightened, if not extinguished,
+two years before by his marriage with Mrs Wyndham Lewis. Mrs Lewis--a
+lady fifteen years his senior--brought him a considerable fortune which,
+however, was but for her life. She lived to a great age, and would
+gladly have lived longer, in any of the afflictions that time brings on,
+to continue her mere money-worth to her "Dizzy." Her devotion to him,
+and his devotion to her, is the whole known story of their private life;
+and we may believe that nothing ever gratified him more than offering
+her a coronet from Mr Disraeli.
+
+
+  Politics. 1841-67.
+
+Disraeli made Peel's acquaintance early in his career and showed that he
+was proud of it. In his _Life of Lord George Bentinck_ he writes of Peel
+fairly and even generously. But they were essentially antipathetic
+persons; and it is clear that the great minister and complete Briton
+took no pains to understand the dazzling young Jew of whom Lyndhurst
+thought so much, and wished to have little to do with him. Such men make
+such feelings evident; and there is no reason for thinking that when,
+after 1841, Disraeli charged at Peel in obedience to his principles, he
+gave himself pain. It was not long after it had settled in office that
+Peel's government, the creature of an anxious Conservative reaction,
+began to be suspected of drifting toward Manchester. That it was forced
+in that direction we should say rather, looking back, for it was a time
+of dire distress, especially in the manufacturing districts of the
+north; so that in his second session Peel had to provide some relief by
+revising the corn laws and reducing import dues generally. His measures
+were supported by Disraeli, who understood that Protection must bend to
+the menacing poverty of the time, though unprepared for total abolition
+of the corn tax and strongly of opinion that it was not for Peel to
+abolish it. In the next session (1843) he and his Young England party
+took up a definitely independent rôle, which became more sharply
+critical to the end. Disraeli's first strong vote of hostility was on a
+coercion bill for perishing and rebellious Ireland. It was repeated with
+greater emphasis in the session of 1844, also in a condition-of-Ireland
+debate; and from that time forth, as if foreseeing Peel's course and its
+effect on the country party, Disraeli kept up the attack. Meanwhile bad
+harvests deepened the country's distress, Ireland was approached by
+famine, the Anti-Corn-Law League became menacingly powerful, and Peel
+showed signs of yielding to free trade. Disraeli's opportunity was soon
+to come now; and in 1845, seeing it on the way, he launched the
+brilliantly destructive series of speeches which, though they could not
+prevent the abolition of the corn-laws, abolished the minister who ended
+them. These speeches appeal more to admiration than to sympathy, even
+where the limitations of Disraeli's protectionist beliefs are understood
+and where his perception of the later consequences of free trade is most
+cordially acknowledged. That he remained satisfied with them himself is
+doubtful, unless for their foresight, their tremendous effect as
+instruments of punishment, and as they swept him to so much distinction.
+Within three years, on the death of Lord George Bentinck, there was none
+to dispute with him the leadership of the Conservative party in the
+House of Commons.
+
+In the parliament of 1841 he was member for Shrewsbury. In 1847 he was
+returned for Buckinghamshire, and never again had occasion to change his
+constituency. Up to this time his old debts still embarrassed him, but
+now his private and political fortunes changed together. Froude reports
+that he "received a large sum from a private hand for his _Life of Lord
+George Bentinck_" (published in 1852), "while a Conservative millionaire
+took upon himself the debts to the usurers; the 3% with which he was
+content being exchanged for the 10% under which Disraeli had been
+staggering." In 1848 his father Isaac D'Israeli died, leaving to his son
+Benjamin nearly the whole of his estate. This went to the purchase of
+Hughenden Manor--not, of course, a great property, but with so much of
+the pleasant and picturesque, of the dignified also, as quite to explain
+what it was to the affectionate fancy of its lord. About this time, too
+(1851), his acquaintance was sought by an old Mrs Brydges Willyams--born
+a Spanish Jewess and then the widow of a long-deceased Cornish
+squire--who in her distant home at Torquay had conceived a restless
+admiration for Benjamin Disraeli. She wrote to him again and again,
+pressing for an appointment to consult on an important matter of
+business: would meet him at the fountain of the Crystal Palace in Hyde
+Park. Her importunity succeeded, and the very small, oddly-dressed,
+strange-mannered old lady whom Disraeli met at the fountain became his
+adoring friend to the end of her life. Gratitude for her devotion
+brought him and his wife in constant intimacy with her. There were many
+visits to Torquay; he gratified her with gossiping letters about the
+great people with whom and the great affairs with which the man who did
+so much honour to her race was connected, that being the inspiration of
+her regard for him. She died in 1863, leaving him all her fortune, which
+was considerable; and, as she wished, was buried at Hughenden, close to
+the grave where Disraeli was to lie.
+
+
+  As leader in the House of Commons.
+
+It is agreed that the first three years of Disraeli's leadership in
+Opposition were skilfully employed in reconstructing the shattered Tory
+party. In doing this he made it sufficiently clear that there could be
+no sudden return to Protectionist principles. At the same time, however,
+he insisted (as he did from first to last) on the enormous importance
+to the country, to the character of its people no less than to its
+material welfare, of agricultural contentment and prosperity; and he
+also obtained a more general recognition of the fact that "the land" had
+borne fiscal burdens under the old régime which were unfair and
+unendurable under the new. So far he did well; and when in 1852 he took
+office as chancellor of the exchequer in Lord Derby's first
+administration, the prospect was a smiling one for a man who, striving
+against difficulties and prejudices almost too formidable for
+imagination in these days, had attained to a place where he could fancy
+them all giving way. That, however, they were not. New difficulties were
+to arise and old prejudices to revive in full force. His first budget
+was a quaint failure, and was thrown out by a coalition of Liberals and
+Peelites which he believed was formed against Mr Disraeli more than
+against the chancellor of the exchequer. It was on this occasion that he
+exclaimed, "England does not love coalitions." After a reign of ten
+months he was again in Opposition, and remained so for seven years. Of
+the Crimean War he had a better judgment than those whose weakness led
+them into it, and he could tell them the whole truth of the affair in
+twenty words: "You are going to war with an opponent who does not want
+to fight, and whom you are unwilling to encounter." Neither were they
+prepared; and the scandals and political disturbances that ensued
+revealed him as a party leader who could act on such occasions with a
+dignity, moderation and sagacity that served his country well,
+maintained the honour of party government and cost his friends nothing.
+The mismanagement of the war broke down the Aberdeen government in 1855,
+and then Disraeli had the mortification of seeing a fortunate chance of
+return to office lost by the timidity and distrust of his chief, Lord
+Derby--the distrust too clearly including the under-valuation of
+Disraeli himself. Lord Derby wanted Lord Palmerston's help, Mr
+Gladstone's, Mr Sidney Herbert's. This arrangement could not be made;
+Lord Derby therefore gave up the attempt to form a ministry and Lord
+Palmerston came in. The next chance was taken in less favouring times.
+The government in which Disraeli was again financial minister lasted for
+less than eighteen months (1858-1859), and then ensued another seven
+years in the cold and yet colder shade of Opposition. Both of these
+seven-year outings were bad, but the second by far the worse.
+Parliamentary reform had become a burning question and an embarrassing
+one for the Tory party. An enormous increase of business, consequent
+upon the use of steam machinery and free-trade openings to commerce,
+filled the land with prosperity, and discredited all statesmanship but
+that which steered by the star over Manchester. Mr Gladstone's budgets,
+made possible by this prosperity, were so many triumphs for Liberalism.
+Foreign questions arose which strongly excited English feeling--the
+arrangements of peace with Russia, Italian struggles for freedom, an
+American quarrel, the "Arrow" affair and the Chinese war, the affair of
+the French colonels and the Conspiracy Bill; and as they arose
+Palmerston gathered into his own sails (except on the last occasion)
+every wind of popular favour. Amid all this the Tory fortunes sank
+rapidly, becoming nearly hopeless when Lord Palmerston, without
+appreciable loss of confidence on his own side, persuaded many Tories in
+and out of parliament that Conservatism would suffer little while he was
+in power. Yet there was great despondency, of course, in the
+Conservative ranks; with despondency discontent; with discontent
+rancour. The prejudice against Disraeli as Jew, the revolt at his
+theatricalisms, the distrust of him as "mystery man," which up to this
+time had never died out even among men who were his nearest colleagues,
+were now more openly indulged. Out of doors he had a "bad press," in
+parliament he had some steady, enthusiastic friends, but more that were
+cold. Sometimes he was seen on the front Opposition bench for hours
+quite alone. Little conspiracies were got up to displace him, and might
+have succeeded but for an unconquerable dread of the weapon that
+destroyed Peel. In this state of things he patiently held his ground,
+working for his party more carefully than it knew, and never seizing
+upon false or discrediting advantages. But it was an extremely bad time
+for Benjamin Disraeli.
+
+
+  Reform Bill of 1867.
+
+  Premier, 1868.
+
+Though Lord Palmerston stumbled over his Foreign Conspiracy Bill in
+1858, his popularity was little damaged, and it was in no hopeful spirit
+that the Tories took office again in that year. They were perilously
+weak in the House of Commons, and affairs abroad, in which they had
+small practice and no prestige, were alarming. Yet the new
+administration did very well till, after resettling the government of
+India, and recovering from a blunder committed by their Indian
+secretary, Lord Ellenborough, they must needs launch a Reform Bill to
+put that dangerous question out of controversial politics. The
+well-intended but fantastic measure brought in for the purpose was
+rejected. The country was appealed to, with good but insufficient
+results; and at the first meeting of the new parliament the Tories were
+turned out on a no-confidence vote moved by Lord Hartington. Foreign
+affairs supplied the motive: failure to preserve the peace of Europe at
+the time of the Italian war of independence. It is said that the foreign
+office had then in print a series of despatches which would have
+answered its accusers had they been presented when the debate began, as
+for some unexplained reason they were not. Lord Palmerston now returned
+to Downing Street, and while he lived Disraeli and his colleagues had to
+satisfy themselves with what was meant for useful criticism, though with
+small hope that it was so for their own service. A Polish insurrection,
+the Schleswig-Holstein question, a commercial treaty with France, the
+Civil War in America, gave Disraeli occasions for speech that was always
+forcible and often wiser than all could see at the time. He never
+doubted that England should be strictly neutral in the American quarrel
+when there was a strong feeling in favour of the South. All the while he
+would have gladly welcomed any just means of taking an animated course,
+for these were dull, dark days for the Conservatives as a parliamentary
+party. Yet, unperceived, Conservatism was advancing. It was much more
+than a joke that Palmerston sheltered Conservative principles under the
+Liberal flag. The warmth of his popularity, to which Radical applause
+contributed nothing in his later days, created an atmosphere entirely
+favourable to the quiet growth of Conservatism. He died in 1865. Earl
+Russell succeeded him as prime minister, Mr Gladstone as leader of the
+House of Commons. The party most pleased with the change was the
+Radical; the party best served was Disraeli's. Another Reform Bill,
+memorable for driving certain good Liberals into a Cave of Aduilam,
+broke up the new government in a few months; Disraeli contributing to
+the result by the delivery of opinions not new to him and of lasting
+worth, though presently to be subordinated to arguments of an inferior
+order and much less characteristic. "At this rate," he said in 1866,
+"you will have a parliament that will entirely lose its command over the
+executive, and it will meet with less consideration and possess less
+influence." Look for declining statesmanship, inferior aptitude, genius
+dying off. "Instead of these you will have a horde of selfish and
+obscure mediocrities, incapable of anything but mischief, and that
+mischief devised and regulated by the raging demagogue of the hour." The
+Reform legislation which promised these results in 1866 was thrown out.
+Lord Derby's third administration was then formed in the summer of the
+same year, and for the third time there was a Tory government on
+sufferance. Its followers were still a minority in the House of Commons;
+an angry Reform agitation was going on; an ingenious resolution founded
+on the demand for an enlarged franchise serviceable to Liberals might
+extinguish the new government almost immediately; and it is pretty
+evident that the Tory leaders took office meaning to seek a cure for
+this desperate weakness by wholesale extension of the suffrage. Their
+excuses and calculations are well known, but when all is said, Lord
+Derby's statement of its character, "a leap in the dark," and of its
+intention, "dishing the Whigs," cannot be bettered. Whether Lord Derby
+or Mr Disraeli originated this resolve has been much discussed, and it
+remains an unsettled question. It is known that Disraeli's private
+secretary, Mr Ralph Earle, quarrelled with him violently at about this
+time; and Sir William Fraser relates that, meeting Mr Earle, that
+gentleman said: "I know what your feelings must be about this Reform
+Bill, and I think it right to tell you that it was not Disraeli's bill,
+but Lord Derby's. I know everything that occurred." Mr Earle gave the
+same assurances to the writer of these lines, and did so with hints and
+half-confidences (quite intelligible, however) as to the persuasions
+that wrought upon his chief. Mr Earle's listener on these occasions
+confesses that he heard with a doubting mind, and that belief in what he
+heard still keeps company with Mahomet's coffin. One thing, however, is
+clear. To suppose Disraeli satisfied with the excuses made for his
+adoption of the "dishing" process is forbidden by the whole tenor of his
+teaching and conduct. He could not have become suddenly blind to the
+fallacy of the expectations derived from such a course; and all his life
+it had been his distinction to look above the transient and trafficking
+expedients of the professional politician. However, the thing was done.
+After various remodellings, and amid much perturbation, secession,
+violent reproach, the Household Suffrage Bill passed in August 1867.
+Another memorable piece of work, the confederation of Canada, had
+already been accomplished. A few days after parliament met in the next
+year Lord Derby's failing health compelled him to resign and Mr Disraeli
+became prime minister. Irish disaffection had long been astir; the
+Fenian menace looked formidable not only in Ireland but in England also.
+The reconstructed government announced its intention of dealing with
+Irish grievances. Mr Gladstone approved, proposing the abolition of the
+Irish Church to begin with. A resolution to that effect was immediately
+carried against the strong opposition of the government. Disraeli
+insisted that the question should be settled in the new parliament which
+the franchise act called for, and he seems to have had little doubt that
+the country would declare against Mr Gladstone's proposal. He was
+mistaken. It was the great question at the polls; and the first
+elections by the new constituencies went violently against the authors
+of their being.
+
+The history of the next five years is Mr Gladstone's. The Irish Church
+abolished, he set to work with passionate good intention on the Irish
+land laws. The while he did so sedition took courage and flourished
+exceedingly, so that to pacify Ireland the constable went hand in hand
+with the legislator. The abolition of the Irish Church was followed by a
+coercion act, and the land act by suspension of _Habeas Corpus_.
+Disraeli, who at first preferred retirement and the writing of
+_Lothair_, came forward from time to time to point the moral and predict
+the end of Mr Gladstone's impulsive courses, which soon began to fret
+the confidence of his friends. Some unpleasant errors of conduct--the
+case of Sir R. Collier (afterwards Lord Monkswell, q.v.), the Ewelme
+rectory case,[1] the significant Odo Russell (Lord Ampthill) episode (to
+help the government out of a scrape the ambassador was accused of
+exceeding his instructions)--told yet more. Above all, many humiliating
+proofs that England was losing her place among the nations came out in
+these days, the discovery being then new and unendurable. To be brief,
+in less than four years the government had well-nigh worn out its own
+patience with its own errors, failures and distractions, and would
+gladly have gone to pieces when it was defeated on an Irish university
+bill. But Disraeli, having good constitutional reasons for declining
+office at the moment, could not allow this. Still gathering
+unpopularity, still offending, alarming, alienating, the government went
+on till 1874, suddenly dissolved parliament, and was signally beaten,
+the Liberal party breaking up. Like most of his political friends,
+Disraeli had no expectation of such a victory--little hope, indeed, of
+any distinct success. Yet when he went to Manchester on a brief
+political outing two years before, he was received with such acclaim as
+he had never known in his life. He was then sixty-eight years old, and
+this was his first full banquet of popularity. The elation and
+confidence drawn from the Manchester meetings were confirmed by every
+circumstance of the 1874 elections. But he was well aware of how much he
+owed to his opponents' errors, seeing at the same time how safely he
+could lay his future course by them. He had always rejected the
+political economy of his time, and it was breaking down. He had always
+refused to accept the economist's dictum without reference to other
+considerations than the turnover of trade; and even Manchester could
+pardon the refusal now. The national spirit, vaporized into a
+cosmopolitan mist, was fast condensing again under mortification and
+insult from abroad uncompensated by any appreciable percentage of cash
+profit. This was a changing England, and one that Disraeli could govern
+on terms of mutual satisfaction; but not if the reviving "spirit of the
+country" ran to extremes of self-assertion. At one of the great
+Manchester meetings he said, "Do not suppose, because I counsel firmness
+and decision at the right moment, that I am of that school of statesmen
+who are favourable to a turbulent and aggressive diplomacy. I have
+resisted it during a large part of my life."
+
+
+  Suez Canal shares.
+
+But for the hubbub occasioned by the Public Worship Regulation Act, the
+first two years of the 1874 administration had no remarkable excitements
+till near the end of them. The Public Worship Act, introduced by the
+archbishop of Canterbury, was meant to restrain ritualism. Disraeli, who
+from first to last held to the Reformed Church as capable of dispensing
+social good as no other organization might, supported the Bill as
+"putting down ritualism"; spoke very vehemently; gave so much offence
+that at one time neither the bill nor the government seemed quite safe.
+For some time afterwards there was so little legislation of the kind
+called "enterprising" that even some friends of the government began to
+think it too tame; but at the end of the second year an announcement was
+made which put that fear to rest. The news that the khedive's Suez Canal
+shares had been bought by the government was received with boundless
+applause. It was a courageous thing to do; but it was not a Disraeli
+conception, nor did it originate in any government department. It was
+suggested from without at a moment when the possibility of ever
+acquiring the shares was passing away. On the morning of the 15th of
+November 1875, Mr Frederick Greenwood, then editor of the _Pall Mall
+Gazette_, went to Lord Derby at the foreign office, informed him that
+the khedive's shares were passing into the hands of a French syndicate,
+and urged arrest of the transaction by purchase for England. (The shares
+being private property their sale could not, of course, be forbidden.)
+Lord Derby thought there must be a mistake. He could not believe that
+bargaining of that kind could go on in Cairo without coming to the
+knowledge of the British consul there. He was answered that nevertheless
+it was going on. The difficulties of purchase by England were then
+arrayed by Lord Derby. They were more than one or two, and of course
+they had a formidable look, but so also had the alternative and the lost
+opportunity. One difficulty had already come into existence, and had to
+be met at once. Lord Derby had either to make direct inquiry of the
+khedive or to let the matter go. If he inquired, and there was no such
+negotiation, his question might be interpreted in a very troublesome
+way; moreover, we should put the idea of selling the shares into the
+khedive's head, which would be unfortunate. "There's my position, and
+now what do you say?" The answer given, Lord Derby drafted a telegram to
+the British consul-general at Cairo, and read it out. It instructed
+Colonel Stanton to go immediately to the khedive and put the question
+point blank. Meanwhile the prime minister would be seen, and Lord
+Derby's visitor might call next day to hear the reply from Cairo. It is
+enough to add here that on receipt of the answer the purchase for
+England was taken up and went to a speedy conclusion.[2]
+
+
+  Eastern question.
+
+As if upon the impulse of this transaction, Disraeli opened the next
+session of parliament with a bill to confer upon the queen the title of
+empress of India--a measure which offended the instincts of many
+Englishmen, and, for the time, revived the prejudices against its
+author. More important was the revival of disturbances in European
+Turkey, which, in their outcome, were to fill the last chapter of
+Disraeli's career. But for this interruption it is likely that he would
+have given much of his attention to Ireland, not because it was an
+attractive employment for his few remaining years, but because he saw
+with alarm the gathering troubles in that country. And his mind was
+strongly drawn in another direction. In a remarkable speech delivered in
+1872, he spoke with great warmth of the slighting of the colonies,
+saying that "no minister in this country will do his duty who neglects
+any opportunity of reconstructing as much as possible our colonial
+empire, and of responding to those distant sympathies which may become
+the source of incalculable strength and happiness to this island."
+However, nothing was done in fulfilment of this duty in the first two
+years from 1874, and early in the third the famous Andrassy note, the
+Berlin memorandum, the Bashi-Bazouk atrocities, and the accumulative
+excitement thereby created in England, reopened the Eastern question
+with a vengeance. The policy which Disraeli's government now took up may
+be truly called the national policy. Springing from the natural
+suggestions of self-defence against the march of a dangerous rivalry, it
+had the sanction of all British statesmanship for generations, backed by
+the consenting instinct of the people. It was quite unsentimental, being
+pro-Turkish or anti-Russian only as it became so in being pro-British.
+The statesmen by whom it was established and continued saw in Russia a
+power which, unless firmly kept within bounds, would dominate Europe;
+more particularly that it would undermine and supersede British
+authority in the East. And without nicely considering the desire of
+Russia to expand to the Mediterranean, the Pacific or in any other
+direction, they thought it one of their first duties to maintain their
+own Eastern empire; or, to put it another way, to contrive that Great
+Britain should be subject to Russian ascendancy (if ever), at the
+remotest period allowed by destiny. Such were the ideas on which
+England's Russian policy was founded. In 1876 this policy revived as a
+matter of course in the cabinet, and as spontaneously, though not upon a
+first provocation, became popular almost to fury. And furiously popular
+it remained. But a strong opposing current of feeling, equally
+passionate, set in against the Turks; war began and lasted long; and as
+the agitation at home and the conflict abroad went on, certain of
+Disraeli's colleagues, who were staunch enough at the beginning,
+gradually weakened. It is certainly true that Disraeli was prepared, in
+all senses of the word, to take strong measures against such an end to
+the war as the San Stefano treaty threatened. Rather than suffer that,
+he would have fought the Russians in alliance with the Turks, and had
+gone much farther in maturing a scheme of attack and defence than was
+known at the time or is commonly known now. That there was a master
+motive for this resolution may be taken for granted; and it is to be
+found in a belief that not to throw back the Russian advance then was to
+lose England's last chance of postponing to a far future the
+predominance of a great rival power in the East. How much or how little
+judgment shows in that calculation, when viewed in the light of later
+days, we do not discuss. What countenance it had from his colleagues
+dropped away. At the end their voices were strong enough to insist upon
+the diplomatic action which at no point falls back on the sword; Lord
+Derby (foreign minister) being among the first to make a stand on that
+resolution, though he was not the first seceder from the government.
+Such diplomacy in such conditions is paralytic. It cannot speak thrice,
+with whatever affectation of boldness, without discovering its true
+character to trained ears; which should be remembered when Disraeli's
+successes at Berlin are measured. It should be remembered that what with
+the known timidity of his colleagues, and what with the strength and
+violence of the Russian party in England, his achievement at Berlin was
+like the reclamation of butter from a dog's mouth; as Prince Bismarck
+understood in acknowledging Disraeli's gifts of statesmanship. It should
+also be remembered, when his Eastern policy in 1876-1878 is denounced as
+malign and a failure, that it was never carried out. Good or bad, ill or
+well calculated, effective existence was denied to it; and a man cannot
+be said to have failed in what he was never permitted to attempt. The
+nondescript course of action which began at the Constantinople
+conference and ended at Berlin was not of his direction until its few
+last days. It only marked at various stages the thwarting and
+suppression of his policy by colleagues who were haunted night and day
+by memories of the Crimean War, and not least, probably, by the fate of
+the statesmen who suffered for its blunders and their own. Disraeli also
+looked back to those blunders, and he was by no means insensible to the
+fate of fallen ministers. But just as he maintained at the time of the
+conflict, and after, that there would have been no Crimean War had not
+the British government convinced the tsar that it was in the hands of
+the peace party, so now he believed that a bold policy would prevent or
+limit war, and at the worst put off grave consequences which otherwise
+would make a rapid advance.
+
+As if aware of much of this, the country was well content with
+Disraeli's successes at Berlin, though sore on some points, he himself
+sharing the soreness. Yet there were great days for him after his
+return. At the Berlin conference he had established a formidable
+reputation; the popularity he enjoyed at home was affectionately
+enthusiastic; no minister had ever stood in more cordial relations with
+his sovereign; and his honours in every kind were his own achievement
+against unending disadvantage. But he was soon to suffer irretrievable
+defeat. A confused and unsatisfactory war in Afghanistan, troubles yet
+more unsatisfactory in South Africa, conspired with two or three years
+of commercial distress to invigorate "the swing of the pendulum" when he
+dissolved parliament in 1880. Dissolution the year before would have
+been wiser, but a certain pride forbade. The elections went heavily
+against him. He took the blow with composure, and sank easily into a
+comparative retirement. Yet he still watched affairs as a great party
+leader should, and from time to time figured vigorously in debate.
+Meanwhile he had another novel to sit down to--the poor though highly
+characteristic _Endymion_; which, to his great surprise and equal
+pleasure, was replaced on his table by a cheque for ten thousand pounds.
+Yet even this satisfaction had its tang of disappointment; for though
+_Endymion_ was not wholly written in his last days, it was in no respect
+the success that _Lothair_ was. This also he could bear. His description
+of his grandfather recurs to us: "A man of ardent character, sanguine,
+courageous and fortunate, with a temper which no disappointment could
+disturb."
+
+
+  Death and influence.
+
+As earl of Beaconsfield (failing health had compelled him to take refuge
+in the House of Lords in 1876) Benjamin Disraeli died in his house in
+Curzon Street on the 19th of April 1881. The likelihood of his death was
+publicly known for some days before the event, and then the greatness of
+his popularity and its warmth were declared for the first time. No such
+demonstration of grief was expected even by those who grieved the most. He
+lies in Hughenden churchyard, in a rail-enclosed grave, with liberty for
+the turf to grow between him and the sky. Within the church is a marble
+tablet, placed there by his queen, with a generous inscription to his
+memory. The anniversary of his death has since been honoured in an
+unprecedented manner, the 19th of April being celebrated as "Primrose
+Day"--the primrose, for reasons impossible accurately to define, being
+popularly supposed to have been Disraeli's favourite flower. Even among
+his friends in youth (Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer, for example), and not
+improbably among the city men who wagered their money in irrecoverable
+loans to him on the chance of his success, there may have been some who
+compassed the thought of Benjamin Disraeli as prime minister and peer; but
+at no time could any fancy have imagined him remembered so enduringly as
+Lord Beaconsfield has been. It is possible that Sarah Disraeli (the Myra
+of _Endymion_), or that "the most severe of critics but a perfect wife,"
+may have had such dreams--hardly that they could have occurred to any mind
+but a devoted woman's. Disraeli's life was a succession of surprises, but
+none was so great as that he should be remembered after death more
+widely, lastingly, respectfully, affectionately, than any other statesman
+in the long reign of Queen Victoria. While he lived he did not seem at all
+cut out for that distinction even as an Imperialist. Significant as was
+the common grief when he died, no such consequence could be inferred from
+it, and certainly not from the elections of 1880. It stands, however, this
+high distinction, and with it the thought that it would have been denied
+to him altogether had the "adventurer" and "mystery man" of the sixties
+died at the age of threescore years and ten. We have said that never till
+1872 did he look upon the full cup of popularity. It might have been said
+that even at that time intrigue to get rid of him had yet to cease in his
+own party; and but a few years before, a man growing old, he was still in
+the lowest deeps of his disappointments and humiliations. How, then, could
+it be imagined that with six years of power from his seventieth year, the
+Jew "adventurer," mysterious and theatrical to the last, should fill a
+greater space in the mind of England twenty years after death than Peel or
+Palmerston after five? Of course it can be explained; and when explained,
+we see that Disraeli's good fortune in this respect is not due entirely to
+his own merits. His last years of power might have been followed by as
+long a period of more acceptable government than his own, to the
+effacement of his own from memory; but that did not happen. What did
+follow was a time of universal turbulence and suspicion, in which the
+pride of the nation was wounded again and again. To say "Majuba" and
+"Gordon" recalls its deepest hurts, but not all of them; and it may be
+that a pained and angry people, looking back, saw in the man whom they
+lately displaced more than they had ever seen before. From that time, at
+any rate, Disraeli has been acknowledged as the regenerator and
+representative of the Imperial idea in England. He has also been accused
+on the same grounds; and if the giver of good wine may be blamed for the
+guest who gets drunk on it, there is justice in the accusation. It is but
+a statement of fact, however, that Disraeli retains his hold upon the
+popular mind on this account mainly. The rekindling of the Imperial idea
+is understood as a timely act of revolt and redemption: of revolt against
+continuous humiliations deeply felt, redemption from the fate of nations
+obviously weak and suspected of timidity. It has been called
+rescue-work--deliverance from the dangers of invited aggression and a
+philosophical neglect of the means of defence. And its first achievement
+for the country (this is again a mere statement of fact) was the
+restoration of a much-damaged self-respect and the creation of a great
+defensive fleet not a day too soon for safety. So much for "the great
+heart of the people." Meanwhile political students find to their
+satisfaction that he never courted popularity, and never practised the art
+of working for "quick returns" of sympathy or applause. As "adventurer,"
+he should have done so; yet he neglected the cultivation of that paying
+art for the wisdom that looks to the long future, and bears its fruit,
+perchance, when no one cares to remember who sowed the seed. So it is that
+to read some of his books and many of his speeches is to draw more respect
+and admiration from their pages than could have been found there
+originally. The student of his life understands that Disraeli's claim to
+remembrance rests not only on the breadth of his views, his deep insight,
+his long foresight, but even more on the courage which allowed him to
+declare opinions supplied from those qualities when there was no visible
+likelihood of their justification by experience, and therefore when their
+natural fate was to be slighted. His judgments had to wait the event
+before they were absolved from ridicule or delivered from neglect. The
+event arrives; he is in his grave; but his reputation loses nothing by
+that. It gains by regret that death was beforehand with him.
+
+
+  Character.
+
+"Adventurer," as applied to Disraeli, was a mere term of abuse.
+"Mystery-man" had much of the same intention, but in a blameless though
+not in a happy sense it was true of him to the end of his days. Even to
+his friends, and to many near him, he remained mysterious to the last.
+It is impossible to doubt that some two or three, four or five
+perchance, were at home in his mind, being freely admitted there; but of
+partial admissions to its inner places there seem to have been few or
+none. Men who were long associated with him in affairs, and had much of
+his stinted companionship, have confessed that with every wish to
+understand his character they never succeeded. Sometimes they fancied
+they had got within the topping walls of the maze, and might hope to
+gain the point whence survey could be made of the whole; but as often
+they found themselves, in a moment, where they stood at last and at
+first--outside. His speeches carry us but a little way beyond the mental
+range; his novels rather baffle than instruct. It is commonly believed
+that Disraeli looked in the glass while describing Sidonia in
+_Coningsby_. We group the following sentences from this description for
+a purpose that will be presently seen:--(1) "He was admired by women,
+idolized by artists, received in all circles with great distinction, and
+appreciated for his intellect by the very few to whom he at all opened
+himself." (2) "For, though affable and generous, it was impossible to
+penetrate him: though unreserved in his manners his frankness was
+limited to the surface. He observed everything, thought ever, but
+avoided serious discussion. If you pressed him for an opinion he took
+refuge in raillery, and threw out some paradox with which it was not
+easy to cope. The secret history of the world was Sidonia's pastime. His
+great pleasure was to contrast the hidden motive with the public pretext
+of transactions." (3) "He might have discovered a spring of happiness in
+susceptibilities of the heart; but this was a sealed fountain for
+Sidonia. In his organization there was a peculiar, perhaps a great
+deficiency; he was a man without affection. It would be hard to say that
+he had no heart, for he was susceptible of deep emotions; but not for
+individuals. Woman was to him a toy, man a machine." These sentences are
+separately grouped here for the sake of suggesting that they will more
+truly illustrate Disraeli's character if taken as follows:--The first as
+representing his most cherished social ambitions--in whatever degree
+achieved. The second group as faithfully and closely descriptive of
+himself; descriptive too of a character purposely cloaked. The third as
+much less simple; in part a mixture of truth with Byronic affectation,
+and for the rest (and more significantly), as intimating the resolute
+exercise of extraordinary powers of control over the promptings and
+passions by which so many capable ambitions have come to grief. So read,
+Sidonia and Benjamin Disraeli are brought into close resemblance by
+Disraeli himself; for what in this description is untrue to the
+suspected fundamentals of his character is true to his known foibles.
+But for a general interpretation of Lord Beaconsfield and his career
+none serves so well as that which Froude insists on most. He was
+thoroughly and unchangeably a Jew. At but one remove by birth from
+southern Europe and the East, he was an Englishman in nothing but his
+devotion to England and his solicitude for her honour and prosperity. It
+was not wholly by volition and design that his mind was strange to
+others and worked in absolute detachment. He had "none of the hereditary
+prepossessions of the native Englishman." No such prepossessions
+disturbed his vision when it was bent upon the rising problems of the
+time, or rested on the machinery of government and the kind of men who
+worked it and their ways of working. The advantages of Sidonia's
+intellect and temperament were largely his, in affairs, but not without
+their drawbacks. His pride in his knowledge of the English character was
+the pride of a student; and we may doubt if it ever occurred to him that
+there would have been less pride but more knowledge had he been an
+Englishman. It is certain that in shrouding his own character he checked
+the communication of others to himself, and so could continue to the end
+of his career the costly mistake of being theatrical in England. There
+was a great deal too (though little to his blame) in Lord Malmesbury's
+observation that he was not only disliked in the House of Commons for
+his mysterious manner, but prejudiced by a pronounced foreign air and
+aspect. Lord Malmesbury does not put it quite as strongly as that, but
+he might have done so with truth. No Englishman could approach Disraeli
+without some immediate consciousness that he was in the presence of a
+foreigner.
+
+Lord Beaconsfield has been praised for his integrity in money matters;
+the praise could have been spared--it does not rise high enough. It is
+also said to his honour that he "never struck at a little man," and that
+was well; but it is explained as readily by pride and calculation as by
+magnanimity. A man of extraordinary coolness and self-control, his
+faults in every kind were faults of excess: it is the mark of them all.
+But whatever offence they gave, whatever mischief they did, was soon
+exhausted, and has long since been pardoned.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The writer's personal knowledge is largely represented
+  in the above article. Among the biographical literature available
+  prior to the authoritative _Life_ the following may be cited:--Lord
+  Beaconsfield's Preface to 1849 edition of Isaac D'Israeli's works;
+  _Correspondence with his Sister_, and _Home Letters_, edited by Ralph
+  Disraeli; Samuel Smiles, _Memoirs and Correspondence of John Murray;
+  Life of the Earl of Beaconsfield_, by F. Hitchman; _Memoir_ by T.E.
+  Kebbel; _Memoir_ by J.A. Froude; _Memoir_ by Harold Gorst; Sir William
+  Fraser's _Disraeli and his Day; The Speeches of Lord Beaconsfield_,
+  edited by T.E. Kebbel. In 1904, however, the large collection of
+  material for Lord Beaconsfield's life, in the hands of his executors
+  Lord Rowton and Lord Rothschild, was acquired by _The Times_, and the
+  task of preparing the biography was assigned to Mr W.F. Monypenny, an
+  assistant editor of _The Times_ (1894-1899), who was best known to the
+  public as editor of the Johannesburg _Star_ during the crisis of
+  1899-1903.     (F. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The crown had in 1871 appointed the Rev. W.W. Harvey (1810-1883),
+    a Cambridge man, to the living of Ewelme, near Oxford, for which
+    members of the Oxford house of convocation were alone eligible.
+    Gladstone was charged with evading this limitation in allowing Harvey
+    to qualify for the appointment by being formally admitted M.A. by
+    incorporation.
+
+  [2] For a detailed, if somewhat controversial, account of this
+    affair, see Lucien Wolf's article in _The Times_ of December 26,
+    1905, and Mr Greenwood's letters on the subject.
+
+
+
+
+BEACONSFIELD, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, on the river Tamar, 28
+m. direct N.W. of Launceston. Pop. (1901) 2658. From its port at Beauty
+Point, 3½ m. distant, with which it is connected by a steam tramway,
+communication is maintained with Georgetown and Launceston. It is the
+centre of the most important gold-field in the island.
+
+
+
+
+BEACONSFIELD, a town of South Africa in Griqualand West, about 3 m. S.W.
+of Kimberley, of which it is practically a suburb, though possessing a
+separate municipality. Pop. (1904) 9378, of whom 2780 were whites.
+Beaconsfield was founded in 1870 near the famous Dutoitspan diamond
+mine. The land on which the town is built belongs to the De Beers
+Company. (See KIMBERLEY.)
+
+
+
+
+BEACONSFIELD, a town in the Wycombe parliamentary division of
+Buckinghamshire, England. 23 m. W. by N. of London, on the main road to
+Oxford, and on the Great Central & Great Western joint railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 1570. It lies in a hilly well-wooded district
+above the valley of the small river Wye, a tributary of the Thames. The
+broad Oxford road forms its picturesque main street. It was formerly a
+posting station of importance, and had a considerable manufacture of
+ribbons. The Perpendicular church of St Mary and All Saints is the
+burial place of Edmund Burke (d. 1797), who lived at Gregories, or as he
+named it Butler's Court, near the town. He would have taken his title
+from Beaconsfield had he survived to enter the peerage. A monument to
+his memory was erected in 1898. Edmund Waller the poet owned the
+property of Hall Barn, and died here in 1687. His tomb is in the
+churchyard. Benjamin Disraeli chose the title of earl of Beaconsfield in
+1876, his wife having in 1868 received the title of Viscountess
+Beaconsfield. The opening of railway communication with London in 1906
+resulted in a considerable accretion of residential population.
+
+
+
+
+BEAD, a small globule or ball used in necklaces, and made of different
+materials, as metal, coral, diamond, amber, ivory, stone, pottery,
+glass, rock-crystal and seeds. The word is derived from the Middle Eng.
+_bede_, from the common Teutonic word for "to pray," cf. German _beten_
+and English _bedesman_, the meaning being transferred from "prayer" to
+the spherical bodies strung on a rosary and used in counting prayers.
+Beads have been made from remote antiquity, and are found in early
+Egyptian tombs; variegated glass beads, found in the ground in certain
+parts of Africa, as Ashantiland, and highly prized by the natives as
+_aggry_-beads, are supposed to be of Egyptian or Phoenician origin.
+Beads of the more expensive materials are strung in necklaces and worn
+as articles of personal adornment, while the cheaper kinds are employed
+for the decoration of women's dress. Glass beads have long been used for
+purposes of barter with savage tribes, and are made in enormous numbers
+and varieties, especially in Venice, where the manufacture has existed
+from at least the 14th century. Glass, either transparent, or of opaque
+coloured enamel (_smalti_), or having complex patterns produced by the
+twisting of threads of coloured glass through a transparent body, is
+drawn out into long tubes, from which the beads are pinched off, and
+finished by being rotated with sand and ashes in heated cylinders.
+
+In architecture, the term "bead" is given to a small cylindrical
+moulding, in classic work often cut into bead and reel.
+
+
+
+
+BEADLE, also BEDEL or BEDELL (from A.S. _bydel_, from _beodan_, to bid),
+originally a subordinate officer of a court or deliberative assembly,
+who summoned persons to appear and answer charges against them (see Du
+Cange, _supra tit. Bedelli_). As such, the beadle goes back to early
+Teutonic times; he was probably attached to the moot as its messenger or
+summoner, being under the direction of the reeve or constable of the
+leet. After the Norman Conquest, the beadle seems to have diminished in
+importance, becoming merely the crier in the manor and forest courts,
+and sometimes executing processes. He was also employed as the messenger
+of the parish, and thus became, to a certain extent, an ecclesiastical
+officer, but in reality acted more as a constable by keeping order in
+the church and churchyard during service. He also attended upon the
+clergy, the churchwardens and the vestry. He was appointed by the
+parishioners in vestry, and his wages were payable out of the church
+rate. From the Poor Law Act of 1601 till the act of 1834 by which
+poor-law administration was transferred to guardians, the beadle in
+England was an officer of much importance in his capacity of agent for
+the overseers. In all medieval universities the bedel was an officer who
+exercised various executive and spectacular functions (H. Rashdall,
+_Hist. of Universities in the Middle Ages_, i. 193). He still survives
+in many universities on the continent of Europe and in those of Oxford
+and Cambridge, but he is now shorn of much of his importance. At Oxford
+there are four bedels, representing the faculties of law, medicine, arts
+and divinity. Their duties are chiefly processional, the junior or
+sub-bedel being the official attendant on the vice-chancellor, before
+whom he bears a silver mace. At Cambridge there are two, termed
+esquire-bedels, who both walk before the vice-chancellor, bearing maces.
+
+
+
+
+BEAK (early forms _beke_ and _becke_, from Fr. _bec_, late Lat.
+_beccus_, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the Celtic _bec_ and _beq_,
+however, are taken from the English), the horny bill of a bird, and so
+used of the horny ends of the mandibles of the octopus, the duck-billed
+platypus and other animals; hence the rostrum (q.v.) or ornamented prow
+of ancient war vessels. The term is also applied, in classic
+architecture, to the pendent fillet on the edge of the corona of a
+cornice, which serves as a drip, and prevents the rain from flowing
+inwards.
+
+The slang use of "beak" for a magistrate or justice of the peace has not
+been satisfactorily explained. The earlier meaning, which lasted down to
+the beginning of the 19th century, was "watchman" or "constable."
+According to _Slang and its Analogues_ (J.S. Farmer and W.E. Henley,
+1890), the first example of its later use is in the name of "the Blind
+Beak," which was given to Henry Fielding's half-brother, Sir John
+Fielding (about 1750). Thomas Harman, in his book on vagrants, _Caveat
+or Warening for commen cursitors, Vulgarely called Vagabones_, 1573,
+explains _harmans beck_ as "counstable," _harman_ being the word for the
+stocks. Attempts have been made to connect "beak" in this connexion with
+the Old English _beag_, a gold torque or collar, worn as a symbol of
+authority, but this could only be plausible on the assumption that
+"magistrate" was the earlier significance of the word.
+
+
+
+
+BEAKER (Scottish _bicker_, Lat. _bicarium_, Ger. _Becher_, a
+drinking-bowl), a large wide-mouthed drinking-cup or laboratory vessel.
+See DRINKING-VESSELS.
+
+
+
+
+BEALE, DOROTHEA (1831-1906), English schoolmistress, was born on the
+21st of March 1831 in London, her father being a physician of good
+family and cultivated tastes. She had already shown a strong
+intellectual bent and considerable force of character when in 1848 she
+was one of the first to attend lectures at the newly opened Queen's
+College for Ladies, London, and from 1849 to 1856 she herself took
+classes there. In 1857 for a few months she became head teacher of the
+Clergy Daughters' school at Casterton, Westmoreland, but narrow
+religious prejudices on the part of the governors led to her retirement.
+In 1858 she was appointed principal of the Ladies College at Cheltenham
+(opened 1854), then in very low water. Her tact and strenuousness,
+backed by able financial management, led to its success being thoroughly
+established by 1864, and as the college increased in numbers new
+buildings were erected from 1873 onwards. Under Miss Beale's headship it
+grew into one of the great girls' schools of the country, and its
+development and example played an important part in the revolution
+effected in regard to the higher education of women. Miss Beale retained
+her post till her death on the 9th of November 1906. Strongly religious
+by nature, broad-minded and keenly interested in all branches of
+culture, she exercised a far-reaching influence on her pupils.
+
+  Her _Life_ was written by Elizabeth Raikes (1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEAM (from the O. Eng. _béam_, cf. Ger. _Baum_, a tree, to which sense
+may be referred the use of "beam" as meaning the rood or crucifix, and
+the survival in certain names of trees, as hornbeam), a solid piece of
+timber, as a beam of a house, of a plough, a loom, or a balance. In the
+last case, from meaning simply the cross-bar of the balance, "beam" has
+come to be used of the whole, as in the expression "the king's beam," or
+"common beam," which refers to the old English standard balance for
+wholesale goods, for several hundred years in the custody of the
+Grocers' Company, London. As a nautical term, "beam" was transferred
+from the main cross-timbers to the side of the ship; thus "on the
+weather-beam" means "to windward," and a ship is said to be "wide in the
+beam" when she is wide horizontally. The phrase "to be on one's
+beam-ends," denoting a position of extreme peril or helplessness, is
+borrowed from the position of a ship which has heeled over so far as to
+stand on the ends of her horizontal beams. The meaning of "beam" for
+shafts or rays of light comes apparently from the use of the word to
+translate the Latin _columna lucis_, a pillar of light.
+
+
+
+
+BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _Bohne_), the seed of certain
+leguminous plants cultivated for food all over the world, and furnished
+chiefly by the genera _Vicia, Phaseolus, Dolichos_ and others. The
+common bean, in all its varieties, as cultivated in Britain and on the
+continents of Europe and America, is the produce of _Vicia Faba_. The
+French bean, kidney bean, or haricot, is the seed of _Phaseolus
+vulgaris_; but in India several other species of this genus of plants
+are raised, and form no small portion of the diet of the inhabitants.
+Besides these there are numerous other pulses cultivated for the food
+both of man and domestic animals, to which the name bean is frequently
+given. The common bean is even more nutritious than wheat; and it
+contains a very high proportion of nitrogenous matter under the form of
+legumin, which amounts on an average to 24%. It is, however, a rather
+coarse food, and difficult of digestion, and is chiefly used to feed
+horses, for which it is admirably adapted. In England French beans are
+chiefly, almost exclusively, used in the green state; the whole pod
+being eaten as a table vegetable or prepared as a pickle. It is
+wholesome and nutritious; and in Holland and Germany the pods are
+preserved in salt by almost every family for winter and spring use. The
+green pods are cut across obliquely, most generally by a machine
+invented for the purpose, and salted in barrels. When wanted for use
+they are steeped in fresh water to remove the salt, and broiled or
+stewed they form an agreeable addition to the diet at a time when no
+other vegetable may be had.
+
+The broad bean--_Vicia Faba_, or _Faba vulgaris_, as it is known by
+those botanists who regard the slight differences which distinguish it
+from the great majority of the species of the vetch genus (_Vicia_) as
+of generic importance--is an annual which has been cultivated fiom
+prehistoric times for its nutritious seeds.
+
+The lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and northern Italy in the bronze age
+cultivated a small-fruited variety, and it was grown in ancient Egypt,
+though, according to Herodotus, regarded by the priests as unclean. The
+ancient Greeks called it [Greek: kuamos], the Latins _faba_, but there
+is no suggestion that the plant is a native of Europe. Alphonse de
+Candolle (_Origin of Cultivated Plants_, p. 320) concludes that the bean
+was introduced into Europe probably by the western Aryans at the time of
+their earliest migrations. He suggests that its wild habitat was twofold
+some thousands of years ago, one of the centres being to the south of
+the Caspian, the other in the north of Africa, and that its area has
+long been in process of diminution and extinction. The nature of the
+plant favours this hypothesis, for its seed has no means of dispersing
+itself, and rodents or other animals can easily make prey of it; the
+struggle for existence which was going against this plant as against
+maize would have gradually isolated it and caused it to disappear, if
+man had not saved it by cultivation. It was introduced into China a
+little before the Christian era, later into Japan and more recently into
+India, though it has been suggested that in parts of the higher
+Himalayas its cultivation has survived from very ancient times. It is a
+plant which will flourish in all ordinary good garden soil. The seeds
+are sown about 4 in. apart, in drills 2½ ft. asunder for the smaller and
+3 ft. for the larger sorts. The soil should, preferably, be a rather
+heavy loam, deeply worked and well enriched. For an early crop, seeds
+may be sown in November, and protected during winter in the same manner
+as early peas. An early crop may also be obtained by dibbling in the
+seeds in November, sheltering by a frame, and in February transplanting
+them to a warm border. Successional crops are obtained by sowing
+suitable varieties from January to the end of June. All the culture
+necessary is that the earth be drawn up about the stems. The plants are
+usually topped when the pods have set, as this not only removes the
+black aphides which often settle there, but is also found to promote the
+filling of the pods.
+
+The following are some of the best sorts:--for early use, Early Mazagan,
+Long-pod, Marshall's Early Prolific and Seville Long-pod; for late use,
+Carter's Mammoth Long-pod and Broad Windsor.
+
+The horse-bean is a variety--var. _equina_.
+
+_Cultivation of Field-bean._--Several varieties of _Vicia Faba_ (e.g.
+the horse bean, the mazagan, the tick bean, the winter bean) are
+cultivated in the field for the sake both of the grain, which is used as
+food for live-stock, and of the haulm, which serves for either fodder or
+litter. They are best adapted for heavy soils such as clays or clayey
+loams. The time for sowing is from the end of January to the beginning
+of March, or in the case of winter beans from the end of September to
+the middle of November. The bean-crop is usually interposed between two
+crops of wheat or some other cereal. If spring beans are to be sown, the
+land after harvest is dressed with farmyard manure, which is then
+ploughed in. In January the soil is levelled with the harrows, and the
+seed, which should be hard and light brown in colour, is drilled in rows
+from 15 to 24 in. apart at the rate of from 2 to 2½ bushels to the acre
+and then harrowed in. The alternative is to "dibble" the seed in the
+furrow left by the autumn ploughing and cover it in with the harrows; or
+the land may be ridged with the double-breasted plough, manure deposited
+in the furrows and the seed sown broadcast, the ridges being then split
+back so as to cover both manure and seed. After the plant shows,
+horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing between the rows is carried on so long as
+the plant is small enough to suffer no injury therefrom. The routine of
+cultivation for winter beans hardly differs from that described except
+as regards the time of sowing.
+
+Beans are cut when the leaf is fallen and the haulm is almost black
+either with the fagging hook or the reaping machine, though the
+stoutness of the stalks causes a severe strain on the latter implement.
+They are tied and stocked, and are so left for a considerable time
+before stacking. There is less fear of injury to the crop through damp
+than in the case of other cereals. Their value for feeding purposes
+increases in the stack, where they may remain for a year or more before
+threshing. Pea and bean weevils, both striped (_Sitones lineatus_) and
+spotted (_Sitones crinitus_), and the bean aphis (_Aphis rumicis_), are
+noted pests of the crop. Winter beans come to maturity earlier than the
+spring-sown varieties, and are therefore strong enough to resist the
+attacks of the aphis by the end of June, when it begins its ravages.
+Field-beans yield from 25 to 35 bushels to the acre.
+
+_Phascolus vulgaris_, the kidney, French or haricot bean, an annual,
+dwarf and bushy in growth, is widely cultivated in temperate,
+sub-tropical and tropical regions, but is nowhere known as a wild plant.
+It was long supposed to be of Indian origin, an idea which was disproved
+by Alphonse de Candolle, who sums up the facts bearing on its origin as
+follows:--_Phaseolus vulgaris_ has not been long cultivated in India,
+the south-west of Asia and Egypt, and it is not certain that it was
+known in Europe before the discovery of America. At the latter epoch the
+number of varieties in European gardens suddenly increased, and all
+authors began to mention them. The majority of the species of the genus
+exist in South America, and seeds apparently belonging to the species in
+question have been found in Peruvian tombs of an uncertain date,
+intermixed with many species, all American. Hence it is probable that
+the plant is of South American origin.
+
+It is a tender annual, and should be grown in a rich light loamy soil
+and a warm sheltered situation. The soil should be well enriched with
+hot-bed dung. The earliest crop may be sown by the end of March or
+beginning of April. If, however, the temperature of the soil is below
+45°, the beans make but little progress. The main crops should be got in
+early in May; and a later sowing may be made early in July. The earlier
+plantings may be sown in small pots, and put in frames or houses, until
+they can be safely planted out-of-doors. A light covering of straw or
+some other simple shelter suffices to protect from late frosts. The
+seeds should be covered 1½ or 2 in. deep, the distance between the rows
+being about 2 ft., or for the dwarfest sorts 18 in., and that between
+plants from 4 to 6 in. The pods may be used as a green vegetable, in
+which case they should be gathered whilst they are so crisp as to be
+readily snapped in two when bent; but when the dry seeds are to be used
+the pods should be allowed to ripen. As the green pods are gathered
+others will continue to be formed in abundance, but if old seed-forming
+pods are allowed to remain the formation of young ones will be greatly
+checked. There are numerous varieties; among the best are Canadian
+Wonder, Canterbury and Black Negro.
+
+_Phaseolus multiflorus_, scarlet runner, is nearly allied to _P.
+vulgaris_, of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety, but differs
+in its climbing habit. It is naturally perennial and has a thick fleshy
+root, but is grown in Great Britain as a tender annual. Its bright,
+generally scarlet flowers, arranged in long racemes, and the fact that
+it will flourish in any ordinary good garden soil, combine to make it a
+favourite garden plant. It is also of interest as being one of the few
+plants that twine in a direction contrary to the apparent motion of the
+sun. The seeds of the runner beans should be sown in an open plot,--the
+first sowing in May, another at the beginning of June, and a third about
+the middle of June. In the London market-gardens they are sown 8 to 12
+in. apart, in 4 ft. rows if the soil is good. The twining tops are
+pinched or cut off when the plants are from 2 to 2½ ft. high, to save
+the expense of staking. It is better, however, in private gardens to
+have the rows standing separately, and to support the plants by stakes 6
+or 7 ft. high and about a foot apart, the tops of the stakes being
+crossed about one-third down. If the weather is dry when the pods are
+forming abundantly, plenty of tepid water should be supplied to the
+plants. In training the shoots to their supports, they should be twined
+from right to left, contrary to the course of the sun, or they will not
+lay hold. By frequently picking the pods the plants are encouraged to
+form fresh blooms from which pods may be picked until the approach of
+frost.
+
+The ordinary scarlet runner is most commonly grown, but there is a
+white-flowered variety which has also white seeds; this is very prolific
+and of excellent quality. Another variety called Painted Lady, with the
+flowers red and white, is very ornamental, but not so productive.
+Carter's Champion is a large-podded productive variety.
+
+Another species _P. lunatus_, the Lima bean, a tall biennial with a
+scimitar-shaped pod (whence the specific name) 2 to 3 in. long
+containing a few large seeds, is widely cultivated in the warmer parts
+of the world.
+
+The young pods of another leguminous climbing herb, _Dolichos Lablab_,
+as well as the seeds, are widely used in the tropics, as we use the
+kidney bean. The plant is probably a native of tropical Africa, but is
+now generally cultivated in the tropics. The word _Dolichos_ is of Greek
+origin, and was used by Theophrastus for the scarlet runner.
+
+Another species, _D. biflorus_, is the horse gram, the seed of which is
+eaten by the poorer class of natives in India, and is also, as are the
+pods, a food for horses and cattle.
+
+The Soy bean, _Glycine hispida_, was included by Linnaeus in the genus
+_Dolichos_. It is extensively cultivated in China and Japan, chiefly for
+the pleasant-flavoured seed from which is prepared a piquant sauce. It
+is also widely grown in India, where the bean is eaten, while the plant
+forms a valuable fodder; it is cultivated for the latter purpose in the
+United States.
+
+Other references to beans will be found under special headings, such as
+CALABAR BEAN, LOCUST-TREE. There are also several non-leguminous seeds
+to which the popular name bean is attached. Among these may be mentioned
+the sacred Egyptian or Pythagorean bean (_Nelumbium speciosum_), and the
+Ignatius bean (probably _Strychnos multiflora_), a source of strychnine.
+
+The ancient Greeks and Romans made use of beans in gathering the votes
+of the people, and for the election of magistrates. A white bean
+signified absolution, and a black one condemnation. Beans had a
+mysterious use in the _lemuralia_ and _parentalia_, where the master of
+the family, after washing his hands three times, threw black beans over
+his head nine times, reiterating the words "I redeem myself and my
+family by these beans."
+
+
+
+
+BEAN-FEAST, primarily an annual dinner given by an employer to his
+workpeople, and then colloquially any jollification. The phrase is
+variously derived. The most probable theory is that which connects it
+with the custom in France, and afterwards in Germany and England, of a
+feast on Twelfth Night, at which a cake with a bean buried in it was a
+great feature. The bean-king was he who had the good fortune to have the
+slice of cake in which was the bean. This choosing of a king or queen by
+a bean was formerly a common Christmas diversion at the English and
+Scottish courts, and in both English universities. This monarch was
+master of the revels like his congener the lord of misrule. A clue to
+his original functions is possibly found in the old popular belief that
+the weather for the ensuing twelve months was determined by the weather
+of the twelve days from Christmas to Twelfth Night, the weather of each
+particular month being prognosticated from each day. Thus the king of
+the bean of Twelfth Night may have originally reigned for the twelve
+days, his chief duty being the performance of magical ceremonies for
+ensuring good weather during the ensuing twelve months. Probably in him
+and the lord of misrule it is correct to find the lineal descendant of
+the old king of the Saturnalia, the real man who personated Saturn and,
+when the revels ceased, suffered a real death in his assumed character.
+Another but most improbable derivation for bean-feast connects it with
+M.E. _bene_ "prayer," "request," the allusion being to the soliciting of
+alms towards the cost of their Twelfth Night dinner by the workpeople.
+
+  See WAYZGOOSE; MISRULE, LORD OF; also J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et
+  ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; Laisnel de la Salle,
+  _Croyances et légendes du centre de la France_, i. 19-29; Lecoeur,
+  _Esquisses du Bocage normand_, ii. 125; Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen des
+  Eifler Volkes_, i. 6; Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_
+  (Hazlitt's edit. 1905), under "Twelfth Night"; Cortet, _Fêtes
+  religieuses_, p. 29 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+BEAR, properly the name of the European brown bear (_Ursus arctus_), but
+extended to include all the members of the _Ursidae_, the typical family
+of Arctoid carnivora, distinguished by their massive bodies, short
+limbs, and almost rudimentary tails. With the single exception of the
+Indian sloth-bear, all the species have forty-two teeth, of which the
+incisors and canines closely resemble those of purely carnivorous
+mammals; while the molars, and especially the one known as the
+"sectorial" or "carnassial," have their surfaces tuberculated so as to
+adapt them for grinding vegetable substances. As might have been
+supposed from their dentition, the bears are omnivorous; but most prefer
+vegetable food, including honey, when a sufficient supply of this can
+be had. The grizzly bear, however, is chiefly carnivorous; while the
+polar bear is almost wholly so.
+
+Bears are five-toed, and provided with formidable claws, which are not
+retractile, and thus better fitted for digging and climbing than for
+tearing. Most climb trees in a slow, lumbering fashion, and, in
+descending, always come hind-quarters first. The grizzly bear is said to
+lose this power of climbing in the adult stage. In northern countries
+bears retire during the winter into caves and the hollows of trees, or
+allow the falling snow to cover them, and there remain dormant till the
+advent of spring, about which time the female usually produces her
+young. These are born naked and blind, and it is commonly five weeks
+before they see, or become covered with hair. Before hibernating the
+adults grow very fat, and it is by the gradual consumption of this
+fat--known in commerce as bear's grease--that such vital action as is
+necessary to the continuance of life is sustained.
+
+The bear family is widely distributed, being found in every quarter of
+the globe except Australia, and in all climates, from the highest
+northern latitudes yet reached by man to the warm regions of India and
+Malaya. In the north-west corner of Africa the single representative of
+the family found on that continent occurs.
+
+The polar or white bear (_Ursus maritimus_), common to the Arctic
+regions of both hemispheres, is distinguished from the other species by
+having the soles of the feet covered with close-set hairs,--in
+adaptation to the wants of the creature, the bear being thereby enabled
+to walk securely on slippery ice. In the whiteness of its fur also, it
+shows such an assimilation in colour to that of surrounding nature as
+must be of considerable service in concealing it from its prey. The food
+of the white bear consists chiefly of seals and fish, in pursuit of
+which it shows great power of swimming and diving, and a considerable
+degree of sagacity; but its food also includes the carcases of whales,
+birds and their eggs, and grass and berries when these can be had. That
+it can sustain life on a purely vegetable diet is proved by instances on
+record of its being fed for years on bread only, in confinement. These
+bears are strong swimmers, Sir Edward Sabine having found one "swimming
+powerfully 40 m. from the nearest shore, and with no ice in sight to
+afford it rest." They are often carried on floating ice to great
+distances, and to more southern latitudes than their own, no fewer than
+twelve Polar bears having been known to reach Iceland in this way during
+one winter. The female always hibernates, but the male may be seen
+abroad at all seasons. In bulk the white bear exceeds most other members
+of the family, measuring nearly 9 ft. in length, and often weighing 1600
+lb.
+
+Land bears have the soles of the feet destitute of hair, and their fur
+more or less shaggy. On these the brown bear (_Ursus arctus_,--[Greek:
+arktos] of Aristotle) is found in one or other of its varieties all over
+the temperate and north temperate regions of the eastern hemisphere,
+from Spain to Japan. The fur is usually brownish, but there are black,
+blackish-grey and yellowish varieties. It is a solitary animal,
+frequenting the wooded parts of the regions it inhabits, and living on a
+mixed diet of fruits, vegetable, honey, fish and the smaller animals. In
+winter it hibernates, concealing itself in some hollow or cavern. It
+does not seek to attack man; but when baited, or in defence of its
+young, shows great courage and strength, rising on its hind legs and
+endeavouring to grasp its antagonist in an embrace. Bear-baiting, till
+within comparatively recent times, was a favourite sport throughout
+Europe, but, along with cock-fighting and badger-baiting, has gradually
+disappeared before a more humane civilization. It was a favourite
+pastime among the Romans, who imported their bears from Britain, a proof
+that the animal was then comparatively abundant in that country; indeed,
+from reference made to it in early Scottish history, the bear does not
+appear to have been extirpated in Britain before the end of the 11th
+century. It is now found in greatest abundance in Norway, Russia and
+Siberia, where hunting the bear is a favourite sport, and where, when
+dead, its remains are highly valued. Among the Kamchadales "the skin of
+the bear," says a traveller, "forms their beds and their coverlets,
+bonnets for their heads, gloves for their hands and collars for their
+dogs. The flesh and fat are their dainties. Of the intestines they make
+masks or covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the
+sun in the spring, and use them as a substitute for glass, by extending
+them over their windows. Even the shoulder-blades are said to be put in
+requisition for cutting grass." In confinement the brown bear is readily
+tamed; and advantage has been taken of the facility with which it can
+sustain itself on the hind feet to teach it to dance to the sound of
+music. It measures 4 ft. in length, and is about 2½ ft. high. Of this
+species Crowther's bear from the Atlas Mountains, the Syrian bear
+(_Ursus arctus pyriacus_) and the snow or isabelline bear (_Ursus arctus
+isabellinus_) of the Himalaya are local races, or at most subspecies.[1]
+American naturalists regard the big brown bears of Alaska as a distinct
+group. They range from Sitka to the extremity of the Alaskan Peninsula,
+over Kodiak Island, and inland. Their distinctive external features are
+their large size, light-brown colour, high shoulders, massive heads of
+great breadth and shaggy coat.
+
+The grizzly bear (_Ursus arctus horribilis_, formerly known as _U.
+ferox_) is regarded by some naturalists as a distinct species and by
+others as a variety of the brown bear, to which it is closely allied. It
+was said to exceed all other American mammals in ferocity of disposition
+and muscular strength. Stories were told of its attacking the bison, and
+it has been reported to carry off the carcase of a wapiti, weighing
+nearly 1000 lb., for a considerable distance to its den, there to devour
+it at leisure. It also eats fruit and vegetables. Its fur is usually of
+a yellowish-brown colour, coarse and grizzled, and of little value
+commercially, while its flesh, unlike that of other bears, is uneatable
+even by the Indians. The grizzly bear is now rare in the United States,
+save in the Yellowstone Park and the Clearwater Mountains of Idaho,
+though more common in British Columbia. Several geographical races are
+recognized. The Tibet bear (_U. pruinosus_) is a light-coloured small
+species.
+
+The American black bear (_Ursus americanus_) occurs throughout the
+wooded parts of the North American continent, whence it is being
+gradually driven to make room for man. It is similar in size to the
+brown bear, but its fur is of a soft even texture, and of a shining
+black colour, to which it owes its commercial value. At the beginning of
+the 19th century black bears were killed in enormous numbers for their
+furs, which at that time were highly valued. In 1803 the skins imported
+into England numbered 25,000, but the imports have since decreased to
+one-half of that number. They are chiefly used for military
+accoutrements. This is a timid animal, feeding almost solely on fruits,
+and lying dormant during winter, at which period it is most frequently
+killed. It is an object of superstitious reverence to the Indians, who
+never kill it without apologizing and deploring the necessity which
+impels them to do so.
+
+The Himalayan black bear (_U. torquatus_) is found in the forest regions
+ranging from the Persian frontier eastward to Assam. The average length
+is about 5 ft.; there is no under-fur, and the coat is smooth, black in
+colour, with the exception of a white horseshoe-mark on the chest. It
+feeds chiefly on fruit and roots, but kills sheep, goats, deer, ponies
+and cattle, and sometimes devours carrion.
+
+The small bruang or Malayan bear (_Ursus malayanus_) is of a jet-black
+colour, with a white semilunar mark on the chest, and attains a length
+of 4½ ft. Its food consists almost solely of vegetables and honey, but
+the latter is its favourite food,--the extreme length and pliability of
+the tongue enabling it to scoop out the honeycombs from the hollows of
+trees. It is found in the Malay Peninsula and Islands, and is readily
+tamed.
+
+Not much larger than the Malay bear is the South American spectacled
+bear of the Andes (_U. ornatus_), distinguished from all the rest by the
+presence of a perforation in the lower end of the humerus, and hence
+sometimes separated as _Tremarctus_. It is black, with tawny rings round
+the eyes, and white cheeks, throat and chest. A second race or species
+exists.
+
+The sloth-bear (_Melursus labiatus_ or _ursinus_) is distinguished by
+the absence of one pair of upper incisors, the small size of the
+cheek-teeth and the very extensile character of the lips. It is also
+known as the aswail and the honey-bear, the last name being also given
+to the Malay bear and the kinkajou. It is about the size of the brown
+bear, is covered with long, black hair, and of extremely uncouth aspect.
+It inhabits the mountainous regions of India, is readily tamed and is
+the bear usually exhibited by the Hindu jugglers. The food consists of
+fruits, honey and white ants.
+
+Fossil remains of extinct bears first occur in strata of the Pliocene
+age. Those of the great cave bear (_Ursus spelaeus_), found abundantly
+in certain caverns of central Europe and Asia, show that it must have
+exceeded in size the polar bear of the present day. Its remains are also
+found in similar situations in Britain associated with those of an
+allied species (_Ursus priscus_).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Lydekker, in _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1897, p. 412.
+
+
+
+
+BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING, sports formerly very popular in England
+but now suppressed on account of their cruelty. They took place in
+arenas built in the form of theatres which were the common resort even
+of cultivated people. In the bear-gardens, which are known to have
+existed since the time of Henry II., the bear was chained to a stake by
+one hind leg or by the neck and worried by dogs. Erasmus, writing (about
+1500) from the house of Sir Thomas More, spoke of "many herds of bears
+maintained in the country for the purpose of baiting." Sunday was the
+favourite day for these sports. Hentzner, writing in 1598, describes the
+bear-garden at Bankside as "another place, built in the form of a
+theatre, which serves for the baiting of Bulls and Bears. They are
+fastened behind, and then worried by great English bull-dogs, but not
+without great risk to the dogs from the horns of the one and the teeth
+of the other, and it sometimes happens they are killed upon the spot;
+fresh ones are immediately supplied in the places of those that are
+wounded or tired." He also describes the whipping of a blinded bear, a
+favourite variation of bear-baiting. For a famous baiting which took
+place before Queen Elizabeth in 1575 thirteen bears were provided. Of it
+Robert Laneham (fl. 1575) wrote, "it was a sport very pleasant to see,
+to see the bear, with his pink eyes, tearing after his enemies'
+approach; the nimbleness and wait of the dog to take his advantage and
+the force and experience of the bear again to avoid his assaults: if he
+were bitten in one place how he would pinch in another to get free; that
+if he were taken once, then by what shift with biting, with clawing,
+with roaring, with tossing and tumbling he would work and wind himself
+from them; and when he was loose to shake his ears twice or thrice with
+the blood and the slaver hanging about his physiognomy." The famous
+"Paris Garden" in Southwark was the chief bear-garden in London. A
+Spanish nobleman of the time, who was taken to see a pony baited that
+had an ape tied to its back, expressed himself to the effect that "to
+see the animal kicking amongst the dogs, with the screaming of the ape,
+beholding the curs hanging from the ears and neck of the pony, is very
+laughable." Butler describes a bear-baiting at length in the first canto
+of his _Hudibras_.
+
+The Puritans endeavoured to put an end to animal-baiting, although
+Macaulay sarcastically suggested that this was "not because it gave pain
+to the bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spectators." The
+efforts of the Puritans seem, however, to have had little effect, for we
+find the sport flourishing at the Restoration; but the conscience of
+cultivated people seems to have been touched, for Evelyn wrote in his
+_Diary_, under the date of June 16th, 1670: "I went with some friends to
+the bear-garden, where was cock-fighting, dog-fighting, bear and bull
+baiting, it being a famous day for all these butcherly sports, or rather
+barbarous cruelties. The bulls did exceedingly well, but the Irish
+wolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall greyhound, a stately creature
+indeed, who beat a cruel mastiff. One of the bulls tossed a dog full
+into a lady's lap, as she sat in one of the boxes at a considerable
+height from the arena. Two poor dogs were killed, and so all ended with
+the ape on horseback, and I most heartily weary of the rude and dirty
+pastime, which I had not seen, I think, in twenty years before." Steele
+also attacked these cruel sports in the _Tatler_. Nevertheless, when the
+tsar Nicholas I. visited England as cesarevich, he was taken to see a
+prize-fight and a bull-baiting. In this latter form of the sport the
+bull's nose was usually blown full of pepper to render him the more
+furious. The bull was often allowed a hole in the ground, into which to
+thrust his nose and lips, his most vulnerable parts. Sometimes the bull
+was tethered, and dogs, trained for the purpose, set upon him one by
+one, a successful attack resulting in the dog fastening his teeth firmly
+in the bull's snout. This was called "pinning the bull." A sport called
+bull-running was popular in several towns of England, particularly at
+Tutbury and Stamford. Its establishment at Tutbury was due to John of
+Gaunt, to whose minstrels, on the occasion of their annual festival on
+August 16th the prior of Tutbury, for his tenure, delivered a bull,
+which had his horns sawn off, his ears and tail cut off, his nostrils
+filled with pepper and his whole body smeared with soap. The minstrels
+gave chase to the bull, which became the property of any minstrel of the
+county of Stafford who succeeded in holding him long enough to cut off a
+lock of his hair. Otherwise he was returned to the prior. At the
+dissolution of the monasteries this tenure devolved upon the dukes of
+Devonshire, who suppressed it in 1788. At Stamford the running took
+place annually on November 13th, the bull being provided by the butchers
+of the town, the townspeople taking part in the chase, which was carried
+on until both people and beast were exhausted, and ended in the killing
+of the bull. Certain rules were strictly observed, such as the
+prohibition of carrying sticks or staves that were shod with iron. The
+Stamford bull-running survived well into the 19th century. Bear-baiting
+and bull-baiting were prohibited by act of parliament in 1835.
+
+
+
+
+BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900), American painter, was born on the
+13th of April 1825 at Painesville, Ohio. He studied abroad, and in 1861
+removed to New York City, where in 1862 he became a member of the
+National Academy of Design. He was a prolific worker and a man of much
+inventiveness and originality, though of modest artistic endowment. His
+humorous treatment of cats, dogs, horses and monkeys, generally with
+some human occupation and expression, usually satirical, gave him a
+great vogue at one time, and his pictures were largely reproduced. His
+brother, James Henry Beard (1814-1893), was also a painter.
+
+
+
+
+BEARD (A.S. _beard_, O.H. and Mod. Ger. _Bart_, Dan. _baard_, Icel.
+_bar_, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slav, _barda_, Russ. _barodá_.
+Cf. Welsh _barf_, Lat. _barba_, though, according to the _New English
+Dictionary_, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful). Modern
+usage applies this word to the hair grown upon a man's chin and cheek.
+When the chin is shaven, what remains upon the cheeks is called
+whiskers. "Moustache" or "moustaches" describes the hair upon the upper
+lip. But the words have in the past had less exact meaning. Beard has
+stood alone for all these things, and whisker has in its time signified
+what we now call moustache, as in the case of Robinson Crusoe's great
+pair of "Turkish whiskers."
+
+The bearded races of mankind have ever held the beard in high honour. It
+is the sign of full manhood; the lad or the eunuch is beardless, and the
+bearded woman is reckoned a witch, a loathsome thing to all ages. Also
+the beard shrinks from the profane hand; a tug at the beard is sudden
+pain and dishonour. The Roman senator sat like a carven thing until the
+wondering Goth touched his long beard; but then he struck, although he
+died for the blow. The future King John gave deadly offence to the
+native chieftains, when visiting Ireland in 1185, by plucking at their
+flowing beards.
+
+David's ambassadors had their beards despitefully shaven by a bold
+heathen. Their own king mercifully covered their shame--"Tarry ye at
+Jericho until your beards be grown"--but war answered the insult. The
+oath on the beard is as old as history, and we have an echo of it in the
+first English political ballad when Sir Simon de Montfort swears "by his
+chin" revenge on Warenne.
+
+Adam, our first father, was by tradition created with a beard: Zeus
+Allfather is bearded, and the old painters and carvers who hardily
+pictured the first person of the Trinity gave Him the long beard of his
+fatherhood. The race-fathers have it and the ancient heroes. Abraham and
+Agamemnon, Woden and King Arthur and Charlemagne, must all be bearded in
+our pictures. With the Mahommedan peoples the beard as worn by an
+unshaven prophet has ever been in high renown, the more so that amongst
+most of the conquering tribes who first acknowledged the unity of God
+and prophethood of Mahomet it grows freely. But before Mahomet's day,
+kings of Persia had plaited their sacred beards with golden thread, and
+the lords of Nineveh had curiously curled and oiled beards such as their
+winged bull wears. Bohadin tells us that Saladin's little son wept for
+terror when he saw the crusaders' envoys "with their clean-shaven
+chins." Selim I. (1512-1521) comes down as a Turkish sultan who broke
+into holy custom and cut off his beard, telling a remonstrating Mufti
+that his vizier should now have nothing to lead him by. But such
+tampering with tradition has its dangers, and the absolute rule of Peter
+the Great is made clear when we know that he taxed Russian beards and
+shaved his own, and yet died in his bed. Alexander the Great did as much
+and more with his well-drilled Macedonians, and was obeyed when he bade
+them shave off the handle by which an enemy could seize them.
+
+With other traditions of their feudal age, the Japanese nation has
+broken with its ancient custom of the razor, and their emperor has beard
+and moustache; a short moustache is common amongst Japanese officers and
+statesmen, and generals and admirals of Nippon follow the imperial
+example. The Nearer East also is abandoning the full beard, even in
+Mahommedan lands. Earlier shahs of the Kajar house have glorious beards
+below their girdles, but Nasiru'd-Dín and his successor have shaved
+their chins. In later years the sultan of Turkey has added a beard to
+his moustache; the khedive of Egypt, son of a bearded father, has a
+soldier's moustache only. In Europe the great Russian people is faithful
+to the beard, Peter's law being forgotten. The tsar Alexander III.'s
+beard might have satisfied Ivan the Terrible, whose hands played
+delightedly with the five-foot beard of Queen Elizabeth's agent George
+Killingworth. Indeed the royal houses of Europe are for the most part
+bearded or whiskered. It may be that the race of Olivier le Dain, of the
+man who can be trusted with a sharp razor near a crowned king's throat,
+is extinct. Leopold II., king of the Belgians, however, was in 1909 the
+only sovereign with the full beard unclipped. The Austrian emperor,
+Francis Joseph, retained the moustache and whiskers of the 'sixties, and
+the German emperor, William II., for a short period, commemorated by a
+few very rare photographs, had a beard, although it was never suffered
+to reach the length of that beard which gave his father an air of
+Charlemagne or Barbarossa. In France bearded presidents have followed
+each other, but it may be noted that the waxed moustache and "imperial"
+beard of the Second Empire is now all but abandoned to the Frenchman of
+English comedy. The modern English fashion of shaving clean is rare in
+France save among actors, and during 1907 many Parisian waiters struck
+against the rule which forbade them to grow the moustache.
+
+For the most part the clergy of the Roman obedience shave clean, as have
+done the popes for two centuries and more. But missionary bishops
+cultivate the long beard with some pride, and the orders have varying
+customs, the Dominican shaving and the Franciscan allowing the hair to
+grow. The Roman Catholic clergy of Dalmatia, secular and regular, are
+allowed to wear the moustache without beard or whiskers, as a concession
+to national prejudices.
+
+Amongst English people, always ready to be swayed by fashion, the hair
+of the face has been, age by age, cherished or shaved away, curled or
+clipped into a hundred devices. Before the immigration from Sleswick the
+Briton knew the use of the razor, sometimes shaving his chin, but
+leaving the moustaches long. The old English also wore moustaches and
+forked beards, but, save for aged men, the beard had passed out of
+fashion before the Norman Conquest. Thus, in the Bayeux needlework,
+Edward the king is venerable with a long beard, but Harold and his
+younger fighting men have their chins reaped. "The English," says
+William of Malmesbury, "leave the upper lip unshaven, suffering the hair
+continually to increase," and to Harold's spies the Conqueror's knights,
+who had "the whole face with both lips shaven," were strange and
+priest-like. Matthew Paris had a strange idea that the beard was
+distinctive of Englishmen; he asserts that those who remained in England
+were compelled to shave their beards, while the native nobles who went
+into exile kept their beards and flowing locks "like the Easterns and
+especially the Trojans." He even believed that "William with the beard,"
+who headed a rising in London under Richard I., came of a stock which
+had scorned to shave, out of hatred for the Normans, a statement which
+Thierry developed.
+
+The _Chanson de Roland_ shows us "the pride of France" as "that good
+bearded folk," with their beards hanging over coats of mail, and it
+makes the great emperor swear to Naimes by his beard. It was only about
+the year 1000, according to Rodolf Glaber, that men began in the north
+of France to wear short hair and shave "like actors"; and even in the
+Bayeux tapestry the old Norman shipwrights wear the beard. But so rare
+was hair on the face amongst the Norman invaders that William, the
+forefather of the Percys, was known in his lifetime and remembered after
+his death as William "Asgernuns" or "Oht les gernuns," i.e. "William
+with the moustaches," the epithet revived by one of his descendants
+making our modern name of Algernon. Count Eustace of Boulogne was
+similarly distinguished. Fashion swung about after the Conquest, and, in
+the day of Henry I., Serle the bishop could compare bearded men of the
+Norman-English court with "filthy goats and bristly Saracens." The
+crusades, perhaps, were accountable for the beards which were oddly
+denounced as effeminate in the young courtiers of William Rufus. Not
+only the Greeks but the Latins in the East sometimes adopted the Saracen
+fashion, and the siege of Antioch (1098) was as unfavourable to the use
+of the razor as that of Sevastopol. When the Latins stormed the town by
+night, bearded knights owed their death to the assumption that every
+Christian would be a shaven man. But for more than four centuries
+diversity is allowed, beards, moustaches and shaven faces being found
+side by side, although now and again one fashion or another comes
+uppermost to be followed by those nice in such matters. Henry II. is a
+close-shaven king, and Richard II.'s effigy shows but a little tuft on
+each side of the chin, tufts which are two curled locks on the chin of
+Henry IV. But Henry III. is long-bearded, Edward II. curls his beard in
+three great ringlets, and the third Edward's long forked beard flows
+down his breast in patriarchal style. The mid-13th century, as seen in
+the drawings attributed to Matthew Paris, is an age of many full and
+curled beards, although the region about the lips is sometimes clipped
+or shaved. The beard is common in the 14th century, the forked pattern
+being favoured and the long drooping moustache. Amongst those who ride
+with him to Canterbury, Chaucer, a bearded poet, notes the merchant's
+"forked beard," the white beard of the franklin and the red beard of the
+miller, but the reeve's beard is "shave as ny as ever he can." Henry of
+Monmouth and his son are shaven, and thereafter beards are rare save
+with a few old folk until they come slowly back with the 16th century.
+In Ireland the statute enacted by a parliament at Trim in 1447 recited
+that no manner of man who will be taken for an Englishman should have
+beard above his mouth--the upper lip must be shaven at least every
+fortnight or be of equal growth with the nether lip,--and this statute
+remained unrepealed for nigh upon two hundred years. Henry VIII., always
+a law to himself, brought back the beard to favour, Stowe's annals
+giving 1535 as the year in which he caused his beard "to be knotted and
+no more shaven," his hair being polled at the same time. Many portraits
+give his fashion of wearing a thin moustache, whose ends met a short and
+squarely trimmed beard parted at the chin, a fashion in which he was
+followed by his brother-in-law Charles Brandon. But it is remarkable
+that those about him rarely imitated their most dread sovereign. While
+Cromwell and Howard the Admiral go clean shaven, the Seymour brothers,
+Denny and Russell, have the beard long and flowing. Even the forty
+shilling a year man, says Hooper in 1548, will waste his morning time
+while he sets his beard in order. About this time the clergy began to
+break with the long tradition of smooth faces. A priest in 1531 is
+commanded to abstain from wearing a beard, and Cardinal Pole, coming
+from the court of a bearded pope, appears bearded like a Greek
+patriarch. The law too, the church's kinswoman, begins to forbid, a sign
+of the change, and from 1542 the society of Lincoln's Inn makes rules
+for fining and expelling those who appear bearded at their mess, rules
+which the example of exalted lawyers caused to be withdrawn in 1560.
+
+The age of Elizabeth saw lawyers, soldiers, courtiers and merchants all
+bearded. Her Cecils, Greshams, Raleighs, Drakes, Dudleys and Walsinghams
+have the beard. A shaven chin such as that seen in the portrait of
+Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, is rare, but the beards take a hundred
+fashions, and satirists and Puritan pamphleteers were busy with them and
+with the men who wasted hours in perfuming or starching them, in dusting
+them with orris powder, in curling them with irons and quills. Stubbs
+gives them a place amongst his abuses. "It is a world to consider how
+their mowchatowes must be preserved or laid out from one cheek to
+another and turned up like two horns towards the forehead." Of the
+English variety of beards Harrison has a good word: "beards of which
+some are shaven from the chin like those of Turks, not a few cut short
+like to the beard of Marquess Otto, some made round like a rubbing
+brush, others with a _pique de vant_ (O! fine fashion) or now and then
+suffered to grow long, the barbers being grown to be so cunning in this
+behalf as the tailors. And therefore if a man have a lean and straight
+face, a Marquess Otto's cut will make it broad and large; if it be
+platter-like, a long slender beard will make it seem the narrower; if he
+be weasel-becked, then much hair left on the cheeks will make the owner
+look big like a bowdled hen, and as grim as a goose, if Cornelis of
+Chelmersford say true." Nevertheless he adds that "many old men do wear
+no beards at all." The Elizabethan fashions continued under King James,
+the beard trimmed to a point being common wear; but under King Charles
+there is a certain reaction, and the royal style of shaving the cheeks
+and leaving the moustache whose points sweep upward and the chin beard
+like a downward flame is followed by most of the gentry. With some the
+beard disappears altogether or remains a mere fleck below the lip.
+Archbishop Laud has a cavalier-like chin tuft and upturned moustache,
+but Abbot his predecessor wore the spade beard, the "cathedral beard" of
+Randle Holme, seen in all its dignity on the Chigwell brass of Samuel
+Harsnett, archbishop of York (died 1631), a grim figure with his angry
+moustache and a long and broad beard, cut square at the bottom.
+
+From the Restoration year the razor comes more into use. Young men shave
+clean. The restored king curls a few dark hairs of a moustache over each
+cheek, but his brother James is shaven. With the reign of Queen Anne the
+country enters the beardless age, and beards, moustaches and whiskers
+are no more seen. In the 18th century the moustache indicated a soldier
+from beyond sea. A Jew or a Turk was known by the beard, an appendage
+loathsome as comic. Matthew Robinson, the second Lord Rokeby, was indeed
+wearing a beard in 1798, but he was reckoned a madman therefor, and
+Phillips's _Public Character_ pictures him as "the only peer and perhaps
+the only gentleman of either Great Britain or Ireland who is thus
+distinguished." That George III. in his madness should have been left
+unshaved was a circumstance of his misery that wrung the hearts of all
+loyal folk. But in the very year of 1798, when Lord Rokeby's image was
+engraved for the curious, the Worcestershire militia officers quartered
+near Brighton were copying the Austrian moustache of the foreign troops,
+and we may note that the hair of the face, which disappeared when wigs
+came in, began to reappear as wigs went out. Early in the 19th century
+the bucks began to show a patch of whisker beside the ear, and the
+soldier's moustache became a common sight. Before Waterloo, guardsmen
+were complaining that officers of humbler regiments imitated their
+fashion of the moustache, and by the Waterloo year most young cavalry
+officers were moustached. The Horse Artillery were the next moustached
+corps, the rest of the army, already whiskered, following their example
+in the 'fifties. But for a civilian to grow a moustache was long
+reckoned a piece of unseemly swagger. Clive Newcome, it will be
+remembered, wore one until the taunting question whether he was "going
+in the Guards" shamed him into shaving clean. When in 1840 Mr George
+Frederick Muntz appeared in parliament with a full beard there were
+those who felt that this tall Radical had taken his own strange method
+of insulting English parliamentary institutions. James Ward, R.A. (d.
+1859), painter of animals, was another breaker of the unwritten law,
+defending his beard in a pamphlet of eighteen arguments as a thing
+pleasing at once to the artist and to his Creator. Freedom in these
+matters only came when the troops were home from the Crimea, when
+officers who had grown beards and acquired the taste for tobacco during
+the long months in the trenches showed their beards and their cigars in
+Piccadilly. Then came the Volunteer movement, and every man was a
+soldier, taking a soldier's licence. The dominant fashion was the
+moustache, worn with long and drooping whiskers. But the "Piccadilly
+weepers" of the 'sixties were out of the mode for the younger men when
+the 'eighties began, and by the end of the century whiskers were seen in
+the army only upon a few veteran officers. The fashion of clean shaving
+had made some way, the popularity of the shaven actor having a part in
+this. In 1909 all modes of dealing with the hair of the face might be
+recognized, but the full beard had become somewhat rare in England and
+the full whiskers rarer still. The upper class showed an inclination to
+shave clean, although the army grudgingly recognized a rule which
+ordered the moustache to be worn. Naval men, by regulation, shaved or
+wore both beard and moustache, but their beards were always trimmed.
+Most barristers shaved the lips, although the last judge unable to hear
+an advocate whose voice a moustache interrupted had left the bench.
+Clergymen followed the lay fashions as they did under the first Stuart
+kings, although there was still some prejudice against the moustache as
+an ornament military and inappropriate. A newspaper of 1857, describing
+the appearance of Livingstone the missionary at a Mansion House meeting,
+records that he came wearing a moustache, "braving the prejudices of his
+countrymen and thus evincing a courage only inferior to that exhibited
+by him amongst the savages of Central Africa." Even as late as 1884 the
+_Pall Mall Gazette_ has some surprised comments on the beard of Bishop
+Ryle, newly consecrated to the see of Liverpool.
+
+The footman, whose full-dress livery is the court dress of a hundred
+years ago, must show no more than the rudimentary whisker of the early
+eighteen-hundreds, and butler, coachman and groom come under the same
+rule. The jockey and the hunt whip are shaven likewise, but the courier
+has the whiskers and moustache that once marked him as a foreigner in
+the English milor's service, and the chauffeur, a servant with no
+tradition behind him, is often moustached.
+
+Lastly, we may speak of the practice of the royal house since England
+came out of the beardless century. The regent took the new fashion, and
+sat "in whiskered state," but his brother and successor shaved clean and
+disliked even the hussar's moustache. The prince consort wore the
+moustache as a young man, adding whiskers in later years. King Edward
+VII. wore moustache and trimmed beard, and his heir apparent also
+followed the fashion of many fellow admirals.     (O. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT (1872-1898), English artist in black and
+white, was born at Brighton on the 24th of August 1872. In 1883 his
+family settled in London, and in the following year he appeared in
+public as an "infant musical phenomenon," playing at several concerts
+with his sister. In 1888 he obtained a post in an architect's office,
+and afterwards one in the Guardian Life and Fire Insurance Company
+(1889). In 1891, under the advice of Sir Edward Burne-Jones and Puvis de
+Chavannes, he took up art as a profession. In 1892 he attended the
+classes at the Westminster School of Art, then under Professor Brown;
+and from 1893 until his death, at Mentone, on the 16th of March 1898,
+his work came continually before the public, arousing a storm of
+criticism and much hostile feeling. Beardsley had an unswerving tendency
+towards the fantastic of the gloomier and "unwholesome" sort. His
+treatment of most subjects was revolutionary; he deliberately ignored
+proportion and perspective, and the "freedom from convention" which he
+displayed caused his work to be judged with harshness. In certain phases
+of technique he especially excelled; and his earlier methods of dealing
+with the single line in conjunction with masses of black are in their
+way unsurpassed, except in the art of Japan, the country which probably
+gave his ideas some assistance. He was always an ornamentist, rather
+than an illustrator; and his work must be judged from that point of
+view. His frontispiece to _Volpone_ is held by some to be, from this
+purely technical standpoint, one of the best pen-drawings of the age.
+His posters for the Avenue theatre and for Mr Fisher Unwin were among
+the first of the modern cult of that art.
+
+  The following are the chief works which are illustrated with drawings
+  by Beardsley: the _Bon Mot_ Library, _The Pall Mall Budget_, and _The
+  Studio_ (1893), Sir Thomas Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ (1893-1894),
+  _Salomé_ (1894), _The Yellow Book_ (1894-1895), _The Savoy Magazine_
+  (1896), _The Rape of the Lock_ (1896).
+
+  See also J. Pennell, _The Studio_ (1893); Symons, _Aubrey Beardsley_
+  (1898); R. Ross, _Volpone_ (1898); H.C. Marillier, _The Early Work of
+  Aubrey Beardsley_ (1899); Smithers, _Reproductions of Drawings by
+  Aubrey Beardsley_; John Lane, _The Later Works of Aubrey Beardsley_
+  (1901); R. Ross, _Aubrey Beardsley_ (1908).     (E. F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BEARDSTOWN, a city of Cass county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of
+the state, on the E. bank of the Illinois river, about 111 m. N. of St
+Louis, Missouri. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western, and
+the Burlington (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy) railways, and by
+steamboats plying between it and St. Louis. Pop. (1890) 4226; (1900)
+4827 (444 foreign-born); (1910) 6107. The industrial establishments of
+the city include flour, planing and saw mills, the machine shops (of the
+St Louis division) of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway, ice
+factories, pearl button factories and a shoe factory. The fishing
+interests are also important. Beardstown was laid out in 1827 and was
+incorporated as a city in 1896. It was named in honour of Thomas Beard,
+who settled in the vicinity in 1820. During the Black Hawk War (1832) it
+was a base of supplies for the Illinois troops. The old court house in
+which Abraham Lincoln, in 1854, won his famous "Armstrong murder case,"
+is now used for a city hall.
+
+
+
+
+BEARER, strictly "one who carries," a term used in India for a
+palanquin-bearer, and now especially for a body-servant. The term is
+also used in connexion with military ambulances, and "bearer" companies
+formed part of the Royal Army Medical Corps until amalgamated with the
+field-hospitals to form field-ambulances (1905). In banking and commerce
+the word is applied to the holder or presenter of a cheque or draft not
+made payable to a specific person; it has also a technical use, as in
+printing, of anything that supports pressure in machinery, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BEARINGS. In engineering a "bearing" is that particular kind of support
+which, besides carrying the load imposed upon it by the shaft associated
+with it, allows the shaft freedom to revolve. Or, put in another way, a
+bearing forms with the shaft a pair of elements having one degree of
+freedom to turn relatively to one another about their common axis. The
+part of the shaft in the bearing is commonly called the _journal_. The
+component parts of a small bearing, pillow block, plummer block or
+pedestal, as it is variously styled, are illustrated in fig. 1, and
+these parts, put together, are further illustrated in fig. 2 with the
+shaft added. Corresponding parts are similarly lettered in the two
+illustrations. The shaft (S) is encircled by the _brasses_ (B1 and B2)
+made of gun metal, phosphor bronze or other suitable material. The lower
+brass fits into the main casting (A) in the semicircular seat provided
+for it, and is prevented from moving endways by the flanges (F, F) and
+from turning with the shaft by the projections (P, P), which fit into
+corresponding recesses in the casting (A), one of which is shown at p.
+After the shaft has been placed in position, the upper brass (B2) and
+the cap (C) are put on and both are held in place by the bolts (Q1, Q2).
+The brasses are bedded into the main casting (A) and the cap (C)
+respectively at the surfaces D, D, D, D. The complete bearing is held to
+the framework of the machine by bolts (R1, R2) passing through holes (H,
+H) which are slotted to allow endwise adjustment of the whole bearing in
+order to facilitate the alignment of the shaft. Oil or other lubricant
+is introduced through the hole (G), and it passes through the top brass
+to grooves or oilways cut into the surface of the brass for the purpose
+of distributing the oil uniformly to the journal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+Some form of lubricator is usually fitted at G in order to supply oil to
+the bearing continuously. A form of lubricator used for this purpose is
+shown in place, fig. 2, and an enlarged section is shown in fig. 3. It
+will be seen that the lubricator consists essentially of a cup the base
+of which is pierced centrally by a tube which reaches to within a small
+distance of the lid of the cup inside, and projects into the oilway
+leading to the journal outside. The annular space round the tube inside
+is filled with oil which is transferred to the central tube and thence
+to the bearing by the capillary action of a cotton wick thrust down on a
+piece of wire. It is only necessary to withdraw the wick from the
+central tube to stop the supply of oil. The lubricator is fitted through
+a hole in the lid which is usually plugged with a piece of cane or
+closed by more elaborate means. A line of shafting would be supported by
+several bearings of the kind illustrated, themselves supported by
+brackets projecting from or rigidly fixed to the walls of the workshop,
+or on frames resting on the floor, or on hangers attached to the roof
+girders or principals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+In bearings of modern design for supporting a line shaft the general
+arrangement shown in fig. 1 is modified so that the alignments of the
+shaft can be made both vertically or horizontally by means of adjusting
+screws, and the brass is jointed with the supporting main body so that
+it is free to follow the small deflections of the shaft which take place
+when the shaft is working. Another modern improvement is the formation
+of an oil reservoir or well in the base of the bearing itself, and the
+transference of the oil from this well to the shaft by means of one or
+two rings riding loosely on the shaft. The bottom part of the ring dips
+into the oil contained in the well of the bearing and, as the shaft
+rotates, the ring rolls on the shaft and thus carries oil up to the
+shaft continuously, from which it finds its way to the surfaces of the
+shaft and bearing in contact. It should be understood that the upper
+brass is slotted crossways to allow the ring to rest on the shaft. When
+the direction of the load carried by the bearing is constant it is
+unnecessary to provide more than one brass, and the construction is
+modified accordingly. Figs. 4 and 5 show an axle box used for goods
+wagons on the Great Eastern railway, and they also illustrate the method
+of pad lubrication in general use for this kind of bearing. The main
+casting, A, is now uppermost, and is designed so that the upper part
+supports and constrains the spring buckle through which the load W is
+transmitted to the bearing, and the lower part inside is arranged to
+support the brass, B. The brass is jointed freely with the main casting
+by means of a hemispherical hump resting in a corresponding recess in
+the casting. What may be called the cap, C, forms the lower part of the
+axle box, but instead of supporting a second brass it is formed into an
+oil reservoir in which is arranged a pad of cotton wick woven on a tin
+frame. The upper part of the pad is formed into a kind of brush, shaped
+to fit the underside of the journal, whilst the lower part consists of
+streamers of wick resting in the oil. The oil is fed to the brush by the
+capillary action of the streamers. The reservoirs are filled with oil
+through the apertures P and O. The bottom cap is held in position by the
+T-headed bolts Q1 and Q2 (fig. 5). By slackening the nuts and turning
+the T-heads fair with the slots in the cap, the cap comes right away and
+the axle may be examined. A leather ring L is fitted as shown to prevent
+dust from entering the axle box.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+_Footsteps._--A bearing arranged to support the lower end of a vertical
+shaft is called a footstep, sometimes a pivot bearing. A simple form of
+footstep is shown in fig 6. A casting A, designed so that it can be
+conveniently bolted to a foundation block, cross beam, or bracket is
+bored out and fitted with a brass B, which is turned inside to carry the
+end of the shaft S. The whole vertical load on the shaft is carried by
+the footstep, so that it is important to arrange efficient lubricating
+apparatus. Results of experiments made on a footstep, reported in _Proc.
+Inst. Mech. Eng._, 1891, show that if a diametral groove be cut in the
+brass, as indicated at g (fig 6), and if the oil is led to the centre of
+this groove by a channel c communicating with the exterior, the rotation
+of the shaft draws in a plentiful supply of oil which radiates from the
+centre and makes its way vertically between the shaft and the brass and
+finally overflows at the top of the brass. The overflowing oil may be
+led away and may be re-introduced into the footsteps at c. The rotation
+of the shaft thus causes a continuous circulation of oil through the
+footstep. One experiment from the report mentioned above may be quoted.
+A 3-in. shaft, revolving 128 times per minute and supported on a
+manganese bronze bearing lubricated in the way explained above sustained
+increasing loads until, at a load of 300 pounds per square inch of the
+area of the end of the shaft, it seized. The mechanical details of a
+footstep may be varied for purposes of adjustment in a variety of ways
+similarly to the variations of a common bearing already explained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+_Thrust Block Bearing._--In cases where a bearing is required to resist
+a longitudinal movement of the shaft through it, as for example in the
+case of the propeller shaft of a marine engine or a vertical shaft
+supporting a heavy load not carried on a footstep, the shaft is provided
+with one or more collars which are grooved with corresponding recesses
+in the brasses of the bearing. A general sketch of a thrust block for a
+propeller shaft is shown in fig. 7. There are seven collars turned on
+the shaft and into the circumferential grooves between them fit
+corresponding circumferential projections on the brasses, these
+projections being formed in the case illustrated by means of half rings
+which are fitted into grooves turned in the brasses. This method of
+construction allows an individual ring to be replaced or adjusted if it
+should get hot. The total area of the rubbing surfaces should be
+proportioned so that the average load is not more than from 50 to 70 lb.
+per sq. in. Arrangements are usually made for cooling a thrust block
+with water in case of heating. The spindles of drilling machines, boring
+machine spindles, turbine shafts may be cited as examples of vertical
+shafts supported on one collar. Experiments on the friction of a collar
+bearing have been made by the Research Committee of the Institution of
+Mechanical Engineers (_Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng._, 1888).
+
+_Roller and Ball Bearings._--If rollers are placed between two surfaces
+having relative tangential motion the frictional resistance to be
+overcome is the small resistance to rolling. The rollers move along with
+a velocity equal to one half the relative velocity of the surfaces. This
+way of reducing frictional resistance has been applied to all kinds of
+mechanical contrivances, including bearings for shafts, railway axle
+boxes, and axle boxes for tramcars. An example of a roller bearing for a
+line shaft is illustrated in figs. 8 and 9. The main casting, A, and
+cap, C, bolted together, form a spherical seating for the part of the
+bearing E corresponding to the brasses in a bearing of the usual type.
+Between the inside of the casting E and the journal are placed rollers
+held in position relatively to one another by a "squirrel cage" casting,
+the section of the bars of which are clearly shown in the half sectional
+elevation, fig. 9. This squirrel cage ensures that the several axes of
+the rollers keep parallel to the axis of the journal during the rolling
+motion. The rollers are made of hard tool steel, and the surfaces of the
+journal and bearing between which they roll are hardened.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+Two rings of balls may be used instead of a single ring of rollers, and
+the kind of ball bearing thus obtained is in general use principally in
+connexion with bicycles and motor cars (see BICYCLE). In ball bearings
+the load is concentrated at a few points, the points where the balls
+touch the race, and in the roller bearing at a few lines, the lines of
+contact between the rollers and the surfaces of the journal and bearing;
+consequently the load which bearings of this kind carry must not be
+great enough to cause any indentation at the points or lines of contact.
+Both rollers and balls, and the paths on which they roll, therefore, are
+made of hard material; further, balls and rollers must all be exactly
+the same size in an individual bearing in order to distribute the load
+between the points or lines of contact as uniformly as possible. The
+finest workmanship is required therefore to make good roller or good
+ball bearings.
+
+_Bearings for High Speeds and Forced Lubrication._--When the shaft turns
+the metallic surfaces of the brass and the journal are prevented from
+actual contact by a film of oil which is formed and maintained by the
+motion of the shaft and which sustains the pressure between the journal
+and the brass provided the surfaces are accurately formed and the supply
+of oil is unlimited. This film changes what would otherwise be the
+friction between metallic surfaces into a viscous resistance within the
+film itself. When through a limited supply of oil or imperfect
+lubrication this film is imperfect or fails altogether and allows the
+journal to make metallic contact with the brass, the friction increases;
+and it may increase so much that the bearing rapidly becomes hot and may
+ultimately seize, that is to say the rubbing surfaces may become stuck
+together. With the object of reducing the friction at the points of
+metallic contact and of confining the damage of a hot bearing to the
+easily renewable brass, the latter is partially, sometimes wholly, lined
+with a soft fusible metal, technically known as white metal, which melts
+away before actual seizure takes place, and thus saves the journal which
+is more expensive because it is generally formed on a large and
+expensive shaft. However perfectly the film fulfils its function, the
+work required to overcome the viscous resistance of the film during the
+continuous rotation of the shaft appears as heat, and in consequence the
+temperature of the bearing gradually rises until the rate at which heat
+is produced is equal to the rate at which it is radiated from the
+bearing. Hence in order that a journal may revolve with a minimum
+resistance and without undue heating two precautions must be taken: (1)
+means must be taken to ensure that the film of oil is complete and never
+fails; and (2) arrangements must be made for controlling the temperature
+should it rise too high. The various lubricating devices already
+explained supply sufficient oil to form a partial film, since
+experiments have shown that the friction of bearings lubricated in this
+way is akin to solid friction, thus indicating at least partial metallic
+contact. In order to supply enough oil to form and maintain a film with
+certainty the journal should be run in an oil bath, or oil should be
+supplied to the bearing under pressure sufficient to force it in between
+the surfaces against the load. A bearing to which forced lubrication and
+water cooling are applied is illustrated in fig. 10, which represents
+one of the bearings of a Westinghouse turbo-alternator installed at the
+power station of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London at
+Lots Road, Chelsea. Oil flows under pressure from a tank on the top of a
+tower along a supply pipe to the oil inlet O, and after passing through
+the bearing and performing its duty as a film it falls away from each
+end of the journal into the bottom of the main casting, from which a
+pipe, E, conveys the oil back to the base of the tank tower where it is
+cooled and finally pumped back into the tank. There is thus a continuous
+circulation of oil through the bearing. The space C is for cooling
+water; in fact the bearing is water jacketed and the jacket is connected
+to a supply pipe and a drain pipe so that a continuous circulation may
+be maintained if desired. This bearing is 12 in. in diameter and 48 in.
+long, and it carries a load of about 12.8 tons. The rise in temperature
+of the bearing under normal conditions of working without water
+circulating in the jacket is approximately 38° F. The speed of rotation
+is such that the surface velocity is about 50 ft. per second.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+Forced lubrication in connexion with the bearings of high-speed engines
+was introduced in 1890 by Messrs Belliss & Morcom, Ltd., under patents
+taken out in the name of A.C. Pain. It should be understood that
+providing the film of oil in the bearing of an engine can be properly
+maintained a double-acting engine can be driven at a high speed without
+any knocking, and without perceptible wear of the rubbing surfaces. Fig.
+11 shows that the general arrangement of the bearings of a Belliss &
+Morcom engine arranged for forced lubrication. A small force-pump F,
+driven from the eccentric strap X, delivers oil into the pipe P, along
+which it passes to A, the centre of the right-hand main bearing. There
+is a groove turned on the inside of the brass from which a slanting hole
+leads to B. The oil when it arrives at A thus has two paths open to it,
+one to the right and left of the groove through the bearing, the other
+along the slanting hole to B. At B it divides again into two streams,
+one stream going upwards to the eccentric sheave, and a part continuing
+up the pipe Q to the eccentric pin. The second stream from B follows the
+slanting hole in the crank shaft to C, where it is led to the big end
+journal through the pipe R to the crosshead pin, and through the
+slanting hole to D, where it finds its way into the left main bearing.
+The oil forced through each bearing falls away to the right and to the
+left of the journal and drops into the bottom of the engine framing,
+whence it is again fed to the pump through a strainer. The parts of an
+engine lubricated in this way must be entirely enclosed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+_Load on bearings._--The distribution of pressure over the film of
+lubricant separating the rubbing surfaces of a bearing is variable,
+being greatest at a point near but not at the crown of the brass, and
+falling away to zero in all directions towards the boundaries of the
+film. It is usual in practice to ignore this variation of pressure
+through the film, and to indicate the severity with which the bearing is
+loaded by stating the load per square inch of the rubbing surfaces
+projected on to the diametral plane of the journal. Thus the projected
+area of the surfaces of a journal 6 in. in diameter and 8 in. long is 48
+sq. in., and if the total load carried by the bearing is 20,000 pounds,
+the bearing would be said to carry a load of 417 pounds per square inch.
+When a shaft rotates in a bearing continuously in one direction the load
+per square inch with which it is safe to load the bearing in order to
+avoid undue heating is much less than if the motion is intermittent. A
+table of a few values of the bearing loads used in practice is given in
+the article LUBRICANTS.
+
+  _Bearing Friction._--If W is the total load on a bearing, and if µ is
+  the coefficient of friction between the rubbing surfaces, the
+  tangential resistance to turning is expressed by the product µW. If v
+  is the relative velocity of the rubbing surfaces, the work done per
+  second against friction is µWv foot pounds. This quantity of work is
+  converted into heat, and the heat produced per second is therefore
+  µWv/778 British Thermal Units. The coefficient µ is a variable
+  quantity, and bearing in mind that a properly lubricated journal is
+  separated from its supporting brass by a film of lubricant it might be
+  expected that µ would have values characteristic of the coefficient of
+  friction between two metallic surfaces, merging into the
+  characteristics properly belonging to fluid friction, according as the
+  oil film varied from an imperfect to a perfect condition, that is,
+  according as the lubrication is partial or complete, completeness
+  being attained by the use of an oil bath or by some method of forced
+  lubrication. This expectation is entirely borne out by experimental
+  researches. Beauchamp Tower ("Report on Friction Experiments," _Proc.
+  Inst. Mech. Eng._, November 1883) found that when oil was supplied to
+  a bearing by means of a pad the coefficient of friction was
+  approximately constant with the value of 1/100, thus following the law
+  of solid friction; but when the journal was lubricated by means of an
+  oil bath the coefficient of friction varied nearly inversely as the
+  load on the bearing, thus making µW = constant. The tangential
+  resistance in this case is characteristic of fluid friction since it
+  is independent of the pressure. Tower's experiments were carried out
+  at a nearly constant temperature. The later experiments of O. Lasche
+  (_Zeitsch. Verein deutsche Ingenieure_, 1902, 46, pp. 1881 et seq.)
+  show how µ depends upon the temperature. Lasche's main results with
+  regard to the variation of µ are briefly:--µW is a constant quantity,
+  thus confirming Tower's earlier experiments; µ is practically
+  independent of the relative velocity of the rubbing surfaces within
+  the limits of 3 to 50 ft. per second; and the product µt is constant,
+  t being the temperature of the bearing. Writing p for the load per
+  unit of projected area of the bearing, Lasche found that the result of
+  the experiments could be expressed by the simple formula pµt =
+  constant = 2, where p = the pressure in kilograms per square
+  centimetre, and t = the temperature in degrees centigrade. If p is
+  changed to pounds per square inch the constant in the expression is
+  approximately 30. The expression is valid between limits of pressure
+  14 to 213 pounds per square inch, limits of temperature 30° to 100°
+  C., and between limits of velocity 3 to 50 ft. per second.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+  _Theory of Lubrication._--After the publication of Tower's experiments
+  on journal friction Professor Osborne Reynolds showed (_Phil. Trans._,
+  1886, p. 157) that the facts observed in connexion with a journal
+  lubricated by means of an oil bath could be explained by a theory
+  based upon the general principles of the motion of a viscous fluid. It
+  is first established as an essential part of the theory that the
+  radius of the brass must be slightly greater than the radius of the
+  journal as indicated in fig. 12, where J is the centre of the journal
+  and I the centre of the brass. Given this difference of curvature and
+  a sufficient supply of oil, the rotation of the journal produces and
+  maintains an oil film between the rubbing surfaces, the
+  circumferential extent of which depends upon the rate of the oil
+  supply and the external load. With an unlimited supply of oil, that is
+  with oil-bath lubrication, the film extends continuously to the
+  extremities of the brass, unless such extension would lead to negative
+  pressures and therefore to a discontinuity, in which case the film
+  ends where the pressures in the film become negative. The minimum
+  distance between the journal and the brass occurs at the point H (fig.
+  12), on the off side of the point O where the line of action of the
+  load cuts the surface of the journal. To the right and left of H the
+  thickness of the film gradually increases, this being the condition
+  that the oil-flow to and from the film may be automatically
+  maintained. With an unlimited supply of oil the point H moves farther
+  from O as the load increases until it reaches a maximum distance, and
+  then it moves back again towards O as the load is further increased
+  until a limiting load is reached at which the pressure in the film
+  becomes negative at the boundaries of the film, when the boundaries
+  recede from the edges of the brass as though the supply of oil were
+  limited.
+
+  In the mathematical development of the theory it is first necessary to
+  define the coefficient of viscosity. This is done as follows:--If two
+  parallel surfaces AB, CD are separated by a viscous film, and if
+  whilst CD is fixed AB moves in a tangential direction with velocity U,
+  the surface of the film in contact with CD clings to it and remains at
+  rest, whilst the lower surface of the film clings to and moves with
+  the surface AB. At intermediate points in the film the tangential
+  motion of the fluid will vary uniformly from zero to U, and the
+  tangential resistance will be F = µU/h, where µ is the coefficient of
+  viscosity and h is the thickness of the film. With this definition of
+  viscosity and from the general equations representing the stress in a
+  viscous fluid, the following equation is established, giving the
+  relations between p, the pressure at any point in the film, h the
+  thickness of the film at a point x measured round the circumference of
+  the journal in the direction of relative motion, and U the relative
+  tangential velocity of the surfaces,
+
+    d   /  dp\        dh
+    -- ( h³-- ) = 6µU --       (1)
+    dx  \  dx/        dx
+
+  In this equation all the quantities are independent of the co-ordinate
+  parallel to the axis of the journal, and U is constant. The thickness
+  of the film h is some function of x, and for a journal Professor
+  Reynolds takes the form,
+
+    h = a {1 + c sin([theta] - [phi]0)}
+
+  in which the various quantities have the significance indicated in
+  fig. 12. Reducing and integrating equation (1) with this value of h it
+  becomes
+
+       dp      6R_µU_c {sin([theta] - [phi]0) - sin([phi]1 - [phi]0)}
+    -------- = ------------------------------------------------------ (2)
+    d[theta]             a²{1 + c sin([theta] - [phi]0)}³
+
+  [phi]1 being the value of [theta] for which the pressure is a maximum.
+  In order to integrate this the right-hand side is expanded into a
+  trigonometrical series, the values of the coefficients are computed,
+  and the integration is effected term by term. If, as suggested by
+  Professor J. Perry, the value of h is taken to be h = h0 + ax², where
+  h0 is the minimum thickness of the film, the equation reduces to the
+  form
+
+      dp       6µU            C
+    - -- = ----------- + -----------     (3)
+      dx   (h0 + ax²)²   (h0 + ax²)³
+
+  and this can be integrated. The process of reduction from the form (1)
+  to the form (3) with the latter value of h, is shown in full in _The
+  Calculus for Engineers_ by Professor Perry (p. 331), and also the
+  final solution of equation (3), giving the pressure in terms of x.
+
+  Professor Reynolds, applying the results of his investigation to one
+  of Tower's experiments, plotted the pressures through the film both
+  circumferentially and longitudinally, and the agreement with the
+  observed pressure of the experiment was exceedingly close. The whole
+  investigation of Professor Reynolds is a remarkable one, and is in
+  fact the first real explanation of the fact that oil is able to
+  insinuate itself between the journal and the brass of a bearing
+  carrying a heavy load. (See also LUBRICATION.)     (W. E. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAR-LEADER, formerly a man who led bears about the country. In the
+middle ages and Tudor times these animals were chiefly used in the
+brutal sport of bear-baiting and were led from village to village.
+Performing bears were also common, and are even still sometimes seen
+perambulating the country with their keepers, generally Frenchmen or
+Italians. The phrase "bear-leader" has now come colloquially to mean a
+tutor or guardian, who escorts any lad of rank or wealth on his travels.
+
+
+
+
+BÉARN, formerly a small frontier province in the south of France, now
+included within the department of Basses-Pyrénées. It was bounded on the
+W. by Soule and Lower Navarre, on the N. by Chalosse, Tursan and
+Astarac, E. by Bigorre and S. by the Pyrénées. Its name can be traced
+back to the town of Beneharnum (Lescar). The _civitas Beneharnensium_
+was included in the _Novempopulania_. It was conquered by the Vascones
+in the 6th century, and in 819 became a viscounty dependent on the dukes
+of Aquitaine--a feudal link which was broken in the 11th century, when
+the viscounts ceased to acknowledge any suzerain. They then reigned over
+the two dioceses of Lescar and Oloron; but their capital was Morlaas,
+where they had a mint which was famous throughout the middle ages. In
+the 13th century Gaston VII., of the Catalonian house of Moncade, made
+Orthez his seat of government. His long reign (1229-1290) was a
+perpetual struggle with the kings of France and England, each anxious to
+assert his suzerainty over Béarn. As Gaston left only daughters, the
+viscounty passed at his death to the family of Foix, from whom it was
+transmitted through the houses of Grailly and Albret to the Bourbons,
+and they, in the person of Henry IV., king of Navarre, made it an
+apanage of the crown of France. It was not formally incorporated in the
+royal domains, however, until 1620. None of these political changes
+weakened the independent spirit of the Béarnais. From the 11th century
+onward, they were governed by their own special customs or _fors_. These
+were drawn up in the language of the country, a Romance dialect (1288
+being the date of the most ancient written code), and are remarkable for
+the manner in which they define the rights of the sovereign, determining
+the reciprocal obligations of the viscount and his subjects or vassals.
+Moreover, from the 12th century Béarn enjoyed a kind of representative
+government, with _cours plénières_ composed of deputies from the three
+estates. From 1220 onward, the judiciary powers of these assemblies were
+exercised by a _cour majour_ of twelve barons _jurats_ charged with the
+duty of maintaining the integrity of the _fors_. When Gaston-Phoebus
+wished to establish a regular annual hearth-tax (_fouage_) in the
+viscounty, he convoked the deputies of the three estates in assemblies
+called _états_. These soon acquired extensive political and financial
+powers, which continued in operation till 1789. Although, when Béarn was
+annexed to the domains of the crown, it was granted a _conseil d'état_
+and a parlement, which sat at Pau, the province also retained its _fors_
+until the Revolution.
+
+  See also Olhagaray, _Histoire de Foix, Béarn et Navarre_ (1609);
+  Pierre de Marca, _Histoire de Béarn_ (1640). This work does not go
+  beyond the end of the 13th century; it contains a large number of
+  documents. Faget de Baure, _Essais historiques sur le Béarn_ (1818);
+  _Les Fors de Béarn_, by Mazure and Hatoulet (1839), completed by J.
+  Brissaud and P. Rogé in _Textes additionnels aux anciens Fors de
+  Béarn_ (1905); Léon Cadier, _Les Etats de Béarn depuis leur origine
+  jusqu'au commencement du XVI^e siècle_ (1888).     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+BEAS or BIAS, a river of India. The Beas, which was the Hyphasis of the
+Greeks, is one of the Five Rivers of the Punjab. It issues in the snowy
+mountains of Kulu at an altitude of 13,326 ft. above sea-level, flows
+through the Kangra valley and the plains of the Punjab, and finally
+joins the Sutlej after a course of 290 m. It is crossed by a railway
+bridge near Jullundur.
+
+
+
+
+BEAT (a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages; it is
+connected with the similar Romanic words derived from the Late Lat.
+_battere_), a blow or stroke; from the many applications of the verb "to
+beat" come various meanings of the substantive, in some of which the
+primary sense has become obscure. It is applied to the throbbing of the
+pulse or heart, to the beating of a drum, either for retreat, or charge,
+or to quarters; in music to the alternating sound produced by the
+striking together of two notes not exactly of the same pitch (see
+SOUND), and also to the movement of the baton by which a conductor of an
+orchestra or chorus indicates the time, and to the divisions of a bar.
+As a nautical term, a "beat" is the zigzag course taken by a ship in
+sailing against the wind. The application of the word to a policeman's
+or sentry's round comes either from beating a covert for game and hence
+the term means an exhaustive search of a district, or from the repeated
+strokes of the foot in constantly walking up and down. In this sense the
+word is used in America, particularly in Alabama and Mississippi, of a
+voting precinct.
+
+
+
+
+BEATIFICATION (from the Lat. _beatus_, happy, blessed, and _facere_, to
+make), the act of making blessed; in the Roman Catholic Church, a stage
+in the process of canonization (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+BEATON (or BETHUNE), DAVID, (c. 1494-1546), Scottish cardinal and
+archbishop of St Andrews, was a younger son of John Beaton of Balfour in
+the county of Fife, and is said to have been born in the year 1494. He
+was educated at the universities of St Andrews and Glasgow, and in his
+sixteenth year was sent to Paris, where he studied civil and canon law.
+About this time he was presented to the rectory of Campsie by his uncle
+James Beaton, then archbishop of Glasgow. When James Beaton was
+translated to St Andrews in 1522 he resigned the rich abbacy of Arbroath
+in his nephew's favour, under reservation of one half of the revenues to
+himself during his lifetime. The great ability of Beaton and the
+patronage of his uncle ensured his rapid promotion to high offices in
+the church and kingdom. He was sent by King James V. on various missions
+to France, and in 1528 was appointed keeper of the privy seal. He took a
+leading part in the negotiations connected with the king's marriages,
+first with Madeleine of France, and afterwards with Mary of Guise. At
+the French court he was held in high estimation by King Francis I., and
+was consecrated bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc in December 1537. On the
+20th of December 1538 he was appointed a cardinal priest by Pope Paul
+III., under the title of St Stephen in the Coelian Hill. He was the only
+Scotsman who had been named to that high office by an undisputed right,
+Cardinal Wardlaw, bishop of Glasgow, having received his appointment
+from the anti-pope Clement VII. On the death of Archbishop James Beaton
+in 1539, the cardinal was raised to the primatial see of Scotland.
+
+Beaton was one of King James's most trusted advisers, and it was mainly
+due to his influence that the king drew closer the French alliance and
+refused Henry VIII.'s overtures to follow him in his religious policy.
+On the death of James in December 1542 he attempted to assume office as
+one of the regents for the infant sovereign Mary, founding his
+pretensions on an alleged will of the late king; but his claims were
+disregarded, and the earl of Arran, head of the great house of Hamilton,
+and next heir to the throne, was declared regent by the estates. The
+cardinal was, by order of the regent, committed to the custody of Lord
+Seaton; but his imprisonment was merely nominal, and he was soon again
+at liberty and at the head of the party opposed to the English alliance.
+Arran too was soon won over to his views, dismissed the preachers by
+whom he had been surrounded, and joined the cardinal at Stirling, where
+in September 1543 Beaton crowned the young queen. In the same year he
+was raised to the office of chancellor of Scotland, and was appointed
+protonotary apostolic and legate _a latere_ by the pope. Had Beaton
+confined himself to secular politics, his strenuous opposition to the
+plans of Henry VIII. for the subjugation of Scotland would have earned
+him the lasting gratitude of his countrymen. Unfortunately politics were
+inextricably interwoven with the religious controversies of the time,
+and resistance to English influence involved resistance to the
+activities of the reformers in the church, whose ultimate victory has
+obscured the cardinal's genuine merits as a statesman. During the
+lifetime of his uncle, Beaton had shared in the efforts of the hierarchy
+to suppress the reformed doctrines, and pursued the same line of conduct
+still more systematically after his elevation to the primacy. The
+popular accounts of the persecution for which he was responsible are no
+doubt exaggerated, and it sometimes ceased for considerable periods so
+far as capital punishments were concerned. When the sufferers were of
+humble rank not much notice was taken of them. It was otherwise when a
+more distinguished victim was selected in the person of George Wishart.
+Wishart had returned to Scotland, after an absence of several years,
+about the end of 1544. His sermons produced a great effect, and he was
+protected by several barons of the English faction. These barons, with
+the knowledge and approbation of King Henry, were engaged in a plot to
+assassinate the cardinal, and in this plot Wishart is now proved to have
+been a willing agent. The cardinal, though ignorant of the details of
+the plot, perhaps suspected Wishart's knowledge of it, and in any case
+was not sorry to have an excuse for seizing one of the most eloquent
+supporters of the new opinions. For some time he was unsuccessful; but
+at last, with the aid of the regent, he arrested the preacher, and
+carried him to his castle of St Andrews. On the 28th of February 1546
+Wishart was brought to trial in the cathedral before the cardinal and
+other judges, the regent declining to take any active part, and, being
+found guilty of heresy, was condemned to death and burnt.
+
+The death of Wishart produced a deep effect on the Scottish people, and
+the cardinal became an object of general dislike, which encouraged his
+enemies to proceed with the design they had formed against him.
+Naturally resolute and fearless, he seems to have under-estimated his
+danger, the more so since his power had never seemed more secure. He
+crossed over to Angus, and took part in the wedding of his illegitimate
+daughter with the heir of the earl of Crawford. On his return to St
+Andrews he took up his residence in the castle. The conspirators, the
+chief of whom were Norman Leslie, master of Rothes, and William Kirkaldy
+of Grange, contrived to obtain admission at daybreak of the 29th of May
+1546, and murdered the cardinal under circumstances of horrible mockery
+and atrocity.
+
+The character of Beaton has already been indicated. As a statesman he
+was able, resolute, and in his general policy patriotic. As an
+ecclesiastic he maintained the privileges of the hierarchy and the
+dominant system of belief conscientiously, but always with harshness and
+sometimes with cruelty. His immoralities, like his acts of persecution,
+were exaggerated by his opponents; but his private life was undoubtedly
+a scandal to religion, and has only the excuse that it was not worse
+than that of most of his order at the time. The authorship of the
+writings ascribed to him in several biographical notices rests on no
+better authority than the apocryphal statements of Thomas Dempster.
+
+Beaton's uncle, James Beaton, or Bethune (d. 1539), archbishop of
+Glasgow and St Andrews, was lord treasurer of Scotland before he became
+archbishop of Glasgow in 1509, was chancellor from 1513 to 1526, and was
+appointed archbishop of St Andrews and primate of Scotland in 1522. He
+was one of the regents during the minority of James V., and was chiefly
+responsible for this king's action in allying himself with France and
+not with England. He burned Patrick Hamilton and other heretics, and
+died at St Andrews in September 1539.
+
+This prelate must not be confused with another, James Beaton, or Bethune
+(1517-1603), the last Roman Catholic archbishop of Glasgow. A son of
+John Bethune of Auchmuty and a nephew of Cardinal Beaton, James was a
+trusted adviser of the Scottish regent, Mary of Lorraine, widow of James
+V., and a determined foe of the reformers. In 1552 he was consecrated
+archbishop of Glasgow, but from 1560 until his death in 1603 he lived in
+Paris, acting as ambassador for Scotland at the French court.
+
+  See John Knox, _Hist. of the Reformation in Scotland_, ed. D. Laing
+  (1846-1864); John Spottiswoode, archbishop of St Andrews, _Hist. of
+  the Church of Scotland_ (Spottiswoode Soc., 1847-1851); Art. in _Dict.
+  of Nat. Biog._ and works there quoted; and A. Lang, _Hist. of
+  Scotland_, vols. i. and ii. (1900-1902).
+
+
+
+
+BEATRICE, a city and the county-seat of Gage county, in S.E. Nebraska,
+U.S.A., about 40 m. S. of Lincoln. Pop. (1900) 7875 (852 foreign-born);
+(1910) 9356. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
+Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Union Pacific railways. Beatrice
+is the seat of the state institute for feeble-minded youth, and has a
+Carnegie library. The city is very prettily situated in the valley of
+the Big Blue river, in the midst of a fine agricultural region. Among
+its manufactures are dairy products (there is a large creamery), canned
+goods, flour and grist mill products, gasoline engines, well-machinery,
+barbed wire, tiles, ploughs, windmills, corn-huskers, and hay-balers.
+Beatrice was founded in 1857, becoming the county-seat in the same year.
+It was reached by its first railway and was incorporated as a town in
+1871, was chartered as a city in 1873, and in 1901 became a city of the
+first class.
+
+
+
+
+BEATTIE, JAMES (1735-1803), Scottish poet and writer on philosophy, was
+born at Laurencekirk, Kincardine, Scotland, on the 25th of October 1735.
+His father, a small farmer and shopkeeper, died when he was very young;
+but an elder brother sent him to Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he
+gained a bursary. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster of Fordoun in
+his native county. Here he had as neighbours the eccentric Francis
+Garden (afterwards Lord Gardenstone, judge of the supreme court of
+Scotland), and Lord Monboddo. In 1758 he became an usher in the grammar
+school of Aberdeen, and two years later he was made professor of moral
+philosophy at Marischal College. Here he became closely acquainted with
+Dr Thomas Reid, Dr George Campbell, Dr Alexander Gérard and others, who
+formed a kind of literary or philosophic society known as the "Wise
+Club." They met once a fortnight to discuss speculative questions, David
+Hume's philosophy being an especial object of criticism. In 1761 Beattie
+published a small volume of _Original Poems and Translations_, which
+contained little work of any value. Its author in later days destroyed
+all the copies he found. In 1770 Beattie published his _Essay on the
+Nature and Immutability of Truth in opposition to sophistry and
+scepticism_, the object of which, as explained by its author, was to
+"prove the universality and immutability of moral sentiment" (letter to
+Sir W. Forbes, 17th January 1765). It was in fact a direct attack on
+Hume, and part of its great popularity was due to the fact. Hume is said
+to have justly complained that Beattie "had not used him like a
+gentleman," but made no answer to the book, which has no philosophical
+value. Beattie's portrait, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, hangs at Marischal
+College, Aberdeen. The philosopher is painted with the _Essay on Truth_
+in his hand, while a figure of Truth thrusts down three figures
+representing, according to Sir W. Forbes, sophistry, scepticism and
+infidelity. Reynolds in a letter to Beattie (February 1774) intimates
+that he is well enough pleased that one of the figures is identified
+with Hume, and that he intended Voltaire to be one of the group. Beattie
+visited London in 1773, and was received with the greatest honour by
+George III., who conferred on him a pension of £200 a year. In 1771 and
+1774 he published the first and second parts of _The Minstrel_, a poem
+which met with great and immediate success. The Spenserian stanza in
+which it is written is managed with smoothness and skill, and there are
+many fine descriptions of natural scenery. It is entirely on his poetry
+that Beattie's reputation rests. The best known of his minor poems are
+"The Hermit" and "Retirement."
+
+In 1773 he was offered the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh
+University, but did not accept it. Beattie made many friends, and lost
+none. "We all love Beattie," said Dr Johnson. "Mrs Thrale says, if ever
+she has another husband she will have him." He was in high favour too
+with Mrs Montagu and the other _bas bleus_. Beattie was unfortunate in
+his domestic life. Mary Dunn, whom he married in 1767, became insane,
+and his two sons died just as they were attaining manhood. The elder,
+James Hay Beattie, a young man of great promise, who at the age of
+nineteen had been associated with his father in his professorship, died
+in 1790. In 1794 the father published _Essays and Fragments in Prose and
+Verse by James Hay Beattie_ with a touching memoir. The younger brother
+died in 1796. Beattie never recovered from this second bereavement. His
+mind was seriously affected, and, although he continued to lecture
+occasionally, he neither wrote nor studied. In April 1799 he had a
+stroke of paralysis, and died on the 18th of August 1803.
+
+Beattie's other poetical works include _The Judgment of Paris_ (1765),
+and "Verses on the death of [Charles] Churchill," a bitter attack which
+the poet afterwards suppressed. The best edition is the _Poetical Works_
+(1831, new ed. 1866) in the _Aldine Edition of the British Poets_, with
+an admirable memoir by Alexander Dyce.
+
+  See also _An Account of the Life of James Beattie_ (1804), by A.
+  Bower; and _An Account of the Life and Writings of James Beattie_
+  (1807), by Sir William Forbes; a quantity of new material is to be
+  found in _Beattie and his Friends_ (1904), by the poet's
+  great-grand-niece, Margaret Forbes; and _James Beattie, the Minstrel.
+  Some Unpublished Letters_, edited by A. Mackie (Aberdeen, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEATUS, of Liebana and Valcavado, Spanish priest and monk, theologian
+and geographer, was born about 730, and died in 798. About 776 he
+published his _Commentaria in Apocalypsin_, containing one of the oldest
+Christian world-maps. He took a prominent part in the Adoptionist
+controversy, and wrote against the views of Felix of Urgel, especially
+as upheld by Elipandus of Toledo. As confessor to Queen Adosinda, wife
+of King Silo of Oviedo (774-783), and as the master of Alcuin and
+Etherius of Osma, Beatus exercised wide influence. His original map,
+which was probably intended to illustrate, above all, the distribution
+of the Apostolic missions throughout the world--depicting the head of
+Peter at Rome, of Andrew in Achaia, of Thomas in India, of James in
+Spain, and so forth--has survived in ten more or less modified copies.
+One only of these--the "Osma" of 1203--preserves the Apostolic pictures;
+among the remaining examples, that of "St Sever," now at Paris, and
+dating from about 1030, is the most valuable; that of "Valcavado,"
+recently in the Ashburnham Library, executed in 970, is the earliest;
+that of "Turin," dating from about 1100, is perhaps the most curious.
+Three others--"Valladolid" of about 1035, "Madrid" of 1047, and "London"
+of 1109--are derivatives of the "Valcavado-Ashburnham" of 970; the
+eighth, "Paris II," is connected, though not very intimately, with "St
+Sever," otherwise "Paris I"; the ninth and tenth, "Gerona" and "Paris
+III," belong to the Turin group of Beatus maps. All these works are
+emphatically of "dark-age" character; very seldom do they suggest the
+true forms of countries, seas, rivers or mountains, but they embody some
+useful information as to early medieval conditions and history. St
+Isidore appears to be their principal authority; they also draw,
+directly or indirectly, from Orosius, St Jerome, St Augustine, and
+probably from a lost map of classical antiquity, represented in a
+measure by the Peutinger Table of the 13th century.
+
+  The chief MSS. of the _Commentaria in Apocalypsin_ are (1-3) Paris,
+  National Library, Lat. 8878; Lat. nouv. acq. 1366 and 2290; (4)
+  Ashburnham MSS. xv.; (5) London, B. Mus., Addit. MSS. 11695; (6)
+  Turin, National Library 1, ii. (1); (7) Valladolid, University
+  Library, 229; (8) the MS. in the Episcopal Library at Osma, in Old
+  Castile.
+
+  There is only one complete edition of the text, that by Florez
+  (Madrid, 1770). See also Konrad Miller, _Die Weltkarte des Beatus_,
+  Heft I. of _Mappaemundi: die ältesten Weltkarten_ (Stuttgart, 1895);
+  d'Avezac in _Annales de ... géographie_ (June 1870); Beazley, _Dawn of
+  Modern Geography_, i. 387-388 (1897); ii. 549-559; 591-605 (1901).
+       (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUCAIRE, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Gard, 17
+m. E. by S. of Nîmes on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 7284.
+Beaucaire is situated on the right bank of the Rhone, opposite Tarascon,
+with which it is connected by two handsome bridges, a suspension-bridge
+of four spans and 1476 ft. in length, and a railway bridge. A triangular
+keep, a chapel, and other remains of a château (13th and 14th centuries)
+of the counts of Toulouse stand on the rocky pine-clad hill which rises
+to the north of the town; the chapel, dedicated to St Louis, belongs to
+the latest period of Romanesque architecture, and contains fine
+sculptures. The town derives celebrity from the great July fair, which
+has been held here annually since the 12th century, but has now lost its
+former importance (see FAIR). Beaucaire gives its name to the canal
+which communicates with the sea (near Aigues-Mortes) and connects it
+with the Canal du Midi, forming part of the line of communication
+between the Rhone and the Garonne. The town is an important port on the
+Rhone, and its commerce, the chief articles of which are wine, and
+freestone from quarries in the vicinity, is largely water-borne. Among
+its industries are distilling and the manufacture of furniture, and the
+preparation of vermicelli, sausages and other provisions.
+
+Beaucaire occupies the site of the ancient _Ugernum_, and several
+remains of the Roman city have been discovered, as well as (in 1734) the
+road that led from Nîmes. The present name is derived from _Bellum
+Quadrum_, a descriptive appellation applied in the middle ages either to
+the château or to the rock on which it stands. In 1125 Beaucaire came
+into the possession of the counts of Toulouse, one of whom, Raymund VI.,
+established the importance of its fairs by the grant of privileges. In
+the Wars of the League it suffered severely, and in 1632 its castle was
+destroyed by Richelieu.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUCE (Lat. _Belsia_), a physical region of north-central France,
+comprising large portions of the departments of Eure-et-Loir and
+Loir-et-Cher, and also extending into those of Loiret and Seine-et-Oise.
+It has an area of over 2800 sq. m., its limits being roughly defined by
+the course of the Essonne on the E., of the Loire on the S., and of the
+Brenne, the Loir and the Eure towards the W., though in the latter
+direction it extends somewhat beyond these boundaries. The Beauce is a
+treeless, arid and monotonous plain of limestone formation; windmills
+and church spires are the only prominent features of the landscape.
+Apart from the rivers on its borders, it is watered by insignificant
+streams, of which the Conie in the west need alone be mentioned. The
+inhabitants live in large villages, and are occupied in agriculture,
+particularly in the cultivation of wheat, for which the Beauce is
+celebrated. Clover and lucerne are the other leading crops, and large
+flocks of sheep are kept in the region. Chartres is its chief commercial
+centre.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUCHAMP, the name of several important English families. The baronial
+house of Beauchamp of Bedford was founded at the Conquest by Hugh de
+Beauchamp, who received a barony in Bedfordshire. His eldest son Simon
+left a daughter, whose husband Hugh (brother of the count of Meulan) was
+created earl of Bedford by Stephen. But the heir-male, Miles de
+Beauchamp, nephew of Simon, held Bedford Castle against the king in
+1137-1138. From his brother Payn descended the barons of Bedford, of
+whom William held Bedford Castle against the royal forces in the
+struggle for the Great Charter, and was afterwards made prisoner at the
+battle of Lincoln, while John, who sided with the barons under Simon de
+Montfort, fell at Evesham. With him the line ended, but a younger branch
+was seated at Eaton Socon, Beds., where the earthworks of their castle
+remain, and held their barony there into the 14th century.
+
+The Beauchamps of Elmley, Worcestershire, the greatest house of the
+name, were founded by the marriage of Walter de Beauchamp with the
+daughter of Urise d'Abetot, a Domesday baron, which brought him the
+shrievalty of Worcestershire, the office of a royal steward, and large
+estates. His descendant William, of Elmley, married Isabel, sister and
+eventually heiress to William Mauduit, earl of Warwick, and their son
+succeeded in 1268 to Warwick Castle and that earldom, which remained
+with his descendants in the male line till 1445. The earls of the
+Beauchamp line played a great part in English history. Guy, the 2nd,
+distinguished himself in the Scottish campaigns of Edward I., who warned
+him at his death against Piers Gaveston. Under Edward II. he was one of
+the foremost foes of Piers, who had styled him "the black cur of Arden,"
+and with whose death he was closely connected. As one of the "lords
+ordainers" he was a recognized leader of the opposition to Edward II. By
+the heiress of the Tonis he left at his death in 1315 a son Earl Thomas,
+who distinguished himself at Crécy and Poitiers, was marshal of the
+English host, and, with his brother John, one of the founders of the
+order of the Garter. In 1369 his son Earl Thomas succeeded; from 1376 to
+1379 he was among the lords striving for reform, and in the latter year
+he was appointed governor to the king. Under Richard II. he joined the
+lords appellant in their opposition to the king and his ministers, and
+was in power with them 1388-1389; treacherously arrested by Richard in
+1397, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London (the Beauchamp Tower
+being called after him), but liberated by Henry IV. on his triumph
+(1399). In 1401 he was succeeded by his son Earl Richard, a brave and
+chivalrous warrior, who defeated Owen Glendower, fought the Percys at
+Shrewsbury, and, after travelling in state through Europe and the Holy
+Land, was employed against the Lollards and afterwards as lay ambassador
+from England to the council of Constance (1414). He held command for a
+time at Calais, and took an active part in the French campaigns of Henry
+V., who created him earl and count of Aumale in Normandy. He had charge
+of the education of Henry VI., and in 1437 was appointed lieutenant of
+France and of Normandy. Dying at Rouen in 1439, he left by Isabel, widow
+of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Worcester, a son, Earl Henry, who was
+created duke of Warwick, 1445, and is alleged, but without authority, to
+have been crowned king of the Isle of Wight by Henry VI. He died, the
+last of his line, in June 1445. On the death of Anne, his only child, in
+1449, his vast inheritance passed to Anne, his sister of the whole
+blood, wife of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury ("the Kingmaker"), who
+thereupon became earl of Warwick.
+
+Of the cadet branches of the house, the oldest was that of Powyke and
+Alcester, which obtained a barony in 1447 and became extinct in 1496;
+from it sprang the Beauchamps, Lords St. Amand from 1448, of whom was
+Richard, bishop of Salisbury, first chancellor of the order of the
+Garter, and who became extinct in 1508, being the last known male heirs
+of the race. Another cadet was Sir John Beauchamp of Holt, minister of
+Richard II., who was created Lord Beauchamp of Kidderminster (the first
+baron created by patent) 1387, but beheaded 1388; the barony became
+extinct with his son in 1400. Roger, Lord Beauchamp of Bletsoe, summoned
+in 1363, is said to have been descended from the Powyke branch; his line
+ended early in the 15th century. Later cadets were John, brother of the
+3rd earl, who carried the standard at Crécy, became captain of Calais,
+and was summoned as a peer in 1350, but died unmarried; and William,
+brother of the 4th earl, who was distinguished in the French wars, and
+succeeding to the lands of the Lords Abergavenny was summoned in that
+barony 1392; his son was created earl of Worcester in 1420, but died
+without male issue in 1422; from his daughter, who married Sir Edward
+Neville, descended the Lords Abergavenny.
+
+The Lords Beauchamp of "Hache" (1299-1361) were so named from their seat
+of Hatch Beauchamp, Somerset, and were of a wholly distinct family.
+Their title, "Beauchamp of Hache," was revived for the Seymours in 1536
+and 1559. The title of "Beauchamp of Powyke" was revived as a barony in
+1806 for Richard Lygon (descended through females from the Beauchamps of
+Powyke), who was created Earl Beauchamp in 1815.
+
+  See Sir W. Dugdale, _Baronage_ (1675-1676) and _Warwickshire_ (2nd
+  ed., 1730); G.E. C[okayne], _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); W.
+  Courthope, _Rows Roll_ (1859); and J.H. Round, _Geoffrey de
+  Mandeville_ (1892).     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE, French historian and man of letters, was born at
+Monaco in 1767, and died in 1832. In 1784 he entered a Sardinian
+regiment of marines, but on the outbreak of war with the French
+Republic, he refused to fight in what he considered an unjust cause, and
+was imprisoned for several months. After being liberated he took up his
+residence in Paris, where he obtained a post in one of the government
+offices. On the fall of Robespierre, Beauchamp was transferred to the
+_bureau_ of the minister of police, and charged with the superintendence
+of the press. This situation opened up to him materials of which he made
+use in his first and most popular historical work, _Histoire de la
+Vendée et des Chouans_, 3 vols., 1806. The book, received with great
+favour by the people, was displeasing to the authorities. The third
+edition was confiscated; its writer was deprived of his post, and in
+1809 was compelled to leave Paris and take up his abode in Reims. In
+1811 he obtained permission to return, and again received a government
+appointment. This he had to resign on the Restoration, but was rewarded
+with a small pension, which was continued to his widow after his death.
+
+Beauchamp wrote extensively for the public journals and for the
+magazines. His biographical and historical works are numerous, and those
+dealing with contemporary events are valuable, owing to the sources at
+his disposal. They must, however, be used with great caution. The
+following are worth mention:--_Vie politique, militaire et privée du
+général Moreau_ (1814); _Catastrophe de Murat, ou Récit de la dernière
+révolution de Naples_ (1815); _Histoire de la guerre d'Espagne et du
+Portugal, 1807-1813_ (2 vols., 1810); _Collection de mémoires relatifs
+aux révolutions d'Espagne_ (2 vols., 1824); _Histoire de la révolution
+de Piémont_ (2 vols., 1821, 1823); _Mémoires secrets et inédits pour
+servir à l'histoire contemporaine_ (2 vols., 1825). The _Mémoires de
+Fouché_ have also been ascribed to him, but it seems certain that he
+only revised and completed a work really composed by Fouché himself.
+
+  See an article by Louis Madelin in _La Revolution française_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT, the name of the family descended from the union of John of
+Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, with Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford,
+taken from a castle in Anjou which belonged to John of Gaunt. There were
+four children of this union--John, created earl of Somerset and marquess
+of Dorset; Henry, afterwards bishop of Winchester and cardinal (see
+BEAUFORT, HENRY); Thomas, made duke of Exeter and chancellor; and Joan,
+who married Ralph Neville, first earl of Westmorland, and died in 1440.
+In 1396, some years after the birth of these children, John of Gaunt and
+Catherine were married, and in 1397 the Beauforts were declared
+legitimate by King Richard II. In 1407 this action was confirmed by
+their half-brother, King Henry IV., but on this occasion they were
+expressly excluded from the succession to the English throne.
+
+JOHN BEAUFORT, earl of Somerset (c. 1373-1410), assisted Richard II. in
+1397 when the king attacked the lords appellants, and made himself an
+absolute ruler. For these services he was made marquess of Dorset, but
+after the deposition of Richard in 1399, he was degraded to his former
+rank as earl. In 1401, however, he was declared loyal, and appeared
+later in command of the English fleet. He married Margaret, daughter of
+Thomas Holland, second earl of Kent, and died in March 1410, leaving
+three sons, Henry, John, and Edmund, and two daughters, Jane or Joan,
+who married James I., king of Scotland, and Margaret, who married Thomas
+Courtenay, earl of Devon.
+
+THOMAS BEAUFORT (d. 1426) held various high offices under Henry IV., and
+took a leading part in suppressing the rising in the north in 1405. He
+became chancellor in 1410, but resigned this office in January 1412 and
+took part in the expedition to France in the same year. He was then
+created earl of Dorset, and when Henry V. became king in 1413, he was
+made lieutenant of Aquitaine and took charge of Harfleur when this town
+passed into the possession of the English. In 1416 he became lieutenant
+of Normandy, and was created duke of Exeter; and returning to England he
+compelled the Scots to raise the siege of Roxburgh. Crossing to France
+in 1418 with reinforcements for Henry V., he took an active part in the
+subsequent campaign, was made captain of Rouen, and went to the court of
+France to treat for peace. He was then captured by the French at Baugé,
+but was soon released and returned to England when he heard of the death
+of Henry V. in August 1422. He was one of Henry's executors, and it is
+probable that the king entrusted his young son, King Henry VI., to his
+care. However this may be, Exeter did not take a very prominent part in
+the government, although he was a member of the council of regency.
+Having again shared in the French war, the duke died at Greenwich about
+the end of the year 1426. He was buried at Bury St. Edmunds, where his
+remains were found in good condition 350 years later. He married
+Margaret, daughter of Sir Thomas Neville of Nornby, but left no issue.
+The Beaufort family was continued by HENRY BEAUFORT (1401-1419), the
+eldest son of John Beaufort, earl of Somerset, who was succeeded as earl
+of Somerset by his brother JOHN BEAUFORT (1403-1444). The latter fought
+under Henry V. in the French wars, and having been taken prisoner
+remained in France as a captive until 1437. Soon after his release he
+returned to the war, and after the death of Richard Beauchamp, earl of
+Warwick, in 1439, acted as commander of the English forces, and, with
+his brother Edmund, was successful in recapturing Harfleur. Although
+chagrined when Richard, duke of York, was made regent of France,
+Beaufort led an expedition to France in 1442, and in 1443 was made duke
+of Somerset. He died, probably by his own hand, in May 1444. He married
+Margaret, daughter of Sir John Beauchamp, and left a daughter, MARGARET
+BEAUFORT, afterwards countess of Richmond and Derby, who married, for
+her first husband, Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, by whom she became
+the mother of King Henry VII. In this way the blood of the Beauforts was
+mingled with that of the Tudors, and of all the subsequent occupants of
+the English throne.
+
+The title of earl of Somerset descended on the death of John Beaufort in
+1444 to his brother EDMUND BEAUFORT, duke of Somerset (q.v.), who was
+killed at St Albans in 1455. By his marriage with Eleanor Beauchamp,
+daughter of the fifth earl of Warwick, he left three sons, Henry, Edmund
+and John, and a daughter, Margaret.
+
+HENRY BEAUFORT (1436-1464) became duke of Somerset in 1455, and soon
+began to take part in the struggle against Richard, duke of York, but
+failed to dislodge Richard's ally, Richard Neville, earl of Warwick,
+from Calais. He took part in the victory of the Lancastrians at
+Wakefield in 1460, escaped from the carnage at Towton in 1461, and
+shared the attainder of Henry VI. in the same year. In May 1464 he was
+captured at Hexham and was beheaded immediately after the battle. The
+title of duke of Somerset was assumed by his brother, EDMUND BEAUFORT
+(c. 1438-1471), who fled from the country after the disasters to the
+Lancastrian arms, but returned to England in 1471, in which year he
+fought at Tewkesbury, and in spite of a promise of pardon was beheaded
+after the battle on the 6th of May 1471. His younger brother JOHN
+BEAUFORT had been killed probably at this battle, and so on the
+execution of Edmund the family became extinct.
+
+MARGARET BEAUFORT married Humphrey, earl of Stafford, and was the mother
+of Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham. Henry Beaufort, third duke of
+Somerset (d. 1464), left an illegitimate son, Charles Somerset, who was
+created earl of Worcester by Henry VIII. in 1514. His direct descendant,
+Henry Somerset, fifth earl of Worcester, was a loyal partisan of Charles
+I. and in 1642 was created marquess of Worcester. His grandson, Henry,
+the third marquess, was made duke of Beaufort in 1682, and the present
+duke of Beaufort is his direct descendant.
+
+  See Thomas Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, edited by H.T. Riley
+  (London, 1863-1864); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_,
+  vols. ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895); _The Paston Letters_, edited by
+  James Gairdner (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT, FRANÇOIS DE VENDÔME, DUC DE (1616-1669), a picturesque figure
+in French history of the 17th century, was the second son of César de
+Vendôme, and grandson of Henry IV., by Gabrielle d'Estrées. He began his
+career in the army and served in the first campaigns of the Thirty
+Years' War, but his ambitions and unscrupulous character soon found a
+more congenial field in the intrigues of the court. In 1642 he joined in
+the conspiracy of Cinq Mars against Richelieu, and upon its failure was
+obliged to live in exile in England until Richelieu's death. Returning
+to France, he became the centre of a group, known as the "Importants,"
+in which court ladies predominated, especially the duchess of Chevreuse
+and the duchess of Montbazon. For an instant after the king's death,
+this group seemed likely to prevail, and Beaufort to be the head of the
+new government. But Mazarin gained the office, and Beaufort, accused of
+a plot to murder Mazarin, was imprisoned in Vincennes, in September
+1643. He escaped on the 31st of May 1648, just in time to join the
+Fronde, which began in August 1648. He was then with the parlement and
+the princes, against Mazarin. His personal appearance, his affectation
+of popular manners, his quality of grandson (legitimized), of Henry IV.,
+rendered him a favourite of the Parisians, who acclaimed him everywhere.
+He was known as the _Roi des Halles_ ("king of the markets"), and
+popular subscriptions were opened to pay his debts. He had hopes of
+becoming prime minister. But among the members of the parlement and the
+other leaders of the Fronde, he was regarded as merely a tool. His
+intelligence was but mediocre, and he showed no talent during the war.
+Mazarin, on his return to Paris, exiled him in October 1652; and he was
+only allowed to return in 1654, when the cardinal had no longer any
+reason to fear him. Henceforth Beaufort no longer intrigued. In 1658 he
+was named general superintendent of navigation, or chief of the naval
+army, and faithfully served the king in naval wars from that on. In 1664
+he directed the expedition against the pirates of Algiers. In 1669 he
+led the French troops defending Candia against the Turks, and was killed
+in a night sortie, on the I5th of June 1669. His body was brought back
+to France with great pomp, and official honours rendered it.
+
+  See the memoirs of the time, notably those of La Rochefoucauld, the
+  Cardinal de Retz, and Madame de Motteville. Also D'Avenel, _Richelieu
+  et la monarchic absolue_ (1884); Cheruel, _La France sous le ministère
+  Mazarin_ (1879); and _La France sous la minorité de Louis XIV_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT, HENRY (c. 1377-1447), English cardinal and bishop of
+Winchester, was the second son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, by
+Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford. His parents were not married until
+1396, and in 1397 King Richard II. declared the four children of this
+union to be legitimate. Henry spent some of his youth at Aix
+la-Chapelle, and having entered the church received various
+appointments, and was consecrated bishop of Lincoln in July 1398. When
+his half-brother became king as Henry IV. in 1399, Beaufort began to
+take a prominent place in public life; he was made chancellor in 1403,
+but he resigned this office in 1404, when he was translated from Lincoln
+to Winchester as the successor of William of Wykeham. He exercised
+considerable influence over the prince of Wales, afterwards King Henry
+V., and although he steadily supported the house of Lancaster he opposed
+the party led by Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury. A dispute
+over money left by John Beaufort, marquess of Dorset, caused or widened
+a breach in the royal family which reached a climax in 1411. The details
+are not quite clear, but it seems tolerably certain that the prince and
+the bishop, anxious to retain their power, sought to induce Henry IV. to
+abdicate in favour of his son. Angry at this request, the king dismissed
+his son from the council, and Beaufort appears to have shared his
+disgrace. When Henry V. ascended the throne in 1413 the bishop again
+became chancellor and took a leading part in the government until 1417,
+when he resigned his office, and proceeded to the council which was then
+sitting at Constance. His arrival had an important effect on the
+deliberations of this council, and the compromise which was subsequently
+made between the rival parties was largely his work. Grateful for
+Beaufort's services, the new pope Martin V. offered him a cardinal's hat
+which Henry V. refused to allow him to accept. Returning to England, he
+remained loyal to Henry; and after the king's death in 1422 became a
+member of the council and was the chief opponent of the wild and selfish
+schemes of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. In 1424 he became chancellor
+for the third time, and was mainly responsible for the conduct of
+affairs during Gloucester's expedition to Hainaut. He was disliked by
+the citizens of London; and this ill-feeling was heightened when
+Gloucester, who was a favourite of the Londoners, returned to England
+and was doubtless reproached by Beaufort for the folly of his
+undertaking. A riot took place in London, and at the bishop's entreaty,
+the protector, John, duke of Bedford, came back to England. As this
+dispute was still unsettled when the parliament met at Leicester in
+February 1426, Bedford and the lords undertook to arbitrate. Charged by
+Gloucester with treason against Henry IV. and his successors, Beaufort
+denied the accusations. But although a reconciliation was effected, the
+bishop evidently regarded this as a defeat; and having resigned the
+chancellorship his energies were diverted into another channel.
+
+Anxious to secure his aid for the crusade against the Hussites, Pope
+Martin again offered him a cardinal's hat, which Beaufort accepted. He
+went to France in 1427, and was then appointed papal legate for Germany,
+Hungary and Bohemia; and proceeding eastwards, he made a bold but futile
+effort to rally the crusaders at Tachau. Returning to England to raise
+money for a fresh crusade, he was received with great state in London;
+but his acceptance of the cardinalate had weakened his position and
+Gloucester refused to recognize his legatine commission. Beaufort gave
+way on this question, but an unsuccessful attempt was made in 1429 to
+deprive him of his see. Having raised some troops he set out for
+Bohemia; but owing to the disasters which had just attended the English
+arms in France, he was induced to allow these soldiers to serve in the
+French war; and in February 1431 the death of Martin V. ended his
+commission as legate. Meanwhile an attempt on the part of Gloucester to
+exclude the cardinal from the council had failed, and it was decided
+that his attendance was required except during the discussion of
+questions between the king and the papacy. He accompanied King Henry VI.
+to Normandy in April 1430, and in December 1431 crowned him king of
+France. About this time Gloucester made another attempt to deprive
+Beaufort of his see, and it was argued in the council that as a cardinal
+he could not hold an English bishopric. The general council was not
+inclined to press the case against him; but the privy council, more
+clerical and more hostile, sealed writs of praemunire and attachment
+against him, and some of his jewels were seized. On his return to
+England he attended the parliament in May 1432, and asked to hear the
+charges against him. The king declared him loyal, and a statute was
+passed freeing him from any penalties which he might have incurred under
+the Statute of Provisors or in other ways. He supported Bedford in his
+attempts to restore order to the finances. In August 1435 he attended
+the congress at Arras, but was unable to make peace with France; and
+after Bedford's death his renewed efforts to this end were again opposed
+by Gloucester, who favoured a continuance of the war. On two occasions
+the council advised the king to refuse him permission to leave England,
+but in 1437 he obtained a full pardon for all his offences. In 1439 and
+1440 he went to France on missions of peace, and apparently at his
+instigation the English council decided to release Charles, duke of
+Orleans. This step further irritated Gloucester, who drew up and
+presented to the king a long and serious list of charges against
+Beaufort; but the council defended the policy of the cardinal and
+ignored the personal accusations against him. Beaufort, however,
+gradually retired from public life, and after witnessing the conclusion
+of the treaty of Troyes died at Wolvesey palace, Winchester, on the 10th
+of April 1447. The "black despair" which Shakespeare has cast round his
+dying hours appears to be without historical foundation. He was buried
+in Winchester cathedral, the building of which he finished. He also
+refounded and enlarged the hospital of St Cross near Winchester.
+
+Beaufort was a man of considerable wealth, and on several occasions he
+lent large sums of money to the king. He was the lover of Lady Alice
+Fitzalan, daughter of Richard, earl of Arundel, by whom he had a
+daughter, Joan, who married Sir Edward Stradling of St Donat's in
+Glamorganshire. His interests were secular and he was certainly proud
+and ambitious; but Stubbs has pictured the fairer side of his character
+when he observes that Beaufort "was merciful in his political enmities,
+enlightened in his foreign policy; that he was devotedly faithful, and
+ready to sacrifice his wealth and labour for the king; that from the
+moment of his death everything began to go wrong, and went worse and
+worse until all was lost."
+
+  See _Historiae Croylandensis continuatio_, translated by H.T. Riley
+  (London, 1854); _Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council_,
+  edited by N.H. Nicolas (London, 1834-1837); Aeneas Sylvius
+  Piccolomini, _Historica Bohemica_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1707); W.
+  Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895): M.
+  Creighton, _A History of the Papacy during the Period of the
+  Reformation_ (London, 1897); and L.B. Radford, _Henry Beaufort_
+  (1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE (d. 1795), French historian, of whose life little is
+known. In 1738 he published at Utrecht a _Dissertation sur l'incertitude
+des cinq premiers siècles de l'histoire romaine_, in which he showed
+what untrustworthy guides even the historians of highest repute, such as
+Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were for that period, and pointed
+out by what methods and by the aid of what documents truly scientific
+bases might be given to its history. This was an ingenious plea, bold
+for its time, against traditional history such as Rollin was writing at
+that very moment. A German, Christopher Saxius, endeavoured to refute it
+in a series of articles published in vols. i.-iii. of the _Miscellanea
+Liviensia_. Beaufort replied by some brief and ironical _Remarques_ in
+the appendix to the second edition of his _Dissertation_ (1750).
+Beaufort also wrote an _Histoire de César Germanicus_ (Leyden, 1761),
+and _La République romaine, ou plan général de L'ancien gouvernement de
+Rome_ (The Hague, 1766, 2 vols. quarto). Though not a scholar of the
+first rank, Beaufort has at least the merit of having been a pioneer in
+raising the question, afterwards elaborated by Niebuhr, as to the
+credibility of early Roman history.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT SCALE, a series of numbers from 0 to 12 arranged by Admiral Sir
+Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) in 1805, to indicate the strength of the
+wind from a calm, force 0, to a hurricane, force 12, with sailing
+directions such as "5, smacks shorten sails" for coast purposes, and
+"royals, &c., 'full and by'" for the open sea. An exhaustive report was
+made in 1906 by the Meteorological Office on the relation between the
+estimates of wind-force according to Beaufort's scale and the velocities
+recorded by anemometers belonging to the office, from which the
+following table is taken:--
+
+  +---------------+--------------------+------------------+
+  |               |                    | Limits of hourly |
+  |Beaufort scale.| Corresponding wind.|     velocity.    |
+  +---------------+--------------------+------------------+
+  |    Numbers.   |                    |  Miles per hour. |
+  |       0       |    Calm            | Under 2          |
+  |      1-3      |    Light breeze    |       2-12       |
+  |      4-5      |    Moderate wind   |      13-23       |
+  |      6-7      |    Strong wind     |      24-37       |
+  |      8-9      |    Gale            |      38-55       |
+  |     10-11     |    Storm           |      56-75       |
+  |      12       |    Hurricane       |Above 75          |
+  +---------------+--------------------+------------------+
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT WEST, in Cape province, South Africa, the capital of a division
+of this name, 339 m. by rail N.E. of Cape Town. Pop.(1904) 5481. The
+largest town in the western part of the Great Karroo, it lies, at an
+elevation of 2792 ft., at the foot of the southern slopes of the
+Nieuwveld mountains. It has several fine public buildings and the
+streets are lined with avenues of pear trees, while an abundant supply
+of water, luxuriant orchards, fields and gardens give it the appearance
+of an oasis in the desert. It is a favourite resort of invalids. The
+town was founded in 1819, and in its early days was largely resorted to
+by Griquas and Bechuana for the sale of ivory, skins and cattle. The
+Beaufort West division has an area of 6374 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of
+10,762, 45% being whites. Sheep-farming is the principal industry.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUGENCY, a town of central France, in the department of Loiret, 16 m.
+S.W. of Orleans on the Orleans railway, between that city and Blois.
+Pop. (1906) 2993. It is situated at the foot of vine-clad hills on the
+right bank of the Loire, to the left bank of which it is united by a
+bridge of twenty-six arches, many of them dating from the 13th century.
+The chief buildings are the château, mainly of the 15th century, of
+which the massive donjon of the 11th century known as the Tour de César
+is the oldest portion; and the abbey-church of Notre-Dame, a building in
+the Romanesque style of architecture, frequently restored. Some of the
+buildings of the Benedictine abbey, to which this church belonged,
+remain. The hôtel de ville, the façade of which is decorated with
+armorial bearings of Renaissance carving, and the church of St Étienne,
+an unblemished example of Romanesque architecture, are of interest.
+Several old houses, some remains of the medieval ramparts and the Tour
+de l'Horloge, an ancient gateway, are also preserved. The town carries
+on trade in grain, and has flour mills.
+
+The lords of Beaugency attained considerable importance in the 11th,
+12th and 13th centuries; at the end of the 13th century the fief was
+sold to the crown, and afterwards passed to the house of Orleans, then
+to those of Dunois and Longueville and ultimately again to that of
+Orleans. Joan of Arc defeated the English here in 1429. In 1567 the town
+was sacked and burned by the Protestants. On the 8th, 9th and 10th of
+December 1870 the German army, commanded by the grand-duke of
+Mecklenburg, defeated the French army of the Loire, under General
+Chanzy, in the battle of Beaugency (or Villorceau-Josnes), which was
+fought on the left bank of the Loire to the N.W. of Beaugency.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUHARNAIS, the name of a French family, well known from the 15th
+century onward in Orléanais, where its members occupied honourable
+positions. One of them, Jean Jacques de Beauharnais, seigneur de
+Miramion, had for wife Marie Bonneau, who in 1661 founded a female
+charitable order, called after her the Miramiones. François de
+Beauharnais, marquis de la Ferté-Beauharnais, was a deputy in the
+states-general of 1789, and a devoted defender of the monarchy. He
+emigrated and served in Condé's army. Later he gave his adherence to
+Napoleon, and became ambassador in Etruria and Spain; he died in 1823.
+His brother Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, married Josephine Tascher
+de la Pagerie (afterwards the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte) and had two
+children by her--Eugène de Beauharnais (q.v.) and Hortense, who married
+Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, and became mother of Napoleon III.
+Claude de Beauharnais, comte des Roches-Baritaud, uncle of the marquis
+and of the vicomte de Beauharnais, served in the navy and became a
+vice-admiral. He married Marie Anne Françoise (called Fanny) Mouchard, a
+woman of letters who had a celebrated salon. His son, also named Claude
+(d. 1819), was created a peer of France in 1814, and was the father of
+Stéphanie de Beauharnais, who married the grand-duke of Baden. The house
+of Beauharnais is still represented in Russia by the dukes of
+Leuchtenberg, descendants of Prince Eugène.     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUHARNAIS, EUGÈNE DE (1781-1824), step-son of Napoleon I., was born at
+Paris on the 3rd of September 1781. He was the son of the general
+Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais (1760-1794) and Josephine Tascher de
+la Pagerie. The father, who was born in Martinique, and served in the
+American War of Independence, took part in the politics of the French
+Revolution, and in June-August 1793 commanded the army of the Rhine. His
+failure to fulfil the tasks imposed on him (especially that of the
+relief of Mainz) led to his being arrested, and he was guillotined (23rd
+June 1794) not long before the fall of Robespierre. The marriage of his
+widow Josephine to Napoleon Bonaparte in March 1796 was at first
+resented by Eugène and his sister Hortense; but their step-father proved
+to be no less kind than watchful over their interests. In the Italian
+campaigns of 1796-1797 Eugène served as aide-de-camp to Bonaparte, and
+accompanied him to Egypt in the same capacity. There he distinguished
+himself by his activity and bravery, and was wounded during the siege of
+Acre. Bonaparte brought him back to France in the autumn of 1799, and it
+is known that the intervention of Eugène and Hortense helped to bring
+about the reconciliation which then took place between Bonaparte and
+Josephine. The services rendered by Eugène at the time of the _coup
+d'état_ of Brumaire (1799) and during the Consulate (1799-1804) served
+to establish his fortunes, despite the efforts of some of the Bonapartes
+to destroy the influence of the Beauharnais and bring about the divorce
+of Josephine.
+
+After the proclamation of the Empire, Eugène received the title of
+prince, with a yearly stipend of 200,000 francs, and became general of
+the _chasseurs à cheval_ of the Guard. A year later, when the Italian
+republic became the kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon as king, Eugène
+received the title of viceroy, with large administrative powers. (See
+ITALY.) Not long after the battle of Austerlitz (2nd December 1805)
+Napoleon dignified the elector of Bavaria with the title of king and
+arranged a marriage between Eugène and the princess Augusta Amelia of
+Bavaria. On the whole the government of Eugène gave general satisfaction
+in the kingdom of Italy; it comprised the districts between the Simplon
+Pass and Rimini, and also after the peace of Presburg (December 1805),
+Istria and Dalmatia. In 1808 (on the further partition of the papal
+states) the frontier of the kingdom was extended southwards to the
+borders of the kingdom of Naples, in the part known as the Abruzzi. In
+the campaign of 1809 Eugène commanded the army of Italy, with General
+(afterwards Marshal) Macdonald as his _adlatus_. The battle of Sacile,
+where he fought against the Austrian army of the Archduke John, did not
+yield proofs of military talent on the part of Eugène or of Macdonald;
+but on the retreat of the enemy into Austrian territory (owing to the
+disasters of their main army on the Danube) Eugène's forces pressed them
+vigorously and finally won an important victory at Raab in the heart of
+the Austrian empire. Then, joining the main army under Napoleon, in the
+island of Lobau in the Danube, near Vienna, Eugène and Macdonald
+acquitted themselves most creditably in the great battle of Wagram (6th
+July 1809). In 1810 Eugène received the title of grand-duke of
+Frankfort. Equally meritorious were his services and those of the large
+Italian contingent in the campaign of 1812 in Russia. He and they
+distinguished themselves especially at the battles of Borodino and
+Malojaroslavitz; and on several occasions during the disastrous retreat
+which ensued, Eugène's soldierly constancy and devotion to Napoleon
+shone out conspicuously in 1813-1814, especially by contrast with the
+tergiversations of Murat. On the downfall of the Napoleonic régime
+Eugène retired to Munich, where he continued to reside, with the title
+duke of Leuchtenberg and prince of Eichstädt. He died in 1824, leaving
+two surviving sons and three daughters.
+
+  For further details concerning Eugène see _Mémoires et correspondance
+  politique et militaire du Prince Eugène_, edited by Baron A. Ducasse
+  (10 vols., Paris, 1858-1860); F.J.A. Schneidewind, _Prinz Eugen,
+  Herzog van Leuchtenberg in den Feldzügen seiner Zeit_ (Stockholm,
+  1857); A. Purlitzer, _Une Idylle sous Napoléon I^er: le roman du
+  Prince Eugène_ (Paris, 1895); F. Masson, _Napoléon et sa famille_
+  (Paris, 1897-1900).     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUJEU. The French province of Beaujolais was formed by the development
+of the ancient seigniory of Beaujeu (department of Rhône, arrondissement
+of Villefranche). The lords of Beaujeu held from the 10th century
+onwards a high rank in feudal society. In 1210 Guichard of Beaujeu was
+sent by Philip Augustus on an embassy to Pope Innocent III.; he was
+present at the French attack on Dover, where he died in 1216. His son
+Humbert took part in the wars against the Albigenses and became
+constable of France. Isabeau, daughter of this Humbert, married Renaud,
+count of Forez; and their second son, Louis, assumed the name and arms
+of Beaujeu. His son Guichard, called the Great, had a very warlike life,
+fighting for the king of France, for the count of Savoy and for his own
+hand. He was taken prisoner by the Dauphinois in 1325, thereby losing
+important estates. Guichard's son, Edward of Beaujeu, marshal of France,
+fought at Crécy, and perished in the battle of Ardres in 1351. His son
+died without issue in 1374, and was succeeded by his cousin, Edward of
+Beaujeu, lord of Perreux, who gave his estates of Beaujolais and Dombes
+to Louis II., duke of Bourbon, in 1400. Pierre de Bourbon was lord of
+Beaujeu in 1474, when he married Anne of France, daughter of Louis XI.,
+and this is why that princess retained the name of lady of Beaujeu.
+Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., got Beaujolais assigned to
+herself despite the claims of the constable de Bourbon. In 1531 the
+province was reunited to the crown; but Francis II. gave it back to the
+Montpensier branch of the Bourbons in 1560, from which house it passed
+to that of Orleans. The title of comte de Beaujolais was borne by a son
+of Philippe "Égalité," duke of Orleans, born in 1779, died in 1808.
+     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BEAULIEU, a village in the French department of Alpes-Maritimes. Pop.
+(1906) 1460. It is about 4 m. by rail E. of Nice (1¼ m. from
+Villefranche), and on the main line between Marseilles and Mentone; it
+is also connected with Nice and Mentone by an electric tramway. Of late
+years it has become a much frequented winter resort, and many handsome
+villas (among them that built by the 3rd marquess of Salisbury) have
+been constructed in the neighbourhood. The harbour has been extended and
+adapted for the reception of yachts.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAULY (pronounced _Bewley_; a corruption of _Beaulieu_), a town of
+Inverness-shire, Scotland, on the Beauly, 10 m. W. of Inverness by the
+Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 855. Its chief interest is the beautiful
+remains of the Priory of St John, founded in 1230 by John Bisset of the
+Aird, for Cistercian monks. At the Reformation the buildings (except the
+church, now a ruin) passed into the possession of Lord Lovat. On the
+right bank of the river is the site of Lovat Castle, which once belonged
+to the Bissets, but was presented by James VI. to Hugh Fraser and
+afterwards demolished. To the south-east is the church of Kirkhill
+containing the vault of the Lovats. Three miles south of Beauly is
+Beaufort Castle, the chief seat of the Lovats, a fine modern mansion in
+the Scottish baronial style. It occupies the site of a fortress erected
+in the time of Alexander II., which was besieged in 1303 by Edward I.
+This was replaced by several castles in succession, of which one--Castle
+Dounie--was taken by Cromwell and burned by the duke of Cumberland in
+1746, the conflagration being witnessed from a neighbouring hill by
+Simon, Lord Lovat, before his capture on Loch Morar. The land around
+Beauly is fertile and the town drives a brisk trade in coal, timber,
+lime, grain and fish.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMANOIR, a seigniory in what is now the department of Côtes-du-Nord,
+France, which gave its name to an illustrious family. Jean de
+Beaumanoir, marshal of Brittany for Charles of Blois, and captain of
+Josselin, is remembered for his share in the famous battle of the
+Thirty. This battle, sung by an unknown trouvère and retold with
+variations by Froissart, was an episode in the struggle for the
+succession to the duchy of Brittany between Charles of Blois, supported
+by the king of France, and John of Montfort, supported by the king of
+England. John Bramborough, the English captain of Ploërmel, having
+continued his ravages, in spite of a truce, in the district commanded by
+the captain of Josselin, Jean de Beaumanoir sent him a challenge, which
+resulted in a fight between thirty picked champions, knights and
+squires, on either side, which took place on the 25th of March 1351,
+near Ploërmel. Beaumanoir commanded thirty Bretons, Bramborough a mixed
+force of twenty Englishmen, six German mercenaries and four Breton
+partisans of Montfort. The battle, fought with swords, daggers and axes,
+was of the most desperate character, in its details very reminiscent of
+the last fight of the Burgundians in the _Nibelungenlied_, especially in
+the celebrated advice of Geoffrey du Bois to his wounded leader, who was
+asking for water: "Drink your blood, Beaumanoir; that will quench your
+thirst!" In the end the victory was decided by Guillaume de Montauban,
+who mounted his horse and overthrew seven of the English champions, the
+rest being forced to surrender. All the combatants on either side were
+either dead or seriously wounded, Bramborough being among the slain. The
+prisoners were well treated and released on payment of a small ransom.
+(See _Le Poème du combat des Trente_, in the _Panthéon littéraire_;
+Froissart, _Chroniques_, ed. S. Luce, c. iv. pp. 45 and 110 ff., and pp.
+338-340).
+
+JEAN DE BEAUMANOIR (1551-1614), seigneur and afterwards marquis de
+Lavardin, count of Nègrepelisse by marriage, served first in the
+Protestant army, but turned Catholic after the massacre of St
+Bartholomew, in which his father had been killed, and then fought
+against Henry of Navarre. When that prince became king of France,
+Lavardin changed over to his side, and was made a marshal of France. He
+was governor of Maine, commanded an army in Burgundy in 1602, was
+ambassador extraordinary to England in 1612, and died in 1614. One of
+his descendants, Henry Charles, marquis de Lavardin (1643-1701), was
+sent as ambassador to Rome in 1689, on the occasion of a difference
+between Louis XIV. and Innocent XI.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE RÉMI, SIRE DE (c. 1250-1296), French jurist, was
+born in the early part of the 13th century and died in 1296. The few
+facts known regarding his life are to be gathered from legal documents
+in which his name occurs. From these it appears that in 1273 he filled
+the post of _bailli_ at Senlis, and in 1280 held a similar office at
+Clermont. He is also occasionally referred to as presiding at the
+assizes held at various towns. His great work is entitled _Coutumes de
+Beauvoisis_ and first appeared in 1690, a second edition with
+introduction by A.A. Beugnot being published in 1842. It is regarded as
+one of the best works bearing on old French law, and was frequently
+referred to with high admiration by Montesquieu. Beaumanoir also
+obtained fame as a poet, and left over 20,000 verses, the best known of
+his poems being _La Manekine_, _Jehan et Blonde_ and _Salut d'amour_.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE (1732-1799), French dramatist,
+was born in Paris on the 24th of January 1732. His father, a watchmaker
+named Caron, brought him up to the same trade. He was an unusually
+precocious and lively boy, shrewd, sagacious, passionately fond of music
+and imbued with a strong desire for rising in the world. At the age of
+twenty-one he invented a new escapement for watches, which was pirated
+by a rival maker. Young Caron at once published his grievance in the
+_Mercure_, and had the matter referred to the Academy of Sciences, which
+decided in his favour. This affair brought him into notice at court; he
+was appointed, or at least called himself, watchmaker to the king, who
+ordered from him a watch similar to one he had made for Mme de
+Pompadour. His handsome figure and cool assurance enabled him to make
+his way at court. Mme Franquet, the wife of an old court official,
+persuaded her husband to make over his office to young Caron, and, on
+her husband's death, a few months later, married the handsome
+watchmaker. Caron at the same time assumed the name Beaumarchais; and
+four years later, by purchasing the office of secretary to the king
+obtained a patent of nobility.
+
+At court his musical talents brought him under the notice of the king's
+sisters, who engaged him to teach them the harp. This position enabled
+him to confer a slight favour on the great banker Joseph Duverney, who
+testified his gratitude by giving Beaumarchais a share in his
+speculations. The latter turned the opportunity to good account, and
+soon realized a handsome fortune. In 1764 he took a journey to Spain,
+partly with commercial objects in view, but principally on account of
+the Clavijo affair. José Clavijo y Fajardo had twice promised to marry
+the sister of Beaumarchais, and had failed to keep his word. The
+adventure had not the tragic ending of Goethe's _Clavigo_, for
+Beaumarchais did not pursue his vengeance beyond words. Beaumarchais
+made his first essay as a writer for the stage with the sentimental
+drama _Eugénie_ (1767), in which he drew largely on the Clavijo
+incident. This was followed after an interval of two years by _Les Deux
+Amis_, but neither play had more than moderate success. His first wife
+had died within a year of the marriage and in 1768 Beaumarchais married
+Mme Lévêque. Her death in 1771 was the signal for unfounded rumours of
+poisoning. Duverney died in 1770; but some time before his death a
+duplicate settlement of the affairs between him and Beaumarchais had
+been drawn up, in which the banker acknowledged himself debtor to
+Beaumarchais for 15,000 francs. Duverney's heir, the comte de La Blache,
+denied the validity of the document though without directly stigmatizing
+it as a forgery. The matter was put to trial. Beaumarchais gained his
+cause, but his adversary at once carried the case before the parlement.
+In the meantime the duc de Chaulnes forced Beaumarchais into a quarrel
+over Mdlle Menard, an actress at the Comédie Italienne, which resulted
+in the imprisonment of both parties. This moment was chosen by La Blache
+to demand judgment from the parlement in the matter of the Duverney
+agreement. Beaumarchais was released from prison for three or four days
+to see his judges. He was, however, unable to obtain an interview with
+Goezman, the member of the parlement appointed to report on his case. At
+last, just before the day on which the report was to be given in, he was
+informed privately that, by presenting 200 _louis_ to Mme Goezman and 15
+to her secretary, the desired interview might take place, if the result
+should prove unfavourable the money would be refunded. The money was
+sent and the interview obtained; but the decision was adverse, and 200
+_louis_ were returned, the 15 going as business expenses to the
+secretary. Beaumarchais, who had learned that there was no secretary
+save Mme Goezman herself, insisted on restitution of the 15 _louis_, but
+the lady denied all knowledge of the affair. Her husband, who was
+probably not cognisant of the details of the transaction at first,
+doubtless thought the defeated litigant would be easily put down, and
+at once brought an accusation against him for an attempt to corrupt
+justice. The battle was fought chiefly through the _Mémoires_, or
+reports published by the adverse parties, and in it Beaumarchais's
+success was complete. For vivacity of style, fine satire and broad
+humour, his famous _Mémoires_ have never been surpassed. Even Voltaire
+was constrained to envy them. Beaumarchais was skilful enough to make
+his particular case of universal application. He was attacking the
+parlement through one of its members, and the parlement was the
+universally detested body formed by the chancellor Maupeou. The
+_Mémoires_ were, therefore, hailed with general delight; and the author,
+from being perhaps the most unpopular man in France, became at once the
+idol of the people. The decision went against Beaumarchais. The
+parlement condemned both him and Mme Goezman _au blâme_, i.e. to civic
+degradation, while the husband was obliged to abandon his position.
+Beaumarchais was reduced to great straits, but he obtained restitution
+of his rights within two years, and finally triumphed over his adversary
+La Blache.
+
+During the next few years he was engaged in the king's secret service.
+One of his missions was to England to destroy the _Mémoires secrets
+d'une femme publique_ in which Charles Theveneau de Morande made an
+attack on Mme Du Barry. Beaumarchais secured this pamphlet, and burnt
+the whole impression in London. Another expedition to England and
+Holland to seize a pamphlet attacking Marie Antoinette led to a series
+of incidents more amazing than the intrigues in Beaumarchais's own
+plays, but his own account must be received with caution. Beaumarchais
+pursued the libeller to Germany and overtook him in a wood near
+Neustadt. After a struggle he had gained possession of the document when
+he was attacked by brigands. Unfortunately the wound alleged to have
+been received in this fight was proved to be self-inflicted. The
+Austrian government regarded Beaumarchais with a suspicion justified by
+the circumstances. He was imprisoned for some time in Vienna, and only
+released on the receipt of explanations from Paris.
+
+His various visits to England led him to take a deep interest in the
+impending struggle between the American colonies and the mother-country.
+His sympathies were entirely with the former; and by his unwearied
+exertions he succeeded in inducing the French government to give ample,
+though private, assistance in money and arms to the Americans. He
+himself, partly on his own account, but chiefly as the agent of the
+French and Spanish governments, carried on an enormous traffic with
+America. Under the name of Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie, he employed a fleet
+of forty vessels to provide help for the insurgents.
+
+During the same period he produced his two famous comedies. The earlier,
+_Le Barbier de Seville_, after a prohibition of two years, was put on
+the stage in 1775. The first representation was a complete failure.
+Beaumarchais had overloaded the last scene with allusions to the facts
+of his own case and the whole action of the piece was laboured and
+heavy. But he cut down and remodelled the piece in time for the second
+representation, when it achieved a complete success. The intrigues which
+were necessary in order to obtain a licence for the second and more
+famous comedy, _Le Mariage de Figaro_, are highly amusing, and throw
+much light on the unsettled state of public sentiment at the time. The
+play was completed in 1778, but the opposition of Louis XVI., who alone
+saw its dangerous tendencies, was not overcome till 1784. The comedy had
+an unprecedented success. The principal character in both plays, Figaro,
+is a completely original conception; in fact Beaumarchais drew a
+portrait of himself in the resourceful adventurer, who, for mingled wit,
+shrewdness, gaiety and philosophic reflection, may not unjustly be
+ranked with Tartuffe. To English readers the Figaro plays are generally
+known through the adaptations of them in the grand opera of Mozart and
+Rossini; but in France they long retained popularity as acting pieces.
+The success of _Le Mariage de Figaro_ was helped on by the methods of
+self-advertisement so well understood by Beaumarchais. The proceeds of
+the fiftieth performance were devoted to a charity, the choice of which
+provoked numerous epigrams. Beaumarchais had the imprudence to retaliate
+by personalities that were reported by his enemies to be dedicated
+against the king and queen. Beaumarchais was imprisoned for a short time
+by royal order in the prison of St Lazare. Brilliant pamphleteer as he
+was, Beaumarchais was at last to meet more than his match. He undertook
+to defend the company of the "Eaux de Paris," in which he had a large
+interest, against Mirabeau, and brought down on himself an invective to
+which he could offer no reply. His real influence was gone from that
+date (1785-1786). Shortly afterwards he was violently attacked by
+Nicolas Bergasse, whom he sued for defamation of character. He gained
+his case, but his reputation had suffered in the pamphlet war.
+Beaumarchais's later productions, the bombastic opera _Tarare_ (1787)
+and the drama _La Mère coupable_ (1792), which was very popular, are in
+no way worthy of his genius.
+
+By his writings Beaumarchais contributed greatly, though quite
+unconsciously, to hurry on the events that led to the Revolution. At
+heart he hardly seems to have been a republican, and the new state of
+affairs did not benefit him. The astonishing thing is that the society
+travestied in _Le Mariage de Figaro_ was the most vehement in its
+applause. The court looked on at a play justly characterized by Napoleon
+as the "revolution already in action" apparently without a suspicion of
+its real character. His popularity had been destroyed by the Mirabeau
+and Bergasse affairs, and his great wealth exposed him to the enmity of
+the envious. A speculation into which he entered, to supply the
+Convention with muskets from Holland, proved a ruinous failure. He was
+accused of concealing arms and corn in his house, but when his house was
+searched nothing was discovered but some thousands of copies of the
+edition (1783-1790) of the works of Voltaire which he had had printed at
+his private press at Kehl, in Baden. He was charged with treason to the
+republic and was imprisoned in the Abbaye on the 20th of August 1792. A
+week later he was released at the intercession of Mme Houret de la
+Marinière, who had been his mistress. He took refuge in Holland and
+England. His memoirs entitled, _Mes six époques_, detailing his
+sufferings under the republic, are not unworthy of the Goezman period.
+His courage and happy disposition never deserted him, although he was
+hunted as an agent of the Convention in Holland and England, while in
+Paris he was proscribed as an _émigré_. He returned to Paris in 1796,
+and died there, suddenly, on the 18th of May 1799.
+
+  Gudin de la Brenellerie's _Histoire de Beaumarchais_ (1809) was edited
+  by M. Maurice Tourneux in 1888. See also L. de Loménie, _Beaumarchais
+  et son temps_ (1855), Eng. trans. by H.S. Edwards, (4. vols., 1856);
+  A. Hallay's _Beaumarchais_ (1897); M. de Lescure, _Éloge de
+  Beaumarchais_ (1886); and Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. vi.
+  Beaumarchais's works have been edited by Gudin (7 vols., 1809); by
+  Furne (6 vols., 1827); and by E. Fournier (1876). A variorum edition
+  of his _Théâtre complet_ was published by MM. d'Heylli and de Marescot
+  (4 vols., 1869-1875); and a _Bibliographie des oeuvres de
+  Beaumarchais_, by H. Cordier in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMARIS, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of
+Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the Bay of Beaumaris, not far from
+Penmon, the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. Pop. (1901) 2326. It
+has but one considerable street. The large castle chapel, dedicated to
+the Virgin, has some fine monuments. David Hughes, of Jesus College,
+Oxford, founded the free grammar school in 1603. Buildings include
+town-hall and county-hall, with St Mary's church of the 13th century,
+with chancel of the 16th. Practically without trade and with no
+manufactures, Beaumaris is principally noted as a bathing-place. Its
+earliest charter dates from 1283 and was revised under Elizabeth. The
+town was formerly called Barnover and, still earlier, Rhosfair, and
+bears its present name of French origin since Edward I. built its castle
+in 1293. This extensive building was erected on low ground, so that the
+fosse might communicate with the sea, and vessels might unload under its
+walls. The castle capitulated, after siege, to General Mytton (1646).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT, BELMONT, or BELLOMONT, the name of a Norman and English
+family, taken from Beaumont-le-Roger in Normandy. Early in the 11th
+century Roger de Beaumont, a kinsman of the dukes of Normandy, married a
+daughter of Waleran, count of Meulan, and their son, ROBERT DE BEAUMONT
+(d. 1118), became count of Meulan or Mellent about 1080. Before this
+date, however, he had fought at Hastings, and had added large estates in
+Warwickshire to the Norman fiefs of Beaumont and Pont Audemer, which he
+received when his father entered the abbey of St Peter at Préaux. It was
+during the reigns of William II. and Henry I. that the count rose to
+eminence, and under the latter monarch he became "the first among the
+counsellors of the king." A "strenuous and sagacious man" he rendered
+valuable service to both kings in their Norman wars, and Henry I. was
+largely indebted to him for the English crown. He obtained lands in
+Leicestershire, and it has been said he was created earl of Leicester;
+this statement, however, is an error, although he exercised some of the
+privileges of an earl. His abilities as a counsellor, statesman and
+diplomatist gained him the admiration of his contemporaries, and Henry
+of Huntingdon describes him as "the wisest man between this and
+Jerusalem." He seems to have been a man of independent character, for he
+assisted Anselm against William Rufus, although he supported Henry I. in
+his quarrel with Pope Paschal II. When Robert died on the 5th of June
+1118 his lands appear to have been divided between his twin sons, Robert
+and Waleran, while a third son, Hugh, became earl of Bedford in 1138.
+
+ROBERT DE BEAUMONT (1104-1168), justiciar of England, married a
+granddaughter of Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, and receiving his
+father's English fiefs in 1118 became earl of Leicester. He and his
+brother, Waleran, were the chief advisers of Stephen, and helped this
+king to seize the bishops of Salisbury and Lincoln in 1139; later,
+however, Robert made his peace with Henry II., and became chief
+justiciar of England. First among the lay nobles he signed the
+Constitutions of Clarendon, he sought to reconcile Henry and Archbishop
+Becket, and was twice in charge of the kingdom during the king's
+absences in France. The earl founded the abbey of St Mary de Pré at
+Leicester and other religious houses, and by a charter confirmed the
+burgesses of Leicester in the possession of their merchant-gild and
+customs. His son, Robert, succeeded to the earldom of Leicester, and
+with other English barons assisted prince Henry in his revolt against
+his father the king in 1173. For this participation, and also on a later
+occasion, he was imprisoned; but he enjoyed the favour of Richard I.,
+and died in Greece when returning from a pilgrimage in 1190. His son and
+heir, Robert, died childless in 1204.
+
+WALERAN DE BEAUMONT (1104-1166) obtained his father's French fiefs and
+the title of count of Meulan in 1118. After being imprisoned for five
+years by Henry I. he spent some time in England, and during the civil
+war between Stephen and the empress Matilda he fought for the former
+until about 1150, when he deserted the king and assisted the empress.
+His later history appears to have been uneventful. The county of Meulan
+remained in possession of the Beaumont family until 1204, when it was
+united with the royal domain.
+
+Another member of the Beaumont family, possibly a relative of the
+earlier Beaumonts, was LOUIS DE BEAUMONT (d. 1333), bishop of Durham
+from 1317 until his death. This prelate was related to the English king,
+Edward II., and after a life spent in strife and ostentation, he died on
+the 24th of September 1333. JOHN BEAUMONT, master of the rolls under
+Edward VI., was probably a member of the same family. A dishonest and
+corrupt judge, he was deprived of his office and imprisoned in 1552.
+
+The barony of Beaumont dates from 1309, when HENRY BEAUMONT (d. 1340),
+who was constable of England in 1322, was summoned to parliament under
+this title. It was retained by his descendants until the death of
+William, the 7th baron and the 2nd viscount,[1] in 1507, when it fell
+into abeyance. In 1840 the barony was revived in favour of Miles Thomas
+Stapleton (1805-1854), a descendant of Joan, Baroness Lovel, a daughter
+of the 6th baron, and it has since been retained by his descendants.
+
+In 1906 WENTWORTH BLACKETT BEAUMONT (1829-1907), the head of a family
+well known in the north of England, was created Baron Allendale.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] His father John (d. 1460), the 6th baron, great chamberlain and
+    constable of England, was the first person advanced to the dignity of
+    a viscount in England.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE (1703-1781), French ecclesiastic and archbishop
+of Paris, was a cadet of the Les Adrets and Saint-Quentin branch of the
+illustrious Dauphiné family of Beaumont. He became bishop of Bayonne in
+1741, then archbishop of Vienne in 1743, and in 1746, at the age of
+forty-three, archbishop of Paris. Beaumont is noted for his struggle
+with the Jansenists. To force them to accept the bull _Unigenitus_ which
+condemned their doctrines, he ordered the priests of his diocese to
+refuse absolution to those who would not recognize the bull, and to deny
+funeral rites to those who had confessed to a Jansenist priest. While
+other bishops sent Beaumont their adhesion to his crusade, the parlement
+of Paris threatened to confiscate his temporalities. The king forbade
+the parlement to interfere in these spiritual questions, and upon its
+proving obdurate it was exiled (September 18, 1753). The "royal
+chamber," which was substituted, having failed to carry on the
+administration of justice properly, the king was obliged to recall the
+parlement, and the archbishop was sent into honourable exile (August
+1754). An effort was made to induce him to resign the active duties of
+his see to a coadjutor, but in spite of the most tempting
+offers--including a cardinal's hat--he refused. On the contrary, to his
+polemic against the Jansenists he added an attack on the _philosophes_,
+and issued a formal mandatory letter condemning Rousseau's _Émile_.
+Rousseau replied in his masterly _Lettre à M. de Beaumont_ (1762), in
+which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is
+essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force.
+
+  De Beaumont's _Mandements, lettres et instructions pastorales_ were
+  published in two volumes in 1780, the year before his death.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN (1583-1627), English poet, second son of the judge,
+Sir Francis Beaumont, was born at Grace-Dieu in Leicestershire in 1583.
+The deaths of his father (in 1598) and of his elder brother, Sir Henry
+Beaumont (in 1605), made the poet early the head of this brilliant
+family; the dramatist, Francis Beaumont, being a younger brother. John
+went to Oxford in February 1597, and entered as a gentleman commoner in
+Broadgates Hall, the present Pembroke College. He was admitted to the
+Inner Temple in 1600, but on the death of Henry he no doubt went down to
+Grace-Dieu to manage the family estates. He began to write verse early,
+and in 1602, at the age of nineteen, he published anonymously his
+_Metamorphosis of Tabacco_, written in very smooth couplets, in which he
+addressed Drayton as his "loving friend." He lived in Leicestershire for
+many years as a bachelor, being one "who never felt Love's dreadful
+arrow." But in process of time he became a tardy victim, and married a
+lady of the Fortescue family, who bore him four stout sons, the eldest
+of whom, another John, was accounted one of the most athletic men of his
+time. "He could leap 16 ft. at one leap, and would commonly, at a
+stand-leap, jump over a high long table in the hall, light on a settle
+beyond the table, and raise himself straight up." This magnificent young
+man was not without literary taste; he edited his father's posthumous
+poems, and wrote an enthusiastic elegy on him; he was killed in 1644 at
+the siege of Gloucester. Another of Sir John Beaumont's sons, Gervaise,
+died in childhood, and the incidents of his death are recorded in one of
+his father's most touching poems. Sir John Beaumont concentrated his
+powers on a poem in eight books, entitled _The Crown of Thorns_, which
+was greatly admired in MS. by the earl of Southampton and others, but
+which is lost. After long retirement, Beaumont was persuaded by the duke
+of Buckingham to move in larger circles; he attended court and in 1626
+was made a baronet. This honour he did not long survive, for he died on
+the 19th of April 1627, and was buried in Westminster Abbey ten days
+later. The new Sir John, the strong man, published in 1629 a volume
+entitled _Bosworth Field; with a taste of the variety of other Poems
+left by Sir John Beaumont_. No more "tastes" were ever vouchsafed, so
+that it is by this volume and by the juvenile _Metamorphosis of Tobacco_
+that Beaumont's reputation has to stand. Of late years, the
+peculiarities of John Beaumont's prosody have drawn attention to his
+work. He wrote the heroic couplet, which was his favourite measure, with
+almost unprecedented evenness. Bosworth Field, the scene of the battle
+of which Beaumont's principal poem gives a vaguely epical narrative, lay
+close to the poet's house of Grace-Dieu. He writes on all occasions with
+a smoothness which was very remarkable in the first quarter of the 17th
+century, and which marks him, with Edmund Waller and George Sandys, as
+one of the pioneers of the classic reformation of English verse.
+
+  The poems of Sir John Beaumont were included in A. Chalmers's _English
+  Poets_, vol. vi. (1810). An edition, with "memorial introduction" and
+  notes, was included (1869) in Dr A.B. Grosart's _Fuller Worthies'
+  Library_; and the _Metamorphosis of Tobacco_ was included in J.P.
+  Collier's _Illustrations of Early English Popular Literature_, vol. i.
+  (1863).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT and FLETCHER, English dramatists[1] The names of FRANCIS
+BEAUMONT (1584-1616) and JOHN FLETCHER (1579-1625) are inseparably
+connected in the history of the English drama. John Fletcher was born in
+December 1579 at Rye in Sussex, and baptized on the 20th of the same
+month. Richard Fletcher, his father, afterwards queen's chaplain, dean
+of Peterborough, and bishop successively of Bristol, Worcester and
+London, was then minister of the parish in which the son was born who
+was to make their name immortal. That son was just turned of seven when
+the dean distinguished and disgraced himself as the spiritual tormentor
+of the last moments on earth of Mary Stuart. When not quite twelve he
+was admitted pensioner of Bene't College, Cambridge, and two years later
+was made one of the Bible-clerks: of this college Bishop Fletcher had
+been president twenty years earlier, and six months before his son's
+admission had received from its authorities a first letter of thanks for
+various benefactions, to be followed next year by a second. Four years
+later than this, when John Fletcher wanted five or six months of his
+seventeenth year, the bishop died suddenly of over much tobacco and the
+displeasure of Queen Elizabeth at his second marriage--this time, it
+appears, with a lady of such character as figures something too
+frequently on the stage of his illustrious son. He left eight children
+by his first marriage in such distress that their uncle, Dr Giles
+Fletcher, author of a treatise on the Russian commonwealth which is
+still held in some repute, was obliged to draw up a petition to the
+queen on their behalf, which was supported by the intercession of Essex,
+but with what result is uncertain.
+
+From this date we know nothing of the fortunes of John Fletcher, till
+the needy orphan boy of seventeen reappears as the brilliant and
+triumphant poet whose name is linked for all time with the yet more
+glorious name of Francis Beaumont, third and youngest son of Sir Francis
+Beaumont of Grace-Dieu, one of the justices of the common pleas--born,
+according to general report, in 1586, but, according to more than one
+apparently irrefragable document, actually born two years earlier. The
+first record of his existence is the entry of his name, together with
+those of his elder brothers Henry and John, as a gentleman-commoner of
+Broadgates Hall, Oxford, now supplanted by Pembroke College. But most
+lovers of his fame will care rather to remember the admirable lines of
+Wordsworth on the "eager child" who played among the rocks and woodlands
+of Grace-Dieu; though it may be doubted whether even the boy's first
+verses were of the peaceful and pastoral character attributed to them by
+the great laureate of the lakes. That passionate and fiery genius which
+was so soon and for so short a time to "shake the buskined stage" with
+heroic and tragic notes of passion and of sorrow, of scorn and rage, and
+slighted love and jealousy, must surely have sought vent from the first
+in fancies of a more ardent and ambitious kind; and it would be a
+likelier conjecture that when Frank Beaumont (as we know on more
+authorities than one that he was always called by his contemporaries,
+even in the full flush of his adult fame--"never more than Frank," says
+Heywood) went to college at the ripe age of twelve, he had already
+committed a tragedy or two in emulation of _Tamburlaine_, _Andronicus_
+or _Jeronymo_. The date of his admission was the 4th of February 1597;
+on the 22nd of April of the following year his father died; and on the
+3rd of November 1600, having left Oxford without taking his degree, the
+boy of fifteen was entered a member of the Inner Temple, his two
+brothers standing sponsors on the grave occasion. But the son of Judge
+Beaumont was no fitter for success at the bar than the son of Bishop
+Fletcher for distinction in the church: it is equally difficult to
+imagine either poet invested with either gown. Two years later appeared
+the poem of _Salmacis and Hermaphroditus_, generally attributed to
+Beaumont, a voluptuous and voluminous expansion of the Ovidian legend,
+not on the whole discreditable to a lad of eighteen, fresh from the
+popular love-poems of Marlowe and Shakespeare, which it naturally
+exceeds in long-winded and fantastic diffusion of episodes and conceits.
+At twenty-three Beaumont prefixed to the magnificent masterpiece of Ben
+Jonson some noticeable verses in honour of his "dear friend" the author;
+and in the same year (1607) appeared the anonymous comedy of _The Woman
+Hater_, usually assigned to Fletcher alone; but being as it is in the
+main a crude and puerile imitation of Jonson's manner, and certainly
+more like a man's work at twenty-two than at twenty-eight, internal
+evidence would seem to justify, or at least to excuse those critics who
+in the teeth of high authority and tradition would transfer from
+Fletcher to Beaumont the principal responsibility for this first play
+that can be traced to the hand of either. As Fletcher also prefixed to
+the first edition of _Volpone_ a copy of commendatory verses, we may
+presume that their common admiration for a common friend was among the
+earliest and strongest influences which drew together the two great
+poets whose names were thenceforward to be for ever indivisible. During
+the dim eleven years between the death of his father and the dawn of his
+fame, we cannot but imagine that the career of Fletcher had been
+unprosperous as well as obscure. From seventeen to twenty-eight his
+youth may presumably have been spent in such painful struggles for
+success, if not for sustenance, as were never known to his younger
+colleague, who, as we have seen, was entered at Oxford a few months
+after Fletcher must in all likelihood have left Cambridge to try his
+luck in London: a venture most probably resolved on as soon as the youth
+had found his family reduced by the father's death to such ruinous
+straits that any smoother course can hardly have been open to him.
+Entering college at the same age as Fletcher had entered six years
+earlier, Beaumont had before him a brighter and briefer line of life
+than his elder. But whatever may have been their respective situations
+when, either by happy chance or, as Dyce suggests, by the good offices
+of Jonson, they were first brought together, their intimacy soon became
+so much closer than that of ordinary brothers that the household which
+they shared as bachelors was conducted on such thoroughly communistic
+principles as might have satisfied the most trenchant theorist who ever
+proclaimed as the cardinal point of his doctrine, a complete and
+absolute community of bed and board, with all goods thereto
+appertaining. But in the year following that in which the two younger
+poets had united in homage to Jonson, they had entered into a
+partnership of more importance than this in "the same clothes and cloak,
+etc.," with other necessaries of life specified by Aubrey.
+
+In 1608, if we may trust the reckoning which seems trust-worthiest, the
+twin stars of our stage rose visibly together for the first time. The
+loveliest, though not the loftiest, of tragic plays that we owe to the
+comrades or the successors of Shakespeare, _Philaster_, has generally
+been regarded as the first-born issue of their common genius. The noble
+tragedy of _Thierry and Theodoret_ has sometimes been dated earlier and
+assigned to Fletcher alone; but we can be sure neither of the early date
+nor the single authorship. The main body of the play, comprising both
+the great scenes which throw out into full and final relief the
+character of either heroine for perfect good or evil, bears throughout
+the unmistakable image and superscription of Fletcher; yet there are
+parts which for gravity and steady strength of style, for reserve and
+temperance of effect, would seem to suggest the collaboration of a
+calmer and more patient hand; and these more equable and less passionate
+parts of the poem recall rather the touch of Massinger than of Beaumont.
+In the second act, for example, the regular structure of the verse, the
+even scheme of the action, the exaggerated braggardism which makes of
+the hero a mere puppet or mouthpiece of his own self-will, are all
+qualities which, for better or for worse, remind us of the strength or
+the weakness of a poet with whom we know that Fletcher, before or after
+his alliance with Beaumont, did now and then work in common. Even the
+Arbaces of Beaumont, though somewhat too highly coloured, does not
+"write himself down an ass," like Thierry on his first entrance, after
+the too frequent fashion of Massinger's braggarts and tyrants; does not
+proclaim at starting or display with mere wantonness of exposure his
+more unlovely qualities in the naked nature of their deformity. Compare
+also the second with the first scene of the fourth act. In style and
+metre this second scene is as good an example of Massinger as the first
+is of Fletcher at his best. Observe especially in the elaborate
+narrative of the pretended self-immolation of Ordella these distinctive
+notes of the peculiar style of Massinger; the excess of parenthetic
+sentences, no less than five in a space of twenty lines; the classical
+common-place of allusion to Athens, Rome and Sparta in one superfluous
+breath; the pure and vigorous but somewhat level and prosaic order of
+language, with the use of certain cheap and easy phrases familiar to
+Massinger as catchwords; the flat and feeble terminations by means of
+which the final syllable of one verse runs on into the next without more
+pause or rhythm than in a passage of prose; the general dignity and
+gravity of sustained and measured expression. These are the very points
+in which the style of Massinger differs from that of Fletcher; whose
+lightest and loosest verses do not overlap each other without sensible
+distinction between the end of one line and the beginning of the next;
+who is often too fluent and facile to be choice or forcible in his
+diction, but seldom if ever prosaic or conventional in phrase or
+allusion, and by no means habitually given to weave thoughts within
+thoughts, knit sentence into sentence, and hang whole paragraphs
+together by the help of loops and brackets. From these indications we
+might infer that this poem belongs altogether to a period later than the
+death of Beaumont; though even during his friend's life it appears that
+Fletcher was once at least allied with Massinger and two lesser
+dramatists in the composition of a play, probably the _Honest Man's
+Fortune_, of which the accounts are to be found in Henslowe's papers.
+
+Hardly eight years of toil and triumph of joyous and glorious life were
+spared by destiny to the younger poet between the date assigned to the
+first radiant revelation of his genius in _Philaster_ and the date which
+marks the end of all his labours. On the 6th of March 1616 Francis
+Beaumont died--according to Jonson and tradition, "ere he was thirty
+years of age," but this we have seen to be inconsistent with the
+registry of his entrance at Oxford. If we may trust the elegiac evidence
+of friends, he died of his own genius and fiery overwork of brain; yet
+from the magnificent and masculine beauty of his portrait one should
+certainly never have guessed that any strain of spirit or stress of
+invention could have worn out so long before its time so fair and royal
+a temple for so bright and affluent a soul. A student of physiognomy
+will not fail to mark the points of likeness and of difference between
+the faces of the two friends; both models of noble manhood, handsome and
+significant in feature and expression alike;--Beaumont's the statelier
+and serener of the two, with clear thoughtful eyes, full arched brows,
+and strong aquiline nose, with a little cleft at the tip; a grave and
+beautiful mouth, with full and finely curved lips; the form of face a
+long pure oval, and the imperial head with its "fair large front" and
+clustering hair set firm and carried high with an aspect at once of
+quiet command and kingly observation: Fletcher's a more keen and fervid
+face, sharper in outline every way, with an air of bright ardour and
+glad fiery impatience; sanguine and nervous, suiting the complexion and
+colour of hair; the expression of the eager eyes and lips almost
+recalling that of a noble hound in act to break the leash it strains
+at;--two heads as lordly of feature and as expressive of aspect as any
+gallery of great men can show. That spring of 1616, we may note in
+passing, was the darkest that ever dawned upon England or the world;
+for, just forty-eight days afterwards, it witnessed, on the 23rd of
+April, the removal from earth of the mightiest genius that ever dwelt
+among men. Scarcely more than a month and a half divided the death-days
+of Beaumont and of Shakespeare. Some three years earlier by Dyce's
+estimate, when about the age of twenty-nine, Beaumont had married
+Ursula, daughter and co-heiress to Henry Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by
+whom he left two daughters, one of them posthumous. Fletcher survived
+his friend just nine years and five months; he died "in the great
+plague, 1625," and was buried on the 29th of August in St Saviour's,
+Southwark; not, as we might have wished, beside his younger fellow in
+fame, who but three days after his untimely death had added another
+deathless memory to the graves of our great men in Westminster Abbey,
+which he had sung in such noble verse. Dying when just four months short
+of forty-six, Fletcher had thus, as well as we can now calculate,
+altogether some fourteen years and six months more of life than the poet
+who divides with him the imperial inheritance of their common glory.
+
+The perfect union in genius and in friendship which has made one name of
+the two names of these great twin brothers in song is a thing so
+admirable and so delightful to remember, that it would seem ungracious
+and unkindly to claim for either a precedence which we may be sure he
+would have been eager to disclaim. But if a distinction must be made
+between the Dioscuri of English poetry, we must admit that Beaumont was
+the twin of heavenlier birth. Only as Pollux was on one side a demigod
+of diviner blood than Castor can it be said that on any side Beaumont
+was a poet of higher and purer genius than Fletcher; but so much must be
+allowed by all who have eyes and ears to discern in the fabric of their
+common work a distinction without a difference. Few things are stranger
+than the avowal of so great and exquisite a critic as Coleridge, that he
+could trace no faintest line of demarcation between the plays which we
+owe mainly to Beaumont and the plays which we owe solely to Fletcher. To
+others this line has always appeared in almost every case unmistakable.
+Were it as hard and broad as the line which marks off, for example,
+Shakespeare's part from Fletcher's in _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, the
+harmony would of course be lost which now informs every work of their
+common genius, and each play of their writing would be such another
+piece of magnificent patchwork as that last gigantic heir of
+Shakespeare's invention, the posthumous birth of his parting Muse which
+was suckled at the breast of Fletcher's as a child of godlike blood
+might be reared on the milk of a mortal mother--or in this case, we
+might sometimes be tempted to say, of a she-goat who left in the veins
+of the heaven-born suckling somewhat too much of his nurse Amalthaea.
+That question however belongs in any case more properly to the study of
+Shakespeare than to the present subject in hand. It may suffice here to
+observe that the contributions of Fletcher to the majestic temple of
+tragedy left incomplete by Shakespeare show the lesser workman almost
+equally at his best and at him worst, at his weakest and at his
+strongest. In the plays which we know by evidence surer than the most
+trustworthy tradition to be the common work of Beaumont and Fletcher,
+there is indeed no trace of such incongruous and incompatible admixture
+as leaves the greatest example of romantic tragedy--for _Cymbeline_ and
+the _Winter's Tale_, though not guiltless of blood, are in their issues
+no more tragic than _Pericles_ or the _Tempest_--a unique instance of
+glorious imperfection, a hybrid of heavenly aid other than heavenly
+breed, disproportioned and divine. But throughout these noblest of the
+works inscribed generally with the names of both dramatists we trace on
+every other page the touch of a surer hand, we hear at every other turn
+the note of a deeper voice, than we can ever recognize in the work of
+Fletcher alone. Although the beloved friend of Jonson, and in the field
+of comedy his loving and studious disciple, yet in that tragic field
+where his freshest bays were gathered Beaumont was the worthiest and the
+closest follower of Shakespeare. In the external but essential matter of
+expression by rhythm and metre he approves himself always a student of
+Shakespeare's second manner, of the style in which the graver or tragic
+part of his historical or romantic plays is mostly written; doubtless,
+the most perfect model that can be studied by any poet who, like
+Beaumont, is great enough to be in no danger of sinking to the rank of a
+mere copyist, but while studious of the perfection set before him is yet
+conscious of his own personal and proper quality of genius, and enters
+the presence of the master not as a servant but as a son. The general
+style of his tragic or romantic verse is as simple and severe in its
+purity of note and regularity of outline as that of Fletcher's is by
+comparison lax, effusive, exuberant. The matchless fluency and rapidity
+with which the elder brother pours forth the stream of his smooth swift
+verse gave probably the first occasion for that foolish rumour which has
+not yet fallen duly silent, but still murmurs here and there its
+suggestion that the main office of Beaumont was to correct and contain
+within bounds the overflowing invention of his colleague. The poet who
+while yet a youth had earned by his unaided mastery of hand such a crown
+as was bestowed by the noble love and the loving "envy" of Ben Jonson
+was, according to this tradition, a mere precocious pedagogue, fit only
+to revise and restrain the too liberal effusions of his elder in genius
+as in years. Now, in every one of the plays common to both, the real
+difficulty for a critic is not to trace the hand of Beaumont, but to
+detect the touch of Fletcher. Throughout the better part of every such
+play, and above all of their two masterpieces, _Philaster_ and _The
+Maid's Tragedy_, it should be clear to the most sluggish or cursory of
+readers that he has not to do with the author of _Valentinian_ and _The
+Double Marriage_. In those admirable tragedies the style is looser, more
+fluid, more feminine. From the first scene to the last we are swept as
+it were along the race of a running river, always at full flow of light
+and buoyant melody, with no dark reaches or perilous eddies, no stagnant
+pools or sterile sandbanks; its bright course only varied by sudden
+rapids or a stronger ripple here and there, but in rough places or
+smooth still stirred and sparkling with summer wind and sun. But in
+those tragic poems of which the dominant note is the note of Beaumont's
+genius a subtler chord of thought is sounded, a deeper key of emotion is
+touched, than ever was struck by Fletcher. The lighter genius is
+palpably subordinate to the stronger, and loyally submits itself to the
+impression of a loftier spirit. It is true that this distinction is
+never grave enough to produce a discord: it is also true that the plays
+in which the predominance of Beaumont's mind and style is generally
+perceptible make up altogether but a small section of the work that
+bears their names conjointly; but it is no less true that within this
+section the most precious part of that work is comprised. Outside it we
+shall find no figures so firmly drawn, no such clearness of outline, no
+such cunning of hands as we recognize in the three great studies of
+Bellario, Evadne and Aspatia. In his male characters, as for instance in
+the parts of Philaster and Arbaces, Beaumont also is apt to show
+something of that exaggeration or inconsistency for which his colleague
+is perhaps more frequently and more heavily to blame; but in these there
+is not a jarring note, not a touch misplaced; unless, indeed, a rigid
+criticism may condemn as unfeminine and incongruous with the gentle
+beauty of her pathetic patience the device by which Aspatia procures
+herself the death desired at the hand of Amintor. This is noted as a
+fault by Dyce; but may well be forgiven for the sake of the magnificent
+scene which follows, and the highest tragic effect ever attained on the
+stage of either poet. That this as well as the greater part of those
+other scenes which are the glory of the poem is due to Beaumont might
+readily be shown at length by the process of comparison. The noble scene
+of regicide, which it was found expedient to cancel during the earlier
+years of the Restoration, may indeed be the work of Fletcher; but the
+part of Evadne must undoubtedly be in the main assigned to the more
+potent hand of his fellow. There is a fine harmony of character between
+her naked audacity in the second act and her fierce repentance in the
+fourth, which is not unworthy a disciple of the tragic school of
+Shakespeare; Fletcher is less observant of the due balance, less heedful
+of the nice proportions of good and evil in a faulty and fiery nature,
+compounded of perverse instinct and passionate reaction. From him we
+might have had a figure as admirable for vigour of handling, but hardly
+in such perfect keeping as this of Beaumont's Evadne, the
+murderess-Magdalen, whose penitence is of one crimson colour with her
+sin. Nor even in Fletcher's Ordella, worthy as the part is throughout
+even of the precious and exquisite praise of Lamb, is there any such
+cunning touch of tenderness or delicate perfume of pathos as in the
+parts of Bellario and Aspatia. These have in them a bitter sweetness, a
+subtle pungency of mortal sorrow and tears of divine delight, beyond the
+reach of Fletcher. His highest studies of female character have dignity,
+energy, devotion of the heroic type; but they never touch us to the
+quick, never waken in us any finer and more profound sense than that of
+applause and admiration. There is a modest pathos now and then in his
+pictures of feminine submission and slighted or outraged love; but this
+submission he is apt to make too servile, this love too dog-like in its
+abject devotion to retain that tender reverence which so many
+generations of readers have paid to the sweet memories of Aspatia and
+Bellario. To excite compassion was enough for Fletcher as in the
+masculine parts of his work it was enough for him to excite wonder, to
+sustain curiosity, to goad and stimulate by any vivid and violent means
+the interest of readers or spectators. The single instance of noble
+pathos, the one scene he has left us which appeals to the higher and
+purer kind of pity, is the death of the child Hengo in _Bonduca_--a
+scene which of itself would have sufficed to enrol his name for ever on
+the list of our great tragic poets. To him we may probably assign the
+whole merit of that fiery and high-toned tragedy, with all its spirit
+and splendour of national and martial passion; the conscious and
+demonstrative exchange of courtesy between Roman and Briton, which is
+one of the leading notes of the poem, has in it a touch of overstrained
+and artificial chivalry characteristic of Fletcher; yet the parts of
+Caratach and Poenius may be counted among the loftiest and most equal of
+his creations. But no surer test or better example can be taken of the
+distinctive quality which denotes the graver genius of either poet than
+that supplied by a comparison of Beaumont's _Triumph of Love_ with
+Fletcher's _Triumph of Death_. Each little play, in the brief course of
+its single act, gives proof of the peculiar touch and special trick of
+its author's hand: the deeper and more delicate passion of Beaumont, the
+rapid and ardent activity of Fletcher, have nowhere found a more
+noticeable vent for the expression respectively of the most tender and
+profound simplicity of quiet sweetness, the most buoyant and impatient
+energy of tragic emotion.
+
+In the wider field of their comic or romantic drama it is yet easier to
+distinguish the respective work of either hand. The bias of Fletcher was
+towards mixed comedy; his lightest and wildest humour is usually crossed
+or tempered by an infusion of romance; like Shakespeare in this one
+point at least, he has left no single play without some touch on it of
+serious interest, of poetic eloquence or fancy, however slight and
+fugitive. Beaumont, evidently under the imperious influence of Ben
+Jonson's more rigid theories, seems rather to have bent his genius with
+the whole force of a resolute will into the form or mould prescribed for
+comedy by the elder and greater comic poet. The admirable study of the
+worthy citizen and his wife, who introduce to the stage and escort with
+their applause _The Knight of the Burning Pestle_ through his
+adventurous career to its untimely end, has all the force and fulness of
+Jonson's humour at its best, with more of freshness and freedom. In pure
+comedy, varied with broad farce and mock-heroic parody, Beaumont was the
+earliest as well as the ablest disciple of the master whose mantle was
+afterwards to be shared among the academic poets of a younger
+generation, the Randolphs and Cartwrights who sought shelter under the
+shadow of its voluminous folds. The best example of the school of Jonson
+to be found outside the ample range of his own work is _The Scornful
+Lady_, a comedy whose exceptional success and prolonged popularity must
+have been due rather to the broad effect of its forcible situations, its
+wealth and variety of ludicrous incidents, and the strong gross humour
+of its dialogue, than to any finer quality of style, invention or
+character. It is the only work of Beaumont and Fletcher which a critic
+who weighs the meaning of his words can admit to be as coarse as the
+coarsest work of Ben Jonson. They are prone, indeed, to indulge
+elsewhere in a wanton and exuberant licence of talk; and Fletcher, at
+least, is liable to confuse the shades of right and wrong, to deface or
+efface the boundary lines of good and evil, to stain the ermine of
+virtue and palliate the nakedness of vice with the same indecorous and
+incongruous laxity of handling. Often in mere haste to despatch the
+business of a play, to huddle up a catastrophe or throw out some
+particular scene into sharp and immediate relief, he will sacrifice all
+seemliness and consistency of character to the present aim of stage
+effect, and the instant impression of strong incident or audacious
+eloquence. His heroines are too apt to utter sentiments worthy of Diana
+in language unworthy of Doll Tearsheet. But in this play both style and
+sentiment are throughout on a lower level, the action and emotion are of
+a baser kind than usual; the precept of Aristotle and the practice of
+Jonson have been so carefully observed and exaggerated that it might
+almost be said to offer us in one or two places an imitation not merely
+of the sorrier but of the sorriest qualities of human nature; and full
+as it is of spontaneous power and humorous invention, the comedy
+extolled by the moral Steele (with just so much of reservation as
+permits him to deprecate the ridicule cast upon the clerical character)
+is certainly more offensive to artistic law and aesthetic judgment by
+the general and ingrained coarseness of its tone, than the tragi-comedy
+denounced by the immoral Dryden as exceeding in licence his own worst
+work and that of his fellow playwrights; an imputation, be it said in
+passing, as groundless as the protest pleaded on their behalf is
+impudent; for though we may hardly agree with the uncompromising
+panegyrist who commends that play in particular to the approval of "the
+austere scarlet" (remembering, perhaps, that Aristophanes was the chosen
+bedfellow of Chrysostom), there is at least no such offence against art
+or taste in the eccentricity of its situations or the daring of its
+dialogue. The buoyant and facile grace of Fletcher's style carries him
+lightly across quagmires in which a heavier-footed poet, or one of
+slower tread, would have stuck fast, and come forth bemired to the
+knees. To Beaumont his stars had given as birthright the gifts of tragic
+pathos and passion, of tender power and broad strong humour; to Fletcher
+had been allotted a more fiery and fruitful force of invention, a more
+aerial ease and swiftness of action, a more various readiness and
+fulness of bright exuberant speech. The genius of Beaumont was deeper,
+sweeter, nobler than his elder's; the genius of Fletcher more brilliant,
+more supple, more prodigal, and more voluble than his friend's. Without
+a taint or a shadow on his fame of such imitative servility as marks and
+degrades the mere henchman or satellite of a stronger poet, Beaumont may
+fairly be said to hold of Shakespeare in his tragedy, in his comedy of
+Jonson; in each case rather as a kinsman than as a client, as an ally
+than as a follower: but the more special province of Fletcher was a land
+of his own discovering, where no later colonist has ever had power to
+settle or to share his reign. With the mixed or romantic comedy of
+Shakespeare it has nothing in common except the admixture or alternation
+of graver with lighter interest, of serious with humorous action.
+Nothing is here of his magic exaltation or charm of fairy empire. The
+rare and rash adventures of Fletcher on that forbidden track are too
+sure to end in pitiful and shameful failure. His crown of praise is to
+have created a wholly new and wholly delightful form of mixed comedy or
+dramatic romance, dealing merely with the humours and sentiments of men,
+their passions and their chances; to have woven of all these a web of
+emotion and event with such gay dexterity, to have blended his colours
+and combined his effects with such exquisite facility and swift light
+sureness of touch, that we may return once and again from those heights
+and depths of poetry to which access was forbidden him, ready as ever to
+enjoy as of old the fresh incomparable charm, the force and ease and
+grace of life, which fill and animate the radiant world of his romantic
+invention. Neither before him nor after do we find, in this his special
+field of fancy and of work, more than shadows or echoes of his coming or
+departing genius. Admirable as are his tragedies already mentioned, rich
+in splendid eloquence and strong in large grasp of character as is the
+Roman history of _The False One_, full of interest and vigour as is the
+better part of _Rollo Duke of Normandy_, and sublime in the loveliness
+of passion as is the one scene of perfect beauty and terror which crowns
+this latter tragedy, Fletcher may claim a yet higher and more special
+station among his great dramatic peers by right of his comic and
+romantic than by right of his tragic and historic plays. Even in these
+he is more a romantic than a tragic poet. The quality of his genius,
+never sombre or subtle or profound, bears him always towards fresh air
+and sunshine. His natural work is in a midday world of fearless boyish
+laughter and hardly bitter tears. There is always more of rainbow than
+of storm in his skies; their darkest shadow is but a tragic twilight.
+What with him is the noon of night would seem as sunshine on the stage
+of Ford or Webster. There is but one passage in all these noble plays
+which lifts us beyond a sense of the stage, which raises our admiration
+out of speech into silence, tempers and transfigures our emotion with a
+touch of awe. And this we owe to the genius of Beaumont, exalted for an
+instant to the very tone and manner of Shakespeare's tragedy, when
+Amintor stands between the dead and the dying woman whom he has
+unwittingly slain with hand and tongue. The first few lines that drop
+from his stricken lips are probably the only verses of Beaumont or
+Fletcher which might pass for Shakespeare's even with a good judge of
+style--
+
+  "This earth of mine doth tremble," &c.
+
+But in Fletcher's tragedy, however we may be thrilled and kindled with
+high contagious excitement, we are never awed into dumb delight or
+dread, never pierced with any sense of terror or pity too deep or even
+deep enough for tears. Even his Brunhalts and Martias can hardly
+persuade us to forget for the moment that "they do but jest, poison in
+jest." A critic bitten with the love of classification might divide
+those plays of Fletcher usually ranked together as comedies into three
+kinds: the first he would class under the head of pure comedy, the next
+of heroic or romantic drama, the third of mixed comedy and romance; in
+this, the last and most delightful division of the poet's work the
+special qualities of the two former kinds being equally blended and
+delicately harmonized. The most perfect and triumphant examples of this
+class are _The Spanish Curate, Monsieur Thomas, The Custom of the
+Country_, and _The Elder Brother_. Next to these and not too far below
+them, we may put _The Little French Lawyer_ (a play which in its broad
+conception of a single eccentric humour suggests the collaboration of
+Beaumont and the influence of Jonson, but in style and execution
+throughout is perfect Fletcher), _The Humorous Lieutenant_ (on which an
+almost identical verdict might be passed), _Women Pleased, Beggars'
+Bush_, and perhaps we might add _The Fair Maid of the Inn_; in most if
+not in all of which the balance of exultant and living humour with
+serious poetic interest of a noble and various kind is held with even
+hand and the skill of a natural master. In pure comedy _Rule a Wife and
+have a Wife_ is the acknowledged and consummate masterpiece of Fletcher.
+Next to it we might class, for comic spirit and force of character, _Wit
+without Money, The Wildgoose Chase, The Chances_, and _The Noble
+Gentleman_, a broad poetic farce to whose overflowing fun and masterdom
+of extravagance no critic has ever done justice but Leigh Hunt, who has
+ventured, not without reason, to match its joyous and preposterous
+audacities of superlative and sovereign foolery with the more
+sharp-edged satire and practical merriment of _King and No King_, where
+the keen prosaic humour of Bessus and his swordsmen is as typical of the
+comic style in which Beaumont had been trained up under Ben Jonson as
+the high interest and graduated action of the serious part of the play
+are characteristic of his more earnest genius. Among the purely romantic
+plays of Fletcher, or those in which the comic effect is throughout
+subordinate to the romantic, _The Knight of Malta_ seems most worthy of
+the highest place for the noble beauty and exaltation of spirit which
+informs it with a lofty life, for its chivalrous union of heroic passion
+and Catholic devotion. This poem is the fairest and the first example of
+those sweet fantastic paintings in rose-colour and azure of visionary
+chivalry and ideal holiness, by dint of which the romance of more recent
+days has sought to cast the glamour of a mirage over the darkest and
+deadliest "ages of faith." The pure and fervent eloquence of the style
+is in perfect keeping with the high romantic interest of character and
+story. In the same class we may rank among the best samples of
+Fletcher's workmanship _The Pilgrim, The Loyal Subject, A Wife for a
+Month, Love's Pilgrimage_, and _The Lover's Progress_,--rich all of them
+in exquisite writing, in varied incident, in brilliant effects and
+graceful and passionate interludes. In _The Coxcomb_, and _The Honest
+Man's Fortune_--two plays which, on the whole, can hardly be counted
+among the best of their class--there are tones of homelier emotion,
+touches of a simpler and more pathetic interest than usual; and here, as
+in the two admirable first scenes between Leucippus and Bacha, which
+relieve and redeem from contempt the tragic burlesque of _Cupid's
+Revenge_, the note of Beaumont's manner is at once discernible.
+
+Even the most rapid revision of the work done by these great twin poets
+must impress every capable student with a sense of the homage due to
+this living witness of their large and liberal genius. The loss of their
+names from the roll of English poetry would be only less than the loss
+of the few greatest inscribed on it. Nothing could supply the want of
+their tragic, their comic or romantic drama; no larger or more fiery
+planet can ever arise to supplant or to eclipse the twin lights of our
+zodiac. Whatever their faults of shortcoming or excess, there is in
+their very names or the mere thought of their common work a kind of
+special and personal attraction for all true lovers of high dramatic
+poetry. There is the glory and grace of youth in all they have left us;
+if there be also somewhat too much of its graceless as well as its
+gracious qualities, yet there hangs about their memory as it were a
+music of the morning, a breath and savour of bright early manhood, a
+joyous and vigorous air of free life and fruitful labour, which might
+charm asleep for ever all thought or blame of all mortal infirmity or
+folly, or any stain of earth that may have soiled in passing the feet of
+creatures half human and half divine while yet they dwelt among men. For
+good or for evil, they are above all things poets of youth; we cannot
+conceive of them grown grey in the dignity of years, venerable with the
+authority of long life, and weighted with the wisdom of experience. In
+the Olympian circle of the gods and giants of our race who on earth were
+their contemporaries and corrivals, they seem to move among the graver
+presences and figures of sedater fame like the two spoilt boys of
+heaven, lightest of foot and heart and head of all the brood of deity.
+Shakespeare may have smiled as Jonson may have nodded approval of their
+bright swift work, neither of these great elders grudging his praise to
+the special charm which won for it a preference during one generation at
+least even over their own loftier and weightier verse; and indeed the
+advance in natural ease, in truth and grace of dialogue, is alike
+manifest whether we turn to such of their comic characters as Valentine
+and Don John, Rutilio and Monsieur Thomas, from the Truewit of Jonson or
+even from the Mercutio of Shakespeare; the one too stiff with classic
+starch, the other too full of mere verbal catches and forced conceits,
+to persuade us that either can in any age have fairly represented the
+light free talk and facile humour of its youth. In another field than
+this Beaumont and Fletcher hold as high and secure a station of their
+own as any poet of their race. In perfect workmanship of lyrical
+jewellery, in perfect bloom and flower of song-writing, they equal all
+compeers whom they do not excel; the blossoms of their growth in this
+kind may be matched for colour and fragrance against Shakespeare's, and
+for morning freshness and natural purity of form exceed the finest
+grafts of Jonson. _The Faithful Shepherdess_ alone might speak for
+Fletcher on this score, being as it is simply a lyric poem in
+semi-dramatic shape, to be judged only as such, and as such almost
+faultless; but in no wise to be classed for praise or blame among the
+acting plays of its author, whose one serious error in the matter was
+the submission of his Dryad to the critical verdict of an audience too
+probably in great part composed of clowns and satyrs far unlike the
+loving and sweet-tongued sylvan of his lovely fancy. And whether we
+assign to him or to Beaumont the divine song of melancholy (_moestius
+lacrymis Simonideis_), perfect in form as Catullus and profound in
+sentiment as Shelley, which Milton himself could but echo and expand,
+could not heighten or deepen its exquisite intensity of thought and word
+alike, there will remain witness enough for the younger brother of a
+lyric power as pure and rare as his elder's.
+
+The excess of influence and popularity over that of other poets usually
+ascribed to the work of Beaumont and Fletcher for some half century or
+so after their own time has perhaps been somewhat overstated by
+tradition. Whatever may have been for a season the fashion of the stage,
+it is certain that Shakespeare can show two editions for one against
+them in folio; four in all from 1623 to 1685, while they have but their
+two of 1647 and 1679. Nor does one see how it can accurately or even
+plausibly be said that they were in any exact sense the founders of a
+school either in comedy or in tragedy. Massinger, for some years their
+survivor, and in some points akin to them as a workman, cannot properly
+be counted as their disciple; and no leading poet of the time had so
+much in common with them as he. At first sight, indeed, his choice of
+romantic subject and treatment of foreign stories, gathered from the
+fertile tale-tellers of the south, and ranging in date from Boccaccio to
+Cervantes, may seem to mark him out as a member of the same school; but
+the deepest and most distinctive qualities of his genius set it far
+apart from theirs; though undoubtedly not so far that any discrepancy or
+discord should impair the excellence or injure the keeping of works in
+which he took part with Fletcher. Yet, placed beside theirs, the tone of
+his thought and speech seems by comparison severe as well as sober, and
+sad as well as severe. Their extravagant and boyish insanity of
+prostrate royalism is not more alien from his half pensive and half
+angry undertone of political protest than his usually careful and
+complete structure of story from their frequently lax and slovenly
+incoherence of character or plot, than his well composed and
+proportioned metre from their lighter and looser melodies, than the
+bitter insistence and elaborate acrimony of his judicial satire on
+hypocrisy or oppression from the gaiety or facility of mood which
+suffers them in the shifting of a scene to redeem their worst characters
+by some juggler's trick of conversion at the last moment allowed them to
+wind up a play with universal reconciliation and an act of oblivion on
+all hands. They could hardly have drawn with such steady skill and
+explicit finish an Overreach or a Luke; but the strenuous and able work
+of Massinger at its highest point of success has no breath in it of
+their brighter and more immediate inspiration. Shirley, on the other
+hand, may certainly be classed as a pupil who copied their style in
+water-colour; his best tragedy and his best comedy, _The Traitor_ and
+_The Lady of Pleasure_, might pass muster undetected among the plays of
+Fletcher, and might fairly claim to take rank above the lowest class of
+these. In the finest work of Middleton we recognize an almost exact
+reproduction of Fletcher's metrical effects,--a reverberation of that
+flowing music, a reiteration of those feminine final notes. In his later
+tragi-comedies, throughout his masterpiece of _Women beware Women_, and
+in the noble scenes which make up the tragic or serious parts of _The
+Changeling_ or _The Spanish Gipsy_,--wherever, in a word, we find the
+admirable but unequal genius of this poet at its best--we find a
+likeness wholly wanting in his earlier and ruder work, which undoubtedly
+suggests the influence of Fletcher. Other instances of imitation, other
+examples of discipleship, might perhaps be found among lesser men of the
+next generation; but the mass of succeeding playwrights began in a very
+short time to lower the style and debase the scheme of dramatic poetry;
+and especially to loosen the last ties of harmony, to deface the very
+form and feature of tragic verse. In Shirley, the last and least of
+those in whom the lineal blood of the old masters was yet discernible,
+we find side by side with the fine ancestral indications of legitimate
+descent exactly such marks of decadence rather than degeneracy as we
+might have anticipated in the latest heir of a long line which began
+with the rise of Marlowe, "sun of the morning," in the highest heaven of
+our song, to prepare a pathway for the sun. After Shakespeare there was
+yet room for Beaumont and Fletcher; but after these and the other
+constellations had set, whose lights filled up the measure of that
+diviner zodiac through which he moved, there was but room in heaven for
+the pallid moonrise of Shirley; and before this last reflex from a
+sunken sun was itself eclipsed, the glory had passed away from English
+drama, to alight upon that summit of epic song, whence Milton held
+communion with darkness and the stars.     (A. C. S.)
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX
+
+The chief collected editions of the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher are:
+_Comedies and Tragedies written by Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher
+Gentlemen_, printed by Humphrey Moseley in folio in 1647 as containing
+plays "never printed before"; _Fifty Comedies and Tragedies written,
+etc._ (fol. 1679); _Works_ ... (11 vols. 1843-1846), edited by Alexander
+Dyce, which superseded earlier editions by L. Theobald, G. Colman and H.
+Weber, and presented a modernized text; a second two-volume edition by
+Dyce in 1852; _The Works of Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher_ (15
+vols. 1905, &c.) edited by Arnold Glover and A.R. Waller in the
+"Cambridge English Classics" from the text of the 2nd folio, and giving
+variant readings from all separate issues of the plays previous to that
+edition; and _Works_ ... (12 vols. 1904, &c.), under the general
+editorship of A.H. Bullen, the text of which is founded on Dyce but with
+many variant readings, the last volume containing memoirs and excursuses
+by the editor.
+
+The foundation of all critical work on Beaumont and Fletcher is to be
+found in Dyce. Discrimination between the work of the two dramatists and
+their collaborators has been the object of a series of studies for the
+establishment of metrical and other tests. Fletcher's verse is
+recognizable by the frequency of an extra syllable, often an accented
+one, at the end of a line, the use of stopped lines, and the frequency
+of trisyllabic feet. He thus obtained an adaptable instrument enabling
+him to dispense with prose even in comic scenes. The pioneer work in
+these matters was done by F.G. Fleay in a paper read before the New
+Shakspere Society in 1874 on "Metrical Tests as applied to Fletcher,
+Beaumont and Massinger." His theories were further developed in the
+article "Fletcher" in his _Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama_. Further
+investigations were published by R. Boyle in _Englische Studien_ (vols.
+v.-x., Heilbronn, 1882-1887), and in the New Shakspere Society
+_Transactions_ (1880-1886), by Benno Leonhardt in _Anglia_ (Halle, vols.
+xix. _seq._), and by E.H. Oliphant in _Englische Studien_ (vols. xiv.
+_seq._). Mr Oliphant restores to Beaumont much which other critics had
+been inclined to deny him. On the sources of the plays see E. Köppel in
+_Münchener Beiträge zur roman. u. eng. Phil._ (Erlangen and Leipzig,
+1895). Consult further articles by A.H. Bullen and R. Boyle respectively
+on Fletcher and Massinger in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._; G.C. Macaulay,
+_Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study_ (1883); and Dr A.W. Ward's chapter
+on "Beaumont and Fletcher" in vol. ii. of his _Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit._
+(new ed. 1899).
+
+A list of the plays attributed to Beaumont and Fletcher, with some
+details, is added, with the premiss that beyond the main lines of
+criticism laid down in Mr Swinburne's article above it is often
+difficult to dogmatize on authorship. Even in cases where the play was
+produced long after Beaumont had ceased to write for the stage there can
+be no certainty that we are not dealing with a piece which is an
+adaptation of an earlier play by a later hand.
+
+  _The Joint Works of Beaumont and Fletcher.--The Scornful Lady_ (acted
+  c. 1609, pr. 1616) is a farcical comedy of domestic life, in which
+  Oliphant finds traces of alteration by a third and perhaps a fourth
+  hand. _Philaster or Love Lies a-Bleeding_ is assigned by Macaulay to
+  Beaumont practically in its entirety, while Fleay attributes only
+  three scenes to Fletcher. It was probably acted c. 1609, and was
+  printed 1620; it was revised (1695) by Elkanah Settle and (1763) by
+  the younger Colman, probably owing its long popularity to the touching
+  character of Bellario. Beaumont's share also predominated in _The
+  Maid's Tragedy_ (acted c. 1609, pr. 1619), in _A King and No King_
+  (acted at court December 26, 1611, and perhaps earlier, pr. 1619),
+  while _The Knight of the Burning Pestle_ (c. 1610, pr. 1613),
+  burlesquing the heroic and romantic play of which Heywood's _Four
+  Prentices_ is an example, might perhaps be transferred entire to
+  Beaumont's account. In _Cupid's Revenge_ (acted at court January 1612,
+  and perhaps at Whitefriars in 1610, pr. 1615), founded on Sidney's
+  _Arcadia_, the two dramatists appear to have had a third collaborator
+  in Massinger and perhaps a fourth in Nathaniel Field.
+
+  The _Coxcomb_ (acted c. 1610, and by the Children of the Queen's
+  Revels in 1612, pr. 1647) seems to have undergone later revision by
+  Massinger. Fletcher's collaboration with other dramatists had begun
+  during his connexion with Beaumont, who apparently ceased to write for
+  the stage two or three years before his death.
+
+  _Works Assigned to Beaumont's Sole Authorship.--The Woman-Hater_ (pr.
+  1607, as "lately acted by the children of Paul's") was assigned
+  formerly to Fletcher. The _Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_
+  was presented at Whitehall on the 26th of February 1612, on the
+  marriage of the Prince and Princess Palatine. Of _Four Plays, or Moral
+  Representations, in One_ (acted 1608, pr. 1647), the _Induction_, with
+  _The Triumph of Honour_ and _The Triumph of Love_, both founded on
+  tales from the _Decameron_, are by Beaumont.
+
+  _Works Assigned to Fletcher's Sole Authorship.--The Faithful
+  Shepherdess_ (pr. c. 1609) was ill received on its original
+  production, but was revived in 1634. That Fletcher was the sole author
+  is practically unquestioned, though Ben Jonson in Drummond's
+  _Conversations_ is made to assert that "Beaumont and Fletcher ten
+  years since hath written _The Faithful Shepherdess_." It was
+  translated into Latin verse by Sir R. Fanshawe in 1658, and Milton's
+  _Comus_ owes not a little to it. In _Four Plays in One_, the two last,
+  _The Triumph of Death_ and _The Triumph of Time_, are Fletcher's. In
+  the indifferent comedy of _The Captain_ (acted 1612-1613, revived
+  1626, pr. 1647) there is no definite evidence of any other hand than
+  Fletcher's, though the collaboration of Beaumont, Massinger and Rowley
+  has been advanced. Other Fletcher plays are: _Wit Without Money_
+  (acted 1614, pr. 1639); the two romantic tragedies of _Bonduca_ (in
+  which Caradach or Caractacus is the chief figure rather than Bonduca
+  or Boadicea) and _Valentinian_, both dating from c. 1616 and printed
+  in the first folio; _The Loyal Subject_ (acted 1618, revived at court
+  1633, pr. 1647); _The Mad Lover_ (acted before March 1619, pr. 1647),
+  which borrows something from the story of Mundus and Paulina in
+  Josephus (bk. xviii.); _The Humorous Lieutenant_ (1619, pr. 1647);
+  _Woman Pleased_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647); _The Woman's Prize or The Tamer
+  Tam'd_ (produced probably between 1610 and 1613, acted 1633 at
+  Blackfriars and at court, pr. 1647), a kind of sequel to _The Taming
+  of the Shrew_; _The Chances_ (uncertain date, pr. 1647), taken from
+  _La Sennora Cornelia_ of Cervantes, and repeatedly revived after the
+  Restoration and in the 18th century; _Monsieur Thomas_ (acted perhaps
+  as early as 1609, pr. 1639); _The Island Princess_ (c. 1621, pr.
+  1647); _The Pilgrim_ and _The Wild Goose-Chase_ (pr. 1652), the second
+  of which was adapted in prose by Farquhar, both acted at court in
+  1621, and possibly then not new pieces; _A Wife for a Month_ (acted
+  1624, pr. 1647); _Rule a Wife and Have a Wife_ (lic. 1624, pr. 1640).
+  _The Pilgrim_ received additions from Dryden, and was adapted by
+  Vanbrugh.
+
+  _Fletcher in Collaboration with other Dramatists._--External evidence
+  of Fletcher's connexion with Massinger is given by Sir Aston Cokaine,
+  who in an epitaph on Fletcher and Massinger wrote: "Playes they did
+  write together, were great friends," and elsewhere claimed for
+  Massinger a share in the plays printed in the 1647 folio. James
+  Shirley and William Rowley have their part in the works that used to
+  be included in the Beaumont and Fletcher canon; and to a letter from
+  Field, Daborne and Massinger, asking for £5 for their joint
+  necessities from Henslowe about the end of 1615, there is a postscript
+  suggesting the deduction of the sum from the "mony remaynes for the
+  play of Mr Fletcher and ours." The problem is complicated when the
+  existing versions of the play are posterior to Fletcher's lifetime,
+  that is, revisions by Massinger or another of pieces which were even
+  originally of double authorship. In this way Beaumont's work may be
+  concealed under successive revisions, and it would be rash to assert
+  that none of the late plays contains anything of his. Mr R. Boyle
+  joins the name of Cyril Tourneur to those of Fletcher and Massinger in
+  connexion with _The Honest Man's Fortune_ (acted 1613, pr. 1647),
+  which Fleay identifies with "the play of Mr Fletcher's and ours." _The
+  Knight of Malta_ (acted 1618-1619, pr. 1647) is in its existing form a
+  revision by Fletcher, Massinger, and possibly Field, of an earlier
+  play which Oliphant thinks was probably written by Beaumont about
+  1608. The same remarks (with the exclusion of Field's name) apply to
+  _Thierry and Theodoret_ (acted c. 1617, pr. 1621), perhaps a satire on
+  contemporary manners at the French court, though Beaumont's share in
+  either must be regarded as problematical. Fletcher and Massinger's
+  great tragedy of _Sir John van Olden Barnaveldt_ (acted 1619) was
+  first printed in Bullen's _Old Plays_ (vol. ii., 1883). They followed
+  it up with _The Custom of the Country_ (acted 1619, pr. 1647), based
+  on an English translation (1619) of _Los Trabajos de Persiles y
+  Sigismunda; The Double Marriage_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647); _The Little
+  French Lawyer_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647), the plot of which can be traced
+  indirectly to a _novellino_ by Massuccio Salernitano; _The Laws of
+  Candy_ (c. 1618, pr. 1647), of disputed authorship; _The False One_
+  (c. 1620, pr. 1647), dealing with the subject of Caesar and
+  Cleopatra; _The Spanish Curate_ (acted 1622, pr. 1647), repeatedly
+  revived after the Restoration, was derived from Leonard Digges's
+  translation (1622) of a Spanish novel, _Gerardo, the Unfortunate
+  Spaniard; The Prophetess_ (1622, pr. 1647), afterwards made into an
+  opera by Betterton to Purcell's music; _The Sea-Voyage_ (1622, pr.
+  1647); _The Elder Brother_ (perhaps originally written by Fletcher
+  c. 1614; revised and acted 1635, pr. 1647); _Beggar's Bush_ (acted
+  at court 1622, probably then not new, pr. 1647); and _The Noble
+  Gentleman_ (1625-1626, pr. 1647). Fletcher only had a small share in
+  _Wit at Several Weapons_--"if he but writ an act or two," says an
+  epilogue on its revival (1623 or 1626),--and the play is probably a
+  revision by Rowley and Middleton of an early Beaumont and Fletcher
+  play. _A Very Woman_ (1634, pr. 1655) is a revision by Massinger of
+  _The Woman's Plot_ ascribed to Fletcher and acted at court in 1621.
+  Field worked with Fletcher and Massinger on the lost play of the
+  _Jeweller of Amsterdam_ (1619), as on the _Faithful Friends_
+  (1613-1614) and _The Queen of Corinth_ (c. 1618, pr. 1647). _The
+  Lover's Progress_ (acted 1634, pr. 1647) is probably a revision by
+  Massinger of the Fletcher play licensed in 1623 as _The Wandering
+  Lovers_, and is perhaps identical with _Cleander_, licensed in 1634.
+  _Love's Cure or The Martial Maid_ (1623 or 1625) is thought by Mr
+  Fleay to be a revision by Massinger of a Beaumont and Fletcher play
+  produced as early as 1607-1608. W. Rowley joined Fletcher in _The Maid
+  in the Mill_ (1623, pr. 1647), and had a share with Massinger in the
+  revision of _The Fair Maid of the Inn_ (licensed 1626, pr. 1647),
+  based on _La illustre Fregona_ of Cervantes. _Nice Valour_ (acted
+  1625-1626, pr. 1647) seems to have been altered by Middleton from an
+  earlier play; _The Widow_, printed in 1652 as by Jonson, Fletcher and
+  Middleton, must be ascribed almost exclusively to Middleton. _The
+  Night Walker_ (1633) is a revision by Shirley of a Fletcher play.
+
+  _Fletcher and Jonson in Collaboration._--The history of _The Bloody
+  Brother or Rollo, Duke of Normandy_, printed in 1637 as by "B.J.F.,"
+  is matter of varied speculation. Mr Oliphant thinks the basis of the
+  play to be an early work (c. 1604) of Beaumont, on which is
+  superimposed a revision (1616) by Fletcher, Jonson and Middleton, and
+  a subsequent revision (1636-1637) by Massinger. The general view is
+  that the main portion of the play is referable to Jonson and Fletcher.
+  Jonson apparently had a share in Fletcher's _Love's Pilgrimage_ (pr.
+  1647), which seems to have been revised by Massinger in 1635.
+
+  _Fletcher and Shakespeare._--_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ was printed in
+  1634 as by Mr John Fletcher and Mr William Shakespeare. If its first
+  representation was in 1625 it was in the year of Fletcher's death. It
+  was included in the second folio of Beaumont and Fletcher's comedies
+  and tragedies. If Shakespeare and Fletcher worked in concert it was
+  probably in 1612-1613, and the existing play probably represents a
+  revision by Massinger in 1625. _Henry VIII._ (played at the Globe in
+  1613) is usually ascribed mainly to Fletcher and Massinger, and the
+  conditions of its production were probably similar. Fletcher and
+  Shakespeare are together credited at Stationers' Hall with the lost
+  play of _Cardenio_, destroyed by Warburton's cook.     (M. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Recent research has resulted in some variation of opinion as to
+    the precise authorship of some of the plays commonly attributed to
+    them; but this article, contributed to the ninth edition of the
+    _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, remains the classical modern criticism of
+    Beaumont and Fletcher, and its value is substantially unaffected. As
+    representing to the end the views of its distinguished author, it is
+    therefore retained as written, the results of later research being
+    epitomized in the Bibliographical Appendix at the end. (_Ed._)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+situated on the Neches river, in the E. part of the state, about 28 m.
+from the Gulf of Mexico and 72 m. N.E. of Galveston. Pop. (1890) 3296;
+(1900) 9427, of whom 2953 were negroes; (1910, census) 20,640. It is
+served by the Gulf & Interstate, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé, the
+Kansas City Southern, the Texas & New Orleans, the Colorado Southern,
+New Orleans & Pacific, the Beaumont, Sour Lake & Western (from Beaumont
+to Sour Lake, Tex.), and the (short) Galveston, Beaumont & North-Eastern
+railways. The Neches river from Beaumont to its mouth has a depth of not
+less than 19 ft.; from its mouth extends a canal (9 ft. deep, 100 ft.
+wide, and 12 m. long) which connects with the Port Arthur Canal (180 ft.
+wide and 25 ft. deep) extending to the sea. Situated in the midst of a
+region covered with dense forests of pine and cypress, Beaumont is one
+of the largest lumber centres of the southern states; it is also the
+centre of a large rice-growing region. The manufactories include rice
+mills, saw mills, sash, door and blind factories, shingle mills, iron
+works, oil refineries, broom factories and a dynamite factory. In 1905
+the cleaning and polishing of rice was the most important industry, its
+output being valued at $1,203,123, being nearly twice the value of the
+product of the rice mills of the city in 1900, 25.9% of the total value
+of the state's product of polished and cleaned rice, 46.1% of the value
+($2,609,829) of all of Beaumont's factory products, and about 7.4% of
+the value of the product of polished and cleaned rice for the whole
+United States in 1905. After the sinking of oil wells in 1901, Beaumont
+became one of the principal oil-producing places in the United States;
+its oil refineries are connected by pipe lines with the surrounding oil
+fields, and two 6-in. pipe lines extend from Beaumont to Oklahoma.
+Beaumont was first settled in 1828, and was first chartered as a city in
+1899.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUNE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Côte-d'Or, on the Bouzoise, 23 m. S.S.W. of Dijon on the
+main line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 11,668. Beaune lies at
+the foot of the hills of Côte-d'Or. Portions of its ancient
+fortifications are still to be seen, but they have been for the most
+part replaced by a shady promenade which separates the town from its
+suburbs. The most interesting feature of Beaune is the old hospital of
+St Esprit, founded in 1443 by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of Burgundy.
+Though it is built largely of wood, the fabric is in good preservation.
+The exterior is simple, but the buildings which surround the main
+courtyard have high-pitched roofs surmounted by numerous dormer windows
+with decorated gables, recalling the Flemish style of architecture. In
+the interior there are several interesting apartments; the chief of
+these is the ample council chamber with its fine tapestries, where an
+important wine sale is held annually. The hospital possesses many
+artistic treasures, among them the mural paintings of the 17th century
+in the Salle St Hugues and an altar-piece, the Last Judgment, attributed
+to Roger van der Weyden. The principal church of the town, Notre-Dame,
+dating mainly from the 12th and 13th centuries, has a fine central tower
+and a triple portal with handsome wooden doors. In the interior there is
+some valuable tapestry of the 15th century, and other works of art. Two
+round towers (15th century) are a survival of the castle of Beaune,
+dismantled by Henry IV. A belfry of 1403 and several houses of the
+Renaissance period, some of which are built over ancient wine-cellars,
+are architecturally notable. There is a statue to the mathematician, G.
+Monge, born in the town (1746), and a monument to Pierre Joigneaux the
+politician (d. 1892). Beaune has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a chamber of commerce, a school of agriculture and viticulture
+and colleges for girls and boys. It carries on considerable trade in
+live-stock and cereals and in the vegetables of its market-gardens, and
+manufactures of casks, corks, white metal, oil, vinegar and machinery
+for the wine-trade are included among the industries; it is chiefly
+important for its vineyards and as the centre of the wine-trade of
+Burgundy.
+
+Beaune was a fortified Roman camp and a stronghold during the middle
+ages. It was the capital of a separate county which in 1227 was united
+to the duchy of Burgundy; it then became the first seat of the
+Burgundian parlement or _jours généraux_ and a ducal residence. On the
+death of Charles the Bold, it sided with his daughter, Mary of Burgundy,
+but was besieged and taken by the forces of Louis XI. in 1478. Its rank
+as commune, conceded to it in 1203, was confirmed by Francis I. in 1521.
+In the Wars of Religion it at first sided with the League, but
+afterwards opened its gates to the troops of Henry IV., from whom it
+received the confirmation of its communal privileges and permission to
+demolish its fortifications. The revocation of the edict of Nantes
+struck a severe blow at the cloth and iron industries, which had
+previously been a source of prosperity to the town. In the 18th century
+there were no fewer than seven monastic buildings in Beaune, besides a
+Bernardine abbey, a Carthusian convent and an ecclesiastical college.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE (c. 1772-?), French adventurer, the son of a
+poor vinegrower named Leuthraud, was born about 1772. He received the
+name Beauregard from a nobleman in whose service he was engaged as
+valet. On the outbreak of the revolution, this nobleman converted all
+his fortune into gold, and entrusting the bag containing the cash to his
+valet, fled to the frontier. For security's sake master and man took
+different roads, but Beauregard turned back with the money to Paris. By
+speculations in provisions and military equipments under the
+Directorate he amassed a considerable fortune, and styling himself the
+marquis de Beauregard, purchased a splendid mansion and began giving
+magnificent entertainments. Detected at the height of his success, the
+impostor was arrested and condemned to four years in irons and to be
+branded. He soon escaped from prison, and had the audacity to reappear
+in Paris and start his old life afresh. After a short time, however, he
+disappeared again, and is supposed to have committed suicide. It is
+probable that most of the information available about him is a blend of
+fact and fiction.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT (1818-1893), American soldier, was
+born near New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 28th of May 1818. At the United
+States military academy he graduated second in his class in July 1838,
+and was appointed lieutenant of engineers. In the Mexican War he
+distinguished himself in siege operations at Vera Cruz, and took part in
+all the battles around Mexico, being wounded at Chapultepec, and
+receiving the brevets of captain and major. In 1853 he became captain
+and was in charge of fortification and other engineer works of various
+points, on the Gulf coast from 1853 to 1860. He had just been appointed
+superintendent of West Point when the secession of his state brought
+about his resignation (20th February 1861). As a brigadier-general of
+the new Confederate army he directed the bombardment of Fort Sumter,
+S.C. As the commander of the Southern "Army of the Potomac" he opposed
+McDowell's advance to Bull Run, and during the battle was second in
+command under Joseph E. Johnston, who had joined him on the previous
+evening. He was one of the five full generals appointed in August 1861,
+and in 1862 was second in command under Sidney Johnston on the
+Tennessee. After Johnston's death he directed the battle of Shiloh,
+subsequent to which he retired to Corinth. This place he defended
+against the united armies under Halleck, until the end of May 1862, when
+he retreated in good order to the southward. His health now failing, he
+was employed in less active work. He defended Charleston against the
+Union forces from September 1862 to April 1864. In May 1864 he fought a
+severe and eventually successful battle at Drury's Bluff against General
+Butler and the Army of the James. Later in the year he endeavoured to
+gather troops wherewith to oppose Sherman's advance from Atlanta, and
+eventually surrendered with Johnston's forces in April 1865. After the
+war he engaged in railway management, became adjutant-general of his
+state and managed the Louisiana lottery. He declined high commands which
+were offered to him in the Rumanian and later in the Egyptian armies.
+General Beauregard died in New Orleans on the 20th of February 1893. He
+was the author of _Principles and Maxims of the Art of War_ (Charleston,
+1863); _Report on the Defence of Charleston_ (Richmond, 1864).
+
+  See Alfred Roman, _Military Operations of General Beauregard_ (New
+  York, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE (1659-1738), French Protestant divine, was born at
+Niort on the 8th of March 1659. After studying theology at the
+Protestant academy of Saumur, he was ordained at the age of twenty-two,
+becoming pastor at Chatillon-sur-Indre. After the revocation of the
+edict of Nantes he fled to Rotterdam (November 1685), and in 1686 was
+appointed chaplain to the princess of Dessau, Henrietta Catherine of
+Orange. In 1693, on the death of the prince of Dessau, he went to Berlin
+and became chaplain to the court at Oranienbaum, and in 1695 pastor of
+the French church at Berlin. He became court preacher, counsellor of the
+Consistory, director of the _Maison française_, a hospice for French
+people, inspector of the French gymnasium and superintendent of all the
+French churches in Brandenburg. He died on the 5th of June 1738. He had
+strong sense with profound erudition, was one of the best writers of his
+time and an excellent preacher.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUVAIS, a town of northern France, capital of the department of Oise,
+49 m. N. by W. of Paris, on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 17,045.
+Beauvais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the left bank of the
+Thérain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its ancient ramparts have
+been destroyed, and it is now surrounded by boulevards, outside which
+run branches of the Thérain. In addition, there are spacious promenades
+in the north-east of the town. Its cathedral of St Pierre, in some
+respects the most daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists
+only of a transept and choir with apse and seven apse-chapels. The
+vaulting in the interior exceeds 150 ft. in height. The small Romanesque
+church of the 10th century known as the Basse-Oeuvre occupies the site
+destined for the nave. Begun in 1247, the work was interrupted in 1284
+by the collapse of the vaulting of the choir, in 1573 by the fall of a
+too ambitious central tower, after which little addition was made. The
+transept was built from 1500 to 1548. Its façades, especially that on
+the south, exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved
+wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are masterpieces
+respectively of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship. The church possesses
+an elaborate astronomical clock (1866) and tapestries of the 15th and
+17th centuries; but its chief artistic treasures are stained glass
+windows of the 13th, 14th and 16th centuries, the most beautiful of them
+from the hand of the Renaissance artist, Engrand Le Prince, a native of
+Beauvais. To him also is due some of the stained glass in St. Étienne,
+the second church of the town, and an interesting example of the
+transition stage between the Romanesque and Gothic styles.
+
+In the Place de l'Hôtel de Ville and in the old streets near the
+cathedral there are several houses dating from the 12th to the 16th
+centuries. The hôtel de ville, close to which stands the statue of
+Jeanne Hachette (see below), was built in 1752. The episcopal palace,
+now used as a court-house, was built in the 16th century, partly upon
+the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The industry of Beauvais comprises,
+besides the state manufacture of tapestry, which dates from 1664, the
+manufacture of various kinds of cotton and woollen goods, brushes, toys,
+boots and shoes, and bricks and tiles. Market-gardening flourishes in
+the vicinity and an extensive trade is carried on in grain and wine.
+
+The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assizes; it
+has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, together with a chamber
+of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a higher ecclesiastical
+seminary, a lycée and training colleges.
+
+Beauvais was known to the Romans as _Caesaromagus_, and took its present
+name from the Gallic tribe of the Bellovaci, whose capital it was. In
+the 9th century it became a countship, which about 1013 passed to the
+bishops of Beauvais, who ultimately became peers of France. In 1346 the
+town had to defend itself against the English, who again besieged it in
+1433. The siege which it suffered in 1472 at the hands of the duke of
+Burgundy was rendered famous by the heroism of the women, under the
+leadership of Jeanne Hachette, whose memory is still celebrated by a
+procession on the 14th of October (the feast of Ste Angadrème), in which
+the women take precedence of the men.
+
+  See V. Lhuillier, _Choses du vieux Beauvais et au Beauvaisis_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUVILLIER, the name of a very ancient French family belonging to the
+country around Chartres, members of which are found filling court
+offices from the 15th century onward. For Charles de Beauvillier,
+gentleman of the chamber to the king, governor and _bailli_ of Blois,
+the estate of Saint Aignan was created a countship in 1537. François de
+Beauvillier, comte de Saint Aignan, after having been through the
+campaigns in Germany (1634-1635), Franche-Comté (1636), and Flanders
+(1637), was sent to the Bastille in consequence of his having lost the
+battle of Thionville in 1640. In reward for his devotion to the court
+party during the Fronde he obtained many signal favours, and Saint
+Aignan was raised to a duchy in the peerage of France (duché-pairie) in
+1663. His son Paul, called the duc de Beauvillier, was several times
+ambassador to England; he became chief of the council of finance in
+1685, governor of the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou and Berri from 1689 to
+1693, minister of state in 1691, and grandee of Spain in 1701. He
+married a daughter of Colbert. Paul Hippolyte de Beauvillier, comte de
+Montrésor, afterwards duc de Saint Aignan, was ambassador at Madrid from
+1715 to 1718 and at Rome in 1731, and a member of the council of regency
+in 1719.     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE, the _nom de plume_ of EUGÈNE AUGUSTE ROGER DE BULLY
+(1806-1866), French writer, who was born on the 8th of November 1806 in
+Paris. He was the son and nephew of public officials who did not approve
+his literary inclinations, and it was at their request that he wrote
+over the signature of Roger de Beauvoir. A good-looking young fellow, of
+independent means, an indefatigable _viveur_, he astonished all Paris
+with his ostentatious luxury and his adventures, while his romantic
+novels gave him a more serious if not durable reputation. Among the best
+of them are _L'Écolier de Cluny ou le Sophisme_ (1832), which is said to
+have furnished Alexandre Dumas and Theodore Gaillardet (1808-1882) with
+the idea of the _Tour de Nesle_, and _Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_
+(1840). He had married in 1847 an actress, Eléonore Léocadie Doze
+(1822-1859), from whom he obtained a judicial separation a year or two
+later after a long and notorious trial, following which his
+mother-in-law got him imprisoned for three months and fined 500 francs
+for a satirical poem, _Mon Procès_ (1849). Ruined by extravagance and
+tied to his chair by gout, he spent the last years of his life in
+retirement, and died in Paris on the 27th of August 1866.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUX, CECILIA (1863-   ), American portrait-painter, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became a pupil of William Sartain.
+But her real art training was obtained in Paris, where she started in
+the _atelier_ Julian and had the coaching of painters like
+Robert-Fleury, Bouguereau and Dagnan Bouveret. In 1890 she exhibited at
+the Paris Exposition. Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in
+1893 the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge
+prize at the New York National Academy, and later various other
+distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy of Design, New
+York, in 1902. Among her portraits are those of Bishop-Coadjutor Greer
+(exhibited at the Salon in 1896); Mrs Roosevelt and her daughter; and
+Mrs Larz Anderson. Her "Dorothea and Francesca," and "Ernesta and her
+Little Brother," are good examples of her skill in painting children.
+
+
+
+
+BEAVER,[1] the largest European aquatic representative of the mammalian
+order RODENTIA (q.v.), easily recognized by its large trowel-like, scaly
+tail, which is expanded in the horizontal direction. The true beaver
+(_Castor fiber_) is a native of Europe and northern Asia, but it is
+represented in North America by a closely-allied species (_C.
+canadensis_), chiefly distinguished by the form of the nasal bones of
+the skull. Beavers are nearly allied to the squirrels (_Sciuridae_),
+agreeing in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull.
+In the _Sciuridae_ the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower
+half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the
+habits are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or _Castoridae_
+these bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is
+depressed, expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic. Beavers have
+webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double. In length
+beavers--European and American--measure about 2 ft. exclusive of the
+tail, which is about 10 in. long. They are covered with a fur to which
+they owe their chief commercial value; this consists of two kinds of
+hair--the one close-set, silky and of a greyish colour, the other much
+coarser and longer, and of a reddish brown. Beavers are essentially
+aquatic in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by
+necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver has not only
+been exterminated there, but likewise in most of the countries of the
+continent, although a few remain on the Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of
+Scandinavia. The American species is also greatly diminished in numbers
+from incessant pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur. Beavers are
+sociable anirrals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water
+of sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and boughs
+of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the neighbourhood
+they make their "lodges," which are roomy chambers, with the entrance
+beneath the water. The mud is plastered down by the fore-feet, and not,
+as often supposed, by the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder.
+They are mainly nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the
+roots of water plants. The dam differs in shape according to the nature
+of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it is almost
+straight; where the current is considerable it is curved, with its
+convexity towards the stream. The materials made use of are driftwood,
+green willows, birch and poplars; also mud and stones intermixed in such
+a manner as contributes to the strength of the dam, but there is no
+particular method observed, except that the work is carried on with a
+regular sweep, and that all the parts are made of equal strength. "In
+places," writes Hearne, "which have been long frequented by beavers
+undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank,
+capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as the
+willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by
+degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some
+places so tall that birds have built their nests among the branches."
+Their houses are formed of the same materials as the dams, with little
+order or regularity of structure, and seldom contain more than four old,
+and six or eight young beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of
+the larger houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts
+of the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for the
+apartments have usually no communication with each other except by
+water. The beavers carry the mud and stones with their fore-paws and the
+timber between their teeth. They always work in the night and with great
+expedition. They cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud,
+which, freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone,
+so that neither wolves nor wolverines can disturb their repose.
+
+The favourite food of the American beaver is the water-lily (_Nuphar
+luteum_), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk, and grows at the
+bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also gnaw the bark of birch, poplar
+and willow trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the
+addition of berries, is consumed. When the ice breaks up in spring they
+always leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before the
+fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations, and lay in
+their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to repair the houses till
+the frost sets in, and never finish the outer coating till the cold
+becomes severe. When they erect a new habitation they fell the wood
+early in summer, but seldom begin building till towards the end of
+August.
+
+The flesh of the American beaver is eaten by the Indians, and when
+roasted in the skin is esteemed a delicacy and is said to taste like
+pork. _Castoreum_ is a substance contained in two pear-shaped pouches
+situated near the organs of reproduction, of a bitter taste and slightly
+foetid odour, at one time largely employed as a medicine, but now used
+only in perfumery.
+
+Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial
+deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the
+Pleistocene formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant
+extinct beaver, _Trogontherium cuvieri_, representing a genus by itself.
+
+  For an account of beavers in Norway see R. Collett, in the _Bergens
+  Museum Aarbog_ for 1897. See also R.T. Martin, _Castorologia, a
+  History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver_ (London, 1892).
+       (R. L.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf.
+    Sanskrit _babhrús_, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. _fiber_, Ger.
+    _Biber_, Swed. _bafver_, Russ. _bobr'_; the root _bhru_ has given
+    "brown," and, through Romanic, "bronze" and "burnish."
+
+
+
+
+BEAVER (from Fr. _bavière_, a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva), the
+lower part of the helmet, fixed to the neck-armour to protect the face
+and cheeks; properly it moved upwards, as the visor moved down, but the
+word is sometimes used to include the visor. The right form of the word,
+"baver," has been altered from a confusion with "beaver," a hat made of
+beaver-fur or a silk imitation, also, in slang, called a "castor," from
+the zoological name of the beaver family.
+
+
+
+
+BEAVER DAM, a city of Dodge county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated in the
+S.E. part of the state, 63 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, on Beaver Lake, which
+is 9 m. long and 3 m. wide. Pop. (1890) 4222; (1900) 5128, of whom 1023
+were foreign-born; (1905) 5615; (1910) 6758. Most of the population is
+of German descent. Beaver Dam is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St
+Paul railway. The city is a summer resort, has a public library, and is
+the seat of Wayland Academy (1855, Baptist), a co-educational
+preparatory school affiliated with the university of Chicago. Beaver Dam
+is situated in the midst of a fine farming country; it has a good
+water-power derived from Beaver Lake, and among its manufactures are
+woollen and cotton goods, malleable iron, foundry products, gasolene
+engines, agricultural implements, stoves and beer. The city was first
+settled about 1841, and was incorporated in 1856.
+
+
+
+
+BEAVER FALLS, a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on
+Beaver river, about 3½ m. from its confluence with the Ohio, opposite
+New Brighton, and about 32 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 9735;
+(1900) 10,054, of whom 1554 were foreign-born; (1910), census, 12,191.
+The borough is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie
+railways. It is built for the most part on a plateau about 50 ft. above
+the river, hemmed in on either side by hills that rise abruptly,
+especially on the W., to a height of more than 200 ft. Bituminous coal,
+natural gas and oil abound in the vicinity; the river provides excellent
+water-power; the borough is a manufacturing centre of considerable
+importance, its products including iron and steel bridges, boilers,
+steam drills, carriages, saws, files, axes, shovels, wire netting,
+stoves, glass-ware, scales, chemicals, pottery, cork, decorative tile,
+bricks and typewriters. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued
+at $4,907,536. Geneva College (Reformed Presbyterian, co-educational),
+established in 1849 at Northwood, Logan county, Ohio, was removed in
+1880 to the borough of College Hill (pop. in 1900, 899), 1 m. N. of
+Beaver Falls; it has a preparatory and a collegiate department,
+departments of music, oratory and art, and a physical department, and in
+1907-1908 had 13 instructors and 235 students. Beaver Falls was first
+settled in 1801; was laid out as a town and named Brighton in 1806;
+received its present name a few years later; and in 1868 was
+incorporated as a borough.
+
+
+
+
+BEAWAR, or NAYANAGAR, a town of British India, the administrative
+headquarters of Merwara district in Ajmere-Merwara. It is 33 m. from
+Ajmere. Pop. (1901) 21,928. It is an important centre of trade,
+especially in raw cotton, and has cotton presses and the Krishna cotton
+mills. It was founded by Colonel Dixon in 1835.
+
+
+
+
+BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST (1840- ), German socialist, was born at Cologne
+on the 22nd of February 1840; he became a turner and worked at Leipzig.
+Here he took a prominent part in the workmen's movement and in the
+association of working men which had been founded under the influence of
+Schultz-Delitzsch; at first an opponent of socialism, he came under the
+influence of Liebknecht, and after 1865 he was a confirmed advocate of
+socialism. With Liebknecht he belonged to the branch of the socialists
+which was in close correspondence with Karl Marx and the International,
+and refused to accept the leadership of Schweitzer, who had attempted to
+carry on the work after Lassalle's death. He was one of those who
+supported a vote of want of confidence in Schweitzer at the Eisenach
+conference in 1867, from which his party was generally known as "the
+Eisenacher." In this year he was elected a member of the North German
+Reichstag for a Saxon constituency, and, with an interval from 1881 to
+1883, remained a member of the German parliament. His great organizing
+talent and oratorical power quickly made him one of the leaders of the
+socialists and their chief spokesman in parliament. In 1870 he and
+Liebknecht were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary
+subsidy required for the war with France; the followers of Lassalle, on
+the other hand, voted for the government proposals. He was the only
+Socialist who was elected to the Reichstag in 1871, but he used his
+position to protest against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and to
+express his full sympathy with the Paris Commune. Bismarck afterwards
+said that this speech of Bebel's was a "ray of light," showing him that
+Socialism was an enemy to be fought against and crushed; and in 1872
+Bebel was accused in Brunswick of preparation for high treason, and
+condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress, and, for insulting
+the German emperor, to nine months' ordinary imprisonment. After his
+release he helped to organize, at the congress of Gotha, the united
+party of Social Democrats, which had been formed during his
+imprisonment. After the passing of the Socialist Law he continued to
+show great activity in the debates of the Reichstag, and was also
+elected a member of the Saxon parliament; when the state of siege was
+proclaimed in Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886
+condemned to nine months' imprisonment for taking part in a secret
+society. Although the rules of the Social Democratic party do not
+recognize a leader or president, Bebel subsequently became by far the
+most influential member of the party. In the party meetings of 1890 and
+1891 his policy was severely attacked, first by the extremists, the
+"young" Socialists from Berlin, who wished to abandon parliamentary
+action; against these Bebel won a complete victory. On the other side he
+was involved in a quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put
+aside from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the
+Socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bringing
+about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual amelioration.
+This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel came to be regarded as
+the chief exponent of the traditional views of the orthodox Marxist
+party. He was exposed to some natural ridicule on the ground that the
+"Kladderadatsch," which he often spoke of as imminent, failed to make
+its appearance. On the other hand, though a strong opponent of
+militarism, he publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany
+must not expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. His
+book, _Die Frau und der Socialismus_ (1893), which went through many
+editions and contained an attack on the institution of marriage,
+identified him with the most extreme forms of Socialism.
+
+  See also Mehring, _Geschichte der deutschen Social-Demokratie_
+  (Stuttgart, 1898); _Reports of the Annual Meetings of the Social
+  Democratic Party_, Berlin Vorwarts Publishing Company (from 1890); B.
+  Russell, _German Social-Democracy_ (London, 1897).     (J. W. He.)
+
+
+
+
+BECCAFICO (Ital. for "fig-pecker"), a small migratory bird of the
+warbler (_Sylviidae_) family, which frequents fig-trees and vineyards,
+and, when fattened, is considered a great delicacy.
+
+
+
+
+BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE (1486-1551), Italian painter, of the school
+of Siena. In the early days of the Tuscan republics Siena had been in
+artistic genius, and almost in political importance, the rival of
+Florence. But after the great plague in 1348 the city declined; and
+though her population always comprised an immense number of skilled
+artists and artificers, yet her school did not share in the general
+progress of Italy in the 15th century. About the year 1500, indeed,
+Siena had no native artists of the first importance; and her public and
+private commissions were often given to natives of other cities. But
+after the uncovering of the works of Raphael and Michelangelo at Rome in
+1508, all the schools of Italy were stirred with the desire of imitating
+them. Among these accomplished men who now, without the mind and
+inspiration of Raphael or Michelangelo, mastered a great deal of their
+manner, and initiated the decadence of Italian art, several of the most
+accomplished arose in the school of Siena. Among these was Domenico, the
+son of a peasant, one Giacomo di Pace, who worked on the estate of a
+well-to-do citizen named Lorenzo Beccafumi. Seeing some signs of a
+talent for drawing in his labourer's son, Lorenzo Beccafumi took the boy
+into his service and presently adopted him, causing him to learn
+painting from masters of the city. Known afterwards as Domenico
+Beccafumi, or earlier as Il Mecarino (from the name of a poor artist
+with whom he studied), the peasant's son soon gave proof of
+extraordinary industry and talent. In 1509 he went to Rome and steeped
+himself in the manner of the great men who had just done their first
+work in the Vatican. Returning to his native town, Beccafumi quickly
+gained employment and a reputation second only to Sodoma. He painted a
+vast number both of religious pieces for churches and of mythological
+decorations for private patrons. But the work by which he will longest
+be remembered is that which he did for the celebrated pavement of the
+cathedral of Siena. For a hundred and fifty years the best artists of
+the state had been engaged laying down this pavement with vast designs
+in _commesso_ work,--white marble, that is, engraved with the outlines
+of the subject in black, and having borders inlaid with rich patterns in
+many colours. From the year 1517 to 1544 Beccafumi was engaged in
+continuing this pavement. He made very ingenious improvements in the
+technical processes employed, and laid down multitudinous scenes from
+the stories of Ahab and Elijah, of Melchisedec, of Abraham and of Moses.
+These are not so interesting as the simpler work of the earlier schools,
+but are much more celebrated and more jealously guarded. Such was their
+fame that the agents of Charles I. of England, at the time when he was
+collecting for Whitehall, went to Siena expressly to try and purchase
+the original cartoons. But their owner would not part with them, and
+they are now in the Siena Academy and elsewhere. The subjects have been
+engraved on wood, by the hand, as it seems, of Beccafumi himself, who at
+one time or another essayed almost every branch of fine art. He made a
+triumphal arch and an immense mechanical horse for the procession of the
+emperor Charles V. on his entry into Siena. In his later days, being a
+solitary liver and continually at work, he is said to have accelerated
+his death by over-exertion upon the processes of bronze-casting.
+
+
+
+
+BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1716-1781), Italian physicist, was born at
+Mondovi on the 3rd of October 1716, and entered the religious order of
+the Pious Schools in 1732. He became professor of experimental physics,
+first at Palermo and then at Rome, and was appointed to a similar
+situation at Turin in 1748. He was afterwards made tutor to the young
+princes de Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally
+at Turin during the remainder of his life. In May 1755 he was elected a
+fellow of the Royal Society of London, and published several papers on
+electrical subjects in the _Phil. Trans_. He died at Turin on the 27th
+of May 1781. Beccaria did much, in the way both of experiment and
+exposition, to spread a knowledge of the electrical researches of
+Franklin and others. His principal work was the treatise _Dell'
+Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale_ (1753), which was translated into
+English in 1776.
+
+
+
+
+BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE, MARCHESE DE (1735-1794), Italian publicist,
+was born at Milan on the 15th of March 1735. He was educated in the
+Jesuit college at Parma, and showed at first a great aptitude for
+mathematics. The study of Montesquieu seems to have directed his
+attention towards economic questions; and his first publication (1762)
+was a tract on the derangement of the currency in the Milanese states,
+with a proposal for its remedy. Shortly after, in conjunction with his
+friends the Verris, he formed a literary society, and began to publish a
+small journal, in imitation of the _Spectator_, called _Il Caffè_. In
+1764 he published his brief but justly celebrated treatise _Dei Delitti
+e delle Pene_ ("On Crimes and Punishments"). The weighty reasonings of
+this work were expounded with all the additional force of a clear and
+animated style. It pointed out distinctly and temperately the grounds of
+the right of punishment, and from these principles deduced certain
+propositions as to the nature and amount of punishment which should be
+inflicted for any crime. The book had a surprising success. Within
+eighteen months it passed through six editions. It was translated into
+French by Morellet in 1766, and published with an anonymous commentary
+by Voltaire. An English translation appeared in 1768 and it was
+translated into several other languages. Many of the reforms in the
+penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable to
+Beccaria's treatise. In November 1768 he was appointed to the chair of
+law and economy, which had been founded expressly for him at the
+Palatine college of Milan. His lectures on political economy, which are
+based on strict utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with
+the theories of the English school of economists. They are published in
+the collection of Italian writers on political economy (_Scrittori
+Classici Italiani di Economia politico_., vols. xi. and xii.). In 1771
+Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic council; and in 1791
+he was appointed one of the board for the reform of the judicial code.
+In this post his labours were of very great value. He died at Milan on
+the 28th of November 1794.
+
+
+
+
+BECCLES, a market town and municipal borough, in the Lowestoft
+parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; on the right bank of the
+river Waveney, 109 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway.
+Pop. (1901) 6898. It has a pleasant, well-wooded site overlooking the
+flat lands bordering the Waveney. The church of St Michael, wholly
+Perpendicular, is a fine example of the style, having an ornate south
+porch of two storeys and a detached bell tower. There are a grammar
+school (1712), and boys' school and free school on the foundation of Sir
+John Leman (1631). Rose Hall, in the vicinity, is a moated manor of
+brick, of the 16th century. Printing works, malting, brick and tile, and
+agricultural implement works are the chief industries. Beccles was
+incorporated in 1584. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 2017 acres.
+
+
+
+
+BECERRA, GASPAR (1520-1570), Spanish painter and sculptor, was born at
+Baéza in Andalusia. He studied at Rome, it is said under Michelangelo,
+and assisted Vasari in painting the hall of the Concelleria. He also
+contributed to the anatomical plates of Valverde. After his return to
+Spain he was extensively employed by Philip II., and decorated many of
+the rooms in the palace at Madrid with frescoes. He also painted
+altar-pieces for several of the churches, most of which have been
+destroyed. His fame as a sculptor almost surpassed that as a painter.
+His best work was a magnificent figure of the Virgin, which was
+destroyed during the French war. He became court painter at Madrid in
+1563, and played a prominent part in the establishment of the fine arts
+in Spain.
+
+
+
+
+BÊCHE-DE-MER (sometimes explained as "sea-spade," from the shape of the
+prepared article, but more probably from the Port, _bicho_, a worm or
+grub), or TREPANG (Malay, _tripang_), an important food luxury among the
+Chinese and other Eastern peoples, connected with the production of
+which considerable trade exists in the Eastern Archipelago and the
+coasts of New Guinea, and also in California. It consists of several
+species of echinoderms, generally referred to the genus _Holothuria_,
+especially _H. edulis_. The creatures, which exist on coral reefs, have
+bodies from 6 to 15 in. long, shaped like a cucumber, hence their name
+of "sea-cucumbers." The skin is sometimes covered with spicules or
+prickles, and sometimes quite smooth, and with or without "teats" or
+ambulacral feet disposed in rows. Five varieties are recognized in the
+commerce of the Pacific Islands, the finest of which is the "brown with
+teats." The large black come next in value, followed by the small black,
+the red-bellied and the white. They are used in the gelatinous soups
+which form an important article of food in China. They are prepared for
+use by being boiled for about twenty minutes, and then dried first in
+the sun and afterwards over a fire, so that they are slightly smoked.
+
+
+
+
+BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM (1635-1682), German chemist, physician, scholar and
+adventurer, was born at Spires in 1635. His father, a Lutheran minister,
+died while he was yet a child, leaving a widow and three children. The
+mother married again; the stepfather spent the tiny patrimony of the
+children; and at the age of thirteen Becher found himself responsible not
+only for his own support but also for that of his mother and brothers. He
+learned and practised several small handicrafts, and devoting his nights
+to study of the most miscellaneous description earned a pittance by
+teaching. In 1654, at the age of nineteen, he published an edition of
+Salzthal's _Tractatus de lapide trismegisto_; his _Metallurgia_ followed
+in 1660; and the next year appeared his _Character pro notitia linguarum
+universali_, in which he gives 10,000 words for use as a universal
+language. In 1663 he published his _Oedipum Chemicum_ and a book on
+animals, plants and minerals (_Thier- Kräuter- und Bergbuch_). At the same
+time he was full of schemes, practical and unpractical. He negotiated with
+the elector palatine for the establishment of factories at Mannheim;
+suggested to the elector of Bavaria the creation of German colonies in
+Guiana and the West Indies; and brought down upon himself the wrath of the
+Munich merchants by planning a government monopoly of cloth manufacture
+and of trade. He fled from Munich, but found a ready welcome elsewhere. In
+1666 he was appointed teacher of medicine at Mainz and body-physician to
+the archbishop-elector; and the same year he was made councillor of
+commerce (_Commerzienrat_) at Vienna, where he had gained the powerful
+support of Albrecht, Count Zinzendorf, prime minister and grand
+chamberlain of the emperor Leopold I. Sent by the emperor on a mission to
+Holland, he there wrote in ten days his _Methodus Didactica_, which was
+followed by the _Regeln der Christlichen Bundesgenossenschaft_ and the
+_Politischer Discurs vom Auj- und Abblühen der Städte_. In 1669 he
+published his _Physica subterranea_, and the same year was engaged with
+the count of Hanau in a scheme for settling a large territory between the
+Orinoco and the Amazon. Meanwhile he had been appointed physician to the
+elector of Bavaria; but in 1670 he was again in Vienna advising on the
+establishment of a silk factory and propounding schemes for a great
+company to trade with the Low Countries and for a canal to unite the Rhine
+and Danube. He then returned to Bavaria, and his absence bringing him into
+ill odour at Vienna, he complained of the incompetence of the council of
+commerce and dedicated a tract on trade (_Commercien-Tractat_) to the
+emperor Leopold. His _Psychosophia_ followed, and "An invitation to a
+psychological community" (_Einladung zu einer psychologischen Societät_),
+for the realization of which Duke Gustavus Adolphus of Mecklenburg-Gustrow
+(d. 1695) offered him in 1674 a site in his duchy. The plan came to
+nothing, and next year Becher was again busy at Vienna, trying to
+transmute Danube sand into gold, and writing his _Theses chemicae
+veritatem transmutationis metallorum evincentes_. For some reason he
+incurred the disfavour of Zinzendorf and fled to Holland, where with the
+aid of the government he continued his experiments. Pursued even there by
+the resentment of his former patron, he crossed to England, whence he
+visited the mines of Scotland at the request of Prince Rupert. He
+afterwards went for the same purpose to Cornwall, where he spent a year.
+At the beginning of 1680 he presented a paper to the Royal Society, _De
+nova temporis dimetiendi ratione et accurata horologiorum constructione_,
+in which he attempted to deprive Huygens of the honour of applying the
+pendulum to the measurement of time. The views of Becher on the
+composition of substances mark little essential advance on those of the
+two preceding centuries, and the three elements or principles of salt,
+mercury and sulphur reappear as the vitrifiable, the mercurial and the
+combustible earths. When a substance was burnt he supposed that the last
+of these, the _terra pinguis_, was liberated, and this conception is the
+basis on which G.E. Stahl founded his doctrine of "phlogiston." His ideas
+and experiments on the nature of minerals and other substances are
+voluminously set forth in his _Physica Subterranea_ (Frankfort, 1669); an
+edition of this, published at Leipzig in 1703, contains two supplements
+(_Experimentum chymicum novum_ and _Demonstratio Philosophica_), proving
+the truth and possibility of transmuting metals, _Experimentum novum ac
+curiosum de minera arenaria perpetua_, the paper on timepieces already
+mentioned and also _Specimen Becherianum_, a summary of his doctrines by
+Stahl, who in the preface acknowledges indebtedness to him in the words
+_Becheriana sunt quae profero_. At Falmouth he wrote his _Laboratorium
+portabile_ and at Truro the _Alphabetum minerale_. In 1682 he returned to
+London, where he wrote the _Chemischer Glückshafen oder grosse Concordanz
+und Collection van 1500 Processen_ and died in October of the same year.
+
+
+
+
+BECHUANA, a South African people, forming a branch of the great
+Bantu-Negroid family. They occupy not only Bechuanaland, to which they
+have given their name, and Basutoland, but are the most numerous native
+race in the Orange River Colony and in the western and northern
+districts of the Transvaal. It seems certain that they reached their
+present home later than the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples who came down the
+east coast of the continent, but it is probable that they started on
+their southward journey before the latter. It would appear that the
+forerunners of the movement were the Bakalahari and Balala, who were
+subsequently reduced to the condition of serfs by the later arrivals,
+and who by intermingling to a certain extent with the aborigines gave
+rise to the "Kalahari Bushmen" (see KALAHARI DESERT). The Bechuana
+family may be classed in two great divisions, the western or Bechuana
+proper, and the eastern or Basuto. The Bechuana proper consist of a
+large number of tribes, whose early history is extremely confused and
+involved owing to continual inter-tribal wars and migrations, during
+which many tribes were practically annihilated. Further confusion was
+produced by subsequent marauding expeditions by the coast "Kaffirs." An
+ingenious attempt to disentangle the highly complicated tribal movements
+which took place in the early 19th century may be found in Stow's
+_Native Races of South Africa_. One migration of particular interest
+calls for mention. In the early part of the 19th century a number of
+Basuto, led by the chief Sebituane, crossed the Zambezi near the
+Victoria Falls, and, under the name Makololo, established a supremacy
+over the Barotse and neighbouring tribes on the upper portion of the
+river, imposing their language on the conquered peoples. After the death
+of Sekeletu, Sebituane's successor, the vassal tribes arose and
+exterminated their conquerors. Only a few escaped, whom Sekeletu had
+sent with David Livingstone to the coast. These established themselves
+to the south of Lake Nyasa, where they are still to be found. Sesuto
+speech, however, still prevails in Barotseland. The chief Bechuana
+tribes were the Batlapin and Barolong (the last including the Baratlou,
+Bataung, Barapulana and Baseleka), together with the great Bakuena or
+Bakone people (including the Bahurutsi, Batlaru, Bamangwato, Batauana,
+Bangwaketse and Bakuena). The clans representing the southern Bakuena
+were in comparatively recent times welded together to form the Basuto
+nation, of which the founder was the chief Moshesh (see BASUTOLAND). The
+Basuto have been not only influenced in certain cultural details (e.g.
+the form of their huts) by the neighbouring Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples,
+but have moreover received an infusion of their blood which has improved
+their physique. They are good riders and make considerable use of their
+horses in war and the chase.
+
+The Bechuana, though not so tall as Kaffirs, average 5 ft. 6 in. in
+stature; they are of slender build and their musculature is but
+moderately developed except where a Kaffir strain is found. Their skin
+is of a reddish-brown or bronze colour, and their features are fairly
+regular, though in all cases coarser than those of Europeans. One of
+their chief peculiarities lies in the fact that each tribe respects
+(usually) a particular animal, which the members of the tribe may not
+eat, and the killing of which, if necessary, must be accompanied by
+profuse apologies and followed by subsequent purification. Many of the
+tribes take their name from their _siboko_, as the animal in question is
+called; e.g. the Batlapin, "they of the fish"; Bakuena, "they of the
+crocodile." The _siboko_ of the Barolong, who as a tribe are
+accomplished smiths, is not an animal but the metal iron; other tribes
+have adopted as their particular emblem respectively the sun, rain, dew,
+&c. Certain ceremonies are performed in honour of the tribal emblem,
+hence an inquiry as to the tribe of an individual is put in the form
+"What do you dance?" In certain tribes the old and feeble and the sickly
+children were killed, and albinos and the deaf and dumb exposed; those
+born blind were strangled, and if a mother died in childbirth the infant
+was buried alive in the same grave. With the extension of British
+authority these practices were prohibited. Circumcision is universally
+practised, though there is no fixed age for it. It is performed at
+puberty, when the boys are secluded for a period in the bush. The
+operation is accompanied by whipping and even tortures. Girls at puberty
+must undergo trials of endurance, e.g. the holding of a bar of heated
+iron without crying out. The Bechuana inhabit, for the most part, towns
+of considerable size, containing from 5000 to 40,000. Politically they
+live under a tribal despotism limited by a council of elders, the chief
+seldom exercising his individual authority independently, though the
+extent of his power naturally depends on his personality. They have
+their public assemblies, but only when circumstances, chiefly in
+reference to war, require. These are generally characterized by great
+freedom of speech, and there is no interruption of the speaker. The
+chief generally closes the meeting with a long speech, referring to the
+subjects which each speaker has either supported or condemned, not
+forgetting to clear his own character of any imputation. These public
+assemblies are now, except in Basutoland, of very rare occurrence. The
+clothing of the men consists of a leather bandage; the women wear a skin
+apron, reaching to the knee, under which is a fringed girdle. Skin
+cloaks (_kaross_) are worn by both sexes, with the difference that the
+male garment is distinguished by a collar. The hair is kept short for
+the most part; women shave the head, leaving a tuft on the crown which
+is plastered with fat and earth, and adorned with beads. Beads are worn,
+and various bracelets of iron, copper and brass.
+
+The Bechuana are mainly an agricultural people, the Bangwaketse and
+Bakuena excelling as cultivators. Cattle they possess, but these are
+used chiefly for the purpose of purchasing wives, especially among the
+Basuto. At the same time they are excellent craftsmen, and show no
+little skill in smelting and working iron and copper and the preparation
+of hides and pottery vessels. The most efficient smiths are the Barolong
+and Bamangwato (the latter were spared by the Matabele chief Umsilikazi
+on this account); the Bangwaketse excel as potters; the Barolong as wood
+carvers, and the Bakuena as hut builders. The huts, with the exception
+of those of the Basuto who have adopted the Kaffir model, are
+cylindrical, with clay-plastered walls and a conical roof of thatch. In
+spite of the constant tribal feuds dating from the beginning of the 19th
+century, the Bechuana cannot be classed as a warlike people, especially
+when they are compared with the Zulu. Their weapons consist of the
+throwing assegai, usually barbed, axes, daggers in carved sheaths, and,
+occasionally, bows and arrows, the last sometimes poisoned. Hide shields
+of a peculiar shape, resembling a depressed hour-glass, are found except
+among the Basuto, who use a somewhat different pattern. Hunting usually
+takes the form of great drives organized in concert, and the game is
+driven by means of converging fences to a large pitfall or series of
+pits. Their religious beliefs are very vague; they appear to recognize a
+somewhat indeterminate spirit of, mainly, evil tendencies, called
+_Morimo_. The plural form of this word, _Barimo_, is used of the _manes_
+of dead ancestors, to whom a varying amount of reverence is paid. There
+is universal belief in charms and witchcraft, and divination by means of
+dice is common. Witchdoctors, who are supposed to counteract evil magic,
+play a not insignificant part, and the magician who claims the power of
+making rain occupies a very important position, as might be expected
+among an agricultural people inhabiting a country where droughts are not
+infrequent. They have a great dread of anything connected with death;
+when an old man is on the point of expiring, a net is thrown over him,
+and he is dragged from his hut by a hole in the wall, if possible before
+life is extinct. The dead are buried in a sitting position with their
+faces to the north, in which direction lies their ancestral home. Under
+the influence of missionaries, however, large numbers of the Bechuana
+have become Christianized, and many of the customs mentioned are no
+longer practised.
+
+Polygamy is the rule, but, except in the case of chiefs, is not found to
+the same extent as among the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffirs]. The woman is purchased
+from her father, chiefly by means of cattle, though among the western
+Bechuana other articles are included, many of which become the property
+of the girl herself. The wives live in separate huts, and the first is
+given priority over those purchased subsequently. Chastity after
+marriage is the rule, and adultery and rape are severely punished, as
+offences against property. Cannibalism is found, but is rare and
+confined to certain tribes.
+
+The Bechuana language, which belongs to the Bantu linguistic family, is
+copious, with but few slight dialectic differences, and is free from the
+Hottentot elements found in the Kaffir and Zulu tongues. The richness of
+the language may be judged from the fact that, though only oral until
+reduced to writing by the missionaries, it has sufficed for the
+translation of the whole Bible.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G.W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_ (London,
+  1905); Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrikas_ (Breslau, 1872);
+  Robert Moffat, _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_
+  (1842); David Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South
+  Africa_ (London, 1857); J.C. MacGregor, _Basuto Traditions_ (Cape
+  Town, 1905).     (T. A. J.)
+
+
+
+
+BECHUANALAND (a name given from its inhabitants, the Bechuana, q.v.), a
+country of British South Africa occupying the central part of the vast
+tableland which stretches north to the Zambezi. It is bounded S. by the
+Orange river, N.E. and E. by Matabeleland, the Transvaal and Orange
+River Colony, and W. and N. by German South-West Africa. Bechuanaland
+geographically and ethnically enjoys almost complete unity, but
+politically it is divided as follows:--
+
+I. British Bechuanaland, since 1895 an integral part of Cape Colony.
+Area, 51,424 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 84,210, of whom 9276 were whites.
+
+II. The Bechuanaland Protectorate, the northern part of the country,
+governed on the lines of a British crown colony. Area (estimated),
+225,000 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 120,776, of whom Europeans numbered 1004. The
+natives, in addition to the Bechuana tribes, include some thousands of
+Bushmen (Masarwa). Administratively attached to the protectorate is the
+Tati concession, which covers 2500 sq. m. and forms geographically the
+south-west corner of Matabeleland.
+
+The Griqualand West province of Cape Colony belongs also geographically
+to Bechuanaland, and except in the Kimberley diamond mines region is
+still largely inhabited by Bechuana. (See GRIQUALAND.)
+
+_Physical Features._--The average height of the tableland of which
+Bechuanaland consists is nearly 4000 ft. The surface is hilly and
+undulating with a general slope to the west, where the level falls in
+considerable areas to little over 2000 ft. A large part of the country
+is covered with grass or shrub, chiefly acacia. There is very little
+forest land. The western region, the Kalahari Desert (q.v.), is mainly
+arid, with a sandy soil, and is covered in part by dense bush. In the
+northern region are large marshy depressions, in which the water is
+often salt. The best known of these depressions, Ngami (q.v.), lies to
+the north-west and is the central point of an inland water system
+apparently in process of drying up. To the north-east and connected with
+Ngami by the Botletle river, is the great Makari-Kari salt pan, which
+also drains a vast extent of territory, receiving in the rainy season a
+large volume of water. The marsh then becomes a great lake, the water
+surface stretching beyond the horizon, while in the dry season a mirage
+is often seen. The permanent marsh land covers a region 60 m. from south
+to north and from 30 to 60 m. east to west. In the south the rivers,
+such as the Molopo and the Kuruman, drain towards the Orange. Other
+streams are tributaries of the Limpopo, which for some distance is the
+frontier between Bechuanaland and the Transvaal.
+
+The rivers of Bechuanaland are, with few exceptions, intermittent or
+lose themselves in the desert. It is evident, however, from the extent
+of the beds of these streams and of others now permanently dry, and from
+remains of ancient forests, that at a former period the country must
+have been abundantly watered. From the many cattle-folds and walls of
+defence scattered over the country, and ruins of ancient settlements, it
+is also evident that at that period stone-dykes were very common. The
+increasing dryness of the land is partly, perhaps largely, attributable
+to the cutting down of timber trees both by natives and by whites, and
+to the custom of annually burning the grass, which is destructive to
+young wood.
+
+_Climate._--The climate is healthy and bracing, except in the lower
+valleys along the river banks and in the marsh land, where malarial
+fever is prevalent. Though in great part within the tropics, the heat is
+counteracted by the dryness of the air. Throughout the year the nights
+are cool and refreshing; in winter the cold at night is intense. In the
+western regions the rainfall does not exceed 10 in. in the year; in the
+east the average rainfall is 26 in. and in places as much as 30 in. The
+rainy season is the summer months, November to April, but the rains are
+irregular, and, from the causes already indicated, the rainfall is
+steadily declining. From December to February violent thunder and hail
+storms are experienced. In the whiter or dry season there are occasional
+heavy dust storms.
+
+_Geology._--The greater part of Bechuanaland is covered with superficial
+deposits consisting of the sands of the desert regions of the Kalahari
+and the alluvium and saliferous marls of the Okavango basin. The oldest
+rocks, granites, gneisses and schistose sandstones, the Ngami series,
+rise to the surface in the east and south-east and doubtless immediately
+underlie much of the sand areas. A sandstone found in the neighbourhood
+of Palapye is considered to be the equivalent of the Waterberg formation
+of the Transvaal. The Karroo formation and associate dolerites
+(_Loalemandelstein_) occur in the same region. A deposit of sinter and a
+calcareous sandstone, known as the Kalahari Kalk, considered by Dr
+Passarge to be of Miocene age, overlies a sandstone and curious breccia
+(_Botletle Schnichten_). These deposits are held by Passarge to indicate
+Tertiary desert conditions, to which the basin of the Zambezi is slowly
+reverting.
+
+_Fauna._--Until towards the close of the 19th century Bechuanaland
+abounded in big game, and the Kalahari is still the home of the lion,
+leopard, hyena, jackal, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, buffalo,
+antelope of many species, ostrich and even the giraffe. Venomous
+reptiles, e.g. puff-adders and cobras, are met with, enormous frogs are
+common, and walking and flying locusts, mosquitoes, white ants, flying
+beetles, scorpions, spiders and tarantulas are very numerous. The
+crocodile is found in some of the rivers. Many of the rivers are well
+stocked with fish. In those containing water in the rainy season only,
+the fish preserve life when the bed is dry by burrowing deeply in the
+ooze before it hardens. The principal fish are the baba or cat-fish
+(_clarias_ sp.) and the yellow-fish, both of which attain considerable
+size. Bustards (the great kori and the koorhaan) are common.
+
+_Flora._--In the eastern district are stretches of grass land, both
+sweet and sour veld. In the "bush" are found tufts of tall coarse grass
+with the space between bare or covered with herbaceous creepers or
+water-bearing tubers. A common creeper is one bearing a small scarlet
+cucumber, and a species of watermelon called _tsoma_ is also abundant.
+Of the melon and cucumber there are both bitter and sweet varieties.
+Besides the grass and the creepers the bush is made up of berry-yielding
+bushes (some of the bushes being rich in aromatic resinous matter), the
+wait-a-bit thorn and white thorned mimosa. The indigo and cotton plants
+grow wild. Among the rare big trees--found chiefly in the
+north-east--are baobab and palmyra and certain fruit trees, one bearing
+a pink plum. There are remains of ancient forests consisting of wild
+olive trees and the camel thorn, near which grows the _ngotuane_, a
+plant with a profusion of fine, strongly scented yellow flowers.
+
+_Chief Towns._--The chief town in southern Bechuanaland, i.e. the part
+incorporated in Cape Colony, is Mafeking (q.v.), near the headwaters of
+the Molopo river. It is the headquarters of the Barolong tribe, and
+although within the Cape border is the seat of the administration of the
+protectorate. Vryburg (pop., 1904, 2985), founded by Boer filibusters in
+1882, and Taungs, are towns on the railway between Kimberley and
+Mafeking. Taungs has some 22,000 inhabitants, being the chief kraal of
+the Batlapin tribe. About 7 m. south of Vryburg, at Tiger Kloof, is an
+Industrial Training Institute for natives founded in 1904 by the London
+Missionary Society. Upington (2508) on the north bank of the Orange, an
+agricultural centre, is the chief town in Gordonia, the western division
+of southern Bechuanaland. Kuruman (q.v.) is a native town near the
+source of the Kuruman river, 85 m. south-west of Vryburg. It has been
+the scene of missionary labours since the early years of the 19th
+century. North of Mafeking on the railway to Bulawayo are the small
+towns of Gaberones and Francistown. The last named is the chief township
+in the Tati concession, the centre of a gold-mining region, and the most
+important white settlement in the protectorate. Besides these places
+there are five or six large native towns, each the headquarters of a
+distinct tribe. The most important is Serowe, with over 20,000
+inhabitants, the capital of the Bamangwato, founded by the chief Khama
+in 1903. It is about 250 m. north-north-east of Mafeking, and took the
+place of the abandoned capital Palapye, which in its turn had succeeded
+Shoshong. The chief centre in the western Kalahari is Lehututu.
+
+_Agriculture and Trade._--The soil is very fertile, and if properly
+irrigated would yield abundant harvests. Unirrigated land laid under
+wheat by the natives is said to yield twelve bushels an acre. Cereals
+are grown in many of the river valleys. Maize and millet are the chief
+crops. The wealth of the Bechuana consists principally in their cattle,
+which they tend with great care, showing a shrewd discrimination in the
+choice of pasture suited to oxen, sheep and goats. Water can usually be
+obtained all the year round by sinking wells from 20 to 30 ft. deep. The
+"sweet veld" is specially suitable to cattle, and the finer shorter
+grass which succeeds it affords pasturage for sheep.
+
+Gold mines are worked in the Tati district, the first discoveries having
+been made there in 1864. There are gold-bearing quartz reefs at Madibi,
+near Mafeking, where mining began in 1906. Diamonds have been found near
+Vryburg. The existence of coal near Palapye about 60 ft. below the
+surface has been proved. The coal, however, is not mined, and much of
+the destruction of timber in southern Bechuanaland was caused by the
+demand for fuel for Kimberley. Copper ore has been found near
+Francistown.
+
+Formerly there was a trade in ostrich feathers and ivory; but this has
+ceased, and the chief trade has since consisted in supplying the natives
+with European goods in exchange for cattle, hides, the skins and horns
+of game, firewood and fencing poles, and in forwarding goods north and
+south. The protectorate is a member of the South African Customs Union.
+The value of the goods imported into the protectorate in 1906 was
+£118,322; the value of the exports was £77,736. The sale of spirits to
+natives is forbidden.
+
+_Communications._--As the great highway from Cape Colony to the north,
+Bechuanaland has been described as the "Suez canal of South Africa." The
+trunk railway from Cape Town to the Victoria Falls traverses the eastern
+edge of Bechuanaland throughout its length. The railway enters the
+country at Fourteen Streams, 695 m. from Cape Town, and at Ramaquabane,
+584 m. farther north, crosses into Rhodesia. The old trade route to
+Bulawayo, which skirts the eastern edge of the Kalahari, is now rarely
+used. Wagon tracks lead to Ngami, 320 m. N.W. from Palapye Road Station,
+and to all the settlements. From the scarcity of water on the main
+routes through the Kalahari these roads are known as "the thirsts";
+along some of them wells have been sunk by the administration.
+
+_Government._--The protectorate is administered by a resident
+commissioner, responsible to the high commissioner for South Africa.
+Legislation is enacted by proclamations in the name of the high
+commissioner. Order is maintained by a small force of semi-military
+police recruited in Basutoland and officered by Europeans. Revenue is
+obtained mostly from customs and a hut tax, while the chief items of
+expenditure have been the police force and a subsidy of £20,000 per
+annum towards the cost of the railway, a liability which terminated in
+the year 1908. The average annual revenue for the five years ending the
+31st of March 1906 was £30,074; the average annual expenditure during
+the same period was £80,114. There is no public debt, the annual
+deficiency being made good by a grant-in-aid from the imperial
+exchequer. The tribal organization of the Bechuana is maintained, and
+native laws and customs, with certain modifications, are upheld.
+
+
+  Missionary work.
+
+_History._--Bechuanaland was visited by Europeans towards the close of
+the 18th century. The generally peaceful disposition of the tribes
+rendered the opening up of the country comparatively easy. The first
+regular expedition to penetrate far inland was in 1801-1802, when John
+(afterwards Sir John) Truter, of the Cape judicial bench, and William
+Somerville--an army physician and afterwards husband of Mary
+Somerville--were sent to the Bechuana tribes to buy cattle. The London
+Missionary Society established stations in what is now Griqualand West
+in 1803, and in 1818 the station of Kuruman, in Bechuanaland proper, was
+founded. In the meantime M.H.K. Lichtenstein (1804) and W.J. Burchell
+(1811-1812), both distinguished naturalists, and other explorers, had
+made familiar the general characteristics of the southern part of the
+country. The Rev. John Campbell, one of the founders of the Bible
+Society, also travelled in southern Bechuanaland and the adjoining
+districts in 1812-1814 and 1819-1821, adding considerably to the
+knowledge of the river systems. About 1817 Mosilikatze, the founder of
+the Matabele nation, fleeing from the wrath of Chaka, the Zulu king,
+began his career of conquest, during which he ravaged a great part of
+Bechuanaland and enrolled large numbers of Bechuana in his armies.
+Eventually the Matabele settled to the north-east in the country which
+afterwards bore their name. In 1821 Robert Moffat arrived at Kuruman as
+agent of the London Missionary Society, and made it his headquarters for
+fifty years. Largely as the result of the work of Moffat (who reduced
+the Bechuana tongue to writing), and of other missionaries, the Bechuana
+advanced notably in civilization. The arrival of David Livingstone in
+1841 marked the beginning of the systematic exploration of the northern
+regions. His travels, and those of C.J. Andersson (1853-1858) and
+others, covered almost every part of the country hitherto unknown. In
+1864 Karl Mauch discovered gold in the Tati district.
+
+
+  Boer encroachment.
+
+At the time of the first contact of the Bechuana with white men the Cape
+government was the only civilized authority in South Africa; and from
+this cause, and the circumstance that the missionaries who lived among
+and exercised great influence over them were of British nationality, the
+connexion between Bechuanaland and the Cape became close. As early as
+1836 an act was passed extending the jurisdiction of the Cape courts in
+certain cases as far north as 25° S.--a limit which included the
+southern part of Bechuanaland. Although under strong British influence
+the country was nevertheless ruled by its own chiefs, among whom the
+best-known in the middle of the 19th century were Montsioa, chief of the
+Barolong, and Sechele, chief of the Bakwena and the friend of
+Livingstone. At this period the Transvaal Boers were in a very unsettled
+state, and those living in the western districts showed a marked
+inclination to encroach upon the lands of the Bechuana. In 1852 Great
+Britain by the Sand river convention acknowledged the independence of
+the Transvaal. Save the Vaal river no frontier was indicated, and
+"boasting," writes Livingstone in his _Missionary Travels_, "that the
+English had given up all the blacks into their power ... they (the
+Boers) assaulted the Bakwains" (Bakwena).
+
+With this event the political history of Bechuanaland may be said to
+have begun. Not only was Sechele attacked at his capital Kolobeng, and
+the European stores and Livingstone's house there looted, but the Boers
+stopped a trader named M'Cabe from going northward. Again to quote
+Livingstone, "The Boers resolved to shut up the interior and I
+determined to open the country." In 1858 the Boers told the missionaries
+that they must not go north without their (the Boers') consent. Moffat
+complained to Sir George Grey, the governor of Cape Colony, through
+whose intervention the molestation by Transvaal Boers of British
+subjects in their passage through Bechuanaland was stopped. At a later
+date (1865) the Boers tried to raise taxes from the Barolong, but
+without success, a commando sent against them in 1868 being driven off
+by Montsioa's brother Molema. This led to a protest (in 1870) from
+Montsioa, which he lodged with a landdrost at Potchefstroom in the
+Transvaal, threatening to submit the matter to the British high
+commissioner if any further attempt at taxation were made on the part of
+the Boers. The Boers then resorted to cajolery, and at a meeting held in
+August 1870, at which President Pretorius and Paul Kruger represented
+the Transvaal, invited the Barolong to join their territories with that
+of the republic, in order to save them from becoming British. Montsioa's
+reply was short: "No one ever spanned-in an ass with an ox in one yoke."
+In the following year the claims of the Boers, the Barolong, and other
+tribes were submitted to the arbitration of R.W. Keate,
+lieutenant-governor of Natal, and his award placed Montsioa's territory
+outside the limits of the Transvaal. This attempt of the Boers to gain
+possession of Bechuanaland having failed, T.F. Burgers, the president of
+the Transvaal in 1872, endeavoured to replace Montsioa as chief of the
+Barolong by Moshette, whom he declared to be the rightful ruler and
+paramount chief of that people. The attacks of the Boers at length
+became so unbearable that Montsioa in 1874 made a request to the British
+authorities to be taken under their protection. In formulating this
+appeal he declared that when the Boers were at war with Mosilikatze,
+chief of the Matabele, he had aided them on the solemn understanding
+that they were to respect his boundaries. This promise they had broken.
+Khama, chief of the Bamangwato in northern Bechuanaland, wrote in August
+1876 to Sir Henry Barkly making an appeal similar to that sent by the
+Barolong. The letter contained the following significant passages:
+
+  "I write to you, Sir Henry, in order that your queen may preserve for
+  me my country, it being in her hands. The Boers are coming into it,
+  and I do not like them." "Their actions are cruel among us black
+  people. We are like money, they sell us and our children." "I ask Her
+  Majesty to defend me, as she defends all her people. There are three
+  things which distress me very much--war, selling people, and drink.
+  All these things I shall find in the Boers, and it is these things
+  which destroy people to make an end of them in the country. The custom
+  of the Boers has always been to cause people to be sold, and to-day
+  they are still selling people."
+
+
+  Stellaland and Goshen.
+
+The statements of Khama in this letter do not appear to have been
+exaggerated. The testimony of Livingstone confirms them, and even a
+Dutch clergyman, writing in 1869, described the system of apprenticeship
+of natives which obtained among the Boers "as slavery in the fullest
+sense of the word." These representations on the part of the Barolong,
+and the Bamangwato under Khama, supported by the representations of Cape
+politicians, led in 1878 to the military occupation of southern
+Bechuanaland by a British force under Colonel (afterwards General Sir
+Charles) Warren. A small police force continued to occupy the district
+until April 1881, but, ignoring the wishes of the Bechuana and the
+recommendations of Sir Bartle Frere (then high commissioner), the home
+government refused to take the country under British protection. On the
+withdrawal of the police, southern Bechuanaland fell into a state of
+anarchy, nor did the fixing (on paper) of the frontier between it and
+the Transvaal by the Pretoria convention of August 1881 have any
+beneficial effect. There was fighting between Montsioa and Moshette,
+while Massow, a Batlapin chief, invited the aid of the Boers against
+Mankoroane, who claimed to be paramount chief of the Batlapin. The
+Transvaal War of that date offered opportunities to the freebooting
+Boers of the west which were not to be lost. At this time the British,
+wearied of South African troubles, were disinclined to respond to native
+appeals for help. Consequently the Boers proceeded without let or
+hindrance with their conquest and annexation of territory. In 1882 they
+set up the republic of Stellaland, with Vryburg as its capital, and
+forthwith proceeded to set up the republic of Goshen, farther north, in
+spite of the protests of Montsioa, and established a small town called
+Rooi Grond as capital. They then summoned Montsioa to quit the
+territory. The efforts of the British authorities at this period
+(1882-1883) to bring about a satisfactory settlement were feeble and
+futile, and fighting continued until peace was made entirely on Boer
+lines. The Transvaal government was to have supreme power, and to be the
+final arbiter in case of future quarrels arising among the native
+chiefs. This agreement, arrived at without any reference to the British
+government, was a breach of the Pretoria convention, and led to an
+intimation on the part of Great Britain that she could not recognize the
+new republics. In South Africa, as well as in England, strong feeling
+was aroused by this act of aggression. Unless steps were taken at once,
+the whole of Bechuanaland might be permanently lost, while German
+territory on the west might readily be extended to join with that of the
+Boers. In the London convention of February 1884, conceded by Lord Derby
+in response to the overtures of Boer delegates, the Transvaal boundaries
+were again defined, part of eastern Bechuanaland being included in Boer
+territory. In spite of the convention the Boers remained in Stellaland
+and Goshen--which were west of the new Transvaal frontier, and in April
+1884 the Rev. John Mackenzie, who had succeeded Livingstone, was sent to
+the country to arrange matters. He found very little difficulty in
+negotiating with the various Bechuana chiefs, but with the Boers he was
+not so successful. In Goshen the Boers defied his authority, while in
+Stellaland only a half-hearted acceptance of it was given. At the
+instance of the new Cape government, formed in May and under control of
+the Afrikander Bond, Mackenzie, who was accused of being too
+"pro-Bechuana" and who had been refused the help of any armed force, was
+recalled on the 30th of July by the high commissioner, Sir Hercules
+Robinson. In his place Cecil Rhodes, then leader of the Opposition in
+the Cape parliament, was sent to Bechuanaland.
+
+
+  Rhodes's Mission.
+
+  Warren expedition.
+
+Rhodes's mission was attended with great difficulty. British prestige
+after the disastrous Boer War of 1881 was at a very low ebb, and he
+realized that he could not count on any active help from the imperial or
+colonial authorities. He adopted a tone of conciliation, and decided
+that the Stellaland republic should remain under a sort of British
+suzerainty. But in Goshen the Boers would let him do nothing. Commandant
+P.J. Joubert, after meeting him at Rooi Grond, entered the country and
+attacked Montsioa. Rhodes then left under protest, declaring that the
+Boers were making war against Great Britain. The Boers now (10th of
+September) proclaimed the country under Transvaal protection. This was a
+breach of the London convention, and President Kruger explained that the
+steps had been taken in the "interests of humanity." Indignant protest
+in Cape Town and throughout South Africa, as well as England, led to the
+despatch in October 1884 of the Warren expedition, which was sent out by
+the British government to remove the filibusters, to bring about peace
+in the country, and to hold it until further measures were decided upon.
+Before Sir Charles Warren reached Africa, Sir Thomas Upington, the Cape
+premier, and Sir Gordon Sprigg, the treasurer-general, went to
+Bechuanaland and arranged a "settlement" which would have left the Boer
+filibusters in possession, but the imperial government refused to take
+notice of this "settlement." Public opinion throughout Great Britain was
+too strong to be ignored. The limit of concessions to the Boers had been
+reached, and Sir Charles Warren's force--4000 strong--had reached the
+Vaal river in January 1885. On the 22nd of January Kruger met Warren at
+the Modder river, and endeavoured to stop him from proceeding farther,
+saying that he would be responsible for keeping order in the country.
+Warren, however, continued his march, and without firing a shot broke up
+the republics of Stellaland and Goshen. Bechuanaland was formally taken
+under British protection (30th of September 1885), and the sphere of
+British influence was declared to extend N. to 22° S. and W. to 20° E.
+(which last-mentioned line marks the eastern limit of German South-West
+Africa).
+
+
+  British protectorate.
+
+The natives cheerfully accepted this new departure in British policy,
+and from this time forward Khama's country was known as the British
+protectorate of Bechuanaland. That portion lying to the south of the
+Molopo river was described as British Bechuanaland, and was constituted
+a crown colony. In 1891 the northern frontier of the protectorate was
+extended to its present boundaries, and the whole of it placed under the
+administration of a resident commissioner, a protest being made at the
+time by the British South Africa Company on the ground that the
+protectorate was included in the sphere of their charter. Under the able
+administration (1885-1895) of Sir Sidney Shippard (q.v.) peace was
+maintained among the natives, who have shown great loyalty to British
+rule.
+
+The history of the country shows how much has been due to the efforts of
+men like Livingstone, Mackenzie and Rhodes. It is quite clear that had
+they not represented the true state of affairs to the authorities the
+whole of this territory would have gradually been absorbed by the Boers,
+until they had effected a union with the Germans on the west. The great
+road to the north would thus have been effectually shut against trade
+and British colonization. With regard to the precise effect of
+missionary influence upon the natives, opinion will always remain
+divided. But Livingstone, who was not only a missionary but also an
+enlightened traveller, stated that a considerable amount of benefit had
+been conferred upon the native races by missionary teaching. Livingstone
+was a great advocate of the prohibition of alcohol among the natives,
+and that policy was always adhered to by Khama.
+
+In 1891 the South African Customs Union was extended to British
+Bechuanaland, and in 1895 the country was annexed to Cape Colony. At the
+same time it was provisionally arranged that the Bechuanaland
+protectorate should pass under the administration of the British South
+Africa Company (see RHODESIA). Khama and two other Bechuana chiefs came
+to England and protested against this arrangement. The result was that
+their territories and those of other petty chiefs lying to the north of
+the Molopo were made native reserves, into which the importation of
+alcohol was forbidden. A British resident officer was to be appointed to
+each of the reserves. A stipulation, however, was made with these chiefs
+that a strip of country sufficient for the purposes of a railway to
+Matabeleland should be conceded to the Chartered Company. In December
+1895 the occurrence of the Jameson Raid, which started from these
+territories, prevented the completion of negotiations, and the
+administration of the protectorate remained in the hands of the imperial
+government. The administration, besides fostering the scanty material
+resources of the country, aids the missionaries in their endeavours to
+raise the Bechuanas in the scale of civilization. The results are full
+of encouragement. The natives proved staunch to the British connexion
+during the war of 1899-1902, and Khama and other chiefs gave help by
+providing transport. Anxiety was caused on the western frontier during
+the German campaigns against the Hottentots and Herero (1903-1908), many
+natives seeking refuge in the protectorate. A dispute concerning the
+chieftainship of the Batawana in the Ngami district threatened trouble
+in 1906, but was brought to a peaceful issue. The Bechuana were entirely
+unaffected by the Kaffir rebellion in Natal.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of early works the most valuable are David Livingstone,
+  _Missionary Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1857); Robert Moffat,
+  _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_ (London, 1842); J.
+  Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1815), _Travels ... a
+  Second Journey_ ... (2 vols., London, 1822); and A.A. Anderson,
+  _Twenty-five Years in a Waggon in the Gold Regions of Africa_, vol. i.
+  (London, 1887). See also J.D. Hepburn, _Twenty Years in Khama's
+  Country_ (London, 1895); S. Passarge's _Die Kalahari_ (Berlin, 1904)
+  deals chiefly with geological and allied questions; John Mackenzie's
+  _Austral Africa, Losing it or Ruling it_ (London, 1887); _John
+  Mackenzie_, a biography by W.D. Mackenzie (London, 1902); and the
+  article "Bechuanaland" by Sir S. Shippard in _British Africa_ (London,
+  1899), give the story of the beginnings of British rule in the
+  protectorate. Of larger works dealing incidentally with Bechuanaland
+  consult G.M. Theal's _History of South Africa_; E.A. Pratt's _Leading
+  Points in South African History_ (London, 1900); and _Cecil Rhodes,
+  His Political Life and Speeches_, by Vindex (London, 1900). See also
+  the _Statistical Register, Cape of Good Hope_, issued yearly at Cape
+  Town, and the _Annual Report, Bechuanaland Protectorate_, issued by
+  the Colonial Office, London.     (F. R. C.; A. P. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (1757-1832), German philologist, historian,
+theologian and antiquarian, one of the most learned men of his time, was
+born at Leipzig on the 22nd of January 1757. He studied at Leipzig
+University, where he was appointed (1785) professor of Greek and Latin
+literature. This post he resigned in 1819 in order to take up the
+professorship of history, but resumed it in 1825. He also had the
+management of the university library, was director of the institute for
+the deaf and dumb, and filled many educational and municipal offices. In
+1784 he founded a philological society, which grew into a philological
+seminary, superintended by him until his death. In 1808 he was made a
+_Hofrath_ by the king of Saxony, and in 1820 a knight of the civil order
+of merit. His philological lectures, in which grammar and criticism were
+subordinated to history, were largely attended by hearers from all parts
+of Germany. He died at Leipzig on the 13th of December 1832. He edited a
+number of classical authors: _Pedo Albinovanus_ (1783), Pindar and the
+Scholia (1792-1795), Aristophanes (with others, 1794, &c.), Euripides
+(1778-1788), Apollonius Rhodius (1797), Demosthenes _De Pace_ (1799),
+Plato (1813-1819), Cicero (1795-1807), Titus Calpurnius Siculus (1803).
+He translated Ferguson's _Fall of the Roman Republic_ and Goldsmith's
+_History of Greece_, and added two volumes to Bauer's Thucydides. He
+also wrote on theological and historical subjects, and edited
+philological and bibliographical journals. He possessed a large and
+valuable library of 24,000 volumes.
+
+  See Nobbe, _Vita C.D. Beckii_ (1837); and G. Hermann, _Opuscula_, v.
+  312.
+
+
+
+
+BECK (or BEEK), DAVID (1621-1656), Dutch portrait-painter, was born at
+Arnheim in Guelderland. He was trained by Van Dyck, from whom he
+acquired the fine manner of pencilling and sweet style of colouring
+peculiar to that great master. He possessed likewise that freedom of
+hand and readiness, or rather rapidity of execution, for which Van Dyck
+was so remarkable, insomuch that when King Charles I. observed the
+expeditious manner of Beck's painting, he exclaimed, "Faith! Beck, I
+believe you could paint riding post." He was appointed portrait-painter
+and chamberlain to Queen Christina of Sweden, and he executed portraits
+of most of the sovereigns of Europe to adorn her gallery. His death at
+the Hague was suspected of being due to poisoning.
+
+
+
+
+BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND (1761-1840), German philosopher, was born at
+Danzig in 1761. Educated at Königsberg, he became professor of
+philosophy first at Halle (1791-1799) and then at Rostock. He devoted
+himself to criticism and explanation of the doctrine of Kant, and in
+1793 published the _Erläuternder Auszug aus Kants kritischen Schriften_,
+which has been widely used as a compendium of Kantian doctrine. He
+endeavoured to explain away certain of the contradictions which are
+found in Kant's system by saying that much of the language is used in a
+popular sense for the sake of intelligibility, e.g. where Kant
+attributes to things-in-themselves an existence under the conditions of
+time, space and causality, and yet holds that they furnish the material
+of our apprehensions. Beck maintains that the real meaning of Kant's
+theory is idealism; that of objects outside the domain of consciousness,
+knowledge is impossible, and hence that nothing positive remains when we
+have removed the subjective element. Matter is deduced by the "original
+synthesis." Similarly, the idea of God is a symbolical representation of
+the voice of conscience guiding from within. The value of Beck's
+exegesis has been to a great extent overlooked owing to the greater
+attention given to the work of Fichte. Beside the three volumes of the
+_Erläuternder Auszug_, he published the _Grundriss der krit.
+Philosophie_ (1796), containing an interpretation of the Kantian
+_Kritik_ in the manner of Salomon Maimon.
+
+  See Ueberweg, _Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos. der Neuzeit_; Dilthey
+  in the _Archiv für Geschichte der Philos._, vol. ii. (1889), pp.
+  592-650. For Beck's letters to Kant, see R. Reicke, _Aus Kants
+  Briefwechsel_ (Königsberg, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+BECKENHAM, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary division of
+Kent, England, 10 m. S.S.E. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. (1881) 13,045; (1901) 26,331. It is a long straggling
+parish extending from the western tower of the Crystal Palace almost to
+the south end of Bromley, and contains the residential suburb of
+Shortlands. Its rapid increase in size in the last decade of the 19th
+century was owing to the popularity which it attained as a place of
+residence for London business men. It retains, however, some of its
+rural character, and has wide thoroughfares and many handsome residences
+standing in extensive grounds. King William IV.'s Naval Asylum was
+endowed by Queen Adelaide for 12 widows of naval officers. The church of
+St George was built in 1866 on the site of an ancient Perpendicular
+church. Some 16th-century brasses, an altar tomb and a piscina were
+removed hither from the old church. The tower of the church was
+completed in 1903, and furnished with two bells in memory of Cecil
+Rhodes, in addition to the old bells, one of which dates from 1624.
+
+
+
+
+BECKER, HEINRICH (1770-1822), German actor, whose real name was
+BLUMENTHAL, was born at Berlin. He obtained, while quite a young man, an
+appointment in the court theatre at Weimar, at that time under Goethe's
+auspices. The poet recognized his talent, appointed him stage-manager,
+entrusted him with several of the leading roles in his dramas and
+consulted him in all matters connected with the staging of his plays.
+For many years Becker was the favourite of the Weimar stage, and
+although he was at his best in comedy, he played, to Goethe's great
+satisfaction, Vansen in _Egmont_, and was also seen to great advantage
+in the leading parts of several of Schiller's plays; notably Burleigh in
+_Maria Stuart_, Karl Moor in _Die Räuber_, and Antonio in _Torquato
+Tasso_. Becker left Weimar in the spring of 1809, played for a short
+time at Hamburg (under Schröder) and at Breslau, and then began a
+wandering life, now joining travelling companies, now playing at
+provincial theatres. Broken in health and ruined in fortune he returned
+in 1820 to Weimar, where he was again cordially received by Goethe, who
+reinstated him at the theatre. After playing for two short years with
+indifferent success, he died at Weimar in 1822.
+
+Becker was twice married. His first wife, CHRISTIANE LUISE AMALIE BECKER
+(1778-1797), was the daughter of a theatrical manager and dramatic poet,
+Johann Christian Neumann, and made her first stage appearance in 1787 at
+Weimar. Here she received some training from Goethe and from Corona
+Schröter, the singer, and her beauty and charm made her the favourite
+both of court and public. She married Heinrich Becker in 1793. She died
+on the 22nd of September 1797. Her last part was that of Euphrosyne in
+the opera _Das Petermännchen_, and it is under this name that Goethe
+immortalized her in a poem which first appeared in Schiller's _Musen
+Almanack_ of 1799.
+
+
+
+
+BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF (1796-1846), German classical archaeologist, was
+born at Dresden. At first destined for a commercial life, he was in 1812
+sent to the celebrated school at Pforta. In 1816 he entered the
+university of Leipzig, where he studied under Beck and Hermann. After
+holding subordinate posts at Zerbst and Meissen, he was in 1842
+appointed professor of archaeology at Leipzig. He died at Meissen on the
+30th of September 1846. The works by which Becker is most widely known
+are the _Gallus_ or _Römische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts_ (1838, new
+ed. by Göll, 1880-1882), and the _Charicles_ or _Bilder altgriechischer
+Sitte_, (1840, new ed. by Göll, 1877-1878). These two books, which have
+been translated into English by Frederick Metcalfe, contain a very
+interesting description of the everyday life of the ancient Greeks and
+Romans, in the form of a romance. The notes and appendixes are valuable.
+More important is the great _Handbuch der röm. Alterthümer_ (1843-1868),
+completed after Becker's death by Marquardt and Mommsen. Becker's
+treatises _De Comicis Romanorum Fabulis_ (1837), _De Romae Veteris Muris
+atque Portis_ (1842), _Die römische Topographie in Rom_ (1844), and _Zur
+römischen Topographie_ (1845) may also be mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118-1170), by his contemporaries more commonly
+called Thomas of London, English chancellor and archbishop of Canterbury
+under Henry II., was born about the year 1118 in London. His mother was
+a native of Caen; his father, who came of a family of small Norman
+landowners, had been a citizen of Rouen, but migrated to London before
+the birth of Thomas, and held at one time the dignified office of
+portreeve, although he ended his life in straitened circumstances. The
+young Thomas received an excellent education. At the age of ten he was
+put to school with the canons of Merton priory in Surrey. Later he spent
+some time in the schools of London, which enjoyed at that time a high
+reputation, and finally studied theology at Paris. Returning at the age
+of twenty-two he was compelled, through the misfortunes of his parents,
+to become a notary in the service of a wealthy kinsman, Osbert Huit
+Deniers, who was of some importance in London politics. About 1142 a
+family friend brought Thomas under the notice of Archbishop Theobald, of
+whose household he at once became an inmate. He accompanied the primate
+to Rome in 1143, and also to the council of Reims (1148), which Theobald
+attended in defiance of a prohibition from the king. It appears to have
+been at some time between the dates of these two journeys that he
+visited Bologna and Auxerre, and began those studies in the canon law
+to which he was in no small degree indebted for his subsequent
+advancement and misfortunes. Although the bent of his mind was legal, he
+never made himself an expert jurist; but he had the art of turning his
+knowledge, such as it was, to excellent account. In 1151 he was sent to
+Rome by the archbishop with instructions to dissuade the Curia from
+sanctioning the coronation of Stephen's eldest son Eustace. It is said
+that Thomas distinguished himself by the ability with which he executed
+his commission; in any case it gave him a claim on the gratitude of the
+Angevin party which was not forgotten. In 1154 he was promoted to be
+archdeacon of Canterbury, after first taking deacon's orders. In the
+following year Henry II., at the primate's recommendation, bestowed on
+him the important office of chancellor. In this capacity Thomas
+controlled the issue of royal writs and the distribution of
+ecclesiastical patronage; but it was more important for his future that
+he had ample opportunities of exercising his personal fascination upon a
+prince who was comparatively inexperienced, and thirteen or fourteen
+years his junior. He became Henry's bosom friend and was consulted in
+all affairs of state. It had been the hope of Theobald that Becket's
+influence would be exercised to support the extensive privileges which
+the Church had wrested from Stephen. But the chancellor, although
+preserving friendly relations with his old patron, subordinated the
+interests of the Church to those of his new master. Under his
+administration the Church was severely taxed for the prosecution of
+Henry's foreign wars; and the chancellor incurred the reproach "of
+plunging his sword into the bowels of his mother." Like Wolsey he
+identified himself with the military aspirations of his sovereign. It
+was Thomas who organized the Toulouse campaign of 1159; even in the
+field he made himself conspicuous by commanding a company of knights,
+directing the work of devastation, and superintending the conduct of the
+war after the king had withdrawn his presence from the camp. When there
+was war with France upon the Norman border, the chancellor acted as
+Henry's representative; and on one occasion engaged in single combat and
+unhorsed a French knight of reputation. Later it fell to his part to
+arrange the terms of peace with France. He discharged the duties of an
+envoy with equal magnificence and dexterity; the treaty of May 1160,
+which put an end to the war, was of his making.
+
+In 1162 he was transferred to a new sphere of action. Henry bestowed on
+him the see of Canterbury, left vacant by the death of Theobald. The
+appointment caused some murmurs; since Becket, at the time when it was
+made, was still a simple deacon. But it had been desired by Theobald as
+the one means of averting an attack on clerical privileges which had
+been impending almost since the accession of Henry II.; and the bishops
+accepted it in silence. Henry on his side looked to find in Becket the
+archbishop a coadjutor as loyal as Becket the archdeacon; and
+anticipated that the Church would once more be reduced to that state of
+dependence in which she had stood during the latter years of Henry I.
+Becket, however, disappointed all the conflicting expectations excited
+by his appointment. He did not allow himself to be made the king's tool;
+nor on the other hand did he attempt to protect the Church by humouring
+the king in ordinary matters. He devoted himself to ascetic practices,
+confined himself to the society of churchmen, and resigned the
+chancellorship in spite of a papal dispensation (procured by the king)
+which authorized him to hold that office concurrently with the primacy.
+By nature a violent partisan, the archbishop now showed himself the
+uncompromising champion of his order and his see. Hence he was on the
+worst of terms with the king before a year had elapsed. They came into
+open conflict at the council of Woodstock (July 1163), when Becket
+successfully opposed the king's proposal that a land-tax, known as the
+sheriff's aid, which formed part of that official's salary, should be
+henceforth paid into the Exchequer. But there were more serious
+differences in the background. Becket had not shrunk from
+excommunicating a tenant in chief who had encroached upon the lands of
+Canterbury, and had protected against the royal courts a clerk named
+Philip de Brois who was charged with an assault upon a royal officer.
+These disputes involved questions of principle which had long occupied
+Henry's attention, and Becket's defiant attitude was answered by the
+famous Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.), in which the king defined,
+professedly according to ancient use and custom, the relations of Church
+and State. Becket and the bishops were required to give these
+constitutions their approval. Henry's demands were more defensible in
+substance than might be supposed from the manner in which he pressed
+them on the bishops. On the most burning question, that of criminous
+clerks, he offered a compromise. He was willing that the accused should
+be tried in the courts Christian provided that the punishment of the
+guilty were left to the lay power. Becket's opposition rested upon a
+casuistic interpretation of the canon law, and an extravagant conception
+of the dignity attaching to the priesthood; he showed, moreover, a
+disposition to quibble, to equivocate, and to make promises which he had
+no intention of fulfilling. His conduct may be excused on the ground
+that the bishops were subjected to unwarrantable intimidation. But when
+he renounced his promise to observe the constitutions his conduct was
+reprobated by the other bishops, although approved by the pope. It was
+fortunate for Becket's reputation that Henry punished him for his change
+of front by a systematic persecution in the forms of law. The archbishop
+was thus enabled to invoke the pope's assistance, and to quit the
+country with some show of dignity.
+
+Becket fled to France in November 1164. He at once succeeded in
+obtaining from Alexander III. a formal condemnation of the
+constitutions. But Alexander, a fugitive from Italy and menaced by an
+alliance of the emperor with an antipope, was indisposed to take extreme
+measures against Henry; and six years elapsed before the king found
+himself definitely confronted with the choice between an interdict and a
+surrender. For the greater part of this time the archbishop resided at
+the Burgundian monastery of Pontigny, constantly engaged in negotiations
+with Alexander, whose hand he desired to force, and with Henry, from
+whom he hoped to extract an unconditional submission. In 1166 Becket
+received from the pope a commission to publish what censures he thought
+fit; of which he at once availed himself to excommunicate the king's
+principal counsellors. In 1169 he took the same step against two of the
+royalist bishops. In more sweeping measures, however, the pope refused
+to support him, until in 1170 Henry infringed the rights of Canterbury
+by causing Archbishop Roger of York to crown the young king. In that
+year the threats of the pope forced Henry to a reconciliation which took
+place later at Fréteval on the 22nd of July. It was a hollow truce,
+since the subject of the constitutions was not mentioned; and Thomas
+returned to England with the determination of riding roughshod over the
+king's supporters. If he had not given a definite pledge to forgive the
+bishops who had taken part in the young king's coronation, he had at
+least raised expectations that he would overlook all past offences. But
+the archbishop prevailed upon the pope to suspend the bishops, and
+before his return published papal letters which, in announcing these
+sentences, spoke of the constitutions as null and void. It was only to
+be expected that such a step, which was virtually a declaration of war
+against the king, should arouse in him the strongest feelings of
+resentment. The archbishop's murder, perpetrated within a month of his
+return to England (29th December 1170), was, however, the work of over
+zealous courtiers and regretted by no one more than Henry.
+
+Becket was canonized in 1172. Within a short time his shrine at
+Canterbury became the resort of innumerable pilgrims. Plenary
+indulgences were given for a visit to the shrine, and an official
+register was kept to record the miracles wrought by the relics of the
+saint. The shrine was magnificently adorned with the gold and silver and
+jewels offered by the pious. It was plundered by Henry VIII., to whom
+the memory of Becket was specially obnoxious; but the reformers were
+powerless to expunge the name of the saint from the Roman calendar, on
+which it still remains. Even to those who are in sympathy with the
+principles for which he fought, the posthumous reputation of Becket must
+appear strangely exaggerated. It is evident that in the course of his
+long struggle with the state he fell more and more under the dominion of
+personal motives. At the last he fought not so much for an idea as for
+the humiliation of an opponent by whom he had been ungenerously treated.
+William of Newburgh appears to express the verdict of the most impartial
+contemporaries when he says that the bishop was _zelo justitiae
+fervidus, utrum autem plene secundum scientiam novit Deus_: "burning
+with zeal for justice, but whether altogether according to wisdom God
+knows."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Original:_--The correspondence of Becket and most of
+  the contemporary biographies are collected by J.C. Robertson in
+  _Materials for the History of Thomas Becket_ (7 vols., Rolls Series,
+  1875-1885). See also the _Vie de Saint Thomas_, by Garníer de Pont
+  Sainte Maxence (ed. Hippeau, Paris, 1859). For the chronology of the
+  controversy see Eyton's _Itinerary of Henry II._
+
+  _Modern:_--Morris, _Life and Martyrdom of St Thomas Becket_ (London,
+  1885); Lhuillier, _Saint Thomas de Cantorbéry_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1891-1892); J.C. Robertson, _Becket_ (London, 1859); F.W. Maitland,
+  _Roman Canon Law in the Church of England_, c. iv.; J.A. Froude in his
+  _Short Studies_, vol. iv., and Freeman in his _Historical Essays_
+  (1871), give noteworthy but conflicting appreciations.
+       (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BECKFORD, WILLIAM (1760-1844), English author, son of Alderman William
+Beckford (1709-1770), was born on the 1st of October 1760. His father
+was lord mayor of London in 1762 and again in 1769; he was a famous
+supporter of John Wilkes, and on his monument in the Guildhall were
+afterwards inscribed the words of his manly and outspoken reproof to
+George III. on the occasion of the City of London address to the king in
+1770. At the age of eleven young Beckford inherited a princely fortune
+from his father. He married Lady Margaret Gordon in 1783, and spent his
+brief married life in Switzerland. After his wife's death (1786) he
+travelled in Spain and Portugal, and wrote his _Portuguese Letters_
+(published 1834, 1835), which rank with his best work. He afterwards
+returned to England, and after selling his old house, Fonthill Abbey,
+Wiltshire, began to build a magnificent residence there, on which he
+expended in about eighteen years the sum of £273,000. His
+eccentricities, together with the strict seclusion in which he lived,
+gave rise to scandal, probably unjustified. In 1822 he sold his house,
+together with its splendid library and pictures, to John Farquhar, and
+soon after one of the towers, 260 ft. high, fell, destroying part of the
+villa in the ruins. Beckford erected another lofty structure on
+Lansdowne Hill, near Bath, where he continued to reside till his death
+in 1844. His first work, _Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary
+Painters_ (1780) was a slight, sarcastic _jeu d'esprit_. In 1782 he
+wrote in French his oriental romance, _The History of the Caliph
+Vathek_, which appeared in English, translated by the Rev. Samuel
+Henley, in 1786 and has taken its place as one of the finest productions
+of luxuriant imagination.
+
+Beckford's wealth and large expenditure, his position as a collector and
+patron of letters (he bought Gibbon's library at Lausanne), his literary
+industry, and his reputation as author of _Vathek_, make him an
+interesting figure in literary history. He had a seat in parliament from
+1784 to 1793, and again from 1806 to 1820. He left two daughters, the
+eldest of whom was married to the 10th duke of Hamilton.
+
+  Cyrus Redding's _Memoir_ (1859) is the only full biography, but
+  prolix; see Dr R. Garnett's introduction to his edition of _Vathek_
+  (1893).
+
+
+
+
+BECKINGTON (or BEKYNTON), THOMAS (c. 1390-1465), English statesman and
+prelate, was born at Beckington in Somerset, and was educated at
+Winchester and New College, Oxford. Having entered the church he held
+many ecclesiastical appointments, and became dean of the Arches in 1423;
+then devoting his time to secular affairs he was sent on an embassy to
+Calais in 1439, and to John IV., count of Armagnac, in 1442. At this
+time Beckington was acting as secretary to Henry VI., and soon after his
+return in 1443 he was appointed lord privy seal and bishop of Bath and
+Wells. The bishop erected many buildings in Wells, and died there on the
+14th of January 1465. The most important results of Beckington's
+missions to France were one Latin journal, written by himself, referring
+to the embassy to Calais; and another, written by one of his attendants,
+relating to the journey to Armagnac.
+
+  Beckington's own journal is published in the _Proceedings of the Privy
+  Council_, vol. v., edited by N.H. Nicolas (1835); and the other
+  journal in the _Official Correspondence of Thomas Bekynton_, edited by
+  G. Williams for the Rolls Series (1872), which contains many
+  interesting letters. This latter journal has been translated into
+  English by N.H. Nicolas (1828). See G.G. Perry, "Bishop Beckington and
+  Henry VI.," in the _English Historical Review_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BECKMANN, JOHANN (1739-1811), German scientific author, was born on the
+4th of June 1739 at Hoya in Hanover, where his father was postmaster and
+receiver of taxes. He was educated at Stade and the university of
+Göttingen. The death of his mother in 1762 having deprived him of his
+means of support, he went in 1763 on the invitation of the pastor of the
+Lutheran community, Anton Friedrich Büsching, the founder of the modern
+historic statistical method of geography, to teach natural history in
+the Lutheran academy, St Petersburg. This office he relinquished in
+1765, and travelled in Denmark and Sweden, where he studied the methods
+of working the mines, and made the acquaintance of Linnaeus at Upsala.
+In 1766 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy at
+Göttingen. There he lectured on political and domestic economy with such
+success that in 1770 he was appointed ordinary professor. He was in the
+habit of taking his students into the workshops, that they might acquire
+a practical as well as a theoretical knowledge of different processes
+and handicrafts. While thus engaged he determined to trace the history
+and describe the existing condition of each of the arts and sciences on
+which he was lecturing, being perhaps incited by the _Bibliothecae_ of
+Albrecht von Haller. But even Beckmann's industry and ardour were unable
+to overtake the amount of study necessary for this task. He therefore
+confined his attention to several practical arts and trades; and to
+these labours we owe his _Beiträge zur Geschichte der Erfindungen_
+(1780-1805), translated into English as the _History of Inventions_--a
+work in which he relates the origin, history and recent condition of the
+various machines, utensils, &c., employed in trade and for domestic
+purposes. This work entitles Beckmann to be regarded as the founder of
+scientific technology, a term which he was the first to use in 1772. In
+1772 Beckmann was elected a member of the Royal Society of Göttingen,
+and he contributed valuable scientific dissertations to its proceedings
+until 1783, when he withdrew from all further share in its work. He died
+on the 3rd of February 1811. Other important works of Beckmann are
+_Entwurf einer allgemeinen Technologie_ (1806); _Anleitung zur
+Handelswissenschaft_ (1789); _Vorbereitung zur Warenkunde_ (1795-1800);
+_Beiträge zur Ökonomie, Technologie, Polizei- und, Kameralwissenschaft_
+(1777-1791).
+
+
+
+
+BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL (1852-), American portrait-painter, was born at
+Hannibal, Missouri, on the 23rd of September 1852. He studied in the
+National Academy of Design, New York City, of which he afterwards became
+a member, and in Paris (1873-1878) under Carolus Duran. Returning to the
+United States in 1878, he gradually became a prominent figure in
+American art. He took an active part in the formation of the Fine Arts
+Society, and was president of the National Free Art League, which
+attempted to secure the repeal of the American duty on works of art.
+Among his portraits are those of W.M. Chase (1882), of Miss Jordan
+(1883), of Mark Twain, T.A. Janvier, General Schofield and William
+Walton. He decorated one of the domes of the Manufactures Building at
+the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893.
+
+
+
+
+BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY (1772-1831), British general, was the son of
+Major-General John Beckwith, who was colonel of the 20th regiment
+(Lancashire Fusiliers) in the charge at Minden. In 1791 he entered the
+71st regiment (then commanded by Colonel David Baird), in which he
+served in India and elsewhere until 1800, when he obtained a company in
+Colonel Coote Manningham's experimental regiment of riflemen, shortly
+afterwards numbered as the 95th Rifles and now called the Rifle Brigade.
+In 1802 he was promoted major, and in the following year
+lieutenant-colonel. Beckwith was one of the favourite officers of Sir
+John Moore in the famous camp of Shorncliffe, and aided that general in
+the training of the troops which afterwards became the Light Division.
+In 1806 he served in the expedition to Hanover, and in 1807 in that
+which captured Copenhagen. In 1806 the Rifles were present at Vimeira,
+and in the campaign of Sir John Moore they bore the brunt of the
+rearguard fighting. Beckwith took part in the great march of Craufurd to
+the field of Talavera, in the advanced guard fights on the Coa in 1810
+and in the campaign in Portugal. On the formation of the Light Division
+he was given a brigade command in it. After the brilliant action of
+Sabugal, Beckwith had to retire for a time from active service, but the
+Rifles and the brigade he had trained and commanded added to their fame
+on every subsequent battlefield. In 1812 he went to Canada as assistant
+quartermaster-general, and he took part in the war against the United
+States. In 1814 he became major-general, and in 1815 was created K.C.B.
+In 1827 he was made colonel commandant of the Rifle Brigade. He went to
+India as commander-in-chief at Bombay in 1829, and was promoted
+lieutenant-general in the following year. He died on the 15th of January
+1831 at Mahableshwar.
+
+His elder brother, Sir GEORGE BECKWITH (1753-1823), distinguished
+himself as a regimental officer in the American War of Independence, and
+served subsequently in high administrative posts and in numerous
+successful military operations in the West Indies during the French
+Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. He was made a K.B. for his capture of
+Martinique in 1809, and attained the full rank of general in 1814. Sir
+George Beckwith commanded the forces in Ireland, 1816-1820. He died in
+London on the 20th of March 1823.
+
+Their nephew, Major-General JOHN CHARLES BECKWITH (1789-1862), joined
+the 50th regiment in 1803, exchanging in 1804 into the 95th Rifles, with
+which regiment he served in the Peninsular campaigns of 1808-10. He was
+subsequently employed on the staff of the Light Division, and he was
+repeatedly mentioned in despatches, becoming in 1814 a brevet-major, and
+after the battle of Waterloo (in which he lost a leg) lieutenant-colonel
+and C.B. In 1820 he left active service. Seven years later an accident
+drew his attention to the Waldenses, whose past history and present
+condition influenced him so strongly that he settled in the valleys of
+Piedmont. The rest of his life was spent in the self-imposed task of
+educating the Waldenses, for whom he established and maintained a large
+number of schools, and in reviving the earlier faith of the people. In
+1848 King Charles Albert made him a knight of the order of St Maurice
+and St Lazarus. He was promoted colonel in the British army in 1837 and
+major-general in 1846. He died on the 19th of July 1862 at La Torre,
+Piedmont.
+
+
+
+
+BECKX, PIERRE JEAN (1795-1887), general of the Society of Jesus, was
+born at Sichem in Belgium on the 8th of February 1795, and entered the
+novitiate of the order at Hildesheim in 1819. His first important post
+was as procurator for the province of Austria, 1847; next year he became
+rector of the Jesuit college at Louvain, and, after serving as secretary
+to the provincials of Belgium and Austria, was elected head of the order
+in 1853. His tenure of office was marked by an increased zeal for
+missions in Protestant lands, and by the removal of the society's
+headquarters from Rome to Fiesole near Florence in 1870. His chief
+literary work was the often-translated _Month of Mary_ (Vienna, 1843).
+He retired in September 1883, being succeeded by Anthony M. Anderledy, a
+Swiss, who had seen service in the United States. He died at Rome on the
+4th of March 1887.
+
+
+
+
+BECQUE, HENRY FRANÇOIS (1837-1899), French dramatist, was born on the
+9th of April 1837 in Paris. He wrote the book of an opera _Sardanapale_
+in imitation of Lord Byron for the music of M. Victorin Joncières in
+1867, but his first important work, _Michel Pauper_, appeared in 1870.
+The importance of this sombre drama was first realized when it was
+revived at the Odéon in 1886. _Les Corbeaux_ (1882) established Becque's
+position as an innovator, and in 1885 he produced his most successful
+play, _La Parisienne_. Becque produced little during the last years of
+his life, but his disciples carried on the tradition he had created. He
+died in May 1899.
+
+  See his _Querelles littéraires_ (1890), and _Souvenirs d'un auteur
+  dramatique_ (1895), consisting chiefly of reprinted articles in which
+  he does not spare his opponents. His _Théâtre complet_ (3 vols., 1899)
+  includes _L'Enfant prodigue_ (Vaudeville Theatre, 6th of Nov. 1868);
+  _Michel Pauper_ (Théâtre de la Porte-Saint-Martin, 17th of June 1870);
+  _L'Enlèvement_ (Vaudeville, 18th of Nov. 1871); _La Navette_ (Gymnase,
+  15th of Nov. 1878); _Les Honnêtes Femmes_ (Gymnase, 1st of Jan. 1880);
+  _Les Corbeaux_ (Comédie Française, 14th of Sept. 1882); _La
+  Parisienne_ (Théâtre de la Renaissance, 7th of Feb. 1885).
+
+
+
+
+BÉCQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO (1836-1870), Spanish poet and romance-writer,
+was born at Seville on the 17th of February 1836. Left an orphan at an
+early age, he was educated by his godmother, refused to adopt any
+profession, and drifted to Madrid, where he obtained a small post in the
+civil service. He was dismissed for carelessness, became an incorrigible
+Bohemian, and earned a precarious living by translating foreign novels;
+he died in great poverty at Madrid on the 22nd of December 1870. His
+works were published posthumously in 1873. In such prose tales as _El
+Rayo de Luna_ and _La Mujer de piedra_, Bécquer is manifestly influenced
+by Hoffmann, and as a poet he has analogies with Heine. He dwells in a
+fairyland of his own, crooning a weird elfin music which has no parallel
+in Spanish; his work is unfinished and unequal, but it is singularly
+free from the rhetoric characteristic of his native Andalusia, and its
+lyrical ardour is of a beautiful sweetness and sincerity.
+
+
+
+
+BECQUEREL, the name of a French family, several members of which have
+been distinguished in chemical and physical research.
+
+ANTOINE CÉSAR BECQUEREL (1788-1878), was born at Châtillon sur Loing on
+the 8th of March 1788. After passing through the École Polytechnique he
+became _ingénieur-officier_ in 1808, and saw active service with the
+imperial troops in Spain from 1810 to 1812, and again in France in 1814.
+He then resigned from the army and devoted the rest of his life to
+scientific investigation. His earliest work was mineralogical in
+character, but he soon turned his attention to the study of electricity
+and especially of electrochemistry. In 1837 he received the Copley medal
+from the Royal Society "for his various memoirs on electricity, and
+particularly for those on the production of metallic sulphurets and
+sulphur by the long-continued action of electricity of very low
+tension," which it was hoped would lead to increased knowledge of the
+"recomposition of crystallized bodies, and the processes which may have
+been employed by nature in the production of such bodies in the mineral
+kingdom." In biological chemistry he worked at the problems of animal
+heat and at the phenomena accompanying the growth of plants, and he also
+devoted much time to meteorological questions and observations. He was a
+prolific writer, his books including _Traité d'électricité et du
+magnétisme_ (1834-1840), _Traité de physique dans ses rapports avec la
+chimie_ (1842), _Éléments de l'électro-chimie_ (1843), _Traité complet
+du magnétisme_ (1845), _Éléments de physique terrestre et de
+météorologie_ (1847), and _Des climats et de l'influence qu'exercent les
+sols boisés et déboisés_ (1853). He died on the 18th of January 1878 in
+Paris, where from 1837 he had been professor of physics at the Musée
+d'Histoire Naturelle.
+
+His son, ALEXANDRE EDMOND BECQUEREL (1820-1891), was born in Paris on
+the 24th of March 1820, and was in turn his pupil, assistant and
+successor at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle; he was also appointed
+professor at the short-lived Agronomic Institute at Versailles in 1849,
+and in 1853 received the chair of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts
+et Métiers. Edmond Becquerel was associated with his father in much of
+his work, but he himself paid special attention to the study of light,
+investigating the photochemical effects and spectroscopic characters of
+solar radiation and the electric light, and the phenomena of
+phosphorescence, particularly as displayed by the sulphides and by
+compounds of uranium. It was in connexion with these latter inquiries
+that he devised his phosphoroscope, an apparatus which enabled the
+interval between exposure to the source of light and observation of the
+resulting effects to be varied at will and accurately measured. He
+published in 1867-1868 a treatise in two volumes on _La Lumière, ses
+causes et ses effets_. He also investigated the diamagnetic and
+paramagnetic properties of substances; and was keenly interested in the
+phenomena of electrochemical decomposition, accumulating much evidence
+in favour of Faraday's law and proposing a modified statement of it
+which was intended to cover certain apparent exceptions. He died in
+Paris on the 11th of May 1891.
+
+ANTOINE HENRI BECQUEREL (1852-1908), son of the last-named, who
+succeeded to his chair at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle in 1892, was
+born in Paris on the 15th of December 1852, studied at the École
+Polytechnique, where he was appointed a professor in 1895, and in 1875
+entered the department _des ponts et chaussées_, of which in 1894 he
+became _ingénieur en chef_. He was distinguished as the discoverer of
+radioactivity, having found in 1896 that uranium at ordinary
+temperatures emits an invisible radiation which in many respects
+resembles Röntgen rays, and can affect a photographic plate after
+passing through thin plates of metal. For his researches in this
+department he was in 1903 awarded a Nobel prize jointly with Pierre
+Curie. He also engaged in work on magnetism, the polarization of light,
+phosphorescence and the absorption of light in crystals. He died at
+Croisic in Brittany on the 25th of August 1908.
+
+
+
+
+BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German _Bett_, probably connected with
+the Indo-European root _bhodh_, seen in the Lat. _fodere_, to dig; so "a
+dug-out place" for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden
+"bed"), a general term for a resting or sleeping place for men and
+animals, and in particular for the article of household furniture for
+that object, and so used by analogy in other senses, involving a
+supporting surface or layer. The accompaniments of a domestic bed
+(bedding, coverlets, &c.) have naturally varied considerably in
+different times, and its form and decoration and social associations
+have considerable historical interest. The Egyptians had high bedsteads
+which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and curtains to
+hang round. Often there was a head-rest as well, semi-cylindrical and
+made of stone, wood or metal. Assyrians, Medes and Persians had beds of
+a similar kind, and frequently decorated their furniture with inlays or
+_appliqués_ of metal, mother-of-pearl and ivory. The oldest account of a
+bedstead is probably that of Ulysses which Homer describes him as making
+in his own house, but he also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork of
+beds with gold, silver and ivory. The Greek bed had a wooden frame, with
+a board at the head and bands of hide laced across, upon which skins
+were placed. At a later period the bedstead was often veneered with
+expensive woods; sometimes it was of solid ivory veneered with
+tortoise-shell and with silver feet; often it was of bronze. The pillows
+and coverings also became more costly and beautiful; the most celebrated
+places for their manufacture were Miletus, Corinth and Carthage. Folding
+beds, too, appear in the vase paintings. The Roman mattresses were
+stuffed with reeds, hay, wool or feathers; the last was used towards the
+end of the Republic, when custom demanded luxury. Small cushions were
+placed at the head and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high
+and could only be ascended by the help of steps. They were often
+arranged for two persons, and had a board or railing at the back as well
+as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were sometimes very
+costly, generally purple embroidered with figures in gold; and rich
+hangings fell to the ground masking the front. The bedsteads themselves
+were often of bronze inlaid with silver, and Elagabalus, like some
+modern Indian princes, had one of solid silver. In the walls of some of
+the houses at Pompeii bed niches are found which were probably closed by
+curtains or sliding partitions. The marriage bed, _lectus genialis_, was
+much decorated, and was placed in the atrium opposite the door. A low
+pallet-bed used for sick persons was known as _scimpodium_. Other forms
+of couch were called _lectus_, but were not beds in the modern sense of
+the word except the _lectus funebris_, on which the body of a dead
+person lay in state for seven days, clad in a toga and rich garments,
+and surrounded by flowers and foliage. This bed rested on ivory legs,
+over which purple blankets embroidered with gold were spread, and was
+placed in the atrium with the foot to the door and with a pan of incense
+by its side. The ancient Germans lay on the floor on beds of leaves
+covered with skins, or in a kind of shallow chest filled with leaves and
+moss. In the early middle ages they laid carpets on the floor or on a
+bench against the wall, placed upon them mattresses stuffed with
+feathers, wool or hair, and used skins as a covering. They appear to
+have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping themselves in the large linen
+sheets which were stretched over the cushions. In the 13th century
+luxury increased, and bedsteads were made of wood much decorated with
+inlaid, carved and painted ornament. They also used folding beds, which
+served as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon
+leather. At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed, while
+silk-covered skins served as coverlets. Curtains were hung from the
+ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall. The Carolingian
+MSS. show metal bedsteads much higher at the head than at the feet, and
+this shape continued in use till the 13th century in France, many
+cushions being added to raise the body to a sloping position. In the
+12th-century MSS. the bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving
+and painting, and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony.
+Curtains were hung above the bed, and a small hanging lamp is often
+shown. In the 14th century the woodwork became of less importance, being
+generally entirely covered by hangings of rich materials. Silk, velvet
+and even cloth of gold were much used. Inventories from the beginning of
+the 14th century give details of these hangings lined with fur and
+richly embroidered. Then it was that the tester bed made its first
+appearance, the tester being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the
+walls, a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut in
+by double curtains, sometimes even so as to exclude all draughts. The
+space between bed and wall was called the _ruelle_, and very intimate
+friends were received there. In the 15th century beds became very large,
+reaching to 7 or 8 ft. by 6 or 7 ft. Viollet-le-Duc says that the
+mattresses were filled with pea-shucks or straw--neither wool nor
+horsehair is mentioned--but feathers also were used. At this time great
+personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property about
+with them, including beds and bed-hangings, and for this reason the
+bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks to be covered up; but
+about the beginning of the 16th century bedsteads were made lighter and
+more decorative, since the lords remained in the same place for longer
+periods. In the museum at Nancy is a fine bedstead of this period which
+belonged to Antoine de Lorraine. It has a carved head and foot as well
+as the uprights which support the tester. Another is in the Musée Cluny
+ascribed to Pierre de Gondi, very architectural in design, with a
+bracketed cornice, and turned and carved posts; at the head figures of
+warriors watch the sleeper. Louis XIV. had an enormous number of
+sumptuous beds, as many as 413 being described in the inventories of his
+palaces. Some of them had embroideries enriched with pearls, and figures
+on a silver or golden ground. The carving was the work of Proux or
+Caffieri, and the gilding by La Baronnière. The great bed at Versailles
+had crimson velvet curtains on which "The Triumph of Venus" was
+embroidered. So much gold was used that the velvet scarcely showed.
+Under the influence of Madame de Maintenon "The Sacrifice of Abraham,"
+which is now on the tester, replaced "The Triumph of Venus." In the 17th
+century, which has been called "the century of magnificent beds," the
+style _à la duchesse_, with tester and curtains only at the head,
+replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though they lasted much
+longer in England. In the 18th century feather pillows were first used
+as coverings in Germany, which in the fashions of the bed and the
+curious etiquette connected with the bedchamber followed France for the
+most part. The beds were _à la duchesse_, but in France itself there was
+great variety both of name and shape--the _lit à alcove, lit d'ange_,
+which had no columns, but a suspended tester with curtains drawn back,
+_lit à l'Anglaise_, which looked like a high sofa by day, _lit en
+baldaquin_, with the tester fixed against the wall, _lit à couronne_
+with a tester shaped like a crown, a style which appeared under Louis
+XVI., and was fashionable under the Restoration and Louis Philippe, and
+_lit à l'impériale_, which had a curved tester, are a few of their
+varieties. The _lit en baldaquin_ of Napoleon I. is still at
+Fontainebleau, and the Garde Meuble contains several richly carved beds
+of a more modern date. The custom of the "bed of justice" upon which the
+king of France reclined when he was present in parliament, the princes
+being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials
+kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the throne.
+Louis XI. is credited with its first use, and the custom lasted till the
+end of the monarchy. From the habit of using this bed to hear petitions,
+etc., came the usage of the _grand lit_, which was provided wherever the
+king stayed, called also _lit de parement_ or _lit de parade_, rather
+later. Upon this bed the dead king lay in state. The beds of the king
+and queen were saluted by the courtiers as if they were altars, and none
+approached them even when there was no railing to prevent it. These
+railings were apparently placed for other than ceremonial reasons
+originally, and in the accounts of several castles in the 15th century
+mention is made of a railing to keep dogs from the bed. In the _chambre
+de parade_, where the ceremonial bed was placed, certain persons, such
+as ambassadors or great lords, whom it was desired to honour, were
+received in a more intimate fashion than the crowd of courtiers. The
+_petit lever_ was held in the bedroom itself, the _grand lever_ in the
+_chambre de parade_. At Versailles women received their friends in their
+beds, both before and after childbirth, during periods of mourning, and
+even directly after marriage--in fact in any circumstances which were
+thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During the 17th
+century this curious custom became general, perhaps to avoid the
+tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used in high society
+in France till the end of the _ancien régime_. The earliest of which
+mention has been found belonged to Charles the Bold (see _Memoirs_ of
+Philippe de Comines). They had curtains over a light framework, and were
+in their way as fine as the stationary beds. Iron beds appear in the
+18th century; the advertisements recommend them as free from the insects
+which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads, but one is mentioned in the
+inventory of the furniture of the castle of Nerac in 1569, "un lit de
+fer et de cuivre, avec quatre petites colonnes de laiton, ensemble
+quatre satyres de laiton, quatre petits vases de laiton pour mettre sur
+les colonnes; dedans le dit lit il y a la figure d'Olopherne ensemble de
+Judith, qui sont d'albâtre." In Scotland, Brittany and Holland the
+closed bed with sliding or folding shutters has persisted till our own
+day, and in England--where beds were commonly quite simple in form--the
+four-poster, with tester and curtains all round, was the usual citizen's
+bed till the middle of the 19th century. Many fine examples exist of
+17th-century carved oak bedsteads, some of which have found their way
+into museums. The later forms, in which mahogany was usually the wood
+employed, are much less architectural in design. Some exceedingly
+elegant mahogany bedsteads were designed by Chippendale, Hepplewhite and
+Sheraton, and there are signs that English taste is returning to the
+wooden bedstead in a lighter and less monumental form.     (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+BED, in geology, a term for certain kinds of rock usually found to be
+arranged in more or less distinct layers; these are the beds of rock or
+strata. Normally, the bedding of rocks is horizontal or very nearly so;
+when the upper and lower surfaces of a bed are parallel, the bedding is
+said to be regular; if it is thickest at one point and thins away thence
+in every direction, the bedding is lenticular. Beds may be thick (50 ft.
+or more) or so thin as to be like sheets of paper, e.g. paper shales,
+such thin beds being often termed layers or laminae; intermediate
+regular varieties may be called flags, flagstones or tilestones. In
+fine-grained rocks the bedding is usually thinner and more regular than
+in coarser rocks, such as sandstones and grits. Bedding is confined to
+rocks which have been formed under water or by the agency of wind; these
+are the "stratified" rocks.
+
+The deposition of rock material by moving water is not as a rule
+uniform, slight changes in the velocity produce an immediate change in
+the size of the particles deposited upon a given area; thus a coarse
+sand layer may be succeeded by a finer sand or a mud, or two sandy
+layers may be separated by a thin layer of muddy shale. Bedding is most
+often induced by a change in the nature of the contiguous strata; thus a
+sandstone is followed by a shale or vice versa--changes which may be due
+to the varying volume or velocity of a current. Or the nature of the
+deposit may be influenced by chemical actions, whereby we get beds of
+rock-salt or gypsum between beds of marl. Or again, organic activities
+may influence the deposit, beds of coal may succeed layers of shale,
+iron-stone may lie between limestones or clays, a layer of large fossils
+or of flints may determine a bedding plane in massive limestones. Flaky
+minerals like mica frequently assist in the formation of bedding planes;
+and the pressure of superincumbent strata upon earlier formed deposits
+has no doubt often produced a tendency in the particles to arrange
+themselves normal to the direction of pressure, thus causing the rock to
+split more readily along the same direction.
+
+Where rapidly-moving currents of water (or air) are transporting or
+depositing sand, &c., the bedding is generally not horizontal, but
+inclined more or less steeply; this brings about the formation of what
+is variously called "cross-bedding," "diagonal bedding", "current
+bedding" or improperly "false-bedding." Igneous materials, when
+deposited through the agency of water or air, exhibit bedding, but no
+true stratification is seen in igneous rocks that have solidified after
+cooling, although in granites and similar rocks the process of
+weathering frequently produces an appearance resembling this structure.
+Miners not infrequently describe a bed of rock as a "vein," if it is one
+that has some economic value, e.g. a "vein of coal or ironstone."
+     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BEDARESI, YEDAIAH (1270-1340), Jewish poet, physician and philosopher of
+Provence. His most successful work was an ethical treatise, _Behinath
+'Olam_ (Examination of the World), a didactic poem in thirty-seven short
+sections. The work is still very popular. It was translated into English
+by Tobias Goodman.
+
+
+
+
+BÉDARIEUX, a town of southern France, in the department of Hérault, on
+the Orb, 27 m. N.N.W. of Béziers by rail. Pop. (1906) 5594. The town has
+a 16th-century church, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of arts
+and manufactures, a communal college and a school of drawing. Bédarieux
+was at one time a notable manufacturing centre. Its cloth-weaving
+industry, carried on under a special royal privilege from the end of the
+17th century to the Revolution, employed in 1789 as many as 5000
+workmen, while some thousand more were occupied in wool and cotton
+spinning, &c. In spite of the introduction of modern machinery from
+England, the industries of the place declined, mainly owing to the loss
+of the trade with the Levant; but of late years they have somewhat
+revived, owing partly to the opening up of coal mines in the
+neighbourhood. Besides cloth factories and wool-spinning mills, there
+are now numerous tanneries and leather-dressing works. There is some
+trade in timber, wool and agricultural produce.
+
+
+
+
+BEDDGELERT ("Gelert's grave"), a village in Carnarvonshire, North Wales,
+at the foot of Snowdon. The tradition of Gelert, Llewelyn's hound, being
+buried there is old in Wales; and common to it and India is the legend
+of a dog (or ichneumon) saving a child from a beast of prey (or
+reptile), and being killed by the child's father under the delusion that
+the animal had slain the infant. The English poet, W.R. Spencer, has
+versified the tale of Llewelyn, king of Wales, leaving Gelert and the
+baby prince at home, returning to find Gelert stained with the blood of
+a wolf, and killing the hound because he thought his child was slain.
+Sir W. Jones, the Welsh philologist and linguist, gives the Indian
+equivalent (Lord Teignmouth's _Life of Jones_, ed. Rev. S.C. Wilkes,
+editor's supplement). A Brahmin, leaving home, left his daughter in
+charge of an ichneumon, which he had long cherished. A black snake came
+up and was killed by the ichneumon, mistakenly killed, in its turn, by
+the Brahmin on his coming back. Another version is the medieval romance
+in _The Seven Wise Masters of Rome_. In the edition printed by Wynkyn de
+Worde it is told by "the first master"--a knight had one son, a
+greyhound and a falcon; the knight went to a tourney, a snake attacked
+the son, the falcon roused the hound, which killed the serpent, lay down
+by the cradle, and was killed by the knight, who discovered his error,
+like Llewelyn, and similarly repented (Villon Society, British Museum
+reprint, by Gomme and Wheatley).
+
+On the west of Beddgelert is Moel Hebog (Bare-hill of the falcon), a
+hiding-place of Owen Glendower. Here, in 1784, was found a brass Roman
+shield. Near is the famous Aberglaslyn Pass, dividing Carnarvon and
+Merioneth. In the centre is Cadair Rhys Goch o'r Eryri, a rock named as
+the chair of Rhys Goch, a bard contemporary with Glendower (died
+traditionally, 1429). Not far hence passed the Roman road from Uriconium
+to Segontium (see CARNARVON).
+
+
+
+
+BEDDOES, THOMAS (1760-1808), English physician and scientific writer,
+was born at Shiffnall in Shropshire on the 13th of April 1760. After
+being educated at Bridgnorth grammar school and at Pembroke College,
+Oxford, he studied medicine in London under John Sheldon (1752-1808). In
+1784 he published a translation of L. Spallanzani's _Dissertations on
+Natural History_, and in 1785 produced a translation, with original
+notes, of T.O. Bergman's _Essays on Elective Attractions_. He took his
+degree of doctor of medicine at Oxford in 1786, and, after visiting
+Paris, where he became acquainted with Lavoisier, was appointed reader
+in chemistry at Oxford University in 1788. His lectures attracted large
+and appreciative audiences; but his sympathy with the French Revolution
+exciting a clamour against him, he resigned his readership in 1792. In
+the following year he published _Observations on the Nature of
+Demonstrative Evidence_, and the _History of Isaac Jenkins_, a story
+which powerfully exhibits the evils of drunkenness, and of which 40,000
+copies are reported to have been sold. About the same time he began to
+work at his project for the establishment of a "Pneumatic Institution"
+for treating disease by the inhalation of different gases. In this he
+was assisted by Richard Lovell Edgeworth, whose daughter, Anna, became
+his wife in 1794. In 1798 the institution was established at Clifton,
+its first superintendent being Humphry Davy, who investigated the
+properties of nitrous oxide in its laboratory. The original aim of the
+institution was gradually abandoned; it became an ordinary
+sick-hospital, and was relinquished by its projector in the year before
+his death, which occurred on the 24th of December 1808. Beddoes was a
+man of great powers and wide acquirements, which he directed to noble
+and philanthropic purposes. He strove to effect social good by
+popularizing medical knowledge, a work for which his vivid imagination
+and glowing eloquence eminently fitted him. Besides the writings
+mentioned above, he was the author of _Political Pamphlets_ (1795-1797),
+a popular _Essay on Consumption_ (1799), which won the admiration of
+Kant, an _Essay on Fever_ (1807), and _Hygeia, or Essays Moral and
+Medical_ (1807). He also edited John Brown's _Elements of Medicine_
+(1795), and _Contributions to Physical and Medical Knowledge,
+principally from the West of England_ (1799).
+
+  A life of Beddoes by Dr John E. Stock was published in 1810.
+
+
+
+
+BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL (1803-1849), English dramatist and poet, son of
+the physician, Thomas Beddoes, was born at Clifton on the 20th of July
+1803. His mother was a sister of Maria Edgeworth, the novelist. He was
+sent to Bath grammar school and then to the Charterhouse. At school he
+wrote a good deal of verse and a novel in imitation of Fielding. In 1820
+he was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in his first year
+published _The Improvisatore_, afterwards carefully suppressed, and in
+1822 _The Bride's Tragedy_, which showed him as the disciple of the
+later Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists. The play found a small circle
+of admirers, and procured for Beddoes the friendship of Bryan Waller
+Procter (Barry Cornwall). Beddoes retired to Southampton to read for his
+degree, and there Procter introduced him to a young lawyer, Thomas
+Forbes Kelsall, with whom he became very intimate, and who became his
+biographer and editor. At this time he composed the dramatic fragments
+of _The Second Brother_ and _Torrismond_. Unfortunately he lacked the
+power of constructing a plot, and seemed to suffer from a constitutional
+inability to finish anything. Beddoes was one of the first outside the
+limited circle of Shelley's own friends to recognize Shelley's genius,
+and he was certainly one of the earliest imitators of his lyrical
+method. In the summer of 1824 he was summoned to Florence by the illness
+of his mother, but she died before he arrived. He remained some time in
+Italy, and met Mrs Shelley and Walter Savage Landor before he returned
+to England. In 1825 he took his degree at Oxford, and in that year he
+began what he calls (_Letters_, p. 68) "a very Gothic styled tragedy"
+with "a jewel of a name." This work was completed in 1829 as the
+fantastic and incoherent drama, _Death's Jest Book or The Fool's
+Tragedy_; but he continued to revise it until his death, and it was only
+published posthumously. On leaving Oxford he decided to study anatomy
+and physiology, not, however, without some hope that his studies might,
+by increasing his knowledge of the human mechanism, further his efforts
+as a dramatist. In the autumn of 1825 he entered on his studies at
+Göttingen, where he remained for four years. In 1829 he removed to
+Würzburg, and in 1832 obtained his doctorate in medicine, but his
+intimate association with democratic and republican leaders in Germany
+and Switzerland forced him to leave Bavaria without receiving his
+diploma. He settled in Zürich, where he practised for some time as a
+physician, and was even elected to be professor of comparative anatomy
+at the university, but the authorities refused to ratify his appointment
+because of his revolutionary views. He frequently contributed political
+poems and articles to German and Swiss papers, but none of his German
+work has been identified. The years at Zürich seem to have been the
+happiest of his life, but in 1839 the anti-liberal riots in the town
+rendered it unsafe for him, and early in the next year he had to escape
+secretly. From this time he had no settled home, though he stored his
+books at Baden in Aargau. His long residence in Germany was only broken
+by visits to England in 1828 to take his master of arts degree, in 1835,
+in 1842 and for some months in 1846. He had adopted German thought and
+manners to such an extent that he hardly felt at home in England; and
+his study of the German language, which he had begun in 1825, had almost
+weaned him from his mother-tongue; he was, as he says in a letter, "a
+non-conductor of friendship"; and it is not surprising that his old
+friends found him much changed and eccentric. In 1847 he returned to
+Frankfort, where he lived with a baker called Degen, to whom he became
+much attached, and whom he persuaded to become an actor. He took Degen
+with him to Zürich, where he chartered the theatre for one night to give
+his friend a chance of playing Hotspur. The two separated at Basel, and
+in a fit of dejection (May 1848) Beddoes tried to bleed himself to
+death. He was taken to the hospital, and wrote to his friends in England
+that he had had a fall from horseback. His leg was amputated, and he was
+in a fair way to recovery when, on the first day he was allowed to leave
+the hospital, he took curare, from the effects of which he died on the
+26th of January 1849. His MSS. he left in the charge of his friend
+Kelsall.
+
+In one of his letters to Kelsall Beddoes wrote:--"I am convinced the man
+who is to awaken the drama must be a bold, trampling fellow--no creeper
+into worm-holes--no reviser even--however good. These reanimations are
+vampire cold. Such ghosts as Marloe, Webster, &c., are better
+dramatists, better poets, I dare say, than any contemporaries of
+ours--but they are ghosts--the worm is in their pages" (_Letters_, p.
+50). In spite of this wise judgment, Beddoes was himself a "creeper into
+worm-holes," a close imitator of Marston and of Cyril Tourneur,
+especially in their familiar handling of the phenomena of death, and in
+the remoteness from ordinary life of the passions portrayed. In his
+blank verse he caught to a certain degree the manner of his Jacobean
+models, and his verse abounds in beautiful imagery, but his _Death's
+Jest Book_ is only finished in the sense of having five acts completed;
+it remains a bizarre production which appeals to few minds, and to them
+rather for the occasional excellence of the poetry than as an entire
+composition. His lyrics show the influence of Shelley as well as the
+study of 17th-century models, but they are by no means mere imitations,
+and some of them, like the "Dirge for Wolfram" ("If thou wilt ease thy
+heart"), and "Dream Pedlary" ("If there were dreams to sell"), are among
+the most exquisite of 19th-century lyrics.
+
+  Kelsall published Beddoes' great work, _Death's Jest Book: or, The
+  Fool's Tragedy_, in 1850. The drama is based on the story that a
+  certain Duke Boleslaus of Münsterberg was stabbed by his court-fool,
+  the "Isbrand" of the play (see C.F. Floegel, _Geschichte der
+  Hofnarren_, Leipzig, 1789, pp. 297 et seq.). He followed this in 1851
+  with _Poems of the late Thomas Lovell Beddoes_, to which a memoir was
+  prefixed. The two volumes were printed together (1851) with the title
+  of _Poems, Posthumous and Collected_. All these volumes are very rare.
+  Kelsall bequeathed the Beddoes MSS. to Robert Browning, with a note
+  stating the real history of Beddoes' illness and death, which was kept
+  back out of consideration for his relatives. Browning is reported to
+  have said that if he were ever Professor of Poetry his first lecture
+  would be on Beddoes, "a forgotten Oxford poet." Mr Edmund Gosse
+  obtained permission to use the documents from Browning, and edited a
+  fuller selection of the _Poetical Works_ (2 vols., 1890) for the
+  "Temple Library," supplying a full account of his life. He also edited
+  the _Letters of Thomas Lovell Beddoes_ (1894), containing a selection
+  from his correspondence, which is full of gaiety and contains much
+  amusing literary criticism. See also the edition of Beddoes by Ramsay
+  Colles in the "Muses' Library" (1906).
+
+
+
+
+BEDE, BEDA, or BAEDA (672 or 673-735), English historian and theologian.
+Of Baeda, commonly called "the Venerable Bede," almost all that we know
+is contained in the short autobiographical notice which he has appended
+to his _Ecclesiastical History_:--"Thus much concerning the
+ecclesiastical history of Britain, and especially of the race of the
+English, I, Baeda, a servant of Christ and priest of the monastery of
+the blessed apostles St Peter and St Paul, which is at Wearmouth and at
+Jarrow, have with the Lord's help composed, so far as I could gather it,
+either from ancient documents, or from the tradition of the elders, or
+from my own knowledge. I was born in the territory of the said
+monastery, and at the age of seven I was, by the care of my relations,
+given to the reverend Abbot Benedict (Biscop), and afterwards to
+Ceolfrid, to be educated. From that time I have spent the whole of my
+life within that monastery devoting all my pains to the study of the
+scriptures; and amid the observance of monastic discipline, and the
+daily charge of singing in the church, it has ever been my delight to
+learn or teach or write. In my nineteenth year I was admitted to the
+diaconate, in my thirtieth to the priesthood, both by the hands of the
+most reverend Bishop John (of Hexham), and at the bidding of Abbot
+Ceolfrid. From the time of my admission to the priesthood to my
+(present) fifty-ninth year, I have endeavoured, for my own use and that
+of my brethren, to make brief notes upon the Holy Scripture, either out
+of the works of the venerable fathers, or in conformity with their
+meaning and interpretation." Then follows a list of his works, so far
+as, at that date, they had been composed. As the _Ecclesiastical
+History_ was written in 731, we obtain the following dates for the
+principal events in Bede's uneventful life:--birth, 672-673; entrance
+into the monastery, 679-680; ordination as deacon, 691-692; as priest,
+702-703.
+
+The monastery of Wearmouth was founded by Benedict Biscop in 674, and
+that of Jarrow in 681-682. Though some 5 or 6 m. apart, they were
+intended to form a single monastery under a single abbot, and so Bede
+speaks of them in the passage given above. It is with Jarrow that Bede
+is chiefly associated, though no doubt from the close connexion of the
+two localities he would often be at Wearmouth. The preface to the prose
+life of Cuthbert proves that he had stayed at Lindisfarne prior to 721,
+while the Epistle to Egbert shows that he had visited him at York in
+733. The tradition that he went to Rome in obedience to a summons from
+Pope Sergius is contradicted by his own words above, and by his total
+silence as to any such visit. In the passage cited above, "monastic
+discipline, the daily charge of singing in the church, learning,
+teaching, writing," in other words devotion and study make up the even
+tenor of Bede's tranquil life. Anecdotes have been preserved which
+illustrate his piety both in early and in later years; of his studies
+the best monument is to be found in his writings. As a little boy he
+would take his place among the pupils of the monastic school, though he
+would soon pass to the ranks of the teachers, and the fact that he was
+ordained deacon at nineteen, below the canonical age, shows that he was
+regarded as remarkable both for learning and goodness.
+
+For the rest, it is in his works that we must chiefly seek to know him.
+They fall into three main classes: (1) scientific; (2) historical; (3)
+theological. The first class comprises works on grammar, one on natural
+phenomena, and two on chronology and the calendar. These last were
+inspired largely by the Paschal Question, which was the subject of such
+bitter controversy between the Roman and Celtic Churches in the 7th
+century. They form a natural transition to the second class. In this the
+chief place is held by the _Ecclesiastical History of the English
+Nation_. By this Bede has justly earned the title of the Father of
+English History. By this almost exclusively he is known to others than
+professed students. It is indeed one of the most valuable and one of the
+most beautiful of historical works. Bede has the artist's instinct of
+proportion, the artist's sense for the picturesque and the pathetic. His
+style too, modelled largely, in the present writer's opinion, on that of
+Gregory in the _Dialogues_, is limpid and unaffected. And though it
+would be wrong to call Bede a critical historian in the modern sense of
+the words, he shows a very unusual conscientiousness in collecting his
+information from the best available sources, and in distinguishing
+between what he believed to be fact, and what he regarded only as rumour
+or tradition. Other historical works of Bede are the _History of the
+Abbots_ (of Wearmouth and Jarrow), and the lives of Cuthbert in verse
+and prose. The _History of the Abbots_ and the prose life of Cuthbert
+were based on earlier works which still survive. In the case of the
+latter it cannot honestly be said that Bede has improved on his
+original. In the _History of the Abbots_ he was much nearer to the
+facts, and could make additions out of his own personal knowledge. The
+Epistle to Egbert, though not historical in form, may be mentioned here,
+because of the valuable information which it contains as to the state of
+the Northumbrian Church, on which the disorders and revolutions of the
+Northumbrian kingdom had told with disastrous effect. It is probably the
+latest of Bede's extant works, as it was written in November 734, only
+six months before his death. The third or theological class of writings
+consists mainly of commentaries, or of works which, if not commentaries
+in name, are so in fact. They are based largely on the works of the four
+great Latin Fathers, SS. Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory; though
+Bede's reading is very far from being limited to these. His method is
+largely allegorical. For the text of scripture he uses both the Latin
+versions, the Itala and the Vulgate, often comparing them together. But
+he certainly knew Greek, and possibly some Hebrew. Indeed it may be said
+that his works, scientific, historical and theological, practically sum
+up all the learning of western Europe in his time, which he thus made
+available for his countrymen. And not for them only; for in the school
+of York, founded by his pupil Archbishop Ecgberht, was trained Alcuin
+(Ealhwine) the initiator under Charles the Great of the Frankish
+schools, which did so much for learning on the continent. And though
+Bede makes no pretensions to originality, least of all in his
+theological works, freely taking what he needed, and (what is very rare
+in medieval writers) acknowledging what he took, "out of the works of
+the venerable Fathers," still everything he wrote is informed and
+impressed with his own special character and temper. His earnest yet
+sober piety, his humility, his gentleness, appear in almost every line.
+"In history and in science, as well as in theology, he is before all
+things the Christian thinker and student." (Plummer's _Bede_, i. 2.) Yet
+it should not be forgotten that Bede could hardly have done what he did
+without the noble library of books collected by Benedict Biscop.
+
+Several quaint and beautiful legends have been handed down as to the
+origin of the epithet of "venerable" generally attached to his name.
+Probably it is a mere survival of a title commonly given to priests in
+his day. It has given rise to a false idea that he lived to a great
+age; some medieval authorities making him ninety when he died. But he
+was not born before 672 (see above); and though the date of his death
+has been disputed, the traditional year, 735, is most probably correct.
+This would make him at most sixty-three. Of his death a most touching
+and beautiful account has been preserved in a contemporary letter. His
+last hours were spent, like the rest of his life, in devotion and
+teaching, his latest work being to dictate, amid ever-increasing bodily
+weakness, a translation into the vernacular of the Gospel of St John, a
+work which unhappily has not survived. It was a fitting close to such a
+life as his.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The above sketch is largely based on the present
+  writer's essay on Bede's Life and Works, prefixed to his edition of
+  Bede's _Historia Ecclesiastica, &c._ (2 vols., Clarendon Press, 1896).
+  _Beda der Ehrwurdige und seine Zeit_, by Dr Karl Werner (Vienna,
+  1875), is excellent. Gehle, _Disputatio ... de Bedae vita et Scriptis_
+  (Leiden, 1838), is still useful. Dr William Bright's _Chapters of
+  Early English Church History_ (3rd ed., Clarendon Press, 1897) is
+  indispensable. See also Ker, _Dark Ages_, pp. 141 ff. Of the collected
+  works of Bede the most convenient edition is that by Dr Giles in
+  twelve volumes (8vo., 1843-1844), which includes translations of the
+  _Historical Works_. The Continental folio editions (Basel, 1563;
+  Cologne, 1612 and 1688) contain many works which cannot by any
+  possibility be Bede's. The edition of Migne, _Patralogia Latina_ (1862
+  ff.) is based on a comparison of the Cologne edition with Giles and
+  Smith (see below), and is open to the same criticism. On the
+  chronology and genuineness of the works commonly ascribed to Bede, see
+  Plummer's ed., i., cxlv-clix.
+
+  On the MSS. early editions and translations of the _Historia
+  Ecclesiastica_, see Plummer, u.s., i., lxxx-cxxxii. The edition of
+  Whelock (Cambridge, fol. 1643-1644) is noteworthy as the first English
+  edition of the Latin text, and as the _editio princeps_ of the
+  Anglo-Saxon version ascribed to King Alfred (see ALFRED THE GREAT).
+  Smith's edition (Cambridge, fol. 1722) contained not only these, but
+  also the other historical works of Bede, with notes and appendices. It
+  is a monument of learning and scholarship. The most recent edition is
+  that with notes and introduction by the present writer, u.s. It
+  includes also the _History of the Abbots_, and the Epistle to Egbert.
+  Of books iii. and iv. only, there is a learned edition by Professors
+  Mayor and Lumby of Cambridge (3rd ed., 1881). A cheap and handy
+  edition of the text alone is that by A. Holder (Freiburg im Breisgau,
+  1882, &c.). The best-known modern English translation is that by the
+  Rev. L. Gidley (1870). Of the minor historical works a good edition
+  was edited by Rev. J. Stevenson for the Eng. Hist. Soc. in 1841; and a
+  translation by the same hand was included in _Church Historians of
+  England_, vol. i., part ii. (1853). See also Plummer's edition, pp.
+  cxxxii-cxlii.     (C. Pl.)
+
+
+
+
+BEDE, CUTHBERT, the pen-name of Edward Bradley (1827-1889), English
+author, who was born at Kidderminster on the 25th of March 1827. He
+entered University College, Durham, in 1845, and later studied at
+Oxford, where he made the acquaintance of J.G. Wood, the naturalist. He
+took holy orders, and eventually became rector of Stretton in
+Rutlandshire. Here he gained a reputation as a humorist and numbered
+among his friends Cruikshank, Frank Smedley, Mark Lemon and Albert
+Smith. He wrote for various magazines and, in the pages of the
+_Illustrated London News_, introduced the double acrostic. He is chiefly
+known as the author of _The Adventures of Mr Verdant Green, an Oxford
+Freshman_ (1853), which he also illustrated and of which a third part
+appeared in 1856. Several well-known Oxford characters of the time are
+depicted in its pages, such as Dr Plumptre the vice-chancellor, Dr Bliss
+the registrar, and the waiter at the Mitre. The book abounds in innocent
+fun. In 1883 he was given the living of Lenton, or Lavington,
+Lincolnshire, where he died on the 12th of December 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BEDELL, WILLIAM (1571-1642), Anglican divine, was born at Black Notley
+in Essex, in 1571. He was educated at Cambridge, became fellow of
+Emmanuel in 1593, and took orders. In 1607 he was appointed chaplain to
+Sir H. Wotton, then English ambassador at Venice, where he remained for
+four years, acquiring a great reputation as a scholar and theologian. He
+translated the _Book of Common Prayer_ into Italian, and was on terms of
+closest friendship with the reformer, Sarpi (Fra Paolo). In 1616 he was
+appointed to the rectory of Horningsheath (near to Bury St Edmunds,
+where he had previously laboured), which he held for twelve years. In
+1627 he became provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and, in 1629, bishop
+of Kilmore and Ardagh. He set himself to reform the abuses of his
+diocese, encouraged the use of the Irish language, and personally
+undertook the duties generally discharged by the bishop's lay
+chancellor. In 1633 he resigned his see. In 1641, when the Protestants
+were being massacred, Bedell's house was not only left untouched, but
+became the place of refuge for many fugitives. In the end, however, the
+rebels insisted upon the dismissal of all who had taken shelter in his
+house, and on the bishop's refusal he was seized and imprisoned with
+some others in the ruined castle of Loughboughter. Here he was detained
+for several weeks, and when released, rapidly sank from the effects of
+exposure, and died on the 7th of February 1642.
+
+  His life was written by Bishop Gilbert Burnet in 1685, and also by his
+  elder son (ed. T.W. Jones, for the Camden Society, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+BEDESMAN, or BEADSMAN (Med. Eng. _bede_, prayer, from O. Eng. _biddan_,
+to pray; literally "a man of prayer"), generally a pensioner or almsman
+whose duty it was to pray for his benefactor. In Scotland there were
+public almsmen supported by the king and expected in return to pray for
+his welfare and that of the state. These men wore long blue gowns with a
+pewter badge on the right arm, and were nicknamed Blue Gowns. Their
+number corresponded to the king's years, an extra one being added each
+royal birthday. They were privileged to ask alms throughout Scotland. On
+the king's birthday each bedesman received a new blue gown, a loaf, a
+bottle of ale, and a leathern purse containing a penny for every year of
+the king's life. On the pewter badge which they wore were their name and
+the words "pass and repass," which authorized them to ask alms. In 1833
+the appointment of bedesmen was stopped. In 1863 the last payment was
+paid to a bedesman. In consequence of its use in this general sense of
+pensioner, "bedesman" was long used in English as equivalent to
+"servant." The word had a special sense as the name for those almsmen
+attached to cathedral and other churches, whose duty it was to pray for
+the souls of deceased benefactors. A relic of pre-Reformation times,
+these old men still figure in the accounts of English cathedrals.
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The present English title of duke of
+Bedford comes from a line of earls and dukes in the Russell family. In
+January 1550 John, Baron Russell, was created earl of Bedford, and in
+May 1694 his descendant, William, the 5th earl, became duke of Bedford.
+The Russell line is dealt with in the later part of this article. The
+title of duke of Bedford had, however, been previously held, notably by
+the third son of Henry IV.; and the earlier creations may first be
+considered here.
+
+JOHN PLANTAGENET, duke of Bedford (1389-1435), third son of Henry IV.,
+king of England, was born on the 20th of June 1389. He received various
+dignities after his father became king in 1399, and gained his early
+experiences in warfare when he undertook the office of warden of the
+east marches of Scotland in 1404; he was fairly successful in this
+command, which he held until September 1414. In the previous May his
+brother, the new king Henry V., had created him duke of Bedford, and
+after resigning the wardenship he began to take a leading part in the
+royal councils. He acted as lieutenant of the kingdom during Henry's
+expedition to France in 1415, and in August 1416 commanded the ships
+which defeated the French fleet at the mouth of the Seine, and was
+instrumental in relieving Harfleur. Again appointed lieutenant in July
+1417, he marched against the Scots, who abandoned the siege of Berwick
+at his approach; and on his return to London he brought Sir John
+Oldcastle to trial and was present at his execution. He appears to have
+governed the country with considerable success until December 1419, when
+he resigned his office as lieutenant and joined the king in France.
+Returning to England, he undertook the lieutenancy for the third time in
+June 1421, and in the following May conducted the queen to join Henry in
+Normandy. He then took his brother's place and led the English troops to
+the relief of Cosne, but on hearing of the king's serious illness he
+left the army and hurried to his side. Henry's last wish was that
+Bedford should be guardian of the kingdom and of the young king, and
+that Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, should act as regent in France.
+But when Philip declined to undertake this office, it too was assumed by
+Bedford, who, after the death of the French king Charles VI. in October
+1422, presided at a session of the parlement of Paris, and compelled
+all present to take an oath of fidelity to King Henry VI. Meanwhile the
+English parliament had decided that Bedford should be "protector and
+defender" of the kingdom, and that in his absence the office should
+devolve upon his brother Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. Confining himself
+to the conduct of affairs in France the protector took up Henry V.'s
+work of conquest, captured Meulan and other places, and sought to
+strengthen his position by an alliance with Philip of Burgundy. This
+task was rendered more difficult as Gloucester had just married
+Jacqueline, countess of Holland and Hainaut, a union which gave the
+English duke a claim on lands which Philip hoped to secure for himself.
+Bedford, however, having allayed Philip's irritation, formed an alliance
+with him and with John VI., duke of Brittany, at Amiens in April 1423,
+and himself arranged to marry Anne, a sister of the Burgundian duke.
+This marriage was celebrated at Troyes in the following June, and the
+war against Charles, the dauphin of France, was prosecuted with vigour
+and success. Bedford sought to restore prosperity to the districts under
+his rule by reforming the debased coinage, granting privileges to
+merchants and manufacturers, and removing various abuses. He then
+granted some counties to Philip to check the growing hostility between
+him and Gloucester, and on the 17th of August 1424 gained a great
+victory over a combined army of French and Scots at Verneuil. But in
+spite of the efforts of the protector the good understanding between
+England and Burgundy was partially destroyed when Gloucester invaded
+Hainaut in October 1424. The ambition of his brother gave Bedford
+trouble in another direction also; for on his return from Hainaut
+Gloucester quarrelled with the chancellor, Henry Beaufort, bishop of
+Winchester, and the council implored Bedford to come to England to
+settle this dispute. He reached London in January 1426, and after
+concluding a bond of alliance with Gloucester effected a reconciliation
+between the duke and the chancellor; and knighted the young king, Henry
+VI. Bedford then promised to act in accordance with the will of the
+council, and in harmony with the decision of this body raised a body of
+troops and returned to France in March 1427. Having ordered Gloucester
+to desist from a further attack on Hainaut, he threatened Brittany and
+compelled Duke John to return to the English alliance; and the success
+of his troops continued until the siege of Orleans, to which he
+consented with reluctance, was undertaken in October 1428. Having
+assured himself that Philip was prepared to desert him, Bedford sent
+orders to his army to raise the siege in April 1429. He then acted with
+great energy and judgment in attempting to stem the tide of disasters
+which followed this failure, strengthened his hold upon Paris, and sent
+to England for reinforcements; but before any engagement took place he
+visited Rouen, where he sought to bind the Normans closer to England,
+and after his return to Paris resigned the French regency to Philip of
+Burgundy in accordance with the wish of the Parisians. Retaining the
+government of Normandy Bedford established himself at Rouen and directed
+the movements of the English forces with some success. He did not
+interfere to save the life of Joan of Arc. He was joined by Henry VI. in
+April 1430, when the regency was temporarily suspended, and he secured
+Henry's coronation at Paris in December 1431. In November 1432 his wife
+Anne died, and in April 1433 he was married at Therouanne to Jacqueline,
+daughter of Pierre I., count of St Pol. But notwithstanding Bedford's
+vigour the English lost ground steadily; and the death of Anne and this
+marriage destroyed the friendly relations between England and Burgundy.
+Negotiations for peace had no result, and when the duke returned to
+England in June 1433 he told parliament that he had come home to defend
+himself against the charge that the losses in France were caused by his
+neglect, and demanded that his detractors should make their accusations
+public. The chancellor replied that no such charges were known to the
+king or the council, and the duke was thanked for his great services.
+His next act was to secure an inquiry into the national finances; and
+when asked by the parliament to stay in England he declared that his
+services were at the king's disposal. As chief councillor he offered to
+take a smaller salary than had been previously paid to Gloucester, and
+undertook this office in December 1433, when his demands with regard to
+a continual council were conceded. Bedford, who was anxious to prosecute
+the war in France, left England again in 1434, but early in 1435 was
+obliged to consent to the attendance of English r epresentatives at a
+congress held to arrange terms of peace at Arras. Unable to consent to
+the French terms the English envoys left Arras in September, and Philip
+of Burgundy made a separate treaty with France. Bedford only lived to
+see the ruin of the cause for which he struggled so loyally. He died at
+Rouen on the 14th of September 1435, and was buried in the cathedral of
+that city. He left a natural son, Richard, but no legitimate issue.
+Bedford was a man of considerable administrative ability, brave and
+humane in war, wise and unselfish in peace. He was not responsible for
+the misfortunes of the English in France, and his courage in the face of
+failure was as admirable as his continued endeavour to make the people
+under his rule contented and prosperous.
+
+  The chief contemporary authorities for Bedford's life are: _Vita et
+  gesta Henrici Quinti_, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); E. de
+  Monstrelet, _Chronique_, edited by L.D. d'Arcq. (Paris, 1857-1862);
+  William of Worcester, _Annales rerum Anglicarum_, edited by J.
+  Stevenson (London, 1864). See also _Proceedings and Ordinances of the
+  Privy Council of England_, edited by J.R. Dasent (London, 1890-1899);
+  W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895); P.A.
+  Barante, _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne_ (Paris, 1824).
+
+In 1470 GEORGE NEVILL (c. 1457-1483), son of John, earl of
+Northumberland, was created duke of Bedford; but after his father's
+attainder and death at the battle of Barnet in 1471 he was degraded from
+the peerage.
+
+The next duke of Bedford was JASPER TUDOR (c. 1430-1495), half-brother
+of King Henry VI. and uncle of Henry VII. He was made earl of Pembroke
+in 1453. Having survived the vicissitudes of the Wars of the Roses he
+was restored to his earldom and created duke of Bedford in 1485. The
+duke, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1486 to 1494, died without
+legitimate issue on the 21st of December 1495.
+
+JOHN RUSSELL, 1st earl of Bedford (c. 1486-1555), was a son of James
+Russell (d. 1509). Having travelled widely, he attained some position at
+the court of Henry VII., and was subsequently in great favour with Henry
+VIII. In 1513 he took part in the war with France, and, having been
+knighted about the same time, was afterwards employed on several
+diplomatic errands. He was with Henry at the Field of the Cloth of Gold
+in 1520, and, returning to military service when the French war was
+renewed, lost his right eye at the siege of Morlaix in 1522. He was soon
+made knight marshal of the royal household, and in 1523 went secretly to
+France, where he negotiated a treaty between Henry and Charles, duke of
+Bourbon, who was anxious to betray the French king Francis I. After a
+short visit to England Russell was sent with money to Bourbon, joining
+the constable at the siege of Marseilles. In 1524 he visited Pope
+Clement VII. at Rome, and, having eluded the French, who endeavoured to
+capture him, was present at the battle of Pavia in February 1525,
+returning to England about the close of the year. In January 1527 he was
+sent as ambassador to Clement, who employed him to treat on his behalf
+with Charles de Lannoy, the general of Charles V. The next few years of
+Russell's life were mainly spent in England. He was member of parliament
+for Buckingham in the parliament of 1529, and although an opponent of
+the party of Anne Boleyn, retained the favour of Henry VIII. He took an
+active part in suppressing the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, and was one
+of the commissioners appointed to try the Lincolnshire prisoners.
+Honours now crowded upon him. His appointment as comptroller of the
+king's household in 1537 was followed by that of a privy councillor in
+1538; then he was made lord high admiral, high steward of the duchy of
+Cornwall and a knight of the garter. In March 1539 he was created Baron
+Russell of Chenies, and in 1542 became high steward of the university of
+Oxford, and keeper of the privy seal. In 1539, when Charles V. and
+Francis I. were threatening to invade England, he was sent into the
+west, and crossed to France when Henry attacked Francis in 1544. He was
+in command of an army in the west of England in 1545, and when Henry
+died in January 1547 was one of the executors of his will. Under Edward
+VI. Russell was lord high steward and keeper of the privy seal, and the
+defeat which he inflicted on the rebels at Clyst St Mary near Exeter in
+August 1549, was largely instrumental in suppressing the rising in
+Devonshire. In January 1550 he was created earl of Bedford, and was one
+of the commissioners appointed to make peace with France in this year.
+He opposed the proposal to seat Lady Jane Grey on the throne; supported
+Queen Mary, who reappointed him lord privy seal; and assisted to prevent
+Sir Thomas Wyat's rising from spreading to Devonshire. In 1554 he went
+to Spain to conclude the marriage treaty between Mary and Philip II.,
+and soon after his return died in London on the 14th of March 1555. By
+extensive acquisitions of land Bedford was the founder of the wealth and
+greatness of the house of Russell. Through his wife, Anne (d. 1550),
+daughter of Sir Guy Sapcote, whom he married in 1526, he obtained
+Chenies, and in 1539 was granted the forest of Exmoor, and also
+Tavistock, and a number of manors in Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, which
+had formerly belonged to the abbey of Tavistock. In 1549 he received
+Thorney, the abbey of Woburn, and extensive lands in the eastern
+counties; and in 1552 Covent Garden and seven acres of land in London,
+formerly the property of the protector Somerset. He left an only son,
+Francis, who succeeded him in the title.
+
+  See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ (London, 1862-1901); _State
+  Papers during the Reign of Henry VIII._ (London, 1831-1852); _Calendar
+  of State Papers, Edward VI. and Mary_ (London, 1861); J.H. Wiffen,
+  _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833); J.A.
+  Froude, _History of England, passim_ (London, 1881 fol.).
+
+FRANCIS RUSSELL, 2nd earl of Bedford (c. 1527-1585), was educated at
+King's Hall, Cambridge. He accompanied his father to the French war in
+1544, and from 1547 to 1552 was member of parliament for
+Buckinghamshire, being probably the first heir to a peerage to sit in
+the House of Commons. He assisted to quell the rising in Devonshire in
+1549, and after his father had been created earl of Bedford in January
+1550, was known as Lord Russell, taking his seat in the House of Lords
+under this title in 1552. Russell was in sympathy with the reformers,
+whose opinions he shared, and was in communication with Sir Thomas Wyat;
+and in consequence of his religious attitude was imprisoned during the
+earlier part of Mary's reign. Being released he went into exile; visited
+Italy; came into touch with foreign reformers; and fought at the battle
+of St Quentin in 1557. Afterwards he seems to have enjoyed some measure
+of the royal favour, and was made lord-lieutenant of the counties of
+Devon, Cornwall and Dorset early in 1558. When Elizabeth ascended the
+throne in November 1558 the earl of Bedford, as Russell had been since
+1555, became an active figure in public life. He was made a privy
+councillor, and was sent on diplomatic errands to Charles IX. of France
+and Mary queen of Scots. From February 1564 to October 1567 he was
+governor of Berwick and warden of the east marches of Scotland, in which
+capacity he conducted various negotiations between Elizabeth and Mary.
+He appears to have been an efficient warden, but was irritated by the
+vacillating and tortuous conduct of the English queen. When the northern
+insurrection broke out in 1569, Bedford was sent into Wales, and he sat
+in judgment upon the duke of Norfolk in 1572. In 1576 he was president
+of the council of Wales, and in 1581 was one of the commissioners
+deputed to arrange a marriage between Elizabeth and Francis, duke of
+Anjou. Bedford, who was made a knight of the garter in 1564, was lord
+warden of the Stannaries from 1553 to 1580. He appears to have been a
+generous and popular man, and died in London on the 28th of July 1585.
+He was buried at Chenies. His first wife was Margaret (d. 1562),
+daughter of Sir John St John, by whom he had four sons and three
+daughters. His three eldest sons predeceased their father. His second
+wife was Bridget (d. 1601), daughter of John, Lord Hussey. He was
+succeeded as 3rd earl by his grandson, EDWARD (1572-1627), only son of
+Francis, Lord Russell (c. 1550-1585). The 3rd earl left no children when
+he died on the 3rd of May 1627, and was succeeded by his cousin.
+
+FRANCIS RUSSELL, 4th earl of Bedford (1593-1641), was the only son of
+William, Lord Russell of Thornhaugh, to which barony he succeeded in
+August 1613. For a short time previously he had been member of
+parliament for the borough of Lyme Regis; in 1623 he was made
+lord-lieutenant of Devonshire; and in May 1627 became earl of Bedford by
+the death of his cousin, Edward, the 3rd earl. When the quarrel broke
+out between Charles I. and the parliament, Bedford supported the demands
+of the House of Commons as embodied in the Petition of Right, and in
+1629 was arrested for his share in the circulation of Sir Robert
+Dudley's pamphlet, "Proposition for His Majesty's service," but was
+quickly released. The Short parliament meeting in April 1640 found the
+earl as one of the king's leading opponents. He was greatly trusted by
+John Pym and Oliver St John, and is mentioned by Clarendon as among the
+"great contrivers and designers" in the House of Lords. In July 1640 he
+was among the peers who wrote to the Scottish leaders refusing to invite
+a Scottish army into England, but promising to stand by the Scots in all
+legal and honourable ways; and his signature was afterwards forged by
+Thomas, Viscount Savile, in order to encourage the Scots to invade
+England. In the following September he was among those peers who urged
+Charles to call a parliament, to make peace with the Scots, and to
+dismiss his obnoxious ministers; and was one of the English
+commissioners appointed to conclude the treaty of Ripon. When the Long
+parliament met in November 1640, Bedford was generally regarded as the
+leader of the parliamentarians. In February 1641 he was made a privy
+councillor, and during the course of some negotiations was promised the
+office of lord high treasurer. He was essentially a moderate man, and
+seemed anxious to settle the question of the royal revenue in a
+satisfactory manner. He did not wish to alter the government of the
+Church, was on good terms with Archbishop Laud, and, although convinced
+of Stafford's guilt, was anxious to save his life. In the midst of the
+parliamentary struggle Bedford died of smallpox on the 9th of May 1641.
+Clarendon described him as "a wise man, and of too great and plentiful a
+fortune to wish the subversion of the government," and again referring
+to his death said that "many who knew him well thought his death not
+unseasonable as well to his fame as his fortune, and that it rescued him
+as well from some possible guilt as from those visible misfortunes which
+men of all conditions have since undergone." Bedford was the head of
+those who undertook to drain the great level of the fens, called after
+him the "Bedford level." He spent a large sum of money over this work
+and received 43,000 acres of land, but owing to various jealousies and
+difficulties the king took the work into his own hands in 1638, making a
+further grant of land to the earl. Bedford married Catherine (d. 1657),
+daughter of Giles, 3rd Lord Chandos, by whom he had four sons and four
+daughters. His eldest son, WILLIAM (1613-1700), succeeded him as 5th
+earl, fought first on the side of the parliament and then on that of the
+king during the Civil War, and in 1694 was created marquess of Tavistock
+and duke of Bedford.
+
+  See Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion, passim_ (Oxford, 1888); J.H.
+  Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833);
+  J.L. Sanford, _Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion_
+  (London, 1858).
+
+The first duke, who married Anne (d. 1684), daughter of Robert Carr,
+earl of Somerset, was succeeded in the title by his grandson Wriothesley
+(1680-1711), who was a son of Lord William Russell (q.v.) by his
+marriage with Rachel, daughter of Thomas Wriothesley, 4th earl of
+Southampton, and who became second duke in 1700. Eleven years later the
+second duke was succeeded by his eldest son Wriothesley (1708-1732), who
+died without issue in October 1732, when the title passed to his brother
+John.
+
+JOHN RUSSELL, 4th duke of Bedford (1710-1771), second son of Wriothesley
+Russell, 2nd duke of Bedford, by his wife, Elizabeth, daughter and
+heiress of John Howland of Streatham, Surrey, was born on the 30th of
+September 1710. Known as Lord John Russell, he married in October 1731
+Lady Diana Spencer, daughter of Charles, 3rd earl of Sunderland; became
+duke of Bedford on his brother's death a year later; and having lost
+his first wife in 1735, married in April 1737 Lady Gertrude
+Leveson-Gower (d. 1794), daughter of John, Earl Gower. In the House of
+Lords he joined the party hostile to Sir Robert Walpole, took a fairly
+prominent part in public business, and earned the dislike of George II.
+When Carteret, now Earl Granville, resigned office in November 1744,
+Bedford became first lord of the admiralty in the administration of
+Henry Pelham, and was made a privy councillor. He was very successful at
+the admiralty, but was not equally fortunate after he became secretary
+of state for the southern department in February 1748. Pelham accused
+him of idleness; he was constantly at variance with the duke of
+Newcastle, and resigned office in June 1751. Instigated by his friends
+he was active in opposition to the government, and after Newcastle's
+resignation in November 1756, became lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the
+ministry of William Pitt and the duke of Devonshire, retaining this
+office after Newcastle, in alliance with Pitt, returned to power in June
+1757. In Ireland he favoured a relaxation of the penal laws against
+Roman Catholics, but did not keep his promises to observe neutrality
+between the rival parties, and to abstain from securing pensions for his
+friends. His own courtly manners and generosity, and his wife's good
+qualities, however, seem to have gained for him some popularity,
+although Horace Walpole says he disgusted everybody. In March 1761 he
+resigned this office. Having allied himself with the earl of Bute and
+the party anxious to bring the Seven Years' War to a close, Bedford was
+noticed as the strongest opponent of Pitt, and became lord privy seal
+under Bute after Pitt resigned in October 1761. The cabinet of Bute was
+divided over the policy to be pursued with regard to the war, but
+pacific counsels prevailed, and in September 1762 Bedford went to France
+to treat for peace. He was considerably annoyed because some of the
+peace negotiations were conducted through other channels, but he signed
+the peace of Paris in February 1763. Resigning his office as lord privy
+seal soon afterwards, various causes of estrangement arose between Bute
+and Bedford, and the subsequent relations of the two men were somewhat
+virulent. The duke refused to take office under George Grenville on
+Bute's resignation in April 1763, and sought to induce Pitt to return to
+power. A report, however, that Pitt would only take office on condition
+that Bedford was excluded, incensed him and, smarting under this rebuff,
+he joined the cabinet of Grenville as lord president of the council in
+September 1763. His haughty manner, his somewhat insulting language, and
+his attitude with regard to the regency bill in 1765 offended George
+III., who sought in vain to supplant him, and after this failure was
+obliged to make humiliating concessions to the ministry. In July 1765,
+however, he was able to dispense with the services of Bedford and his
+colleagues, and the duke became the leader of a political party,
+distinguished for rapacity, and known as the "Bedford party," or the
+"Bloomsbury gang." During his term of office he had opposed a bill to
+place high import duties on Italian silks. He was consequently assaulted
+and his London residence attacked by a mob. He took some part in
+subsequent political intrigues, and although he did not return to
+office, his friends, with his consent, joined the ministry of the duke
+of Grafton in December 1767. This proceeding led "Junius" to write his
+"letter to the duke of Bedford," one of especial violence. Bedford was
+hostile to John Wilkes, and narrowly escaped from a mob favourable to
+the agitator at Honiton in July 1769. His health had been declining for
+some years, and in 1770 he became partially paralysed. He died at Woburn
+on the 15th of January 1771, and was buried in the family burying place
+at Chenies. His three sons all predeceased him, and he was succeeded in
+the title by his grandson, Francis. The duke held many public offices:
+lord-lieutenant of Bedfordshire and Devonshire, and chancellor of Dublin
+University among others, and was a knight of the garter. Bedford was a
+proud and conceited man, but possessed both ability and common-sense.
+The important part which he took in public life, however, was due rather
+to his wealth and position than to his personal taste or ambition. He
+was neither above nor below the standard of political morality of the
+time, and was influenced by his duchess, who was very ambitious, and by
+followers who were singularly unscrupulous.
+
+  See _Correspondence of John, 4th Duke of Bedford_, edited by Lord John
+  Russell (London, 1842-1846); J.H. Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the
+  House of Russell_ (London, 1833); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England_,
+  vol. iii. (London, 1892); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of
+  George II._ (London, 1847), and _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._,
+  edited by G.F.R. Barker (London, 1894.)
+
+FRANCIS RUSSELL, 5th duke of Bedford (1765-1802), eldest son of Francis
+Russell, marquess of Tavistock (d. 1767), by his wife, Elizabeth (d.
+1768), daughter of William Keppel, 2nd earl of Albemarle, was baptized
+on the 23rd of July 1765. In January 1771 he succeeded his grandfather
+as duke of Bedford, and was educated at Westminster school and Trinity
+College, Cambridge, afterwards spending nearly two years in foreign
+travel. Regarding Charles James Fox as his political leader, he joined
+the Whigs in the House of Lords, and became a member of the circle of
+the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. Having overcome some
+nervousness and educational defects, he began to speak in the House, and
+soon became one of the leading debaters in that assembly. He opposed
+most of the measures brought forward by the ministry of William Pitt,
+and objected to the grant of a pension to Edmund Burke, an action which
+drew down upon him a scathing attack from Burke's pen. Bedford was
+greatly interested in agriculture. He established a model farm at
+Woburn, and made experiments with regard to the breeding of sheep. He
+was a member of the original board of agriculture, and was the first
+president of the Smithfield club. He died at Woburn on the 2nd of March
+1802, and was buried in the family burying-place at Chenies. The duke
+was never married, and was succeeded in the title by his brother, John.
+
+  See Lord Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (London, 1854); J.H.
+  Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833):
+  E. Burke, _Letter to a Noble Lord_ (Edinburgh, 1837); and Earl
+  Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_ (London, 1861-1862).
+
+JOHN RUSSELL, 6th duke of Bedford (1766-1839), was succeeded as seventh
+duke by his eldest son, Francis (1788-1861), who had an only son,
+William (1809-1872), who became duke on his father's death in 1861. When
+the eighth duke died in 1872, he was succeeded by his cousin, Francis
+Charles Hastings (1819-1891), who was member of parliament for
+Bedfordshire from 1847 until he succeeded to the title. The ninth duke
+was the eldest son of Major-General Lord George William Russell
+(1790-1846), who was a son of the sixth duke. He married Elizabeth,
+daughter of George John, 5th Earl de la Warr, and both his sons, George
+William Francis Sackville (1852-1893), and Herbrand Arthur (b. 1858),
+succeeded in turn to the title.
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORD, a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county town of
+Bedfordshire, England, 50 m. north-north-west of London by the Midland
+railway; served also by a branch of the London & North-Western. Pop.
+(1901) 35,144. It lies in the fertile valley of the Ouse, on both banks,
+but mainly on the north, on which stands the mound which marks the site
+of the ancient castle. The church of St Paul is Decorated and
+Perpendicular, but its central tower and spire are modern; it contains
+the tomb of Sir William Harper or Harpur (c. 1496-1573), lord mayor of
+London, a notable benefactor of his native town of Bedford. St Peter's
+church has in its central tower masonry probably of pre-Conquest date;
+that of St Mary's is in part Norman, and that of St John's Decorated;
+but the bodies of these churches are largely restored. There are some
+remains of a Franciscan friary of the 14th century. The Congregational
+chapel called Bunyan's or the "Old Meeting" stands on the site of the
+building in which John Bunyan preached from 1656 onward. His chair is
+preserved here, and a tablet records his life in the town, where he
+underwent a long but in part nominal imprisonment. He was born at
+Elstow, 1½ m. from Bedford, where, while playing on the green, he
+believed himself to have received the divine summons to renounce sin. In
+the panels of a fine pair of bronze doors in the chapel are scenes
+illustrative of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. Bedford is noted for its
+grammar school, founded by Edward VI. in 1552, and endowed by Sir
+William Harper. The existing buildings date from 1891, and have been
+increased since that date, and the school is one of the important
+public schools of England. Harper's endowment includes land in London,
+and is now of great value, and the Harper Trust supports in addition
+modern and elementary schools for boys and girls, a girls' high school,
+and almshouses. The grammar school annually awards both entrance
+exhibitions and two exhibitions to a university or other higher
+educational institution. The old grammar school buildings are used as a
+town hall; and among other modern buildings may be mentioned the shire
+hall and county hospital. There are statues of John Bunyan (1874) and
+John Howard (1894) the philanthropist (1726-1790), who founded the
+Congregational chapel which bears his name, and resided at Cardington in
+the vicinity. There are two parks. Bedford has a large trade as a market
+town for agricultural produce, and extensive engineering works and
+manufactures of agricultural implements. The parliamentary borough
+returns one member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
+and 18 councillors. Area, 2223 acres.
+
+Bedford (Bedcanforda, Bedanforda, Bedeford) is first mentioned in 571,
+when Cuthwulf defeated the Britons here. It subsequently became a Danish
+borough, which in 914 was captured by Edward the Elder. In Domesday, as
+the county town, it was entered apart from the rest of the shire, and
+was assessed at half a hundred for the host and for ship service. The
+prescriptive borough received its first charter from Henry II., who gave
+the town to the burgesses to hold at a fee-farm rent of £40 in lieu of
+all service. The privileges included a gild-merchant, all tolls, and
+liberties and laws in common with the citizens of Oxford. This charter
+was confirmed by successive sovereigns down to Charles II. During the
+15th century, owing to the rise of other market towns, Bedford became
+less prosperous, and the fee-farm rent was finally reduced to £20 by
+charter of Henry VII. Henry VIII. granted a November fair to St
+Leonard's hospital, which was still held in the 19th century at St
+Leonard's farm, the site of the hospital. Mary granted two fairs, one in
+Lent and one on the Feast of the Conception, and also a weekly market. A
+17th century pamphlet on river navigation in Bedfordshire mentions the
+trade which Bedford carried on in coal, brought by the Ouse from Lynn
+and Yarmouth. The town was also one of the earliest centres of the lace
+trade, to the success of which French refugees in the 17th and 18th
+centuries largely contributed.
+
+Bedford was represented in the parliament of 1295, and after that date
+two members were returned regularly, until by the Redistribution of
+Seats Act in 1885 Bedford lost one of its members. The unlimited power
+of creating freemen, an inherent right of the borough, led to great
+abuse, noticeably in 1769 when 500 freemen[1] were created to support
+the political interest of Sir Robert Barnard, afterwards recorder of the
+borough.
+
+Bedford castle, of which mention is first heard during Stephen's reign
+(1136), was destroyed by order of Henry III. in 1224. The mound marking
+its site is famous as a bowling-green.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Called "guinea-pigs."
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORD, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
+in the south-central part of the state, about 60 m. north-west of
+Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 3351; (1910) 8716. It is served by the
+Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern, the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville,
+the Southern Indiana, and (for freight from the Wallner quarries about 5
+m. distant) the Bedford & Wallner railways. It is the shipping point of
+the Bedford Indiana (oolitic) limestone, which is found in the vicinity
+and is one of the most valuable and best known building stones in the
+United States--of this stone were built the capitols of Indiana,
+Georgia, Mississippi and Kentucky; the state historical library at
+Madison, Wisconsin; the art building at St Louis, Missouri; and many
+other important public buildings. The city has large cement works,
+foundries and machine shops (stone-working machinery being
+manufactured), and the repair shops of the Southern Indiana railway.
+Bedford was settled in 1826 and received a city charter in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORD, a borough and the county-seat of Bedford county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the Raystown branch of the Juniata river, about 35 m. south
+by west of Altoona. Pop. (1890) 2242; (1910) 2235. Bedford is served by
+the Bedford branch of the Pennsylvania railway. It lies in a beautiful
+valley. In the borough are some interesting old houses, erected in the
+latter part of the 18th century, an art gallery and a soldiers'
+monument. There are deposits of hematite and limestone near the borough,
+and less than 2 m. south of it are the widely-known Bedford Mineral
+Springs--a magnesia spring, a limestone spring, a sulphur spring, and a
+"sweet-water" spring--which attract many visitors during the summer
+season. There are also chalybeate and other less important springs about
+the same distance east of the borough, and a white sulphur spring 10 m.
+south-west of it. Bedford has a large wholesale grocery trade,
+manufactures flour, dressed lumber, kegs and handles, and is situated in
+a fine fruit-growing district, especially known for its apples and
+plums. The borough owns and operates the water works. A temporary
+settlement was made on or near the site of the present borough about
+1750 by an Indian trader named Ray, and for a few years the place was
+known as Raystown; the present name was adopted not later than 1759. In
+July 1758 Fort Bedford, for many years an important military post on the
+frontier, was constructed, and here, later in the year, General John
+Forbes brought together his troops preparatory to advancing against Fort
+Duquesne. The town of Bedford was laid out in 1769, and in 1771 it was
+made the county-seat of Bedford county which was organized in that year.
+The borough was incorporated in 1795, and received a new charter in
+1817. Washington came here in 1794 to review the army sent to quell the
+Whisky Insurrection, and the Espy house, which he then occupied, is
+still standing.
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORDSHIRE [abbreviated Beds], a south midland county of England,
+bounded N.E. by Huntingdonshire, E. by Cambridgeshire, S.E. by
+Hertfordshire, W. by Buckinghamshire and N.W. by Northamptonshire. It is
+the fourth smallest English county, having an area of 466.4 sq. m. It
+lies principally in the middle part of the basin of the river Ouse,
+which, entering in the north-west, traverses the rich and beautiful Vale
+of Bedford with a serpentine course past the county town of Bedford to
+the north-eastern corner near St Neots. North of it the land is
+undulating, but low; to the south, a well-wooded spur of the Chiltern
+Hills separates the Vale of Bedford from the flat open tributary valley
+of the Ivel. A small part of the main line of the Chilterns is included
+in the south of the county, the hills rising sharply from the lowland to
+bare heights exceeding 600 ft. above Dunstable. In this neighbourhood
+the county includes the headwaters of the Lea, and thus a small portion
+of it falls within the Thames basin. In the north a few streams are
+tributary to the Nene.
+
+  _Geology._--The general trend of the outcrops of the various
+  formations is from south-west to north-east; the dip is
+  south-easterly. In the northern portion of the county, the Middle
+  Oolites are the most important, and of these, the Oxford Clay
+  predominates over most of the low ground upon which Bedford is
+  situated. At Ampthill a development of clay, the Ampthill clay,
+  represents the Corallian limestones of neighbouring counties. The
+  Cornbrash is represented by no more than about 2 ft. of limestone; but
+  the Kellaways Rock is well exposed near Bedford; the sandy parts of
+  this rock are frequently cemented to form hard masses called
+  "doggers." The Great Ouse, from the point where it enters the county
+  on the west, has carved through the Middle Oolites and exposed the
+  Great Oolite as far as Bedford; their alternating limestones and clays
+  may be seen in the quarries not far from the town. From Woburn through
+  Ampthill to Potton a more elevated tract is formed by the Lower
+  Greensand. These rocks are sandy throughout. At Leighton Buzzard they
+  are dug on a large scale for various purposes. Beds of fuller's earth
+  occur in this formation at Woburn. At Potton, phosphatized nodules may
+  be obtained, and here a hard bed, the "Carstone," lies at the top of
+  the formation. Above the Lower Greensand comes the Gault Clay, which
+  lies in the broad vale south-east of the former and north-west of the
+  Chalk hills. The Chalk rises up above the Gault and forms the high
+  ground of Dunshill Moors and the Chiltern Hills. At the base of the
+  Chalk is the Chalk Marl, above this is the Totternhoe Stone, which, on
+  account of its great hardness, usually stands out as a well-marked
+  feature. The Lower Chalk, which comes next in the upward succession,
+  is capped in a similar manner by the hard Chalk Rock, as at Royston
+  and elsewhere. The upper Chalk-with-Flints occurs near the
+  south-eastern boundary. Patches of glacial boulder clay and gravel lie
+  upon the older rocks over most of the area. Many interesting mammalian
+  fossils, rhinoceros, mammoth, &c., with palaeolithic implements, have
+  been found in the valley gravels of the river Ouse and its
+  tributaries.
+
+_Industries._--Agriculture is important, nearly nine-tenths of the total
+area being under cultivation. The chief crop is wheat, for which the
+soil in the Vale of Bedford is specially suited; while on the sandy loam
+of the Ivel valley, in the neighbourhood of Biggleswade,
+market-gardening is extensively carried on, the produce going
+principally to London, whither a considerable quantity of butter and
+other dairy-produce is also sent. The manufacture of agricultural
+machinery and implements employs a large number of hands at Bedford and
+Luton. Luton, however, is specially noted for the manufacture of straw
+hats. Straw-plaiting was once extensively carried on in this
+neighbourhood by women and girls in their cottage homes, but has now
+almost entirely disappeared owing to the importation of Chinese and
+Japanese plaited straw. Another local industry in the county is the
+manufacture of pillow-lace. Many of the lace designs are French, as a
+number of French refugees settled in and near Cranfield. Mechlin and
+Maltese patterns are also copied.
+
+_Communications_ are provided in the east by the Great Northern main
+line, passing Biggleswade, and in the centre by that of the Midland
+railway, serving Ampthill and Bedford. The Bletchley and Cambridge
+branch of the London & North-Western railway crosses these main lines at
+Bedford and Sandy respectively. The main line of the same company serves
+Leighton Buzzard in the south-west, and there is a branch thence to
+Dunstable, which, with Luton, is also served by a branch of the Great
+Northern line. A branch of the Midland railway south from Bedford
+connects with the Great Northern line at Hitchin, and formerly afforded
+the Midland access to London over Great Northern metals.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+298,494 acres, with a population in 1891 of 161,704 and in 1901 of
+171,240. The area of the administrative county is 302,947 acres. The
+municipal boroughs are Bedford (pop. 35,144), Dunstable (5157) and Luton
+(36,404). The other urban districts are--Ampthill (2177), Biggleswade
+(5120), Kempston, connected with Bedford to the south-west (4729), and
+Leighton Buzzard (6331). Potton (2033), Shefford (874), and Woburn
+(1129) are lesser towns, and local centres of the agricultural trade.
+The county is the midland circuit, and assizes are held at Bedford. It
+has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided into eight petty
+sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bedford, Dunstable and Luton have
+separate commissions of the peace, and Bedford has a separate court of
+quarter-sessions. There are 133 civil parishes. Bedfordshire forms an
+archdeaconry in the diocese of Ely, with 125 ecclesiastical parishes and
+parts of 6 others. The county has two parliamentary divisions, Northern
+(or Biggleswade), and Southern (or Luton), each returning one member;
+and Bedford is a parliamentary borough, returning one member. The
+principal institution, apart from those in the towns, is the great Three
+Counties asylum (for Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and Huntingdonshire),
+in the south-east of the county near Arlesey.
+
+_History._--Although the Saxon invaders were naturally attracted to
+Bedfordshire by its abundant water supply and facilities for
+agriculture, the remains of their settlements are few and scattered.
+They occur, with one exception, south of the Ouse, the most important
+being a cemetery at Kempston, where two systems--cremation and
+earth-burial--are found side by side. Early reference to Bedfordshire
+political history is scanty. In 571 Cuthwulf inflicted a severe defeat
+on the Britons at Bedford and took four towns. During the Heptarchy what
+is now the shire formed part of Mercia; by the treaty of Wedmore,
+however, it became Danish territory, but was recovered by King Edward
+(919-921). The first actual mention of the county comes in 1016 when
+King Canute laid waste to the whole shire. There was no organized
+resistance to the conqueror within Bedfordshire, though the Domesday
+survey reveals an almost complete substitution of Norman for English
+holders. In the civil war of Stephen's reign the county suffered
+severely; the great Roll of the Exchequer of 1165 proves the shire
+receipts had depreciated in value to two-thirds of the assessment for
+the Danegeld. Again the county was thrown into the barons' war when
+Bedford Castle, seized from the Beauchamps by Falkes de Breaute, one of
+the royal partisans, was the scene of three sieges before it was
+demolished by the king's orders in 1224. The peasants' revolt
+(1377-1381) was marked by less violence here than in neighbouring
+counties; the Annals of Dunstable make brief mention of a rising in that
+town and the demand for and granting of a charter. In 1638 ship-money
+was levied on Bedfordshire, and in the Civil War that followed, the
+county was one of the foremost in opposing the king. Clarendon observes
+that here Charles had no visible party or fixed quarter.
+
+Bedfordshire is divided into nine hundreds, Barford, Biggleswade,
+Clifton, Flitt, Manshead, Redbornestoke, Stodden, Willey and Wiscamtree,
+and the liberty, half hundred or borough of Bedford. From the Domesday
+survey it appears that in the 11th century there were three additional
+half hundreds, viz. Stanburge, Buchelai and Weneslai, which had by the
+14th century become parts of the hundreds of Manshead, Willey and
+Biggleswade respectively. Until 1574 one sheriff did duty for
+Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, the shire court of the former being
+held at Bedford. The jurisdiction of the hundred courts, excepting
+Flitt, remained in the king's possession. Flitt was parcel of the manor
+of Luton, and formed part of the marriage portion of Eleanor, sister of
+Henry III. and wife of William Marshall. The burgesses of Bedford and
+the prior of Dunstable claimed jurisdictional freedom in those two
+boroughs. The _Hundred Rolls_ and the _Placita de quo warranto_ show
+that important jurisdiction had accrued to the great over-lordships,
+such as those of Beauchamp, Wahull and Caynho, and to several religious
+houses, the prior of St John of Jerusalem claiming rights in more than
+fifty places in the county.
+
+With regard to parliamentary representation, the first original writ
+which has been discovered was issued in 1290 when two members were
+returned for the county. In 1295 in addition to the county members,
+writs are found for two members to represent Bedford borough.
+Subsequently until modern times two county and two borough members were
+returned regularly.
+
+Owing to its favourable situation Bedfordshire has always been a
+prominent agricultural rather than manufacturing county. From the 13th
+to the 15th century sheep farming flourished, Bedfordshire wool being in
+request and plentiful. Surviving records show that in assessments of
+wool to the king, Bedfordshire always provided its full quota. Tradition
+says that the straw-plait industry owes its introduction to James I.,
+who transferred to Luton the colony of Lorraine plaiters whom Mary queen
+of Scots had settled in Scotland. Similarly the lace industry is
+associated with Catherine of Aragon, who, when trade was dull, burnt her
+lace and ordered new to be made. As late as the 19th century the lace
+makers kept "Cattern's Day" as the holiday of their craft. The Flemings,
+expelled by Alva's persecutions (1569), brought the manufacture of
+Flemish lace to Cranfield, whence it spread to surrounding districts.
+The revocation of the edict of Nantes, and consequent French
+immigration, gave further impetus to the industry. Defoe writing in
+1724-1727 mentions the recent improvements in the Bedfordshire bone-lace
+manufacture. In 1794 further French refugees joined the Bedfordshire
+lace makers.
+
+Woburn Abbey, belonging to the Russells since 1547, is the seat of the
+duke of Bedford, the greatest landowner in the county. The Burgoynes of
+Sutton, whose baronetcy dates from 1641, have been in Bedfordshire since
+the 15th century, whilst the Osborn family have owned Chicksands Priory
+since its purchase by Peter Osborn in 1576. Sir Phillip Monoux Payne
+represents the ancient Monoux family of Wootton. Other county families
+are the Crawleys of Stockwood near Luton, the Brandreths of Houghton
+Regis, and the Orlebars of Hinwick.
+
+With the division of the Mercian diocese in 679 Bedfordshire fell
+naturally to the new see of Dorchester. It formed part of Lincoln
+diocese from 1075 until 1837, when it was finally transferred to Ely. In
+1291 Bedfordshire was an archdeaconry including six rural deaneries,
+which remained practically unaltered until 1880, when they were
+increased to eleven with a new schedule of parishes.
+
+_Antiquities._--The monastic remains in Bedfordshire include the fine
+fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory at Dunstable, serving
+as the parish church; the church (also imperfect) of Elstow near
+Bedford, which belonged to a Benedictine nunnery founded by Judith,
+niece of William the Conqueror; and portions of the Gilbertine
+Chicksands Priory and of a Cistercian foundation at Old Warden. In the
+parish churches, many of which are of great interest, the predominant
+styles are Decorated and Perpendicular. Work of pre-Conquest date,
+however, is found in the massive tower of Clapham church, near Bedford
+on the north, and in a door of Stevington church. Fine Norman and Early
+English work is seen at Dunstable and Elstow, and the later style is
+illustrated by the large cruciform churches at Leighton Buzzard and at
+Felmersham on the Ouse above Bedford. Among the Perpendicular additions
+to the church last named may be noted a very beautiful oaken
+rood-screen. To illustrate Decorated and Perpendicular the churches of
+Clifton and of Marston Moretaine, with its massive detached campanile,
+may be mentioned; and Cople church is a good specimen of fine
+Perpendicular work. The church of Cockayne Hatley, near Potton, is
+fitted with rich Flemish carved wood, mostly from the abbey of Alne near
+Charleroi, and dating from 1689, but brought here by a former rector
+early in the 19th century. In medieval domestic architecture the county
+is not rich. The mansion of Woburn Abbey dates from the middle of the
+18th century.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Victoria County History_ (London, 1904, &c.); Fishe,
+  _Collections, Historical, Genealogical and Topographical, for
+  Bedfordshire_ (London, 1812-1816, and also 1812-1836); J.D. Parrv,
+  _Select Illustrations of Bedfordshire_ (London, 1827); _Bedfordshire
+  Domesday Book_ (Bedford, 1881); _Visitation of Bedford, 1566, 1582,
+  and 1634_, in _Harleian Society's Publications_, vol. xiv. (London,
+  1884); _Genealogica Bedfordiensis_, 1538, 1800 (London, 1890); and
+  _Illustrated Bedfordshire_ (Nottingham, 1895). See also _Bedfordshire
+  Notes and Queries_, ed. F.A. Blades, and _Transactions of the
+  Bedfordshire Natural History and Field Club._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4, by Various
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 3, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4
+       "Basso-relievo" to "Bedfordshire"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2010 [EBook #34405]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 3 SLICE 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+One typographical error has been corrected. It
+appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME III SLICE IV<br /><br />
+Basso-relievo to Bedfordshire</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BASSO-RELIEVO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BAY ISLANDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BASS ROCK, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BAYLE, PIERRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BASSUS, AUFIDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BAYLO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BASSUS, CAESIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BASSUS, CASSIANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BASSUS, SALEIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BAYONET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BASSVILLE, NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BAYONNE</a> (town of France)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BASTAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BAYONNE</a> (New Jersey, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BASTARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BAYOU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BASTARNAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BAYREUTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BASTI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BAZA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BASTIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BAZAAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BASTIAN, ADOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BASTIAT, FRÉDÉRIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BASTIDE, JULES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BAZARD, AMAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BASTIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BAZAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BAZIGARS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BASTILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BAZIN, RENÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BASTINADO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BAZIRE, CLAUDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BASTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BDELLIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BASTWICK, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BEACH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BASUTOLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BEACHY HEAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BEACON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BATAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BATALA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BEACONSFIELD</a> (town of Tasmania)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BATALHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BEACONSFIELD</a> (town of South Africa)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BATANGAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BEACONSFIELD</a> (town of England)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BATARNAY, IMBERT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BEAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BATAVIA</a> (residency of Java)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BEADLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BATAVIA</a> (city of Java)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BEAK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BATAVIA (New York, U.S.A.)</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BEAKER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BEALE, DOROTHEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BATEMENT LIGHTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BEAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BATES, HARRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BATES, HENRY WALTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BEAN-FEAST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BATES, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BEAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BATES, JOSHUA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BATES, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BATESON, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BEARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BATH, THOMAS THYNNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BEARDSTOWN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BATH</a> (county of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BEARER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BATH</a> (Maine, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BEARINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BATH-CHAIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BEAR-LEADER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BATHGATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BÉARN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BATHOLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BEAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BATHONIAN SERIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BEAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BÁTHORY, SIGISMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BEATIFICATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BATHOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BEATON, DAVID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BATHS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BEATRICE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BATHURST, EARLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BEATTIE, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BATHURST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BEATUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BATHVILLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BEAUCAIRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BATHYBIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BEAUCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BATHYCLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BEAUCHAMP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BATLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BATON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BEAUFORT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BEAUFORT, FRANÇOIS DE VENDÔME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BATON ROUGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BEAUFORT, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BATRACHIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BATRACHOMYOMACHIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BEAUFORT SCALE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BATTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BEAUFORT WEST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BATTAGLIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BEAUGENCY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BATTAKHIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BEAUHARNAIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BATTALION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BEAUHARNAIS, EUGÈNE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BATTAMBANG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BEAUJEU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BATTANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BEAULIEU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BATTAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BEAULY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BATTEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BEAUMANOIR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE RÉMI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BATTEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BATTENBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BEAUMARIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BATTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BEAUMONT</a> (English family)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BATTERING RAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BATTERSEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BATTERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BEAUMONT and FLETCHER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BATTEUX, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BEAUMONT</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BATTHYANY, LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BEAUNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BATTICALOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BATTISHILL, JONATHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BATTLE</a> (town of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BATTLE</a> (military engagement)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BEAUVAIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BATTLE ABBEY ROLL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BEAUVILLIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BATTLE CREEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BEAUX, CECILIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BATTLEMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BEAVER</a> (animal)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BATTUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BEAVER</a> (part of the helmet)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BATTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BEAVER DAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BATU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BEAVER FALLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BATUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BEAWAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BATWA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BATYPHONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BECCAFICO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BAUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BAUBLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BAUCHI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BECCLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BAUDIER, MICHEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BECERRA, GASPAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BÊCHE-DE-MER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BAUDRY, OF BOURGUEIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIMÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BECHUANA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BAUER, BRUNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">BECHUANALAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BAUFFREMONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">BECK, DAVID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BAUHIN, GASPARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BAULK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">BECKENHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BAUMBACH, RUDOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">BECKER, HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BAUMÉ, ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">BECKET, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">BECKFORD, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">BECKINGTON, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">BECKMANN, JOHANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGÈNE MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BAUTZEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BAUXITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">BECKX, PIERRE JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BAVAI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">BECQUE, HENRY FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BAVARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">BÉCQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BAVENO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">BECQUEREL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BAWBEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">BED</a> (furniture)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BAXTER, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar252">BED</a> (layer of rock)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BAXTER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar253">BEDARESI, YEDAIAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar254">BÉDARIEUX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BAXTER, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar255">BEDDGELERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar256">BEDDOES, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BAYAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar257">BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar258">BEDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar259">BEDE, CUTHBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BAYAZID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar260">BEDELL, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BAYBAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar261">BEDESMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BAY CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar262">BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BAYEUX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar263">BEDFORD</a> (town of England)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar264">BEDFORD</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BAYEZID I</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar265">BEDFORD</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BAYEZID II</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar266">BEDFORDSHIRE</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BASSO-RELIEVO<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Ital. for &ldquo;low relief&rdquo;), the term applied to
+sculpture in which the design projects but slightly from the plane
+of the background. The relief may not project at all from the
+original surface of the material, as in the sunken reliefs of the
+Egyptians, and may be nearly flat, as in the Panathenaic procession
+of the Parthenon. In the early 19th century the term
+<i>basso-relievo</i>, or &ldquo;low relief,&rdquo; came to be employed loosely for all
+forms of relief, the term <i>mezzo-relievo</i> having already dropped
+out of general use owing to the difficulty of accurate application.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASS ROCK, THE,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a small island in the Firth of Forth, about
+2 m. from Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, Scotland. It is circular
+in shape, measuring a mile in circumference, and is 350 ft. high.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span>
+On three sides the cliffs are precipitous, but they shelve towards
+the S.W., where landing is effected. The Bass Rock is an intrusive
+mass of phonolitic trachyte or orthophyre. No nepheline
+has been detected in the rock, but analcite is present in small
+quantity together with abundant orthoclase and green soda-augite.
+It bears a close resemblance to the eruptive masses of
+North Berwick Law and Traprain Law, but is non-porphyritic.
+It is regarded by Sir A. Geikie as a plug filling an old volcanic
+vent, from which lava emanated during the Calciferous Sandstone
+period. It used to be grazed by sheep, of which the mutton
+was thought to be unusually good, but its principal denizens are
+sea-birds, chiefly solan geese, which haunt the rock in vast
+numbers. A lighthouse with a six-flash lantern of 39,000 candle
+power was opened in 1002. For a considerable distance E. and
+W. there runs through the rock a tunnel, about 15 ft. high,
+accessible at low water. St Baldred, whose name has been
+given to several of the cliffs on the shore of the mainland,
+occupied a hermitage on the Bass, where he died in 756. In the
+14th century the island became the property of the Lauders,
+called afterwards Lauders of the Bass, from whom it was
+purchased in 1671 by government, and a castle with dungeons
+was erected on it, in which many Covenanters were imprisoned.
+Among them were Alexander Peden (1626-1686), for four years,
+and John Blackadder (1615-1686), who died there after five
+years&rsquo; detention. At the Revolution four young Jacobites
+captured the Rock, and having been reinforced by a few others,
+held it for King James from June 1691 to April 1694, only
+surrendering when threatened by starvation. Thus the island
+was the last place in Great Britain to submit to William III.
+Dismantled of its fortifications in 1701, the Bass passed into the
+ownership of Sir Hew Dalrymple, to whose family it belongs. It
+is let on annual rental for the feathers, eggs, oil and young of the
+sea-birds and for the fees of visitors, who reach it usually from
+Canty Bay and North Berwick.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASSUS, AUFIDIUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a Roman historian, who lived in the
+reign of Tiberius. His work, which probably began with the
+civil wars or the death of Caesar, was continued by the elder
+Pliny, who, as he himself tells us, carried it down at least as far
+as the end of Nero&rsquo;s reign. The <i>Bellum Germanicum</i> of Bassus,
+which is commended, may have been either a separate work or
+a section of his general history. The elder Seneca speaks highly
+of him as an historian, but the fragments preserved in that
+writer&rsquo;s <i>Suasoriae</i> (vi. 23) relating to the death of Cicero, are
+characterized by an affected style.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, praefatio, 20; Tacitus, <i>Dialogus de Oratoribus</i>,
+23; Quintilian, <i>Instit</i>, x. 1. 103.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASSUS, CAESIUS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign
+of Nero. He was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated
+his sixth satire to him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on
+Persius, vi. 1). He is said to have lost his life in the eruption of
+Vesuvius (79). He had a great reputation as a poet; Quintilian
+(<i>Instit</i>, x. 1. 96) goes so far as to say that, with the exception of
+Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth reading. He is also
+identified with the author of a treatise <i>De Metris</i>, of which considerable
+fragments, probably of an abbreviated edition, are extant
+(ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally in verse,
+and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used as
+an instruction book. A worthless and scanty account of some
+of the metres of Horace (in Keil, <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, vi. 305),
+bearing the title <i>Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris</i> is not by him, but
+chiefly borrowed by its unknown author from the treatise
+mentioned above.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASSUS, CASSIANUS,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> called <span class="sc">Scholasticus</span> (lawyer), one of the
+<i>geoponici</i> or writers on agricultural subjects. He lived at the
+end of the 6th or the beginning of the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He
+compiled from earlier writers a collection of agricultural literature
+(<i>Geoponica</i>) which was afterwards revised by an unknown editor
+and published about the year 950, in the reign of Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus, to whom the work itself has been ascribed.
+It contains a full list of the authorities drawn upon, and the
+subjects treated include agriculture, birds, bees, horses, cattle,
+sheep, dogs, fishes and the like.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Complete Editions</span>.&mdash;Needham (1704), Niclas (1781), Beckh
+(1895); see also Gemoll in <i>Berliner Studien</i>, i. (1884); Oder in
+<i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, xlv. (1890), xlviii. (1893), and De Raynal in
+<i>Annuaire de l&rsquo;Assoc. pour l&rsquo;Encouragement des Études Grecques</i>, viii.
+(1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASSUS, SALEIUS,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> Roman epic poet, a contemporary of
+Valerius Flaccus, in the reign of Vespasian. Quintilian credits
+him with a vigorous and poetical genius (<i>Instit</i>, x. 1. 90) and
+Julius Secundus, one of the speakers in Tacitus <i>Dialogus de
+Oratoribus</i> (5; see also 9) styles him a perfect poet and most
+illustrious bard. He was apparently overtaken by poverty, but
+was generously treated by Vespasian, who made him a present
+of 500,000 sesterces. Nothing from his works has been preserved;
+the <i>Laus Pisonis</i>, which has been attributed to him, is
+probably by Titus Calpurnius Siculus (J. Held, <i>De Saleio Basso</i>.
+1834).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASSVILLE,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Basseville</span>, <b>NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE</b>
+(d. 1793), French journalist and diplomatist, was born at Abbeville
+on the 7th of February 1753. He was trained for the
+priesthood, taught theology in a provincial seminary and then
+went to Paris. Here in 1784 he published <i>Éléments de mythologie</i>
+and some poems, which brought him into notice. On the recommendation
+of the prince of Condé he became tutor to two young
+Americans travelling in Europe. With them he visited Berlin,
+made the acquaintance there of Mirabeau, and became a member
+of the Berlin Academy Royal. At the outbreak of the Revolution
+he turned to journalism, becoming editor of the <i>Mercure international</i>.
+Then, through the Girondist minister Lebrun-Tondu,
+he entered the diplomatic service, went in May, 1792, as secretary
+of legation to Naples and was shortly afterwards sent, without
+official status, to Rome. Here his conduct was anything but
+diplomatic. He at once announced himself as the protector of
+the extreme Jacobins in Rome, demanded the expulsion of the
+French <i>émigrés</i> who had taken refuge there, including the
+&ldquo;demoiselles Capet,&rdquo; and ordered the <i>fleur-de-lys</i> on the
+escutcheon of the French embassy to be replaced by a picture
+of Liberty painted by a French art student. He talked at large
+of the &ldquo;purple geese of the Capitol&rdquo; and met the remonstrances
+of Cardinal Zelada, the papal secretary of state, with insults.
+This enraged the Roman populace; a riot broke out on the 13th
+of January 1793, and Bassville, who was driving with his family
+to the Corso, was dragged from his carriage and so roughly
+handled that he died. The affair was magnified in the Convention
+into a deliberate murder of the &ldquo;representative of the Republic&rdquo;
+by the pope&rsquo;s orders. In 1797 by an article of the treaty of
+Tolentino the papal government agreed to pay compensation
+to Bassville&rsquo;s family. Among his writings we may also mention
+<i>Mémoires historiques, critiques el politiques sur la Révolution de
+France</i> (Paris 1790; English trans. London, 1790).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Masson, <i>Les Diplomates de la Révolution</i> (Paris, 1882);
+Silvagni, <i>La Carte e la Società romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX</i>.
+(Florence, 1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTAR,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a feudatory state of British India, in the Chattisgarh
+division of the Central Provinces; area, 13,062 sq. m. In
+1901 the population was 306,501, showing a decrease of 1%
+compared with an apparent increase of 58% in the preceding
+decade. Estimated revenue £22,000; tribute £1100. The
+eastern part of Bastar is a flat elevated plateau, from 1800 to
+2000 ft. above the level of the sea, the centre and N.W. portions
+are very mountainous, and the southern parts consist of hills and
+plains. On the plateau there are but few hills; the streams
+run slowly and the country is a mixture of plain and undulating
+ground covered by dense <i>sál</i> forests. Principal mountains of the
+district: (1) a lofty range which separates it from the Sironcha
+district; (2) a range of equal height called the Bela Dila lying
+in the centre of the district; (3) a range running N. and S.
+near Narayanpur; (4) Tangri Dongri range, running E. and W.;
+(5) Tulsi Dongri, bordering on the Sabari river and the Jaipur
+state. There is also a small range running from the river Indravati
+to the Godavari. The Indravati, the Sabari and the Tal
+or Talper, are the chief rivers of the district; all of them affluents
+of the Godavari. The soil throughout the greater portion of
+Bastar consists of light clay, with an admixture of sand, suited
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span>
+for raising rice and wet crops. In the jungles the Marias, who
+are among the aboriginal tribes of Gond origin, raise kosra
+(<i>Panicum italicum</i>) and other inferior grains. Aboriginal races
+generally follow the migratory system of tillage, clearing the
+jungle on selected patches, and after taking crops for two or
+three years abandoning them for new ground. They do not use
+the plough; nor do they possess buffaloes, bullocks or cows;
+their only agricultural implement is a long-handled iron hoe.
+They are a timid, quiet, docile race, and although addicted to
+drinking not quarrelsome. They inhabit the densest jungles
+and are very shy, avoiding contact with strangers, and flying to
+the hills on the least alarm; but they bear a good character for
+honesty and truthfulness. They are very scantily dressed,
+wear a variety of trinkets, with a knife, hatchet, spear, bow and
+arrows, the only weapons they use. Their hair is generally shaved,
+excepting a topknot; and when not shaved it gets into a matted,
+tangled mass, gathered into a knot behind or on the crown.
+The Marias and the Jhurias are supposed to be a subdivision of
+the true Gond family. All the aboriginal tribes of Bastar worship
+the deities of the Hindu pantheon along with their own national
+goddess Danteswari.</p>
+
+<p>Bastar is divided into two portions&mdash;that held by the Raja
+or chief himself, and that possessed by feudatory chiefs under
+him. The climate is unhealthy&mdash;fever, smallpox, dysentery
+and rheumatism being the prevailing diseases. Jagdalpur,
+Bijapur, Madder and Bhupalpatnam are the only places of any
+note in the dependency, the first (on the Indravati river) being
+the residence of the raja and the chief people of the state. The
+principal products are rice, oil-seeds, lac, tussur silk, horns, hides,
+wax and a little iron. Teak timber is floated down the rivers
+to the Madras coast. A good road has brought Jagdalpur into
+connexion with the railway at Raipur.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTARD<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>bastard</i>, mod. <i>bâtard = fils de bast</i>, &ldquo;pack-saddle
+child,&rdquo; from <i>bast</i>, saddle), a person born out of legal
+wedlock. Amongst the Romans, bastards were classified as
+<i>nothi</i>, children born in concubinage, and <i>spurii</i>, those not so
+born. Both classes had a right of succession to their mother,
+and the <i>nothi</i>, were entitled to support from their father, but had
+no rights of inheritance from him. Both, however, had in other
+respects most of the rights of citizenship. The Germanic law
+was based upon an entirely different principle. It recognized
+as legitimate only those whose parents were of the same social
+rank. All others were regarded as bastards, and took the status
+of the parent of inferior rank. The aim of all the Germanic codes
+was to preserve purity of race, not to improve morals, for incestuous
+unions are not censured. The influence of the Germanic
+law lasted throughout the early feudal period, and bastards were
+debarred rights of inheritance. In the 13th century the influence
+of Roman law tended again to modify this severity. An exception
+was probably made in the case of those whose fathers were
+of royal blood, in which case it even seems that no stigma was
+attached to the accident of their birth, nor did they suffer from
+the usual disabilities as to inheritance which attended those of
+illegitimate birth (Gregory of Tours, v. 25). Among the Franks
+we find Theodoric I., a natural son of Clovis, sharing the kingdom
+with the legitimate sons; Zwentibold, natural son of Arnulf, was
+created king of Lorraine by his father in 895; and even William
+the Conqueror actually assumed the appellation of bastard.</p>
+
+<p>In English law a bastard still retains certain disabilities. His
+rights are only such as he can acquire; for civilly he can inherit
+nothing, being looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes
+called <i>filius nullius</i>, sometimes <i>filius populi</i>. This, however, does
+not hold as to moral purposes, <i>e.g.</i> he cannot marry his mother
+or bastard sister. Yet he may gain a surname by reputation
+though he has none by inheritance, and may even be made
+legitimate and capable of inheriting by the transcendent power
+of an act of parliament.</p>
+
+<p>For poor-law purposes, all legitimate children take the settlement
+of their father, but a bastard takes the settlement of its
+mother. The mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to its
+custody in preference to the father, and consequently the responsibility
+of its support falls primarily on her. But the
+English law has always recognized the principle that to a certain
+extent the father must share in that responsibility. This, however,
+was imposed not with the idea of furnishing the woman
+with a civil remedy, nor to have a penal effect against the man,
+but solely to prevent the cost of maintenance of the bastard child
+from falling upon the parish. Indeed, the legislation upon the
+subject, which dates back to 1576, was until 1845 an intimate
+part of the poor law. The act of 1576, the basis of English
+bastardy law, empowered justices to take order for the punishment
+of the mother and reputed father of every bastard child
+left to the care of the parish, and to charge the mother and
+reputed father with the payment of a weekly sum or other
+needful sustenance. Other acts were passed in 1609 and 1733,
+enabling the mother of any child chargeable or likely to become
+chargeable to the parish to secure the apprehension, and even
+the imprisonment, of the father until he should indemnify the
+parish, provisions which were made somewhat more stringent
+by acts passed in 1809 and 1810. In 1832 a commission was
+appointed to inquire into the operation of the poor laws, and
+the commissioners in their report gave great attention to the
+subject of bastardy. They reviewed the various acts from 1576
+downwards and gave examples of their operation. The conclusion
+to which the commissioners came was that the laws
+&ldquo;which respect bastardy appear to be pre-eminently unwise,&rdquo;
+and that they gave rise to many abuses. For example, the
+weekly payment recovered by the parish was usually transferred
+to the mother; even in many cases guaranteed. The commissioners
+recommended that the mother alone should be responsible
+for the maintenance of the child. &ldquo;This,&rdquo; they said,
+&ldquo;is now the position of a widow, and there can be no reason for
+giving to vice privileges which we deny to misfortune.&rdquo; Acting
+on the recommendation of the commissioners the Poor Law
+Amendment Act of 1834 endeavoured to discourage the principle
+of making the putative father contribute by introducing a somewhat
+cumbersome method of procedure. The trend of public
+opinion proved against the discouragement of affiliation, and
+an act of 1839 transferred jurisdiction in affiliation cases from
+quarter-sessions to petty-sessions. A commission of inquiry on
+the working of the bastardy acts in 1844 recommended &ldquo;that
+affiliation should be facilitated,&rdquo; and, accordingly, by the
+Bastardy Act of 1845 effect was given to this recommendation
+by giving the mother an independent civil remedy against the
+putative father and dissociating the parish altogether from the
+proceedings. Subsequently, legislation gave the parish the right
+of attaching, and in some cases suing for, money due from the
+putative father for the maintenance of the child. The existing
+law is set out under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Affiliation</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The incapacities attaching to a bastard consist principally in
+this, that he cannot be heir to any one; for being <i>nullius filius</i>,
+he is therefore of kin to nobody, and has no ancestor from whom
+an inheritable blood can be derived. Therefore, if there be no
+other claimant upon an inheritance than such illegitimate child,
+it escheats to the lord. And as bastards cannot be heirs themselves,
+so neither can they have any heirs but those of their own
+bodies; for as all collateral kindred consists in being derived
+from the same common ancestor, and as a bastard has no legal
+ancestor, he can have no collateral kindred, and consequently no
+legal heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent from himself.
+And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised therefor
+without issue and intestate, the land escheats to the lord of the
+fee. Originally a bastard was deemed incapable of holy orders,
+and disqualified by the fact of his birth from holding any dignity
+in the church; but this doctrine is now obsolete, and in all other
+respects there is no distinction between a bastard and another
+man. By the law of Scotland a bastard is not only excluded
+from his father&rsquo;s succession, because the law knows no father
+who is not marked out by marriage; and from all heritable
+succession, whether by the father or mother, because he cannot
+be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest in terms of the brief;
+but also from the movable succession of his mother, because he
+is not her lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all succession
+deferred by the law. But a bastard, although he cannot succeed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span>
+<i>jure sanguinis</i>, may succeed by destination, where he is specially
+called to the succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as
+in England, a bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his
+own body; and hence, failing his lawful issue, the king succeeds
+to him as last heir. Formerly bastards in Scotland without
+issue of their own could not make a will, but this disability was
+removed by a statute of 1835. If bastards or other persons
+without kindred die intestate without wife or child, their effects
+go to the king as <i>ultimus haeres</i>; but a grant is usually made of
+them by letters patent, and the grantee becomes entitled to the
+administration.</p>
+
+<p>According to the common law, which is the law of England, a
+bastard cannot be divested of his state of illegitimacy, unless
+by the supreme power of an act of parliament. But in those
+countries which have followed the Roman or civil law, a bastard&rsquo;s
+status may be provisional, and he can be made legitimate by
+the subsequent marriage of his parents. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Legitimacy and
+Legitimation</a></span>; and, for statistics, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Illegitimacy</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Bacquet, <i>Traité de la bâtardise</i> (1608); Du Cange,
+<i>Gloss. Lat.</i>, infra &ldquo;Bastardus&rdquo;; L.G. Koenigswater, <i>Histoire de
+l&rsquo;organisation de la famille en France</i> (1851), and <i>Essai sur les enfants
+nés hors mariage</i> (1842); E.D. Glasson, <i>Histoire des droits et des
+institutions de l&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (6 vols., 1882-1883), <i>Histoire du droit et
+des institutions de la France</i> (1887); Pollock and Maitland, <i>History
+of English Law</i> (1898); Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>; Nicholls and
+Mackay, <i>History of the English Poor Law</i> (3 vols., 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTARNAE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> the easternmost people of the Germanic race,
+the first to come into contact with the ancient world and the
+Slavs. Originally settled in Galicia and the Bukovina, they
+appeared on the lower Danube about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and were used by
+Philip V. of Macedon against his Thracian neighbours. Defeated
+by these the Bastarnae returned north, leaving some of their
+number (hence called Peucini) settled on Peuce, an island in the
+Danube. Their main body occupied the country between the
+eastern Carpathians and the Danube. As allies of Perseus and
+of Mithradates the Great, and lastly on their own account, they
+had hostile relations with the Romans who in the time of
+Augustus defeated them, and made a peace, which was disturbed
+by a series of incursions. In these the Bastarnae after a time
+gave place to the Goths, with whom they seem to have amalgamated,
+and we last hear of them as transferred by the emperor
+Probus to the right bank of the Danube. Polybius and the
+authors who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; Strabo,
+having learned of the Romans to distinguish Celts and Germans,
+first allows a German element; Tacitus expressly declares their
+German origin but says that the race was degraded by intermarriage
+with Sarmatians. The descriptions of their bodily appearance,
+tribal divisions, manner of life and methods of warfare are
+such as are applied to either race. No doubt they were an outpost
+of the Germans, and so had absorbed into themselves strong
+Getic, Celtic and Sarmatian elements.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. H. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTI,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Gorakhpur
+division of the United Provinces. The town, a collection of
+villages, is on the river Kuana, 40 m. from Gorakhpur by railway.
+The population in 1901 was 14,761. It has no municipality.
+The district has an area of 2792 sq. m. It stretches out in one
+vast marshy plain, draining towards the south-east, and traversed
+by the Rapti, Kuana, Banganga, Masdih, Jamwar, Ami and
+Katneihia rivers. The tract lying between these streams
+consists of a rich alluvial deposit, more or less subject to
+inundations, but producing good crops of rice, wheat and barley. In
+1901 the population was 1,846,153, showing an increase of 3%
+in the decade. A railway from Gorakhpur to Gonda runs through
+the district, and the river Gogra is navigable. A large transit
+trade is conducted with Nepal. The export trade of the district
+itself is chiefly in rice, sugar and other agricultural produce.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTIA,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a town and seaport on the eastern coast of the island
+of Corsica, 98 m. N.N.E. of Ajaccio by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,509.
+Bastia, the chief commercial town in Corsica, consists of the
+densely-populated quarter of the old port with its labyrinth of
+steep and narrow streets, and of a more modern quarter to the
+north, which has grown up round the new port. La Traverse,
+a fine boulevard, intersects the town from north to south. Rising
+from the sea-shore like an amphitheatre, Bastia presents an
+imposing appearance, which is enhanced by the loftiness of its
+houses; it has, however, little of architectural interest to offer.
+Its churches, of which the largest is San Giovanni Battista, are
+florid in decoration, as are the law-court, the theatre and the
+hôtel-de-ville. The citadel, which dominates the old port, has a
+keep of the 14th century. As capital of an arrondissement,
+Bastia is the seat of a tribunal of first instance and a sub-prefect,
+while it is also the seat of the military governor of Corsica, of a
+court of appeal for the whole island, of a court of assizes, and of
+a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and has a lycée, a branch
+of the Bank of France, and a library with between 30,000 and
+40,000 volumes. The town has active commerce, especially
+with Italy. The new port has 1100 ft. of quayage, served by a
+railway, and with a depth alongside of 25 ft. The total number
+of vessels entered in 1907 was 721 with a tonnage of 337,551,
+of which 203,950 were French. The chief exports are chestnut
+extract for tanning, cedrates, citrons, oranges, early vegetables,
+fish, copper ore and antimony ore. Imports include coal, grain,
+flour and wine. Industry consists chiefly in fishing (sardines, &amp;c.,
+and coral), the manufacture of tobacco, oil-distilling, tanning,
+and the preparation of preserved citrons and of macaroni and
+similar provisions.</p>
+
+<p>Bastia dates from the building of the Genoese fortress or
+&ldquo;bastille&rdquo; by Lionello Lomellino in 1383. Under the Genoese it
+was long the principal stronghold in the north of the island, and
+the residence of the governor; and in 1553 it was the first
+town attacked by the French. On the division of the island in
+1797 into the two departments of Golo and Liamone, Bastia
+remained the capital of the former; but when the two were
+again united Ajaccio obtained the superiority. The city was
+taken by the English in 1745 and again in 1794.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTIAN, ADOLF<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1826-&emsp;&emsp;), German ethnologist, was
+born at Bremen on the 26th of June 1826. He was educated as a
+physician, but from his early years devoted himself to travel.
+Proceeding to Australia in 1851 as surgeon on a vessel, he had
+visited almost every part of the world before his return in 1859.
+In 1861 he made an expedition to the Far East which lasted five
+years. Upon his return he commenced the publication of his
+great work on <i>The Peoples of Eastern Asia</i>, an immense storehouse
+of facts owing little to arrangement or style. He settled in
+Berlin, where he was made professor of ethnology at the university
+and keeper of the ethnological museum. He succeeded
+R. Virchow as president of the Berlin Anthropological Society,
+and to him was largely due the formation in 1878 of the German
+Africa Society of Berlin, which did much to encourage German
+colonization in Africa. Later he undertook further scientific
+travels in Africa, South America and India. The results of
+these explorations were made public in a long series of separate
+publications comprising several on Buddhism, and on the psychological
+problems presented by native superstitions. Bastian also
+edited the <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i> from 1869, in conjunction
+with Virchow and Robert von Hartmann. On his seventieth
+birthday, 1896 (during which year he started on an expedition
+to Malaysia), he was presented with a volume of essays composed
+by the most distinguished ethnologists in celebration of the event
+and dedicated to him. Among his more important works may
+be mentioned:&mdash;<i>Der Mensch in der Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1860);
+<i>Die Völker des östlichen Asien</i> (Jena, 1866-1871); <i>Ethnologische
+Forschungen</i> (Leipzig, 1871-1873); <i>Die Kulturländer des alten
+Amerika</i> (Berlin, 1878); <i>Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologie</i>
+(Berlin, 1881); <i>Indonesien</i> (Leipzig, 1884); <i>Der Fetisch an der
+Küste Guineas</i> (Berlin, 1885); <i>Die mikronesischen Kolonien</i>
+(1899-1900); <i>Die wechselnden Phasen im geschichtlichen Sehkreis
+und ihre Rückwirkung auf die Völkerkunde</i> (1900).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTIAT, FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1801-1850), French economist, was
+the son of a merchant of Bayonne, and was born in that town on
+the 29th of June 1801. Educated at the colleges of Saint-Sever
+and of Sorèze, he entered in 1818 the counting-house of his
+uncle at Bayonne. The practical routine of mercantile life being
+distasteful to him, in 1825 he retired to a property at Mugron,
+of which he became the owner on the death of his grandfather.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span>
+Here Bastiat occupied himself with farming, his leisure being
+devoted to study and meditation. He welcomed with enthusiasm
+the Revolution of 1830. In 1831 he became a <i>juge de paix</i> of his
+canton, and in 1832 a member of the <i>conseil général</i> of the Landes.
+In 1834 he published his first pamphlet, and between 1841 and 1844
+three others, all on questions of taxation affecting local interests.
+During this period an accidental circumstance led him to become
+a subscriber to an English newspaper, the <i>Globe and Traveller</i>,
+through which he was made acquainted with the nature and
+progress of the crusade of the Anti-Corn-Law League against
+protection. After studying the movement for two years, he
+resolved to inaugurate a similar movement in France. To
+prepare the way, he contributed in 1844 to the <i>Journal des
+Économistes</i> an article &ldquo;Sur l&rsquo;influence des tarifs anglais et
+français,&rdquo; which attracted great attention, and was followed by
+others, including the first series of his brilliant <i>Sophismes
+Économiques</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1845 Bastiat came to Paris in order to superintend the
+publication of his <i>Cobden et la Ligue, ou l&rsquo;agitation anglaise pour
+la liberté des échanges</i>, and was very cordially received by the
+economists of the capital. From Paris he went to London and
+Manchester, and made the personal acquaintance of Cobden,
+Bright and other leaders of the league. When he returned to
+France he found that his writings had been exerting a powerful
+influence; and in 1846 he assisted in organizing at Bordeaux the
+first French Free-Trade Association (Association pour la Liberté
+des Échanges). The rapid spread of the movement soon required
+him to abandon Mugron for Paris.</p>
+
+<p>During the eighteen months which followed this change his
+labours were prodigious. He acted as secretary of the central
+committee of the association, organized and corresponded with
+branch societies, waited on ministers, procured subscriptions,
+edited a weekly paper, the <i>Libre-Échange</i>, contributed to the
+<i>Journal des Économistes</i> and to three other periodicals, addressed
+meetings in Paris and the provinces, and delivered a course of
+lectures on the principles of political economy to students of the
+schools of law and of medicine. The cause to which he thus devoted
+himself at the expense of his health and life appeared for a time
+as if it would be successful; but the forces in its favour were much
+weaker and those opposed to it were much stronger in France than
+in England, and this became more apparent as the struggle
+proceeded, until it was brought to an abrupt end by the
+Revolution of February 1848. This event made the socialistic and
+communistic principles, which had been gathering and spreading
+during the previous thirty years, temporarily supreme. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">National Workshops</a></span>.) In this grave crisis Bastiat nobly
+performed his duty. Although exhausted by the far too heavy
+labours in which he had been engaged, although robbed of his
+voice by the malady which was preying upon him, so that he
+could do but little to defend the truth from the tribune of the
+Constituent Assembly, he could still suggest wise counsels in the
+committee of finance of which he was vice-president, and he could
+still use his pen with a vigour and dexterity which made him
+capable of combating single-handed many opponents.</p>
+
+<p>He wrote in rapid succession a series of brilliant and effective
+pamphlets and essays, showing how socialism was connected with
+protection, and exposing the delusions on which it rested. Thus
+within the space of two years there appeared <i>Propriété et Loi,
+Justice et Fraternité, Propriété et Spoliation, L&rsquo;État, Baccalauréat
+et Socialisme, Protectionisme et Communisme, Capital et Rente,
+Maudit Argent, Spoliation et Loi, Gratuité du Credit</i>, and <i>Ce qu&rsquo;on
+voit et ce qu&rsquo;on ne voit pas</i>. While thus occupied he was meditating
+the composition of a great constructive work, meant to renovate
+economical science by basing it on the principle that &ldquo;interests,
+left to themselves, tend to harmonious combinations, and to the
+progressive preponderance of the general good.&rdquo; The first volume
+of this work <i>Les Harmonies économiques</i> was published in the
+beginning of 1850. In the autumn of that year, when working on
+the second volume, the increase of his malady compelled him to
+go to Italy. After lingering at Pisa and Florence he reached
+Rome, but only to die there on the 24th of December 1850 in the
+fiftieth year of his age.</p>
+
+<p>The life-work of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated,
+requires to be considered in three aspects. (1) He was the
+advocate of free-trade, the opponent of protection. The general
+principles of free-trade had, of course, been clearly stated and
+solidly established before he was born, but he did more than
+merely restate them. He showed, as no one before him had done,
+how they were practically applicable to French agriculture, trade
+and commerce; and in the <i>Sophismes Économiques</i> we have the
+completest and most effective, the wisest and the wittiest
+exposure of protectionism in its principles, reasonings and
+consequences which exists in any language. (2) He was the
+opponent of socialism. In this respect also he had no equal
+among the economists of France. He alone fought socialism hand
+to hand, body to body, as it were, not caricaturing it, not denouncing
+it, not criticizing under its name some merely abstract theory,
+but taking it as actually presented by its most popular representatives,
+considering patiently their proposals and arguments, and
+proving conclusively that they proceeded on false principles,
+reasoned badly and sought to realize generous aims by foolish
+and harmful means. Nowhere will reason find a richer armoury
+of weapons available against socialism than in the pamphlets
+published by Bastiat between 1848 and 1850. (3) He attempted
+to expound in an original and independent manner political
+economy as a science. In combating, first, the Protectionists,
+and, afterwards, the Socialists, there gradually rose on his mind a
+conception which seemed to him to shed a flood of light over the
+whole of economical doctrine, and, indeed, over the whole theory
+of society, viz. the harmony of the essential tendencies of human
+nature. The radical error, he became always more convinced,
+both of protectionism and socialism, was the assumption that
+human interests, if left to themselves would inevitably prove
+antagonistic and anti-social, capital robbing labour, manufactures
+ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the native, the consumer
+the producer, &amp;c.; and the chief weakness of the various schools
+of political economy, he believed, he had discovered in their
+imperfect apprehension of the truth that human interests, when
+left to themselves, when not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered
+with, tend to harmonious combination, to the general good.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> are in 7 vols. The first contains
+an interesting <i>Memoir</i> by M. Paillottet.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTIDE, JULES<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1800-1879), French publicist, was born at
+Paris on the 22nd of November 1800. He studied law for a time,
+and afterwards engaged in business as a timber merchant. In
+1821 he became a member of the French Carbonari, and took a
+prominent part in the Revolution of 1830. After the &ldquo;July
+Days&rdquo; he received an artillery command in the national guard.
+For his share in the <i>émeute</i> in Paris (5th of June 1832) on the
+occasion of the funeral of General Maximilien Lamarque, Bastide
+was sentenced to death but escaped to London. On his return
+to Paris in 1834 he was acquitted, and occupied himself with
+journalism, contributing to the <i>National</i>, a republican journal of
+which he became editor in 1836. In 1847 he founded the <i>Revue
+nationale</i> with the collaboration of P.J. Buchez (<i>q.v.</i>), with whose
+ideas he had become infected. After the Revolution of February
+1848 Bastide&rsquo;s intimate knowledge of foreign affairs gained for
+him a secretarial post in the provisional government, and, after
+the creation of the executive commission, he was made minister
+of foreign affairs. At the close of 1848 he threw up his portfolio,
+and, after the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of December 1851, retired into private
+life. He died on the 2nd of March 1879. His writings comprise
+<i>De l&rsquo;éducation publique en France</i> (1847);
+<i>Histoire de l&rsquo;assemblée législative</i> (1847);
+<i>La République française et l&rsquo;Italie en 1848</i> (1858);
+<i>Histoire des guerres religieuses en France</i> (1859).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTIDE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (Provençal <i>bastida</i>, building), a word applied to the
+fortified towns founded in south-western France in the middle
+ages, and corresponding to the <i>villes neuves</i> of northern France.
+They were established by the abbeys, the nobles and the crown,
+frequently by two of these authorities in co-operation, and were
+intended to serve as defensive posts and centres of population
+for sparsely-inhabited districts. In addition, they formed a
+source of revenue and power for their founders, who on their
+part conceded liberal charters to the new towns. They were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span>
+built on a rectangular plan, with a large central square and
+straight thoroughfares running at right angles or parallel to one
+another, this uniformity of construction being well exemplified
+in the existing <i>bastide</i> of Monpazier (Dordogne) founded by the
+English in 1284. Mont-de-Marsan, the oldest of the bastides,
+was founded in 1141, and the movement for founding them
+lasted during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, attaining its
+height between 1250 and 1350.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Ménault, <i>Les Villes Neuves, leur origine et leur influence
+dans le mouvement communal</i> (Paris, 1868); Curie-Seimbres, <i>Essai
+sur les villes fondées dans le sud-ouest de la France sous le nom de
+bastides</i> (Toulouse, 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1848-1884), French painter, was
+born in the village of Damvillers, Meuse, France, on the 1st of
+November 1848 and spent his childhood there. He first studied
+at Verdun, and prompted by a love of art went in 1867 to Paris,
+where he was admitted to the École des Beaux-arts, working
+under Cabanel. After exhibiting in the Salons of 1870 and 1872
+works which attracted no attention, in 1874 he made his mark
+with his &ldquo;Song of Spring,&rdquo; a study of rural life, representing a
+peasant girl sitting on a knoll looking down on a village. His
+&ldquo;Portrait of my Grandfather,&rdquo; exhibited in the same year, was
+not less remarkable for its artless simplicity and received a
+third-class medal. This success was confirmed in 1875 by the
+&ldquo;First Communion,&rdquo; a picture of a little girl minutely worked
+up as to colour, and a &ldquo;Portrait of M. Hayem.&rdquo; In 1875 he
+took the second Prix de Rome with his &ldquo;Angels appearing to the
+Shepherds,&rdquo; exhibited again in 1878. His next endeavour to
+win the Grand Prix de Rome in 1876 with &ldquo;Priam at the Feet of
+Achilles&rdquo; was again unsuccessful (it is in the Lille gallery), and
+the painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon
+of 1877 he sent a full-length &ldquo;Portrait of Lady L.&rdquo; and &ldquo;My
+Parents&rdquo;; and in 1878 a &ldquo;Portrait of M. Theuriet&rdquo; and &ldquo;The
+Hayfield.&rdquo; The last picture, now in the Luxembourg, is regarded
+as a typical work from its stamp of realistic truth. Thenceforth
+Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as the leader of a
+school, and his &ldquo;Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt&rdquo; (1879),
+painted in a light key, won him the cross of the Legion of Honour.
+In 1880 he exhibited a small portrait of M. Andrieux and &ldquo;Joan
+of Arc listening to the Voices&rdquo;; and in the same year, at the
+Royal Academy, the little portrait of the &ldquo;Prince of Wales.&rdquo;
+In 1881 he painted &ldquo;The Beggar&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Portrait of Albert
+Wolf&rdquo;; in 1882 &ldquo;Le Père Jacques&rdquo;; in 1883 &ldquo;Love in a
+Village,&rdquo; in which we find some trace of Courbet&rsquo;s influence.
+His last dated work is &ldquo;The Forge&rdquo; (1884). The artist, long
+ailing, had tried in vain to re-establish his health in Algiers.
+He died in Paris on the 10th of December 1884, when planning a
+new series of rural subjects. Among his more important works
+may also be mentioned the portrait of &ldquo;Mme J. Drouet&rdquo;
+(1883); &ldquo;Gambetta on his death-bed,&rdquo; and some landscapes;
+&ldquo;The Vintage&rdquo; (1880), and &ldquo;The Thames at London&rdquo; (1882).
+&ldquo;The Little Chimney-Sweep&rdquo; was never finished. An exhibition
+of his collected works was opened in March and April 1885.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Theuriet, <i>Bastien-Lepage</i> (1885&mdash;English edition, 1892);
+L. de Fourcaud, <i>Bastien-Lepage</i> (1885).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Fr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTILLE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>bastir</i>, now <i>bâtir</i>, to build), originally
+any fortified building forming part of a system of defence or
+attack; the name was especially applied to several of the
+principal points in the ancient fortifications of Paris. In the
+reign of King John, or even earlier, the gate of Saint Antoine
+was flanked by two towers; and about 1369 Hugues Aubriot,
+at the command of Charles V., changed it into a regular bastille
+or fort by the addition of six others of massive structure, the
+whole united by thick walls and surrounded by a ditch 25 ft.
+wide. Various extensions and alterations were afterwards
+effected; but the building remained substantially what it was
+made by the vigorous provost, a strong and gloomy structure,
+with eight stern towers. As the ancient fortifications of the city
+were superseded, the use of the word bastille as a general designation
+gradually died out, and it became restricted to the castle of
+Saint Antoine, the political importance of which made it practically,
+long before it was actually, the only bastille of Paris.
+The building had originally a military purpose, and it appears
+as a fortress on several occasions in French history. When
+Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, his opponents
+in the city took refuge in the Bastille, which they were prepared
+to defend with vigour, but the want of provisions obliged them
+to capitulate. In 1588 the duke of Guise took possession of the
+Bastille, gave the command of it to Bussy-Leclerc, and soon
+afterwards shut up the whole parlement within its walls, for
+having refused their adherence to the League. When Henry IV.
+became master of Paris he committed the command of the
+Bastille to Sully, and there he deposited his treasures, which at
+the time of his death amounted to the sum of 15,870,000 livres.
+On the 11th of January 1649 the Bastille was invested by the
+forces of the Fronde, and after a short cannonade capitulated
+on the 13th of that month. The garrison consisted of only
+twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a peace with the
+court on the 11th of March; but it was stipulated by treaty
+that they should retain possession of the Bastille, which in fact
+was not restored to the king till the 21st of October 1651.</p>
+
+<p>At a very early period, however, the Bastille was employed
+for the custody of state prisoners, and it was ultimately much
+more of a prison than a fortress. According to the usual account,
+which one is tempted to ascribe to the popular love of poetical
+justice, the first who was incarcerated within its walls was the
+builder himself, Hugues Aubriot. Be this as it may, the duke
+of Nemours spent thirteen years there in one of those iron cages
+which Louis XI. called his <i>fillettes</i>; and Jacques d&rsquo;Armagnac,
+Poyet and Chabot were successively prisoners. It was not till
+the reign of Louis XIII. that it became recognized as a regular
+place of confinement; but from that time till its destruction it
+was frequently filled to embarrassment with men and women
+of every age and condition. Prisoners were detained without
+trial on <i>lettres de cachet</i> for different reasons, to avoid a scandal,
+either public or private, or to satisfy personal animosities.
+But the most frequent and most notorious use of the Bastille
+was to imprison those writers who attacked the government or
+persons in power. It was this which made it so hated as an
+emblem of despotism, and caused its capture and demolition in
+the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Of the treatment of prisoners in the Bastille very various
+accounts have been given even by those who speak from personal
+experience, for the simple reason that it varied greatly in different
+cases. The prisoners were divided into two main classes, those
+who were detained on grounds of precaution or by way of
+admonitory correction, and those who lay under presumption
+or proof of guilt. The former were subject to no investigation
+or judgment, and the length of their imprisonment depended
+on the will of the king; the latter were brought to trial in the
+ordinary courts or before special tribunals, such as that of the
+Arsenal&mdash;though even in their case the interval between their
+arrest and their trial was determined solely by the royal decree,
+and it was quite possible for a man to grow old in the prison
+without having the opportunity of having his fate decided.
+Until guilt was established, the prisoner was registered in the
+king&rsquo;s name, and&mdash;except in the case of state-prisoners of importance,
+who were kept with greater strictness and often in absolute
+isolation&mdash;he enjoyed a certain degree of comfort and freedom.
+Visitors were admitted under restrictions; games were allowed;
+and, for a long time at least, exercise was permitted in open parts
+of the interior. Food was both abundant and good, at least for
+the better class of prisoners; and instances were not unknown
+of people living below their allowance and, by arrangement with
+the governor, saving the surplus. When the criminality of the
+prisoner was established, his name was transferred to the register
+of the &ldquo;commission,&rdquo; and he became exposed to numerous
+hardships and even barbarities, which however belonged not so
+much to the special organization of the Bastille as to the general
+system of criminal justice then in force.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more distinguished personages who were confined
+in this fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV. and XVI.,
+were the famous <i>Man of the Iron Mask</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron Mask</a></span>), Foucquet,
+the marshal Richelieu, Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville,
+Voltaire, Latude, Le Prévôt de Beaumont, Labourdonnais,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span>
+Lally, Cardinal de Rohan, Linguet and La Chalotais. While
+no detestation is too great for that system of &ldquo;royal pantheism&rdquo;
+which led to the unjust and often protracted imprisonment of
+even men of great ability and stainless character, it is unnecessary
+to give implicit credence to all the tales of horror which found
+currency during the excitement of the Revolution, and which
+historical evidence, as well as <i>a priori</i> considerations, tends to
+strip of their more dreadful features, and even in many cases to
+refute altogether. Much light of an unexpected kind has in
+modern times been shed on the history of the Bastille from the
+pages of its own records. These documents had been flung out
+into the courts of the building by the revolutionary captors, and
+after suffering grievous diminution and damage were finally
+stored up and forgotten in the vaults of the library of the (so-called)
+Arsenal. Here they were discovered in 1840 by François
+Ravaisson, who devoted himself to their arrangement, elucidation
+and publication.</p>
+
+<p>At the breaking out of the Revolution the Bastille was attacked
+by the Parisians; and, after a vigorous resistance, it was taken
+and razed to the ground on the 14th of July 1789. At the time
+of its capture only seven prisoners were found in it. A very
+striking account of the siege will be found in Carlyle&rsquo;s <i>French
+Revolution</i>, vol. i. The site of the building is now marked by a
+lofty column of bronze, dedicated to the memory of the patriots
+of July 1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded figure of the
+genius of liberty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Memoirs</i> of Linguet (1783), and Latude (ed. by Thierry,
+tome iii. 18mo, 1791-1793); also François Ravaisson, <i>Les Archives
+de la Bastille</i> (16 vols. 8vo, 1866-1886); Delort, <i>Histoire de la
+détention des philosophes à la Bastille</i> (3 vols., 1829); F. Bournon,
+<i>La Bastille</i> (1893); Fr. Funck-Brentano, <i>Les Lettres de cachet à Paris,
+étude suivie d&rsquo;une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille</i> (1904); G. Lecocq,
+<i>La Prise de la Bastille</i> (1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTINADO<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (Span. <i>baston</i>, Fr. <i>bâton</i>, a stick, cudgel), the
+European name for a form of punishment common in the east,
+especially in Turkey, Persia and China. It consists in blows
+with a light stick or lath of bamboo upon the soles of the feet or
+on the buttocks. The terror of the punishment lies not in the
+severity of the blows, which are on the contrary scarcely more
+than tapping, but in its long continuation. A skilful bastinadoist
+can kill his victim after hours of torture.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTION<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (through the Fr. from late Lat. <i>bastire</i>, to build), a
+work forming part of a line of fortifications. The general trace
+of a bastion is similar to an irregular pentagon formed by a
+triangle and a narrow rectangle, the base of the triangle coinciding
+with the long side of the rectangle. The two sides of the
+triangle form the &ldquo;faces&rdquo; of the bastion, which join at the
+&ldquo;salient&rdquo; angle, the short sides of the rectangle form the
+&ldquo;flanks.&rdquo; Bastions were arranged so that the fire from the flanks
+of each protected not only the front of the curtain but also the
+faces of the adjacent bastions. A &ldquo;tower bastion&rdquo; is a case-mated
+tower built in bastion form; a &ldquo;demi-bastion&rdquo; is a work
+formed by half a bastion (bisected through the salient angle) and
+by a parapet along the line of bisection; a &ldquo;flat bastion&rdquo; is a
+bastion built on a curtain and having a very obtuse salient angle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASTWICK, JOHN<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1593-1654), English physician and
+religious zealot, was born at Writtle, in Essex, in 1593, and after
+a brief education at Cambridge, wandered on the continent and
+graduated in medicine at Padua. On his return he settled in
+Colchester. His celebrity rests on his strong opposition to the
+Roman Catholic ceremonial. About 1633 he printed in Holland
+two Latin treatises, entitled <i>Elenchus Religionis Papisticae</i>, and
+<i>Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Latialium</i>; and as Laud
+and other English prelates thought themselves aimed at, he was
+fined £1000 in the court of high commission, excommunicated
+and prohibited from practising physic, while his books were
+ordered to be burnt and the author himself consigned to prison.
+Instead of recanting, however, he wrote <i>Apologeticus ad Praesules
+Anglicanos</i>, and another book called <i>The Litany</i>, in which he
+exclaimed vehemently against the proceedings of the court, and
+charged the bishops with being the enemies of God and &ldquo;the tail
+of the beast.&rdquo; William Prynne and Henry Burton coming under
+the lash of the star-chamber court at the same time, they were all
+censured as turbulent and seditious persons, and condemned to
+pay a fine of £5000 each, to be set in the pillory, to lose their ears,
+and to undergo imprisonment for life in remote parts of the
+kingdom, Bastwick being sent to Scilly. The parliament in 1640
+reversed these proceedings, and ordered Bastwick a reparation
+of £5000 out of the estates of the commissioners and lords who
+had sentenced him. He joined the parliamentary army, but in
+later years showed bitter opposition to the Independents. He
+died in the latter part of 1654.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BASUTOLAND<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (officially &ldquo;The Territory of Basutoland&rdquo;),
+an inland state and British crown colony of S.E. Africa, situated
+between 28° 35&prime; and 30° 30&prime; S. and 27° and 29° 25&prime; E. It has an
+area of 10,293 sq. m., being somewhat smaller than Belgium, and
+is bounded S., S.E., and N.E. by the Drakensberg, N. and N.W.
+by the Caledon river, S.W. by a range of low hills extending from
+the Caledon above Wepener to the Orange river, and south of the
+Orange by the Telle or Tees river to its source in the Drakensberg.
+Its greatest length S.W. to N.E. is 145 m.; its greatest breadth
+N. to S. 120 m. On every side it is surrounded by British colonies,
+north by the Orange River Colony, south-west and south by
+Cape Colony, and east by Natal.</p>
+
+<p>Basutoland, or Lesuto (Lesotho) as the natives call it, forms
+the south-eastern edge of the interior tableland of South Africa,
+and has a rugged and broken surface with a mean elevation of
+6000 ft. The Drakensberg (<i>q.v.</i>) forming the buttress of the
+plateau seaward, attain their highest elevation on the Basuto-Natal
+border. The frontier line follows the crest of the mountains,
+three peaks some 10,000 or more ft. high&mdash;Giant&rsquo;s Castle,
+Champagne Castle or Cathkin Peak and Mont aux Sources&mdash;towering
+high above the general level. Mount Hamilton, which
+lies north of the waterparting, is over 9000 ft. high. From
+Mont aux Sources, table-shaped, and called by the Basutos
+<i>Potong</i> (Antelope), a second range of mountains, the Maluti,
+runs S.W. through the entire length of Basutoland. The crest of
+the Maluti is in few places lower than 7000 ft. whilst Machacha,
+the culminating point, is about 10,500 ft. From the tableland
+north of the Maluti several isolated hills rise, the most noted being
+the almost inaccessible Thaba Bosigo&mdash;the rallying place of the
+Basuto in many of their wars. Shut off from the adjacent
+Indian Ocean by its mountain barrier, the drainage of the country
+is westward to the distant Atlantic. As its name implies, the
+chief rivers rise in Mont aux Sources. From the inner sides of
+that mountain descend the Caledon and the Senku, whilst from
+its seaward face the Tugela flows through Natal to the Indian
+Ocean. The Caledon runs north of the Maluti, the Senku south
+of that range. From the slopes of the Maluti descend many
+streams, the largest being the Kornet Spruit, which joins the
+Senku and other torrents from the Drakensberg to form the upper
+Orange (<i>q.v.</i>). The Caledon also, sweeping southward, unites
+with the Orange beyond the frontiers of Basutoland. Ordinarily
+shallow, the rivers after heavy rain fill with great rapidity,
+sweeping away everything in their path. In the richer soil they
+cut deep channels; the denudation thus caused threatens to
+diminish seriously the area of arable and pasture land. The
+river beds contain dangerous quicksands.</p>
+
+<p>The aspect of the country is everywhere grand, and often
+beautiful, fully justifying the title, &ldquo;The Switzerland of South
+Africa,&rdquo; often applied to it. Viewed from a distance the
+mountains appear as dark perpendicular barriers, quite impenetrable;
+but narrow paths lead round the precipitous face of the
+hills, and when the inner side is gained a wonderful panorama
+opens out. In every direction can be seen luxuriant valleys
+through which rivers thread their silvery way, wild chasms,
+magnificent waterfalls&mdash;that of Maletsunyane has an unbroken
+leap of over 600 ft.&mdash;and, above all, hill crest after hill crest in
+seeming endless succession. In winter the effect is heightened
+by the snow which caps all the higher peaks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Basutoland is entirely occupied by the upper division
+(Stormberg series) of the Karroo formation. The highest
+strata (Volcanic group) form the rugged elevated spurs of the
+Drakensberg mountains which extend along the eastern territorial
+boundary. It has been suggested that these spurs represent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span>
+the sites of vents or fissures of eruption. The upper part of
+the Maluti range consists of flows of melaphyres and diabases
+belonging to the volcanic beds. Among these lavas is the &ldquo;pipe&rdquo;
+amygdaloid of which many blocks have been transported great
+distances down the Vaal river. The amygdales are three or four
+inches long and about three-eighths of an inch in diameter.
+Heulandite, with thomsonite, stilbite, scolecite, calcite and
+chalcedony, occur as infilling minerals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate is excellent, invigorating alike for
+Europeans and natives. The mean annual temperature is about
+60° F. The four seasons are distinctly marked, a rarity in South
+Africa, where the transition from summer to winter is generally
+very rapid. The heat of summer (December-March, which is
+the rainy season) is tempered by cool breezes; winter (May-September,
+inclusive) is dry, cold and bracing, and frost prevails
+for prolonged periods. The average annual rainfall is about 30 in.
+The general health conditions are good. Malaria is almost
+unknown and chest complaints are rare. Epidemics of smallpox
+and typhoid occur; and leprosy, imported from the Orange
+River and Cape Colonies, has taken firm hold on the Basuto, of
+whom about 91 per 1000 are sufferers from this disease.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>&mdash;A few kloofs are wooded, but of forest land
+there is none. Along the upper courses of the rivers are willows
+and wild olive trees; round the chief settlements the eucalyptus
+and the pine have been planted. Heaths, generally somewhat
+rare in South Africa outside the Cape peninsula, are abundant
+in Basutoland. The Alpine flora is very beautiful. There are
+few wild animals; but the eland, hartebeest and smaller antelopes
+are found, as well as the leopard and the jackal. Mountain hares,
+partridges and quails afford good sport; baboons and great
+hawks live in the mountains. The few fish include the barbel.
+Swarms of locusts occasionally visit the country; the locusts are
+eaten by the Basuto.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Towns.</i>&mdash;Considering the extensive area of
+uninhabitable mountain land it contains, the Territory supports
+a large population. The inhabitants increased from 128,206 in
+1875 to 348,848 in 1904. The females outnumber the males by
+about 20,000, which is, however, about the number of adult males
+away from the country at any given period. The majority live
+in the district between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon
+river. The great bulk of the people are Basuto, but there are
+some thousands of Barolong and other Kaffirs. The Basuto
+proper are a branch of the Bechuana family of Bantu-Negroids.
+The white inhabitants in 1904 numbered 895, and there were
+222 coloured persons other than natives. The seat of government
+is Maseru, on the left bank of the Caledon, with a population of
+about 1000 including some 100 Europeans. Mafeteng, in the
+N.W. near the Cape frontier, is a thriving agricultural centre, as
+is Butha Buthe in the N.E.  Morija, some 16 m. S.E. of Maseru,
+is the oldest mission station in the Territory, having been founded
+by the Paris Society about 1833. Three miles from Morija is
+Matsieng, the kraal of the paramount chief Lerothodi (who
+died in August 1905). There are numerous mission stations
+throughout Basutoland, to several of which Biblical names have
+been given, such as Shiloh, Hermon, Cana, Bethesda, Berea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture and Trade.</i>&mdash;Basutoland is one of the greatest
+grain-growing countries of South Africa. The richest tract of
+land is that between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon
+river. In summer the country appears as one waving field of
+wheat, millet and mealies; whilst on the mountain slopes and
+on their flat tops are large flocks of sheep, cattle and goats, and
+troops of ponies. The Basuto ponies, said to be descended from
+Shetland ponies which, imported to the Cape in 1840, strayed
+into the mountains, are short-legged, strong-bodied, sure-footed,
+and noted for their hardiness. Improvements in the breed have
+been effected by the introduction of Arab stallions. Nearly
+every Basuto is an agriculturist; there are no manufactories,
+and the minerals, in accordance with the desire of the people,
+are not worked. The land is wholly in the possession of the
+natives, who hold it on the communal system. Whites and
+Indians are allowed to establish trading stations on obtaining
+special permits from the government, and the Indians absorb
+much of the retail trade. The chief exports are wheat, mealies,
+Kaffir corn, wool, mohair, horses and cattle. The great bulk of
+the imports are textiles. The value of the trade depends on
+regular rains, so that in seasons of drought the exports seriously
+diminish. The average annual value of trade for the five years
+ending the 30th of June 1905 was:&mdash;Exports £215,668, imports
+£203,026. Trade is almost entirely with Orange River Colony
+and Cape Colony. The Territory is a member of the South
+African Customs Union. Some 60,000 Basuto (annual average)
+find employment outside the Territory, more than half of whom
+seek farm and domestic service. A small proportion go to the
+Johannesburg gold mines, and others obtain employment on the
+railways.</p>
+
+<p>Communication over the greater part of the Territory is by
+road; none of the rivers is navigable. A state-owned railway,
+16½ m. long, starting from Maseru crosses the Caledon river and
+joins the line connecting Bloemfontein and Ladysmith. This
+railway follows, N.E. of Maseru, the right bank of the Caledon,
+and affords a ready means of transport for the cereals raised on
+the left or Basuto side of the river. Highroads, maintained by
+the government, traverse every part of the country, and bridges
+have been built across the Caledon. The usual mode of conveyance
+is by ox-waggon or light cart. Several passes through the
+Drakensberg into Griqualand East and Natal exist, but are little
+used. There is a complete postal and telegraphic service and a
+telephone line connects all government stations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government and Finance.</i>&mdash;Basutoland is a crown colony, of
+which the high commissioner for South Africa is governor. In
+him resides the legislative power, exercised by proclamation.
+The Territory is administered, under the direction of the
+governor, by a resident commissioner, who is also the chief
+judicial officer. He is aided by a government secretary and by
+assistant commissioners. Under the British officials the country
+is governed by hereditary native chiefs, over whom is a paramount
+chief. The chiefs have jurisdiction in cases affecting
+natives, but there is a right of appeal to the courts of the commissioners,
+who try all cases in which any of the parties are
+European. A national council (<i>pitso</i>), representative of all the
+native tribes, meets annually for the free discussion of public
+affairs. For administrative purposes the Territory is divided
+into the seven districts of Maseru, Leribe, Mohales Hoek, Berea,
+Mafeteng, Quthing and Qacha&rsquo;s Nek, each of which is subdivided
+into wards presided over by Basuto chiefs.</p>
+
+<p>Revenue is obtained from a hut tax of £1 per hut; the
+sale of licences to trade; customs and post office receipts.
+Seven-eighths of the revenue comes from the hut tax and
+customs. The average annual revenue for the five years 1901-1905
+was £96,880; the average annual expenditure £69,559.
+Basutoland has no public debt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education and Social Condition.</i>&mdash;Education is given in schools
+founded by missionary societies, of which the chief is the Société
+des Missions Évangéliques de Paris. A large proportion of the
+people can read and write Sesuto (as the Basuto language is
+called) and English, and speak Dutch, whilst a considerable
+number also receive higher education. Many Basuto at the
+public examinations take higher honours than competitors of
+European descent. There are over 200 schools, with an average
+attendance exceeding 10,000. Nine-tenths of the scholars are in
+the schools of the French Protestant Mission, which are conducted
+by English, or English-speaking, missionaries. A government
+grant is made towards the cost of upkeep. A government industrial
+school (opened in 1906) is maintained at Maseru, and
+the Paris Society has an industrial school at Leloaleng. The
+social condition of the people is higher than that of the majority
+of South African natives. Many Basuto profess Christianity
+and have adopted European clothing. Serious crime is rare
+among them and &ldquo;deliberate murder is almost unknown.&rdquo;<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+They are, like mountaineers generally, of a sturdy, independent
+spirit, and are given to the free expression of their views, generally
+stated with good sense and moderation. These views found
+a new medium of publicity in 1904 when an independent native
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span>
+newspaper was started, called <i>Naledi ea Lesotha</i> (Star of Basutoland).
+The publication of this paper was followed in 1906 by
+the adoption of a uniform system of Sesuto orthography. A
+book on national customs, the first work in the vernacular by
+a South African native, was published in 1893. The brandy-drinking
+habit, which, when the imperial government assumed
+control of the administration in 1884, threatened the existence
+of the nation, has been very largely checked. A strong beer,
+brewed from Kaffir corn, is a favourite drink.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Until the beginning of the 19th century Basutoland
+appears to have been uninhabited save by wandering Bushmen,
+whose rude rock pictures are to be found in several parts of the
+Drakensberg. About 1800 the country was occupied by various
+tribes of Bechuana, such as Batau, Basuto, Baputi, who then
+possessed the greater part of what is now Orange River Colony.
+They appear to have recognized the paramount authority of a
+family descended from a chief named Monaheng. By the wars
+of the Zulu chiefs Chaka, Matiwana and Mosilikatze, these
+tribes were largely broken up and their power destroyed. One
+tribe, living in the Maluti mountains, was reduced to cannibalism.
+<span class="sidenote">Moshesh forms the Basuto nation.</span>
+From their chief Machacha mountain takes its name.
+At this period a young man named Moshesh (born
+about 1790), who was of the family of Monaheng and
+already noted as hunter and warrior, gathered round
+him the remnants of several broken clans, out of which he
+welded the existing Basuto nation. He established himself in
+1824 on the rock-fortress of Thaba Bosigo, where, in 1831, he
+successfully defended himself against Mosilikatze; and thereafter
+became second only to that chief among the natives north
+of the Orange River. In 1833 Moshesh invited the missionaries
+of the Société des Missions Evangéliques of Paris to settle in his
+country, and from that day until his death proved their firm
+friend. A few years later, in 1836-1837, large parties of emigrant
+Boers settled north of the Orange, and before long disputes arose
+between them and Moshesh, who claimed a great part of the land
+on which the white farmers had settled. The Basuto acquired
+an unenviable notoriety as a race of bold cattle lifters and
+raiders, and the emigrant Boers found them extremely troublesome
+neighbours. At the same time, if the Basuto were eager
+for cattle, the Boers were eager for land; and their encroachments
+on the territories of the Basuto led to a proclamation in
+1842 from Sir George Napier, the then governor of Cape Colony,
+forbidding further encroachments on Basutoland. In 1843 a
+treaty was signed with Moshesh on the lines of that already
+arranged with Waterboer, the Griqua chief (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griqualand</a></span>),
+creating Basutoland a native state under British protection.</p>
+
+<p>To the quarrels between Basuto and Boers were added interminable
+disputes between the Basuto and other Bechuana tribes,
+which continued unabated after the proclamation of British
+sovereignty over the Orange river regions by Sir Harry Smith in
+1848. In 1849, however, Moshesh was unwillingly induced by Sir
+Harry to surrender his claims to part of the territory recognized
+as his by the Napier treaty. The British continued to intervene
+in the inter-tribal disputes, and in 1851 Major H.D. Warden led
+against the Basuto a commando composed of British soldiers,
+farmers and a native contingent. This commando was defeated
+at Viervoet, near Thaba Nchu, by the Basuto, who thereafter
+raided and plundered the natives opposed to them and the farmers
+who had helped the British. Attempts were made to come to
+terms with Moshesh and the justice of many of his complaints was
+admitted. The efforts at accommodation failed, and in 1852
+General Sir George Cathcart, who had succeeded Sir Harry Smith
+as governor of Cape Colony, decided to take strong measures with
+the tribe, and proceeded with three small divisions of troops
+against Moshesh. The expedition was by no means a success,
+but Moshesh, with that peculiar statecraft for which he was
+famous, saw that he could not hope permanently to hold out
+against the British troops, and followed up his successful skirmishes
+with General Cathcart by writing him a letter, in which
+he said: &ldquo;As the object for which you have come is to have a
+compensation for Boers, I beg you will be satisfied with what you
+have taken. You have shown your power, you have chastised;
+I will try all I can to keep my people in order in the future.&rdquo;
+General Cathcart accepted the offer of Moshesh and peace was
+proclaimed, the Basuto power being unbroken. Fourteen months
+later (February 1854) Great Britain renounced sovereignty
+over the farmers settled beyond the Orange, and Moshesh found
+himself face to face with the newly constituted Free State.
+Boundary disputes at once arose but were settled (1858) by the
+mediation of Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony. In 1865
+a fresh feud occurred between the Orange Free State Boers and
+the Basuto. The latter applied to Sir Philip Wodehouse at the
+Cape for protection, but he declined to interfere. The Boers
+proved more successful than they had been in the past, and
+occupied several of the Basuto strongholds. They also annexed
+a certain fertile portion of Basuto territory, and finally terminated
+the strife by a treaty at Thaba Bosigo, by which Moshesh gave up
+the tract of territory taken by the Boers and professed himself a
+subject of the Free State. Seeing that the struggle against the
+Boers was hopeless, no fewer than 2000 Basuto warriors having
+been killed, Moshesh again appealed for protection to the British
+authorities, saying: &ldquo;Let me and my people rest and live under
+the large folds of the flag of England before I am no more.&rdquo; In
+response to this request, the British authorities decided to take
+over Basutoland, and a proclamation of annexation was issued on
+the 12th of March 1868. At the same time the Boer commandoes
+were requested to leave the country. The Free State strongly
+<span class="sidenote">Annexation to Great Britain.</span>
+resented the British annexation of Basutoland, but
+much negotiation the treaty of Aliwal North was
+concluded (1869) between the Free State and the high
+commissioner. This treaty defined the boundary
+between the Free State and Basutoland, whereby the fertile strip of
+country west of the Caledon river, known as the Conquered
+Territory, was finally transferred to the Free State, and the
+remainder of Basutoland was recognized as a portion of the
+British dominions.</p>
+
+<p>Moshesh, who for nearly fifty years had led his people so skilfully
+and well, died in 1870. He was one of the rare instances
+among the Kaffirs of a leader endowed with intellectual gifts
+which placed him on a level with Europeans, and his life-work has
+left a permanent mark on South African history. In diplomacy
+he proved fully the equal of all&mdash;white or black&mdash;with whom he
+had to deal, while he ruled with a rare combination of vigour
+and moderation over the nation which he had created.</p>
+
+<p>In 1871 Basutoland was annexed to Cape Colony, the area at
+that time being given as 10,300 sq. m. The turbulent Basuto
+warriors did not remain quiet for any length of time, and in 1879
+Moirosi, a chief residing in the southern portion of Basutoland,
+openly repudiated colonial rule. An expedition was despatched
+from Cape Colony and severe fighting followed. Moirosi&rsquo;s
+stronghold was captured and the chief himself was killed.
+Immediately after the war, strife occurred among the Basuto
+themselves over the question of the partition of Moirosi&rsquo;s territory,
+which had been decided on as one of the results of the war. In
+1880 the Cape government felt sufficiently strong to extend to
+Basutoland the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878. This act
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;gun&rdquo; war.</span>
+provided for the disarmament of natives, and had
+already been put in force successfully among some
+of the Kaffir tribes on the Cape eastern frontier. Its
+execution in Basutoland, however, proved an extremely difficult
+task, and was never entirely accomplished. Desultory warfare
+was carried on between the colonial troops and the Basuto until
+1881, when the intervention of the high commissioner, Sir
+Hercules Robinson (afterward Lord Rosmead), was asked for.
+Peace in Basutoland was not announced until the end of 1882.
+In the following year a form of self-government was established,
+but was once more followed by internal strife among the petty
+chieftains.</p>
+
+<p>The subjection of Basutoland to the control of the Cape government
+had by this time proved unsatisfactory, both to the Basuto
+and to Cape Colony. The Cape government therefore offered no
+opposition to the appeal made by the Basuto themselves to the
+imperial government to take them over, and, moreover, Cape
+Colony undertook to pay towards the cost of administration an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span>
+annual contribution of £18,000. Consequently, in 1884, Basutoland
+ceased to be a portion of the Cape Colony and became a
+British crown colony. Native laws and customs were interfered
+with as little as possible and the authority of the chiefs&mdash;all
+members of the Moshesh family&mdash;was maintained. Moshesh had
+been succeeded as paramount chief by his son, Letsie, and he in
+turn was succeeded in 1891 by Lerothodi (<i>c.</i> 1837-1905). These
+chieftains acted in concert with the British representative in the
+country, to whom was given the title of resident commissioner.
+The first commissioner was Sir Marshall Clarke, to whose tact and
+ability the country owed much. The period of warfare over, the
+Basuto turned their attention more and more to agricultural
+pursuits and also showed themselves very receptive of missionary
+influence. Trade increased, and in 1891 Basutoland was admitted
+to the customs union, which already existed between Orange
+Free State, Cape Colony and British Bechuanaland. When
+Lord (then Sir Alfred) Milner visited Basutoland in 1898, on his
+way to Bloemfontein, he was received by 15,000 mounted
+Basuto. The chiefs also attended a large meeting at Maseru,
+and gave expression to their gratitude for the beneficent
+character of Queen Victoria&rsquo;s rule and protection. On the outbreak
+of the Boer War in 1899, these same chiefs, at a great meeting
+held in the presence of the resident commissioner, gave a further
+protestation of their loyalty to Her Majesty. They remained
+passive throughout the War and the neutrality of the country was
+respected by both armies. One chief alone sought to take advantage
+of the situation by disloyal action, and his offence was met
+<span class="sidenote">A crown colony.</span>
+by a year&rsquo;s imprisonment. The conversion of Basutoland
+into a crown colony contributed alike to the prosperity
+of the Basuto, the security of the property of neighbouring
+colonists and a peaceful condition among the natives of
+South Africa generally. In pursuance of the policy of encouraging
+the self-governing powers of the Basuto, a national council
+was instituted and held its first sitting in July 1903. In August
+1905 the paramount chief Lerothodi died. In early life he had
+distinguished himself in the wars with the Boers, and in 1880 he
+took an active part in the revolt against the Cape government.
+Since 1884 he had been a loyal supporter of the imperial authorities,
+being unwavering in his adherence in critical times. Fearless
+and masterful he also possessed high diplomatic gifts, and though
+on occasion arbitrary and passionate he was neither revengeful nor
+cruel. On the 19th of September following Lerothodi&rsquo;s death,
+the national council, with the concurrence of the imperial government,
+elected his son Letsie as paramount chief. The completion
+in October 1905 of a railway putting Maseru in connexion with
+the South African railway system proved a great boon to the
+community. During the rebellion of the natives in Natal and
+Zululand in 1906 the Basuto remained perfectly quiet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>The Basutos</i> (2 vols., London, 1909), a standard
+history, and &ldquo;Basutoland and the Basutos&rdquo; in <i>Jnl. Ryl. Col. Inst.</i>
+1901, both by Sir G. Lagden, resident-commissioner, 1893-1901;
+E. Jacottet, &ldquo;M&oelig;urs, coutumes et superstitions des Ba-Souts,&rdquo; in
+<i>Bull. Soc. neuchâteloise Géog.</i>, vol. ix. pp. 107-151, 1897; G.M. Theal,
+<i>Basutoland Records</i> (Cape Town, 1883); E. Casalis, <i>Les Bassutos</i>
+(Paris, 1859), a description of exploration, manners and customs,
+the result of twenty-three years&rsquo; residence in the country; Minnie
+Martin, <i>Basutoland: its Legends and Customs</i> (London, 1903); Mrs
+F.A. Barkly, <i>Among Boers and Basutos</i> (new ed., London, 1897), a
+record, chiefly, of the Gun War of 1880-1882; C.W. Mackintosh,
+<i>Coillard of the Zambesi</i> (London, 1907). For geology consult E.
+Cohen, &ldquo;Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Süd-Afrika,&rdquo;
+<i>Neues Jahrb. f. Min.</i>, 1874, and <i>N. Jahrb. Beil.</i>, Bd. v., 1887; D.
+Draper, &ldquo;Notes on the Geology of South-eastern Africa,&rdquo; <i>Quart.
+Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. l., 1894; Hatch-Corstorphine. <i>The Geology
+of South Africa</i> (London, 1905). For current information see the
+annual report on Basutoland (Colonial Office, London). Many
+books dealing with South Africa generally have chapters relating to
+Basutoland, <i>e.g.</i> A.P. Hillier, <i>South African Studies</i> (London, 1900);
+James Bryce, <i>Impressions of South Africa</i> (3rd ed., London, 1899).
+Consult also Theal&rsquo;s <i>History of South Africa</i> (1908-9 ed.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.; A. P. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Report by resident-commissioner H.C. Sloley, for 1902-1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAT,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span><a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a name for any member of the zoological order Chiroptera
+(<i>q.v.</i>). Bats are insectivorous animals modified for flight,
+with slight powers of progression on the ground; the patagium
+or &ldquo;flying-membrane&rdquo; of some squirrels and of <i>Galeopithecus</i>
+(<i>q.v.</i>) probably indicates the way in which the modification was
+effected. They are distributed throughout the world, but are
+most abundant in the tropics and the warmer parts of the
+temperate zones; within these limits the largest forms occur.
+There is great variation in size; the Malay &ldquo;flying-fox&rdquo;
+(<i>Pteropus edulis</i>) measures about a foot in the head and body,
+and has a wing-spread of 5 ft.; while in the smaller forms the
+head and body may be only about 2 in., and the wing-spread
+no more than a foot. The coloration is generally sombre, but
+to this there are exceptions; the fruit-bats are brownish yellow
+or russet on the under surface; two South American species are
+white; Blainville&rsquo;s chin-leafed bat is bright orange; and the
+Indian painted bat (<i>Cerivoula picta</i>) with its deep orange dress,
+spotted with black on the wing-membranes, has reminded
+observers of a large butterfly. In habits bats are social,
+nocturnal and crepuscular; the insect-eating species feed on the
+wing, in winter in the temperate regions they migrate to a
+warmer climate, or hibernate, as do the British bats. The
+sense-organs are highly developed; the wing-membranes are
+exceedingly sensitive; the nose-leaf is also an organ of perception,
+and the external ear is specially modified to receive sound-waves.
+Most bats are insect-eaters, but the tropical &ldquo;flying
+foxes&rdquo; or fox-bats of the Old World live on fruit; some are
+blood-suckers, and two feed on small fish. Twelve species are
+British, among which are the pipistrelle (<i>Pipistrellus pygmaeus</i>,
+or <i>P. pipistrellus</i>), the long-eared bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>), the
+noctule (<i>Pipistrellus</i> [<i>Pterygistes</i>] <i>noctulus</i>) the greater and
+lesser horseshoe bats (<i>Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum</i> and <i>R.
+hipposiderus</i>), &amp;c. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flying-fox</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vampire</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> M. E. <i>bakke</i>, the change to &ldquo;bat&rdquo; having apparently been
+influenced by Lat. <i>batta</i>, <i>blatta</i>, moth. The word is thus distinct
+from the other common term &ldquo;bat,&rdquo; the implement for striking,
+which is probably connected with Fr. <i>battre</i>, though a Celtic or
+simply onomatopoetic origin has been suggested.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATAC,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a town of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon,
+Philippine Islands, 10 m. S. of Laoag, the capital. Pop. (1903)
+19,524; subsequently, in October 1903, the town of Banna
+(pop. 4015) was annexed. Cacao, tobacco, cotton, rice and
+indigo are grown in the neighbouring country, and the town
+has a considerable trade in these and other commodities; it
+also manufactures sugar, fans and woven fabrics. Batac was
+founded in 1587. It is the birthplace and home of Archbishop
+Gregorio Aglipay (b. 1860), the founder of an important sect of
+Filipino Independent Catholics.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATALA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Gurdaspur district of
+the Punjab, with a station on a branch of the North-Western
+railway, 24 m. from Amritsar. Pop. (1901) 27,365. It is an
+important centre of trade, with manufactures of cotton and silk
+goods, shawls, brass-ware, soap and leather. There are two
+mission schools.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATALHA<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> battle), a town of Portugal, in the district of
+Leiria, formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 8 m.
+S. of Leiria. Pop. (1900) 3858. Batalha, which occupies the
+site of the medieval Canoeira, is chiefly interesting for its great
+Dominican monastery of Santa Maria da Victoria (&ldquo;St Mary of
+the Victory&rdquo;), also known as Batalha. Both town and monastery
+owe their names to the battle fought on the plain between
+Canoeira and Aljubarrota, 9 m. S. W., in which John I. of Portugal
+defeated John I. of Castile in 1385 and secured the independence
+of his kingdom. The monastery is built of golden-brown limestone,
+resembling marble, and richly sculptured. In size and
+beauty it excels all the other buildings of Portugal in which
+Gothic and Moorish architecture are combined. Its ground-plan
+may be roughly described as a parallelogram, measuring
+about 500 ft. from north to south, and 445 from east to west;
+with the circular annexe of the royal mausoleum on the east,
+and the Founder&rsquo;s chapel at the south-western corner. In the
+centre is the royal cloister, which is flanked by the refectory,
+now a museum, on the west; and by the chapter-house, on the
+east. Two smaller cloisters, named respectively after Alphonso
+V. and John III., form the northern division of the parallelogram;
+its southern division is the Gothic church. The Founder&rsquo;s
+chapel contains the tomb of John I. (d. 1433) and Philippa of
+Lancaster (d. 1416), his queen, with the tomb of Prince Henry
+the Navigator (d. 1460). Like the royal mausoleum, where
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span>
+several later monarchs are buried, it is remarkable for the
+intricacy and exquisite finish of its carved stonework. The
+monastery was probably founded in 1388. Plans and masons
+were procured from England by Queen Philippa, and the work
+was entrusted to A. Domingues, a native architect, and Huetor
+Houguet, an Irishman. Only the royal cloister, church and
+Founder&rsquo;s chapel were included in the original design; and all
+three show signs of English influence. Various additions were
+made up to 1551, beginning with the royal mausoleum and ending
+with the cloister of John III. Considerable damage was inflicted
+by the earthquake of 1755; and in 1810 the monastery was
+sacked by the French. It was secularized in 1834 and declared
+a national monument in 1840. Thenceforward it was gradually
+restored.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATANGAS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town, port of entry, and the capital of the
+province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the
+Batangas river, about 1 m. from its mouth on the E. coast of
+the Gulf of Batangas, and about 65 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop.
+(1903) 33,131. The United States government has established
+a military post here, and the town has numerous fine public
+buildings and private residences. It is the most important port
+of a province noted for the fertility of its soil and the industry of
+its inhabitants. Its exports, which are large, include rice, coffee
+of excellent quality, cacao, sugar, Indian corn, horses and cattle.
+The horses of Batangas are unusually strong and active. Cotton
+is produced, and is woven into fabrics by the women. The
+language is Tagalog.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATARNAY, IMBERT DE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (? 1438-1523), French statesman,
+was born of an old but obscure family in Dauphiné, about the
+year 1438. In consequence of a chance circumstance he entered
+into relations with the dauphin Louis, at that time (1455) in
+arms against the king his father; he attached himself to the
+prince, and followed him on his retreat into Burgundy. From
+the beginning of his reign Louis XI. loaded Batarnay with
+favours: he married him to a rich heiress, Georgette de Montchenu,
+lady of Le Bouchage; besides making him captain of
+Mont Saint Michel and giving him valuable estates, with, later,
+the titles of counsellor and chamberlain to the king. In 1469
+Batarnay was sent to keep watch upon the duke of Guienne&rsquo;s
+intrigues, which began to appear dangerous. As lieutenant-general
+in Roussillon in 1475 he protected the countryside
+against the wrath of the king, who wished to repress with cruel
+severity a rebellion of the inhabitants. He was present at the
+interview between Louis XI. and Edward IV. of England at
+Picquigny, and was afterwards employed on negotiations with
+the duke of Burgundy. In accordance with the recommendations
+of his father, Charles VIII. kept the lord of Le Bouchage
+in his confidential service. During the differences that arose in
+1485 between the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and the dukes of
+Orleans, Brittany and Alençon, Imbert de Batarnay kept the
+inhabitants of Orleans faithful to the king. He proved his skill
+in the negotiations concerning the marquisate of Saluzzo and
+the town of Genoa. During the Naples expedition he was in
+charge of the dauphin, Charles Orland, who died in 1495. He
+treated with Maximilian of Austria to prevent him from entering
+Picardy during the war with Naples, and then proceeded to
+Castile to claim promised support. Under Louis XII. he took
+part in the expedition against the Genoese republic in 1507.
+Francis I. employed him to negotiate the proposed marriage of
+Charles of Austria with Renée of France, daughter of Louis XII.,
+and appointed him governor to the dauphin Francis in 1518.
+He died on the 12th of May 1523.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also B. de Mandrot&rsquo;s <i>Ymbert de Batarnay</i> (Paris, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATAVIA,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
+Indies, bounded E., S. and W. by the residencies of Krawana,
+Preanger and Bantam, and N. by the Java Sea. It also comprises
+a number of small islands in the Java Sea, including the
+Thousand Islands group, with a total area of 24 sq. m. The
+population in 1898 was 1,313,383, including 12,434 Europeans,
+82,510 Chinese, 3426 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The
+natives belong to a Sundanese group, but in the north contain
+a large admixture of Malays. The northern half of the province
+is flat, and even marshy along the coast, and consists of a broad
+band of alluvium formed by the series of parallel rivers descending
+from the south. The southern half on the other hand is
+covered by a mountain range whose chief peaks are situated
+along the southern border, namely Halimun mountain, the
+volcanoes Salak, Pangerango and Gede, and the Megamendung.
+The soil is fertile, and whereas rice is mainly grown on the lowlands
+the highlands are especially suitable for the cultivation
+of coffee, tea, tobacco, cinchona and vanilla. Extensive cocoanut
+plantations are also found in the plains, and market-gardening
+is practised in the neighbourhood of the towns. Sugar was
+formerly cultivated. The government of the residency of
+Batavia differs from that of the other residencies in having no
+native regencies, the lands being privately owned. The divisions
+of the residency are Batavia, town and surroundings, Tangerang,
+Meester Cornelis and Buitenzorg, the first being directly governed
+by a resident and the remainder by assistant residents. As
+early as the second half of the 17th century the Dutch East
+India Company began the practice of selling portions of the land
+to private persons, and of granting other portions as the reward
+of good services. A large strip of hill-country, almost corresponding
+to the present southern or Buitenzorg division of the
+residency, was appropriated by the governor-general in 1745
+and attached to that office. In 1808, however, Marshal Daendels
+disposed of this property to various purchasers, including the
+Dutch government, and thus the whole of the residency gradually
+passed into private hands. Hence the administration of the
+residency is largely confined to police duties. The principal
+towns are Batavia (<i>q.v.</i>), which is the capital of the residency,
+as well as the seat of government of the whole Dutch East
+Indies, Meester Cornelis, Tangerang, Bekasi and Buitenzorg
+(<i>q.v.</i>). Tangerang and Bekasi are important centres of trade.
+The Buitenzorg hill-country is much visited on account of its
+beauty, and cool and healthy climate. Gadok is a health resort
+6 m. south-east of Buitenzorg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATAVIA,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a city and seaport on the north coast of the island
+of Java, and the capital of all the Dutch settlements in the East.
+The population in 1880 was 96,957; in 1898, 115,567; including
+9423 Europeans, 26,433 Chinese, 2828 Arabs and 132 other
+Asiatic foreigners. It is situated on both sides of the river
+Jacatra or Jilivong, in a swampy plain at the head of a capacious
+bay. The streets are for the most part straight and regular,
+and many of them have a breadth of from 100 to 200 ft. In
+several cases there is a canal in the centre lined with stone, and
+protected by low parapets or banks, while almost every street
+and square is fringed with trees. The old town has greatly
+changed from its condition in the 18th century. It was then
+surrounded by strong fortifications, and contained a number of
+important buildings, such as the town-house (built in 1652 and
+restored in 1706), the exchange, the infirmary and orphan
+asylum, and the European churches. But the ramparts were
+long ago demolished; only natives, Malays, Arabs and Chinese
+live here, and the great European houses have either fallen into
+decay or been converted into magazines and warehouses. The
+European inhabitants live principally in the new town, which
+was gradually formed by the integration of Weltevreden (<i>Well-content</i>),
+Molenvliet (<i>Mill-stream</i>), Rijswijk (<i>Rice-town</i>), Noordwijk
+(<i>North-town</i>), Koningsplein (<i>King&rsquo;s square</i>), and other
+suburban villages or stations. The situation of this modern part
+is higher and healthier. The imitation of Dutch arrangements
+has been avoided, and the natural advantages of the situation and
+climate have been turned to account. The houses, generally of a
+single storey or two at most, are frequently separated from each
+other by rows of trees. Batavia contains numerous buildings
+connected with the civil and military organisation of the government.
+The governor-general&rsquo;s palace and the government buildings
+are the most important of these; in the district of Weltevreden
+are also the barracks, and the artillery school, as well as
+the military and civil hospital, and not far off is the Frederik-Hendrik
+citadel built in 1837. Farther inland, at Meester
+Cornelis, are barracks and a school for under-officers. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span>
+Koningsplein is a large open square surrounded by mansions of
+the wealthier classes. Noordwijk is principally inhabited by
+lesser merchants and subordinate officials. There is an orphan
+asylum in the district of Parapatna. Batavia has various educational
+and scientific institutions of note. In 1851 the government
+founded a medical school for Javanese, and in 1860 the
+&ldquo;Gymnasium William III.&rdquo; in which a comprehensive education is
+bestowed. A society of arts and sciences (which possesses an
+excellent museum) was established in 1778, a royal physical
+society in 1850, and a society for the promotion of industry and
+agriculture in 1853. In addition to the <i>Transactions</i> of these
+societies&mdash;many of which contain valuable contributions to their
+respective departments in their relation to the East Indies&mdash;a
+considerable number of publications are issued in Batavia.
+Among miscellaneous buildings of importance may be mentioned
+the public hall known as the <i>Harmonie</i>, the theatre, club-house
+and several fine hotels.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Batavia is varied, the Dutch residents being
+a comparatively small class, and greatly intermixed with Portuguese
+and Malays. Here are found members of the different
+Indian nations, originally slaves; Arabs, who are principally
+engaged in navigation, but also trade in gold and precious
+stones; Javanese, who are cultivators; and Malays, chiefly
+boatmen and sailors, and adherents of Mahommedanism. The
+Chinese are both numerous and industrious. They were long
+greatly oppressed by the Dutch government, and in 1740 they
+were massacred to the number of 12,000.</p>
+
+<p>Batavia Bay is rendered secure by a number of islands at its
+mouth, but grows very shallow towards the shore. The construction
+of the new harbour at Tanjong Priok, to the east of the
+old one, was therefore of the first importance. The works,
+begun in 1877 and completed in 1886, connect the town with
+Tanjong (&ldquo;cape&rdquo;) Priok by a canal, and include an outer port
+formed by two breakwaters, 6072 ft. long, with a width at
+entrance of 408 ft. and a depth of 27 ft. throughout. The inner
+port has 3282 ft. of quayage; its length is 3609 ft., breadth 573
+ft. and depth 24 ft. There is also a coal dock, and the port has
+railway and roadway connexion with Batavia. The river Jilivong
+is navigable 2 m. inland for vessels of 30 or 40 tons, but the
+entrance is narrow, and requires continual attention to keep it
+open.</p>
+
+<p>The exports from Batavia to the other islands of the archipelago,
+and to the ports in the Malay Peninsula, are rice, sago,
+coffee, sugar, salt, oil, tobacco, teak timber and planks, Java
+cloths, brass wares, &amp;c., and European, Indian and Chinese
+goods. The produce of the Eastern Islands is also collected
+at its ports for re-exportation to India, China and
+Europe&mdash;namely, gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benzoin and other
+drugs; edible bird-nests, trepang, rattans, beeswax,
+tortoise-shell, and dyeing woods from Borneo and Sumatra; tin from
+Banka; spices from the Moluccas; fine cloths from Celebes and
+Bali; and pepper from Sumatra. From Bengal are imported
+opium, drugs and cloths; from China, teas, raw silk, silk
+piece-goods, coarse China wares, paper, and innumerable smaller
+articles for the Chinese settlers. The tonnage of vessels clearing
+from Batavia to countries beyond the archipelago had increased
+from 879,000 tons in 1887 to nearly 1,500,000 tons by the end
+of the century. The old and new towns are connected by steam
+tramways. The Batavia-Buitenzorg railway passes the new
+town, thus connecting it with the main railway which crosses
+the island from west to east.</p>
+
+<p>Almost the only manufactures of any importance are the
+distillation of arrack, which is principally carried on by Chinese,
+the burning of lime and bricks, and the making of pottery. The
+principal establishment for monetary transactions is the Java
+Bank, established in 1828 with a capital of £500,000.</p>
+
+<p>Batavia owes its origin to the Dutch governor-general Pieter
+Both, who in 1610 established a factory at Jacatra (which had
+been built on the ruins of the old Javanese town of Sunda
+Calappa), and to his successor, Jan Pieters Coen, who in 1619
+founded in its stead the present city, which soon acquired a
+flourishing trade and increased in importance. In 1699 Batavia
+was visited by a terrible earthquake, and the streams were
+choked by the mud from the volcano of Gunong Salak; they
+overflowed the surrounding country and made it a swamp, by
+which the climate was so affected that the city became notorious
+for its unhealthiness, and was in great danger of being altogether
+abandoned. In the twenty-two years from 1730 to 1752,
+1,100,000 deaths are said to have been recorded. General
+Daendels, who was governor from 1808 to 1811, caused the
+ramparts of the town to be demolished, and began to form the
+nucleus of a new city at Weltevreden. By 1816 nearly all the
+Europeans had left the old town. In 1811 a British armament
+was sent against the Dutch settlements in Java, which had been
+incorporated by France, and to this force Batavia surrendered
+on the 8th of August. It was restored, however, to the Dutch
+by the treaty of 1814.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATAVIA,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Genesee county,
+New York, U.S.A., about 36 m. N.E. of Buffalo, on the
+Tonawanda Creek. Pop. (1890) 7221; (1900) 9180, of whom
+1527 were foreign-born; (1910), 11,613. Batavia is served by
+the New York Central &amp; Hudson River, the Erie, and the
+Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of the New York State
+School for the Blind, and of St Joseph&rsquo;s Academy (Roman
+Catholic), and has a historical museum, housed in the Old Holland
+Land Office (1804), containing a large collection of relics of the
+early days of New York, and a memorial library erected in 1889
+in memory of a son by Mary E. Richmond, the widow of Dean
+Richmond; the building contained in 1908 more than 14,000
+volumes. The public schools are excellent; in them in 1898
+Superintendent John Kennedy (b. 1846) introduced the method of
+individual instruction now known as the &ldquo;Batavia scheme,&rdquo;
+under which in rooms of more than fifty pupils there is, besides
+the class teacher, an &ldquo;individual&rdquo; teacher who helps backward
+children in their studies. Among Batavia&rsquo;s manufactures are
+harvesters, ploughs, threshers and other agricultural implements,
+firearms, rubber tires, shoes, shell goods, paper-boxes and inside
+woodwork. In 1905 the city&rsquo;s factory products were valued at
+$3,589,406, an increase of 39.5% over their value in 1900.
+Batavia was laid out in 1801 by Joseph Ellicott (1760-1826),
+the engineer who had been engaged in surveying the land known
+as the &ldquo;Holland Purchase,&rdquo; of which Batavia was a part. The
+village was incorporated in 1823. Here lived William Morgan,
+whose supposed murder (1826) by members of the Masonic order
+led to the organization of the Anti-Masonic party. Batavia was
+the home during his last years of Dean Richmond (1804-1866), a
+capitalist, a successful shipper and wholesaler of farm produce,
+vice-president (1853-1864) and president (1864-1866) of the New
+York Central railway, and a prominent leader of the Democratic
+party in New York state.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See O. Turner, <i>History of the Holland Purchase</i> (Buffalo, 1850).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1812-1875), American
+actor and manager, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 6th
+of December 1812. He was intended for an engineer, but in 1832
+became an actor, playing with Ellen Tree (afterwards Mrs Charles
+Kean) in juvenile leads. In 1855 he was manager of the St Louis
+theatre for a few years and in 1859 moved to New York. In 1866
+he was manager for his daughter Kate, and in 1871 returned to
+London, where he took the Lyceum theatre. Here he engaged Henry
+Irving, presenting him first in <i>The Bells</i>, with great success.
+He died on the 22nd of March 1875.</p>
+
+<p>His wife, <span class="sc">Sidney Frances</span> (1823-1881), daughter of Joseph
+Cowell, an English actor who had settled in America, was also an
+actress and the author of several popular plays, in one of which,
+<i>Self</i> (1857), she and her husband made a great success. After
+her husband&rsquo;s death Mrs Bateman continued to manage the Lyceum
+till 1875. She later took the Sadler&rsquo;s Wells theatre, which she
+managed until her death on the 13th of January 1881. She was
+the first to bring to England an entire American company with an
+American play, Joaquin Miller&rsquo;s <i>The Danites</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr and Mrs Bateman had eight children, three of the four
+daughters being educated for the stage. The two oldest, Kate
+Josephine (b. 1842), and Ellen (b. 1845), known as the &ldquo;Bateman
+children,&rdquo; began their theatrical career at an early age. In 1862
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span>
+Kate played in New York as Juliet and Lady Macbeth, and in
+1863 had a great success in London as Leah in Augustin Daly&rsquo;s
+adaptation of Mosenthal&rsquo;s <i>Deborah</i>. In 1866 she married George
+Crowe, but returned to the stage in 1868, playing later as Lady
+Macbeth with Henry Irving, and in 1875 in the title-part of
+Tennyson&rsquo;s <i>Queen Mary</i>. When her mother opened the Sadler&rsquo;s
+Wells theatre in 1879 Miss Bateman appeared as Helen Macgregor
+in <i>Rob Roy</i>, and in 1881 as Margaret Field in Henry Arthur Jones&rsquo;
+<i>His Wife</i>. Her daughter, Sidney Crowe (b. 1871), also became
+an actress. Virginia Bateman (b. 1854), a younger sister of Kate,
+born in Cincinnati, Ohio, went on the stage as a child, and first
+appeared in London in the title-part of her mother&rsquo;s play,
+<i>Fanchette</i>, in 1871. She created a number of important parts
+during several seasons at the Lyceum and elsewhere. She
+married Edward Compton the actor. Another sister was Isabel
+(b. 1854), well known on the London stage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATEMENT LIGHTS,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> in architecture the lights in the upper
+part of a perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of
+those below.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATES, HARRY<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1850-1899), British sculptor, was born at
+Stevenage, Herts, on the 26th of April 1850. He began his career
+as a carver&rsquo;s assistant, and before beginning the regular study of
+plastic art he passed through a long apprenticeship in
+architectural decoration. In 1879 he came to London and entered the
+Lambeth School of Art, studying under Jules Dalou and Rodin,
+and winning a silver medal in the national competition at South
+Kensington. In 1881 he was admitted to the Royal Academy
+schools, where in 1883 he won the gold medal and the travelling
+scholarship of £200 with his relief of &ldquo;Socrates teaching the
+People in the Agora,&rdquo; which showed grace of line and harmony of
+composition. He then went to Paris and studied under Rodin.
+A head and three small bronze panels (the &ldquo;Odyssey,&rdquo;) executed
+by Bates in Paris, were exhibited at the Royal Academy, and
+selected for purchase by the Chantrey trustees; but the selection
+had to be cancelled because they had not been modelled
+in England. His &ldquo;Aeneas&rdquo; (1885), &ldquo;Homer&rdquo; (1886), three
+&ldquo;Psyche&rdquo; panels and &ldquo;Rhodope&rdquo; (1887) all showed marked
+advance in form and dignity; and in 1892, after the exhibition of
+his vigorously designed &ldquo;Hounds in Leash,&rdquo; Bates was elected
+A.R.A. This and his &ldquo;Pandora,&rdquo; in marble and ivory, which
+was bought in the same year for the Chantrey Bequest, are now
+in the Tate Gallery. The portrait-busts of Harry Bates are good
+pieces of realism&mdash;strong, yet delicate in technique, and excellent
+in character. His statues have a picturesqueness in which the
+refinement of the sculptor is always felt. Among the chief of
+these are the fanciful &ldquo;Maharaja of Mysore,&rdquo; somewhat overladen
+with ornament, and the colossal equestrian statue of Lord
+Roberts (1896) upon its important pedestal, girdled with a frieze
+of figures, now set up in Calcutta, and a statue of Queen Victoria
+for Dundee. But perhaps his masterpiece, showing the sculptor&rsquo;s
+delicate fancy and skill in composition, was an allegorical
+presentment of &ldquo;Love and Life&rdquo;&mdash;a winged male figure in bronze, with
+a female figure in ivory being crowned by the male. Bates died
+in London on the 30th of January 1899, his premature death
+robbing English plastic art of its most promising representative
+at the time. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sculpture</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATES, HENRY WALTER<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1825-1892), English naturalist
+and explorer, was born at Leicester on the 8th of February 1825.
+His father, a manufacturing hosier, intended him for business,
+and for a time the son yielded to his wishes, escaping as often as
+he could into the neighbouring country to gratify his love of
+botany and entomology. In 1844 he met a congenial spirit in
+Alfred Russel Wallace, and the result was discussion and execution
+of a plan to explore some then little-known region of the
+globe. The banks of the Amazons was the district chosen, and in
+April 1848 the two friends sailed in a trader for Pará. They had
+little or no money, but hoped to meet their expenses by the sale of
+duplicate specimens. After two years Bates and Wallace agreed
+to collect independently, Wallace taking the Rio Negro and the
+upper waters of the Orinoco, while Bates continued his route up
+the great river for 1400 m. He remained in the country eleven
+years, during which time he collected no fewer than 8000 species
+of insects new to science. His long residence in the tropics, with
+the privations which it entailed, undermined his health. Nor had
+the exile from home the compensation of freeing him from
+financial cares, which hung heavy on him till he had the good
+fortune to be appointed in 1864 assistant-secretary of the Royal
+Geographical Society, a post which, to the inestimable gain of the
+society, and the advantage of a succession of explorers, to whom
+he was alike Nestor and Mentor, he retained till his death on the
+16th of February 1892. Bates is best known as the auther of one
+of the most delightful books of travel in the English language,
+<i>The Naturalist on the Amazons</i> (1863), the writing of which, as the
+correspondence between the two has shown, was due to Charles
+Darwin&rsquo;s persistent urgency. &ldquo;Bates,&rdquo; wrote Darwin to Sir
+Charles Lyell, &ldquo;is second only to Humboldt in describing a
+tropical forest.&rdquo; But his most memorable contribution to
+biological science, and more especially to that branch of it which
+deals with the agencies of modification of organisms, was his paper
+on the &ldquo;Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley,&rdquo; read before the
+Linnaean Society in 1861. He therein, as Darwin testified, clearly
+stated and solved the problem of &ldquo;mimicry,&rdquo; or the superficial
+resemblances between totally different species and the likeness
+between an animal and its surroundings, whereby it evades its
+foes or conceals itself from its prey. Bates&rsquo;s other contributions
+to the literature of science and travel were sparse and fugitive,
+but he edited for several years a periodical of <i>Illustrated Travels</i>.
+A man of varied tastes, he devoted the larger part of his leisure to
+entomology, notably to the classification of coleoptera. Of these
+he left an extensive and unique collection, which, fortunately for
+science, was purchased intact by René Oberthur of Rennes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATES, JOHN<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span>. A famous case in English constitutional
+history, tried before the court of exchequer in November 1606,
+arose out of the refusal of a merchant of the Levant Company,
+John Bates, to pay an extra duty of 5s. per cwt. on imported
+currants levied by the sole authority of the crown in addition to
+the 2s. 6d. granted by the Statute of Tonnage and Poundage, on
+the ground that such an imposition was illegal without the
+sanction of parliament. The unanimous decision of the four
+barons of the exchequer in favour of the crown threatened to
+establish a precedent which, in view of the rapidly increasing
+foreign trade, would have made the king independent of
+parliament.  The judgments of Chief Baron Fleming and Baron Clark
+are preserved. The first declares that &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s power is
+double, ordinary and absolute, and they have several laws and
+ends. That of the ordinary is for the profit of particular
+subjects, for the execution of civil justice ... in the ordinary
+courts, and by the civilians is nominated <i>jus privatum</i>, and with
+us common law; and these laws cannot be changed without
+parliament.... The absolute power of the king is not that
+which is converted or executed to private uses to the benefit of
+particular persons, but is only that which is applied to the general
+benefit of the people and is <i>salus populi</i>; and this power is not
+guided by the rules which direct only at the common law, and is
+most properly named policy or government; and as the constitution
+of this body varieth with the time, so varieth this
+absolute law, according to the wisdom of the king, for the
+common good; and these being general rules, and true as they
+are, all things done within these rules are lawful. The matter in
+question is material matter of state, and ought to be ruled by
+the rules of policy, and if it be so, the king hath done well to
+execute his extraordinary power. All customs (<i>i.e.</i> duties levied
+at the ports), be they old or new, are no other but the effects and
+issues of trades and commerce with foreign nations; but all
+commerce and affairs with foreigners, all wars and peace, all
+acceptance and admitting for foreign current coin, all parties and
+treaties whatsoever are made by the absolute power of the king;
+and he who hath power of causes hath power also of effects.&rdquo;
+Baron Clark, in his judgment, concurred, declaring that the
+seaports were the king&rsquo;s ports, and that, since foreign merchants
+were admitted to them only by leave of the crown, the crown
+possessed also the right of fixing the conditions under which they
+should be admitted, including the imposition of a money payment.
+Incidentally, Baron Clark, in reply to the argument that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span>
+the king&rsquo;s right to levy impositions was limited by the statute of
+1370-1371, advanced a principle still more dangerous to constitutional
+liberty. &ldquo;The statute of the 45 Edward III. cap. 4,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;which hath been so much urged, that no new imposition
+shall be imposed upon wool-fells, wool or leather, but only the
+custom and subsidy granted to the king&mdash;this extends only to
+the king himself and shall not bind his successors, for it is a
+principal part of the crown of England, which the king cannot
+diminish.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>State Trials</i> (ed. 1779), xi. pp. 30-32; excerpts in G.W.
+Prothero, <i>Statutes and Constitutional Documents</i> (Clarendon Press,
+1894); G.B. Adams and H. Morse Stephens, <i>Select Documents of
+Eng. Const. Hist.</i> (New York, 1901); cf. T.P. Taswell-Langmead,
+<i>Eng. Const. Hist.</i> (London, 1905), p. 393.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATES, JOSHUA<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1788-1864), American financier, was born
+in Weymouth, Massachusetts, on the 10th of October 1788, of an
+old Massachusetts family prominent in colonial affairs. After
+several winters&rsquo; schooling in his native town, he entered the
+counting-house of William Gray &amp; Son in Boston. In 1809 he
+began business on his own account, but failed during the War
+of 1812 and again became associated with the Grays, then the
+largest shipowners in America, by whom a few years later he was
+sent to London in charge of their European business. There he
+came into relations with the Barings, and in 1826 formed a
+partnership with John, a son of Sir Thomas Baring. Two years
+later both partners were admitted to the firm of Baring Brothers
+&amp; Company, of which Bates eventually became senior partner,
+occupying in consequence an influential position in the British
+financial world. In 1853-1854 he acted with rare impartiality
+and justice as umpire of the international commission appointed
+to settle claims growing out of the War of 1812. In 1852-1855
+he contributed $100,000 in books and in cash for a public library
+in Boston, the money to be invested and the annual income to be
+applied to the purchase of books. Upon his death the &ldquo;upper
+hall,&rdquo; or main reference-room (opened in 1861) in the building
+erected in 1858 by the order of the library trustees, was named
+Bates Hall; and upon the opening of the new building in 1895
+this name was transferred to its principal reading-room, one of
+the finest library halls in the world. During the Civil War
+Bates&rsquo;s sympathies were strongly with the Union, and besides
+aiding the United States government fiscal agents in various
+ways, he used his influence to prevent the raising of loans for
+the Confederacy. He died in London on the 24th of September
+1864.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memorial of Joshua Bates</i> (Boston, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATES, WILLIAM<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1625-1699), English nonconformist
+divine, was born in London in November 1625. He was admitted
+to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and removed thence to King&rsquo;s
+College in 1644. Of Presbyterian belief, he held the rich living
+of St Dunstan&rsquo;s-in-the-West, London. He was one of the commissioners
+at the conference in the Savoy, for reviewing the
+public liturgy, and was concerned in drawing up the exceptions
+to the Book of Common Prayer. Notwithstanding this he was
+appointed chaplain to Charles II., and was offered the deanery
+of Lichfield and Coventry, but he came out in 1662 as one of the
+2000 ejected ministers. Bates was of an amiable character, and
+enjoyed the friendship of the lord-keeper Bridgeman, the lord-chancellor
+Finch, the earl of Nottingham and Archbishop
+Tillotson. With other moderate churchmen he made several
+efforts towards a comprehensive settlement, but the bishops
+were uncompromising. He addressed William and Mary on
+their accession in behalf of the dissenters. After some years of
+pastoral service at Hackney he died there on the 14th of July
+1699. Bates published <i>Select Lives of Illustrious and Pious
+Persons</i> in Latin; and after his death all his works, except this,
+were printed in 1 vol. fol.; again in 1723; and in 4 vols. 8vo
+in 1815. They treat of practical theology and include <i>Considerations
+on the Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul</i>
+(1676), <i>Four Last Things</i> (1691), <i>Spiritual Perfection</i> (1699).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATESON<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Batson</span> or <span class="sc">Betson</span>), <b>THOMAS,</b> an English writer
+of madrigals in the early 17th century. He is said to have been
+organist of Chester cathedral in 1599, and is believed to have
+been the first musical graduate of Trinity College, Dublin. He
+is known to have written church music, but his fame rests on his
+madrigals, which give him an important place among Elizabethan
+composers. He published a set of madrigals in 1604 and a second
+set in 1618, and both collections have been reprinted in recent
+years. He died in 1630.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATH, THOMAS THYNNE,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Marquess of</span> (1734-1796),
+English politician, was the elder son of Thomas Thynne, 2nd
+Viscount Weymouth (1710-1751), and the great-grandnephew
+of Thomas Thynne (<i>c.</i> 1640-1714), the friend of Bishop Ken,
+who was created Baron Thynne and Viscount Weymouth in
+1682. His mother was Louisa (d. 1736), daughter of John
+Carteret, 1st Earl Granville, and a descendant of the family of
+Granville who held the earldom of Bath from 1661 to 1711. The
+Thynnes are descended from Sir John Thynne, the builder of
+Longleat, the splendid seat of the family in Wiltshire. Sir John,
+owed his wealth and position to the favour of his master, the
+protector Somerset; he was comptroller of the household of
+the princess Elizabeth, and was a person of some importance
+after the princess became queen. He died in April 1580.
+Another famous member of this family was Thomas Thynne
+(1648-1682), called on account of his wealth &ldquo;Tom of Ten
+Thousand.&rdquo; He is celebrated by Dryden as Issachar in <i>Absalom
+and Achitophel</i>, and was murdered in London by some Swedes
+in February 1682.</p>
+
+<p>Born on the 13th of September 1734, Thomas Thynne succeeded,
+his father as 3rd Viscount Weymouth in January 1751, and was
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland for a short time during 1765, although
+he never visited that country. Having, however, become
+prominent in English politics he was appointed secretary of
+state for the northern department in January 1768; he acted
+with great promptitude during the unrest caused by John
+Wilkes and the Middlesex election of 1768. He was then attacked
+and libelled by Wilkes, who was consequently expelled from the
+House of Commons. Before the close of 1768 he was transferred,
+from the northern to the southern department, but he resigned
+in December 1770 in the midst of the dispute with Spain over
+the possession of the Falkland Islands. In November 1775
+Weymouth returned to his former office of secretary for the
+southern department, undertaking in addition the duties
+attached to the northern department for a few months in 1779,
+but he resigned both positions in the autumn of this year. In
+1789 he was created marquess of Bath, and he died on the 19th
+of November 1796. Weymouth was a man of considerable
+ability especially as a speaker, but according to more modern
+standards his habits were very coarse, resembling those of his
+friend and frequent companion, Charles James Fox. Horace
+Walpole refers frequently to his idleness and his drunkenness,
+and in early life at least &ldquo;his great fortune he had damaged by
+such profuse play, that his house was often full of bailiffs.&rdquo; He
+married Elizabeth (d. 1825), daughter of William Bentinck,
+2nd duke of Portland, by whom he had three sons and ten
+daughters. His eldest son Thomas (1765-1837) succeeded to
+his titles, while the two younger ones, George (1770-1838) and
+John (1772-1849), succeeded in turn to the barony of Carteret
+of Hawnes, which came to them from their uncle, Henry
+Frederick Thynne (1735-1826). Weymouth&rsquo;s great-grandson,
+John Alexander, 4th marquess of Bath (1831-1896), the author
+of <i>Observations on Bulgarian affairs</i> (1880), was succeeded as
+5th marquess by his son Thomas Henry (b. 1862).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See B. Botfield, <i>Stemmata Botevilliana</i> (1858).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1684-1764),
+generally known by the surname of <span class="sc">Pulteney</span>, English politician,
+descended from an ancient family of Leicestershire, was the son
+of William Pulteney by his first wife, Mary Floyd, and was born
+in April 1684. The boy was sent to Westminster school, and
+from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, matriculating the
+31st of October 1700. At these institutions he acquired his deep
+classical knowledge. On leaving Oxford he made the usual tour
+on the continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by
+Henry Guy (secretary of the treasury, 1679-1688, and June 1691
+to February 1695) for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at
+his death on the 23rd of February 1710 inherited an estate of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span>
+£500 a year and £40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him
+without a break until 1734. Throughout the reign of Queen Anne
+William Pulteney played a prominent part in the struggles of
+the Whigs, and on the prosecution of Sacheverell he exerted
+himself with great zeal against that violent divine. When the
+victorious Tories sent his friend Robert Walpole to the Tower
+in 1712, Pulteney championed his cause in the House of
+Commons and with the leading Whigs Visited him in his prison-chamber.
+He held the post of secretary of war from 1714 to
+1717 in the first ministry of George I., and when the committee
+of secrecy on the Utrecht treaty was formed in April 1715 the
+list included the flame of William Pulteney. Two years later
+(6th of July 1716), he became one of the privy council. When
+Townshend was dismissed, in April 1717, from his post of lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland, and Walpole resigned his places, they
+were followed in their retirement by Pulteney. The crash of the
+South Sea Company restored Walpole to the highest position,
+but all that he offered to Pulteney was a peerage. The offer
+was rejected, but in May 1723 Pulteney stooped to accept the
+lucrative but insignificant post of cofferer of the household. In
+this obscure position he was content for some time to await the
+future; but when he found himself neglected he opposed the
+proposition of Walpole to discharge the debts of the civil list, and
+in April 1725 was dismissed from his sinecure. From the day of
+his dismissal to that of his ultimate triumph Pulteney remained
+in opposition, and, although Sir Robert Walpole attempted in
+1730 to conciliate him by the offer of Townshend&rsquo;s place and of
+a peerage, all his overtures were spurned. Pulteney&rsquo;s resentment
+was not confined to his speeches in parliament. With
+Bolingbroke he set on foot in December 1726 the well-known
+periodical called the <i>Craftsman</i>, and in its pages the minister
+was incessantly denounced for many years. Lord Hervey
+published an attack on the <i>Craftsman</i>, and Pulteney, either
+openly or behind the person of Amhurst, its editor, replied to the
+attack. Whether the question at issue was the civil list, the
+excise, the income of the prince of Wales, or the state of domestic
+affairs Pulteney was ready with a pamphlet, and the minister
+or one of his friends came out with a reply. For his &ldquo;Proper
+reply to a late scurrilous libel&rdquo; (<i>Craftsman</i>, 1731), an answer to
+&ldquo;Sedition and defamation displayed,&rdquo; he was challenged to a
+duel by Lord Hervey; for another, &ldquo;An answer to one part of
+an infamous libel entitled remarks on the <i>Craftsman&rsquo;s</i> indication
+of his two honourable patrons,&rdquo; he was in July 1731 struck off
+the roll of privy councillors and dismissed from the commission
+of the peace in several counties. In print Pulteney was inferior
+to Bolingbroke alone among the antagonists of Walpole, but in
+parliament, from which St John was excluded, he excelled all his
+comrades. When the sinking fund was appropriated in 1733
+his voice was the foremost in denunciation; when the excise
+scheme in the same year was stirring popular feeling to its lowest
+depths the passion of the multitude broke out in his oratory.
+Through Walpole&rsquo;s prudent withdrawal of the latter measure
+the fall, of his ministry was averted. Bolingbroke withdrew to
+France on the suggestion, it is said, of Pulteney, and the opposition
+was weakened by the dissensions of the leaders.</p>
+
+<p>From the general election of 1734 until his elevation to the
+peerage Pulteney sat for Middlesex. For some years after this
+election the minister&rsquo;s assailants made little progress in their
+attack, but in 1738 the troubles with Spain supplied them with
+the opportunity which they desired. Walpole long argued for
+peace, but he was feebly supported in his own cabinet, and the
+frenzy of the people for War knew no bounds. In an evil moment
+for his own reputation he consented to remain in office and to
+gratify popular passion with a war against Spain. His downfall
+was not long deferred. War was declared in 1739; a new
+parliament was summoned in the summer of 1741, and over the
+divisions on the election petitions the ministry of Walpole fell to
+pieces. The task of forming the new administration was after
+some delay entrusted to Pulteney, who weakly offered the post
+of first lord of the treasury to that harmless politician the earl
+of Wilmington, and contented himself with a seat in the cabinet
+and a peerage thinking that by this action he would preserve
+his reputation for consistency in disdaining office and yet retain
+his supremacy in the ministry. At this act popular feeling broke
+out into open indignation, and from the moment of his elevation
+to the Upper House Pulteney&rsquo;s influence dwindled to nothing.
+Horace Walpole asserts that when Pulteney wished to recall his
+desire for a peerage it was forced upon him through the ex-minister&rsquo;s
+advice by the king, and another chronicler of the times
+records that when victor and vanquished met in the House of
+Lords, the one as Lord Orford, the other as the earl of Bath, the
+remark was made by the exulting Orford: &ldquo;Here we are, my
+lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England.&rdquo; On the
+14th of July 1742 Pulteney was created Baron Pulteney of
+Hedon, Co. York, Viscount Pulteney of Wrington, Co. Somerset,
+and earl of Bath. On the 20th of February he had been restored
+to his rank in the privy council. At Wilmington&rsquo;s death in 1743
+he made application to the king for the post of first lord of the
+treasury, only to find that it had been conferred on Henry
+Pelham. For two days, 10th-12th February 1746, he was at the
+head of a ministry, but in &ldquo;48 hours, three quarters, seven
+minutes, and eleven seconds&rdquo; it collapsed. An occasional
+pamphlet and an infrequent speech were afterwards the sole
+fruits of Lord Bath&rsquo;s talents. His praises whilst in retirement
+have been sung by two bishops, Zachary Pearce and Thomas
+Newton. He died on the 7th of July 1764, and was buried on
+the 17th of July in his own vault in Islip chapel, Westminster
+Abbey. He married on the 27th of December 1714 Anna Maria,
+daughter and co-heiress of John Gumley of Isleworth, commissary-general
+to the army who was often satirized by the wits of the
+day (<i>Notes and Queries</i>, 3rd S. ii. 402-403, iii. 490). She died on
+the 14th of September 1758, and their only son William died
+unmarried at Madrid on the 12th of February 1763. Pulteney&rsquo;s
+vast fortune came in 1767 to William Johnstone of Dumfries
+(third son of Sir James Johnstone), who had married Frances,
+daughter and co-heiress of his cousin, Daniel Pulteney, a bitter
+antagonist of Walpole in parliament, and had taken the name of
+Pulteney.</p>
+
+<p>Pulteney&rsquo;s eloquence was keen and incisive, sparkling with
+vivacity and with allusions drawn from the literature of his own
+country and of Rome. Of business he was never fond, and the
+loss in 1734 of his trusted friend John Merrill, who had supplied
+the qualities which he lacked, was feelingly lamented by him in a
+letter to Swift. His chief weakness was a passion for money.
+Lord Bath has left no trace of the possession of practical
+statesmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Wm. Coxe&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs</i> of Sir Robert Walpole
+(1816), and of Henry Pelham (1829); John Morley&rsquo;s <i>Walpole</i> (1889);
+Walter Sichel&rsquo;s <i>Bolingbroke</i> (1901-1902); A. Ballantyne&rsquo;s <i>Carteret</i>
+(1887); <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> iv. 749-753, and the general political memoirs
+of the time.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. P. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATH,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
+and health resort of Somersetshire, England, on the Great
+Western, Midland, and Somerset &amp; Dorset railways, 107½ m. W.
+by S. of London. Pop. (1901) 49,839. Its terraces and crescents,
+built mostly of grey freestone, cover the slopes and heights of
+the abrupt hills which rise like an amphitheatre above the
+winding valley of the river Avon. The climate is pleasant, and
+the city, standing amidst fine scenery, itself possesses a number
+of beautiful walks and gardens. Jointly with Wells, it is an
+episcopal see of the Church of England. The abbey church
+of St Peter and St Paul occupies the site of earlier Saxon and
+Norman churches, founded in connexion with a 7th-century
+convent, which was transferred for a time to a body of secular
+canons, and from about 970 until the Dissolution, to Benedictine
+monks. The present cruciform building dates from the 15th
+century, being a singularly pure and ornate example of late
+Perpendicular work. From the number of its windows, it has
+been called &ldquo;The Lantern of the West,&rdquo; and especially noteworthy
+is the great west window, with seven lights, and flanking
+turrets on which are carved figures of the angels ascending and
+descending on Jacob&rsquo;s Ladder. Within are the tombs of James
+Quin, the actor, with an epitaph by Garrick; Richard Nash;
+Thomas Malthus the economist; William Broome the poet, and
+many others. Some of the monuments are the work of Bacon,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span>
+Flaxman and Chantrey. Slight traces of the previous Norman
+building remain. There are many other churches and chapels
+in Bath, the oldest being that of St Thomas of Canterbury, and
+one of the most interesting St Swithin&rsquo;s, which contains the tombs
+of Christopher Anstey and Madame d&rsquo;Arblay. Among educational
+institutions may be mentioned the free grammar school, founded
+by Edward VI., the Wesleyan College, originally established
+at Bristol by John Wesley, and the Roman Catholic College.
+The hospital of St John was founded in the 12th century.
+The public buildings include a guild hall, assembly rooms,
+Jubilee hall, art gallery and library, museum, literary and
+scientific institute, and theatres. In the populous suburb
+of Twerton (pop. 11,098), there are lias quarries, and bricks
+and woollen cloths are manufactured. The parliamentary borough
+returns two members. The city is governed by a mayor, 14
+aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 3382 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The mineral springs supply several distinct establishments.
+The temperature varies in the different springs from 117° to
+120° F, and the specific gravity of the hot baths is 1.002. The
+principal substances in solution are calcium and sodium sulphates,
+and sodium and magnesium chlorides. Traces of radium have been
+revealed, and the gases contain argon and helium. The waters are
+very beneficial in cases of rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, sciatica,
+diseases of the liver, and cutaneous and scrofulous affections.
+The highest archaeological interest, moreover, attaches to the
+baths in view of the magnificent Roman remains testifying to
+the early recognition of the value of the waters. It may here be
+noted that two distinct legends ascribe the foundation of Bath
+to a British king Bladud. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth
+this monarch gave its healing power to the water by his spells.
+According to a later version, he was banished as a leper, and
+made the discovery leading to his cure, and to the origin of Bath,
+whilst wandering as a swineherd in 863 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This, at least, is
+the date inscribed on a statue of Bladud placed in the Pump
+Room in 1699. There is, however, no real evidence of a British
+settlement. By the Romans Bath was named <i>Aquae Sulis</i>, the
+name indicating the dedication to a British goddess Sul or
+Sulis, whom the Romans considered the counterpart of Minerva.
+There were a temple of the goddess and a few houses for priests,
+officials and visitors, besides the large baths, and the place was
+apparently walled; but it did not contain a large resident
+population. Many relics have been disinterred, such as altars,
+inscriptions, fragments of stone carvings and figures, Samian
+ware, and others. The chief buildings were apparently grouped
+near the later abbey churchyard, and included, besides two
+temples, a magnificent bath, discovered when the duke of
+Kingston pulled down the old priory in 1755 to form the
+Kingston Baths. Successive excavations have rendered accessible a
+remarkable series of remains, including several baths, a <i>sudarium</i>,
+and conduits. The main bath still receives its water (now for
+the purpose of cooling) through the original conduit. The
+fragmentary colonnade surrounding this magnificent relic still
+supports the street and buildings beneath which it lies, the
+Roman foundations having been left untouched. The remains
+of the bath and of the temple are among the most striking Roman
+antiquities in western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Bath (variously known as Achemann, Hat Bathun, Bathonea,
+Batha) was a place of note in Saxon times, King Edgar being
+crowned there in 973. It was a royal borough governed by a reeve,
+with a burg mote in 907. Richard I. granted the first charter in
+1189, which allowed the same privileges as Winchester to the
+members of the merchant gild. This was confirmed by Henry III.
+in 1236, 1247 and 1256, by charters giving the burgesses of Bath
+the right to elect coroners, with freedom from arrest for the debts
+of others, and from the interference of sheriffs or kings&rsquo; bailiffs.
+Charters were granted by succeeding kings in 1312, 1322, 1341,
+1382, 1399, 1414, 1432, 1447, 1466 and 1545. The existence of a
+corporation being assumed in the earliest royal charter, and a
+common seal having been used since 1249, there was no formal
+incorporation of Bath until the charter of 1590, 1794 and 1835.
+Parliamentary representation began in 1297. Various fairs were
+granted to Bath, to be held on the 29th of August, the 9th of
+August, the 30th of June to the 8th of July (called Cherry Fair),
+the 1st of February to the 6th of February, in 1275, 1305, 1325
+and 1545 respectively. Fairs are now held on the 4th of February
+and on the Monday after the 9th of December. These fairs were
+flourishing centres of the cloth trade in the middle ages, but
+this industry has long departed. Bath &ldquo;beaver,&rdquo; however, was
+known throughout England, and Chaucer makes his &ldquo;Wife of
+Bath&rdquo; excel the cloth-weavers &ldquo;of Ypres and of Gaunt.&rdquo; The
+golden age of Bath began in the 18th century, and is linked with
+the work of the two architects Wood (both named John), of Ralph
+Allen, their patron, and of Richard Nash, master of the ceremonies.
+Previously the baths had been ill-kept, the lodging poor,
+the streets beset by footpads. All this was changed by the
+architectural scheme, including Queen Square, the Royal Crescent
+and the North and South Parades, which was chiefly designed by
+the elder Wood, and chiefly executed by his son. Instead of the
+booth which did duty as a gaming club and chocolate house, Nash
+provided the assembly rooms which figure largely in the pages of
+Fielding, Smollett, Burney, Dickens and their contemporaries.
+Anstey published his <i>New Bath Guide</i> to ridicule the laws of
+taste which &ldquo;Beau&rdquo; Nash dictated; but two royal visits, in 1734 and
+1738, established Bath as a centre of English fashion. The
+weekly markets granted on Wednesday and Saturday in 1305 are
+still held.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Warner, <i>History and Antiquities of Bath</i> (1801);
+C.E. Davis, <i>Ancient Landmarks of Bath</i>; <i>The Mineral Baths of Bath</i> (1883);
+<i>Excavations of Roman Baths</i> (1895), and <i>The Saxon Cross</i> (1898);
+Sir G. Jackson, <i>Archives of Bath</i> (2 vols., 1873);
+R.E.M. Peach, <i>Rambles about Bath</i> (1875), <i>Bath Old and New</i> (1888),
+<i>Collections of Books belonging to the City</i> (1893), &amp;c.;
+H. Scarth, <i>Aquae Solis, or Notices of Roman Bath</i> (1864);
+A. Barbeau, <i>Life and Letters at Bath in the 18th Century</i> (from
+the French <i>Une Ville d&rsquo;eaux anglaise au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>) (London, 1904);
+A.H. King, <i>Charter of Bath Corporation</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATH,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Sagadahoc
+county, Maine, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river,
+12 m. from its mouth and 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890)
+8723; (1900) 10,477, of whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910,
+census) 9396. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by
+steamboat lines to Boston, and by inter-urban electric railway.
+The city covers an area of about 9 sq. m., and extends along the
+W. bank of the river for about 5 m.; the business district is only
+a few feet above sea-level, but most of the residences are on higher
+ground. The streets are well shaded, chiefly with elms. At Bath
+are the state military and naval orphan asylum, two homes for
+the aged, and a soldiers&rsquo; monument. Bath has a good harbour
+and its principal industry is the building of ships, both of wood
+and of iron and steel, several vessels of the United States navy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span>
+have been built here. In 1905 three-fourths of the city&rsquo;s
+wage-earners were employed in this industry. Bath also manufactures
+lumber, iron and brass goods, and has a considerable trade in ice,
+coal, lumber and iron and steel. First settled about 1660, Bath
+was a part of Georgetown until 1781, when it was incorporated as
+a separate town; in 1789 it was made a port of entry, and in 1847
+was chartered as a city.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATH-CHAIR,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a vehicle with a folding hood, which can be used
+open or closed, and a glass front, mounted on three or four wheels
+and drawn or pushed by hand. If required to be drawn by a
+donkey or small pony it is then mounted on four wheels, with
+the usual turning arrangement. James Heath, of Bath, who
+flourished rather before the middle of the 18th century, was the
+inventor.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:530px; height:484px" src="images/img512.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHGATE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Linlithgowshire,
+Scotland, 19 m. W. by S. of Edinburgh by the North British
+railway. Pop. (1901) 7549. The district is rich in limestone, coal,
+ironstone, shale and fireclay, all of which are worked. Silver also
+was once mined. The manufactures include paraffin, paper, glass,
+chemicals, flour and whisky, and freestone is quarried. The burgh
+is a considerable centre for agricultural produce. Bathgate
+became a burgh of barony in 1824 and a police burgh in 1865.
+Although it was not until the development of its mineral wealth
+that it attained to commercial importance, it is a place of some
+antiquity, and formed the dowry of Marjory, Robert Bruce&rsquo;s
+daughter, who married Walter, the hereditary steward of Scotland,
+in 1315.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHOLITE<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="bothus">&#946;&#959;&#952;&#973;&#962;</span>, deep, and <span class="grk" title="litos">&#955;&#953;&#952;&#972;&#962;</span>, a stone), in
+geology, a term given to certain intrusive rock masses.
+Especially in districts which are composed principally of rocks
+belonging to the older geological systems extensive areas of
+granite frequently occur. By their relations to the strata
+around them, it is clear that these granites have been forced into
+their present positions in a liquid state, and under great pressure.
+The bedding planes of stratified rocks are wedged apart and
+tongues of granite have been injected into them, while cracks
+have been opened up and filled with intrusions in the shape of
+igneous veins. Great masses of the strata which the granite has
+invaded are often floated off, and are found lying in the heart
+of the granite much altered by the heat to which they have been
+exposed, and traversed by the igneous rock in ramifying threads.
+Such granite intrusions are generally known as bosses from their
+rounded surfaces, and the frequency with which they form
+flattish dome-shaped hills, rising above the older rocks surrounding
+them. At one time many geologists held that in
+certain situations the granite had arisen from the complete
+fusion and transformation of the stratified rocks over a limited
+area of intense metamorphism. The chemical no less than the
+structural relations of the two sets of rocks, however, preclude
+the acceptance of this hypothesis. Obviously the granite is an
+intruder which has welled up from below, and has cooled gradually,
+and solidified in its present situation.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the mechanism of this process there are two
+theories which hold the field, each having a large number of
+supporters. One school considers that they are mostly &ldquo;batholites&rdquo;
+or conical masses rising from great depths and eating up
+the strata which lie above and around them. The frequency
+of inclusions of the surrounding rocks, their rounded shapes
+indicating that they have been partly dissolved by the igneous
+magma, the intense alteration which they have undergone
+pointing to a state approaching actual fusion, the extensive
+changes induced in the rocks which adjoin the granite, the
+abundance of veins, and the unusual modifications of the granite
+which occur where it comes in contact with the adjacent strata,
+are adduced as evidence that there has been absorption and
+digestion of the country rock by the intrusive mass. These
+views are in favour especially in France; and instances are
+cited in which as the margins of the granite are approached
+diorites and other rocks make their appearance, which are
+ascribed to the effect which admixture with dissolved sedimentary
+material has had on the composition of the granite
+magma; at the same time the schists have been permeated
+with felspar from the igneous rocks, and are said to have been
+felspathized.</p>
+
+<p>The opponents of this theory hold these granitic masses to be
+&ldquo;laccolites&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="lakkos">&#955;&#940;&#954;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, a cistern), or great cake-shaped
+injections of molten rock, which have been pressed from below
+into planes of weakness in the upper portions of the earth&rsquo;s
+crust, taking the lines of least resistance, and owing their shape
+to the varying flexibility of the strata they penetrated. The
+modifications of the granite are ascribed to magmatic segregation
+(chemical and physical processes which occasioned diffusion of
+certain components towards the cooling surfaces). Absorption
+of country rock is held to be unimportant in amount, and insufficient
+to account for the great spaces in the schists which
+are occupied by the granite. Those who support this theory
+leave the question of the ultimate source of the granite unanswered,
+but consider that it is of deep-seated origin, and the
+bosses which now appear at the surface are only comparatively
+superficial manifestations.</p>
+
+<p>The bulk of the evidence is in favour of the laccolitic theory;
+in fact it has been clearly demonstrated in many important
+cases. Still it is equally clear that many granites are not merely
+passive injections, but have assimilated much foreign rock.
+Possibly much depends on the chemical composition of the
+respective masses, and on the depths and temperatures at which
+the intrusion took place. Increase of pressure and of temperature,
+which we know to take place at great depths, would stimulate
+resorption of sedimentary material, and by retarding cooling
+would allow time for dissolved foreign substances to diffuse
+widely through the magma.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHONIAN SERIES,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> in geology. The typical Bathonian
+is the Great Oolite series of England, and the name was derived
+from the &ldquo;Bath Oolite,&rdquo; so extensively mined and quarried
+in the vicinity of that city, where the principal strata were first
+studied by W. Smith. The term was first used by J. d&rsquo;Omalius
+d&rsquo;Halloy in 1843 (<i>Precis Geol</i>.) as a synonym for &ldquo;Dogger&rdquo;; but
+it was limited in 1849 by A. d&rsquo;Orbigny (<i>Pal. Franc. Jur</i>. i.
+p. 607). In 1864 Mayer-Eymar (<i>Tabl. Synchron</i>.) used the word
+&ldquo;Bathien&rdquo; = Bajocian + Bathonian (sen. str.). According to
+English practice, the Bathonian includes the following formations
+in descending order: Cornbrash, Forest Marble with Bradford
+Clay, Great or Bath Oolite, Stonesfield Slate and Fullers&rsquo; Earth.
+(The Fullers&rsquo; Earth is sometimes regarded as constituting a
+separate stage, the &ldquo;Fullonian.&rdquo;) The &ldquo;Bathonien&rdquo; of some
+French geologists differs from the English Bathonian in that
+it includes at the base the zone of the ammonite <i>Parkinsonia
+Parkinsoni</i>, which in England is placed at the summit of
+the Inferior Oolite. The Bathonian is the equivalent of the
+upper part of the &ldquo;Dogger&rdquo; (Middle Jurassic) of Germany,
+or to the base of the Upper Brown Jura (substage &ldquo;E&rdquo; of
+Quenstedt).</p>
+
+<p>Rocks of Bathonian age are well developed in Europe: in
+the N.W. and S.W. oolite limestones are characteristically
+associated with coral-bearing, crinoidal and other varieties,
+and with certain beds of clay. In the N. and N.E., Russia,
+&amp;c., clays, sandstones and ferruginous oolites prevail, some of
+the last being exploited for iron. They occur also in the
+extreme north of America and in the Arctic regions, Greenland,
+Franz Josef Land, &amp;c.; in Africa, Algeria, German East Africa,
+Madagascar and near the Cape (Enon Beds); in India, Rajputana
+and Gulf of Cutch, and in South America.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known Caen stone of Normandy and &ldquo;Hauptrogenstein&rdquo;
+of Swabia, as well as the &ldquo;Eisenkalk&rdquo; of N.W.
+Germany, and &ldquo;Klaus-Schichten&rdquo; of the Austrian Alps, are
+of Bathonian age.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a general account, see A. de Lapparent, <i>Traité de géologie</i> (5th
+ed., 1906), vol. ii.; see also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jurassic</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÁTHORY, SIGISMUND<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Zsigmond</span>), (1572-1613), prince of
+Transylvania, was the son of Christopher, prince of Transylvania,
+and Elizabeth Bocskay, and nephew of the great Stephen
+Báthory. He was elected prince in his father&rsquo;s lifetime, but being
+quite young at his father&rsquo;s death (1581), the government was
+entrusted to a regency. In 1588 he attained his majority, and,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span>
+following the advice of his favourite councillor Alfonso Carillo,
+departed from the traditional policy of Transylvania in its best
+days (when friendly relations with the Porte were maintained
+as a matter of course, in order to counterpoise the ever hostile
+influence of the house of Habsburg), and joined the league of
+Christian princes against the Turk. The obvious danger of such
+a course caused no small anxiety in the principality, and the
+diet of Torda even went so far as to demand a fresh coronation
+oath from Sigismund, and, on his refusal to render it, threatened
+him with deposition. Ultimately Báthory got the better of his
+opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands (1595).
+Nevertheless, if anybody could have successfully carried out an
+anti-Turkish policy, it was certainly Báthory. He had inherited
+the military genius of his uncle, and his victories astonished
+contemporary Europe. In 1595 he subdued Walachia and
+annihilated the army of Sinan Pasha at Giurgevo (October 28th).
+The turning-point of his career was his separation from his wife,
+the archduchess Christina of Austria, in 1599, an event followed
+by his own abdication the same year, in order that he might take
+orders. It was on this occasion that he offered the throne of
+Transylvania to the emperor Rudolph II., in exchange for the
+duchy of Oppeln. In 1600, however, at the head of an army of
+Poles and Cossacks, he attempted to recover his throne, but was
+routed by Michael, voivode of Moldavia, at Suceava. In February
+1601 the diet of Klausenburg reinstated him, but again he was
+driven out by Michael, never to return. He died at Prague in
+1613. Báthory&rsquo;s indisputable genius must have been warped
+by a strain of madness. His incalculableness, his savage cruelty
+(like most of the princes of his house he was a fanatical Catholic
+and persecutor) and his perpetual restlessness point plainly
+enough to a disordered mind.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ignaz Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian State</i> (Hung.) vol. ii.,
+(Budapest, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHOS<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="bathos">&#946;&#940;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>), properly depth, the bottom or lowest
+part of anything. The current usage for an anticlimax, a descent
+&ldquo;from the sublime to the ridiculous,&rdquo; from the elevated to the
+commonplace in literature or speech, is due to Pope&rsquo;s satire on
+<i>Bathos</i> (<i>Miscellanies</i>, 1727-1728), &ldquo;the art of sinking in poetry.&rdquo;
+The title was a travesty of Longinus&rsquo;s essay, <i>On the Sublime</i>,
+<span class="grk" title="Peri hupsous">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#8020;&#968;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHS<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span>. In the ordinary acceptation of the word a bath is
+the immersion of the body in a medium different from the
+ordinary one of atmospheric air, which medium is usually
+common water in some form. In another sense it includes the
+different media that may be used, and the various arrangements
+by which they are applied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ancient Baths.</i>&mdash;Bathing, as serving both for cleanliness and
+for pleasure, has been almost instinctively practised by nearly
+every people. The most ancient records mention bathing in the
+rivers Nile and Ganges. From an early period the Jews bathed
+in running water, used both hot and cold baths, and employed
+oils and ointments. So also did the Greeks; their earliest and
+commonest form of bathing was swimming in rivers, and bathing
+in them was practised by both sexes. Warm baths were, according
+to Homer, used after fatigue or exercise. The Athenians
+appear for a long time to have had only private baths, but afterwards
+they had public ones: the latter seem to have originated
+among the Lacedaemonians, who invented the hot-air bath, at
+least the form of it called after them the <i>laconicum</i>. Although
+the baths of the Greeks were not so luxurious as those of some
+other nations, yet effeminate people were accused among them
+of using warm baths in excess; and the bath servants appear to
+have been rogues and thieves, as in later and larger establishments.
+The Persians must have had handsomely equipped
+baths, for Alexander the Great admired the luxury of the bath
+of Darius.</p>
+
+<p>But the baths of the Greeks, and probably of all Eastern
+nations, were on a small scale as compared with those which
+eventually sprang up among the Romans. In early times the
+Romans used after exercise to throw themselves into the Tiber.
+Next, when ample supplies of water were brought into the city,
+large <i>piscinae</i>, or cold swimming baths, were constructed, the
+earliest of which appear to have been the <i>piscina publica</i> (312
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), near the Circus Maximus, supplied by the Appian aqueduct,
+the <i>lavacrum</i> of Agrippina, and a bath at the end of the Clivus
+Capitolinus. Next, small public as well as private baths were
+built; and with the empire more luxurious forms of bathing
+were introduced, and warm became far more popular than cold
+baths.</p>
+
+<p>Public baths (<i>balneae</i>) were first built in Rome after Clodius
+brought in the supply of water from Praeneste, After that date
+baths began to be common both in Rome and in other Italian
+cities; and private baths, which gradually came into use, were
+attached to the villas of the wealthy citizens. Maecenas was one
+of the first who built public baths at his own expense. After
+his time each emperor, as he wished to ingratiate himself with
+the people, lavished the revenues of the state in the construction
+of enormous buildings, which not only contained suites of bathing
+apartments, but included gymnasia, and sometimes even theatres
+and libraries. Such enormous establishments went by the name
+of <i>thermae</i>. The principal thermae were those of Agrippa 21 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+of Nero 65 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, of Titus 81, of Domitian 95, of Commodus 185,
+of Caracalla 217, and still later those of Diocletian 302, and of
+Constantine. The technical skill displayed by the Romans in
+rendering their walls and the sides of reservoirs impervious to
+moisture, in conveying and heating water, and in constructing
+flues for the conveyance of hot air through the walls, was of the
+highest order.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman baths contained swimming baths, warm baths,
+baths of hot air, and vapour baths. The chief rooms (which in
+the largest baths appear to have been mostly distinct, whereas
+in smaller baths one chamber was made to do duty for more
+than a single purpose) were the following:&mdash;(1) The <i>apodyterium</i>
+or <i>spoliatorium</i>, where the bathers undressed; (2) the <i>alipterium</i>
+or <i>unctuarium</i>, where oils and ointments were kept (although
+the bathers often brought their own pomades), and where the
+<i>aliptae,</i> anointed the bathers; (3) the <i>frigidarium</i>, or cool room,
+<i>cella frigida</i>, in which usually was the cold bath, the <i>piscina</i> or
+<i>baptisterium</i>; (4) the <i>tepidarium</i>, a room moderately heated, in
+which the bathers rested for a time, but which was not meant
+for bathing; (5) the <i>calidarium</i> or heating room, over the
+<i>hypocaustum</i> or furnace; this in its commonest arrangement
+had at one end a warm bath, the <i>alveus</i> or <i>calida lavatio</i>; at the
+other end in a sort of alcove was (6) the <i>sudatorium</i> or <i>laconicum</i>,
+which usually had a <i>labrum</i> or large vessel containing water,
+with which bathers sprinkled themselves to help in rubbing off
+the perspiration. In the largest baths the laconicum was probably
+a separate chamber, a circular domical room with recesses
+in the sides, and a large opening in the top; but there is no
+well-preserved specimen, unless that at Pisa may be so regarded.
+In the drawing of baths from the thermae of Titus (fig. 1), the
+laconicum is represented as a small cupola rising in a corner of
+the calidarium. It is known that the temperature of the laconicum
+was regulated by drawing up or down a metallic plate or
+<i>clypeus</i>. Some think that this clypeus was directly over the
+flames of the hypocaustum, and that when it was withdrawn,
+the flames must have sprung into the laconicum. Others, and
+apparently they have Vitruvius on their side, think that the
+clypeus was drawn up or down only from the aperture in the
+roof, and that it regulated the temperature simply by giving
+more or less free exit to the hot air. If the laconicum was only
+one end of the calidarium, it is difficult to see how that end of
+the room was kept so much hotter than the rest of it; on the
+other hand, to have had flames actually issuing from the laconicum
+must have caused smoke and soot, and have been very
+unpleasant. The most usual order in which the rooms were
+employed seems to have been the following, but there does not
+appear to have been any absolute uniformity of practice then,
+any more than in modern Egyptian and Turkish baths. Celsus
+recommends the bather first to sweat a little in the tepidarium
+with his clothes on, to be anointed there, and then to pass into
+the calidarium; after he has sweated freely there he is not to
+descend into the solium or cold bath, but to have plenty of water
+poured over him from his head,&mdash;first warm, then tepid, and then
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span>
+cold water&mdash;the water being poured longer over his head than
+on the rest of the body; next to be scraped with the strigil, and
+lastly to be rubbed and anointed.</p>
+
+<p>The warmest of the heated rooms, <i>i.e.</i> the calidarium and
+laconicum, were heated directly from the hypocaustum, over
+which they were built or suspended (<i>suspensura</i>); while from the
+hypocaustum tubes of brass, or lead, or pottery carried the hot
+air or vapour to the walls of the other rooms. The walls were
+usually hollow, so that the hot air could readily circulate.</p>
+
+<p>The water was heated ingeniously. Close to the furnace, about
+4 in. off, was placed the <i>calidarium</i>, the copper (<i>ahenum</i>) for
+boiling water, near which, with the same interval between them,
+was the copper for warm water, the <i>tepidarium</i>, and at the
+distance of 2 ft. from this was the receptacle for cold water, or
+the <i>frigidarium</i>, often a plastered reservoir. A constant communication
+was kept up between these vessels, so that as fast as
+hot water was drawn off from the calidarium a supply was obtained
+from the tepidarium, which, being already heated, but slightly
+reduced the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium,
+again, was supplied from the frigidarium, and that from an
+aqueduct. In this way the heat which was not taken up by the
+first boiler passed on to the second, and instead of being wasted,
+helped to heat the second&mdash;a principle which has only lately been
+introduced into modern furnaces. In the case of the large thermae
+the water of an aqueduct was brought to the <i>castellum</i> or top of
+the building and was allowed to descend into chambers over the
+hypocaustum, where it was heated and transmitted in pipes to the
+central buildings. Remains of this arrangement are to be seen in
+the baths of Caracalla. The general plan of such buildings may
+be more clearly understood by the accompanying illustrations.
+In the well-known drawing (fig. 1) found in the baths of Titus, the
+name of each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small
+dome inscribed laconicum directly over the furnace, and having
+the clypeus over it, will be observed in the corner of the chamber
+named concamerata sudatio. The vessels for water are inscribed,
+according to their temperature, with the same names as some of
+the chambers, frigidarium, tepidarium and calidarium.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:245px" src="images/img515a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Roman baths.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The baths of Pompeii (as shown in fig. 2) were a double set, and
+were surrounded with tabernae or shops, which are marked by a
+lighter shade. There were streets on four sides; and the reservoir
+supplying water was across the street in the building on the left
+hand of the cut. There were three public entrances&mdash;21<i>a</i>, 21<i>b</i>,
+21c&mdash;to the men&rsquo;s baths and one to the women&rsquo;s. The furnaces
+(9) heated water, which was conveyed on one side to the larger
+baths of the men, on the other to the women&rsquo;s. Entering from
+the street at 21c there was a latrina on the left hand (22). From
+this entrance it was usual to proceed to a court (20) surrounded by
+pillars, where servants were in attendance. There is some doubt
+as to the purpose to which the room (19) was devoted. Leaving
+the hall a passage conducted to the apodyterium or dressing-room
+(17), at one end of it is the frigidarium, baptisterium or cold
+plunge bath (18). Entering out of the apodyterium is the
+tepidarium or warming-room (15), which most probably was also
+used as the alipterium or anointing-room. From it bathers
+passed into the hot room or calidarium (12), which had at one end
+the alveus or calida lavatio (13), at the other end the labrum (14).
+This end of the calidarium served as the laconicum. The arrangements
+of the women&rsquo;s baths were similar, but on a smaller scale.
+The calidarium (5) had the labrum (7) at one end, and the alveus
+(6) was in one side of the room. The general arrangements of a
+calidarium are well illustrated by the accompanying section
+(fig. 3) of a bath discovered at Tusculum. The disposition of the
+parts is the same as at Pompeii. We here have the calidarium
+supported on the pillars of the fornax, the suspensura. The alveus
+(3) is at one end, and the labrum (4) at the other. (1) and (2)
+are the vessels for water over
+the fornax; and the passages
+in the roof and walls for the
+escape of heated air will be
+observed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:528px" src="images/img515b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Ground plan of the baths of Pompeii.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:257px; height:190px" src="images/img515c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Section of bath discovered
+at Tusculum, showing the calidarium (hot room).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A clear idea of the relative
+position of the different rooms,
+and some slight indication of
+their ornamentation, will be
+obtained from fig. 4. The
+flues under the calidarium
+and the labrum (1) may be
+observed, as also the opening
+in the roof above. (2), (3)
+and (4) mark the vessels for water which are placed between the
+men&rsquo;s baths on the left and the women&rsquo;s on the right.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangements of the <i>thermae</i> were mainly those of the
+balneae on a larger scale. Some idea of their size may be gathered
+from such facts as these, that in the baths of Diocletian one room
+has been transmuted into a church of most imposing proportions,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span>
+and that the outside walls of the baths of Caracalla extend about a
+quarter of a mile on each of the four sides. A visit to the remains
+of the baths of Titus, of Diocletian, or of Caracalla impresses the
+mind strongly with a sense of the vast scale on which they were
+erected, and Ammianus&rsquo;s designation of them as provinces appears
+scarcely exaggerated. It is said that the baths of Caracalla
+contained 1600, and those of Diocletian 3200 marble seats for the
+use of the bathers. In the largest of the thermae there was a
+stadium for the games of the young men, with raised seats for the
+spectators. There were open colonnades and seats for philosophers
+and literary men to sit and discourse or read their
+productions aloud or for others to discuss the latest news. Near
+the porticoes, in the interior open space, rows of trees were
+planted. There was a <i>sphaeristerium</i> or place for playing ball,
+which was often over the apodyterium; but it must be confessed
+that the purposes of many portions of these large edifices have not
+been made out in as satisfactory a way as those of smaller baths.
+A more definite idea of the thermae can be best got by an examination
+of the accompanying plan of the baths of Caracalla (fig. 5).
+A good deal of the plan is conjectural, the restorations being
+marked by lighter shading.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:248px" src="images/img515d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">&emsp;&emsp;FRIGIDARIUM&emsp;&emsp;TEPIDARIUM&emsp;&emsp;CALIDARIUM</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Section of baths of Pompeii.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:530px; height:459px" src="images/img516a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Ground plan of the baths of Caracalla.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At the bottom of the plan is shown a long colonnade, which faces
+the street, behind which was a series of chambers, supposed to have
+been separate bathing-rooms. Entering by the opening in its centre,
+the visitor passes what was probably an inner colonnade round the
+main building. Passing in by either of the gates (2, 2), he reaches
+the large chamber (3), which has been variously called the natatio
+or large swimming-bath, or the tepidarium. The great central room
+(4) in all probability was the calidarium, with two labra (6, 6) on
+opposite sides, and with four alvei, one in each corner, represented
+by small circular dots. (9) has been regarded by some as the laconicuim,
+although it appears very large for that purpose. The rooms
+(15, 15) have been variously described as baptisteria and as laconica.
+Most authors are agreed in thinking that the large rooms (13) and
+(16) were the sphaeristeria or places for playing ball.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the outside, (1) and (18) and the corresponding
+places on the other side are supposed to have been the exedrae for
+philosophers, and places corresponding to the Greek xysti. (20) and
+(19) have been considered to be servants&rsquo; rooms. (22) was the
+stadium, with raised seats for the spectators. The space between
+this and the large central hall (9) was planted with trees, and at (21)
+the aqueduct brought water into the castellum or reservoir, which
+was on an upper storey. There were upper storeys in most portions of
+the building, and in these probably were the libraries and small
+theatres.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The piscinae were often of immense size&mdash;that of Diocletian
+being 200 ft. long&mdash;and were adorned with beautiful marbles.
+The halls were crowded with magnificent columns and were
+ornamented with the finest pieces of statuary. The walls, it has
+been said, were covered with exquisite mosaics that imitated the
+art of the painter in their elegance of design and variety of colour.
+The Egyptian syenite was encrusted with the precious green
+marbles of Numidia. The rooms contained the works of Phidias
+and Praxiteles. A perpetual stream of water was poured into
+capacious basins through the wide mouths of lions of bright and
+polished silver, water issued from silver, and was received on
+silver. &ldquo;To such a pitch of luxury have we reached,&rdquo; says Seneca,
+&ldquo;that we are dissatisfied if we do not tread on gems in our baths.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:341px" src="images/img516b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ring on which are suspended some of
+the articles in use in the Alipterium.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The richer Romans used every variety of oils and pomades
+(<i>smegmata</i>); they scarcely had true soaps. The poorer class had
+to be content with the flour of lentils, an article used at this day
+for the same purpose by Orientals. The most important bath
+utensil was the strigillus, a curved instrument
+made of metal, with which the skin
+was scraped and all sordes removed.</p>
+
+<p>The bath servants assisted in anointing,
+in using the strigillus and in various other
+menial offices. The poorer classes had to
+use their strigils themselves. The various
+processes of the aliptae seem to have been
+carried on very systematically.</p>
+
+<p>The hot baths appear to have been open
+from 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> till dark. It was only one of
+the later emperors that had them lighted
+up at night. When the hot baths were
+ready (for, doubtless, the plunge baths
+were available at an earlier hour), a bell
+or <i>aes</i> was rung for the information of the
+people. Among the Greeks and Romans
+the eighth hour, or 1 o&rsquo;clock, before their
+dinner, was the commonest hour for bathing.
+The bath was supposed to promote appetite,
+and some voluptuaries had one or more
+baths after dinner, to enable them to begin
+eating again; but such excesses, as Juvenal tells us, occasionally
+proved fatal. Some of the most effeminate of the emperors are
+said to have bathed seven or eight times in the course of the
+day. In early times there was delicacy of feeling about the
+sexes bathing together&mdash;even a father could not bathe with his
+sons; but latterly, under most of the emperors, men and women
+often used the same baths. There frequently were separate
+baths for the women, as we see at Pompeii or at Badenweiler;
+but although respectable matrons would not go to public
+baths, promiscuous bathing was common during the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The public baths and thermae were under the more immediate
+superintendence of the aediles. The charge made at a public
+bath was only a quadrans or quarter of an as, about half a
+farthing. Yet cheap though this was, the emperors used to
+ingratiate themselves with the populace, by making the baths
+at times gratuitous.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever the Romans settled, they built public baths; and
+wherever they found hot springs or natural stufae, they made
+use of them, thus saving the expense of heating, as at the <i>myrteta</i>
+of Baiae or the <i>Aquae Sulis</i> of Bath. In the cities there appear
+to have been private baths for hire, as well as the public baths;
+and every rich citizen had a set of baths attached to his villa,
+the fullest account of which is given in the <i>Letters</i> of Pliny,
+or in Ausonius&rsquo;s <i>Account of a Villa on the Moselle</i>, or in Statius&rsquo;s
+<i>De Balneo Etrusco</i>. Although the Romans never wholly gave
+up cold bathing, and that practice was revived under Augustus
+by Antonius Musa, and again under Nero by Charmis (at which
+later time bathing in the open sea became common), yet they
+chiefly practised warm bathing (<i>calida lavatio</i>). This is the
+most luxurious kind of bathing, and when indulged in to excess
+is enervating. The women were particularly fond of these baths,
+and were accused, at all events in some provincial cities, of
+drunkenness in them.</p>
+
+<p>The unbounded license of the public baths, and their connexion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span>
+with modes of amusement that were condemned, led to their
+being to a considerable extent proscribed by the early Christians.
+The early Fathers wrote that bathing might be practised for the
+sake of cleanliness or of health, but not of pleasure; and Gregory
+the Great saw no objection to baths being used on Sunday.
+About the 5th century many of the large thermae in Rome fell
+into decay. The cutting off of the aqueducts by the Huns,
+and the gradual decrease of the population, contributed to this.
+Still it is doubtful whether bathing was ever disused to the extent
+that is usually represented. It was certainly kept up in the
+East in full vigour at Alexandria and at Brusa. Hot bathing,
+and especially hot air and vapour baths, were adopted by the
+Mahommedans; and the Arabs brought them with them into
+Spain. The Turks, at a later time, carried them high up the
+Danube, and the Mahommedans spread or, it may be more
+correct to say, revived their use in Persia and in Hindustan.
+The Crusaders also contributed to the spread of baths in Europe,
+and hot vapour baths were specially recommended for the leprosy
+so prevalent in those days. After the commencement of the 13th
+century there were few large cities in Europe without hot vapour
+baths. We have full accounts of their regulations&mdash;how the
+Jews were only allowed to visit them once a week, and how there
+were separate baths for lepers. In England they were called
+hothouses. Erasmus, at the date of the Reformation, spoke
+of them as common in France, Germany and Belgium; he gives
+a lively account of the mixture of all classes of people to be found
+in them, and would imply that they were a common adjunct to
+inns. They seem after a time to have become less common,
+though Montaigne mentions them as being still in Rome in his
+day. In England the next revival of baths was at the close of
+the 17th century, under the Eastern name of <i>Hummums</i> or the
+Italian name of Bagnios. These were avowedly on the principle
+of the Turkish baths described below. But there were several
+considerable epochs in the history of baths, one in the commencement
+of the 18th century, when Floyer and others recalled
+attention to cold bathing, of which the virtues had long been
+overlooked. In the middle of the century also, Russell and
+others revived sea-bathing in England, and were followed by
+others on the continent, until the value of sea-bathing became
+fully appreciated. Later in the same century the experiments
+of James Currie on the action of complete or of partial baths
+on the system in disease attracted attention; and though forgotten
+for a while, they bore abundant fruit in more recent
+times.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Baths</i>.&mdash;It is uncertain how far the Turkish and
+Egyptian and even the Russian baths are to be regarded merely
+as successors of the Roman baths, because the principle of
+vapour baths has been known to many nations in a very early
+period of civilization. Thus the Mexicans and Indians were
+found using small vapour baths. The ancient inhabitants of
+Ireland and of Scotland had some notion of their use, and the
+large vapour baths of Japan, now so extensively employed,
+are probably of independent origin.</p>
+
+<p>The following accounts of Turkish and Russian baths illustrate
+the practices of the ancient Roman and also of modern Turkish
+baths. In Lane&rsquo;s <i>On the Modern Egyptians</i> we read: &ldquo;The
+building consists of several apartments, all of which are paved
+with marble, chiefly white. The inner apartments are covered
+with domes, which have a number of small glazed apertures
+for the admission of light. The bather, on entering, if he has
+a watch or purse, gives them in charge to the keeper of the bath.
+The servant of the bath takes off his shoes and supplies him
+with a pair of wooden clogs. The first apartment has generally
+three or four <i>leewans</i> (raised parts of the floor used as couches)
+cased with marble, and a fountain of cold water, which rises
+from an octagonal basement in the centre. One of the leewans,
+which is meant for the higher classes, is furnished with cushions
+or mats. In warm weather bathers usually undress in this
+room; in winter they undress in an inner room, called the
+<i>beytowwal</i> or first chamber, between which and the last apartment
+there is a passage often with two or three latrines off it.
+This is the first of the heated chambers. It generally has two
+raised seats. The bather receives a napkin in which to put his
+clothes and another to put round his waist&mdash;this reaches to the
+knees; a third, if he requires it, is brought him to wind round
+his head, leaving the top of it bare; a fourth to put over his
+chest; and a fifth to cover his back. When the bather has undressed,
+the attendant opens to him the door of the inner and
+principal apartment. This in general has four leewans, which
+gives it the form of a cross, and in the centre a fountain of hot
+water rises from a small shallow basin. The centre room, with
+the adjoining ones, forms almost a square. The beytowwal
+already mentioned is one of them. Two small chambers which
+adjoin each other, one containing a tank of hot water, the other
+containing a trough, over which are two taps, one of hot and one
+of cold water, occupy the two other angles; while the fourth
+angle of the square is occupied by the chamber which contains
+the fire, over which is the boiler. The bather having entered
+this apartment soon perspires profusely from the humid heat
+which is produced by the hot water of tanks and fountains, and
+by the steam of the boiler. The bather sits on one of the marble
+seats, or lies on the leewan or near one of the tanks, and the
+operator then commences his work. The operator first cracks
+aloud every joint in the body. He makes the vertebrae of the
+back and even of the neck crack. The limbs are twisted with
+apparent violence, but so skilfully, that no harm is ever done.
+The operator next kneads the patient&rsquo;s flesh. After this he rubs
+the soles of the feet with a kind of rasp of baked clay. There
+are two kinds of rasps, one porous and rough, one of fine smooth
+clay. Those used by ladies are usually encased in thin embossed
+silver. The next operation is rubbing the bather&rsquo;s flesh with a
+small coarse woollen bag, after which the bather dips himself
+in one of the tanks. He is next taken to one of the chambers
+in the corner, and the operator lathers the bather with fibres of
+the palm tree, soap and water. The soap is then washed off with
+water, when the bather having finished washing, and enveloped
+himself in dry towels, returns to the beytowwal and reclines.
+Here he generally remains an hour to an hour and a half, sipping
+coffee and smoking, while an attendant rubs the soles of the
+feet and kneads the body and limbs. The bather then dresses
+and goes out.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The following description of a Russian bath is from Kohl&rsquo;s
+<i>Russia</i> (1842): &ldquo;The passage from the door is divided into two
+behind the check-taker&rsquo;s post, one for the male, one for the female
+guests. We first enter an open space, in which a set of men are
+sitting in a state of nudity on benches, those who have already
+bathed dressing, while those who are going to undergo the process
+take off their clothes. Round this space or apartment are
+the doors leading to the vapour-rooms. The bather is ushered
+into them, and finds himself in a room full of vapour, which is
+surrounded by a wooden platform rising in steps to near the roof
+of the room. The bather is made to lie down on one of the lower
+benches, and gradually to ascend to the higher and hotter ones.
+The first sensation on entering the room amounts almost to a
+feeling of suffocation. After you have been subjected for some
+time to a temperature which may rise to 145° the transpiration
+reaches its full activity, and the sensation is very pleasant.
+The bath attendants come and flog you with birchen twigs,
+cover you with the lather of soap, afterwards rub it off, and then
+hold you over a jet of ice-cold water. The shock is great, but is
+followed by a pleasant feeling of great comfort and of alleviation
+of any rheumatic pains you may have had. In regular establishments
+you go after this and lie down on a bed for a time before
+issuing forth. But the Russians often dress in the open air, and
+instead of using the jet of cold water, go and roll themselves at
+once in the snow.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Turkish baths have, with various modifications, become
+popular in Europe. The Russian baths were introduced into
+German towns about 1825. They had a certain limited amount
+of popularity, but did not take firm root. Another class practically
+owes its origin to Dr Barter and David Urquhart. It professed
+to be founded on the Turkish bath, but in reality it was
+much more of a hot air bath, <i>i.e.</i> more devoid of vapour than
+either Roman or Turkish baths ever were, for it is doubtful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span>
+whether in any case the air of the laconicum was free from
+vapour. These baths, with their various modifications, have
+become extremely popular in Great Britain, in Germany and in
+northern Europe, but have, curiously enough, never been used
+extensively in France, notwithstanding the familiarity of the
+French with Turkish baths in Algiers.</p>
+
+<p>In England hot air baths are now employed very extensively.
+They are often associated with Turkish and electric baths.</p>
+
+<p>Bathing among the ancients was practised in various forms.
+It was sometimes a simple bath in cold or in tepid water; but
+at least, in the case of the higher orders, it usually included a
+hot air or vapour bath, and was followed by affusion of cold or
+warm water, and generally by a plunge into the piscina. In like
+manner the order varies in which the different processes are gone
+through in Turkish baths in modern Europe. Thus in the baths
+in Vienna, the process begins by immersion in a large basin of
+warm water. Sudation is repeatedly interrupted by cold douches
+at the will of the bathers, and after the bath they are satisfied
+with a short stay in the cooling-room, where they have only a
+simple sheet rolled round them. In Copenhagen and in Stockholm
+the Oriental baths have been considerably modified by
+their association with hydropathic practices.</p>
+
+<p>This leads us to notice the introduction of the curiously misnamed
+system known as hydropathy (<i>q.v.</i>). Although cold
+baths were in vogue for a time in Rome, warm baths were always
+more popular. Floyer, as we have seen, did something to revive
+their use in England; but it was nearly a century and a half
+afterwards that a Silesian peasant, Priessnitz, introduced, with
+wonderful success, a variety of operations with cold water, the
+most important of which was the packing the patient in a wet
+sheet, a process which after a time is followed by profuse sudation.
+Large establishments for carrying out this mode of bathing
+and its modifications were erected in many places on the continent
+and in Great Britain, and enjoyed at one time a large
+share of popularity. The name &ldquo;hydropathic&rdquo; is still retained
+for these establishments, though hydropathy so-called is no
+longer practised within them to any extent.</p>
+
+<p>But the greatest and most important development of ordinary
+baths in modern times was in England, though it has extended
+gradually to some parts of the continent. The English had long
+used affusion and swimming-baths freely in India. Cold and hot
+baths and shower baths have been introduced into private
+houses to an extent never known before; and, since 1842, public
+swimming-baths, besides separate baths, have been supplied
+to the public at very moderate rates, in some cases associated
+with wash-houses for the poorer classes. Their number has
+increased rapidly in London and in the principal continental
+cities. Floating-baths in rivers, always known in some German
+towns, have become common wherever there are flowing streams.
+The better supply of most European cities with water has aided
+in this movement. Ample enclosed swimming-baths have been
+erected at many seaside places. When required, the water, if
+not heated in a boiler, is raised to a sufficient temperature by
+the aid of hot water pipes or of steam. Separate baths used to
+be of wood, painted; they are now most frequently of metal,
+painted or lined with <span class="correction" title="amended from procelain">porcelain</span> enamel. The swimming-baths
+are lined with cement, tiles or marble and porcelain slabs; and
+a good deal of ornamentation and painting of the walls and
+ceiling of the apartments, in imitation of the ancients, has been
+attempted.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus traced in outline the history of baths through
+successive ages. The medium of the baths spoken of thus far
+has been water, vapour or dry hot air. But baths of more
+complex nature, and of the greatest variety, have been in use
+from the earliest ages. The best known media are the various
+mineral waters and sea-water. Of baths of <i>mineral</i> substances,
+those of sand are the oldest and best known; the practice of
+<i>arenation</i> or of burying the body in the sand of the sea-shore,
+or in heated sand near some hot spring, is very ancient, as also
+that of applying heated sand to various parts of the body.
+Baths of <i>peat</i> earth are of comparatively recent origin. The
+peat earth is carefully prepared and pulverized, and then worked
+up with water into a pasty consistence, of which the temperature
+can be regulated before the patient immerses himself in it.</p>
+
+<p>There are various terms that may be termed <i>chemical</i>, in which
+chlorine or hydrochloric acid is added to the water of the bath,
+or where fumes of sulphur are made to rise and envelop the body.</p>
+
+<p>Of <i>vegetable</i> baths the number is very large. Lees of wine, in a
+state of fermentation, have been employed. An immense variety
+of aromatic herbs have been used to impregnate water with.
+At one time fuci or sea-weed were added to baths, under the idea
+of conveying into the system the iodine which they contain;
+but by far the most popular of all vegetable baths are those
+made with an extract got by distilling certain varieties of pine
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The strangeness of the baths of <i>animal</i> substances, that have
+been at various times in use, is such that their employment
+seems scarcely credible. That baths of milk or of whey might
+be not unpopular is not surprising, but baths of blood, in some
+cases even of human blood, have been used; and baths of horse
+dung were for many ages in high favour, and were even succeeded
+for a short time by baths of guano.</p>
+
+<p><i>Electrical</i> baths are now largely used, a current being passed
+through the water; and electrical <i>massage</i>, by the d&rsquo;Arsonval or
+other system, is colloquially termed a &ldquo;bath.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Baths also of <i>compressed air</i>, in which the patient is subjected
+to the pressure of two or three atmospheres, were formerly
+employed in some places.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>sun</i> bath (<i>insolatio</i> or <i>heliosis</i>), exposing the body to the sun,
+the head being covered, was a favourite practice among the
+Greeks and Romans.</p>
+
+<p>Some special devices require a few words of explanation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Douches</i> were used by the ancients, and have always been an
+important mode of applying water to a circumscribed portion of
+the body. They are, in fact, spouts of water, varying in size and
+temperature, applied by a hose-pipe with more or less force for
+a longer or shorter time against particular parts. A douche
+exercises a certain amount of friction, and a continued impulse
+on the spot to which it is applied, which stimulate the skin and
+the parts beneath it, quickening the capillary circulation. The
+effects of the douche are so powerful that it cannot be applied
+for more than a few minutes continuously. The alternation of
+hot and cold douches, which for some unknown reason has got
+the name of <i>Écossaise</i>, is a very potent type of bath from the
+strong action and reaction which it produces. The <i>shower</i> bath
+may be regarded as a union of an immense number of fine douches
+projected on the head and shoulders. It produces a strong effect
+on the nervous system. An ingenious contrivance for giving
+circular <i>spray</i> baths, by which water is propelled laterally in
+fine streams against every portion of the surface of the body, is
+now common.</p>
+
+<p>To all these modes of acting on the cutaneous surface and
+circulation must be added dry rubbing, as practised by the
+patient with the flesh glove, but much more thoroughly by the
+bath attendants, if properly instructed (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massage</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Action of Baths on the Human System</i>.&mdash;The primary operation
+of baths is the action of heat and cold on the cutaneous surfaces
+through the medium of water.</p>
+
+<p>The first purpose of baths is simply that of abstersion and
+cleanliness, to remove any foreign impurity from the surface, and
+to prevent the pores from being clogged by their own secretions
+or by desquamations of cuticle. It need scarcely be said that such
+objects are greatly promoted by the action of the alkali of soaps
+and by friction; that the use of warm water, owing to its immediate
+stimulation of the skin, promotes the separation of sordes,
+and that the vapour of water is still more efficient than water
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>It has been supposed that water acts on the system by being
+absorbed through the skin, but, under ordinary circumstances, no
+water is absorbed, or, if any, so minute a quantity as not to be
+worth considering. No dissolved substances, under the ordinary
+circumstances of a bath, are actually absorbed into the system;
+although when a portion of skin has been entirely cleared of its
+sebaceous secretion, it is possible that a strong solution of salts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span>
+may be partially absorbed. In the case of medicated baths we
+therefore only look (in addition to the action of heat and cold, or
+more properly to the abstraction or communication and retention
+of heat) to any stimulant action on the skin that the ingredients
+of the bath may possess.</p>
+
+<p>The powerful influence of water on the capillaries of the skin,
+and the mode and extent of that operation, depend primarily on
+the temperature of the fluid. The human system bears changes of
+temperature of the air much better than changes of the temperature
+of water. While the temperature of the air at 75° may be too
+warm for the feelings of many people, a continued bath at that
+temperature is felt to be cold and depressing. Again, a bath of
+98° to 102° acts far more excitingly than air of the same temperature,
+both because, being a better conductor, water brings more
+heat to the body and because it suppresses the perspiration which
+is greatly augmented by air of that temperature. Further, a
+temperature a few degrees below blood heat is that of indifferent
+baths, which can be borne longest without natural disturbance of
+the system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cold baths</i> act by refrigeration, and their effects vary
+according to the degree of temperature. The effects of a cold bath, the
+temperature not being below 50°, are these:&mdash;there is a diminution
+of the temperature of the skin and of the subjacent tissues;
+there is a certain feeling of shock diffused over the whole surface,
+and if the cold is intense it induces a slight feeling of numbness
+in the skin. It becomes pale and its capillaries contract. The
+further action of a cold bath reaches the central nervous system,
+the heart and the lungs, as manifested by the tremor of the limbs
+it produces, along with a certain degree of oppression of the chest
+and a gasping for air, while the pulse becomes small and sinks.
+After a time reaction takes place, and brings redness to the skin
+and an increase of temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The colder the water is, and the more powerful and depressing
+its effects, the quicker and more active is the reaction. Very cold
+baths, anything below 50°, cannot be borne long. Lowering of
+the temperature of the skin may be borne down to 9°, but a further
+reduction may prove fatal. The diminution of temperature is
+much more rapid when the water is in motion, or when the bather
+moves about; because, if the water is still, the layer of it in
+immediate contact with the body is warmed to a certain degree.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal depends on the form of the cold bath; thus one
+may have&mdash;(1) Its depressing operation,&mdash;with a loss of heat,
+retardation of the circulation, and feeling of weariness, when the
+same water remains in contact with the skin, and there is continuous
+withdrawal of heat without fresh stimulation. This occurs
+with full or sitz baths, with partial or complete wrapping up the
+body in a wet sheet which remains unchanged, and with frictions
+practised without removing the wet sheets. (2) Its exciting
+operation,&mdash;with quickening of the action of the heart and lungs,
+and feeling of glow and of nervous excitement and of increased
+muscular power. These sensations are produced when the layer
+of water next the body and heated by it is removed, and fresh cold
+water causes fresh stimulus. These effects are produced by full
+baths with the water in motion used only for a short time, by
+frictions when the wet sheet is removed from the body, by douches,
+shower baths, bathing in rivers, &amp;c. The depressing operation
+comes on much earlier in very cold water than in warmer; and in
+the same way the exciting operation comes on faster with the
+colder than with the warmer water. The short duration of the bath
+makes both its depressing and its exciting action less; its longer
+duration increases them; and if the baths be continued too long,
+the protracted abstraction of animal heat may prove very depressing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tepid baths,</i> 85° to 95°.&mdash;The effects of a bath of this
+temperature are confined to the peripheral extremities of the nerves,
+and are so slight that they do not reach the central system.
+There is no reaction, and the body temperature remains unchanged.
+Baths of this kind can be borne for hours with impunity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Warm baths</i> from 96° to 104°.&mdash;In these the action of the heat
+on the peripheral surface is propagated to the central system, and
+causes reaction, which manifests itself in moderately increased flow
+of the blood to the surface, and in an increased frequency of pulse.</p>
+
+<p>With a <i>hot bath</i> from 102° up to 110° the central nervous and
+circulating systems are more affected. The frequency of the pulse
+increases rapidly, the respiration becomes quickened, and is
+interrupted by deep inspirations. The skin is congested, and
+there is profuse perspiration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Very hot baths.</i>&mdash;Everything above 110° feels very hot;
+anything above 120° almost scalding. Baths of from 119° to 126°
+have caused a rise of 2° to 4½° in the temperature of the blood.
+Such a bath can be borne for only a few minutes. It causes great
+rapidity of the pulse, extreme lowering of the blood-pressure,
+excessive congestion of the skin, and violent perspiration.</p>
+
+<p>In the use of hot baths a certain amount of vapour reaches the
+parts of the body not covered by the water, and is also inhaled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vapour</i> baths produce profuse perspiration and act in
+cleansing the skin, as powerful hot water baths do. Vapour, owing to
+its smaller specific heat, does not act so fast as water on the body.
+A vapour bath can be borne for a much longer time when the
+vapour is not inhaled. Vapour baths can be borne hotter than
+water baths, but cannot be continued too long, as vapour, being a
+bad conductor, prevents radiation of heat from the body. A
+higher heat than 122° is not borne comfortably. The vapour bath
+though falling considerably short of the temperature of the hot
+air bath, raises the temperature much more.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hot air</i> baths differ from vapour baths in not impeding the
+respiration as the latter do, by depositing moisture in the bronchial
+tubes. The lungs, instead of having to heat the inspired air,
+are subjected to a temperature above their own. Hot air baths,
+say of 135°, produce more profuse perspiration than vapour baths.
+If very hot, they raise the temperature of the body by several
+degrees. Vapour baths, hot air baths, and hot water baths agree
+in producing violent perspiration. As perspiration eliminates
+water and effete matter from the system, it is obvious that its
+regulation must have an important effect on the economy.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing the general effects of cold and hot baths, it may
+be said that while the former tend to check perspiration, the
+latter favour it.</p>
+
+<p>The warm bath causes swelling and congestion of the capillaries
+of the surface in the first instance; when the stimulus of heat is
+withdrawn their contraction ensues. A cold bath, again, first
+causes a contraction of the capillaries of the surface, which is
+followed by their expansion when reaction sets in. A warm bath
+elevates the temperature of the body, both by bringing a supply
+of heat to it and by preventing the radiation of heat from it.
+It can be borne longer than a cold bath. It draws blood to the
+surface, while a cold bath favours internal congestions.</p>
+
+<p>But baths often produce injurious effects when used injudiciously.
+Long continued warm baths are soporific, and have, owing to
+this action, often caused death by drowning. The effects of
+very hot baths are swimming in the head, vomiting, fainting,
+congestion of the brain, and, in some instances, apoplexy.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms seem to point to paralysis of the action of the
+heart. It is therefore very evident how cautious those should be,
+in the use of hot baths, who have weak hearts or any obstruction
+to the circulation. Fat men, and those in whom the heart or
+blood-vessels are unsound, should avoid them. Protracted
+indulgence in warm baths is relaxing, and has been esteemed a
+sign of effeminacy in all ages. Sleepiness, though it will not
+follow the first immersion in a cold bath, is one of the effects
+of protracted cold baths; depression of the temperature of the
+surface becomes dangerous. The risk in cold baths is congestion
+of the internal organs, as often indicated by the lips getting blue.
+Extremely cold baths are always dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>For the medical use of baths see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balneotherapeutics</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Public Baths.</i>&mdash;It was not till 1846 that it was deemed
+advisable in England, for the &ldquo;health, comfort, and welfare&rdquo; of
+the inhabitants of towns and populous districts, to encourage
+the establishment therein of baths by the local authority acting
+through commissioners. A series of statutes, known collectively
+as &ldquo;The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896,&rdquo; followed.
+By the Public Health Act 1875, the urban authority was declared
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span>
+to be the authority having power to adopt and proceed under
+the previous acts, and in 1878 provision was for the first time
+expressly made for the establishment of swimming baths, which
+might be used during the winter as gymnasia, and by an
+amending act of 1899, for music or dancing, provided a licence
+is obtained. By the Local Government Act 1894, it was provided
+that the parish meeting should be the authority having exclusive
+power of adopting the Baths and Wash-houses Acts in rural
+districts, which should, if adopted, be carried into effect by the
+parish council. Up to 1865 it seems as if only twenty-five
+boroughs had cared to provide bathing accommodation for their
+inhabitants. There is no complete information as to the number
+of authorities who have adopted the acts since 1865, but a return
+of reproductive undertakings presented to the House of Commons
+in 1899 shows that no local authorities outside the metropolis
+applied for power to raise loans to provide baths, of whom 48
+applied before 1875 and 62 after 1875. In the year 1907 the
+loans sanctioned for the purpose amounted to £53,026. The
+revenues of parish councils are so limited that it has not been
+possible for them to take much advantage of the acts. In the
+metropolis, by the Local Government Act of 1894, the power
+of working the act was given to vestries, and by the act of
+1899 this power was transferred to the borough councils. There
+are 35 parishes in London in which the acts have been adopted,
+all of which except 11 have taken action since 1875. These
+establishments, according to the return made in 1908, provided
+3502 private baths and 104 swimming baths. The maximum
+charge for a second-class cold bath is 1d., for a hot bath 2d.
+In 1904-1905 the number of bathers was 6,342,158, of whom
+3,064,998 were bathers in private baths and 3,277,160 bathers
+in swimming baths. In 1896-1897 the gross total had been
+only 2,000,000. In cases where the proportion between the sexes
+has been worked out, it is found that only 18% of the users of
+private baths, and 10% of the users of swimming baths, are
+females. In 1898 the School Board was authorized to pay the
+fees for children using the baths if instruction in swimming
+were provided, and in 1907-1908 the privilege was used by
+1,556,542 children. The cost of this public provision in London&mdash;water
+being supplied by measure&mdash;is over £80,000 a year. No
+account can be given of the numbers using the ponds and lakes
+in the parks and open spaces, but it is computed that on a hot
+Sunday 25,000 people bathe in Victoria Park, London, some of
+the bathers starting as early as four o&rsquo;clock in the morning.
+These returns show how great is the increase of the habit of
+bathing, but they also show how even now the habit is limited
+to a comparatively small part of the population. People require
+to be tempted to the use of water, at any rate at the beginning.
+There are still authorities in London responsible for 800,000
+persons who have provided no baths, and those who have
+made provision have not always done so in a sufficiently
+liberal and tempting way. The comparison between English
+great towns and those of the continent is not in favour of the
+former.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the literature of baths in earlier periods we may refer to the
+<i>Architecture</i> of Vitruvius, and to Lucian&rsquo;s <i>Hippias</i>; see art. &ldquo;Bäder&rdquo;
+in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i> (1896), by A. Mau; &ldquo;Balneum&rdquo;
+in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dict. des antiquités</i> J. Marquardt <i>Das
+Privalleben der Römer</i> (1886), pp. 269-297; Backer&rsquo;s <i>Gallus</i>, and the
+article &ldquo;Balneae&rdquo; by Rich, in Dr Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Greek
+and Roman Antiquities</i> (rev. ed. 1890); also the bibliography to
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hydropathy</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The figure represents four strigils, in which the hollow for collecting the oil or perspiration from the body may be observed. There
+is also a small ampulla or vessel containing oil, meant to keep the
+strigils smooth, and a small flat patera or drinking vessel out of
+which it was customary to drink after the bathing was finished.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHURST, EARLS.<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> <span class="sc">Allen Bathurst</span>, 1st Earl Bathurst
+(1684-1775), was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst
+(d. 1704), by his wife, Frances (d. 1727), daughter of Sir Allen
+Apsley of Apsley, Sussex, and belonged to a family which is said
+to have settled in Sussex before the Norman Conquest. He was
+educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and became member of
+parliament for Cirencester in May 1705, retaining his seat until
+December 1711, when he was created Baron Bathurst of Battlesden,
+Bedfordshire. As a zealous Tory he defended Atterbury,
+bishop of Rochester, and in the House of Lords was an opponent
+of Sir Robert Walpole. After Walpole left office in 1742 he was
+made a privy councillor, and in August 1772 was created Earl
+Bathurst, having previously received a pension of £2000 a year
+chargeable upon the Irish revenues. He died on the 16th of
+September 1775, and was buried in Cirencester church. In July
+1704 Bathurst married his cousin, Catherine (d. 1768), daughter
+of Sir Peter Apsley, by whom he had four sons and five daughters.
+The earl associated with the poets and scholars of the time.
+Pope, Swift, Prior, Sterne, and Congreve were among his friends.
+He is described in Sterne&rsquo;s <i>Letters to Eliza</i>; was the subject of a
+graceful reference on the part of Burke speaking in the House of
+Commons; and the letters which passed between him and Pope
+are published in Pope&rsquo;s <i>Works</i>, vol. viii. (London, 1872).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Henry</span>, 2nd Earl Bathurst (1714-1794), was the eldest
+surviving son of the 1st earl. Educated at Balliol College,
+Oxford, he was called to the bar, and became a K.C. in 1745.
+In April 1735 he had been elected member of parliament for
+Cirencester, and was rewarded for his opposition to the government
+by being made solicitor-general and then attorney-general
+to Frederick, prince of Wales. Resigning his seat in parliament
+in April 1754 he was made a judge of the court of common pleas
+in the following month, and became lord high chancellor in
+January 1771, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron
+Apsley. Having become Earl Bathurst by his father&rsquo;s death in
+September 1775, he resigned his office somewhat unwillingly in
+July 1778 to enable Thurlow to join the cabinet of Lord North.
+In November 1779 he was appointed lord president of the
+council, and left office with North in March 1782. He died at
+Oakley Grove near Cirencester on the 6th of August 1794.
+Bathurst was twice married, and left two sons and four daughters.
+He was a weak lord chancellor, but appears to have been just
+and fair in his distribution of patronage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Henry</span>, 3rd Earl Bathurst (1762-1834), the elder son of the
+second earl, was born on the 22nd of May 1762. In April 1789
+he married Georgiana (d. 1841), daughter of Lord George Henry
+Lennox, and was member of parliament for Cirencester from
+1783 until he succeeded to the earldom in August 1794. Owing
+mainly to his friendship with William Pitt, he was a lord of the
+admiralty from 1783 to 1789; a lord of the treasury from 1789
+to 1791; and commissioner of the board of control from 1793
+to 1802. Returning to office with Pitt in May 1804 he became
+master of the mint, and was president of the Board of Trade and
+master of the mint during the ministries of the duke of Portland
+and Spencer Perceval, only vacating these posts in June 1812
+to become secretary for war and the colonies under the earl of
+Liverpool. For two months during the year 1809 he was in
+charge of the foreign office. He was secretary for war and the
+colonies until Liverpool resigned in April 1827; and deserves
+some credit for improving the conduct of the Peninsular War,
+while it was his duty to defend the government concerning its
+treatment of Napoleon Bonaparte. Bathurst&rsquo;s official position
+caused his name to be mentioned frequently during the agitation
+for the abolition of slavery, and with regard to this traffic he
+seems to have been animated by a humane spirit. He was lord
+president of the council in the government of the duke of Wellington
+from 1828 to 1830, and favoured the removal of the disabilities
+of Roman Catholics, but was a sturdy opponent of the
+reform bill of 1832. The earl, who had four sons and two
+daughters, died on the 27th of July 1834. Bathurst was made a
+knight of the Garter in 1817, and held several lucrative
+sinecures.</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Henry George</span>, 4th Earl Bathurst (1790-1866),
+was member of parliament for Cirencester from 1812 to
+1834. He died unmarried on the 25th of May 1866, and was
+succeeded in the title by his brother, <span class="sc">William Lennox</span>, 5th Earl
+Bathurst (1791-1878), member of parliament for Weobley from
+1812 to 1816, and clerk of the privy council from 1827 to 1860,
+who died unmarried on the 24th of February 1878.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Allen Alexander</span>. 6th Earl Bathurst (1832-1892), was the
+son of Thomas Seymour Bathurst, and grandson of the 3rd earl.
+He was member of parliament for Cirencester from 1857 until he
+became Earl Bathurst in February 1878, and died on the 2nd of
+August 1892, when his eldest son, <span class="sc">Seymour Henry</span> (b. 1864),
+became 7th Earl Bathurst.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BATHURST,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a city of Bathurst county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 144 m. by rail W.N.W. of Sydney on the Great
+Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9223. It is situated on the south
+bank of the Macquarie river, at an elevation of 2153 ft., in a
+fertile undulating plain on the west side of the Blue Mountains.
+Bathurst has broad streets,, crossing one another at right angles,
+with a handsome park in the centre of the town, while many of
+the public buildings, specially the town hall, government buildings,
+and Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, are noteworthy.
+Bathurst is the centre of the chief wheat-growing
+district of New South Wales, while gold, copper and silver are
+extensively mined in its vicinity. There are railway works,
+coach factories, tanneries, breweries, flour-mills and manufactures
+of boots and shoes and other commodities. The town
+was founded in 1815 by Governor Macquarie, taking its name
+from the 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary of state for the
+colonies, and it has been a municipality since 1862.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHVILLITE,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a naturally occurring organic substance. It
+is an amorphous, opaque, and very friable material of fawn-brown
+colour, filling cavities in the torbanite or Boghead coal of
+Bathville, Scotland. It has a specific gravity of 1.01, and is
+insoluble in benzene.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHYBIUS<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="bathis">&#946;&#945;&#952;&#973;&#962;</span>, deep, and <span class="grk" title="bios">&#946;&#943;&#959;&#962;</span>, life), a slimy substance
+at one time supposed to exist in great masses in the depths of the
+ocean and to consist of undifferentiated protoplasm. Regarding
+it as an organism which represented the simplest form of life,
+Huxley about 1868 named it <i>Bathybius Haeckelii</i>. But investigations
+carried out in connexion with the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo;
+expedition indicated that it was an artificial product, composed
+of a flocculent precipitate of gypsum thrown down from sea-water
+by alcohol, and the hypothesis of its organic character was
+abandoned by most biologists, Huxley included.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATHYCLES,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> an Ionian sculptor of Magnesia, was commissioned
+by the Spartans to make a marble throne for the statue of
+Apollo at Amyclae, about 550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Pausanias (iii. 18) gives us a
+detailed description of this monument, which is of the greatest
+value to us, showing the character of Ionic art at the time. It
+was adorned with scenes from mythology in relief and supporting
+figures in the round.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a reconstruction, see Furtwängler, <i>Meisterwerke der griech
+Plastik</i>, p. 706.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATLEY,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a municipal borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire,
+England, within the parliamentary borough of Dewsbury,
+8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on the Great Northern, London &amp; North
+Western, and Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1900)
+30,321. Area 2039 acres. The church of All Saints is mainly
+Perpendicular, and contains some fine woodwork, mostly of the
+17th century, and some good memorial tombs. The market
+square contains an excellent group of modern buildings, including
+the town hall, public library, post office and others. The town is
+a centre of the heavy woollen trade, and has extensive manufactures
+of army cloths, pilot cloths, druggets, flushings, &amp;c.
+The working up of old material as &ldquo;shoddy&rdquo; is largely carried on.
+There are also iron foundries, manufactures of machinery, and
+stone quarries. The town lies on the south-west Yorkshire
+coalfield, and there are a number of collieries in the district.
+The borough is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen
+councillors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATON<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (Fr. <i>bâton, baston</i>, from Late Lat. <i>basto</i>, a stick or
+staff), the truncheon carried by a field marshal as a sign of
+authority, by a police constable, &amp;c.; in music, the stick with
+which the conductor of an orchestra beats time; in heraldry, the
+fourth part of a bend, frequently broken off short at the ends
+so as to be shaped like a rod; in English coats of arms, only as a
+mark of illegitimacy, the &ldquo;baton sinister.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1708-1787), Italian painter,
+was born at Lucca. He was regarded in Italy as a great painter
+in the 18th century, and unquestionably did much to rescue the
+art from the intense mannerism into which it had fallen during
+the preceding century. His paintings, however, are not of the
+highest order of merit, though they are generally graceful, well
+designed, and harmoniously coloured. His best production is
+thought to be his group of &ldquo;Peace and War.&rdquo; Batoni painted an
+unusual number of pictures, and was also celebrated for his
+portraits.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATON ROUGE,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> the capital of Louisiana, U.S.A., and of
+East Baton Rouge parish, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river,
+about 70 m. N.W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 10,478; (1900)
+11,269, of whom 6596 were of negro descent; (1910 census)
+14,897. It is served by the Yazoo &amp; Mississippi Valley railway
+and by the Louisiana Railway &amp; Navigation Company; and
+the Texas &amp; Pacific enters Port Alien, just across the river.
+The city lies on the river bluff, secure against the highest floods.
+Old houses in the Spanish style give quaintness to its appearance.
+The state capitol was built in 1880-1882, replacing another
+burned in 1862. At Baton Rouge is the State University and
+Agricultural and Mechanical College (1860), of which the
+Audubon Sugar School, &ldquo;for the highest scientific training
+in the growing of sugar cane and in the technology of sugar
+manufacture,&rdquo; is an important and distinctive feature. The
+university grew out of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning
+and Military Academy, founded in 1855 near Alexandria and
+opened in 1860 under the charge of W.T. Sherman. In 1869 the
+institution was removed to Baton Rouge, and in 1877 it was
+united with the Agricultural and Mechanical College, established
+in 1873 and in 1874 opened at New Orleans. The campus of
+the university is the former barracks of the Baton Rouge garrison,
+occupied by the college since 1886 and transferred to it by the
+Federal government in 1902. The enrolment of the university
+in 1907-1908 was 636. Other important institutions at Baton
+Rouge are a State Agricultural Experiment Station, asylums
+and schools for the deaf and dumb, for the blind, and for orphans,
+and the state penitentiary. The surrounding bluff and alluvial
+country is very rich. Sugar and cotton plantations and sub-tropic
+fruit orchards occupy the front-lands on the river. The
+manufactures include lumber and cotton seed products, and
+sugar. The value of the city&rsquo;s factory products increased from
+$717,368 in 1900 to $1,383,061 in 1905 or 92.8%. The city
+is governed under a charter granted by the legislature in 1898.
+This charter is peculiar in that it gives to the city council the
+power to elect various administrative boards&mdash;of police, finance,
+&amp;c.&mdash;from which the legislative council of most cities is separated.</p>
+
+<p>Baton Rouge was one of the earliest French settlements in
+the state. As a part of West Florida, it passed into the hands
+of the British in 1763, and in 1779 was captured by Bernardo
+Galvez, the Spanish governor of Louisiana. The town was
+incorporated in 1817. In 1849 it was made the state capital,
+remaining so until 1862, when Shreveport became the Confederate
+state capital. In 1864 the Unionists made New Orleans
+the seat of government. The Secession Ordinance of Louisiana
+was passed on the 26th of January 1861 by a convention that
+met at Baton Rouge. On the and of May 1862 the city was
+captured by the forces of the United States under Col. Benjamin
+H. Grierson (b. 1826), who had led raiders thither from
+Tennessee; on the 12th of May it was formally occupied by
+troops from New Orleans, and was successfully defended by
+Brig.-Gen. Thomas Williams (1815-1862) against an attack
+by Confederate forces under General John C. Breckinridge on
+the 5th of August 1862; Gen. Williams, however, was killed
+during the attack. Baton Rouge was soon abandoned for a
+month, was then reoccupied, and was held throughout the rest
+of the war. It became the state capital again in 1882, in accordance
+with the state constitution of 1879. For several years
+after 1840 Zachary Taylor made his home on a plantation near
+Baton Rouge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATRACHIA<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>. The arguments adduced by T.H. Huxley,
+in his article on this subject in the ninth edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i>, for applying the name <i>Amphibia</i> to those
+lung-breathing, pentadactyle vertebrates which had been first
+severed from the Linnaean Amphibia by Alexandre Brongniart,
+under the name of <i>Batrachia</i>, have not met with universal
+acceptance. Although much used in text-books and anatomical
+works in Great Britain and in Germany, the former name has
+been discarded in favour of the latter by the principal authors
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span>
+on systematic herpetology, such as W. Peters, A. Günther and
+E.D. Cope, and their lead is followed in the present article.
+Bearing in mind that Linnaeus, in his use of the name Amphibia,
+was not alluding to the gill-breathing and air-breathing periods
+through which most frogs and newts pass in the course of their
+existence, but only wished to convey the fact that many of the
+constituents of the group resort to both land and water (<i>e.g.</i>
+crocodiles), it seems hard to admit that the term may be thus
+diverted from its original signification, especially when such a
+change results in discarding the name expressly proposed by
+Brongniart to denote the association which has ever since been
+universally adopted either as an order, a sub-class or a class.
+Many authors who have devoted special attention to questions
+of nomenclature therefore think <i>Reptilia</i> and <i>Batrachia</i> the
+correct names of the two great classes into which the Linnaean
+<i>Amphibia</i> have been divided, and consider that the latter term
+should be reserved for the use of those who, like that great
+authority, the late Professor Peters, down to the time of his death
+in 1883, would persist in regarding reptiles and batrachians as
+mere sub-classes (1). However extraordinary it may appear,
+especially to those who bring the living forms only into focus,
+that opposition should still be made to Huxley&rsquo;s primary division
+of the vertebrates other than mammals into <i>Sauropsida</i> (birds
+and reptiles) and <i>Ichthyopsida</i> (batrachians and fishes), it is
+certain that recent discoveries in palaeontology have reduced
+the gap between batrachians and reptiles to such a minimum
+as to cause the greatest embarrassment in the attempt to draw
+a satisfactory line of separation between the two; on the other
+hand the hiatus between fishes and batrachians remains as wide
+as it was at the time Huxley&rsquo;s article Amphibia (<i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i>, 9th ed.) was written.</p>
+
+<p>The chief character which distinguishes the Batrachians
+from the reptiles, leaving aside the metamorphoses, lies in the
+arrangement of the bones of the palate, where a large parasphenoid
+extends forwards as far or nearly as far as the vomers
+and widely separates the pterygoids. The bones which bear the
+two occipital condyles have given rise to much discussion, and
+the definition given by Huxley in the previous edition&mdash;&ldquo;two
+occipital condyles, the basi-occipital region of the skull either
+very incompletely or not at all ossified&rdquo;&mdash;requires revision.
+Some authors have held that the bone on which the occipital
+condyles have been found most developed in some labyrinthodonts
+(<b>2</b>) represents a large basi-occipital bearing two knobs
+for the articulation with the first vertebra, whilst the skull
+of the batrachians of the present day has lost the basi-occipital,
+and the condyles are furnished by the exoccipitals. On the
+other hand, some reptiles have the occipital condyle divided into
+two and produced either by the basi-occipital or by the exoccipitals.
+But the recent find of a well preserved skull of a
+labyrinthodont (<i>Capitosaurus stantonensis</i>) from the Trias of
+Staffordshire has enabled A.S. Woodward (<b>3</b>) to show that, in
+that form at any rate, the condyles are really exoccipital, although
+they are separated by a narrow basi-occipital. It is therefore
+very probable that the authors quoted in (<b>2</b>) were mistaken in
+their identification of the elements at the base of the foramen
+magnum. The fact remains, however, that some if not all of
+the stegocephalous batrachians have an ossified basi-occipital.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of his researches on the anomodont reptiles and
+the Stegocephalia (<b>4</b>), as the extinct order that includes the
+well known labyrinthodonts is now called, we have had the
+proposal by H.G. Seeley (<b>5</b>) to place the latter with the reptiles
+instead of with the batrachians, and H. Gadow, in his most
+recent classification (<b>6</b>), places some of them among the reptiles,
+others being left with the batrachians; whilst H. Credner,
+basing his views on the discovery by him of various annectent
+forms between the Stegocephalia and the Rhynchocephalian
+reptiles, has proposed a class, <i>Eotetrapoda</i>, to include these forms,
+ancestors of the batrachians proper on the one hand, of the
+reptiles proper on the other. Yet, that the Stegocephalia,
+notwithstanding their great affinity to the reptiles, ought to
+be included in the batrachians as commonly understood, seems
+sufficiently obvious from the mere fact of their passing through
+a branchiate condition, <i>i.e.</i> undergoing metamorphosis (<b>7</b>).
+The outcome of our present knowledge points to the Stegocephalia,
+probably themselves derived from the Crossopterygian
+fishes (<b>8</b>), having yielded on the one hand the true batrachians
+(retrogressive series), with which they are to a certain extent
+connected through the <i>Caudata</i> and the <i>Apoda</i>, on the other
+hand the reptiles (progressive series), through the Rhynchocephalians
+and the Anomodonts, the latter being believed, on
+very suggestive evidence, to lead to the mammals (<b>9</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:271px; height:422px" src="images/img522.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Upper view of <i>Archegosaurus
+Decheni</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Outlines after Gredner.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>pm</i>, Praemaxilla.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Nasal.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Maxilla.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Lachrymal.</p>
+<p><i>pf</i>, Praefrontal.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Frontal.</p>
+<p><i>j</i>, Jugal</p>
+<p><i>ptf</i>, Postfrontal.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>p</i>, Parietal.</p>
+<p><i>st</i>, Supratemporal.</p>
+<p><i>sq</i>, Squamosal.</p>
+<p><i>pto</i>, Postorbital.</p>
+<p><i>qj</i>, Quadrato-jugal.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Occipital.</p>
+<p><i>pt</i>, Post-temporal.</p>
+<p><i>q</i>, Quadrate.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The division of the class Amphibia or Batrachia into four
+orders, as carried out by Huxley, is maintained, with, however,
+a change of names: <i>Stegocephalia</i>, for the assemblage of minor
+groups that cluster round
+the <i>Labyrinthodonta</i> of R.
+Owen, which name is restricted
+to the forms for
+which it was originally intended;
+<i>Peromela</i>, <i>Urodela</i>,
+<i>Anura</i>, are changed to
+<i>Apoda</i>, <i>Caudata</i>, <i>Ecaudata</i>,
+for the reason that (unless
+obviously misleading, which
+is not the case in the
+present instance) the first
+proposed name should supersede
+all others for higher
+groups as well as for genera
+and species, and the latter
+set have the benefit of the
+law of priority. In the
+first subdivision of the batrachians
+into two families by
+C. Duméril in 1806 (<i>Zool.
+Anal</i>. pp. 90-94) these are
+termed &ldquo;Anoures&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Urodeles&rdquo; in French,
+<i>Ecaudati</i> and <i>Caudati</i> in
+Latin. When Duméril&rsquo;s
+pupil, M. Oppel, in 1811
+(<i>Ordn. Rept</i>. p. 72), added
+the Caecilians, he named
+the three groups <i>Apoda</i>,
+<i>Ecaudata</i> and <i>Caudata</i>. The
+Latin form being the only
+one entitled to recognition
+in zoological nomenclature, it follows that the last-mentioned
+names should be adopted for the three orders into which recent
+batrachians are divided.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>I. <span class="sc">Stegocephalia</span> (<b>10</b>).&mdash;Tailed, lacertiform or serpentiform batrachians,
+with the temporal region of the skull roofed over by
+postorbital, squamosal, and supratemporal plates similar to the
+same bones in Crossopterygian fishes, and likewise with paired
+dermal bones (occipitals and post-temporals) behind the parietals
+and supratemporals. A parietal foramen; scales or bony scutes
+frequently present, especially on the ventral region, which is further
+protected by three large bony plates&mdash;interclavicle and clavicles,
+the latter in addition to cleithra.</p>
+
+<p>Extinct, ranging from the Upper Devonian to the Trias. Our
+knowledge of Devonian forms is still extremely meagre, the only
+certain proof of the existence of pentadactyle vertebrates at that
+period resting on the footprints discovered in Pennsylvania and
+described by O.C. Marsh (<b>11</b>) as <i>Tinopus antiquus</i>. Sundry remains
+from Belgium, as to the identification of which doubts are still
+entertained, have been regarded by M. Lohest (<b>12</b>) as evidence of
+these batrachians in the Devonian. Over 200 species are now distinguished,
+from the Carboniferous of Europe and North America,
+the Permian of Spitsbergen, Europe, North America and South
+Africa, and the Trias of Europe, America, South Africa, India and
+Australia. The forms of batrachians with which we are acquainted
+show the vertebral column to have been evolved in the course of
+time from a notochordal condition with segmented centra similar
+to that of early bony ganoid fishes (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Caturus</i>, <i>Eurycormus</i>), to
+biconcave centra, and finally to the socket-and-ball condition that
+prevails at the present day. However, owing to the evolution of the
+vertebral column in various directions, and to the inconstant state
+of things in certain annectent groups, it is not possible, it seems, to
+apply the vertebral characters to taxonomy with that rigidity which
+E.D. Cope and some other recent authors have attempted to enforce.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span>
+This is particularly evident in the case of the Stegocephalians; and
+recent batrachians, tailed and tailless, show the mode of articulation
+of the vertebrae, whether amphicoelous, opisthocoelous or procoelous,
+to be of but secondary systematic importance in dealing with these
+lowly vertebrates. The following division of the Stegocephalians
+into five sub-orders is therefore open to serious criticism; but it
+seems on the whole the most natural to adopt in the light of our
+present knowledge.</p>
+
+<p><b>A. Rhachitomi</b>, (figs. 1, 2), in which the spinal cord rests
+on the notochord, which persists uninterrupted and is surrounded by
+three bony elements in addition to the neural arch: a so-called
+pleurocentrum on each side, which appears to represent the centrum
+proper of reptiles and mammals, and an intercentrum or hypocentrum
+below, which may extend to the neural arch, and probably
+answers to the hypapophysis, as it is produced into chevrons in the
+caudal region. Mostly large forms, of Carboniferous and Permian
+age, with a more or less complex infolding of the walls of the teeth.
+Families: <span class="sc">Archegosauridae, Eryopidae, Trimerorhachidae,
+Dissorhophidae.</span> The last is remarkable for an extraordinary
+endo- and exo-skeletal carapace, <i>Dissorhophus</i> being described by
+Cope (<b>13</b>) as a &ldquo;batrachian armadillo.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Embolomeri</b>, with the centra and intercentra equally
+developed disks, of which there are thus two to each neural arch;
+these disks perforated in the middle for the passage of the notochord.
+This type may be directly derived from the preceding, with which
+it appears to be connected by the genus <i>Diplospondylus</i>.
+Fam.: <span class="sc">Cricotidae</span>, Permian.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:347px" src="images/img523a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;A, Dorsal vertebrae. B, Caudal vertebra of <i>Archegosaurus</i>.
+<i>na</i>, Neural arch; <i>ch</i>, chorda; <i>pl</i>, pleurocentrum; <i>ic</i>, intercentrum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Outline after Jaekel.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><b>C. Labyrinthodonta</b>, with simple biconcave vertebral disks, very
+slightly pierced by a remnant of the notochord and supporting the
+loosely articulated neural arch. This condition is derived from
+that of the <i>Rhachitomi</i>, as shown by the structure of the
+vertebral column in young specimens. Mostly large forms from the
+Trias (a few Permian), with true labyrinthic dentition. Families:
+<span class="sc">Labyrinthodontidae, Anthracosauridae, Dendrerpetidae, Nyraniidae</span>.</p>
+
+<p><b>D. Microsauria</b>, nearest the reptiles, with persistent notochord
+completely surrounded by constricted cylinders on which the neural
+arch rests. Teeth hollow, with simple or only slightly folded walls.
+Mostly of small size and abundant in the Carboniferous and Lower
+Permian. Families: <span class="sc">Urocordylidae, Limnerpetidae, Hylonomidae</span> (fig. 3),
+<span class="sc">Microbrachidae, Dolichosomatidae</span>, the latter serpentiform, apodal.</p>
+
+<p><b>E. Branchiosauria</b>, nearest to the true batrachians; with
+persistent non-constricted notochord, surrounded by barrel-shaped,
+bony cylinders formed by the neural arch above and a pair of
+intercentra below, both these elements taking an equal share in the
+formation of a transverse process on each side for the support of the
+rib. This plan of structure, apparently evolved out of the rhachitomous
+type by suppression of the pleurocentra and the downward extension
+of the neural arch, leads to that characteristic of frogs in which, as
+development shows, the vertebra is formed wholly or for the greater
+part by the neural arch (<b>14</b>). Small forms from the Upper Carboniferous
+and Permian formations. A single family: <span class="sc">Branchiosauridae</span>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:317px; height:356px" src="images/img523b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;A, Dorsal vertebra of <i>Hylonomus</i> (side view
+and front view). B, Dorsal vertebra of <i>Branchiosaurus</i>
+(side view and front view). <i>n</i>, Neural canal; <i>ch</i>, chorda.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Credner.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>II. <span class="sc">Apoda</span> (<b>15</b>).&mdash;No limbs. Tail vestigial or absent. Frontal
+bones distinct from parietals; palatines fused with maxillaries.
+Male with an intromittent copulatory organ. Degraded, worm-like
+batrachians of still obscure affinities, inhabiting tropical Africa,
+south-eastern Asia and tropical America. Thirty-three species are
+known. No fossils have yet been discovered. It has been attempted
+of late to do away with this order altogether and to make the
+Caecilians merely a family of the Urodeles. This view has originated
+out of the very remarkable superficial resemblance between the
+<i>Ichthyophis</i>-larva and the <i>Amphiuma</i>. Cope (<b>16</b>) regarded
+the Apoda as the extremes of a line of degeneration from the Salamanders,
+with <i>Amphiuma</i> as one of the annectent forms. In the opinion of
+P. and F. Sarasin (<b>17</b>), whose great work on the development of
+<i>Ichthyophis</i> is one of the most important recent contributions
+to our knowledge of the batrachians, <i>Amphiuma</i> is a sort of
+neotenic Caecilian, a larval form become sexually mature while retaining
+the branchial respiration.  If the absence of limbs and the reduction of
+the tail were the only characteristic of the group, there would be,
+of course, no objection to unite the Caecilians with the Urodeles; but,
+to say nothing of the scales, present in many genera of Apodals and
+absent in all Caudates, which have been shown by H. Credner to be
+identical in structure with those of Stegocephalians, the Caecilian skull
+presents features which are not shared by any of the tailed batrachians.
+G.M. Winslow (<b>18</b>), who has made a study of the
+chondrocranium of <i>Ichthyophis</i>, concludes that its condition could
+not have been derived from a Urodele form, but points to some more
+primitive ancestor. That this ancestor was nearly related to, if not
+one of, the Stegocephalians, future discovery will in all probability show.</p>
+
+<p>III. <span class="sc">Caudata</span> (<b>19</b>).&mdash;Tailed batrachians, with the frontals distinct
+from the parietals and the palatines from the maxillary. Some of
+the forms breathe by gills throughout their existence, and were
+formerly regarded as establishing a passage from the fishes to the
+air-breathing batrachians. They are now considered as arrested
+larvae descended from the latter. One of the most startling discoveries
+of the decade 1890-1900 was the fact that a number of forms
+are devoid of both gills and lungs, and breathe merely by the skin
+and the buccal mucose membrane (<b>20</b>). Three blind cave-forms are
+known: one terrestrial&mdash;<i>Typhlotriton</i>, from North America, and
+two perennibranchiate&mdash;<i>Proteus</i> in Europe and <i>Typhlomolge</i>
+in North America.</p>
+
+<p>This order contains about 150 species, referred to five families:
+<span class="sc">Hylaeobatrachidae, Salamandridae, Amphiumidae, Proteidae, Sirenidae</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains are few in the Upper Eocene and Miocene of Europe
+and the Upper Cretaceous of North America. The oldest Urodele
+known is <i>Hylaeobatrachus</i> Dollo (<b>21</b>) from the Lower Wealden of
+Belgium. At present this order is confined to the northern hemisphere,
+with the exception of two <i>Spelerpes</i> from the Andes of Ecuador
+and Peru, and a <i>Plethodon</i> from Argentina.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">IV. Ecaudata</span> (<b>22</b>).&mdash;Frogs and toads. Four limbs and no tail.
+Radius confluent with ulna, and tibia with fibula; tarsus (astragalus
+and calcaneum) elongate, forming an additional segment in the hind
+limb. Caudal vertebrae fused into a urostyle or coccyx. Frontal
+bones confluent with parietals.</p>
+
+<p>This order embraces about 1300 species, of which some 40 are
+fossil, divided into two sub-orders and sixteen families:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><b>A. Aglossa</b>,&mdash;Eustachian tubes united into a single ostium
+pharyngeum; no tongue. <span class="sc">Dactylethridae, Pipidae</span>.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Phaneroglossa</b>,&mdash;Eustachian tubes separated; tongue present.
+<span class="sc">Discoglossidae, Pelobatidae, Hemiphractidae, Amphignathodontidae,
+Hylidae, Bufonidae, Dendrophryniscidae, Cystignathidae, Dyscophidae,
+Genyophrynidae, Engystomatidae, Ceratobatrachidae, Ranidae,
+Dendrobatidae</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The Phaneroglossa are divided into two groups; <i>Arcifera</i> and
+<i>Firmisternia</i>, representing two stages of evolution. The family
+characters are mainly derived from the dilatation or non-dilatation of
+the sacral diapophyses, and the presence of teeth in one or both jaws,
+or their absence. The <i>Discoglossidae</i> are noteworthy for the presence
+of short ribs to some of the vertebrae, and in some other points also
+they approach the tailed batrachians; they may be safely regarded
+as, on the whole, the most generalized of known Ecaudata. Distinct
+ribs are present at an early age in the Aglossa, as discovered by
+W.G. Ridewood (<b>23</b>). The recent addition of a third genus of Aglossa,
+<i>Hymenochirus</i> (<b>24</b>) from tropical Africa, combining characters
+of <i>Pipa</i> and <i>Xenopus</i>, has removed every doubt as to the real
+affinity which connects these genera. <i>Hymenochirus</i> is further
+remarkable for the presence of only six distinct pieces in the vertebral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span>
+column, which is thus the most abbreviated among all the
+vertebrata.</p>
+
+<p>Frogs and toads occur wherever insect food is procurable, and
+their distribution is a world-wide one, with the exception of many
+islands. Thus New Caledonia, which has a rich and quite special
+lizard-fauna, has no batrachians of its own, although the Australian
+<i>Hyla aurea</i> has been introduced with success. New Zealand possesses
+only one species (<i>Liopelma hochstetteri</i>), which appears to be rare
+and restricted to the North Island. The forest regions of southern
+Asia, Africa and South America are particularly rich in species.</p>
+
+<p>According to our present knowledge, the Ecaudata can be traced
+about as far back in time as the Caudata. An unmistakable
+batrachian of this order, referred by its describer to <i>Palaeobatrachus</i>,
+a determination which is only provisional, has been discovered in
+the Kimmeridgian of the Sierra del Montsech, Catalonia (<b>25</b>), in
+a therefore somewhat older formation than the Wealden Caudata
+<i>Hylaeobatrachus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from a few unsatisfactory remains from the Eocene of
+Wyoming, fossil tailless batrachians are otherwise only known from
+the Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene of Europe and India. These
+forms differ very little from those that live at the present day in the
+same part of the world, and some of the genera (<i>Discoglossus, Bufo,
+Oxyglossus, Rana</i>) are even identical. <i>Palaeobatrachus</i> (<b>26</b>), of which
+a number of species represented by skeletons of the perfect form
+and of the tadpole have been described from Miocene beds in Germany,
+Bohemia and France, seems to be referable to the <i>Pelobatidae</i>;
+this genus has been considered as possibly one of the Aglossa,
+but the absence of ribs in the larvae speaks against such an
+association.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous additions have been made to our knowledge of the
+development and nursing habits, which are extremely varied, some
+forms dispensing with or hurrying through the metamorphoses
+and hopping out of the egg in the perfect condition (<b>27</b>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Skeleton</i>.&mdash;In the earliest forms of this order, the Stegocephalia,
+we meet with considerable variety in the constitution of the vertebrae,
+and these modifications have been used for their classification.
+All agree, however, in having each vertebra formed of at least two
+pieces, the suture between which persists throughout life. In this
+they differ from the three orders which have living representatives.
+Even the inferior arches or chevrons of the tail of salamanders are
+continuously ossified with the centra. As a matter of fact, these
+vertebrae have no centra proper, that part which should correspond
+with the centrum being formed, as a study of the development has
+shown (H. Gadow, <b>14</b>), by the meeting and subsequent complete
+co-ossification of the two chief dorsal and ventral pairs of elements
+(tail-vertebrae of Caudata), or entirely by the pair of dorsal elements.
+In the Ecaudata, the vertebrae of the trunk are formed on two
+different plans. In some the notochord remains for a long time
+exposed along the ventral surface, and, owing to the absence of
+cartilaginous formation around it, disappears without ever becoming
+invested otherwise than by a thin elastic membrane; it can be
+easily stripped off below the vertebrae in larval specimens on the
+point of metamorphosing. This has been termed the <i>epichordal</i>
+type. In others, which represent the <i>perichordal</i> type, the greater
+share of the formation of the whole vertebra falls to the (paired)
+dorsal cartilage, but there is in addition a narrow ventral or hypochordal
+cartilage which fuses with the dorsal or becomes connected
+with it by calcified tissue; the notochord is thus completely surrounded
+by a thick sheath in tadpoles with imperfectly developed
+limbs. This mode of formation of both the arch and the greater
+part or whole of the so-called centrum from the same cartilage
+explains why there is never a neuro-central suture in these batrachians.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:198px" src="images/img524a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;The first two vertebrae of <i>Necturus</i>. <i>Vt</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Atlas; <i>Vt</i><span class="sp">2</span>, second vertebrae; <i>a</i>, intercondyloid process of the atlas; <i>b</i>, the articular surfaces for the occipital condyles. The ribs of the second
+vertebra are not represented. A, Dorsal; B, ventral; C, lateral view.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">During segmentation of the dorsal cartilages mentioned above,
+which send out the transverse processes of diapophyses, there appears
+between each two centra an intervertebral cartilage, out of which the
+articulating condyle of the centrum is formed, and becomes attached
+either to the vertebra anterior (precoelous type) or posterior (opisthocoelous type) to it, if not remaining as an independent, intervertebral,
+ossified sphere, as we sometimes find in specimens of
+<i>Pelobatidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Caudata and Apoda, cartilage often persists between
+the vertebrae; this cartilage may become imperfectly separated
+into a cup-and-ball portion, the cup belonging to the posterior end
+of the vertebra. In such cases the distinction between amphicoelous
+and opisthocoelous vertebrae rests merely on a question of ossification,
+and has occasionally given rise to misunderstandings in the
+use of these terms.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:275px; height:436px" src="images/img524b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:168px; height:368px" src="images/img524c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;<i>Necturus</i>. Posterior (A)
+and ventral (B) views of the sacral
+vertebrae (<i>S.V.</i>); <i>S.R.</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>S.R.</i><span class="sp">2</span>, sacral
+ribs; <i>Il</i>, ilium; <i>Is</i>, ischium.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.-Vertebral
+column of <i>Hymenochtrus</i>
+(ventral view).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Amphicoelous (bi-concave) vertebrae are found in the Apoda and
+in some of the Caudata; opisthocoelous (convexo-concave) vertebrae
+in the higher Caudata and in the lower Ecaudata; whilst the
+great majority of the Ecaudata have procoelous (concavo-convex)
+vertebrae.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:324px; height:287px" src="images/img524d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Chondrocranium of <i>Rana esculenta</i>&mdash;ventral
+aspect.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p><i>rp</i>,     The rhinal process.</p>
+<p><i>pnl</i>,    The praenasal processes.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>,     The alinasal processes, shown by the
+                  removal of part of the floor of the
+                  left nasal chamber.</p>
+<p><i>AO.</i>,    The antorbital process.</p>
+<p><i>pd</i>,     The pedicle of the suspensorium
+                  continued into <i>cv</i>, the ventral crus
+                  of the suspensorium.</p>
+<p><i>cd</i>,     Its dorsal crus.</p>
+<p><i>tt</i>,     The tegmen tympani.</p>
+<p><i>SE</i>,     The sphen-ethmoid.</p>
+<p><i>EO.</i>,    The exoccipitals.</p>
+<p><i>Qu.J.</i>,  The quadratojugal.</p>
+<p><i>II. V. VI.</i> Foramina by which the optic,
+                    trigeminal and abortio dura, and abducens
+                    nerves leave the skull.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">All living batrachians, and some of the Stegocephalia, have transverse
+processes on the vertebrae that succeed the atlas (fig. 4), some
+of which, in the Caudata,
+are divided into
+a dorsal and a ventral
+portion. Ribs are
+present in the lower
+Ecaudata (<i>Discoglossidae</i>
+and larval
+Aglossa), but they are
+never connected with a
+sternum. It is in fact
+doubtful whether the
+so-called sternum of
+batrachians, in most
+cases a mere plate of
+cartilage, has been correctly
+identified as such.
+When limbs are present,
+one vertebra, rarely two
+(fig. 5) or three, are
+distinguished as sacral,
+giving attachment to
+the ilia. In the Ecaudata,
+the form of the
+transverse processes of
+the sacral vertebra
+varies very considerably,
+and has afforded
+important characters to
+the systematist. In
+accordance with the
+saltatorial habits of the
+members of this order,
+the vertebrae, which
+number from 40 to 60
+in the Caudata, to upwards
+of 200 in the
+Apoda, have become
+reduced to 10 as the
+normal number, viz.,
+eight praecaudal, one sacral and an elongate coccyx or urostyle,
+formed by coalescence of at least two vertebrae. In some genera
+this coccyx is fused with the ninth vertebra, and contributes to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span>
+sacrum, whilst in a few others the number of segments is still
+further reduced by the co-ossification of one or two vertebrae
+preceding that corresponding to the normal sacral and by the fusion
+of the two first vertebrae, the extreme of reduction being found in
+the genus <i>Hymenochirus</i>, the vertebral column of which is figured
+here (fig 6.)</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:405px" src="images/img525a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;The skull of <i>Ichthyophis glutinosus</i> A, Dorsal; B,
+ventral; C, lateral view. The letters have the same signification as
+below.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">As stated above in the definition of the order, the Stegocephalia
+have retained most of the cranial bones which are to be found in the
+Crossopterygian fishes, and it is worthy of note that the bones termed
+post-temporals may give attachment to a further bone so prolonged
+backwards as to suggest the probability of the skull being connected
+with the shoulder-girdle, as in most teleostome fishes. This supposition
+is supported by a specimen from the Lower Permian of
+Autun, determined as <i>Actinodon frossardi</i>, acquired in 1902 by the
+British Museum, which shows a bone, similar to the so-called &ldquo;epiotic
+cornu&rdquo; of the microsaurians, <i>Ceraterpeton</i> and <i>Scincosaurus</i>, to have
+the relations of the supra-cleithrum of fishes, thus confirming a
+suggestion made by C.W. Andrews (<b>28</b>). As in fishes also, the
+sensory canal system must have been highly developed on the skulls
+of many labyrinthodonts, and the impressions left by these canals
+have been utilized by morphologists for homologizing the various
+elements of the cranial roof with those of Crossopterygians. The
+pineal foramen, in the parietal bones, is as constantly present as it
+is absent in the other orders. Although not strictly forming part
+of the skull, allusion should be made here to the ring of sclerotic
+plates which has been found in many of the Stegocephalia, and
+which is only found elsewhere in a few Crossopterygian fishes as well
+as in many reptiles and birds.</p>
+
+<p>In the orders which are still represented at the present day, the
+bones of the skull are reduced in number and the &ldquo;primordial
+skull,&rdquo; or chondrocranium (fig. 7), remains to a greater or less extent
+unossified, even in the adult. Huxley&rsquo;s figures of the skull of a
+caccilian (<i>Ichthyophis glutinosus</i>), fig. 8, of a perennibranchiate
+urodele (<i>Necturus maculosus = Menobranchus lateralis</i>), fig. 9, and of
+a frog (<i>Rana esculenta</i>), fig. 10, are here given for comparison.</p>
+
+<p>The skull, in the <i>Apoda</i>, is remarkably solid and compact, and it
+possesses a postorbital or postfrontal bone (marked 1 in the figure)
+which does not exist in any of the other living batrachians. The
+squamosal bone is large and either in contact with the frontals and
+parietals or separated from them by a vacuity; the orbit is sometimes
+roofed over by bone. The presence, in some genera, of a second
+row of mandibular teeth seems to indicate the former existence of
+a splenial element, such as exists in <i>Siren</i> among the Caudata and
+apparently in the labyrinthodonts.</p>
+
+<p>In the Caudata, the frontals remain likewise distinct from the
+parietals, whilst in the Ecaudata the two elements are fused into
+one, and in a few forms (Aglossa, some <i>Pelobalidae</i>) the paired condition
+of these bones has disappeared in the adult. Prefrontal bones
+are present in the <i>Salamandridae</i> and <i>Amphiumidae</i>, but absent (or
+fused with the nasals) in the other Caudata and in the Ecaudata.
+In most of the former the palatines fuse with the vomers, whilst they
+remain distinct, unless entirely lost, in the latter. The vomer is single,
+or absent, in the Aglossa. In the lower jaw of most of the Ecaudata
+the symphysial cartilages ossify separately from the dentary bones,
+forming the so-called mento-meckelian bones; but these symphysial
+bones, so distinct in the frog, are less so in the <i>Hylidae</i> and <i>Bufonidae</i>,
+almost indistinguishable in the <i>Pelobatidae</i> and <i>Discoglossidae</i>, whilst
+in the Aglossa they do not exist any more than in the other orders
+of batrachians.</p>
+
+<p>No batrachian is known to possess an ossified azygous supra-occipital.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:994px" src="images/img525b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Lateral, dorsal and ventral views of the cranium of
+<i>Necturus maculosus</i>. In the dorsal view, the bones are removed from
+the left half of the skull, in the ventral view, the parasphenoid,
+palato-pterygoid, and vomers are given in outline. The letters have,
+for the most part, the same signification as before.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>VII.<i>p</i>, Posterior division of the seventh nerve.</p>
+<p>VII. Chorda tympani</p>
+<p>V<span class="sp">1</span>, V<span class="sp">2</span>, V<span class="sp">3</span>, First, second and third
+             divisions of the trigeminal.</p>
+<p><i>s.s.l</i>, Stapedio-suspensorial ligament.</p>
+<p><i>h.s.l</i>, Hyo-suspensorial ligament.</p>
+<p><i>m.h.l</i>, Mandibulo-hyoid ligament.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Ascending process of the suspensorium.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Pterygo-palatine process.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Otic process.</p>
+<p><i>Na</i>, Posterior nares.</p>
+<p><i>Mck</i>, Meckel&rsquo;s cartilage.</p>
+<p><i>Gl</i> (fig. 10), The position of the glottis.</p>
+<p><i>Bb</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>Bb</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Basilbranchials.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Although there are four branchial arches in all the larval forms
+of the three orders, and throughout life in the <i>Sirenidae</i>, the perennibranchiate
+<i>Proteidae</i> have only three (see fig. 11). In the adult
+Apoda these arches and the hyoid fuse into three transverse, curved
+or angular bones (see fig. 13), the two posterior disconnected from
+the hyoid. In the Ecaudata, as shown by F. Gaupp (<b>29</b>) and by
+W.G. Ridewood (<b>30</b>), the whole hyobranchial apparatus forms a
+cartilaginous continuum, and during metamorphosis the branchialia
+disappear without a trace. The hyoid of the adult frog (fig. 12)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span>
+consists of a plate of cartilage with two slender cornua, three processes
+on each side, and two long bony rods behind, termed the thyro-hyals, which
+embrace the larynx.  In the Aglossa, which are remarkable for the
+large size and complexity of the larynx, the thyro-hyal bones
+are incorporated into the laryngeal apparatus, whilst the recently
+discovered <i>Hymenochirus</i> is further remarkable for the large
+size and ossification of the hyoidean cornua (ceratohyals), a feature
+which, though not uncommon among the salamanders, is unique
+among the Ecaudata (<b>31</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:329px; height:979px" src="images/img526a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10&mdash;Dorsal, ventral, lateral, and posterior
+views of the skull of <i>Rana esculenta</i>.
+The letters have the same signification throughout.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>Pmx</i>,   Premaxilla.</p>
+<p><i>Mx</i>,    Maxilla.</p>
+<p><i>Vo</i>,    Vomer.</p>
+<p><i>Na</i>,    Nasal.</p>
+<p><i>S.e</i>,   Sphen-ethmoid.</p>
+<p><i>Fr</i>,    Frontal.</p>
+<p><i>Pa</i>,    Parietal.</p>
+<p><i>E.O</i>,   Exoccipital.</p>
+<p><i>Ep</i>,    Epiotic process.</p>
+<p><i>Pr.O</i>,  Pro-otic.</p>
+<p><i>t.t</i>,   Tegmentympani.</p>
+<p><i>Sq</i>,    Squamosal.</p>
+<p><i>Q.J</i>,   Quadrato-jugal.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>Pt</i><span class="sp">1</span>,   Pterygoid, anterior process.</p>
+<p><i>Pt</i><span class="sp">2</span>,   Internal process.</p>
+<p><i>Pt</i><span class="sp">3</span>,   Posterior or external process.</p>
+<p><i>Ca</i>,    Columella auris.</p>
+<p><i>St</i>,    Stapes.</p>
+<p><i>Hy</i>,    Hyoidean cornu.</p>
+<p><i>P.S</i>,   Parasphenoid.</p>
+<p><i>An</i>,    Angulate.</p>
+<p><i>D</i>,     Dentale.</p>
+<p><i>V</i>,     Foramen of exit of the trigeminal.</p>
+<p><i>H</i>,     Of the optic.</p>
+<p><i>X</i>,     Of the pneumogastric and glosso-pharyngeal nerves.</p>
+<p><i>V</i><span class="sp">1</span>.    Foramen by which the orbito-nasal or first division of
+           the fifth passes to the nasal cavity.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The pectoral girdle of the Stegocephalia is, of course, only known
+from the ossified elements, the identification of which has given
+rise to some diversity of opinion. But C. Gegenbaur&rsquo;s (<b>32</b>) interpretation
+may be regarded as final. He has shown that, as in the Crossopterygian
+and Chondrostean ganoid fishes, there are two clavicular elements
+on each side; the lower corresponds to the clavicle of reptiles
+and higher vertebrates, whilst the upper corresponds to
+the clavicle of teleostean fishes, and has been named by him
+&ldquo;cleithrum.&rdquo; As stated above, there is strong evidence in favour of
+the view that some forms at least possessed in addition a
+&ldquo;supracleithrum,&rdquo; corresponding to the supra-clavicle of bony
+fishes. The element often termed &ldquo;coracoid&rdquo; in these fossils
+would be the scapula. The clavicles rest on a large discoidal,
+rhomboidal, or T-shaped median bone, which clearly corresponds to
+the interclavicle of reptiles.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:347px" src="images/img526b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;Hyoid and branchial apparatus of <i>Necturus maculosus</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>Hh</i>,     Hypo-hyal.</p>
+<p><i>Ch</i>,     Cerato-hyal.</p>
+<p><i>Bb</i><span class="sp">1</span>,    First basibranchial.</p>
+<p><i>Bb</i><span class="sp">2</span>,    Ossified second basibranchial.</p>
+<p><i>Ep.b</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>Ep.b</i><span class="sp">2</span>, <i>Ep.b</i><span class="sp">3</span>,
+            First, second and third epibranchials.</p>
+<p><i>Gl</i>,     Glottis.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pectoral girdle of the living types of
+batrachians is distinguishable into a
+scapular, a coracoidal, and a praecoracoidal
+region. In most of the Caudata the scapular
+region alone ossifies, but in the Ecaudata
+the coracoid is bony and a clavicle is frequently
+developed over the praecoracoid cartilage.
+In these batrachians the pectoral
+arch falls into two distinct types&mdash;the
+<i>arciferous</i>, in which the
+precoracoid (+ clavicle) and coracoid are widely separated from
+each other distally and connected by an arched cartilage (the
+epicoracoid), the right usually overlapping the left; and the
+<i>firmisternal</i>, in which both precoracoid and coracoid nearly abut on the
+median line, and are only narrowly separated by the more or less
+fused epicoracoids. The former type is exemplified by the toads
+and the lower Ecaudata, whilst the latter is characteristic of the
+true frogs (<i>Ranidae</i>), although when quite young these batrachians
+present a condition similar to that which persists throughout life
+in their lower relatives. A cartilage in the median line in front of
+the precoracoids, sometimes supported by a bony style,
+is the so-called Omosternum; a large one behind the cora-coids,
+also sometimes provided with a bony style, has
+been called the sternum. But these names will probably
+have to be changed when the homologies of
+these parts are better understood.</p>
+
+<p>The pelvic arch of some of the Stegocephalia contained
+a well ossified pubic element, whilst in all other
+batrachians only the ilium, or the ilium and the ischium
+are ossified. In the Ecaudata the ilium is greatly
+elongated and the pubis and ischium are flattened, discoidal,
+and closely applied to their fellows by their inner
+surfaces; the pelvic girdle looks like a pair of tongs.</p>
+
+<p>The long bones of the limbs consist of an axis of
+cartilage; the extremities of the cartilages frequently
+undergo calcification and
+are thus converted into epiphyses. In the Ecaudata the radius and
+ulna coalesce into one bone. The carpus, which remains cartilaginous
+in many of the Stegocephalia and Caudata, contains six to eight
+elements when the manus is fully developed, whilst the number is
+reduced in those forms which have only two or three digits. Except
+in some of the Stegocephalia, there are only four functional digits
+in the manus, but the Ecaudata have a more or less distinct rudiment
+of pollex; in the Caudata it seems to be the outer digit which
+has been suppressed, as atavistic reappearance of a fifth digit takes
+place on the outer side of the manus, as it does on the pes in those
+forms in which the toes are reduced to four. The usual number of
+phalanges is 2, 2, 3, 2 in the Stegocephalia and Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 3 in the
+Ecaudata. In the foot the digits usually number five, and the phalanges
+2, 2, 3, 3, 2 in the Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3 in the Stegocephalia and
+Ecaudata. There are occasionally intercalary ossifications between
+the two distal phalanges (<b>33</b>). There are usually nine tarsal elements
+in the Caudata; this number is reduced in the Ecaudata, in which
+the two bones of the proximal row (sometimes coalesced) are much
+elongated and form an additional segment to the greatly lengthened
+hind-limb, a sort of <i>crus secundarium</i>. In the Ecaudata also, the
+tibia and fibula coalesce into one bone, and two or three small bones
+on the inner side of the tarsus form what has been regarded as a
+rudimentary digit or &ldquo;prehallux.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:165px; height:213px" src="images/img526c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;Ventral view of the hyoid of <i>Rana esculenta</i>.
+    <i>a</i>,      Anterior;
+    <i>b</i>,      lateral;
+    <i>c</i>,      posterior processes;
+    <i>d</i>,      thyro-hyals.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Integument.</i>&mdash;In all recent batrachians, the skin is naked, or if
+small scales are present, as in many of the
+Apoda, they are concealed in the skin. The
+extinct Stegocephalia, on the other hand,
+were mostly protected, on the ventral surface
+at least, by an armour of overlapping
+round, oval, or rhomboidal scales, often
+very similar to those of Crossopterygian or
+ganoid fishes, and likewise disposed in transverse
+oblique lines converging forwards on
+the middle line of the belly. Sometimes
+these scales assumed the importance of
+scutes and formed a carapace, as in the
+&ldquo;batrachian armadillo&rdquo; discovered by E.D.
+Cope. A few frogs have the skin of the
+back studded with stellate bony deposits
+(<i>Phyllomedusa, Nototrema</i>), whilst two genera
+are remarkable for possessing a bony dorsal
+shield, free from the vertebrae (<i>Ceratorphrys</i>)
+or ankylosed to them (<i>Brachycephalus</i>).
+None of the Stegocephalia appears to have
+been provided with claws, but some living
+batrachians (<i>Onychodactylus, Xenopus, Hymenochirus</i>) have the tips
+of some or all of the digits protected by a claw-like horny sheath.</p>
+
+<p>The integument of tailed and tailless batrachians is remarkable
+for the great abundance of follicular glands, of which there may
+be two kinds, each having a special secretion, which is always more
+or less acrid and irritating, and affords a means of defence against
+the attacks of many carnivorous animals. A great deal has been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span>
+published on the poisonous secretion of batrachians (<b>34</b>), which is utilized by the Indians of South America for poisoning their arrows. Some of the poison-secreting glands attain a greater complication of structure and are remarkable for their large size, such as the
+so-called &ldquo;parotoid&rdquo; glands on the back of the
+head in toads and salamanders.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:159px; height:804px" src="images/img527.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;Ventral view of the head and trunk of
+<i>Ichthyophis glutinosus</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>Mn</i>, Mandible.</p>
+<p><i>Hy</i>, Hyoid.</p>
+<p><i>Br</i><span class="sp">1</span> <i>Br</i><span class="sp">2</span>, <i>Br</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Branchial arches.</p>
+<p><i>Gl</i>, Glottis.</p>
+<p><i>Tr</i>, Trachea.</p>
+<p><i>Ivc</i>, Inferior vena cava.</p>
+<p><i>V</i>, Ventricle.</p>
+<p><i>Au</i>, Auricles.</p>
+<p><i>Rsvc, Lsvc</i>, right and left superior cavae.</p>
+<p><i>Ta</i>, Truncus arteriosus.</p>
+<p><i>Ao</i>, Left aortic arch.</p>
+<p><i>P.A.</i> Right pulmonary artery. The pericardium (lightly shaded) extends as far
+as the bifurcation of the synangium.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In all larval forms, in the Caudata, and in
+a few of the Ecaudata (<i>Xenopus</i>, for instance),
+the epidermis becomes modified in relation
+with the termination of sensory nerves, and
+gives rise to organs of the same nature as
+those of the lateral line of fishes. In addition
+to diffuse pigment (mostly in the epidermis),
+the skin contains granular pigment stored up
+in cells, the chromatophores, restricted to the
+cutis, which are highly mobile and send out
+branches which, by contraction and expansion,
+may rapidly alter the coloration, most
+batrachians being in this respect quite comparable
+to the famous chameleons. Besides
+white (guanine) cells, the pigment includes
+black, brown, yellow and red. The green
+and blue, so frequent in frogs and newts,
+are merely subjective colours, due to interference.
+On the mechanism of the change of
+colour, cf. W. Biedermann (<b>35</b>).</p>
+
+<p>One of the interesting recent discoveries is
+that of the &ldquo;hairy&rdquo; frog (<i>Trichobatrachus</i>), in
+which the sides of the body and limbs are
+covered with long villosities, the function of
+which is still unknown (<b>36</b>).</p>
+
+<p>The nuptial horny asperities with which
+the males of many batrachians are provided,
+for the purpose of clinging to the females, will
+be noticed below, under the heading <i>Pairing
+and Oviposition</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dentition</i>.&mdash;In the Microsauria and Branchiosauria
+among the Stegocephalia, as in the
+other orders, the hollow, conical or slightly
+curved teeth exhibit simple or only slightly
+folded walls. But in the Labyrinthodonta,
+grooves are more or less marked along the
+teeth and give rise to folds of the wall which,
+extending inwards and ramifying, produce the
+complicated structure, exhibited by transverse
+sections, whence these batrachians derive
+their name; a somewhat similar complexity
+of structure is known in some holoptychian
+(dendrodont) Crossopterygian fishes.
+In the remarkable salamander <i>Autodax</i>, the
+teeth in the jaws are compressed, sharp-edged,
+lancet shaped. The teeth are not implanted
+in sockets, but become ankylosed with the
+bones that bear them, and are replaced by
+others developed at their bases. Teeth are
+present in the jaws of all known Stegocephalia
+and Apoda and of nearly all Caudata, <i>Siren</i>
+alone presenting plates of horn upon the
+gingival surfaces of the premaxillae and of
+the dentary elements of the mandible. But
+they are nearly always absent in the lower
+jaw of the Ecaudata (exceptions in <i>Hemiphractus,
+Amphignathodon, Amphodus, Ceratobatrachus</i>,
+the male of <i>Dimorphognathus</i>), many
+of which (toads, for instance) are entirely
+edentulous.</p>
+
+<p>There is great variety in the distribution
+of the teeth on the palate. They may occur
+simultaneously on the vomers, the palatines,
+the pterygoids and the parasphenoid in
+some of the Stegocephalia (<i>Dawsonia, Seeleya,
+Acanthostoma</i>), on the vomers, palatines and
+parasphenoid in many salamandrids (<i>Plethodontinae</i>
+and <i>Desmognathinae</i>), on the vomers,
+pterygoids and parasphenoid (some <i>Pelobates</i>),
+on the vomers and parasphenoid (<i>Triprion,
+Amphodus</i>), whilst in the majority or other
+batrachians they are confined to the vomers
+and palatines or to the vomers alone (<b>37</b>).</p>
+
+<p>As regards the alimentary organs, it will
+suffice to state, in this very brief sketch, that
+all batrachians being carnivorous in their
+perfect condition, the intestine is never very
+long and its convolutions are few and simple.
+But the larvae of the Ecaudata are mainly
+herbivorous and the digestive tract is accordingly
+extremely elongate and coiled up like the spring
+of a watch. The gullet is short, except in the Apoda.
+The tongue is rudimentary in the perennibranchiatea Caudata,
+well developed, and often protrusile, in the <i>Salamandridae</i>
+and most of the Ecaudata, totally absent in the Aglossa.</p>
+
+<p>The organs of circulation cannot be dealt with here; the most important
+addition made to our knowledge in recent years being found in the
+contributions of F. Hochstetter (<b>38</b>) and of G.B. Howes (<b>39</b>), dealing
+with the azygous (posterior) cardinal veins in salamanders and some of
+the Ecaudata. The heart is situated quite forward, in the gular or
+pectoral region, even in those tailed batrachians which have a
+serpentiform body, whilst in the Apoda (fig. 13) it is moved back to a
+distance which is comparable to that it occupies in most of the snakes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Respiratory Organs</i>.&mdash;The larynx, which is rudimentary in most of
+the Caudata and in the Apoda, is highly developed in the Ecaudata, and
+becomes the instrument of the powerful voice with which many of the
+frogs and toads are provided. The lungs are long simple tubes in some of
+the perennibranchiate Caudata; they generally shorten or become cellular
+in the salamandrids, and attain their highest development in the
+Ecaudata, especially in such forms as the burrowing <i>Pelobates</i>.
+Although the lungs are present in such forms as preserve the gills
+throughout life, it is highly remarkable that quite a number of
+abranchiate salamanders, belonging mostly to the subfamilies
+<i>Desmognathinae</i> and <i>Plethodontinae</i>, are devoid of lungs and breathe
+entirely by the skin and by the bucco-pharyngeal mucose membrane (<b>20</b>).
+Some of the <i>Salamandrinae</i> show the intermediate conditions which have
+led to the suppression of the trachea and lungs. In the Apoda, as in
+many serpentiform reptiles, one of the lungs, either the right or the
+left, is much less developed than the other, often very short.</p>
+
+<p><i>Urino-genital Organs</i>.&mdash;The genital glands, ovaries and testes, are
+attached to the dorsal wall of the body-cavity, in the immediate
+vicinity of the kidneys, with which the male glands are intimately
+connected. The oviducts are long, usually more or less convoluted tubes
+which open posteriorly into the cloaca, while their anterior aperture is
+situated far forward, sometimes close to the root of the lung; their
+walls secrete a gelatinous substance which invests the ova as they
+descend. In most male batrachians the testes are drained by transverse
+canals which open into a longitudinal duct, which also receives the
+canals of the kidneys, so that this common duct conveys both sperma and
+urine. In some of the discogloesid frogs, however, the seminal duct is
+quite independent of the kidney, which has its own canal, or true
+ureter. Many of the Ecaudata have remnants of oviducts, or Müllerian
+ducts, most developed in <i>Bufo</i>, which genus is also remarkable as
+possessing a problematic organ, Bidder&rsquo;s organ, situated between the
+testis and the adipose or fat-bodies that surmount it. This has been
+regarded by some anatomists as a rudimentary ovary. Female salamandrids
+are provided with a <i>receptaculum seminis</i>. Copulatory organs are
+absent, except in the Apoda, in which a portion of the cloaca can be
+everted and acts as a penis. The urinary bladder is always large.</p>
+
+<p>The spermatozoa have received a great share of attention, on the part
+not only of anatomists and physiologists, but even of systematic workers
+(<b>40</b>). This is due to the great amount of difference in structure and
+size between these elements in the various genera, and also to the fact
+that otherwise closely allied species may differ very considerably in
+this respect. The failure to obtain hybrids between certain species of
+<i>Rana</i> has been attributed principally to these differences. The
+spermatozoa of <i>Discoglossus</i> are remarkable for their great size,
+measuring three millimetres in length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pairing and Oviposition</i>&mdash;Batrachians may be divided into four
+categories under this head:&mdash;(1) no amplexation; (2) amplexation without
+internal fecundation; (3) amplexation with internal fecundation; (4)
+copulation proper. The first category embraces many aquatic newts, the
+second nearly all the Ecaudata, the third the rest of the Caudata, and
+the fourth the Apoda.</p>
+
+<p>In the typical newts (<i>Molge</i>) of Europe, the males are adorned during
+the breeding season with bright colours and crests or other ornamental
+dermal appendages, and, resorting to the water, they engage in a lengthy
+courtship accompanied by lively evolutions around the females, near
+which they deposit their spermatozoa in bundles on a gelatinous mass,
+the spermatophore, probably secreted by the cloacal gland. This
+arrangement facilitates the internal fecundation of the female without
+copulation, the female absorbs the spermatozoa by squeezing them out of
+the spermatophore between the cloacal lips. Other newts, and many
+salamanders, whether terrestrial or aquatic, pair, the male embracing
+the female about the fore limbs or in the pelvic region, and the males
+of such forms are invariably devoid of ornamental secondary sexual
+characters; but in spite of this amplexation the same mode of
+fecundation by means of a spermatophore is resorted to, although it may
+happen that the contents of the spermatophore are absorbed direct from
+the cloaca of the male. The spermatozoa thus reach the eggs in the
+oviducts, where they may develop entirely, some of the salamanders being
+viviparous.</p>
+
+<p>In all the tailless batrachians (with the exception of a single known
+viviparous toad), the male clings to the female round the breast, at the
+arm-pits, or round the waist, and awaits, often for hours or days, the
+deposition of the ova, which are immediately fecundated by several
+seminal emissions.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth category is represented by the Apoda or Caecilians
+in which, as we have stated above, the male is provided with an
+intromittent organ. Some of these batrachians are viviparous.</p>
+
+<p>In those species in which the embrace is of long duration the limbs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span>
+of the male, usually the fore limbs (pleurodele newt, Ecaudata),
+rarely the hind limbs (a few American and European newts), according
+to the mode of amplexation, acquire a greater development, and
+are often armed with temporary horny excrescences which drop off
+after the pairing season. These asperities usually form brush-like
+patches on the inner side of one or more of the digits, but may extend
+over the inner surface of the limbs and on the breast and chin;
+the use of them on these parts is sufficiently obvious, but they are
+sometimes also present, without apparent function, on various parts
+of the foot, as in <i>Discoglossus, Bombinator,</i> and <i>Pelodytes</i>. In some
+species of the South American frogs of the genus <i>Leptodactylus</i> the
+breast and hands are armed with very large spines, which inflict
+deep wounds on the female held in embrace.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the Caudata, the eggs are deposited singly in the axils
+of water plants or on leaves which the female folds over the egg with
+her hind limbs. The eggs are also deposited singly in some of the
+lower Ecaudata. In many of the Ecaudata, and in a few of the
+Caudata and Apoda, the eggs are laid in strings or bands which are
+twined round aquatic plants or carried by the parent; whilst in
+other Ecaudata they form large masses which either float on the
+surface of the water or sink to the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>A few batrachians retain the ova within the oviducts until the
+young have undergone part or the whole of the metamorphosis.
+Viviparous parturition is known among the Caudata (<i>Salamandra,
+Spelerpes fuscus</i>), and the Apoda (<i>Dermophis thomensis, Typhlonectes
+compressicauda</i>); also in a little toad (<i>Pseudophryne vivipara</i>) recently
+discovered in German East Africa (<b>41</b>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Development and Metamorphosis.</i>&mdash;In a great number of batrachians,
+including most of the European species, the egg is small
+and the food-yolk is in insufficient quantity to form an external
+appendage of the embryo. But in a few European and North
+American species, and in a great many inhabitants of the tropics,
+the egg is large and a considerable portion of it persists for a long
+time as a yolk-sac. Although the segmentation is always complete,
+it is very irregular in these types, some of which make a distinct
+approach to the meroblastic egg.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of a number of forms in which the whole
+development takes place within the egg or in the body of the mother,
+batrachians undergo metamorphoses, the young passing through
+a free-swimming, gill-breathing period of considerable duration,
+during which their appearance, structure, and often their <i>régime</i>,
+are essentially different from those of the mature form. Even the
+fossil Stegocephalia underwent metamorphosis, as we know from
+various larval remains first described as <i>Branchiosaurus</i>. They are
+less marked or more gradual in the Apoda and Caudata than in
+Ecaudata, in which the stage known as tadpole is very unlike the
+frog or toad into which it rather suddenly passes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tadpole</a></span>).
+In the Caudata, external gills (three on each side) persist until the
+close of the metamorphosis, whilst in the Apoda and Ecaudata
+they exist only during the earlier periods, being afterwards replaced
+by internal gills.</p>
+
+<p>Many cases are known in which the young batrachian enters the
+world in the perfect condition, as in the black salamander of the
+Alps (<i>Salamandra atra</i>), the cave salamander (<i>Spelerpes fuscus</i>), the
+caecinan <i>Typhlonectes</i>, and a number of frogs, such as <i>Pipa, Rhinoderma,
+Hylodes,</i> some <i>Nototrema, Rana opisthodon,</i> &amp;c. A fairly
+complete bibliographical index to these cases and the most remarkable
+instances of parental care in tailless batrachians will be found
+in the interesting articles by Lilian V. Sampson (<b>42</b>), and by G.
+Brandes and W. Schoenichen (<b>43</b>). It will suffice to indicate here
+in a synoptic form, as was done by the present writer many years
+ago, when our knowledge of these wonders of batrachian life was
+far less advanced than it is now, the principal modes of protection
+which are resorted to:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Protection by means of nests or nurseries.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+    <p>A. In enclosures in the water.&mdash;<i>Hylafaber</i>.</p>
+    <p>B. In nests in holes near the water.&mdash;<i>Rhacophorus, Leptodactylus</i>.</p>
+    <p>C. In nests overhanging the water.&mdash;<i>Rhacophorus, Chiromantis,
+        Phyllpmedusa</i>.</p>
+    <p>D. On trees or in moss away from the water.&mdash;<i>Rana opisthodon,
+        Hylodes, Hylelia platycephala</i>.</p>
+    <p>E. In a gelatinous bag in the water.&mdash;<i>Phrynixalus, Salamandrella</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. Direct nursing by the parents.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+    <p>A Tadpoles transported from one place to another.&mdash;<i>Dendrebates,
+        Phyllobates, Sooglossus</i>.</p>
+    <p>B. Eggs protected by the parents who coil themselves round
+        or &ldquo;sit&rdquo; on them.&mdash;<i>Mantophryne, Desmognathus,
+        Autodax, Plethodon, Cryptobranchus, Amphiuma,
+        Ichthyophis, Hypogeophis, Siphonops</i>.</p>
+    <p>C. Eggs carried by the parents.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+        <p>(a) Round the legs, by the male.&mdash;<i>Alytes</i>.</p>
+        <p>(b) On the back, by the female.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="list2">
+            <p>(1) Exposed.&mdash;<i>Hyla goeldii, H. evansii, Ceratohyla</i>.</p>
+            <p>(2) In cell-like pouches.&mdash;<i>Pipa</i>.</p>
+            <p>(3) In a common pouch.&mdash;<i>Nototrema, Amphignathodon</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="list1">
+        <p>(c) On the belly.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="list2">
+            <p>(1) Exposed, by the female.&mdash;<i>Rhacophorus reticulatus</i>.</p>
+            <p>(2) In a pouch (the produced vocal sac), by the
+                male.&mdash;<i>Rhinoderma</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="list1">
+        <p>(d) In the mouth, by the female.&mdash;<i>Hylambates brevirostris</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Geographical Distribution.</i>&mdash;If a division of the world according
+to its batrachian faunae were to be attempted, it would differ very
+considerably from that which would answer for the principal groups
+of reptiles, the lizards especially. We should have four great
+realms:&mdash;(1) Europe and Northern and Temperate Asia, Africa
+north of the Sahara (palaearctic region) and North and Central
+America (nearctic region); (2) Africa and South-Eastern Asia
+(Ethiopian and Indian region); (3) South America (neotropical
+region); and (4) Australia (Australian region). The first would be
+characterized by the Caudata, which are almost confined to it
+(although a few species penetrate into the Indian and neotropical
+regions), the <i>Discoglossidae</i>, mostly Europaeo-Asiatic, but one genus
+in California, and the numerous <i>Pelobatidae</i>; the second by the
+presence of Apoda, the prevalence of firmisternal Ecaudata and the
+absence of <i>Hylidae</i>; the third by the presence of Apoda, the prevalence
+of arciferous Ecaudata and the scarcity of <i>Ranidae</i>, the
+fourth by the prevalence of arciferous Ecaudata and the absence of
+<i>Ranidae</i>, as well as by the absence of either Caudata or Apoda.
+Madagascar might almost stand as a fifth division of the world,
+characterized by the total absence of Caudata, Apoda, and arciferous
+Ecaudata. But the close relation of its very rich frog-fauna to that
+of the Ethiopian and Indian regions speaks against attaching too
+great importance to these negative features. It may be noted here
+that no two parts of the world differ so considerably in their Ecaudata
+as do Madagascar and Australia, the former having only
+Firmisternia, the latter only Arcifera. Although there is much
+similarity between the Apoda of Africa and of South America, one
+genus being even common to both parts of the world, the frogs are
+extremely different, apart from the numerous representatives of
+the widely distributed genus <i>Bufo</i>. It may be said that, on the whole,
+the distribution of the batrachians agrees to some extent with that
+of fresh-water fishes, except for the much less marked affinity
+between South America and Africa, although even among the former
+we have the striking example of the distribution of the very natural
+group of the aglossal batrachians, represented by <i>Pipa</i> in South
+America and by <i>Xenopus</i> and <i>Hymenochirus</i> in Africa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;(<b>1</b>) On the use of the names <i>Batrachia</i> and
+<i>Amphibia</i>, cf. E.D. Cope, <i>Geol. Mag.</i> (3) ii., 1885, p. 575; G. Baur,
+<i>Science</i> (2), vi., 1897, pp. 170, 372; B.G. Wilder, t.c. p. 295; T Gill,
+t.c. p. 446; O.P. Hay, t.c. p. 773; T. Gill, <i>Science</i> (2), xx., 1900,
+p. 730; L. Steineger, op. cit. xx., 1904, p. 924. (<b>2</b>) E. Fraas, &ldquo;Die
+Labyrinthodonten der schwäbischen Trias,&rdquo; <i>Palaeontogr.</i> xxxvi.,
+1889, p. 1. (<b>3</b>) <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1904, ii. p. 170. (<b>4</b>) E.D. Cope,
+&ldquo;Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia of North America,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Ac.
+Philad.</i>, 1868, p. 208. (<b>5</b>) &ldquo;Researches on the Structure, Organization
+and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia, vii&rdquo; <i>Phil. Trans.</i>
+clxxxiii. (B), 1892, p. 311. (<b>6</b>) <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, viii. (1901).
+(<b>7</b>) &ldquo;Die Urvierfüssler (Eotetrapoda) des sächsischen
+Rotliegenden,&rdquo; <i>Allgem. verständl. naturh. Abh.</i>, Berlin, 1891, No. 15;
+&ldquo;Die Entwicklungsgeschichte von Branchiosaurus amblystomus,&rdquo;
+<i>Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges.</i>, 1886, p. 576. (<b>8</b>) C. Emery, &ldquo;Über die
+Beziehungen des Chiropterygium zum Ichthyopterygium,&rdquo; <i>Zool.
+Anz.</i> x., 1887, p. 185; E.D. Cope, &ldquo;On the Phylogeny of the
+Vertebrata,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.</i> xxx., 1892, p. 280; H.B.
+Pollard, &ldquo;On the Anatomy and Phylogenetic Position of <i>Polypterus</i>,&rdquo;
+<i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> v., 1892, p. 414; G. Baur, &ldquo;The Stegocephali:
+a Phylogenetic Study,&rdquo; <i>Anat. Anz.</i> xi., 1896, p. 657; L. Dollo, &ldquo;Sur
+le phylogénie des dipneustes,&rdquo; <i>Mém. soc. belge géol.</i> ix., 1895,
+p. 79; T. Gill, &ldquo;On the Derivation of the Pectoral Member in
+Terrestrial Vertebrates,&rdquo; <i>Rep. Brit. Ass.</i>, 1897, p. 697.
+(<b>9</b>) E.D. Cope, &ldquo;The Origin of the Mammalia,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.</i>
+xxii., 1884, p. 43; cf. Discussion on Origin of Mammals, <i>Proc.
+Intern. Congr. Zool.</i>, Cambridge, 1898; also H. Gadow, &ldquo;The Origin
+of the <i>Mammalia</i>,&rdquo; <i>Z. f. Morphol.</i> iv., 1902, p. 345; and R. Broom,
+<i>Rep. Brit. Ass.</i>, 1905, p. 437. (<b>10</b>) A. Fritsch, <i>Fauna der Gaskohle und
+der Kalksleine der Permformation Böhmens</i>, vols. i. and ii (Prague,
+1879-1885, 4to); H. Credner, &ldquo;Die Stegocephalen aus dem Rotliegenden
+des Plauenschen Grundes bei Dresden,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr. deutsch.
+geol. Ges.</i>, 1881-1894; J.W. Dawson, &ldquo;On the Results of Recent
+Explorations of Erect Trees containing Animal Remains in the Coal
+Formation of Nova Scotia,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Trans.</i> clxxiii., 1882, p. 621;
+H.B. Geinitz and J.V. Deichmüller, &ldquo;Die Saurier der unteren
+Dyas von Sachsen,&rdquo; <i>Palaeontogr.</i> xxix., 1882, p. 1; A. Gaudry, <i>Les
+Enchaînements du monde animal dans les temps géologiques, fossiles
+primaires</i> (Paris, 1883, 8vo), p. 251; E.D. Cope, &ldquo;The Batrachia
+of the Permian Period of North America,&rdquo; <i>Amer. Nat.</i> xviii., 1884,
+p. 26; E. Fraas, &ldquo;Die Labyrinthodonten der schwäbischen Trias,&rdquo;
+<i>Palaeontogr.</i> xxxvi., 1889, p. 1; L.v. Ammon, <i>Die permischen
+Amphibien der Rheinpfalz</i> (Munich, 1889-1891, 4to); R. Lydekker,
+<i>Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum</i>,
+part iv. (London, 1890, 8vo); E. Fraas, <i>Die schwäbischen Trias-Saurier
+nach dem Material der k. Naturalien-Sammlung in Stuttgart
+zusammengestellt</i> (Stuttgart, 1896, 4to); O. Jaekel, &ldquo;Die Organization
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span>
+von <i>Archegosaurus</i>,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges</i>. xlviii., 1896,
+p. 505; F. Broili, &ldquo;Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis von <i>Eryops megacephalus</i>,&rdquo;
+<i>Palaeontogr</i>. xlvi., 1899, p. 61. (<b>11</b>) &ldquo;Amphibian Footprints
+from the Devonian,&rdquo; <i>Amer. Journ. Sci</i>. ii., 1896, p. 374.
+(<b>12</b>) &ldquo;Découverte du plus ancien amphibien connu ... dans le
+famennien supérieur de Modave,&rdquo; <i>Bull. soc. beige géol</i>. xv., 1888,
+p. cxx, (<b>13</b>) &ldquo;A Batrachian Armadillo,&rdquo; <i>Amer. Nat</i>. xxix., 1895,
+p. 998. (<b>14</b>) C. Gegenbaur, <i>Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden
+Anatomie der Wirbelsaule bei Amphibien und Reptilien</i> (Leipzig, 1862,
+4to); H. Gadow, &ldquo;On the Evolution of the Vertebral Column of
+Amphibia and Amniota,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Trans</i>. clxxxvii. (B), 1896, p. 1.
+(<b>15</b>) R. Wiedersheim, <i>Die Anatomie der Gymnophionen</i> (Jena, 1879,
+4to); W. Peters, &ldquo;Über die Einteilung der Caecilien,&rdquo; <i>Mon.
+Berl. Ac</i>., 1879, p. 924; G.A. Boulenger, <i>Catalogue of Batrachia
+Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the
+British Museum</i> (London, 1882, 8vo), and &ldquo;A Synopsis of the Genera
+and Species of Apodal Batrachians,&rdquo; <i>P. Z. S</i>., 1895, p. 401. (<b>16</b>) &ldquo;On
+the Structure and Affinities of the <i>Amphiumidae</i>&rdquo; <i>Proc. Amer.
+Philos. Soc.</i> xxiii., 1886, p. 442. (<b>17</b>) <i>Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher
+Forschungen auf Ceylon</i>, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890, 4to),
+(<b>18</b>) &ldquo;The Chondrocranium of the Ichthyopsida,&rdquo; <i>Stud. Biol. Lab.
+Tufts Coll</i>. No. 5, 1898, p. 147. (<b>19</b>) G.A. Boulenger, <i>Catalogue, &amp;c.</i>,
+1882. (<b>20</b>) H.H. Wilder, &ldquo;Lungenlose Salamandriden,&rdquo; <i>Anat.
+Anz</i>. ix., 1894, p. 216; L. Camerano, &ldquo;Ricerche anatomofisiologiche
+intorno ai Salamandridi normalmente apneumoni,&rdquo; <i>Atti Acc. Torin</i>.
+xxix., 1894, p. 705, and xxxi., 1896, p. 512; H.H. Wilder, &ldquo;Lungless
+Salamanders,&rdquo; <i>Anat. Anz</i>. xii., 1896, p. 182; E. Loennberg,
+&ldquo;Notes on Tailed Batrachians without Lungs,&rdquo; <i>Zool. Anz</i>. xix., 1896,
+p. 33. (<b>21</b>) &ldquo;Note sur le batracien de Bernissart,&rdquo; <i>Bull. mus. belg</i>.
+iii., 1884, p. 85. (<b>22</b>) G.A. Boulenger, <i>Catalogue of Batrachia
+Salientia s. Ecaudata in the Collection of the British Museum</i> (London,
+1882, 8vo). (<b>23</b>) &ldquo;On the Development of the Vertebral Column in
+<i>Pipa</i> and <i>Xenopus</i>,&rdquo; <i>Anat. Anz</i>. xiii., 1898, p. 359. (<b>24</b>) G.A.
+Boulenger, &ldquo;On <i>Hymenochirus</i>, a New Type of Aglossal Batrachians,&rdquo;
+<i>Ann. and Mag. N. H.</i> (7), iv., 1899, p. 122. (<b>25</b>) L.M.
+Vidal, <i>Mem. Ac. Barcelona</i> (3), iv., 1902, No. 18, pl. iv. (<b>26</b>) W.
+Wolterstorff, &ldquo;Über fossile Frösche, insbesondere Palaeobatrachus,&rdquo;
+<i>Jahresb. Nat. Ver. Magdeb</i>., 1885 and 1886. (<b>27</b>) W. Peters, &ldquo;Über
+die Entwickelung eines Batrachiers. <i>Hylodes martinicensis</i>, ohne
+Metamorphose,&rdquo; <i>Mon. Berl. Ac</i>., 1876, p. 709; A. Kappler, &ldquo;Die
+Tierwelt im holländischen Guiana,&rdquo; <i>Das Ausland</i>, 1885, p. 358;
+G.A. Boulenger, &ldquo;Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands,&rdquo;
+<i>Trans. Zool. Soc</i>. xii., 1886, p. 51; H. v. Ihering, &ldquo;On the Oviposition
+of <i>Phyllomedusa iheringii</i>,&rdquo; <i>Ann. and Mag. N.H</i>. (5), xvii., 1886,
+p. 461; H.H. Smith, &ldquo;On Oviposition and Nursing in the
+Batrachian genus <i>Dendrobates</i>,&rdquo; <i>Amer. Nat</i>. xxi., 1887, p. 307;
+G.B. Howes, &ldquo;Notes on the Gular Brood-pouch of <i>Rhinoderma
+darwini</i>,&rdquo; <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1888, p. 231; W.J. Holland, &ldquo;Arboreal Tadpoles,&rdquo;
+<i>Amer. Nat</i>. xxiii., 1889, p. 383; E.A. Goeldi, &ldquo;Contribution
+to the Knowledge of the Breeding Habits of some Tree-frogs of the
+Serra dos Orgaos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,&rdquo; <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1895. p. 89;
+G.A. Boulenger, &ldquo;On the Nursing Habits of two South American
+Frogs,&rdquo; <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1895, p. 209; A. Brauer, &ldquo;Ein neuer Fall von
+Brutpflege bei Fröschen,&rdquo; <i>Zool. Jahrb. Syst</i>. xi., 1898, p. 89; S. Ikeda,
+&ldquo;Notes on the Breeding Habit and Development of <i>Rhacophorus
+schlegelii</i>,&rdquo; <i>Annot. Zool. Japan</i>, i., 1898, p. 113; G. Brandes, &ldquo;Larven
+zweier Nototrema-Arten,&rdquo; <i>Verh. deutsch. zool. Ges</i>., 1899, p. 288;
+L. v. Méhely, &ldquo;Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Engystomatiden von
+Neu-Guinea,&rdquo; <i>Termes. Fuzetek, Budapest</i>, xxiv., 1901, p. 216;
+G.A. Boulenger, &ldquo;<i>Ceratohyla bubalus</i> carrying eggs on its back,&rdquo;
+<i>P.Z.S</i>., 1903, ii. p. 115; <i>Idem</i>. &ldquo;Description of a new Tree-frog
+of the genus <i>Hyla</i>, from British Guiana, carrying eggs on the back,&rdquo;
+<i>op. cit</i>., 1904, ii. p. 106; H.S. Ferguson, &ldquo;Travancore Batrachians,&rdquo;
+<i>J. Bombay N.H. Soc</i>. xv., 1904, p. 499. (<b>28</b>) <i>Geol. Mag</i>. iv., ii.,
+1895, p. 83. (<b>29</b>) &ldquo;Das Hyobranchial-Skelett der Anura,&rdquo; <i>Morph.
+Arb</i>. iii., 1894, p. 399. (<b>30</b>) &ldquo;On the Structure and Development
+of the Hyobranchial Skeleton of the Parsley Frog,&rdquo; <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1897,
+p. 577. (<b>31</b>) W.G. Ridewood, &ldquo;On the Hyobrachial Skeleton
+and Larynx of <i>Hymenochirus</i>,&rdquo; <i>J. Linn. Soc</i>. xxviii., 1899, p. 454.
+(<b>32</b>) <i>Morphol. Jahrb</i>. xxiii., 1895, p. 1. (<b>33</b>) G.B. Howes and A.M.
+Davies, <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1888, p. 495. (<b>34</b>) G.A. Boulenger, &ldquo;The Poisonous
+Secretion of Batrachians,&rdquo; <i>Nat. Science</i>, i., 1892, p. 185; F. Gidon,
+<i>Venins multiples et toxicité humorale chez les batraciens</i> (Paris, 1897,
+8vo). (<b>35</b>) <i>Arch. Ges. Physiol</i>. li., 1892, p. 455. (<b>36</b>) G.A. Boulenger,
+<i>P.Z.S</i>., 1900, p. 433, and 1901, ii. p. 709; H. Gadow, <i>Anat. Anz</i>.
+xviii., 1900, p. 588. (<b>37</b>) G.A. Boulenger, &ldquo;On the Presence of
+Pterygoid Teeth in a Tailless Batrachian, with remarks on the
+Localization of Teeth on the Palate,&rdquo; <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1890, p. 664. (<b>38</b>)
+<i>Morphol. Jahrb</i>. xiii., 1887, p. 119. (<b>39</b>) <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1888, p. 122.
+(<b>40</b>) G.A. Boulenger, <i>Tailless Batrachians of Europe</i> (1897), p. 75.
+(<b>41</b>) G. Tornier, &ldquo;Pseudophryne vivipara, ein lebendig gebärender
+Frosch,&rdquo; <i>Sitzb. Ak. Ber</i>. xxxix., 1905, p. 855. (<b>42</b>) &ldquo;Unusual
+Modes of Breeding and Development among <i>Anura</i>,&rdquo; <i>Amer. Nat</i>.
+xxxiv., 1900, p. 405. (<b>43</b>) &ldquo;Brutpflege der schwanzlosen
+Batrachier,&rdquo; <i>Abh. Nat. Ges</i>. Halle, xxii., 1901, p. 395.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. A. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATRACHOMYOMACHIA<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Batrachos">&#946;&#940;&#964;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;frog,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="mus">&#956;&#8166;&#962;</span>,
+&ldquo;mouse,&rdquo; and <span class="grk" title="machae">&#956;&#940;&#967;&#951;</span>, &ldquo;battle&rdquo;), the &ldquo;Battle of Frogs and
+Mice,&rdquo; a comic epic or parody on the <i>Iliad</i>, definitely attributed
+to Homer by the Romans, but according to Plutarch (<i>De
+Herodoti Malignitate</i>, 43) the work of Pigres of Halicarnassus,
+the brother (or son) of Artemisia, queen of Caria and ally of
+Xerxes. Some modern scholars, however, assign it to an anonymous
+poet of the time of Alexander the Great.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Edition by A. Ludwich (1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTA,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> an Anglo-Indian military term, probably derived
+from the Canarese <i>bhatta</i> (rice in the husk), meaning a special
+allowance made to officers, soldiers, or other public servants in
+the field.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTAGLIA,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
+Padua, 11 m. S.S.W. by rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4456.
+It lies at the edge of the volcanic Euganean Hills, and is noted
+for its warm saline springs and natural vapour grotto. A fine
+palace was erected in the Palladian style in the 17th century by
+Marchese Benedetto Selvatico-Estense, then owner of the
+springs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTAKHIN,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> African &ldquo;Arabs&rdquo; of Semitic stock. They
+occupy the banks of the Blue Nile near Khartum, and it was
+against them that General Gordon fought most of his battles
+near the town. Their sheikh, El Obeid, routed Gordon&rsquo;s troops
+on the 4th of September 1884, a defeat which led to the close
+investment of Khartum. In the 18th century James Bruce
+described them as &ldquo;a thieving, pilfering lot.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTALION,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a unit of military organization consisting of four
+or more companies of infantry. The term is used in nearly every
+army, and is derived through Fr. from It. <i>battaglione</i>, Med. Lat.
+<i>battalia</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Battle</a></span>). &ldquo;Battalion&rdquo; in the 16th and 17th centuries
+implied a unit of infantry forming part of the line of battle,
+but at first meant an unusually large <i>battalia</i> or a single large
+body of men formed of several <i>battalias</i>. In the British regular
+service the infantry battalion is commanded by a lieut.-colonel,
+who is assisted by an adjutant, and consists at war strength of
+about 1000 bayonets in eight companies. Engineers, train,
+certain kinds of artillery, and more rarely cavalry are also
+organized in battalions in some countries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTAMBANG,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Battambong</span> (locally <i>Phralabong</i>), the
+chief town of the north-western division of Cambodia, formerly
+capital of Monton Kmer, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;The Cambodian Division,&rdquo; one of
+the eastern provinces of Siam, now included in the French
+protectorate of Cambodia. It is situated in 103° 6&prime; E., 13° 6&prime; N.,
+in the midst of a fertile plain and on the river Sang Ke, which
+flows eastwards and falls into the Tonle or Talé Sap, the great
+lake of Cambodia. The town is a collection of bamboo houses of
+no importance, but there is a walled enceinte of some historical
+interest. Trade is small and is carried on by Chinese settlers,
+chiefly overland with Bangkok, but to a small extent also by
+water with Saigon. The population is about 5000, two-thirds
+Cambodian and the remainder Chinese and Siamese. The
+language is Cambodian.</p>
+
+<p>Battambang was taken by the Siamese when they overran
+the kingdom of Cambodia towards the end of the 18th century,
+and was recognized by the French as belonging to Siam when
+the frontier of Cambodia was adjusted by treaty in 1867-1872.
+In another treaty in 1893, Siam bound herself to maintain no
+armed forces there other than police, but this arrangement was
+annulled by the treaty of 1904, by which Battambang was
+definitely admitted to lie within the French sphere of influence.
+Under a further treaty in March 1907 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Siam</a></span>), the district of
+Battambang was finally ceded to the French.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTANNI,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bhitani</span>, a small tribe on the Waziri border of
+the North-West Frontier Province of India. The Battannis
+hold the hills on the borders of Tank and Bannu in the Dera
+Ismail Khan district, from the Gabar mountain on the north to
+the Gomal valley on the south. They are only 3000 fighting
+men strong, and are generally regarded as the jackals of the
+Waziris. Their chief importance arises from the fact that no
+raids can be carried into British districts by the Mahsud Waziris
+without passing through Battanni territory. A small British
+expedition against the Battannis was led by Lt.-Col. Rynd
+in 1880. Under the excitement caused by the preaching of a
+fanatical mullah the Mahsud Waziris had attacked the town of
+Gomal. The Battannis failed to supply information as to their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span>
+movements, and gave them a passage through their lands. The
+British troops accordingly stormed the Hinis Tangi defile in face
+of opposition, and burned the village of Jandola.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTAS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (Dutch <i>Battaks</i>), the inhabitants of the formerly
+independent Batta country, in the central highlands of Sumatra,
+now for the most part subjugated to the Dutch government.
+The still independent area extends from 98°-99° 35&prime; E., and
+2°-3° 25&prime; S. North-east of Toba Lake dwell the Timor Battas,
+and west of it the Pakpak, but on its north (in the mountains
+which border on the east coast residency) the Karo Battas form
+a special group, which, by its dialects and ethnological character,
+appears to be allied to the Gajus and Allas occupying the interior
+of Achin. The origin of the Battas is doubtful. It is not known
+whether they were settled in Sumatra before the Hindu period.
+Their language contains words of Sanskrit origin and others
+referable to Javanese, Malay and Tagal influence. Their domain
+has been doubtless much curtailed, and their absorption into the
+Achin and Malay population seems to have been long going on.
+The Battas are undoubtedly of Malayan stock, and by most
+authorities are affiliated to that Indonesian pre-Malayan race
+which peopled the Indian Archipelago, expelling the aboriginal
+negritos, and in turn themselves submitting to the civilized
+Malays. In many points the Battas are physically quite different
+from the Malay type. The average height of the men is 5 ft.
+4 in.; of the women 4 ft. 8 in. In general build they are rather
+thickset, with broad shoulders and fairly muscular limbs. The
+colour of the skin ranges from dark brown to a yellowish tint,
+the darkness apparently quite independent of climatic influences
+or distinction of race. The skull is rather oval than round. In
+marked contrast to the Malay type are the large, black, long-shaped
+eyes, beneath heavy, black or dark brown eyebrows. The
+cheek-bones are somewhat prominent, but less so than among the
+Malays. The Battas are dirty in their dress and dwellings and
+eat any kind of food, though they live chiefly on rice. They are
+remarkable as a people who in many ways are cultured and
+possess a written language of their own, and yet are cannibals.
+The more civilized of them around Lake Toba are good agriculturists
+and stock-breeders, and understand iron-smelting.
+They weave and dye cotton, make jewellery and krisses which are
+often of exquisite workmanship, bake pottery, and build picturesque
+chalet-like houses of two storeys. They have an organized
+government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a
+written civil and penal code. There is even an antiquated postal
+system, the letter-boxes being the hollow tree trunks at crossroads.
+Yet in spite of this comparative culture the Battas have
+long been notorious for the most revolting forms of cannibalism.
+(See <i>Memoirs of the Life, &amp;c., of Sir T.S. Raffles</i>, 1830.)</p>
+
+<p>The Battas are the only lettered people of the Indian Archipelago
+who are not Mahommedans. Their religion is mainly
+confined to a belief in evil spirits; but they recognize three
+gods, a Creator, a Preserver and a Destroyer, a trinity suggestive
+of Hindu influence.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the publication of Dr H.N. van der Tuuk&rsquo;s essay, <i>Over
+schrift en uitspraak der Tobasche taal</i> (1855), our knowledge
+of the Batta language was confined to lists of words more or less complete,
+chiefly to be found in W. Marsden&rsquo;s <i>Miscellaneous Works</i>,
+in F.W. Junghuhn&rsquo;s <i>Battalander</i>, and in the <i>Tijdschrift
+van het Bataviaasch Genootschap</i>, vol. iii. (1855). By his
+exhaustive works (<i>Bataksch Leesboek</i>, in 4 vols., 1861-1862;
+<i>Bataksch-nederduitsch Woordenboek</i>, 1861; <i>Tobasche Spraakkunst,</i> 1864-1867)
+van der Tuuk made the Batta language the most accessible of
+the various tongues spoken in Sumatra. According to him, it is
+nearest akin to the old Javanese and Tagal, but A. Schreiber
+(<i>Die Battas in ihrem Verhältnis zu den Malaien von Sumatra</i>,
+1874) endeavoured to prove its closer affinity with the Malay
+proper. Like most languages spoken by less civilized tribes,
+Batta is poor in general terms, but abounds in terms for special
+objects. The number of dialects is three, viz. the Toba, the
+Mandailing and the Dairi dialects; the first and second have
+again two subdivisions each. The Battas further possess six
+peculiar or recondite modes of speech, such as the <i>hata andung</i>,
+or language of the wakes, and the <i>hata poda</i> or the soothsayer&rsquo;s language. A fair acquaintance with reading and writing is very general among them. Their alphabet is said, with the Rejang
+and Lampong alphabets, to be of Indian origin. The language
+is written on bark or bamboo staves from bottom to top, the
+lines being arranged from left to right. The literature consists
+chiefly in books on witchcraft, in stories, riddles, incantations,
+&amp;c., and is mostly in prose, occasionally varied by verse.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also &ldquo;Reisen nach dem Toba See,&rdquo; <i>Petermanns Mitteil</i>. (1883);
+Modigliani, <i>Fra i Batacchi indipendenti</i> (Rome, 1892); Neumann,
+&ldquo;Het Pane- en Bilastroomgebied,&rdquo; <i>Tydschr. Aardr. Gen.</i>, 1885-1887; Van Dijk in the same periodical (1890-1895); Wing Easton in the
+<i>Jaarboek voor het Mynwezen</i>, 1894; Niemann in the <i>Encyclopaedia van Nederlandsch-Indie</i>, under the heading <i>Bataks,</i> with very detailed
+bibliography; Baron J. v. Brenner, <i>Besuch bei den Kannibalen
+Sumatras</i> (Würzburg, 1893); H. Breitenstein, <i>21 Jahre in Indien,
+Java, Sumatra</i> (Leipzig, 1899-1900); G.P. Rouffaer, <i>Die Batik-Kunst in niederlandisch-Indien und ihre Geschichte</i> (Haarlem, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mr C.A. van Ophuijsen has published (in <i>Bijd. tot Land-, Taalen
+Volken-Kunde</i>, 1886) an interesting collection of Battak poetry.
+He describes a curious leaf language used by Battak lovers, in which
+the name of some leaf or plant is substituted for the word with
+which it has greatest phonetic similarity.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTEL,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Battels</span> (of uncertain origin, possibly connected
+with &ldquo;battle,&rdquo; a northern English word meaning to feed, or
+&ldquo;batten&rdquo;), a word used at Oxford University for the food
+ordered by members of the college as distinct from the usual
+&ldquo;commons&rdquo;; and hence college accounts for board and provisions
+supplied from kitchen and buttery, and, generally, the
+whole of a man&rsquo;s college accounts. &ldquo;Batteler,&rdquo; now a resident
+in a college, was originally a rank of students between commoners
+and servitors who, as the name implies, were not supplied with
+&ldquo;commons,&rdquo; but only such provisions as they ordered for
+themselves.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<i>floruit</i> 1626-1667), British sailor,
+son of Andrew Batten, master in the royal navy, first appears as
+taking out letters of marque in 1626, and in 1638 he obtained the
+post of surveyor to the navy, probably by purchase. In March
+1642 he was appointed second-in-command under the earl of
+Warwick, the parliamentary admiral who took the fleet out of
+the king&rsquo;s hands. It was Vice-Admiral Batten&rsquo;s squadron which
+bombarded Scarborough when Henrietta Maria landed there.
+He was accused (it appears unjustly) by the Royalists of directing
+his fire particularly on the house occupied by the queen, and up
+to the end of the First Civil War showed himself a steady partisan
+of the parliament. To the end of the First Civil War, Batten
+continued to patrol the English seas, and his action in 1647 in
+bringing into Portsmouth a number of Swedish ships of war and
+merchantmen, which had refused the customary salute to the
+flag, was approved by parliament. When the Second Civil War
+began he was distrusted by the Independents and removed from
+his command, though he confessed his continued willingness to
+serve the state. When part of the fleet revolted against the
+parliament, and joined the prince of Wales in Holland, May
+1648, Batten went with them. He was knighted by the prince,
+but being suspected by the Royalists, was put ashore mutinously
+in Holland and returned to England. He lived in retirement
+during the Commonwealth period. At the Restoration Sir
+William Batten became once more surveyor of the navy. In this
+office he was in constant intercourse with Pepys, whose diary
+frequently mentions him; but the insinuations of Pepys against
+him must not be taken too seriously, as there is no evidence to
+show that Batten in making a profit from his office fell below the
+standards of the time. In 1661 he became M.P. for Rochester,
+and in 1663 he was made master of the Trinity House. He died
+in 1667.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is no separate life of Batten, but many notices of him will
+be found in Penn&rsquo;s <i>Life of Sir W. Penn</i>, and in Pepys&rsquo; <i>Diary</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTEN,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1) A term (a form of &ldquo;baton&rdquo;) used in joinery
+(<i>q.v.</i>) for a board not more than 4 to 7 in. broad or 3 in. thick, used
+for various purposes, such as for strengthening or holding together laths
+and other wood-work; and specially, on board ship, a strip
+of wood nailed to a mast to prevent rubbing, or fixing down a tarpaulin
+over a hatchway, in rough weather, to keep out water.
+(2) A verb (the root is found in words of several Teutonic languages
+meaning profit or improvement, and also in the English &ldquo;better&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span>
+and &ldquo;boot&rdquo;) meaning to improve in condition, especially in the
+case of animals by feeding; so, to feed gluttonously; the word is
+used figuratively of prospering at the expense of another.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTENBERG,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> the name of a family of German counts which
+died out about 1314, whose seat was the castle of Kellerburg, near
+Battenberg, a small place now in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau.
+The title was revived in 1851, when Alexander (1823-1888),
+a younger son of Louis II., grand-duke of Hesse, contracted
+a morganatic marriage with a Polish lady, Countess Julia Theresa
+von Haucke (1825-1895), who was then created countess of
+Battenberg. Raised to the rank of a princess in 1858, the countess
+and her children were allowed to style themselves princes and
+princesses of Battenberg, with the addition of <i>Durchlaucht</i> or
+Serene Highness. The eldest son of this union, Louis Alexander
+(b. 1854), married in 1884 Victoria, daughter of Louis IV., grand-duke
+of Hesse, and became an admiral in the British navy. The
+second son, Alexander Joseph (<i>q.v.</i>), was prince of Bulgaria from
+1879 to 1886. The third son, Henry Maurice, was born in 1858,
+and married on the 23rd of July 1885 Beatrice, youngest
+daughter of Victoria, queen of England. He died at sea on the
+20th of January 1896 when returning from active service with the
+British troops during the Ashanti War, and left three sons and a
+daughter, Victoria Eugénie, who was married in 1906 to Alphonso
+XIII., king of Spain. The fourth son, Francis Joseph, born in
+1861, married in 1897 Anna, daughter of Nicholas I., prince of
+Montenegro, and is the author of <i>Die volkswirtschaftliche
+Entwickelung Bulgariens von 1879 bis zur Gegenwart</i> (Leipzig,
+1891). The only daughter of the princess of Battenberg, Marie
+Caroline, born in 1852, was married in 1871 to Gustavus Ernest,
+prince and count of Erbach-Schönberg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTER,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> an architectural term of unknown origin, used of
+the face of a wall which is slightly inclined to the perpendicular.
+It is most commonly employed in retaining walls, the lower
+courses of which are laid at right angles to the batter, so as to
+resist the thrust of the earth inside. For aesthetic reasons it is
+often adopted in the lowest or basement porticos of a great
+building. From a historical point of view it is the most ancient
+system employed, as throughout Egypt and Chaldaea all the
+temples built in unburnt brick were perforce obliged to be thicker
+at the bottom, and this gave rise to the batter or raking side which
+was afterwards in Egypt copied in stone. For defensive purposes
+the walls of the lower portions of a fortress were built with a batter
+as in the case of the tower of David and some of the walls built by
+Herod at Jerusalem. The Crusaders also largely adopted the
+principle, which was followed in some of the castles of the middle
+ages throughout Europe.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTERING RAM<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aries</i>, ram), a military engine used
+before the invention of cannon, for beating down the walls of
+besieged fortresses. It consisted of a long heavy beam of timber,
+armed at the extremity with iron fashioned something like the
+head of a ram. In its simplest form the beam was carried in the
+hands of the soldiers, who assailed the walls with it by main force.
+The improved ram was composed of a longer beam, in some cases
+extending to 120 ft., shod with iron at one end, and suspended,
+either by the middle or from two points, from another beam laid
+across two posts. This is the kind described by Josephus as
+having been used at the siege of Jerusalem (<i>B.J.</i> iii. 7. 19). The
+ram was shielded from the missiles of the besieged by a penthouse
+(<i>vinea</i>) or other overhead protection. It was often mounted on
+wheels, which greatly facilitated its operations. A hundred
+soldiers at a time, and sometimes even a greater number, were
+employed to work it, and the parties were relieved in constant
+succession. No wall could resist the continued application of the
+ram, and the greatest efforts were always made to destroy it by
+various means, such as dropping heavy stones on the head of the
+ram and on the roof of the penthouse; another method being to
+seize the ram head with grapnels and then haul it up to a vertical
+position by suitable windlasses on the wall of the fortress.
+Sometimes the besieged ran countermines under the ram penthouse;
+this if successful would cause the whole engine to fall into
+the excavation. In medieval warfare the low penthouse, called
+<i>cat</i>, was generally employed with some form of ram.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTERSEA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a south-western metropolitan borough of
+London, England, bounded N. by the Thames, N.E. by Lambeth,
+and S.E., S., and W. by Wandsworth. Pop. (1901) 168,907.
+The principal thoroughfares are Wandsworth Road and Battersea
+Park and York Roads from east to west, connected north and
+south with the Victoria or Chelsea, Albert and Battersea bridges
+over the Thames. The two first of these three are handsome
+suspension bridges; the third, an iron structure, replaced a
+wooden bridge of many arches which was closed in 1881, after
+standing a little over a century. Battersea is a district mainly
+consisting of artisans&rsquo; houses, and there are several large factories
+by the river. The parish church of St Mary, Church Road (1776),
+preserves from an earlier building stained glass and monuments,
+including one to Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke (d. 1751),
+and his second wife, who had a mansion close by. Of this a portion
+remains on the riverside, containing a room associated with Pope,
+who is said to have worked here upon the &ldquo;Essay on Man.&rdquo;
+Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common (220 acres) lie
+partly within the borough, but the principal public recreation
+ground is Battersea Park, bordering the Thames between Albert
+and Victoria Bridges, beautifully laid out, containing a lake and
+subtropical garden, and having an area of nearly 200 acres. It
+was constructed with difficulty by embanking the river and
+raising the level of the formerly marshy ground, and was opened
+in 1858. Among institutions are the Battersea Polytechnic, the
+Royal Masonic Institution for girls, founded in 1788, and Church
+of England and Wesleyan Training Colleges. Battersea is in the
+parliamentary borough of Battersea and Clapham, including the
+whole of the Battersea division and part of the Clapham division.
+The borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54
+councillors. Area, 2160.3 acres.</p>
+
+<p>An early form of the name is <i>Patricsey</i> or Peter&rsquo;s Island; the
+manor at the time of the Domesday survey, and until the suppression
+of the monasteries, belonging to the abbey of St Peter,
+Westminster. It next passed to the crown, and subsequently to
+the family of St John and to the earls Spencer. York Road
+recalls the existence of a palace of the archbishops of York,
+occasionally occupied by them between the reigns of Edward IV.
+and Mary. Battersea Fields, bordering the river, were formerly
+a favourite resort, so that the park also perpetuates a memory.
+The art of enamelling was introduced, <i>c.</i> 1750, at works in Battersea,
+examples from which are highly valued.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTERY<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (Fr. <i>batterie</i>, from <i>battre</i>, to beat), the action of
+beating, especially in law the unlawful wounding of another (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assault</a></span>). The term is applied to the apparatus used in battering,
+hence its use in military organization for the unit of mobile
+artillery of all kinds. This consists of from four to eight guns
+with their <i>personnel</i>, wagons and train. In the British service
+the term is applied to field, horse, field-howitzer, heavy and
+mountain artillery units. &ldquo;Battery&rdquo; is also used to imply a
+mass of guns in action, especially in connexion with the military
+history of the 18th and early 19th centuries. In siegecraft, a
+battery is simply an emplacement for guns, howitzers or mortars,
+constructed for the purposes of the siege, and protected as a rule
+by a parapet. In fortification the term is applied similarly to
+permanent or semi-permanent emplacements for the artillery of
+the defence. In all these senses the presence of artillery is implied
+in the use of the word (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and
+Siegecraft</a></span>). The word is also used for the &ldquo;pitcher&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;catcher&rdquo; in baseball; for a collection of utensils, primarily
+of hammered copper or brass, especially in the French term
+<i>batterie de cuisine</i>; and for the instruments of percussion in an
+orchestra.</p>
+
+<p><i>Electric Battery</i>&mdash;This term was applied by the old electricians
+to a collection of Leyden jars, but is now used of a device for
+generating electricity by chemical action, or more exactly, of a
+number of such devices joined up together. There are two main
+classes of electric battery. In <i>primary</i> batteries, composed of a
+number of galvanic or voltaic &ldquo;cells,&rdquo; &ldquo;couples&rdquo; or &ldquo;elements,&rdquo;
+on the completion of the interactions between the substances on
+which the production of electricity depends, the activity of the
+cells comes to an end, and can only be restored with the aid of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span>
+a fresh supply of those substances; in <i>secondary</i> batteries, also
+called storage batteries or accumulators (<i>q.v.</i>), the substances
+after the exhaustion of the cells can be brought back to a condition
+in which they will again yield an electric current, by means
+of an electric current passed through them in the reverse direction.
+The first primary battery was constructed about 1799 by
+Alessandro Volta. In one form, the &ldquo;voltaic pile,&rdquo; he placed a
+series of pairs of copper and zinc disks one above the other,
+separating each pair from the one above it by a piece of cloth
+moistened with a solution of common salt. In another form, the
+&ldquo;couronne de tasses,&rdquo; he took a number of vessels or cells containing
+brine or dilute acid, and placed in each a zinc plate and a
+copper plate; these plates were not allowed to touch each other
+within the vessels, but each zinc plate was connected to the
+copper plate of the adjoining vessel. In both these arrangements
+an electric current passes through a wire which is connected to
+the terminal plates at the two ends of the series. The direction
+of this current is from copper to zinc; within each cell itself it
+is from zinc to copper. The plate to which the current flows
+within the cell is the <i>negative plate</i>, and that from which it flows
+the <i>positive plate</i>; but the point on the negative plate at which
+the current enters the external wire is the <i>positive pole</i>, and the
+point on the positive plate at which it leaves the external circuit
+the <i>negative pole</i>. During the time that the external connexion is
+maintained between the two poles and the current passes in
+the wire, the zinc or positive plates are gradually dissolved, and
+hydrogen gas is liberated at the surface of the copper or negative
+plates; but when the external connexion is broken this action
+ceases. If the materials used in the cells were perfectly pure,
+probably the cessation would be complete. In practice, however,
+only impure commercial zinc is available, and with this corrosion
+continues to some extent, even though the external circuit is
+not closed, thus entailing waste of material. This &ldquo;local action&rdquo;
+is explained as due to the fact that the impurities in the zinc
+plate form miniature voltaic couples with the zinc itself, thus
+causing its corrosion by voltaic action; and an early improvement
+in the voltaic cell was the discovery, applied by W. Sturgeon
+in 1830, that the evil was greatly reduced if the surface of the zinc
+plates was amalgamated, by being rubbed with mercury under
+dilute sulphuric acid. Another disadvantage of the simple cell
+composed of copper and zinc in dilute acid is that the current it
+yields rapidly falls off. The hydrogen formed by the operation
+of the cell does not all escape, but some adheres as a film to the
+negative plate, and the result is the establishment of a counter
+or reverse electromotive force which opposes the main current
+flowing from the zinc plate and diminishes its force. This phenomenon
+is known as &ldquo;polarization,&rdquo; and various remedies have
+been tried for the evils it introduces in the practical use of
+primary batteries. Alfred Smee in 1839 modified the simple
+copper-zinc couple excited by dilute sulphuric acid by
+substituting for the copper thin leaves of platinum or platinized
+silver, whereby the elimination of the hydrogen is facilitated;
+and attempts have also been made to keep the plates free from
+the gas by mechanical agitation. The plan usually adopted,
+however, is either to prevent the formation of the film, or to
+introduce into the cell some &ldquo;depolarizer&rdquo; which will destroy
+it as it is formed by oxidizing the hydrogen to water (see also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrolysis</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The former method is exemplified in the cell invented by
+J.F. Daniell in 1836. Here the zinc stands in dilute sulphuric
+acid (or in a solution of zinc sulphate), and the copper in a
+saturated solution of copper sulphate, the two liquids being
+separated by a porous partition. The hydrogen formed by the
+action of the cell replaces copper in the copper sulphate, and the
+displaced copper, instead of the hydrogen, being deposited on the
+copper plate polarization is avoided. The electromotive force is
+about one volt. This cell has been constructed in a variety of
+forms to suit different purposes. In a portable form, designed
+by Lord Kelvin in 1858, the copper plate, soldered to a gutta-percha
+covered wire, is placed at the bottom of a glass vessel
+and covered with crystals of copper sulphate; over these wet
+sawdust is sprinkled, and then mere sawdust, moistened with
+solution of zinc sulphate, upon which is placed the zinc plate.
+The Minotto cell is similar, except that sand is substituted for
+sawdust. In these batteries the sawdust or sand takes the place
+of the porous diaphragm. In another class of batteries the
+diaphragm is dispensed with altogether, and the action of gravity
+alone is relied upon to retard the interdiffusion of the liquids.
+The cell of J.H. Meidinger, invented in 1859, may be taken as
+a type of this class. The zinc is formed into a ring which fits
+the upper part of a glass beaker filled with zinc sulphate solution.
+At the bottom of the beaker is placed a smaller beaker, in which
+stands a ring of copper with an insulated connecting wire. The
+mouth of the beaker is closed by a lid with a hole in the centre,
+through which passes the long tapering neck of a glass balloon
+filled with crystals of copper sulphate; the narrow end of this
+neck dips into the smaller beaker, the copper sulphate slowly
+runs out, and being specifically heavier than the zinc sulphate it
+collects at the bottom about the copper ring. In Lord Kelvin&rsquo;s
+tray-cell a large wooden tray is lined with lead, and is covered
+at the bottom with copper by electrotyping. The zinc plate is
+enveloped in a piece of parchment paper bent into a tray shape,
+the whole resting on little pieces of wood placed on the bottom
+of the leaden tray. Copper sulphate is fed in at the edge of the
+tray and zinc sulphate is poured upon the parchment. A
+battery is formed by arranging the trays in a stack one above
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>Various combinations have been devised in which the hydrogen
+is got rid of more or less completely by oxidation. Sir W.R.
+Grove in 1839 employed nitric acid as the oxidizing agent, his
+cell consisting of a zinc positive plate in dilute sulphuric acid,
+separated by a porous diaphragm of unglazed earthenware from
+a platinum negative immersed in concentrated nitric acid. Its
+electromotive force is nearly two volts, but it has the objection of
+giving off disagreeable nitrous fumes. R.W. von Bunsen modified
+Grove&rsquo;s cell by replacing the platinum with the much cheaper
+material, gas carbon. Chromic acid is much used as a depolarizer,
+and cells in which it is employed are about as powerful
+as, and more convenient than, either of the preceding. In its
+two-fluid form the chromic acid cell consists of a porous pot
+containing amalgamated zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, and a
+carbon plate surrounded with sulphuric acid and a solution of
+potassium or sodium bichromate or of chromic acid. But it is
+commonly used in a one-fluid form, the porous pot being dispensed
+with, and both zinc and carbon immersed in the chromic
+acid solution. Since the zinc is dissolved even when the circuit
+is not closed, arrangements are frequently provided by which
+either the zinc plate alone or both plates can be lifted out of the
+solution when the cell is not in use. In preparing the solution
+the sodium salt is preferable to the potassium, and chromic acid
+to either. In the cell devised by Georges Leclanché in 1868 a
+solid depolarizer is employed, in the shape of manganese dioxide
+packed with fragments of carbon into a porous pot round a
+carbon plate. A zinc rod constitutes the positive plate, and the
+exciting fluid is a solution of sal-ammoniac. Sometimes no
+porous pot is employed, and the manganese dioxide and granulated
+carbon are agglomerated into a solid block round the
+carbon plate. The electromotive force is about one and a half
+volt. The cell is widely used for such purposes as ringing electric
+bells, where current is required intermittently, and for such
+service it will remain effective for months or years, only needing
+water to be added to the outer jar occasionally to replace loss by
+evaporation. On a closed circuit the current rapidly falls off,
+because the manganese dioxide is unable to oxidize all the
+hydrogen formed, but the cell quickly recovers after polarization.
+The so-called &ldquo;dry cells,&rdquo; which came into considerable use
+towards the end of the 19th century, are essentially Leclanché
+cells in which the solution is present, not as a liquid, but as
+a paste formed with some absorbent material or gelatinized.
+Black oxide of copper is another solid depolarizer, employed in
+the Lalande cell. In the Edison-Lalande form the copper oxide
+is suspended in a light copper frame. The exciting solution
+consists of one part of caustic soda dissolved in three parts by
+weight of water, and to prevent it from being acted on by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span>
+carbonic acid of the air it is covered with a layer of petroleum
+oil. Sodium zincate, which is soluble, is formed by the action
+of the cell, and the hydrogen produced is oxidized by oxygen
+from the copper oxide. The electromotive force may be about
+one volt initially, but in practice only about three-quarters of a
+volt can be relied on.</p>
+
+<p>Primary cells form a convenient means of obtaining electricity
+for laboratory experiments, and for such light services as working
+telegraphs, bells, &amp;c.; but as a source of the heavy currents
+required for electric lighting and traction they are far too
+expensive in operation, apart from other considerations, to
+compete with dynamoelectric machinery driven by steam or
+water power. Certain forms, known as &ldquo;standard cells,&rdquo; are
+also used in electrical measurements as standards of electromotive
+force (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Potentiometer</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.R. Cooper, <i>Primary Batteries</i> (London, 1901); Park
+Benjamin, <i>The Voltaic Cell</i> (New York, 1893); W.E. Ayrton, <i>Practical
+Electricity</i> (London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTEUX, CHARLES<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1713-1780), French philosopher and
+writer on aesthetics, was born near Vouziers (Ardennes), and
+studied theology at Reims. In 1739 he came to Paris, and after
+teaching in the colleges of Lisieux and Navarre, was appointed
+to the chair of Greek and Roman philosophy in the Collège de
+France. In 1746 he published his treatise <i>Les Beaux-Arts réduits
+à un même principe</i>, an attempt to find a unity among the various
+theories of beauty and taste, and his views were widely accepted.
+The reputation thus gained, confirmed by his translation of
+Horace (1750), led to his becoming a member of the Académie
+des Inscriptions (1754) and of the French Academy (1761). His
+<i>Cours de belles lettres</i> (1765) was afterwards included with some
+minor writings in the large treatise, <i>Principes de la liltérature</i>
+(1774). The rules for composition there laid down are, perhaps,
+somewhat pedantic. His philosophical writings were <i>La Morale
+d&rsquo;Épicure tirée de ses propres écrits</i> (1758), and the <i>Histoire des
+causes premières</i> (1769). In consequence of the freedom with
+which in this work he attacked the abuse of authority in philosophy,
+he lost his professorial chair. His last and most extensive
+work was a <i>Cours d&rsquo;études à l&rsquo;usage des élèves de l&rsquo;école militaire</i>
+(45 vols.). In the <i>Beaux-Arts</i>, Batteux developed a theory which
+is derived from Locke through Voltaire&rsquo;s sceptical sensualism.
+He held that Art consists in the faithful imitation of the beautiful
+in nature. Applying this principle to the art of poetry, and
+analysing, line by line and even word by word, the works of
+great poets, he deduced the law that the beauty of poetry consists
+in the accuracy, beauty and harmony of individual expression.
+This narrow and pedantic theory had at least the merit of
+insisting on propriety of expression. His <i>Histoire des causes
+premières</i> was among the first attempts at a history of philosophy,
+and in his work on Epicurus, following on Gassendi, he defended
+Epicureanism against the general attacks made against it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dacier et Dupuy, &ldquo;Éloges,&rdquo; in <i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;Académie des
+Inscriptions</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTHYANY, LOUIS<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> <span class="sc">(Lajos), Count</span> (1806-1849), Hungarian
+statesman, was born at Pressburg in 1806. He supplied the
+defects of an indifferent education while serving in garrison in
+Italy as a lieutenant of hussars, and thenceforward adopted
+all the new ideas, economical and political. According to
+Széchenyi, he learnt much from a German tutor of the radical
+school, but it was not till after his marriage with the noble-minded
+and highly-gifted countess Antonia Zichy that he began
+working earnestly for the national cause. When Széchenyi
+drew nearer to the court in 1839-1840, Batthyány became the
+leader of the opposition in the Upper House, where his social
+rank and resolute character won for him great influence. Despite
+his &ldquo;sardanapalian inclinations,&rdquo; he associated himself unreservedly
+with the extremists, and spent large sums for the
+development of trade and industry. In 1847 he fiercely opposed
+the government, procured the election of Kossuth as the representative
+of Pest, took part in the Great Deputation of the 15th
+of March, and on the 31st of March 1848 became the first
+constitutional prime-minister of Hungary. His position became
+extremely difficult when Jellachich and the Croats took up
+arms. Convinced that the rigid maintenance of the constitution
+was the sole panacea, he did his utmost, in his frequent journeys
+to Innsbruck, to persuade the court to condemn Jellachich and
+establish a strong national government at Pest. Unfortunately,
+however, he was persuaded to consent to the despatch of Magyar
+troops to quell the Italian rising, before the Croat difficulty had
+been adjusted, and thenceforth, despite his perfect loyalty,
+and his admirable services as Honvéd minister in organizing the
+national forces, his authority in Hungary declined before the
+rising star of Kossuth. When Jellachich invaded Hungary,
+Batthyány resigned with the intention of forming a new ministry
+excluding Kossuth, but this had now become impossible. Then
+Batthyány attempted to mediate between the two extreme
+parties, and subsequently raised a regiment from among his
+peasantry and led them against the Croats. On the 11th of
+October he was incapacitated for active service by a fall from
+his horse which broke his arm. On his recovery he returned to
+Pest, laboured hard to bring about peace, and was a member of
+the deputation from the Hungarian diet to Prince Windischgrätz,
+whom the Austrian commander refused to receive. A few days
+later (8th of January 1849) he was arrested at Pest. As a
+magnate he was only indictable by the grand justiciary, as a
+minister he was responsible to the diet alone. At Laibach,
+whither he was taken, he asked that Deák might be his advocate,
+but this being refused he wrote his own defence. Sentence of
+hanging was finally pronounced upon him at Olmtitz for violating
+the Pragmatic Sanction, overthrowing the constitution, and
+aiding and abetting the rebellion. To escape this fate he
+Stabbed himself with a small concealed dagger, and bled to
+death in the night of the 5th of October 1849.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bertalan Szemere, <i>Batthyány, Kossuth, Gorgei</i> (Ger.), (Hamburg,
+1853).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTICALOA<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>, the provincial capital of the eastern province
+of Ceylon, on the E. coast, 69 m. S.S.E. of Trincomalee, situated
+on an island in lat. 7° 44&prime; N. and long. 81° 52&prime; E. It is of importance
+for its haven and the adjacent salt lagoons. The population
+of the town in 1901 was 9969; of the district (2872 sq. m.)
+143,161. The old Dutch fort dates from 1682. Batticaloa is
+the seat of a government agent and district judge; criminal
+sessions of the supreme court are also held. Rice and cocoanuts
+are the two staples of the district, and steamers trading round
+the island call regularly at the port. The lagoon is famous for
+its &ldquo;singing fish,&rdquo; supposed to be shell-fish which give forth
+musical notes. The district has a remnant of Veddahs or wild men
+of the wood. The average annual rainfall is 55½ in.; the average
+temperature 80.4° F.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTISHILL, JONATHAN<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1738-1801), one of the best
+18th century English composers of church music. Until 1764
+he wrote chiefly for the theatre (incidental songs, pantomime
+music, and an opera in collaboration with Michael Arne, the son
+of Thomas Arne), but his later compositions are chiefly glees,
+part-songs and church music. In 1763 he had married a singer
+at Covent Garden theatre where he was harpsichordist. She
+retired from her profession when she married; and her death in
+1777 so crushed him that he composed no more.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTLE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span>, a market-town in the Rye parliamentary division
+of Sussex, England, 54½ m. S.E. by S. from London by the
+South Eastern &amp; Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 2996. It is pleasantly situated in an undulating well-wooded
+district, 7 m. from the sea at Hastings. Its name is
+derived from the conflict in 1066, which insured to William the
+Norman the crown of England (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Battle Abbey Roll</a></span>).
+Before the battle, in which King Harold fell, William vowed to
+build an abbey on the spot if he should prove victorious, and in
+1094 the consecration took place with great pomp. The gatehouse,
+forming a picturesque termination to the main street of
+the town, is Decorated; and there also remain parts of the
+foundations of the Norman church, of the Perpendicular cloisters,
+and of the Early English refectory. A mansion occupies part of
+the site, and incorporates some of the ancient building. The
+church of St Mary is of various dates, the earliest portions being
+transitional Norman.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Chronicles of Battle Abbey</i>. 1066-1176, translated, &amp;c., by
+M.A. Lower (London, 1851).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BATTLE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a general engagement between the armed forces,
+naval or military, of enemies. The word is derived from the
+Fr. <i>bataille</i>, and this, like the Ital. <i>battaglia</i>, and Span.
+<i>batalla</i>, comes from the popular Lat. <i>battalia</i> for <i>battualia</i>.
+Cassiodorus Senator (480-?575) says: <i>Battualia quae vulgo
+Batalia dicuntur ... exercitationes militum vel gladiatorum
+significant</i> (see Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s.v. <i>Batalia</i>). The verb
+<i>battuere</i>, cognate with &ldquo;beat,&rdquo; is a rare word, found in Pliny, used
+of beating in a mortar or of meat before cooking. Suetonius
+(<i>Caligula</i>, 54-32) uses it of fencing, <i>battuebat pugnatoriis armis,</i> <i>i.e.</i>
+not with blunted weapons or foils. <i>Battalia</i> or <i>batalia</i> was used
+for the array of troops for battle, and hence was applied to the
+body of troops so arranged, or to a division of an army, whence the
+use of the word &ldquo;battalion&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>A &ldquo;pitched battle,&rdquo; loosely used as meaning almost a decisive
+engagement, is strictly, as the words imply, one that is fought on
+ground previously selected (&ldquo;pitched&rdquo; meaning arranged in a
+fixed order) and in accordance with the intentions of the commanders
+of both sides; the French equivalent is <i>bataille arrangée</i>,
+opposed to <i>bataille man&oelig;uvrée</i>, which is prearranged but may
+come off on any ground. With &ldquo;battle,&rdquo; in its usual meaning of
+a general engagement of hostile forces, are contrasted &ldquo;skirmish,&rdquo;<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+a fight between small bodies (&ldquo;skirmishing&rdquo; technically
+means fighting by troops in extended or irregular order), and
+&ldquo;action,&rdquo; a more or less similar engagement between large
+bodies of troops. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tactics</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategy</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This is the same word as &ldquo;scrimmage,&rdquo; and is derived from the
+Anglo-French <i>eskrimir</i>, modern <i>escrimer</i>, properly to fight behind
+cover, now to fence. The origin of this is the Old High German
+<i>scirman</i>, to fight behind a shield, <i>scirm</i>. Modern German <i>Schirm</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTLE ABBEY ROLL<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span>. This is popularly supposed to have
+been a list of William the Conqueror&rsquo;s companions preserved at
+Battle Abbey, on the site of his great victory over Harold. It is
+known to us only from 16th century versions of it published by
+Leland, Holinshed and Duchesne, all more or less imperfect and
+corrupt. Holinshed&rsquo;s is much the fullest, but of its 629 names
+several are duplicates. The versions of Leland and Duchesne,
+though much shorter, each contain many names found in neither
+of the other lists. It was so obvious that several of the names had
+no right to figure on the roll, that Camden, as did Dugdale after
+him, held them to have been interpolated at various times by the
+monks, &ldquo;not without their own advantage.&rdquo; Modern writers
+have gone further, Sir Egerton Brydges denouncing the roll as &ldquo;a
+disgusting forgery,&rdquo; and E.A. Freeman dismissing it as &ldquo;a
+transparent fiction.&rdquo; An attempt to vindicate the roll was made
+by the last duchess of Cleveland, whose <i>Battle Abbey Roll</i>
+(3 vols., 1889) is the best guide to its contents.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the character of the roll has been quite
+misunderstood. It is not a list of individuals, but only of family
+surnames, and it seems to have been intended to show which
+families had &ldquo;come over with the Conqueror,&rdquo; and to have been
+compiled about the 14th century. The compiler appears to have
+been influenced by the French sound of names, and to have
+included many families of later settlement, such as that of
+Grandson, which did not come to England from Savoy till two
+centuries after the Conquest. The roll itself appears to be
+unheard of before and after the 16th century, but other lists were
+current at least as early as the 15th century, as the duchess of
+Cleveland has shown. In 1866 a list of the Conqueror&rsquo;s followers,
+compiled from Domesday and other authentic records, was set up
+in Dives church by M. Leopold Delisle, and is printed in the
+duchess&rsquo; work. Its contents are naturally sufficient to show
+that the Battle Roll is worthless.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Leland, <i>Collectanea</i>; Holinshed, <i>Chronicles of England</i>;
+Duchesne, <i>Historia Norm. Scriptores</i>; Brydges, <i>Censura Literaria</i>;
+Thierry, <i>Conquête de l&rsquo;Angleterre</i>, vol. ii. (1829); Burke, <i>The Roll of
+Battle Abbey</i> (annotated, 1848); Planché, <i>The Conqueror and His
+Companions</i> (1874); duchess of Cleveland, <i>The Battle Abbey Roll</i>
+(1889); Round, &ldquo;The Companions of the Conqueror&rdquo; (<i>Monthly
+Review</i>, 1901, iii. pp. 91-111).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTLE CREEK,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
+at the confluence of the Kalamazoo river with Battle Creek, about
+48 m. S. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 13,197; (1900) 18,563,
+of whom 1844 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,267. It is
+served by the Michigan Central and the Grand Trunk railways,
+and by interurban electric lines. Here are the hospital and
+laboratories of the American Medical Missionary College (of
+Chicago) and the Battle Creek Sanitarium, established in 1866,
+which was a pioneer in dietetic reform, and did much to make
+Battle Creek important in the manufacture of health foods, and
+in the publication of diet-reform literature. Among the principal
+buildings, besides the hospital and the sanitarium, are several
+fine churches, the central high school, the Post tavern and the
+Post theatre. The city is a trading centre for the rich agricultural
+and fruit-growing district by which it is surrounded, has
+good water-power, and is an important manufacturing centre, its
+chief manufactured products being cereal health foods, for which
+it has a wide reputation, and the manufacture of which grew out
+of the dietetic experiments made in the laboratories of the
+sanitarium; and threshing machines and other agricultural
+implements, paper cartons and boxes, flour, boilers, engines and
+pumps. Extensive locomotive and car shops of the Grand Trunk
+railway are here. In 1904 the total factory product of Battle
+Creek was valued at $12,298,244, an increase of 95% over
+that for 1900; and of the total in 1904 $5,191,655 was the value
+of food preparations, which was 8.5% of the value of food
+preparations manufactured in the United States, Battle Creek
+thus ranking first among American cities in this industry. The
+water-works are owned and operated by the municipality, the
+water being obtained from Lake Goguac, a summer pleasure
+resort about 2 m. from the city. Battle Creek, said to have been
+named from hostilities here between some surveyors and
+Indians, was settled in 1831, incorporated as a village in 1850,
+and chartered as a city in 1859, the charter of that year being
+revised in 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a game played by two
+persons with small rackets, called battledores, made of parchment
+or rows of gut stretched across wooden frames, and shuttlecocks,
+made of a base of some light material, like cork, with trimmed
+feathers fixed round the top. The object of the players is to bat
+the shuttlecock from one to the other as many times as possible
+without allowing it to fall to the ground. There are Greek
+drawings extant representing a game almost identical with
+battledore and shuttlecock, and it has been popular in China,
+Japan, India and Siam for at least 2000 years. In Europe it has
+been played by children for centuries. A further development is
+Badminton.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTLEMENT<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (probably from a lost Fr. form <i>bastillement</i>, cf.
+mod. Fr. <i>bastille</i>, from Med. Lat. <i>bastilia</i>, towers, which is derived
+from Ital. <i>bastire</i>, to build, cf. Fr. <i>bâtir</i>; the English word was,
+however, early connected with &ldquo;battle&rdquo;), a term given to a
+parapet of a wall, in which portions have been cut out at intervals
+to allow the discharge of arrows or other missiles; these cut-out
+portions are known as &ldquo;crenels&rdquo;; the solid widths between the
+&ldquo;crenels&rdquo; are called &ldquo;merlons.&rdquo; The earliest example in the
+palace at Medinet-Abu at Thebes in Egypt is of the inverted
+form, and is said to have been derived from Syrian fortresses.
+Through Assyria they formed the termination of all the walls
+surrounding the towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud and
+elsewhere. Traces of them have been found at Mycenae, and
+they are suggested on Greek vases. In the battlements of
+Pompeii, additional protection was given by small internal
+buttresses or spur walls against which the defender might place
+himself so as to be protected completely on one side. In the
+battlements of the middle ages the crenel was about one-third
+of the width of the merlon, and the latter was in addition pierced
+with a small slit. The same is also found in Italian battlements,
+where the merlon is of much greater height and is capped in a
+peculiar fashion. The battlements of the Mahommedans had a
+more decorative and varied character, and were retained from
+the 13th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as
+for a crowning feature to their walls. They may be regarded
+therefore in the same light as the cresting found in the Spanish
+renaissance. The same retention of the battlement as a purely
+decorative feature is found throughout the Decorated and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span>
+Perpendicular periods, and not only occurs on parapets but
+on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and
+on screens. A further decorative treatment was given in the
+elaborate panelling of the merlons and that portion of the
+parapet walls rising above the cornice, by the introduction of
+quatrefoils and other conventional forms filled with foliage and
+shields.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTUE<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>battre</i>, to beat), the beating of game from
+cover under the sportsmen&rsquo;s fire; by analogy the word is used
+to describe any slaughter of defenceless crowds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATTUS,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> the legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene
+in Libya (about 630 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The Greeks who accompanied him
+were, like himself, natives of Thera, and descended partly from
+the race of the Minyae. Various accounts are given both of the
+founding of Cyrene and of the origin of the founder&rsquo;s name.
+According to the Cyrenaeans (Herod, iv. 150-156), Battus,
+having an impediment in his speech, consulted the oracle at
+Delphi, and was told to found a colony in Libya; according to
+the Theraeans, Battus was entrusted with this mission by their
+aged king Grinus. In another version, there was civil war in
+Thera; Battus, leader of one party, was banished, and, on
+applying to the oracle, was recommended to take out a colony to
+&ldquo;the continent&rdquo; (Schol. Pindar, <i>Pyth.</i> iv. 10). In any case
+the foundation is attributed to the direct instructions of
+Apollo. The name was connected by some with <span class="grk" title="battarizo">&#946;&#945;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#943;&#950;&#969;</span>,
+(&ldquo;stammer&rdquo;), but Herodotus (iv. 155) says that it was the
+Libyan word for &ldquo;king,&rdquo; that Battus was not called by the name
+until after his arrival at Libya, and that the oracle addressed
+him as &ldquo;Battus&rdquo; by anticipation. This, however, would imply
+on the part of the oracle a knowledge of Libya, which was not
+shared by the rest of Greece (Herod. <i>l.c</i>.), and it is noteworthy
+that the name occurs in Arcadian and Messenian legends.
+Herodotus does not know his real name, but Pindar (<i>Pyth.</i> v. 116),
+no doubt rightly, calls the founder of the colony Aristoteles,
+while Justin (xiii. 7) gives his name as Aristaeus who was
+worshipped at Cyrene. Four kings named Battus, alternating
+with four named Arcesilaus, ruled in Cyrene (<i>q.v</i>.) till the fall of
+the dynasty about 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R.W. Macan&rsquo;s <i>Herodotus IV.-VI.</i> (1895), vol. i. pp. 104 seq.
+and notes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATU,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Rock Islands</span> (Dutch <i>Batoe</i>), a group of three
+greater and forty-eight lesser islands in the Dutch East Indies,
+W. of Sumatra, between 0° 10&prime; N. to 0° 45&prime; S. and 97° 50&prime;-98° 35&prime; E.,
+belonging to the Ayerbangi district of the lowlands of
+Padang (Sumatra). They are separated by the strait of Sibirut
+from the Mentawi group. The three chief islands, from N. to S.,
+are Pini or Mintao, Masa, and Bala. The total land area of the
+group is 445 sq. m. The islands are generally low, and covered
+with forest, in which the cocoanut palm is conspicuous. There
+is trade in cocoanuts, oil, and other forest produce. The natives,
+about 3000 in number, are of Malayan or pre-Malayan stock,
+akin to those of the island of Nias to the north-west. Only about
+twenty of the smaller islands are inhabited.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATUM,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
+of and 90 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Kutais, on the S.E.
+shore of the Black Sea, in 41° 39&prime; N. and 41° 38&prime; E. Pop. (1875)
+2000; (1900) 28,512, very mixed. The bay is being filled up by
+the sand carried into it by several small rivers. The town is
+protected by strong forts, and the anchorage has been greatly
+improved by artificial works. Batum possesses a cathedral,
+finished in 1903, and the Alexander Park, with sub-tropical
+vegetation. The climate is very warm, lemon and orange trees,
+magnolias and palms growing in the open air; but it is at the
+same time extremely wet and changeable. The annual rainfall
+(90 in.) is higher than anywhere in Caucasia, but it is very
+unequally distributed (23 in. in August and September, sometimes
+16 in. in a couple of days), and the place is still most unhealthy.
+The town is connected by rail with the main Transcaucasian
+railway to Tiflis, and is the chief port for the export of naphtha
+and paraffin oil, carried hither in great part through pipes
+laid down from Baku, but partly also in tank railway-cars;
+other exports are wheat, manganese, wool, silkworm-cocoons,
+liquorice, maize and timber (total value of exports nearly 5½
+millions sterling annually). The imports, chiefly tin plates and
+machinery, amount to less than half that total. Known as
+Bathys in antiquity, as Vati in the middle ages, and as Bathumi
+since the beginning of the 17th century, Batum belonged to the
+Turks, who strongly fortified it, down to 1878, when it was
+transferred to Russia. In the winter of 1905-1906 Batum was
+in the hands of the revolutionists, and a &ldquo;reign of terror&rdquo;
+lasted for several weeks.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATWA,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a tribe of African pygmies living in the mountainous
+country around Wissmann Falls in the Kasai district of the
+Belgian Congo. They were discovered in 1880 by Paul Pogge
+and Hermann von Wissmann, and have been identified with Sir
+H.M. Stanley&rsquo;s Vouatouas. They are typical of the negrito
+family south of the Congo. They are well made, with limbs
+perfectly proportioned, and are seldom more than 4 ft. high.
+Their complexion is a yellow-brown, much lighter than their
+Bantu-Negroid neighbours. They have short woolly hair and
+no beard. They are feared rather than despised by the Baluba
+and Bakuba tribes, among whom they live. They are nomads,
+cultivating nothing, and keeping no animals but a small type of
+hunting-dog. Their weapon is a tiny bow, the arrows for which
+are usually poisoned. They build themselves temporary huts
+of a bee-hive shape. As hunters they are famous, bounding
+through the jungle growth &ldquo;like grasshoppers&rdquo; and fearlessly
+attacking elephants and buffalo with their tiny weapons. Their
+only occupation apart from hunting is the preparation of palm-wine
+which they barter for grain with the Baluba. They are
+monogamous and display much family affection. See further
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pygmy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Akka</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wochua</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bambute</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. de Quatrefages, <i>The Pygmies</i> (Eng. ed., 1895); Sir H.H.
+Johnston, <i>Uganda Protectorate</i> (1902); Hermann von Wissmann,
+<i>My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa</i> (London, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BATYPHONE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (Ger. and Fr. <i>Batyphon</i>), a contrabass clarinet
+which was the outcome of F.W. Wieprecht&rsquo;s endeavour to
+obtain a contrabass for the reed instruments. The batyphone
+was made to a scale twice the size of the clarinet in C, the divisions
+of the chromatic scale being arranged according to acoustic
+principles. For convenience in stopping holes too far apart to
+be covered by the fingers, crank or swivel keys were used. The
+instrument was constructed of maple-wood, had a clarinet
+mouthpiece of suitable size connected by means of a cylindrical
+brass crook with the upper part of the tube, and a brass bell.
+The pitch was two octaves below the clarinet in C, the compass
+being the same, and thus corresponding to the modern bass tuba.
+The tone was pleasant and full, but not powerful enough for the
+contrabass register in a military band. The batyphone had
+besides one serious disadvantage: it could be played with facility
+only in its nearly related keys, G and F major. The batyphone
+was invented and patented in 1839 by F.W. Wieprecht,
+director general of all the Prussian military bands, and E. Skorra,
+the court instrument manufacturer of Berlin. In practice the
+instrument was found to be of little use, and was superseded by
+the bass tuba. A similar attempt was made in 1843 by Adolphe
+Sax, and met with a similar fate.</p>
+
+<p>A batyphone bearing the name of its inventors formed part of
+the Snoeck collection which was acquired for Berlin&rsquo;s collection
+of ancient musical instruments at the Technische Hochschule
+für Musik. The description of the batyphone given above
+is mainly derived from a MS. treatise on instrumentation by
+Wieprecht, in 1909 in the possession of Herr Otto Lessmann
+(Berlin), and reproduced by Capt. C.R. Day, in <i>Descriptive
+Catalogue of the Musical Instruments of the Royal Military
+Exhibition, London, 1890</i> (London, 1891), p. 124.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUAN<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Baun</span>), a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon,
+Philippine Islands, at the head of Batangas Bay, about 54 m.
+S. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 39,094. A railway to connect the
+town with Manila was under construction in 1908. Bauan has
+a fine church and is known as a market for &ldquo;sinamay&rdquo; or hemp
+cloth, the hemp and cotton being imported and dyed and woven
+by the women in their homes. Palm-fibre mats and hats, fans,
+bamboo baskets and cotton fish-nets are woven here. There is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span>
+excellent fishing in the bay. Hogs and horses are raised for the
+Manila market. The surrounding country is fertile and grows
+cacao, indigo, oranges, sugar-cane, corn and rice. The language
+is Tagalog.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUBLE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (probably a blend of two different words, an old
+French <i>baubel</i>, a child&rsquo;s plaything, and an old English <i>babyll</i>,
+something swinging to and fro), a word applied to a stick with
+a weight attached, used in weighing, to a child&rsquo;s toy, and especially
+to the mock symbol of office carried by a court jester, a baton
+terminating in a figure of Folly with cap and bells, and sometimes
+having a bladder fastened to the other end; hence a term
+for any triviality or childish folly.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUCHI,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a province in the highlands of the British protectorate
+of Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between
+11° 15&prime; and 9° 15&prime; N. and 11° 15&prime; and 8° 30&prime; E. Bauchi is bounded
+N. by the provinces of Kano, Katagum and Bornu; E. by
+Bornu, S. by Yola and Muri, and W. by the provinces of Zaria
+and Nassarawa. The province has an area of about 21,000 sq. m.
+The altitude rises from 1000 ft. above the sea in its north-eastern
+corner to 4000 ft. and 6000 ft. in the south-west. The province
+is traversed diagonally from N.E. to S.W. by a belt of mountain
+ranges alternating with fertile plateaus. Towards the south the
+country is very rugged and a series of extinct volcanic craters
+occur.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the more important plateaus are the Assab or
+Kibyen country, having a general level of upwards of 4000 ft.,
+and the Sura country, also reaching to elevations of from 3000
+to 5000 ft. Both these extensive plateaus are situated in the
+south-west portion of the province. Their soil is fertile, they
+possess an abundance of pure water, the air is keen and bracing,
+and the climate is described as resembling in many respects that
+of the Transvaal. They form the principal watershed not only
+of the province of Bauchi, but of the protectorate of Northern
+Nigeria. The Gongola, flowing east and south to the Benue,
+rises in the Sura district, and from the Kibyen plateau streams
+flow north to Lake Chad, west to the Kaduna, and south to the
+Benue. The soil is generally fertile between the hills, and in the
+volcanic districts the slopes are cultivated half-way up the
+extinct craters. The climate in the western parts is temperate
+and healthy. In the winter months of November and December
+the thermometer frequently falls to freezing-point, and in the
+hottest months the maximum on the Kibyen plateau has been
+found to be rarely over 85°.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Bauchi is estimated at about 1,000,000 and
+is of a very various description. The upper classes are Fula, and
+there are some Hausa and Kanuri (Bornuese), but the bulk of
+the people are pagan tribes in a very low state of civilization.
+Sixty-four tribes sufficiently differentiated from each other to
+speak different languages have been reported upon. Hausa is
+the <i>lingua franca</i> of the whole. The pagan population has been
+classified for practical purposes as Hill pagans and Plains pagans,
+Mounted pagans and Foot pagans. The Foot pagans of the
+plains were brought under the Fula yoke in the beginning of
+the 19th century and have never cast it off. The Hill pagans
+were partly conquered, but many remained independent or have
+since succeeded in asserting their freedom. The Mounted pagans
+are confined to the healthy plateaus of the south-west corner of
+the province. They are independent and there is considerable
+variety in the characteristics of the different tribes. The better
+types are hardy, orderly and agriculturally industrious. They
+are intelligent and have shown themselves peaceful and friendly
+to Europeans. Others are, on the contrary, disposed to be
+turbulent and warlike. Amongst the different tribes many are
+cannibals. They all go practically naked. They are essentially
+horsemen, and have a cruel habit of gashing the backs of their
+ponies that they may get a good seat in the blood. They are
+armed with bows and arrows, but depend almost entirely in
+battle on the charges of their mounted spearmen.</p>
+
+<p>The native name &ldquo;Bauchi,&rdquo; which is of great antiquity,
+Signifies the &ldquo;Land of Slaves,&rdquo; and from the earliest times the
+uplands which now form the principal portion of the province
+been the hunting ground of the slave raider, while the hill
+fastnesses have offered defensible refuge to the population. So
+entirely was slavery a habit of the people, that as late as 1905,
+after the slave-trade had been abolished for three years, it was
+found that, in consequence of a famine which rendered food
+difficult to obtain, a whole tribe (the Tangali) were selling
+themselves as slaves to their neighbours. Children are readily
+sold by their parents at a price varying from the equivalent of
+one shilling to one and sixpence.</p>
+
+<p>The province of Bauchi was conquered by the Fula at the
+beginning of the 19th century, and furnished them with a valuable
+slave preserve. But the more civilized portion had already,
+under enlightened native rulers, attained to a certain degree of
+prosperity and order. Mahommedanism was partly adopted by
+the upper classes in the 18th century, if not earlier, and the son
+of a Mahommedan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted
+the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula.
+The name of this remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba
+(Jacob). His father&rsquo;s name was Daouad (David), and his grandfather
+was Abdullah, all names which indicate Arab or Mahommedan
+influence. The town of Bauchi and capital of the province
+was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the emirate
+remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year,
+in consequence of determined slave-raiding and the defiant
+misrule of the emir, a British expedition was sent against the
+capital, which submitted without fighting. The emir was deposed,
+and the country was brought under British control. A new emir
+was appointed, but he died within a few months. The slave-trade
+was immediately abolished, and the slave-market which was held
+at Bauchi, as in all Fula centres, was closed. The Kano-Sokoto
+campaign in 1903 rendered necessary a temporary withdrawal of
+the British resident from Bauchi, and comparatively little progress
+was made until the following year. In 1904 the province
+was organized for administration on the same system as the rest
+of Northern Nigeria, and the reigning emir took the oath of
+allegiance to the British crown. The province has been subdivided
+into thirteen administrative districts, which again have
+been grouped into their principal divisions, with their respective
+British headquarters at Bauchi, Kanan and Bukuru. The Fula
+portion of this province, held like the other Hausa states under
+a feudal system of large landowners or fief-holders, has been
+organized and assessed for taxation on the system accepted by
+the emirs throughout the protectorate, and the populations are
+working harmoniously under British rule. Roads and telegraphs
+are in process of construction, and the province is being gradually
+opened to trade. Valuable indications of tin have been found to
+the north of the Kibyen plateau, and have attracted the attention
+of the Niger Company.</p>
+
+<p>Bauchi is a province of special importance from the European
+point of view because, with free communication from the Benue
+assured, it is probable that on the Kibyen and Sura plateaus,
+which are the healthiest known in the protectorate, a sanatorium
+and station for a large civil population might be established under
+conditions in which Europeans could live free from the evil
+effects of a West African climate.</p>
+
+<p>The emirate of Gombe, which is included in the first division
+of the Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the
+emirs of Bauchi. It forms a rich and important district, and its
+chiefs held themselves in a somewhat sullen attitude of hostility
+to the British. It was at Burmi in this district that the last
+stand was made by the religious following of the defeated sultan
+of Sokoto, and here the sultan was finally overthrown and killed
+in July 1903. Gombe has now frankly accepted British rule.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. L. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1821-1867), French poet,
+was born in Paris on the 9th of April 1821. His father, who was
+a civil servant in good position and an amateur artist, died in
+1827, and in the following year his mother married a lieutenant-colonel
+named Aupick, who was afterwards ambassador of France
+at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons and at the
+Collège Louis-le Grand in Paris. On taking his degree in 1839
+he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next
+two years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span>
+guardians, in 1841, to send him on a voyage to India. When he
+returned to Paris, after less than a year&rsquo;s absence, he was of age;
+but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his
+small patrimony, and his family obtained a decree to place his
+property in trust. His <i>salons</i> of 1845 and 1846 attracted
+immediate attention by the boldness with which he propounded
+many views then novel, but since generally accepted. He took
+part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years interested
+himself in republican politics but his permanent convictions
+were aristocratic and Catholic. Baudelaire was a slow
+and fastidious worker, and it was not until 1857 that he produced
+his first and famous volume of poems, <i>Fleurs du mal</i>. Some of
+these had already appeared in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> when
+they were published by Baudelaire&rsquo;s friend Auguste Poulet
+Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at Alençon. The
+consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by a
+limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse
+selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word
+for unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo,
+writing to the poet, said, &ldquo;Vous dotez le ciel de l&rsquo;art d&rsquo;un rayon
+macabre, vous créez un frisson nouveau.&rdquo; Baudelaire, the
+publisher, and the printer were successfully prosecuted for
+offending against public morals. The obnoxious pieces were
+suppressed, but printed later as <i>Les Épaves</i> (Brussels, 1866).
+Another edition of the <i>Fleurs du mal</i>, without these poems, but
+with considerable additions, appeared in 1861.</p>
+
+<p>Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found
+some of his favourite reading in the English &ldquo;Satanic&rdquo; romances,
+such as Lewis&rsquo;s <i>Monk</i>. In 1846-1847 he became acquainted
+with the works of Edgar Allan Poe, in which he discovered
+romances and poems which had, he said, long existed in his own
+brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till 1865 he
+was largely occupied with his version of Poe&rsquo;s works, producing
+masterpieces of the art of translation in <i>Histoires extraordinaires</i>
+(1852), <i>Nouvelles Histoires extraordinaires</i> (1857), <i>Adventures
+d&rsquo;Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka</i>, and <i>Histoires grotesques et sérieuses</i>
+(1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his <i>&OElig;uvres
+complètes</i> (vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial difficulties
+grew upon him. He was involved in the failure of Poulet
+Malassis in 1861, and in 1864 he left Paris for Belgium, partly in
+the vain hope of disposing of his copyrights. He had for many
+years a <i>liaison</i> with a coloured woman, whom he helped to the
+end of his life in spite of her gross conduct. He had recourse to
+opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess. Paralysis
+followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in <i>maisons
+de santé</i> in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on the 31st of
+August 1867.</p>
+
+<p>His other works include:&mdash;<i>Petits Poèmes en prose</i>; a series of
+art criticisms published in the <i>Pays, Exposition universelle</i>;
+studies on Gustave Flaubert (in <i>L&rsquo;artiste</i>, 18th of October 1857);
+on Théophile Gautier (<i>Revue contemporaine</i>, September 1858);
+valuable notices contributed to Eugène Crépet&rsquo;s <i>Poètes français</i>;
+<i>Les Paradis artificiels opium et haschisch</i> (1860); <i>Richard Wagner
+et Tannhäuser à Paris</i> (1861); <i>Un Dernier Chapitre de l&rsquo;histoire des
+&oelig;uvres de Balzac</i> (1880), originally an article entitled &ldquo;Comment
+on paye ses dettes quand on a du génie,&rdquo; in which his criticism
+is turned against his friends H. de Balzac, Théophile Gautier,
+and Gérard de Nerval.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;An edition of his <i>Lettres</i> (1841-1866) was issued
+by the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i>
+were edited (1868-1870) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a
+preface by Théophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vindication
+of his character from the attacks made upon it in his <i>Charles
+Baudelaire, sa vie, son &oelig;uvre</i> (1869). He left some material of more
+private interest in a MS. entitled <i>Baudelaire</i>. See <i>Charles Baudelaire,
+souvenirs, correspondance, bibliographie</i> (1872), by Charles Cousin
+and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; <i>Charles Baudelaire, &oelig;uvres posthumes
+et correspondances inédites</i> (1887), containing a journal entitled
+<i>Mon c&oelig;ur mis à nu</i>, and a biographical study by Eugène Crépet;
+also <i>Le Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire</i> (1896), a collection of pieces
+unpublished or prohibited during the author&rsquo;s lifetime, edited by
+S. Mallarmé and others, with a study of the text of the <i>Fleurs du
+mal</i> by Prince A. Ourousof; Féli Gautier, <i>Charles Baudelaire</i> (Brussels,
+1904), with facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la
+Fitzelière and C. Decaux, <i>Charles Baudelaire</i> (1868) in the series of
+<i>Essais de bibliographie contemporaine</i>; essays by Paul Bourget,
+<i>Essais de psychologie conlemporaine</i> (1883), and Maurice Spronck,
+<i>Les Artistes littéraires</i> (1889). Among English translations from
+Baudelaire are <i>Poems in Prose</i>, by A. Symons (1905), and a selection
+for the <i>Canterbury Poets</i> (1904), by F.P. Sturm.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUDIER, MICHEL<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1589-1645), French historian, was
+born in Languedoc. During the reign of Louis XIII. he was
+historiographer to the Court of France. He contributed to
+French history by writing <i>Histoire de la guerre de Flandre 1559-1609</i>
+(Paris, 1615); <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;administration du cardinal
+d&rsquo;Amboise, grand ministre d&rsquo;état en France</i> (Paris, 1634), a
+defence of the cardinal; and <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;administration de
+l&rsquo;abbé Suger</i> (Paris, 1645). Taking an especial interest in the
+Turks he wrote <i>Inventaire général de l&rsquo;histoire des Turcs</i> (Paris,
+1619); <i>Histoire générale de la religion des Turcs avec la vie de
+leur prophète Mahomet</i> (Paris, 1626); and <i>Histoire générale du
+sérail et de la cour du grand Turc</i> (Paris, 1626; English trans. by
+E. Grimeston, London, 1635). Having heard the narrative of
+a Jesuit who had returned from China, Baudier wrote <i>Histoire
+de la cour du roi de Chine</i> (Paris, 1626; English trans. in vol. viii.
+of the <i>Collection of Voyages and Travels</i> of A. and J. Churchill,
+London, 1707-1747). He also wrote <i>Vie du cardinal Ximénès</i>
+(Paris, 1635), which was again published with a notice of the
+author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious romance
+entitled <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;incomparable administration de Romieu, grand
+ministre d&rsquo;état de Raymond Bérenger, comte de Provence</i> (Paris, 1635).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Lelong, <i>Bibliothèque historique de la France</i> (Paris, 1768-1778);
+L. Moréri, <i>Le Grand Dictionnaire historique</i> (Amsterdam,
+1740).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LÉON<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1821-1892), French
+economist, was born in Paris on the 28th of November 1821.
+His father, Jacques Joseph (1774-1832), was a distinguished
+writer on forestry, and was for many years in the service of the
+French government, eventually becoming the head of that
+branch of the department of agriculture which had charge of the
+state forests. Henri was educated at the Collège Bourbon,
+where he had a distinguished career, and in 1852 he was appointed
+assistant lecturer in political economy to M. Chevalier at the
+Collège de France. In 1866, on the creation of a new chair of
+economic history, Baudrillart was appointed to fill it. His first
+work was an <i>Éloge de Turgot</i> (1846), which at once
+won him notice among the economists. In 1853 he published an
+erudite work on <i>Jean Bodin et son temps</i>; then in 1857 a <i>Manuel
+d&rsquo;économie politique</i>; in 1860, <i>Des rapports de la morale et
+de l&rsquo;économie politique</i>; in 1865, <i>La Liberté du travail</i>; and from
+1878 to 1880, <i>L&rsquo;Histoire du luxe ... depuis l&rsquo;antiquité jusqu&rsquo;à
+nos jours</i>, in four volumes. At the instance of the Académie des
+Sciences Morales et Politiques he investigated the condition of
+the farming classes of France, and published the results in four
+volumes (1885, <i>et seq</i>.). From 1855 to 1864 he directed the
+<i>Journal des économistes</i>, and contributed many articles to the
+<i>Journal des débats</i> and to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>. His
+writings are distinguished by their style, as well as by their
+profound erudition. In 1863 he was elected member of the Académie
+des Sciences Morales et Politiques; in 1870 he was
+appointed inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1881 he
+succeeded J. Garnier as professor of political economy at the
+École des Ponts et Chaussées. Baudrillart was made an officer
+of the Legion of Honour in 1889. He died in Paris on the 24th of
+January 1892.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUDRY,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Balderich</span>, <b>OF BOURGUEIL</b> (1046 or 1047-1130),
+archbishop of Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-sur-Loire,
+where he passed his early days. Educated at Meung
+and at Angers, he entered the Benedictine abbey of Bourgueil,
+and in 1079 became abbot of this place, but his time was devoted
+to literary pursuits rather than to his official duties. Having
+failed to secure the bishopric of Orleans in 1097, he became
+archbishop of Dol in 1107, and went to Rome for his pallium in
+1108. The bishopric of Dol had been raised to the rank of an
+archbishopric during the 10th century by Nomenoé, king of
+Brittany, but this step had been objected to by the archbishops
+of Tours. Consequently the position of the see was somewhat
+ambiguous, and Baudry is referred to both as archbishop and as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span>
+bishop of Dol. He appears to have striven earnestly to do
+something for the education of the ignorant inhabitants of
+Brittany but his efforts were not very successful, and he soon
+abandoned the task. In 1116 he attended the Lateran council,
+and in 1119 the council of Reims, after which he paid a visit
+of two years&rsquo; duration to England. Returning to France he
+neglected the affairs of his diocese, and passed his time mainly
+at St Samson-sur-Risle in Normandy. He died on the 5th or
+7th of January 1130.</p>
+
+<p>Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent
+quality. The most important of these, from the historical point
+of view, have been published in the <i>Historiae Francorum Scriptores</i>,
+tome iv., edited by A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry&rsquo;s
+prose works are more important. The best known of these is his
+<i>Historiae Hierosolymitance</i>, a history of the first crusade from
+1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books, the material for
+which was mainly drawn from the anonymous <i>Gesta Francorum</i>,
+but some valuable information has been added by Baudry.
+It was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by
+Ordericus Vitalis for his <i>Historiae ecclesiasticae</i>; by William,
+archbishop of Tyre, for his <i>Belli sacri historia</i>; and by Vincent
+of Beauvais for his <i>Speculum historiale</i>. The best edition is that
+by C. Thurot, which appears in the <i>Recueil des historiens des
+croisades</i>, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887), Other works probably by
+Baudry are <i>Epistola ad Fiscannenses monachos</i>, a description of
+the monastery of Fécamp; <i>Vita Roberti de Arbrissello; Vita
+S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio capitis
+Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relatio de scuto
+et gladio</i>, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and <i>Vita
+S. Samsonis Dolensis episcopi</i>. Other writings which on very
+doubtful authority have been attributed to Baudry are <i>Acta
+S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De visitatione infirmorum;
+Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S. Maclovii, Alectensis
+episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium</i>; and
+<i>Confirmatio bonorum monasterii S. Florentii</i>. Many of these are
+published by J.P. Migne in the <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, tomes 160,
+162 and 166 (Paris 1844).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869);
+H. von Sybel, <i>Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges</i> (Leipzig, 1881);
+A. Thurot, &ldquo;Études critiques sur les historiens de la première
+croisade; Baudri de Bourgueil&rdquo; in the <i>Revue historique</i> (Paris,
+1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIMÉ<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1828-1886), French
+painter, was born at La Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendée). He studied
+under Drolling, a sound but second-rate artist, and carried off
+the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his picture of &ldquo;Zenobia found on
+the banks of the Araxes.&rdquo; His talent from the first revealed
+itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and grace, but
+somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence in
+Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with
+the mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works
+he exhibited in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for
+the Luxembourg: &ldquo;The Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;The Child.&rdquo; His &ldquo;Leda,&rdquo; &ldquo;St John the Baptist,&rdquo; and a
+&ldquo;Portrait of Beulé,&rdquo; exhibited at the same time, took a first
+prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry commonly
+selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most
+noteworthy being &ldquo;The Pearl and the Wave.&rdquo; Once only did
+he attempt an historical picture, &ldquo;Charlotte Corday after the
+murder of Marat&rdquo; (1861), and returned by preference to the
+former class of subjects or to painting portraits of illustrious men
+of his day&mdash;Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond About. The
+works that crowned Baudry&rsquo;s reputation were his mural decorations,
+which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for
+colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de
+Cassation, at the château of Chantilly, and some private residences&mdash;the
+hôtel Fould and hôtel Paiva&mdash;but, above all, in the
+decorations of the <i>foyer</i> of the Paris opera house. These, more
+than thirty paintings in all, and among them compositions
+figurative of dancing and music, occupied the painter, for ten
+years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of the
+Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of
+his colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating
+with his brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to
+him in Paris (1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-Yonne
+(1897) is by Gérôme.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Delaborde, <i>Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry</i> (1886);
+Ch. Ephrussi, <i>Baudry, sa vie et son &oelig;uvre</i> (1887).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Fr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUER, BRUNO<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1809-1882), German theologian and historian,
+was born on the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a
+porcelain factory, at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied
+at Berlin, where he attached himself to the &ldquo;Right&rdquo; of the
+Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In 1834 he began to teach
+in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in 1839 was transferred
+to Bonn. In 1838 he published his <i>Kritische Darstellung der
+Religion des Alten Testaments</i> (2 vols.), which shows that at that
+date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon afterwards
+his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the
+Fourth Gospel, <i>Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes</i>
+(1840), and the other on the Synoptics, <i>Kritik der evangelischen
+Geschichte der Synoptiker</i> (1841), as well as in his <i>Herr Hengstenberg,
+kritische Briefe über den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des
+Evangeliums</i>, he announced his complete rejection of his earlier
+orthodoxy. In 1842 the government revoked his license and he
+retired for the rest of his life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Henceforward
+he took a deep interest in modern history and politics, as
+well as in theology, and published <i>Geschichte der Politik, Kultur
+und Aufklärung des 18ten Jahrhunderts</i> (4 vols. 1843-1845),
+Geschichte der französischen Revolution (3 vols. 1847), and
+<i>Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer Imperialismus</i>
+(1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the gospels and a
+history of their origin, <i>Kritik der Evangelien und Geschichte ihres
+Ursprungs</i> (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the Apostles,
+<i>Apostelgeschichte</i> (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline epistles,
+<i>Kritik der paulinischen Briefe</i> (1850-1852). He died at Rixdorf
+on the 13th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament
+was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his <i>Life of
+Jesus</i> had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious
+products of the mythic instinct in the early Christian communities.
+Bauer ridiculed Strauss&rsquo;s notion that a community
+could produce a connected narrative. His own contention,
+embodying a theory of C.G. Wilke (<i>Der Urevangelist</i>, 1838), was
+that the original narrative was the Gospel of Mark; that this was
+composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after this the other
+narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however,
+&ldquo;regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the
+creator of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction
+and Christianity the invention of a single original evangelist&rdquo;
+(Pfleiderer). On the same principle the four principal Pauline
+epistles were regarded as forgeries of the 2nd century. He argued
+further for the preponderance of the Graeco-Roman element, as
+opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian writings. The writer of
+Mark&rsquo;s gospel was &ldquo;an Italian, at home both in Rome and
+Alexandria&rdquo;; that of Matthew&rsquo;s gospel &ldquo;a Roman, nourished
+by the spirit of Seneca&rdquo;; the Pauline epistles were written in
+the West in antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on.
+Christianity is essentially &ldquo;Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish
+garb.&rdquo; This line of criticism has found few supporters, mostly
+in the Netherlands. It certainly had its value in emphasizing the
+importance of studying the influence of environment in the
+formation of the Christian Scriptures. Bauer was a man of restless,
+impetuous activity and independent, if ill-balanced, judgment,
+one who, as he himself perceived, was more in place as a
+free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came in the
+end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not
+afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the
+Jewish question (<i>Die Judenfrage</i>, 1843).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the
+<i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>. See generally Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>;
+and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, <i>Development of Theology</i>, p. 226;
+Carl Schwarz, <i>Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie</i>, pp. 142 ff.; and
+F. Lichtenberger, <i>History of German Theology in the 19th Century</i>
+(1889), pp. 374-378.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1802-1890), Austrian dramatist,
+was born at Vienna on the 13th of January 1802. Having
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span>
+studied jurisprudence at the university of Vienna, he entered the
+government service in a legal capacity, and after holding various
+minor offices was transferred in 1843 to a responsible post on the
+Lottery Commission. He had already embarked upon politics,
+and severely criticized the government in a pamphlet, <i>Pia
+Desideria eines österreichischen Schriftstellers</i> (1842); and in
+1845 he made a journey to England, after which his political opinions
+became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he
+quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely
+to letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the 9th of August
+1890, and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies
+and farces, Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German
+playwrights of the century; his plots are clever, the situations
+witty and natural and the diction elegant. His earliest essays,
+the comedies <i>Leichtsinn aus Liebe</i> (1831); <i>Das
+Liebes-Protokoll</i> (1831) and <i>Die ewige Liebe</i> (1834);
+<i>Bürgerlich und Romantisch</i>, (1835) enjoyed great popularity.
+Later he turned his attention to so-called <i>Salonstücke</i>
+(drawing-room pieces), notably <i>Aus der Gesellschaft</i> (1866);
+<i>Moderne Jugend</i> (1869), and <i>Der Landfrieden</i> (1869),
+in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy sallies the
+social conditions of the capital in which he lived.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of Bauernfeld&rsquo;s works, <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>,
+appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873); <i>Dramatischer Nachlass</i>,
+ed. by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols.,
+1905). See A. Stern, <i>Bauernfeld, Ein Dichterportrat</i> (1890),
+R. von Gottschall, &ldquo;E. von Bauernfeld&rdquo; (in <i>Unsere Zeit</i>, 1890),
+and E. Horner, <i>Bauernfeld</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUFFREMONT,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a French family which derives its name
+from a village in the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In
+consequence of an alliance with the house of Vergy the Bauffremonts
+established themselves in Burgundy and Franche-Comté.
+In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of Charny, married Maríe, a
+legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy.
+Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson Henri,
+all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588
+and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre
+Emmanuel Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the
+Holy Roman Empire, was created a peer of France in 1817, and
+duke in 1818. After having served in the army of the princes he
+returned to France under the Empire, and had been made a
+count by Napoleon.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUHIN, GASPARD<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anatomist,
+was the son of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-1582),
+who had to leave his native country on becoming a
+convert to Protestantism. He was born at Basel on the 17th of
+January 1560, and devoting himself to medicine, he pursued his
+studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated schools
+in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to
+the degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and
+anatomy. In 1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship
+in that university, and in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and
+botany. He was afterwards made city physician, professor of
+the practice of medicine, rector of the university, and dean of
+his faculty. He died at Basel on the 5th of December 1624. He
+published several works relative to botany, of which the most
+valuable was his <i>Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in
+Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo
+scripserunt opera</i> (1596). Another great work which he planned was
+a <i>Theatrum Botanicum</i>, meant to be comprised in twelve parts
+folio, of which he finished three; only one, however, was published
+(1658). He also gave a copious catalogue of the plants
+growing in the environs of Basel, and edited the works of P.A.
+Mattioli (1500-1577) with considerable additions. He likewise
+wrote on anatomy, his principal work on this subject being
+<i>Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum</i> (1592).</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Jean Gaspard Bauhin</span> (1606-1685), was professor
+of botany at Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, <span class="sc">Jean
+Bauhin</span> (1541-1613), after studying botany at Tübingen under
+Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and travelling with Conrad Gesner,
+began to practise medicine at Basel, where he was elected professor
+of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he was invited to
+become physician to the duke of Württemberg at Montbéliard,
+where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted himself
+chiefly to botany. His great work, <i>Historia plantarum nova et
+absolutissima</i>, a compilation of all that was then known about
+botany, was not complete at his death, but was published at
+Yverdon in 1650-1651, the <i>Prodromus</i> having appeared at the same
+place in 1619. He also wrote a book <i>De aquis medicatis</i> (1605).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAULK,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Balk</span> (a word common to Teutonic languages,
+meaning a ridge, partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughed
+between furrows or ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip
+of land used as a boundary in the &ldquo;open-field&rdquo; system of
+agriculture. From the meaning of something left untouched
+comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse stopping short
+of an obstacle, of the &ldquo;baulk-line&rdquo; in billiards, or of the deceptive
+motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original
+meaning, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;beam,&rdquo; comes the use of the word for the cross
+or tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one
+or one and a half foot square section (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joinery</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUMBACH, RUDOLF<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1840-1905), German poet, was born
+at Kranichfeld on the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September
+1840, the son of a local medical practitioner, and received his
+early schooling at the gymnasium of Meiningen, to which place
+his father had removed. After studying natural science in
+various universities, he engaged in private tuition, both
+independently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz, Brünn,
+Görz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular
+taste with an Alpine legend, <i>Zlatorog</i> (1877), and songs of a
+journeyman apprentice, <i>Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen</i> (1878),
+both of which have run into many editions. Their success
+decided him to embark upon a literary career. In 1885 he
+returned to Meiningen, where he received the title of <i>Hofrat</i>,
+and was appointed ducal librarian. His death occurred on the
+14th of September 1905.</p>
+
+<p>Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and
+wrote, in imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel,
+many excellent drinking songs, among which <i>Die Lindenwirtin</i>
+has endeared him to the German student world. But his real
+strength lay in narrative verse, especially when he had the
+opportunity of describing the scenery and life of his native Thuringia.
+Special mention may be made of <i>Frau Holde</i> (1881),
+<i>Spielmannslieder</i> (1882), <i>Von der Landstrasse</i> (1882),
+<i>Thüringer Lieder</i> (1891), and his prose, <i>Sommermärchen</i> (1881).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUMÉ, ANTOINE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at
+Senlis on the 26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to
+the chemist Claude Joseph Geoffroy, and in 1752 was admitted
+a member of the École de Pharmacie, where in the same year he
+was appointed professor of chemistry. The money he made in a
+business he carried on in Paris for dealing in chemical products
+enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote himself to
+applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was obliged
+to return to a commercial career. He devised many improvements
+in technical processes, <i>e.g.</i> for bleaching silk, dyeing,
+gilding, purifying saltpetre, &amp;c., but he is best known as the
+inventor of the hydrometer associated with his name (often in
+this connexion improperly spelt Beaumé). Of the numerous
+books and papers he wrote the most important is his <i>Élémens de
+pharmacie théorique et pratique</i> (9 editions, 1762-1818). He
+became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1772, and an
+associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the 15th
+of October 1804.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1714-1762),
+German philosopher, born at Berlin. He studied at Halle, and
+became professor of philosophy at Halle and at Frankfort on the
+Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple of Leibnitz and
+Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been the
+first to establish the <i>Theory of the Beautiful</i> as an independent
+science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics
+(<i>q.v.</i>) from the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out
+a definite object for its researches. The very name (<i>Aesthetics</i>),
+which Baumgarten was the first to use, indicates the imperfect
+and partial nature of his analysis, pointing as it does to an element
+so variable as <i>feeling</i> or <i>sensation</i> as the ultimate ground of
+judgment in questions pertaining to beauty. It is important
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span>
+to notice that Baumgarten&rsquo;s first work preceded those of Burke,
+Diderot, and P. André, and that Kant had a great admiration
+for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the following:
+<i>Dispulationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus</i> (1735);
+<i>Aesthetics; Metaphysica</i> (1739; 7th ed. 1779); <i>Ethica philosophica</i>
+(1751, 2nd ed. 1763); <i>Initia philosophiae practicae
+primae</i> (1760). After his death, his pupils published a <i>Philosophia
+Generalis</i> (1770) and a <i>Jus Naturae</i> (1765), which he had
+left in manuscript.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Meyer, <i>Baumgarten&rsquo;s Leben</i> (1763); Abbt, <i>Baumgarten&rsquo;s Leben
+und Charakler</i> (1765); H.G. Meyer, <i>Leibnitz und Baumgarten</i> (1874);
+J. Schmidt, <i>Leibnitz und Baumgarten</i> (Halle, 1875); and article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aesthetics</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Siegmund Jacob Baumgarten</span> (1706-1757),
+was professor of theology at Halle, and applied the methods of
+Wolff to theology. His chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (<i>q.v.</i>),
+is sometimes called, the father of German rationalism. Baumgarten,
+though he did not renounce the Pietistic doctrine, began
+the process which Semler completed. His works include <i>Evangelische
+Glaubenslehre</i> (1759); <i>Auszug der Kirchengeschichte</i>
+(1743-1762); <i>Primae lineae breviarii anliquitatum Christianarum</i>
+(1747); <i>Geschichte der Religionsparteien</i> (1760); <i>Nachricht van
+merkwürdigen Buchern</i> (1752-1757); <i>Nachrichten van einer hallischen
+Bibliothek</i> (1748-1751).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See life by Semler (Halle, 1758).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1812-1889), German Protestant
+theologian, was born at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the
+25th of March 1812. He studied at Kiel University (1832), and
+became professor ordinarius of theology at Rostock (1850). A
+liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854 through a work,
+<i>Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus der
+Gegenwart</i>, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament
+and assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every
+kind. At a pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended
+evangelical freedom as regards the legal sanctity of Sunday.
+This, with other attempts to liberalize religion, brought him into
+conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities of Mecklenburg, and in
+1858 he was deprived of his professorship. He then travelled
+throughout Germany, demanding justice, telling the story of his
+life (<i>Christliche Selbstgespräche</i>, 1861), and lecturing on the life
+of Jesus (<i>Die Geschichte Jesu. Für das Verständniss der Gegenwart</i>,
+1859). In 1865 he helped to found the <i>Deutsche Protestantenverein</i>,
+but withdrew from it in 1877. On several occasions
+(1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of the
+progressive party. He died on the 21st of July 1889. Other
+works: <i>Apostelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche van
+Jerusalem bis Rom</i> (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and <i>Doktor Martin
+Luther, ein Volksbuch</i> (1883).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>H.H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see
+also C. Schwartz, <i>Neueste Theologie</i> (1869); Lichtenberger, <i>Hist.
+Germ. Theol.</i>, 1889; Calwer-Zeller, <i>Kirchen-Lexikon</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>
+(1788-1842), German Protestant divine, was born at Merseburg.
+In 1805 he entered the university of Leipzig and studied theology
+and philology. After acting as <i>Privatdocent</i> at Leipzig, he was,
+in 1812, appointed professor extraordinarius of theology at Jena,
+where he remained to the end of his life, rising gradually to the
+head of the theological faculty. He died on the 31st of May
+1842. With the exception of Church history, he lectured on all
+branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially on New
+Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the
+history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate
+scholarship and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his
+lectures and treatises, especially those on the development of
+church doctrine. His published works are many, the most
+important being:&mdash;<i>Lehrbuch der christtichen Sittenlehre</i> (1826);
+<i>Grundzuge der biblischen Theologie</i> (1828); <i>Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte</i>
+(1832); <i>Compendium der Dogmengeschichte</i> (1840).
+The last, perhaps his best work, was left unfinished, but was
+completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1792-1860), leader of the
+Tübingen school of theology, was born at Schmiden, near
+Canstatt, on the 21st of June 1792. After receiving an early
+training in the theological seminary at Blaubeuren, he went in
+1809 to the university of Tübingen. Here he studied for a time
+under Ernst Bengel, grandson of the eminent New Testament
+critic, Johann Albrecht Bengel, and at this early stage in his
+career he seems to have been under the influence of the old
+Tübingen school. But at the same time the philosophers
+Immanuel Fichte and Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide
+and deep impression. In 1817 Baur returned to the theological
+seminary at Blaubeuren as professor. This move marked a
+turning-point in his life, for he was now able to set to work upon
+those investigations on which his reputation rests. He had
+already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser&rsquo;s <i>Biblische
+Theologie</i> for Bengel&rsquo;s <i>Archiv für Theologie</i> (ii. 656); its tone
+was moderate and conservative. When, a few years after his
+appointment at Blaubeuren, he published his first important,
+work, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie oder die Naturreligion des Altertums</i>
+(1824-1825), it became evident that he had made a deeper
+study of philosophy, and had come under the influence of
+Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher.
+The learning of the work was fully recognized, and in 1826 the
+author was called to Tübingen as professor of theology. It is
+with Tübingen that his greatest literary achievements are
+associated. His earlier publications here treated of mythology
+and the history of dogma. <i>Das manichäische Religionssystem</i>
+appeared in 1831, <i>Apollonius von Tyana</i> in 1832, <i>Die christliche
+Gnosis</i> in 1835, and <i>Über das Christliche im Platonismus oder
+Socrates und Christus</i> in 1837. As Otto Pfleiderer (<i>Development
+of Theology</i>, p. 285) observes, &ldquo;the choice not less than the treatment
+of these subjects is indicative of the large breadth of view
+and the insight of the historian into the comparative history of
+religion.&rdquo; Meantime Baur had exchanged one master in philosophy
+for another, Schleiermacher for Hegel. In doing so, he
+had adopted completely the Hegelian philosophy of history.
+&ldquo;Without philosophy,&rdquo; he has said, &ldquo;history is always for me
+dead and dumb.&rdquo; The change of view is illustrated clearly in
+the essay, published in the <i>Tubinger Zeitschrift</i> for 1831, on the
+Christ-party in the Corinthian Church, <i>Die Chrislusparlei in
+der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz des paulinischen und
+petrinischen in der älsten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus in Rom</i>,
+the trend of which is suggested by the title. Baur contends that
+St Paul was opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party
+which wished to set up its own form of Christian religion instead
+of his universal Christianity. He finds traces of a keen conflict
+of parties in the post-apostolic age. The theory is further
+developed in a later work (1835, the year in which David Strauss&rsquo;
+<i>Leben Jesu</i> was published), <i>Über die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe</i>.
+In this Baur attempts to prove that the false teachers mentioned
+in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus are the Gnostics, particularly
+the Marcionites, of the second century, and consequently
+that the Epistles were produced in the middle of this century
+in opposition to Gnosticism. He next proceeded to investigate
+the Pauline Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles in the same
+manner, publishing his results in 1845 under the title <i>Paulus, der
+Apostel Jesu Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und
+seine Lehre</i>. In this he contends that only the Epistles to the
+Galatians, Corinthians and Romans are genuinely Pauline, and
+that the Paul of Acts is a different person from the Paul of these
+genuine Epistles, the author being a Paulinist who, with an eye
+to the different parties in the Church, is at pains to represent
+Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as far as possible
+as a Petrinist. Thus it becomes clear that Baur is prepared to
+apply his theory to the whole of the New Testament; in the
+words of H.S. Nash, &ldquo;he carried a sweeping hypothesis into the
+examination of the New Testament.&rdquo; Those writings alone he
+considers genuine in which the conflict between Jewish-Christians
+and Gentile-Christians is clearly marked. In his <i>Kritische
+Untersuchungen über die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss
+zu einander, ihren Charakter und Ursprung</i> (1847) he turns his
+attention to the Gospels, and here again finds that the authors
+were conscious of the conflict of parties; the Gospels reveal
+a mediating or conciliatory tendency (<i>Tendenz</i>) on the part of
+the writers or redactors. The Gospels, in fact, are adaptations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span>
+or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the Gospel of the
+Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites. The
+Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original
+Gospel (<i>Urevangelium</i>); the Pauline Luke is later and arose
+independently; Mark represents a still later development;
+the account in John is idealistic: it &ldquo;does not possess historical
+truth, and cannot and does not really lay claim to it.&rdquo; Baur&rsquo;s
+whole theory indeed starts with the supposition that Christianity
+was gradually developed out of Judaism. Before it could become
+a universal religion, it had to struggle with Jewish limitations and
+to overcome them. The early Christians were Jewish-Christians,
+to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other hand, represented
+a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus
+there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter,
+James and John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle
+continued down to the middle of the 2nd century. In short,
+the conflict between Petrinism and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz
+puts it, the key to the literature of the 1st and 2nd century.</p>
+
+<p>But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical
+critic. As early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work,
+<i>Gegensatz des Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den
+Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der beiden Lehrbegriffe</i>, a strong
+defence of Protestantism on the lines of Schleiermacher&rsquo;s
+<i>Glaubenslehre</i>, and a vigorous reply to J. Möhler&rsquo;s <i>Symbolik</i>
+(1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma, <i>Die
+christliche Lehre van der Versöhnung in ihrer geschichtlichen
+Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit</i> (1838), <i>Die christliche
+Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer
+geschichtlichen Entwicklung</i> (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the
+<i>Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte</i> (1847). The value
+of these works is impaired somewhat by Baur&rsquo;s habit of making
+the history of dogma conform to the formulae of Hegel&rsquo;s philosophy,
+a procedure &ldquo;which only served to obscure the truth
+and profundity of his conception of history as a true development
+of the human mind&rdquo; (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon
+came to attach more importance to personality, and to distinguish
+more carefully between religion and philosophy. The change is
+marked in his <i>Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung</i> (1852),
+<i>Das Christenthum und die christliche Kirche der drei ersten
+Jahrhunderte</i> (1853), and <i>Die christliche Kirche von Anfang des
+vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten Jahrhunderts</i> (1859), works
+preparatory to his <i>Kirchengeschichte</i>, in which the change of view is
+specially pronounced. The <i>Kirchengeschichte</i> was published in five
+volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur himself,
+partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard
+Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him.
+Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as
+&ldquo;a classic for all time.&rdquo; &ldquo;Taken as a whole, it is the first
+thorough and satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity
+and the Church on <i>strictly historical</i> lines, <i>i.e</i>. as a natural
+development of the religious spirit of our race under the combined
+operation of various human causes&rdquo; (<i>Development of
+Theology</i>, p. 288). Baur&rsquo;s lectures on the history of dogma,
+<i>Ausführlichere Vorlesungen über die christliche Dogmengeschichte</i>,
+were published later by his son (1865-1868).</p>
+
+<p>Baur&rsquo;s views were revolutionary and often extreme; but,
+whatever may be thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic
+he rendered a great service to theological science. &ldquo;One thing
+is certain: New Testament study, since his time, has had a
+different colour&rdquo; (H.S. Nash). He has had a number of disciples
+or followers, who have in many cases modified his positions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A full account of F.C. Baur&rsquo;s labours, and a complete list of his
+writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>,
+in which his work is divided into three periods: (1) &ldquo;Philosophy
+of Religion,&rdquo; (2) &ldquo;Biblical criticism,&rdquo; (3) &ldquo;Church History.&rdquo;
+See also H.S. Nash, <i>The History of the Higher Criticism of the New
+Testament</i> (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, <i>The Development of
+Theology in Germany since Kant</i> (trans., 1890); Carl Schwarz, <i>Zur
+Geschichte der neuesten Theologie</i> (Leipzig, 1869); R.W. Mackay,
+<i>The Tübingen School and its Antecedents</i> (1863); A.S. Farrar, <i>A
+Critical History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion</i>
+(Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on &ldquo;The Tübingen
+Historical School,&rdquo; in <i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i>, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. A. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGÈNE MARIE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1796-1867), French
+philosopher and theologian, was born at Paris. At the École
+Normale he came under the influence of Cousin. In 1816 he
+adopted the profession of higher teaching, and was soon after
+called to the chair of philosophy in the university of Strassburg.
+He held this position for many years, and gave a parallel course
+of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in the same city.
+The reaction against speculative philosophy, which carried
+away De Maistre and Lamennais, influenced him also. In 1828
+he took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For
+several years he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty
+and at the college of Juilly, but in 1840 he set out for Paris as
+vicar of the diocese. At Paris he obtained considerable reputation
+as an orator, and in 1853 was made professor of moral
+theology at the theological faculty. This post he held till his
+death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason and faith,
+and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise unattainable,
+which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods. Theology
+and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science.
+Yet Bautain was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he
+exalted faith above reason. He pointed out, following chiefly
+the Kantian criticism, that reason can never yield knowledge
+of things in themselves. But there exists in addition to reason
+another faculty which may be called intelligence, through which
+we are put in connexion with spiritual and invisible truth.
+This intelligence does not of itself yield a body of truth; it
+merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are made
+productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts.
+This fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the departments
+of psychology and morals. The details of this theology
+are highly imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a
+spirit of the world and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth
+to a physical and psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the
+animal and vegetable spirits. His theories may well be compared
+with the arbitrary mysticism of van Helmont and the Gnostics.
+The most important of his works are:&mdash;<i>Philosophie du Christianisme</i>
+(1835); <i>Psychologic expérimentale</i> (1839), new edition
+entitled <i>Esprit humain et ses facultés</i> (1859); <i>Philosophie
+morale</i> (1840); <i>Religion et liberté</i> (1848); <i>La Morale de l&rsquo;évangile
+comparée aux divers systèmes de morale</i> (Strassburg, 1827;
+Paris, 1855); <i>De l&rsquo;éducation publique en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i> (Paris, 1876).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUTZEN<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (Wendish <i>Budissin</i>, &ldquo;town&rdquo;), a town of Germany,
+in the kingdom of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper
+Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515; (1905) 29,412. It occupies an
+eminence on the right bank of the Spree, 680 ft. above the level
+of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the Dresden-Görlitz-Breslau
+main line of railway, and at the junction of lines from
+Schandau and Königswartha. The town is surrounded by walls,
+and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned
+into promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the
+left bank of the river. Among its churches the most remarkable
+is the cathedral of St Peter, dating from the 15th century, with a
+tower 300 ft. in height. It is used by both Protestants and Roman
+Catholics, an iron screen separating the parts assigned to each.
+There are five other churches, a handsome town hall, an orphan-asylum,
+several hospitals, a mechanics&rsquo; institute, a famous
+grammar school (gymnasium), a normal and several other schools,
+and two public libraries. The general trade and manufactures are
+considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth), linen
+and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It
+has also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar
+factories, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler,
+conquered Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under
+Otto I., his successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth
+and importance, for a good share of which it was indebted to the
+pilgrimages which were made to the &ldquo;arm of St Peter,&rdquo; preserved
+in one of the churches. It suffered greatly during the Hussite
+war, and still more during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, in the course of
+which it was besieged and captured by the elector of Brandenburg,
+John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wallenstein (1633), and,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span>
+in the following year was burned by its commander before being
+surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in
+1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity.</p>
+
+<p>The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 20th
+and 21st of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of
+Russians and Prussians (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>).
+The position chosen by the allies as that in which to
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Bautzen, 1813.</span>
+receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from
+Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right.
+Bautzen itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing
+(Russians), the main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near
+Jenkwitz. On the heights of Burk, 2½ m. N.E. of Bautzen, was
+Kleist&rsquo;s Prussian corps, with Yorck&rsquo;s in support. On Kleist&rsquo;s
+right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of Burk) lay Blücher&rsquo;s corps, and on
+Blücher&rsquo;s right, formed at an angle to him, and refused towards
+Gleina (7 m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the Russians of Barclay
+de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought abounded
+in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as
+battlegrounds of the Seven Years&rsquo; War. The whole line was
+covered by the river Spree, which served as an immediate defence
+for the left and centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to
+attack the right; moreover the interval between the river and
+the position on this side was covered with a network of ponds and
+watercourses. Napoleon&rsquo;s right and centre approached (on a
+broad front owing to the want of cavalry) from Dresden by
+Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was
+separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at
+Luckau, was ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and
+Klix to strike the allies&rsquo; right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon,
+after a prolonged reconnaissance, advanced the main army against
+Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy&rsquo;s right to be dealt with by
+Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the extreme left of the
+allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to move his artillery
+and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot&rsquo;s (XII.) corps,
+the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly country
+to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald&rsquo;s (XI.) corps was to
+assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the
+Spree and attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three
+corps were directed by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand&rsquo;s (IV.)
+corps was held back to connect with Ney, who had then reached
+Weissig with the head of his column. The Guard and other
+general reserves were in rear of Macdonald and Marmont.
+Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont
+easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the
+other bank of the river by about 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> A heavy and indecisive
+combat took place in the evening between Oudinot and the
+Russian left, directed by the tsar in person, in which Oudinot&rsquo;s
+men made a little progress towards Jenkwitz. Marmont&rsquo;s battle
+was more serious. The Prussians were not experienced troops,
+but were full of ardour and hatred of the French. Kleist made a
+most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and Bertrand&rsquo;s corps
+was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but part of
+Blücher&rsquo;s corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not
+taken till 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> The French attack was much impeded by the
+ground and by want of room to deploy between the river and the
+enemy. But Napoleon&rsquo;s object in thus forcing the fighting in the
+centre was achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the
+French attack, gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and
+right to sustain the shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were
+in possession of the French, and the allied line now stretched from
+Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz, Blücher and Barclay maintaining
+their original positions at Pliskowitz and Gleina. The
+night of the 20th-21st was spent by both armies on the battlefield.
+Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost fought
+out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive point
+was to be Barclay&rsquo;s position. Soon after daybreak fighting was
+renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep
+until the time appointed for Ney&rsquo;s attack. To a heavy counter-stroke
+against Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal
+from the ground won on the 20th, the emperor paid no more heed
+than to order Macdonald to support the XII corps. For in this
+second position of the allies, which was far more formidable than
+the original line, the decisive result could be brought about only
+by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the corps of
+Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total
+force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had
+been sharply engaged on the 19th, but had spent the 20th in
+calculated inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened;
+Ney and Lauriston moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and
+Victor operated by a wide turning movement against Barclay&rsquo;s
+right rear. The advance was carried out with precision; the
+Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was now closing upon
+the rear of Blücher&rsquo;s corps at the village of Preititz. Napoleon at
+once ordered Soult&rsquo;s four corps to renew their attacks in order to
+prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the critical
+moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>
+and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite of an hour
+enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was
+checked until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could
+come upon the scene. At 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, when Ney resumed his advance,
+it was too late to cut off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now
+made his final stroke. The Imperial Guard and all other troops
+in the centre, 80,000 strong and covered by a great mass of
+artillery, moved forward to the attack; and shortly the allied
+centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent to oppose
+Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Blücher, now
+almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make
+head against Soult, and Ney&rsquo;s four corps then carried all before
+them. Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney&rsquo;s
+appearance, to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered
+a general retreat eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and
+bravery directing the rearguard. Thus the allies drew off
+unharmed, leaving no trophies in the hands of Napoleon, whose
+success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a variety of reasons,
+and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a <i>coup manqué</i>
+strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side
+163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses
+respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAUXITE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span>, a substance which has been considered to be a
+mineral species, having the composition Al<span class="su">2</span>O(OH)<span class="su">4</span> (corresponding
+with alumina 73.9, water 26.1%), and thus to be distinct
+from the crystallized aluminium hydroxides, diaspore (AlO(OH))
+and gibbsite (= hydrargillite, Al(OH)<span class="su">3</span>). It was first described by
+P. Berthier in 1821 as &ldquo;alumine hydratée de Beaux,&rdquo; and was
+named beauxite by P.A. Dufrénoy in 1847 and bauxite by
+E.H. Sainte-Claire Deville in 1861; this name being derived
+from the original locality, the village of Les Baux (or Beaux),
+near Arles, dep. Bouches-du-Rhône in the south of France,
+where the material has been for many years extensively mined as
+an ore of aluminium. It is never found in a crystallized state,
+but always as earthy, clay-like or concretionary masses, often
+with a pisolitic structure. In colour it varies from white through
+yellow and brown to red, depending on the amount and the
+degree of hydration of the iron present. The specific gravity
+also varies with the amount of iron; that of the variety known
+as wocheinite (from near Lake Wochein, near Radmannsdorf, in
+northern Carniola) is given as 2.55. The numerous chemical
+analyses, which have mostly been made for technical purposes,
+show that material known as bauxite varies very widely in
+composition, the maximum and minimum percentages of each
+constituent being as follows: alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>) 33.2-76.9;
+water (H<span class="su">2</span>O) 8.6-31.4; iron oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>) 0.1-48.8; silica
+(SiO<span class="su">2</span>) 0.3-37.8; titanic acid (TiO<span class="su">2</span>) up to 4. The material is
+thus usually very impure, being mixed with clay, quartz-sand
+and hydroxides of iron in variable amounts, the presence of
+which may be seen by a microscopical examination. Analyses
+of purer material often approximate to diaspore or gibbsite in
+composition, and minute crystalline scales of these minerals
+have been detected under the microscope.</p>
+
+<p>Bauxite can therefore scarcely be regarded as a simple mineral,
+but rather as a mixture of gibbsite and diaspore with various
+impurities; it is in fact strikingly like laterite, both in chemical
+composition and in microscopical structure. Laterite is admittedly
+a decomposition-product of igneous or other crystalline
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span>
+rocks, and the same is no doubt also true of bauxite. The
+deposits in Co. Antrim occur with pisolitic iron ore inter-bedded
+with the Tertiary basalts, and similar deposits are met
+with in connexion with the basaltic rocks of the Westerwald in
+Germany. On the other hand, the more extensive deposits in
+the south of France (departments Bouches-du-Rhône, Ariège,
+Hérault, Var) and the southern United States (Georgia, Alabama,
+Arkansas) are often associated with limestones; in this case the
+origin of the bauxite has been ascribed to the chemical action of
+solutions of aluminium sulphate on the limestones.</p>
+
+<p>Bauxite is of value chiefly as a source of metallic aluminium
+(<i>q.v.</i>); the material is first purified by chemical processes, after
+which the aluminium hydroxide is reduced in the electric furnace.
+Bauxite is also largely used in the manufacture of alum and
+other aluminium salts used in dyeing. Its refractory qualities
+render it available for the manufacture of fire-bricks and
+crucibles.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAVAI,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> a town of northern France in the department of Nord,
+15 m. E.S.E. of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1622. The
+town carries on the manufacture of iron goods and of fertilizers.
+Under the name of <i>Bagacum</i> or <i>Bavacum</i> it was the
+capital of the Nervii and, under the Romans, an important centre
+of roads, the meeting-place of which was marked by a milestone,
+destroyed in the 17th century and replaced in the 19th century
+by a column. Bavai was destroyed during the barbarian
+invasions and never recovered its old importance. It suffered
+much during the wars of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAVARIA<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Bayern</i>), a kingdom of southern Germany,
+next to Prussia the largest state of the German empire in area
+and population. It consists of two distinct and unequal portions.
+Bavaria proper, and the Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from
+25 to 40 m. W. apart and are separated by the grand-duchies of
+Baden and Hesse.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Features.</i>&mdash;Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by
+the Alps, on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a long range of
+mountains known as the Böhmerwald, on the N. by the Fichtelgebirge
+and the Frankenwald, which separate it from the kingdom
+of Saxony, the principality of Reuss, the duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
+and Meiningen and the Prussian province of Hesse-Cassel.
+The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.; but
+the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain an
+elevation of 9000 or 10,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded
+by Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. The country
+mainly belongs to the basins of the Danube and the Main; by
+far the greater portion being drained by the former river, which,
+entering from Swabia as a navigable stream, traverses the entire
+breadth of the kingdom, with a winding course of 200 m., and
+receives in its passage the Iller, the Lech, the Isar and the Inn
+from the south, and the Naab, the Altmühl and the Wörnitz
+from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian
+territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river
+flowing from Upper Austria. The Isar does not become navigable
+till it has passed Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar
+size. The Main traverses the northern regions, or Upper and
+Lower Franconia, with a very winding course and greatly
+facilitates the trade of the provinces. The district watered by
+the southern tributaries of the Danube consists for the most
+part of an extensive plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390 ft.
+In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous
+lakes and in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy
+ground. The smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is
+bounded on the E. by the Rhine, which divides it from the grand-duchy
+of Baden, on the S. by Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a
+lofty range of hills, the Haardtgebirge, which separate it from
+Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine province.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the character
+of the region, being cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the
+plains adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the
+temperature is in the winter months considerably colder than
+that of England, and a good deal hotter during summer and
+autumn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Area and Population.</i>&mdash;Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion,
+contains an area of 26,998 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western,
+2288 sq. m., making the whole extent of the kingdom about
+29,286 sq. m. The total population, according to the census of
+1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a quarter of the inhabitants live
+in towns, of which Munich and Nuremberg have populations
+exceeding 100,000, Augsburg, Würzburg, Fürth and Ludwigshafen
+between 50,000 and 100,000, while twenty-six other towns
+number from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various ancient
+tribes; Germanized Slavs in the north-east, Swabians and
+Franks in the centre, Franks towards the west, and, in the
+Palatinate, Walloons. Politically, the country is divided into
+eight provinces, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Provinces.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop. of Province<br />in 1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upper Bavaria</td> <td class="tcl rb">Munich</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,410,763</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,456</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lower Bavaria</td> <td class="tcl rb">Landshut</td> <td class="tcr rb">706,345</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,152</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upper Palatinate</td> <td class="tcl rb">Regensburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">573,476</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,728</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upper Franconia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bayreuth</td> <td class="tcr rb">637,239</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,702</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Middle Franconia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ansbach</td> <td class="tcr rb">868,072</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,925</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lower Franconia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Würzburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">680,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,243</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Swabia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Augsburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">750,880</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,792</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">The Palatinate</td> <td class="tcl rb">Spires</td> <td class="tcr rb">885,280</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,288</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">6,512,824</td> <td class="tcr allb">29,286</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are
+Roman Catholics. The Protestant-Evangelical Church claims
+about 29%, while Jews, and a very small number of other sects,
+account for the remainder.</p>
+
+<p>The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the
+Upper Palatinate are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in
+the Rhine Palatinate, Upper Franconia, and especially Middle
+Franconia, the preponderance is on the side of the Protestants.
+The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is altogether free.
+The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Roman
+Catholics, and the sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or
+Protestant. Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads are the
+two archbishops of Munich-Freising and Bamberg, and the six
+bishops of Eichstätt, Spires, Würzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg
+and Passau, of whom the first three are suffragans of Bamberg.
+The &ldquo;Old Catholic&rdquo; party, under the bishop of Bonn, has
+failed, despite its early successes, to take deep root in the country.
+Among the Protestants the highest authority is the general
+consistory of Munich. The numbers of the different religions in
+1900 were as follows:&mdash;Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants,
+1,749,206; Jews, 54,928.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has
+recently done much in this connexion. The state has two
+Roman Catholic universities, Munich and Würzburg, and a
+Lutheran, Erlangen; in Munich there are a polytechnic, an
+academy of sciences and an academy of art.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Of the total surface of Bavaria about one-half
+is under cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth
+mostly pasture. The level country, including both Lower
+Bavaria (extending northwards to the Danube) and the western
+and middle parts of Franconia, is productive of rye, oats, wheat,
+barley and millet, and also of hemp, flax, madder and fruit and
+vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the Lake of
+Constance, on the banks of the Main, in the lower part of its
+course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively
+grown in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Germany)
+round Nuremberg and in the Palatinate, which also largely
+produces the sugar-beet. Potatoes are cultivated in all the
+provinces, but especially in the Palatinate and in the Spessart
+district, which lies in the north-west within a curve of the Main.
+The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria, where
+pasture-land predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and
+the dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in
+large numbers.</p>
+
+<p>The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of
+Bavaria. This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly
+and mountainous country, the thinness of the population and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span>
+the necessity of keeping a given extent of ground under wood
+for the supply of fuel. More than a third of the forests are
+public property and furnish a considerable addition to the
+revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces of
+Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine.
+The forests are well stocked with game, deer, chamois (in the
+Alps), wild boars, capercailzie, grouse, pheasants, &amp;c. being
+plentiful. The greater proportion of the land throughout the
+kingdom is in the hands of peasant proprietors, the extent of
+the separate holdings differing very much in different districts.
+The largest peasant property may be about 170 acres, and the
+smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals</i>.&mdash;The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria are coal,
+iron ore, graphite and salt. The coal mines lie principally in
+the districts of Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the
+Rhine Palatinate. Salt is obtained on a large scale partly from
+brine springs and partly from mines, the principal centres being
+Halle, Berchtesgaden, Traunstein and Rosenheim. The government
+monopoly which had long existed was abolished in 1867
+and free trade was established in salt between the members of
+the customs-union. Of quicksilver there are several mines,
+chiefly in the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of
+copper, manganese and cobalt are obtained. There are numerous
+quarries of excellent marble, alabaster, gypsum and building
+stone; and the porcelain-clay is among the finest in Europe.
+To these may be added emery, steatite, barytes, felspar and
+ochre, in considerable quantities; excellent lithographic stone
+is obtained at Solenhofen; and gold and silver are still worked,
+but to an insignificant extent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manufactures and Trade</i>.&mdash;A great stimulus was given to
+manufacturing industry in Bavaria by the law of 1868, which
+abolished the last remains of the old restrictions of the gilds,
+and gave the whole country the liberty which had been enjoyed
+by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief centres of industry
+are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Fürth, Erlangen, Aschaffenburg,
+Regensburg, Würzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and
+Hof in Bavaria proper, and in the Palatinate Spires and the
+Rhine port of Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware
+industry are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Fürth; the two
+first especially for locomotives and automobiles, the last for tinfoil
+and metal toys. Aschaffenburg manufactures fancy goods,
+Augsburg and Hof produce excellent cloth, and Munich has a
+great reputation for scientific instruments. In Franconia are
+numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is
+largely carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. A
+considerable quantity of glass is made, particularly in the Böhmerwald.
+Brewing forms an important industry, the best-known
+breweries being those of Munich, Nuremberg, Erlangen and
+Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are leather, tobacco,
+porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nuremberg), plate-glass,
+sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets. The
+commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist
+chiefly of corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods,
+glass, fancy wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat
+of the hop-trade is Nuremberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports
+comprise sugar, tobacco, cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications</i>.&mdash;Trade is served by an excellent railway
+system and there are steamboat services on the navigable rivers,
+to the east by way of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by
+Ludwigshafen. The high roads of Bavaria, many of which are
+military roads laid out at the beginning of the 19th century,
+extend in all over about 10,000 m. There were 4377 m. of
+railways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the
+hands of the state, and about 440 m. belonged to the private
+system of the Palatinate. The principal canal is the Ludwigskanal,
+which connects the Rhine with the Danube, extending
+from Bamberg on the Regnitz to Dietfurt on the Altmühl.
+There is an extensive network of telegraph and telephone lines.
+All belong to the government post office, which forms an administrative
+system independent of the imperial German post office.</p>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Administration</i>.&mdash;By the treaty of Versailles
+(23rd November 1870) and the imperial constitution of the 16th
+of April 1871, Bavaria was incorporated with the German
+empire, reserving, however, certain separate privileges (<i>Sonderrechte</i>)
+in respect of the administration of the army, the railways
+and the posts, the excise duties on beer, the rights of domicile
+and the insurance of real estate. The king is the supreme chief
+of the army, and matters requiring adjudication in the adjutant-general&rsquo;s
+court are referred to a special Bavarian court attached
+to the supreme imperial military tribunal in Berlin. Bavaria
+is represented in the Bundesrat by six votes and sends forty-eight
+deputies to the imperial diet. The Bavarian constitution is
+mainly founded on the constitutional act of the 26th of May
+1818, modified by subsequent acts&mdash;that of the 9th of March
+1828 as affecting the upper house, and those of the 4th of June
+1848 and of the 21st of March 1881 as affecting the lower&mdash;and
+is a limited monarchy, with a legislative body of two houses.
+The crown is hereditary in the house of Wittelsbach, according
+to the rights of primogeniture, females being excluded from
+succession so long as male agnates of equal birth exist. The
+title of the sovereign is king of Bavaria, that of his presumptive
+heir is crown-prince of Bavaria, and during the minority or
+incapacity of the sovereign a regency is declared, which is vested
+in the nearest male agnate capable of ascending the throne.
+Such a regency began on the 10th of June 1886, at first for King
+Louis II., and after the 14th of the same month for King Otto I.,
+in the person of the prince regent Luitpold. The executive
+power resides in the king and the responsibility for the government
+of the kingdom in his ministers. The royal family is Roman
+Catholic, and the seat of government is Munich, the capital.</p>
+
+<p>The upper house of the Bavarian parliament (<i>Kammer der
+Reichsräte</i>) is composed of (1) the princes of the blood royal
+(being of full age), (2) the ministers of the crown, (3) the archbishops
+of Munich, Freising and Bamberg, (4) the heads of such
+noble families as were formerly &ldquo;immediate&rdquo; so long as they
+retain their ancient possessions in Bavaria, (5) of a Roman
+Catholic bishop appointed by the king for life, and of the president
+for the time being of the Protestant consistory, (6) of
+hereditary counsellors (<i>Reichsräte</i>) appointed by the king, and
+(7) of other counsellors appointed by the king for life. The
+lower house (<i>Kammer der Abgeordneten</i>) or chamber of representatives,
+consists, since 1881, of 159 deputies, in proportion
+of one&mdash;reckoned on the census of 1875&mdash;to every 31,500 inhabitants.
+A general election takes place every six years, and, under
+the electoral law of 1906, is direct. Qualifications for the general
+body of electors are full age of twenty-five years, Bavarian
+citizenship of one year at least, and discharge of all rates and
+taxes. Parliament must be assembled every three years, but as
+the budget is taken every two years, it is regularly called together
+within that period. No laws affecting the liberty or property of
+the subject can be passed without the sanction of parliament.</p>
+
+<p><i>Revenue</i>.&mdash;The following is a fairly typical statement of the
+budget estimates (1902-1903), in marks (= 1 shilling sterling):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="2">Receipts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Mks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Direct taxes</td> <td class="tcr cl">38,199,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Customs and indirect taxes</td> <td class="tcr">50,900,990</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">State railways</td> <td class="tcr cl">184,551,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Posts and telegraphs</td> <td class="tcr">41,665,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Forests and agricultural dues</td> <td class="tcr cl">37,395,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Imperial assignments</td> <td class="tcr">62,571,605</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">415,282,695</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">=========</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">= £20,764,135</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="2">Disbursements.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Mks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Civil list</td> <td class="tcr cl">5,402,475</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">State debt</td> <td class="tcr">51,323,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ministry of the Royal house and of Foreign dept.</td> <td class="tcr cl">688,398</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ministry of Justice</td> <td class="tcr">20,615,299</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ministry of interior</td> <td class="tcr cl">30,055,338</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Public worship and education</td> <td class="tcr">34,667,673</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Minister of finance</td> <td class="tcr cl">6,696,780</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Constribution to imperial exchequer</td> <td class="tcr">72,647,090</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">222,296,253</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">=========</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">= £11,114,813</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The public debt amounts to about £95,000,000, of which over
+75% was incurred for railways.</p>
+
+<p><i>Army.</i>&mdash;The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the
+army of the German empire, with a separate administration,
+but in time of war is under the supreme command of the German
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span>
+emperor. The regulations applicable to other sections of the
+whole imperial army are, however, observed. It consists, on a
+peace footing, of three army corps, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Royal
+Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of which
+are in Munich, Nuremberg and Würzburg respectively. The
+Bavarian army comprises sixty-seven battalions of infantry,
+two battalions of rifles, ten regiments of cavalry (two heavy,
+two Ulan and six Chevauxlegers), a squadron of mounted
+infantry (<i>Jäger-zu-pferde</i>), twelve field- and two foot-artillery
+regiments, three battalions of engineers, three of army service,
+and a balloon section; in all 60,000 men with 10,000 horses.
+In time of war the total force is trebled.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p>
+
+<p>The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called
+Bavaria were a people, probably of Celtic extraction, who were
+subdued by the Romans just before the opening of the Christian
+era, when colonies were founded among them and their land was
+included in the province of Raetia. During the 5th century it
+was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer and, after being almost
+denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes who, pushing
+along the valley of the Danube, settled there between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 488
+and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the
+race and origin of these people, who were certainly a new and
+composite social aggregate. Most likely they were descendants
+of the Marcomanni, Quadi and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or
+Swabian race, with possibly a small intermixture of Gothic or
+Celtic elements. They were called <i>Baioarii, Baiowarii, Bawarii</i>
+or <i>Baiuwarii</i>, words derived most probably from <i>Baja</i> or <i>Baya</i>,
+corruptions of <i>Bojer</i>, and given to them because they came from
+<i>Bojerland</i> or <i>Bohemia</i>. Another but less probable explanation
+derives the name from a combination of the old high German
+word <i>uuâra</i>, meaning league, and <i>bai</i>, a Gothic word for both.
+The Bavarians are first mentioned in a Frankish document of
+520, and twenty years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east
+of the Swabians. Their country bore some traces of Roman
+influence, and its main boundaries were the Enns, the Danube,
+the Lech and the Alps; but its complete settlement was a work
+of time.</p>
+
+<p>The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks,
+probably without a serious struggle; and were ruled from 555
+to 788 by dukes of the Agilolfing family, who were
+possibly of Frankish descent. For a century and a
+<span class="sidenote">Frankish influence.</span>
+half a succession of dukes resisted the inroads of
+the Slavs on their eastern frontier, and by the time of Duke
+Theodo I., who died in 717, were completely independent of the
+feeble Frankish kings. When Charles Martel became the virtual
+ruler of the Frankish realm he brought the Bavarians into strict
+dependence, and deposed two dukes successively for contumacy.
+Pippin the Short was equally successful in maintaining his
+authority, and several marriages took place between the family
+to which he belonged and the Agilolfings, who were united in a
+similar manner with the kings of the Lombards. The ease with
+which various risings were suppressed by the Franks gives colour
+to the supposition that they were rather the outcome of family
+quarrels than the revolt of an oppressed people. Between the
+years 739 and 748 the Bavarian law was committed to writing
+and supplementary clauses were afterwards added, all of which
+bear evident traces of Frankish influence. Thus, while the
+dukedom belongs to the Agilolfing family, the duke must be
+chosen by the people and his election confirmed by the Frankish
+king, to whom he owes fealty. He has a fivefold wergild,
+summons the nobles and clergy for purposes of deliberation,
+calls out the host, administers justice and regulates finance.
+There are five noble families, possibly representing a former
+division of the people, after whom come the freeborn, and then
+the freedmen. The country is divided into <i>gaus</i> or counties,
+under their counts, who are assisted by judges responsible for
+declaring the law.</p>
+
+<p>Christianity had lingered in Bavaria from Roman times;
+but a new era set in when Rupert, bishop of Worms, came to
+the country at the invitation of Duke Theodo I. in 696. He
+founded several monasteries, and a similar work was also performed
+by St Emmeran, bishop of Poitiers; with the result
+<span class="sidenote">Christianity.</span>
+that before long the bulk of the people professed
+Christianity and relations were established between
+Bavaria and Rome. The 8th century witnessed indeed
+a heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival in
+Bavaria about 734 of St. Boniface, who organized the Bavarian
+church and founded or restored bishoprics at Salzburg, Freising,
+Regensburg and Passau.</p>
+
+<p>Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749,
+recognized the supremacy of the Frankish king Pippin the Short
+in 757, but soon afterwards refused to furnish a contribution
+to the war in Aquitaine. Moreover, during
+<span class="sidenote">Frankish conquest.</span>
+the early years of the reign of Charlemagne, Tassilo
+gave decisions in ecclesiastical and civil causes in his own name,
+refused to appear in the assemblies of the Franks, and in general
+acted as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the
+Alpine passes, as an ally of the Avars, and as son-in-law of the
+Lombard king Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Frankish
+kingdom that Charlemagne determined to crush him. The
+details of this contest are obscure. Tassilo appears to have done
+homage in 781, and again in 787, probably owing to the presence
+of Frankish armies. But further trouble soon arose, and in 788
+the duke was summoned to Ingelheim, where on a charge of
+treachery he was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned
+by the king; and he then entered a monastery and
+formally renounced his duchy at Frankfort in 794. The country
+was ruled by Gerold, a brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till
+his death in a battle with the Avars in 799, when its administration
+was entrusted to Frankish counts and assimilated with
+that of the rest of the Carolingian empire, while its condition
+was improved by the measures taken by Charlemagne for the
+intellectual progress and material welfare of his realm. The
+Bavarians offered no resistance to the change which thus abolished
+their dukedom; and their incorporation with the Frankish
+dominions, due mainly to the unifying influence of the church,
+was already so complete that Charlemagne did not find it
+necessary to issue more than two capitularies dealing especially
+with Bavarian affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Bavaria for the ensuing century is bound up
+with that of the Carolingian empire. Given at the partition of
+817 to the king of the East Franks, Louis the German,
+it formed part of the larger territories which were
+<span class="sidenote">Union with Carolingian Empire.</span>
+confirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of Verdun,
+Louis made Regensburg the centre of his government,
+and was active in improving the condition of Bavaria, and providing
+for its security by numerous campaigns against the Slavs.
+When he divided his possessions in 865 it passed to his eldest son,
+Carloman, who had already undertaken its government, and
+after his death in 880 it formed part of the extensive territories
+of the emperor Charles the Fat. Its defence was left by this
+incompetent emperor to Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman,
+and it was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that
+Arnulf was able to take the field against Charles in 887, and to
+secure his own election as German king in the following year.
+Bavaria, which was the centre of the East Frankish kingdom,
+passed in 899 to Louis the Child, during whose reign it was
+constantly ravaged by the Hungarians. The resistance to these
+inroads became gradually feebler, and it is said that on the
+5th of July 907 almost the whole of the Bavarian race perished
+in battle with these formidable enemies. For the defence of
+Bavaria the mark of Carinthia had been erected on the south-eastern
+frontier, and during the reign of Louis the Child this was
+ruled by Liutpold, count of Scheyern, who possessed large
+domains in Bavaria. He was among those who fell in the great
+fight of 907; but his son Arnulf, surnamed the Bad, rallied the
+remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was
+chosen duke of the Bavarians in 911, when Bavaria and Carinthia
+were united under his rule. Refusing to acknowledge the
+supremacy of the German king Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully
+attacked by the latter, and in 920 was recognized as duke by
+Conrad&rsquo;s successor, Henry I., the Fowler, who admitted his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span>
+right to appoint the bishops, to coin money and to issue laws.
+A similar conflict took place between Arnulf&rsquo;s son and successor
+<span class="sidenote">Part of the German Kingdom.</span>
+Eberhard and Otto the Great; but Eberhard was
+less successful than his father, for in 938 he was driven
+from Bavaria, which was given by Otto with reduced
+privileges to the late duke&rsquo;s uncle, Bertold; and a
+count palatine in the person of Eberhard&rsquo;s brother Arnulf was
+appointed to watch the royal interests. When Bertold died in
+947 Otto conferred the duchy upon his own brother Henry, who
+had married Judith, a daughter of Duke Arnulf. Henry was
+disliked by the Bavarians and his short reign was spent mainly
+in disputes with his people. The ravages of the Hungarians
+ceased after their defeat on the Lechfeld in 955, and the area of
+the duchy was temporarily increased by the addition of certain
+adjacent districts in Italy. In 955 Henry was succeeded by his
+young son Henry, surnamed the Quarrelsome, who in 974 was
+implicated in a conspiracy against King Otto II. The reason for
+this rising was that the king had granted the duchy of Swabia
+to Henry&rsquo;s enemy, Otto, a grandson of the emperor Otto the
+Great, and had given the new Bavarian East Mark, afterwards
+known as Austria, to Leopold I., count of Babenberg. The
+revolt was, however, soon suppressed; but Henry, who on his
+escape from prison renewed his plots, was formally deposed in
+976 when Bavaria was given to Otto, duke of Swabia. At the
+same time Carinthia was made into a separate duchy, the office
+of count palatine was restored, and the church was made
+dependent on the king instead of on the duke. Restored in
+985, Henry proved himself a capable ruler by establishing
+internal order, issuing important laws and taking measures to
+reform the monasteries. His son and successor, who was chosen
+German king as Henry II. in 1002, gave Bavaria to his
+brother-in-law Henry of Luxemburg; after whose death in 1026 it
+passed successively to Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III.,
+and to another member of the family of Luxemburg, as Duke
+Henry VII. In 1061 the empress Agnes, mother of and regent
+for the German king Henry IV., entrusted the duchy to Otto of
+<span class="sidenote">The duchy passes to the Welfs.</span>
+Nordheim, who was deposed by the king in 1070,
+when the duchy was granted to Count Welf, a member
+of an influential Bavarian family. In consequence of
+his support of Pope Greegory VII. in his quarrel with
+Henry, Welf lost but subsequently regained Bavaria; and was
+followed successively by his sons, Welf II. in 1101, and Henry IX.
+in 1120, both of whom exercised considerable influence among
+the German princes. Henry was succeeded in 1126 by his son
+Henry X., called the Proud, who obtained the duchy of Saxony
+in 1137. Alarmed at this prince&rsquo;s power, King Conrad III.
+refused to allow two duchies to remain in the same hands; and,
+having declared Henry deposed, he bestowed Bavaria upon
+Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. When Leopold died in 1141,
+the king retained the duchy himself; but it continued to be the
+scene of considerable disorder, and in 1143 he entrusted it to
+Henry II., surnamed Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria. The
+struggle for its possession continued until 1156, when King
+Frederick I. in his desire to restore peace to Germany persuaded
+Henry to give up Bavaria to Henry the Lion, a son of Duke
+Henry the Proud.</p>
+
+<p>A new era of government set in when, in consequence of Henry
+being placed under the imperial ban in 1180, the duchy was given
+by Frederick I. to Otto, a member of the old Bavarian
+family of Wittelsbach (<i>q.v.</i>), and a descendant of the
+<span class="sidenote">Then to the Wittelsbachs.<br />Area of Bavaria.</span>
+counts of Scheyern. During the years following the
+destruction of the Carolingian empire the borders of
+Bavaria were continually changing, and for a lengthened period
+after 955 this process was one of expansion.  To the west the
+Lech still divided Bavaria from Swabia, but on three
+other sides the opportunities for extension had been
+taken advantage of, and the duchy embraced an area
+of considerable dimensions north of the Danube. During the
+later years of the rule of the Welfs, however, a contrary tendency
+had operated, and the extent of Bavaria had been reduced. The
+immense energies of Duke Henry the Lion had been devoted to
+his northern rather than his southern duchy, and when the
+dispute over the Bavarian succession was settled in 1156 the
+district between the Enns and the Inn had been transferred to
+Austria. The increasing importance of the mark of Styria,
+erected into a duchy in 1180, and the county of Tirol, had
+diminished both the actual and the relative strength of Bavaria,
+which was now deprived on almost all sides of opportunities for
+expansion. The neighbouring duchy of Carinthia, the great
+temporal possessions of the archbishop of Salzburg, as well as a
+general tendency to independence on the part of both clerical
+and lay nobles, were additional forces of similar influence.</p>
+
+<p>When Otto of Wittelsbach was invested with Bavaria at
+Altenburg in September 1180 the duchy was bounded by the
+Böhmerwald, the Inn, the Alps and the Lech; and
+the power of the duke was practically confined to his
+<span class="sidenote">Rule of the Wittelsbachs.</span>
+extensive private domains around Wittelsbach, Kelheim
+and Straubing. Otto only enjoyed his new dignity for
+three years, and was succeeded in 1183 by his son Louis I., who
+took a leading part in German affairs during the earlier years of
+the reign of the emperor Frederick II., and was assassinated at
+Kelheim in September 1231. His son Otto II., called the
+Illustrious, was the next duke, and his loyalty to the Hohenstaufen
+caused him to be placed under the papal ban, and
+Bavaria to be laid under an interdict. Like his father, Otto
+increased the area of his lands by purchases; and he had considerably
+strengthened his hold upon the duchy before he died
+in November 1253. The efforts of the dukes to increase their
+power and to give unity to the duchy had met with a fair measure
+of success; but they were soon vitiated by partitions among
+different members of the family which for 250 years made the
+<span class="sidenote">Division of the duchy.</span>
+history of Bavaria little more than a jejune chronicle
+of territorial divisions bringing war and weakness in
+their train. The first of these divisions was made in
+1255 between Louis II. and Henry I., the sons of Duke
+Otto II., who for two years after their father&rsquo;s death had ruled
+Bavaria jointly; and by it Louis obtained the western part of
+the duchy, afterwards called Upper Bavaria, and
+<span class="sidenote">Upper Bavaria.</span>
+Henry secured eastern or Lower Bavaria.  In the
+course of a long reign Louis, who was called the Stern,
+became the most powerful prince in southern Germany. He was
+the uncle and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, and when
+this prince was put to death in Italy in 1268, Louis and his brother
+Henry inherited the domains of the Hohenstaufen in Swabia and
+elsewhere. He supported Rudolph, count of Habsburg, in his
+efforts to secure the German throne in 1273, married the new
+king&rsquo;s daughter Mechtild, and aided him in campaigns in
+Bohemia and elsewhere. For some years after Louis&rsquo; death in
+1294 his sons Rudolph I. and Louis, afterwards the emperor
+Louis IV., ruled their duchy in common; but as their relations
+were never harmonious a division of Upper Bavaria was made in
+1310, by which Rudolph received the land east of the Isar
+together with the town of Munich, and Louis the district between
+the Isar and the Lech. It was not long, however, before this
+arrangement led to war between the brothers, the outcome of
+which was that in 1317, three years after he had been chosen
+German king, Louis compelled Rudolph to abdicate, and for
+twelve years ruled alone over the whole of Upper Bavaria. But
+in 1329 a series of events induced him to conclude the treaty of
+Pavia with Rudolph&rsquo;s sons, Rudolph and Rupert, to whom he
+transferred the Palatinate of the Rhine, which had been in the
+possession of the Wittelsbach family since 1214, and also a portion
+of Upper Bavaria north of the Danube, which was afterwards
+called the Upper Palatinate. At the same time it was decided
+that the electoral vote should be exercised by the two lines alternately,
+and that in the event of either branch of the family becoming
+extinct the surviving branch should inherit its possessions.</p>
+
+<p>Henry I. of Lower Bavaria spent most of his time in quarrels
+with his brother, with Ottakar II. of Bohemia and with various
+ecclesiastics. When he died in February 1200 Lower
+Bavaria was ruled by his three sons, Otto III., Louis
+<span class="sidenote">Lower Bavaria.</span>
+III. and Stephen I. Louis died childless in 1296;
+Stephen left two sons at his death in 1310, namely, Henry II.
+and Otto IV., and Otto, who was king of Hungary from 1305 to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span>
+1308, died in 1312, leaving a son, Henry III. Lower Bavaria
+was governed by these three princes until 1333, when Henry III.
+died, followed in 1334 by his cousin Otto; and as both died
+without sons the whole of Lower Bavaria then passed to Henry II.
+Dying in 1339, Henry left an only son, John I., who died childless
+<span class="sidenote">Reunion of the duchy.</span>
+in the following year, when the emperor Louis IV., by
+securing Lower Bavaria for himself, united the whole
+of the duchy under his sway. The consolidation of
+Bavaria under Louis lasted for seven years, during
+which the emperor was able to improve the condition of the
+country. When he died in 1347 he left six sons to share his
+possessions, who agreed upon a division of Bavaria in 1349. Its
+history, however, was complicated by its connexion with Brandenburg,
+Holland and Tirol, all of which had also been left by
+the emperor to his sons. All the six brothers exercised some
+authority in Bavaria; but three alone left issue, and of these
+the eldest, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, died in 1361;
+and two years later was followed to the grave by his only son
+Meinhard, who was childless. The two remaining brothers,
+Stephen II. and Albert I., ruled over Bavaria-Landshut and
+Bavaria-Straubing respectively, and when Stephen died in 1375
+his portion of Bavaria was governed jointly by his three sons.
+In 1392, when all the lines except those of Stephen and Albert
+had died out, an important partition took place, by which the
+greater part of the duchy was divided among Stephen&rsquo;s three
+sons, Stephen III., Frederick and John II., who founded respectively
+the lines of Ingolstadt, Landshut and Munich. Albert&rsquo;s
+duchy of Bavaria-Straubing passed on his death in 1404 to his
+son William II., and in 1417 to his younger son John, who
+resigned the bishopric of Liége to take up his new position.
+When John died in 1425 this family became extinct, and after
+a contest between various claimants Bavaria-Straubing was
+divided between the three remaining branches of the family.</p>
+
+<p>The main result of the threefold division of 1392 was a succession
+of civil wars which led to the temporary eclipse of Bavaria
+as a force in German politics. Neighbouring states
+encroached upon its borders, and the nobles ignored
+<span class="sidenote">Internal condition 1392.</span>
+the authority of the dukes, who, deprived of the electoral
+vote, were mainly occupied for fifty years with
+intestine strife. This condition of affairs, however, was not
+wholly harmful. The government of the country and the control
+of the finances passed mainly into the hands of an assembly
+called the <i>Landtag</i> or <i>Landschaft</i>, which had been organized in
+1392. The towns, assuming a certain independence, became
+strong and wealthy as trade increased, and the citizens of
+Munich and Regensburg were often formidable antagonists to
+the dukes. Thus a period of disorder saw the growth of representative
+institutions and the establishment of a strong civic
+spirit. Stephen III., duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, was distinguished
+rather as a soldier than as a statesman; and his rule
+was marked by struggles with various towns, and with his
+<span class="sidenote">Intestine troubles.</span>
+brother, John of Bavaria-Munich. Dying in 1413 he
+was followed by his son, Louis, called the Bearded,
+a restless and quarrelsome prince, who before his
+accession had played an important part in the affairs of France,
+where his sister Isabella was the queen of King Charles VI.
+About 1417 he became involved in a violent quarrel with his
+cousin, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, fell under both the papal
+and the imperial ban, and in 1439 was attacked by his son Louis
+the Lame. This prince, who had married a daughter of Frederick
+I. of Hohenzollern, margrave of Brandenburg, was incensed at
+the favour shown by his father to an illegitimate son. Aided by
+Albert Achilles, afterwards margrave of Brandenburg, he took
+the elder Louis prisoner and compelled him to abdicate in 1443.
+When Louis the Lame died in 1445 his father came into the power
+of his implacable enemy, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, and died
+in prison in 1447. The duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt passed to
+Henry, who had succeeded his father Frederick as duke of
+Bavaria-Landshut in 1393, and whose long reign was almost
+entirely occupied with family feuds. He died in July 1450, and
+was followed by his son, Louis IX. (called the Rich), and about
+this time Bavaria began to recover some of its former importance.
+Louis IX. expelled the Jews from his duchy, did something for
+the security of traders, and improved both the administration of
+justice and the condition of the finances. In 1472 he founded
+the university of Ingolstadt, attempted to reform the monasteries,
+and was successful in a struggle with Albert Achilles of Brandenburg.
+On his death in January 1479 he was succeeded by his son
+George, also called the Rich; and when George, a faithful
+adherent of the German king Maximilian I., died without sons in
+December 1503, a war broke out for the possession of his duchy.</p>
+
+<p>Bavaria-Munich passed on the death of John II. in 1397 to his
+sons Ernest and William III., but they only obtained possession of
+their lands after a struggle with Stephen of Bavaria-Ingolstadt.
+Both brothers were then engaged in warfare with the other
+branches of the family and with the citizens of Munich. William,
+a loyal servant of the emperor Sigismund, died in 1435, leaving an
+only son, Adolf, who died five years later; and Ernest, distinguished
+for his bodily strength, died in 1438. In 1440 the whole
+of Bavaria-Munich came to Ernest&rsquo;s son Albert, who had been
+estranged from his father owing to his union with the unfortunate
+Agnes Bernauer (<i>q.v.</i>). Albert, whose attempts to reform the
+monasteries earned for him the surname of Pious, was almost
+elected king of Bohemia in 1440. He died in 1460, leaving five
+sons, the two elder of whom, John IV. and Sigismund, reigned in
+common until the death of John in 1463. The third brother,
+Albert, who had been educated for the church, joined his brother
+in 1465, and when Sigismund abdicated two years later became
+sole ruler in spite of the claims of his two younger brothers.
+Albert, who was called the Wise, added the district of Abensberg
+to his possessions, and in 1504 became involved in the war which
+<span class="sidenote">War over the succession to Bavaria-Landshut.</span>
+broke out for the possession of Bavaria-Landshut on the
+death of George the Rich. Albert&rsquo;s rival was George&rsquo;s
+son-in-law, Rupert, formerly bishop of Freising, and son
+of Philip, count palatine of the Rhine; and the emperor
+Maximilian I., interested as archduke of Austria and
+count of Tirol, interfered in the dispute. Rupert died in 1504,
+and the following year an arrangement was made at the diet of
+Cologne by which the emperor and Philip&rsquo;s grandson, Otto Henry,
+obtained certain outlying districts, while Albert by securing the
+bulk of George&rsquo;s possessions united Bavaria under his rule. In
+1506 Albert decreed that the duchy should pass undivided
+<span class="sidenote">Reigns of Albert the Wise and William IV.</span>
+according to the rules of primogeniture, and
+endeavoured in other ways also to consolidate Bavaria.
+He was partially successful in improving the condition
+of the country; and in 1500 Bavaria formed one of the
+six circles into which Germany was divided for the maintenance
+of peace. He died in March 1508, and was succeeded by his son,
+William IV., whose mother, Kunigunde, was a daughter of the
+emperor Frederick III. In spite of the decree of 1506 William was
+compelled in 1516, after a violent quarrel, to grant a share in the
+government to his brother Louis, an arrangement which lasted
+until the death of Louis in 1545.</p>
+
+<p>William followed the traditional Wittelsbach policy, opposition
+to the Habsburgs, until in 1534 he made a treaty at Linz with
+Ferdinand, king of Hungary and Bohemia. This was strengthened
+in 1546, when the emperor Charles V. obtained the help of the duke
+during the war of the league of Schmalkalden by promising him
+in certain eventualities the succession to the Bohemian throne,
+and the electoral dignity enjoyed by the count palatine of the
+Rhine. William also did much at a critical period to secure
+<span class="sidenote">Roman Catholicism in Bavaria.</span>
+Bavaria for Catholicism. The reformed doctrines had
+made considerable progress in the duchy when the duke
+from the pope extensive rights over the
+bishoprics and monasteries, and took measures to repress
+the reformers, many of whom were banished; while the
+Jesuits, whom he invited into the duchy in 1541, made the university
+of Ingolstadt their headquarters for Germany. William,
+whose death occurred in March 1550, was succeeded by his son
+Albert IV., who had married a daughter of Ferdinand of Habsburg,
+afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I. Early in his reign Albert
+made some concessions to the reformers, who were still strong in
+Bavaria; but about 1563 he changed his attitude, favoured the
+decrees of the council of Trent, and pressed forward the work of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span>
+the Counter-Reformation. As education passed by degrees into
+the hands of the Jesuits the progress of Protestantism was
+effectually arrested in Bavaria. Albert IV. was a great patron of
+art. His court at Munich was the resort of artists of all kinds, and
+the city was enriched with splendid buildings; while artistic
+works were collected from Italy and elsewhere. The expenses of
+a magnificent court led the duke to quarrel with the <i>Landschaft</i>,
+to oppress his subjects, and to leave a great burden of debt when
+he died in October 1579. The succeeding duke was Albert&rsquo;s son,
+William V. (called the Pious), who was educated by the Jesuits and
+was keenly attached to their tenets. He secured the archbishopric
+of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this dignity
+remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years. In
+<span class="sidenote">Reign of Maximillian I. and the Thirty Years&rsquo; War.</span>
+1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian I.,
+and retired into a monastery, where he died in 1626.
+Maximilian found the duchy encumbered with debt and
+filled with disorder, but ten years of his vigorous rule
+effected a remarkable change. The finances and the
+judicial system were reorganized, a class of civil servants
+and a national militia founded, and several small districts
+were brought under the duke&rsquo;s authority. The result was a unity
+and order in the duchy which enabled Maximilian to play an important
+part in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War; during the earlier years
+of which he was so successful as to acquire the Upper Palatinate
+and the electoral dignity which had been enjoyed since 1356 by the
+elder branch of the Wittelsbach family. In spite of subsequent
+reverses these gains were retained by Maximilian at the peace of
+Westphalia in 1648. During the later years of this war Bavaria,
+especially the northern part, suffered severely. In 1632 it was
+invaded by the Swedes, and, when Maximilian violated the treaty
+of Ulm in 1647, was ravaged by the French and the Swedes.
+After repairing this damage to some extent, the elector died at
+Ingolstadt in September 1651, leaving his duchy much stronger
+than he had found it. The recovery of the Upper Palatinate made
+Bavaria compact; the acquisition of the electoral vote made it
+influential; and the duchy was able to play a part in European
+politics which intestine strife had rendered impossible for the past
+four hundred years.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+<p>Whatever lustre the international position won by Maximilian
+I. might add to the ducal house, on Bavaria itself its effect during
+the next two centuries was more dubious. Maximillian&rsquo;s
+son, Ferdinand Maria (1651-1679), who was a
+<span class="sidenote">Beginning of modern period.</span>
+minor when he succeeded, did much indeed to repair
+the wounds caused by the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, encouraging
+agriculture and industries, and building or restoring
+numerous churches and monasteries. In 1669, moreover, he
+again called a meeting of the diet, which had been suspended
+since 1612. His good work, however, was largely undone by his
+son Maximilian II. Emmanuel (1679-1726), whose far-reaching
+ambition set him warring against the Turks and, on the side of
+France, in the great struggle of the Spanish succession. He
+shared in the defeat at Höchstädt on the 13th of August 1704;
+his dominions were temporarily partitioned between Austria
+and the elector palatine, and only restored to him, harried and
+exhausted, at the peace of Baden in 1714. Untaught by Maximilian
+Emmanuel&rsquo;s experience, his son, Charles Albert (1726-1745),
+devoted all his energies to increasing the European
+prestige and power of his house. The death of the emperor
+Charles VI. was his opportunity; he disputed the validity of the
+Pragmatic Sanction which secured the Habsburg succession to
+Maria Theresa, allied himself with France, conquered Upper
+Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague and, in 1742,
+emperor at Frankfort. The price he had to pay, however, was
+the occupation of Bavaria itself by Austrian troops; and,
+though the invasion of Bohemia in 1744 by Frederick II. of
+Prussia enabled him to return to Munich, at his death on the
+20th of January 1745 it was left to his successor to make what
+terms he could for the recovery of his dominions. Maximilian
+III. Joseph (1745-1777), by the peace of Füssen signed on the
+22nd of April 1745, obtained the restitution of his dominions in
+return for a formal acknowledgment of the Pragmatic Sanction.
+He was a man of enlightenment, did much to encourage agriculture,
+industries and the exploitation of the mineral wealth of
+the country, founded the Academy of Sciences at Munich, and
+abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. At his death,
+without issue, on the 30th of December 1777, the Bavarian line
+of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed
+to Charles Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of
+four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the
+<span class="sidenote">Re-union of the Palatinate.</span>
+duchies of Jülich and Berg had been added, was thus
+reunited with Bavaria. So great an accession of
+strength to a neighbouring state, whose ambition she
+had so recently had just reason to fear, was intolerable to Austria,
+which laid claim to a number of lordships&mdash;forming one-third of
+the whole Bavarian inheritance&mdash;as lapsed fiefs of the Bohemian,
+Austrian, and imperial crowns. These were at once occupied by
+Austrian troops, with the secret consent of Charles Theodore
+himself, who was without legitimate heirs, and wished to obtain
+from the emperor the elevation of his natural children to the
+status of princes of the Empire. The protests of the next heir,
+Charles, duke of Zweibrücken (Deux-Ponts), supported by the
+king of Prussia, led to the war of Bavarian succession. By the
+peace of Teschen (May 13th, 1779) the Inn quarter was ceded to
+Austria, and the succession secured to Charles of Zweibrücken.
+For Bavaria itself Charles Theodore did less than nothing. He
+felt himself a foreigner among foreigners, and his favourite
+scheme, the subject of endless intrigues with the Austrian
+cabinet and the immediate cause of Frederick II.&rsquo;s League of
+Princes (<i>Fürstenbund</i>) of 1785, was to exchange Bavaria for the
+Austrian Netherlands and the title of king of Burgundy. For the
+rest, the enlightened internal policy of his predecessor was
+abandoned. The funds of the suppressed order of Jesus, which
+Maximilian Joseph had destined for the reform of the educational
+system of the country, were used to endow a province of the
+knights of St John of Jerusalem, for the purpose of combating the
+enemies of the faith. The government was inspired by the
+narrowest clericalism, which culminated in the attempt to
+withdraw the Bavarian bishops from the jurisdiction of the great
+German metropolitans and place them directly under that of the
+pope. On the eve of the Revolution the intellectual and social
+condition of Bavaria remained that of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>In 1792 the revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in
+1795 the French, under Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced
+to Munich&mdash;where they were received with joy by the
+long-suppressed Liberals&mdash;and laid siege to Ingolstadt.
+<span class="sidenote">The revolutionary wars.</span>
+Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent
+or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony, leaving a
+regency, the members of which signed a convention with Moreau,
+by which he granted an armistice in return for a heavy contribution
+(September 7th, 1796). Immediately afterwards he was
+forced to retire.</p>
+
+<p>Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in
+an evil case. Before the death of Charles Theodore (February
+16th, 1799) the Austrians had again occupied the country,
+preparatory to renewing the war with France. Maximilian IV.
+Joseph (of Zweibrücken), the new elector, succeeded to a difficult
+inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and those of his all-powerful
+minister, Max Josef von Montgelas (<i>q.v.</i>), were, if
+anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the Bavarian
+finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered
+and disorganized, placed him helpless in the hands of Austria;
+on the 2nd of December 1800 the Bavarian arms were involved
+in the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more
+occupied Munich. By the treaty of Lunéville (February 9th,
+1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibrücken
+and Jülich.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of
+the Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of
+Bavaria lay in a frank alliance with the French republic;
+he succeeded in overcoming the reluctance of
+<span class="sidenote">French influence.</span>
+Maximilian Joseph; and, on the 24th of August, a
+separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at
+Paris. By the third article of this the First Consul undertook
+to see that the compensation promised under the 7th article
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span>
+of the treaty of Lunéville for the territory ceded on the left bank
+of the Rhine, should be carried out at the expense of the Empire
+in the manner most agreeable to Bavaria (de Martens, <i>Recueil</i>,
+vol. vii. p. 365). In 1803, accordingly, in the territorial rearrangements
+consequent on Napoleon&rsquo;s suppression of the
+ecclesiastical states, and of many free cities of the Empire,
+Bavaria received the bishoprics of Würzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg
+and Freisingen, part of that of Passau, the territories of
+twelve abbeys, and seventeen cities and villages, the whole
+forming a compact territory which more than compensated for
+the loss of her outlying provinces on the Rhine.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Montgelas&rsquo;
+ambition was now to raise Bavaria to the rank of a first-rate
+power, and he pursued this object during the Napoleonic epoch
+with consummate skill, allowing fully for the preponderance of
+France&mdash;so long as it lasted&mdash;but never permitting Bavaria to
+sink, like so many of the states of the confederation of the
+Rhine, into a mere French dependency. In the war of 1805, in
+accordance with a treaty of alliance signed at Würzburg on the
+23rd of September, Bavarian troops, for the first time since
+Charles VII., fought side by side with the French, and by the
+treaty of Pressburg, signed on the 26th of December, the principality
+of Eichstädt, the margraviate of Burgau, the lordship of
+Vorarlberg, the countships of Hohenems and Königsegg-Rothenfels,
+the lordships of Argen and Tetnang, and the city of Lindau
+with its territory were to be added to Bavaria. On the other
+hand Würzburg, obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria
+to the elector of Salzburg in exchange for Tirol. By the 1st
+article of the treaty the emperor acknowledged the assumption
+by the elector of the title of king, as Maximilian I.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The price
+which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for this accession of
+dignity was the marriage of his daughter Augusta with Eugène
+Beauharnais.</p>
+
+<p>For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French
+alliance had noteworthy consequences. Maximilian himself
+was an &ldquo;enlightened&rdquo; prince of the 18th-century type, whose
+tolerant principles had already grievously offended his clerical
+subjects; Montgelas was a firm believer in drastic reform
+&ldquo;from above,&rdquo; and, in 1803, had discussed with the rump of
+the old estates the question of reforms. But the revolutionary
+changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on the 1st of
+May 1808 were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean
+sweep was made of the medieval polity surviving in the somnolent
+local diets and corporations. In place of the old system of
+privileges and exemptions were set equality before the law,
+universal liability to taxation, abolition of serfdom, security of
+person and property, liberty of conscience and of the press. A
+representative assembly was created on paper, based on a narrow
+franchise and with very limited powers, but was never summoned.</p>
+
+<p>In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on
+the side of France, and by the treaty signed at Paris on the
+28th of February 1810 ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some
+small districts to Württemberg, receiving as compensation
+parts of Salzburg, the quarters of the Inn and Hausrück and
+the principalities of Bayreuth and Regensburg. So far the policy
+of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful; but the star of
+Napoleon had now reached its zenith, and already the astute
+opportunist had noted the signs of the coming change. The
+events of 1812 followed; in 1813 Bavaria was summoned to
+join the alliance against Napoleon, the demand being passionately
+backed by the crown prince Louis and by Marshal Wrede; on
+<span class="sidenote">Treaty of Ried.</span>
+the 8th of October was signed the treaty of Ried, by
+which Bavaria threw in her lot with the Allies. Montgelas
+announced to the French ambassador that he
+had been compelled temporarily to bow before the storm, adding
+&ldquo;Bavaria has need of France.&rdquo; (For Bavaria&rsquo;s share in the
+war see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the first peace of Paris (1814), Bavaria
+ceded to Austria Tirol and Vorarlberg; by the congress of
+Vienna it was decided that she was to add to these the greater
+part of Salzburg and the quarters of the Inn and Hausrück,
+receiving as compensation, besides Würzburg and
+<span class="sidenote">Relations with Austria.</span>
+Aschaffenburg, the Palatinate on the left bank of the
+Rhine and certain districts of Hesse and of the former
+abbacy of Fulda. But with the collapse of France the old
+fear and jealousy of Austria had revived in full force, and Bavaria
+only agreed to these cessions (treaty of Munich, April 16th,
+1816) on Austria promising that, in the event of the powers ignoring
+her claim to the Baden succession in favour of that of the
+line of the counts of Hochberg, she should receive also the
+Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine. The question was
+thus left open, the tension between the two powers remained
+extreme, and war was only averted by the authority of the
+Grand Alliance. At the congress of Aix (1818) the question of
+the Baden succession was settled in favour of the Hochberg line,
+without the compensation stipulated for in the treaty of Munich;
+and by the treaty of Frankfort, signed on behalf of the four great
+powers on the 20th of July 1819, the territorial questions at
+issue between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the
+protests of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement
+made at Vienna. A small strip of territory was added, to connect
+Bavaria with the Palatinate, and Bavarian troops were to garrison
+the federal fortress of Mainz.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, on the 1st of February 1817, Montgelas had been
+dismissed; and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional
+reform. This implied no breach with the European
+policy of the fallen minister. In the new German
+<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1818.</span>
+confederation Bavaria had assumed the rôle of defender
+of the smaller states against the ambitions of
+Austria and Prussia, and Montgelas had dreamed of a Bavarian
+hegemony in South Germany similar to that of Prussia in the
+north. It was to obtain popular support for this policy and for
+the Bavarian claims on Baden that the crown prince pressed
+for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to concede
+it being the cause of his dismissal. On the 26th of May 1818 the
+constitution was proclaimed. The parliament was to consist
+of two houses; the first comprising the great hereditary landowners,
+government officials and nominees of the crown; the
+second, elected on a very narrow franchise, representatives
+of the small land-owners, the towns and the peasants. By
+additional articles the equality of religions was guaranteed
+and the rights of Protestants safeguarded, concessions which
+were denounced at Rome as a breach of the Concordat, which
+had been signed immediately before. The result of the constitutional
+experiment hardly justified the royal expectations;
+the parliament was hardly opened (February 5th, 1819) before
+the doctrinaire radicalism of some of its members, culminating
+in the demand that the army should swear allegiance to the
+constitution, so alarmed the king, that he appealed to Austria
+and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures
+they might recommend. Prussia, however, refused to approve
+of any <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>; the parliament, chastened by the consciousness
+that its life depended on the goodwill of the king, moderated
+its tone; and Maximilian ruled till his death as a model constitutional
+monarch. On the 13th of October 1825, he was
+succeeded by his son, Louis I., an enlightened patron of the arts
+and sciences, who transferred the university of Landshut to
+Munich, which, by his magnificent taste in building, he transformed
+into one of the most beautiful cities of the continent.
+The earlier years of his reign were marked by a liberal spirit and
+the reform, especially, of the financial administration; but the
+revolutions of 1831 frightened him into reaction, which was
+accentuated by the opposition of the parliament to his expenditure
+on building and works of art. In 1837 the Ultramontanes
+came into power with Karl von Abel (1788-1859)
+as prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand;
+one by one the liberal provisions of the constitution were modified
+or annulled; the Protestants were harried and oppressed; and
+a rigorous censorship forbade any free discussion of internal
+politics. The collapse of this régime was due, not to popular
+agitation, but to the resentment of Louis at the clerical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span>
+opposition to the influence of his mistress, Lola Montez. On the
+17th of February 1847, Abel was dismissed, for publishing his
+<span class="sidenote">Lola Montez.</span>
+memorandum against the proposal to naturalize Lola,
+who was an Irishwoman; and the Protestant Georg
+Ludwig von Maurer (<i>q.v</i>.) took his place. The new
+ministry granted the certificate of naturalization; but riots,
+in which ultramontane professors of the university took part,
+were the result. The professors were deprived, the parliament
+dissolved, and, on the 27th of November, the ministry dismissed.
+Lola Montez, created Countess Landsfeld, was supreme in the
+state; and the new minister, Prince Ludwig von Oettingen-Wallerstein
+(1791-1870), in spite of his efforts to enlist Liberal
+sympathy by appeals to pan-German patriotism, was powerless
+to form a stable government. His cabinet was known as the
+&ldquo;Lolaministerium&rdquo;; in February 1848, stimulated by the
+news from Paris, riots broke out against the countess; on the
+11th of March the king dismissed Oettingen, and on the 20th,
+realizing the force of public opinion against him, abdicated in
+favour of his son, Maximilian II.</p>
+
+<p>Before his abdication Louis had issued, on the 6th of March, a
+proclamation promising the zealous co-operation of the Bavarian
+government in the work of German freedom and
+unity.  To the spirit of this Maximilian was faithful,
+<span class="sidenote">Anti-Prussian policy.</span>
+accepting the authority of the central government
+at Frankfort, and (19th of December) sanctioning the
+official promulgation of the laws passed by the German parliament.
+But Prussia was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In
+refusing to agree to the offer of the imperial crown to Frederick
+William IV., Maximilian had the support of his parliament.
+In withholding his assent to the new German constitution,
+by which Austria was excluded from the Confederation, he ran
+indeed counter to the sentiment of his people; but by this time
+the back of the revolution was broken, and in the events which
+led to the humiliation of Prussia at Olmütz in 1851, and the
+restoration of the old diet of the Confederation, Bavaria was
+safe in casting in her lot with Austria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+The guiding spirit in this anti-Prussian policy, which characterized
+Bavarian statesmanship up to the war of 1866, was Ludwig
+Karl Heinrich von der Pfordten (1811-1880), who became minister
+for foreign affairs on the 19th of April 1849. His idea for the
+ultimate solution of the question of the balance of power in
+Germany was the so-called <i>Trias</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a league of the Rhenish
+states as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and
+Prussia. In internal affairs his ministry was characterized by
+a reactionary policy less severe than elsewhere in Germany,
+which led none the less from 1854 onward to a struggle with the
+parliament, which ended in the dismissal of Pfordten&rsquo;s ministry
+on the 27th of March 1859. He was succeeded by Karl Freiherr
+von Schrenk auf Notzing (1806-1884), an official of Liberal
+tendencies who had been Bavarian representative in the diet
+of the Confederation. Important reforms were now introduced,
+including the separation of the judicial and executive powers
+and the drawing up of a new criminal code. In foreign affairs
+Schrenk, like his predecessor, aimed at safeguarding the independence
+of Bavaria, and supported the idea of superseding
+the actual constitution of the Confederation by a supreme
+directory, in which Bavaria, as leader of the purely German states,
+would hold the balance between Prussia and Austria. Bavaria
+accordingly opposed the Prussian proposals for the reorganization
+of the Confederation, and one of the last acts of King
+Maximilian was to take a conspicuous part in the assembly of
+princes summoned to Frankfort in 1863 by the emperor Francis
+Joseph (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian was succeeded on the 10th of March 1864 by his
+son Louis II., a youth of eighteen. The government was at first
+carried on by Schrenk and Pfordten in concert. Schrenk soon
+retired, when the Bavarian government found it necessary, in
+order to maintain its position in the Prussian <i>Zollverein</i>, to
+become a party to the Prussian commercial treaty with France,
+signed in 1862. In the complicated Schleswig-Holstein question
+(<i>q.v</i>.) Bavaria, under Pfordten&rsquo;s guidance, consistently opposed
+Prussia, and headed the lesser states in their support of Frederick
+of Augustenburg against the policy of the two great German
+powers. Finally, in the war of 1866, in spite of Bismarck&rsquo;s
+efforts to secure her neutrality, Bavaria sided actively with
+Austria.</p>
+
+<p>The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation
+of Bismarck paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria&rsquo;s
+relation to Prussia and the German question. The
+South German Confederation, contemplated by the
+<span class="sidenote">Union with German Empire.</span>
+6th article of the treaty of Prague, never came into
+being; and, though Prussia, in order not prematurely to
+excite the alarm of France, opposed the suggestion that the
+southern states should join the North German Confederation,
+the bonds of Bavaria, as of the other southern states, with the
+north, were strengthened by an offensive and defensive alliance
+with Prussia, as the result of Napoleon&rsquo;s demand for &ldquo;compensation&rdquo;
+in the Palatinate. This was signed at Berlin on the 22nd
+of August 1866, on the same day as the signature of the formal
+treaty of peace between the two countries. The separatist
+ambitions of Bavaria were thus formally given up; she had no
+longer &ldquo;need of France&rdquo;; and in the war of 1870-71, the
+Bavarian army marched, under the command of the Prussian
+crown prince, against the common enemy of Germany. It was
+on the proposal of King Louis II. that the imperial crown was
+offered to King William.</p>
+
+<p>This was preceded, on the 23rd of November 1870, by the
+signature of a treaty between Bavaria and the North German
+Confederation. By this instrument, though Bavaria became an
+integral part of the new German empire, she reserved a larger
+measure of sovereign independence than any of the other constituent
+states. Thus she retained a separate diplomatic service,
+military administration, and postal, telegraph and railway
+systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian chambers
+on the 21st of January 1871, though not without considerable
+opposition on the part of the so-called &ldquo;patriot&rdquo; party. Their
+hostility was increased by the <i>Kulturkampf</i>, due to the promulgation
+in 1870 of the dogma of papal infallibility. Munich University,
+where Döllinger (<i>q.v</i>.) was professor, became the centre
+of the opposition to the new dogma, and the &ldquo;old Catholics&rdquo;
+(<i>q.v</i>.) were protected by the king and the government. The
+federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on
+the 6th of September 1871 and was extended to the Redemptorists
+in 1873. On the 31st of March 1871, moreover, the bonds
+with the rest of the empire had been drawn closer by the
+acceptance of a number of laws of the North German Confederation,
+of which the most important was the new criminal code,
+which was finally put into force in Bavaria in 1879. The
+opposition of the &ldquo;patriot&rdquo; party, however, reinforced by the
+strong Catholic sentiment of the country, continued powerful,
+and it was only the steady support given by the king to successive
+Liberal ministries that prevented its finding disastrous
+expression in the parliament, where it remained in a greater or
+less majority till 1887, and has since, as the &ldquo;centre,&rdquo; continued
+to form the most compact party in an assembly made up of
+&ldquo;groups.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the royal dreamer, whose passion for building palaces
+was becoming a serious drain on the treasury, had been declared
+insane, and, on the 7th of June 1886, the heir-presumptive,
+Prince Luitpold, was proclaimed regent. Six days later, on the
+13th of June, Louis committed suicide. His brother, Otto I.,
+being also insane, the regency was confirmed to Prince Luitpold.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1871 Bavaria has shared to the full in the marvellous
+development of Germany; but her &ldquo;particularism,&rdquo; founded
+on traditional racial and religious antagonism to the Prussians,
+was by no means dead, though it exhibited itself in no more
+dangerous form than the prohibition, reissued in 1900, to display
+any but the Bavarian flag on public buildings on the emperor&rsquo;s
+birthday; a provision which has been since so far modified as
+to allow the Bavarian and imperial flags to be hung side by side.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>Monumenta Boica</i> (44 vols., Munich, 1763-1900);
+G.T. Rudhart, <i>Aelteste Geschichte Bayerns</i> (Hamburg, 1841); A.
+Quitzmann, <i>Abstammung, Ursitz, und älteste Geschichte der Bairwaren</i>
+(Munich, 1857), and <i>Die älteste Geschichte der Baiern bis 911</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span>
+(Brunswick, 1873); S. Riezler, <i>Geschichte Bayerns</i> (Gotha, 1878-1899);
+Ad. Brecher, <i>Darstellung der geschichtlichen Entwickelung des bayrischen
+Staatsgebiets,</i> map (Berlin, 1890); E. Rosenthal, <i>Geschichte
+des Gerichtswesens und der Verwaltungsorganisation Bayerns</i> (Würzburg,
+1889); A. Buchner, <i>Geschichte von Baiern</i> (Munich, 1820-1853);
+<i>Forschungen zur Geschichte Bayerns</i>, edited by K. von
+Reinhardstottner (Berlin, 1897 fol.). Much valuable detail will be
+found in the lives of Bavarian princes and statesmen in the <i>Allgemeine
+deutsche Biographie</i> (Leipzig, 1875-1906 in progr.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Recès de la députation de l&rsquo;empire ... du 25 févr, 1803</i>, &amp;c.,
+§ II. vol. vii. p. 453 of G.F. de Martens, <i>Recueil des Traités</i>, &amp;c.
+(Gottingue, 1831).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Text in de Martens&rsquo; <i>Recueil</i>, viii. p. 388.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAVENO,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
+Novara, on the west shore of Lago Maggiore, 13 m. N.N.W. of
+Arona by rail. Pop. (1901) 2502. It is much frequented as a
+resort in spring, summer and autumn, and has many beautiful
+villas. To the north-west are the famous red granite quarries,
+which have supplied the columns for the cathedral of Milan,
+the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, the Galleria
+Vittorio Emanuele at Milan, and other important buildings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAWBEE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (of very doubtful origin, the most plausible conjecture
+being that the word is a corruption from the name of
+the mint master Sillebawby, by whom they were first issued,
+<i>c.</i> 1541), the Scottish name for a halfpenny or other small coin,
+and hence used of money generally. A writer in 1573, quoted
+in Tytler&rsquo;s <i>History of Scotland</i>, speaks of &ldquo;a coin called a
+bawbee, ... which is in value English one penny and a
+quarter.&rdquo; The word was sometimes written &ldquo;babie,&rdquo; and has
+therefore been identified merely with a &ldquo;baby coin,&rdquo; but this
+etymology is less probable.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAXTER, ANDREW<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1686-1750), Scottish metaphysician,
+was born in Aberdeen and educated at King&rsquo;s College. He
+maintained himself by acting as tutor to noblemen&rsquo;s sons.
+From 1741 to 1747 he lived with Lord Blantyre and Mr Hay of
+Drummelzier at Utrecht, and made excursions in Flanders,
+France and Germany. Returning to Scotland, he lived at
+Whittingehame, near Edinburgh, till his death in 1750. At Spa
+he had met John Wilkes, then twenty years of age, and formed
+a lasting friendship with him. His chief work, <i>An Inquiry into
+the Nature of the Human Soul</i> (editions 1733, 1737 and 1745;
+with appendix added in 1750 in answer to an attack in Maclaurin&rsquo;s
+Account of Sir I. Newton&rsquo;s Philosophical Discoveries, and
+dedication to John Wilkes), examines the properties of matter.
+The one essential property of matter is its inactivity, <i>vis inertiae</i>
+(accepted later by Monboddo). All movement in matter is,
+therefore, caused by some immaterial force, namely, God. But
+the movements of the body are not analogous to the movements
+of matter; they are caused by a special immaterial force, the
+soul. The soul, as being immaterial, is immortal, and its consciousness
+does not depend upon its connexion with the body.
+The argument is supported by an analysis of the phenomena of
+dreams, which are ascribed to direct spiritual influences. Lastly
+Baxter attempted to prove that matter is finite. His work is an
+attack on Toland&rsquo;s <i>Letters to Serena</i> (1704), which argued that
+motion is essential to matter, and on Locke and Berkeley. His
+criticism of Berkeley (in the second volume) is, however, based
+on the common misinterpretation of his theory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Berkeley</a></span>).
+Sir Leslie Stephen speaks of him as a curious example of &ldquo;the
+effects of an exploded metaphysics on a feeble though ingenious
+intellect.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Beside the <i>Inquiry</i>, Baxter wrote <i>Matho sive Cosmotheoria
+Puerilis</i> (an exposition in Latin of the elements of astronomy
+written for his pupils&mdash;editions in English 1740, 1745 and 1765,
+with one dialogue re-written); <i>Evidence of Reason in Proof of
+the Immortality of the Soul</i> (published posthumously from MSS.
+by Dr Duncan in 1779).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See life in <i>Biographia Britannica</i>; McCosh&rsquo;s <i>Scottish Philosophy</i>,
+pp. 42-49.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAXTER, RICHARD<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1615-1691), English puritan divine,
+called by Dean Stanley &ldquo;the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen,&rdquo;
+was born at Rowton, in Shropshire, at the house of his
+maternal grandfather, in November (probably the 12th) 1615.
+His ancestors had been gentlefolk, but his father had reduced
+himself to hard straits by loose living. About the time of
+Richard&rsquo;s birth, however, he changed decisively for the better.
+The boy&rsquo;s early education was poor, being mainly in the hands
+of the illiterate and dissolute clergy and readers who held the
+neighbouring livings at that time. He was better served by
+John Owen, master of the free school at Wroxeter, where he
+studied from about 1629 to 1632, and made fair progress in
+Latin. On Owen&rsquo;s advice he did not proceed to Oxford (a step
+which he afterwards regretted), but went to Ludlow Castle to
+read with Richard Wickstead, the council&rsquo;s chaplain there.
+Wickstead neglected his pupil entirely, but Baxter&rsquo;s eager mind
+found abundant nourishment in the great library at the castle.
+He was persuaded&mdash;against his will&mdash;to turn his attention to a
+court life, and he went to London under the patronage of Sir
+Henry Herbert, master of the revels, to follow that course; but
+he very soon returned home with a fixed resolve&mdash;confirmed by
+the death of his mother&mdash;to study divinity. After three months&rsquo;
+schoolmastering for Owen at Wroxeter he read theology, and
+especially the schoolmen, with Francis Garbet, the local clergyman.
+About this time (1634) he met Joseph Symonds and
+Walter Cradock, two famous Nonconformists, whose piety and
+fervour influenced him considerably. In 1638 he was nominated
+to the mastership of the free grammar school, Dudley, in which
+place he commenced his ministry, having been ordained and
+licensed by John Thornborough, bishop of Worcester. His
+success as a preacher was, at this early period, not very great;
+but he was soon transferred to Bridgnorth (Shropshire), where,
+as assistant to a Mr Madstard, he established a reputation for
+the vigorous discharge of the duties of his office.</p>
+
+<p>He remained at Bridgnorth nearly two years, during which
+time he took a special interest in the controversy relating to
+Nonconformity and the Church of England. He soon, on some
+points, especially matters of discipline, became alienated from
+the Church; and after the requirement of what is called &ldquo;the
+<i>et cetera</i> oath,&rdquo; he rejected episcopacy in its English form. He
+could not, however, be called more than a moderate Nonconformist;
+and such he continued to be throughout his life.
+Though commonly denominated a Presbyterian, he had no
+exclusive attachment to Presbyterianism, and often manifested
+a willingness to accept a modified Episcopalianism. All forms
+of church government were regarded by him as subservient to
+the true purposes of religion.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first measures of the Long Parliament was to effect
+the reformation of the clergy; and, with this view, a committee
+was appointed to receive complaints against them. Among the
+complainants were the inhabitants of Kidderminster, a town
+which had become famous for its ignorance and depravity.
+This state of matters was so clearly proved that an arrangement
+was agreed to on the part of the vicar (Dance), by which he
+allowed £60 a year, out of his income £200, to a preacher who
+should be chosen by certain trustees. Baxter was invited to
+deliver a sermon before the people, and was unanimously elected
+as the minister of the place. This happened in April 1641, when
+he was twenty-six years of age.</p>
+
+<p>His ministry continued, with very considerable interruptions,
+for about nineteen years; and during that time he accomplished
+a work of reformation in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood
+which is as notable as anything of the kind upon record. Civilized
+behaviour succeeded to brutality of manners; and, whereas the
+professors of religion had been but small exceptions to the mass,
+the unreligious people became the exceptions in their turn.
+He formed the ministers in the country around him into an
+association for the better fulfilment of the duties of their calling,
+uniting them together irrespective of their differences as Presbyterians,
+Episcopalians and Independents. The spirit in which
+he acted may be judged of from <i>The Reformed Pastor</i>, a book
+published in relation to the general ministerial efforts he promoted.
+It drives home the sense of clerical responsibility with
+extraordinary power. The result of his action is that, to this
+day his memory is cherished as that of the true apostle of the
+district where he laboured.</p>
+
+<p>The interruptions to which his Kidderminster life was subjected
+arose from the condition of things occasioned by the civil war.
+Baxter blamed both parties, but Worcestershire was a cavalier
+county, and a man in his position was, while the war continued,
+exposed to annoyance and danger in a place like Kidderminster.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span>
+He therefore removed to Gloucester, and afterwards (1643-1645)
+settled in Coventry, where he preached regularly both to
+the garrison and the citizens. After the battle of Naseby he
+took the situation of chaplain to Colonel Whalley&rsquo;s regiment,
+and continued to hold it till February 1647. During these
+stormy years he wrote his <i>Aphorisms of Justification</i>, which on its
+appearance in 1649 excited great controversy.</p>
+
+<p>Baxter&rsquo;s connexion with the Parliamentary army was a very
+characteristic one. He joined it that he might, if possible,
+counteract the growth of the sectaries in that field, and maintain
+the cause of constitutional government in opposition to the
+republican tendencies of the time. He regretted that he had not
+previously accepted an offer of Cromwell to become chaplain to
+the Ironsides, being confident in his power of persuasion under
+the most difficult circumstances. His success in converting the
+soldiery to his views does not seem to have been very great, but
+he preserved his own consistency and fidelity in a remarkable
+degree. By public disputation and private conference, as well
+as by preaching, he enforced his doctrines, both ecclesiastical
+and political, and shrank no more from urging what he conceived
+to be the truth upon the most powerful officers than he did from
+instructing the meanest followers of the camp. Cromwell disliked
+his loquacity and shunned his society; but Baxter having
+to preach before him after he had assumed the Protectorship,
+chose for his subject the old topic of the divisions and distractions
+of the church, and in subsequent interviews not only opposed
+him about liberty of conscience, but spoke in favour of the
+monarchy he had subverted. There is a striking proof of Baxter&rsquo;s
+insight into character in his account of what happened under
+these circumstances. Of Cromwell he says, &ldquo;I saw that what
+he learned must be from himself.&rdquo; It is worthy of notice that
+this intercourse with Cromwell occurred when Baxter was
+summoned to London to assist in settling &ldquo;the fundamentals of
+religion,&rdquo; and made the memorable declaration, in answer to the
+objection that what he had proposed as fundamental &ldquo;might be
+subscribed by a Papist or Socinian,&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;So much the better, and
+so much the fitter it is to be the matter of concord.&rdquo; In 1647
+he was staying at the home of Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, and
+there, in much physical weakness, wrote a great part of his
+famous work, <i>The Saints&rsquo; Everlasting Rest</i> (1650). On his
+recovery he returned to his charge at Kidderminster, where he
+also became a prominent political leader, his sensitive conscience
+leading him into conflict with almost every one of the contending
+parties in state and church. His conduct now, as at all times,
+did &ldquo;credit to his conscientiousness rather than to his wisdom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After the Restoration in 1660 Baxter, who had helped to bring
+about that event, settled in London. He preached there till the
+Act of Uniformity took effect in 1662, and was employed in seeking
+for such terms of comprehension as would have permitted the
+moderate dissenters with whom he acted to have remained in the
+Church of England. In this hope he was sadly disappointed.
+There was at that time on the part of the rulers of the church no
+wish for such comprehension, and their object in the negotiations
+that took place was to excuse the breach of faith which their
+rejection of all reasonable methods of concession involved. The
+chief good that resulted from the Savoy conference was the
+production of Baxter&rsquo;s <i>Reformed Liturgy</i>, a work of remarkable
+excellence, though it was cast aside without consideration. The
+same kind of reputation which Baxter had obtained in the country
+he secured in the larger and more important circle of the metropolis.
+The power of his preaching was universally felt, and his
+capacity for business placed him at the head of his party. He
+had been made a king&rsquo;s chaplain, and was offered the bishopric of
+Hereford, but he could not accept the offer without virtually
+assenting to things as they were. This he could not do, and after
+his refusal he was not allowed, even before the passing of the Act
+of Uniformity, to be a curate in Kidderminster, though he was
+willing to serve that office gratuitously. Bishop Morley even
+prohibited him from preaching in the diocese of Worcester.
+Baxter, however, found much consolation in his marriage on the
+24th of September 1662 with Margaret Charlton, a woman like-minded
+with himself. She died in 1681.</p>
+
+<p>From the ejectment of 1662 to the indulgence of 1687, Baxter&rsquo;s
+life was constantly disturbed by persecution of one kind or
+another. He retired to Acton in Middlesex, for the purpose of
+quiet study, and was dragged thence to prison for keeping a
+conventicle. The <i>mittimus</i> was pronounced illegal and irregular,
+and Baxter procured a <i>habeas corpus</i> in the court of common
+pleas. He was taken up for preaching in London after the
+licences granted in 1672 were recalled by the king. The meetinghouse
+which he had built for himself in Oxendon Street was closed
+against him after he had preached there but once. He was, in
+1680, seized in his house, and conveyed away at the risk of his
+life; and though he was released that he might die at home, his
+books and goods were distrained. He was, in 1684, carried three
+times to the sessions house, being scarcely able to stand, and
+without any apparent cause was made to enter into a bond for
+£400 in security for his good behaviour.</p>
+
+<p>But his worst encounter was with the chief justice, Sir George
+Jeffreys, in May 1685. He had been committed to the king&rsquo;s
+bench prison on the ridiculous charge of libelling the Church in
+his <i>Paraphrase on the New Testament</i>, and was tried before
+Jeffreys on this accusation. The trial is well known as among the
+most brutal perversions of justice which have occurred in England,
+though it must be remembered that no authoritative report of the
+trial exists. If the partisan account on which tradition is based
+is to be accepted, it would appear that Jeffreys himself acted like
+an infuriated madman. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jeffreys, Sir George</a></span>.) Baxter
+was sentenced to pay 500 marks, to lie in prison till the money was
+paid, and to be bound to his good behaviour for seven years. It
+was even asserted at the time that Jeffreys proposed he should be
+whipped at the cart&rsquo;s tail through London. The old man, for he
+was now seventy, remained in prison for eighteen months, when
+the government, vainly hoping to win his influence to their side,
+remitted the fine and released him.</p>
+
+<p>During the long time of oppression and injury which followed
+the ejectment, Baxter was sadly afflicted in body. His whole life
+was indeed one continued illness, but in this part of it his pain and
+languor had greatly increased. Yet this was the period of his
+greatest activity as a writer. He was a most voluminous author,
+his separate works, it is said, amounting to 168. They are as
+learned as they are elaborate, and as varied in their subjects as
+they are faithfully composed. Such treatises as the <i>Christian
+Directory</i>, the <i>Methodus Theologiae Christianae</i>, and the <i>Catholic
+Theology</i>, might each have occupied the principal part of the life
+of an ordinary man. His <i>Breviate of the Life of Mrs Margaret
+Baxter</i> records the virtues of his wife, and reveals on the part of
+Baxter a tenderness of nature which might otherwise have been
+unknown. His editors have contented themselves with re-publishing
+his &ldquo;Practical Works,&rdquo; and his ethical, philosophical,
+historical and political writings still await a competent editor.</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of Baxter&rsquo;s life, from 1687 onwards, was passed
+in peace and honour. He continued to preach and to publish
+almost to the end. He was surrounded by attached friends, and
+reverenced by the religious world. His saintly behaviour, his
+great talents, and his wide influence, added to his extended age,
+raised him to a position of unequalled reputation. He helped to
+bring about the downfall of James II. and complied with the
+Toleration Act under William and Mary. He died in London on
+the 8th of December 1691, and his funeral was attended by
+churchmen as well as dissenters. A similar tribute of general
+esteem was paid to him nearly two centuries later, when a statue
+was erected to his memory at Kidderminster in July 1875.</p>
+
+<p>Baxter was possessed by an unconquerable belief in the power
+of persuasive argument. He thought every one was amenable to
+reason&mdash;bishops and levellers included. And yet he was as far as
+possible from being a quarrelsome man. He was at once a man of
+fixed belief and large appreciation, so that his dogmatism and his
+liberality sometimes came into collision. His popularity as a
+preacher was deservedly pre-eminent; but no more diligent
+student ever shut himself up with his books. He was singularly
+fitted for intellectual debate, but his devotional tendency was
+equally strong with his logical aptitude. Some of his writings,
+from their metaphysical subtilty, will always puzzle the learned;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span>
+but he could write to the level of the common heart without loss
+of dignity or pointedness. His <i>Reasons for the Christian Religion</i>
+is still, for its evidential purpose, better than most works of its
+kind. His <i>Poor Man&rsquo;s Family Book</i> is a manual that continues
+to be worthy of its title. His <i>Saints&rsquo; Everlasting Rest</i> will always
+command the grateful admiration of pious readers. It is also
+charged with a robust and manly eloquence and a rare and
+unsought felicity of language that make it a masterpiece of style.
+Perhaps no thinker has exerted so great an influence upon
+nonconformity as Baxter has done, and that not in one direction
+only, but in every form of development, doctrinal, ecclesiastical
+and practical. He is the type of a distinct class of the Christian
+ministry&mdash;that class which aspires after scholarly training,
+prefers a broad to a sectarian theology, and adheres to rational
+methods of religious investigation and appeal. The rational
+element in him was very strong. He had a settled hatred of
+fanaticism. Even Quakerism he could scarcely endure. Religion
+was with him all and in all&mdash;that by which all besides was
+measured, and to whose interests all else was subordinated. Isaac
+Barrow said that &ldquo;his practical writings were never minded, and
+his controversial ones seldom confuted,&rdquo; and John Wilkins, bishop
+of Chester, asserted that &ldquo;if he had lived in the primitive time he
+had been one of the fathers of the church.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Our most valuable source is Baxter&rsquo;s autobiography,
+called <i>Reliquiae Baxterianae or Mr Richard Baxter&rsquo;s
+Narrative of the most memorable Passages of his Life and Times</i>
+(published by Matthew Sylvester in 1696). Edmund Calamy
+abridged this work (1702). The abridgment forms the first volume
+of the account of the ejected ministers, but whoever refers to it
+should also acquaint himself with the reply to the accusations which
+had been brought against Baxter, and which will be found in the
+second volume of Calamy&rsquo;s Continuation. William Orme&rsquo;s <i>Life and
+Times of Richard Baxter</i> appeared in 2 vols. in 1830; it also forms
+the first volume of &ldquo;Practical Works&rdquo; (1830, reprinted 1868).
+Sir James Stephen&rsquo;s interesting paper on Baxter, contributed
+originally to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, is reprinted in the second volume
+of his <i>Essays</i>. More recent estimates of Baxter are those given by
+John Tulloch in his <i>English Puritanism and its Leaders</i>, and by
+Dean Stanley in his address at the inauguration of the statue to
+Baxter at Kidderminster (see <i>Macmillan&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, xxxii. 385).</p>
+
+<p>There is a good portrait of Baxter in the Williams library, Gordon
+Square, London.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1827-1875), English economist
+and statistician, was born at Doncaster in 1827. He was educated
+privately and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He studied law and
+entered his father&rsquo;s firm of Baxter &amp; Co., solicitors, with which he
+was connected till his death. Though studiously attentive to
+business, he was enabled, as a member of the Statistical and other
+learned societies, to accomplish much useful economic work. His
+principal economic writings were <i>The Budget and the Income Tax</i>
+(1860), <i>Railway Extension and its Results</i> (1866), <i>The National
+Income</i> (1868), <i>The Taxation of the United Kingdom</i> (1869),
+<i>National Debts of the World</i> (1871), <i>Local Government and
+Taxation</i> (1874), and his purely political writings included
+<i>The Volunteer Movement</i> (1860), <i>The Redistribution of Seats
+and the Counties</i> (1866), <i>History of English Parties and Conservatism</i>
+(1870), and <i>The Political Progress of the Working
+Classes</i> (1871).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAXTER, WILLIAM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1650-1723), British antiquarian, critic
+and grammarian, nephew of Richard Baxter, the divine, was born
+at Llanllugan, Montgomeryshire. When he went to Harrow
+school, at the age of eighteen, he was unable to read, and could
+speak no language except Welsh. His progress must have been
+remarkable, since he published his Latin grammar about ten
+years afterwards. During the greater part of his life Baxter was
+a schoolmaster, and was finally headmaster of the Mercers&rsquo; school,
+where he remained till shortly before his death on the 31st of May
+1723. He was an accomplished linguist, and his learning was
+undoubtedly very great. His published works are: <i>De Analogia</i>
+(1679), an advanced Latin grammar; <i>Anacreontis Teii Carmina</i>,
+including two odes of Sappho (1695; reprinted in 1710, &ldquo;with
+improvements,&rdquo; which he was accused of having borrowed from
+the edition of Joshua Barnes); <i>Horace</i> (1701 and subsequent
+editions, regarded as remarkable for its abuse of Bentley);
+<i>Glossarium Antiquitatum Britannicarum</i> (1719); and <i>Glossarium
+Antiquitatum Romanarum</i> (1826). The last two works were
+published by the Rev. Moses Williams, the second (which goes no
+farther than the letter A) under the title of <i>Reliquiae Baxterianae</i>,
+including an autobiographical fragment. Baxter also contributed
+to a joint translation of Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Moralia</i>, and left notes on
+Juvenal and Persius.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAY,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a homonymous term of which the principal branches are
+as follows, (1) The name of the sweet laurel (<i>Laurus nobilis</i>) or
+bay tree (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Laurel</a></span>); this word is derived through the O. Fr.
+<i>baie</i>, from Lat. <i>baca</i>, berry, the bay bearing a heavy crop of dark
+purple berries. The leaves of the bay were woven in garlands to
+crown poets, and hence the word is often used figuratively in the
+sense of fame and reward. (2) A wide opening or indentation in
+a coast line. This may be of the same origin as &ldquo;bay,&rdquo; in the
+architectural sense, or from a Latin word which is seen in the place
+name Baiae. (3) The name of a colour, of a reddish brown,
+principally used of the colour in horses; there are various shades,
+light bay, bright bay, &amp;c. This word is derived from the Latin
+<i>badius</i>, which is given by Varro (in <i>Nonnius</i>, pp. 80-82) as one of
+the colours of horses. The word is also seen in baize (<i>q.v</i>.). (4)
+The deep bark of dogs. This word is also seen in the expression
+&ldquo;at bay,&rdquo; properly of a hunted animal who at the last turns on
+the &ldquo;baying&rdquo; hounds and defends itself. The origin of the word
+is the O. Fr. <i>bayer, abayer</i>, Lat. <i>badare</i>, properly to gape, open wide
+the mouth. (5) An architectural term (Fr. <i>travée</i>, Ital. <i>compartimento</i>,
+Ger. <i>Abteilung</i>) for any division or compartment of
+an arcade, roof, &amp;c. Each space from pillar to pillar in a
+cathedral, church or other building is called a &ldquo;bay&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;severy.&rdquo; This word is also to be referred to <i>bayer</i>, to gape.</p>
+
+<p>A &ldquo;bay-window&rdquo; or &ldquo;bow-window&rdquo; is a window projecting
+outwards and forming a recess in the apartment. Bay-windows
+may be rectangular, polygonal or semicircular in plan, in the
+last case being better known as bow-windows. The bay-window
+would seem to have been introduced in the 15th century, but the
+earliest examples of importance are those which were built during
+the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), when it was largely employed
+in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and in the feudal castles
+of the period. Examples are found in the palace at Eltham,
+Cowdray Castle in Sussex, Thornbury Castle in Gloucestershire,
+and in the George Inn at Glastonbury; one of the finest of a later
+date is that of the Banqueting Hall at Hampton Court, some 50
+ft. high. In the great entrance halls of ancient mansions the floor
+of the last bay of the hall was generally raised two or three steps,
+and this portion was reserved for the lord of the manor and his
+guests, and was known as the dais. The usual position of the bay-window
+is at one end of this dais, and occasionally but rarely at
+both ends. The sills of the windows are at a lower level than
+those in the hall, and, raised on one or two steps, are seats in the
+recess. The recess of the bay-window was generally covered with a
+ribbed vault of elaborate design, and the window itself subdivided
+by mullions and transoms. In some of the larger windows such
+as those at Cowdray and Hampton Court there are no fewer than
+five transoms, and this sub-division gave great scale to the design.
+The same feature when employed in an upper storey and supported
+by corbels or brackets is known as an oriel window. (See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dais</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hall</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYAMO,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> an old inland city on the N. slope of the Sierra
+Maestra in Santiago province, Cuba. Pop. (1907) 4102. It lies
+on a plain by the Bayamo river, in a fertile country, but isolated
+from sea and from railway. Its older parts are extraordinarily
+irregular. The streets are of all widths, and of all degrees of
+crookedness, and run in all directions. Bayamo was the third of
+the seven cities founded by Diego Velazquez, and was established
+in 1513. During much of the 16th century it was one of the most
+important agricultural and commercial settlements of the island.
+Its inland situation gave it relative security against the pirates
+who then infested West Indian seas, and the misfortunes of
+Santiago were the fortunes of Bayamo. Down the river Cauto,
+then open to the sea for vessels of 200 tons, and through Manzanillo,
+Bayamo drove a thriving contraband trade that made it at
+the opening of the 17th century the leading town of Cuba. A
+tremendous flood, in 1616, choking the Cauto with trees and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span>
+wrecked vessels, cut it off from direct access to the sea; but
+through Manzanillo it continued a great clandestine traffic with
+Curaçao, Jamaica, and other foreign islands all through the 17th
+and 18th centuries. Bayamo was then surrounded by fine
+plantations. It was a rich and turbulent city. In the war of
+1868-78 it was an insurgent stronghold; near it was fought one
+of the most desperate conflicts of the war, and it was nearly
+destroyed by the opposing parties. Bayamo was the birthplace
+and the home of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes (1819-1874), first
+president of the &ldquo;first&rdquo; Cuban republic, and was also the
+birthplace and home of Tomás Estrada Palma (1835-1908), first
+president of the present Cuban republic.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de</span> (1473-1524),
+French soldier, the descendant of a noble family, nearly every
+head of which for two centuries past had fallen in battle, was born
+at the château Bayard, Dauphiné (near Pontcharra, Isère), about
+1473. He served as a page to Charles I., duke of Savoy, until
+Charles VIII. of France, attracted by his graceful bearing, placed
+him among the royal followers under the seigneur (count) de Ligny
+(1487). As a youth he was distinguished for comeliness, affability
+of manner, and skill in the tilt-yard. In 1494 he accompanied
+Charles VIII. into Italy, and was knighted after the battle of
+Fornova (1495), where he had captured a standard. Shortly
+afterwards, entering Milan alone in ardent pursuit of the enemy,
+he was taken prisoner, but was set free without a ransom by
+Lodovico Sforza. In 1502 he was wounded at the assault of
+Canossa. Bayard was the hero of a celebrated combat of thirteen
+French knights against an equal number of Germans, and his
+restless energy and valour were conspicuous throughout the
+Italian wars of this period. On one occasion it is said that, single-handed,
+he made good the defence of the bridge of the Garigliano
+against about 200 Spaniards, an exploit that brought him such
+renown that Pope Julius II. sought to entice him into the papal
+service, but unsuccessfully. In 1508 he distinguished himself
+again at the siege of Genoa by Louis XII., and early in 1509 the
+king made him captain of a company of horse and foot. At the
+siege of Padua he won further distinction, not only by his valour,
+but also by his consummate skill. He continued to serve in the
+Italian wars up to the siege of Brescia in 1512. Here his intrepidity
+in first mounting the rampart cost him a severe wound,
+which obliged his soldiers to carry him into a neighbouring house,
+the residence of a nobleman, whose wife and daughters he protected
+from threatened insult. Before his wound was healed, he
+hurried to join Gaston de Foix, under whom he served in the
+terrible battle of Ravenna (1512). In 1513, when Henry VIII. of
+England routed the French at the battle of the Spurs (Guinegate,
+where Bayard&rsquo;s father had received a lifelong injury in a battle of
+1479), Bayard in trying to rally his countrymen found his escape
+cut off. Unwilling to surrender, he rode suddenly up to an
+English officer who was resting unarmed, and summoned him to
+yield; the knight complying, Bayard in turn gave himself up
+to his prisoner. He was taken into the English camp, but his
+gallantry impressed Henry as it had impressed Lodovico, and the
+king released him without ransom, merely exacting his parole not
+to serve for six weeks. On the accession of Francis I. in 1515
+Bayard was made lieutenant-general of Dauphiné; and after
+the victory of Marignan, to which his valour largely contributed,
+he had the honour of conferring knighthood on his youthful
+sovereign. When war again broke out between Francis I. and
+Charles V., Bayard, with 1000 men, held Mézières, which had
+been declared untenable, against an army of 35,000, and after
+six weeks compelled the imperial generals to raise the siege. This
+stubborn resistance saved central France from invasion, as the
+king had not then sufficient forces to withstand the imperialists.
+All France rang with the achievement, and Francis gained time
+to collect the royal army which drove out the invaders (1521).
+The parlement thanked Bayard as the saviour of his country;
+the king made him a knight of the order of St Michael, and
+commander in his own name of 100 <i>gens d&rsquo;armes</i>, an honour till
+then reserved for princes of the blood. After allaying a revolt at
+Genoa, and striving with the greatest assiduity to check a
+pestilence in Dauphiné, Bayard was sent, in 1523, into Italy with
+Admiral Bonnivet, who, being defeated at Robecco and wounded
+in a combat during his retreat, implored Bayard to assume the
+command and save the army. He repulsed the foremost pursuers,
+but in guarding the rear at the passage of the Sesia was mortally
+wounded by an arquebus ball (April 30th, 1524). He died in the
+midst of the enemy, attended by Pescara, the Spanish commander,
+and by his old comrade the constable de Bourbon. His
+body was restored to his friends and interred at Grenoble.
+Chivalry, free of fantastic extravagance, is perfectly mirrored in
+the character of Bayard. As a soldier he was one of the most
+skilful commanders of the age. He was particularly noted for the
+exactitude and completeness of his information of the enemy&rsquo;s
+movements; this he obtained both by careful reconnaissance
+and by a well-arranged system of espionage. In the midst of
+mercenary armies Bayard remained absolutely disinterested, and
+to his contemporaries and his successors he was, with his romantic
+heroism, piety and magnanimity, the fearless and faultless knight,
+<i>le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche</i>. His gaiety and kindness
+won him, even more frequently, another name bestowed by his
+contemporaries, <i>le bon chevalier</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Contemporary lives of Bayard are the following:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Le loyal
+serviteur</i>&rdquo; (? Jacques de Maille); <i>La très joyeuse, plaisante, et
+récréative histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon
+chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart</i>
+(original edition printed at Paris, 1527; the modern editions are very
+numerous, those of M.J. Roman and of L. Larchey appeared in
+1878 and 1882); Symphorien Champier, <i>Les Gestes, ensemble la vie
+du preulx chevalier Bayard</i> (Lyons, 1525); Aymar du Rivail, <i>Histoire
+des Allobroges</i> (edition of de Terrebasse, 1844); see <i>Bayard</i> in
+<i>Répertoire des sources historiques</i>, by Ulysse Chevalier, and in
+particular A. de Terrebasse, <i>Hist. de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de
+Bayart</i> (1st ed., Paris, 1828; 5th ed., Vienna, 1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1828-1898), American diplomatist,
+was born in Wilmington, Delaware, on the 29th of
+October 1828. His great-grandfather, Richard Bassett (1745-1815),
+governor of Delaware; his grandfather, James Asheton
+Bayard (1767-1815), a prominent Federalist, and one of the
+United States commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent
+with Great Britain after the War of 1812; his uncle, Richard
+Henry Bayard (1796-1868); and his father, James Asheton
+Bayard (1799-1880), a well-known constitutional lawyer, all
+represented Delaware in the United States Senate. Intending
+to go into business, he did not receive a college education; but
+in 1848 he began the study of law in the office of his father, and
+was admitted to the bar in 1851. Except from 1855 to 1857, when
+he was a partner of William Shippen in Philadelphia, he practised
+chiefly in Wilmington. He was a United States senator from
+Delaware from 1869 to 1885, and in 1881 was (October 10th to
+13th) president <i>pro tempore</i> of the Senate. His abilities made
+him a leader of the Democrats in the Senate, and his views on
+financial and legal questions gave him a high reputation for
+statesmanship. He was a member of the electoral commission of
+1877. In the Democratic national conventions of 1872, 1876,
+1880 and 1884 he received votes for nomination as the party
+candidate for the presidency. He was secretary of state, 1885-1889,
+during the first administration of President Cleveland,
+and pursued a conservative policy in foreign affairs, the most
+important matter with which he was called upon to deal being
+the Bering Sea controversy. As ambassador to Great Britain,
+1893-1897, his tall dignified person, unfailing courtesy, and
+polished, if somewhat deliberate, eloquence made him a man of
+mark in all the best circles. He was considered indeed by many
+Americans to have become too partial to English ways; and, for
+the expression of some criticisms regarded as unfavourable to
+his own countrymen, the House of Representatives went so far
+as to pass, on the 7th of November 1895, a vote of censure on
+him. The value of Mr Bayard&rsquo;s diplomacy was, however, fully
+recognized in the United Kingdom, where he worthily upheld
+the traditions of a famous line of American ministers. He was
+the first representative of the United States in Great Britain to
+hold the diplomatic rank of an ambassador. He died in Dedham,
+Massachusetts, on the 28th of September 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Edward Spencer, <i>Public Life and Services of T.F. Bayard</i>
+(New York, 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BAYAZID,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bajazet</span>, a border fortress of Asiatic Turkey,
+chief town of a sanjak of the Erzerum vilayet, situated close to
+the frontiers of Russia and Persia, and looking across a marshy
+plain to the great cone of Ararat, at a general altitude of 6000 ft.
+It occupies a site of great antiquity, as the cuneiform inscriptions
+on the neighbouring rocks testify; it stands on the site of the
+old Armenian town of Pakovan. It is picturesquely situated in
+an amphitheatre of sharp, rocky hills. The great trade route
+from Trebizond by Erzerum into N.W. Persia crosses the frontier
+at Kizil Dize a few miles to the south and does not enter the
+town. A knoll above the town is occupied by the half-ruined
+fort or palace of former governors, built for Mahmud Pasha by
+a Persian architect and considered one of the most beautiful
+buildings in Turkey. It contains two churches and a monastery,
+the Kasa Kilissa, famous for its antiquity and architectural
+grandeur. The cuneiform inscriptions are on the rock pinnacles
+above the town, with some rock chambers, indicating a town
+or fortress of the Vannic period. The population has lately
+decreased and now numbers about 4000. A Russian consul
+resides here and the town is a military station. It was captured
+during the Russian campaigns of 1828 and 1854, also in 1878,
+but was then recaptured by the Turks, who subjected the Russian
+garrison to a long siege; the place was ultimately relieved, but
+a massacre of Christians then took place in the streets. Bayazid
+was restored to Turkey by the treaty of Berlin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYBAY,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte,
+Philippine Islands, on the W. coast. Pop. (1903) 22,990. The
+town proper is situated at the mouth of the Pagbañganan river,
+45 m. S.S.W. of Tacloban, the provincial capital. A superior
+grade of hemp is exported. Other products are rice, corn, copra,
+cacao, sugar, cattle and horses. The Cebú dialect of the Visayan
+language is spoken.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAY CITY,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a city and the county seat of Bay county,
+Michigan, U.S.A., on the Saginaw river, about 2 m. from its
+entrance into Saginaw Bay and about 108 m. N.N.W. of Detroit.
+Pop. (1890) 27,839; (1900) 27,628, of whom 8483 were foreign-born,
+including 2413 English-Canadians, 1743 Germans, 1822
+Poles&mdash;the city has a Polish weekly newspaper&mdash;and 1075 French-Canadians;
+(1910, census) 45,166. Bay City is served by the
+Michigan Central, the Père Marquette, the Grand Trunk and
+the Detroit &amp; Mackinac railways, and by lake steamers. The
+city extends for several miles along both sides of the river, and
+is in a good farming district, with which it is connected by stone
+roads. Among the public buildings are the Federal building,
+the city hall and the public library. The city has lumber and
+fishing interests (perch, whitefish, sturgeon, pickerel, bass, &amp;c.
+being caught in Saginaw Bay), large machine shops and
+foundries (value of products in 1905, $1,743,155, or 31% of
+the total of the city&rsquo;s factory products), and various manufactures,
+including ships (wooden and steel), wooden ware, wood-pipe,
+veneer, railroad machinery, cement, alkali and chicory.
+A salt basin underlies the city, and, next to the lumber industry,
+the salt industry was the first to be developed, but its importance
+has dwindled, the product value in 1905 being $20,098 out of
+$5,620,866 for all factory products. Near the city are valuable
+coal mines, and there is one within the city limits. At Essexville
+(pop. in 1910, 1477), N.E., at Banks, N.W., and at Salzbury,
+S.W. of Bay City, are beet-sugar factories&mdash;sugar beets are
+extensively grown in the vicinity. Alcohol is made from the
+refuse molasses obtained from these beet-sugar factories. The
+municipality owns and operates the water-works and electric-lighting
+plant. The settlements of Lower Saginaw and Portsmouth
+were made in 1837, and were later united to form Bay
+City, which was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered
+as a city in 1865. In 1905 West Bay City (pop. 1900, 13,119)
+and Bay City were consolidated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYEUX,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Calvados, 18 m. N.W. of
+Caen on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 6930. Bayeux is
+situated on the Aure, 5 m. from the English Channel. Its
+majestic cathedral was built in the 13th century on the site of a
+Romanesque church, to which the lateral arcades of the nave
+and the two western towers with their high stone spires belonged.
+A third and still loftier tower, the upper part of which, in the
+florid Gothic style, is modern, surmounts the crossing. The
+chancel, surrounded with radiating chapels, is a fine example
+of early Gothic. Underneath it there is a crypt of the 11th
+century restored in the 15th century. The oak stalls in the
+choir are fine examples of late 16th-century carving. The former
+bishop&rsquo;s palace, parts of which are of great age though the
+main building is of the 18th century, serves as law-court and
+hôtel de ville. Bayeux possesses many quaint, timbered houses
+and stone mansions in its quiet streets. The museum contains
+the celebrated Bayeux tapestry (see below). The town is the seat
+of a bishop and of a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, an ecclesiastical seminary, a communal college
+and a chamber of arts and manufactures. Dyeing, leather-dressing,
+lace-making and the manufacture of porcelain for
+household and laboratory purposes are carried on.</p>
+
+<p>Till the 4th century Bayeux bore the name of <i>Augustodurum</i>,
+but afterwards, when it became the capital of the two tribes of
+the Baiocasses and Viducasses, took the name of Civitas Baiocassium.
+Its bishopric dates from the latter half of the 4th
+century. Before the Norman invasion it was governed by
+counts. Taken in 890 by the Scandinavian chief, Rollo, it was
+soon after peopled by the Normans and became a residence of
+the dukes of Normandy, one of whom, Richard I., built about
+960 a castle which survived till the 18th century. During the
+quarrels between the sons of William the Conqueror it was pillaged
+and sacked by Henry I. in 1106, and in later times it underwent
+siege and capture on several occasions during the Hundred Years&rsquo;
+War and the religious wars of the 16th century. Till 1790 it was
+the capital of the Bessin, a district of lower Normandy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span>. This venerable relic consists of a
+band of linen, 231 ft. long and 20 in. wide, now light brown with
+age, on which have been worked with a needle, in worsteds of
+eight colours, scenes representing the conquest of England by
+the Normans. Of these scenes there are seventy-two, beginning
+with Harold&rsquo;s visit to Bosham on his way to Normandy, and
+ending with the flight of the English from the battle of Hastings,
+though the actual end of the strip has perished. Along the top
+and the bottom run decorative borders with figures of animals,
+scenes from fables of Aesop and of Phaedrus, from husbandry
+and the chase, and occasionally from the story of the Conquest
+itself (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embroidery</a></span>; Plate I. fig. 7). Formerly known as the
+<i>Toile de St Jean</i>, it was used on certain feast days to decorate
+the nave of Bayeux cathedral. Narrowly escaping the perils of
+the Revolution, it was exhibited in Paris, by Napoleon&rsquo;s desire,
+in 1803-1804, and has since been in civil custody at Bayeux,
+where it is now exhibited under glass. In the Franco-German
+War (1871) it was hastily taken down and concealed.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The noblest monument in the world relating to our old
+English history,&rdquo; as William Stukeley described it in 1746, it
+has been repeatedly described, discussed and reproduced, both
+in France and in England since 1730. The best coloured reproduction
+is that by C.A. Stothard in 1818, published in
+the sixth volume of <i>Vetusta Monumenta</i>; but in 1871-1872
+the &ldquo;tapestry&rdquo; was photographed for the English education
+authorities by E. Dossetter.</p>
+
+<p>Local tradition assigned the work to the Conqueror&rsquo;s wife.
+F. Pluquet, in his <i>Essai historique sur la ville de Bayeux</i> (Caen,
+1829), was the first to reject this belief, and to connect it with the
+Conqueror&rsquo;s half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and this view,
+which is now accepted, is confirmed by the fact that three of the
+bishop&rsquo;s followers mentioned in Domesday Book are among the
+very few named figures on the tapestry. That Odo had it
+executed for his cathedral seems tolerably certain, but whether
+it was worked by English fingers or not has been disputed,
+though some of the words upon it have been held to favour that
+view. Freeman emphatically pronounced it to be &ldquo;a contemporary
+work,&rdquo; and historically &ldquo;a primary authority ...
+in fact the highest authority on the Norman side.&rdquo; As some
+of its evidence is unique, the question of its authority is important,
+and Freeman&rsquo;s conclusions have been practically
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span>
+confirmed by recent discussion. In 1902 M. Marignan questioned,
+on archaeological grounds, the date assigned to the tapestry,
+as the Abbé de la Rue had questioned it ninety years before;
+but his arguments were refuted by Gaston Paris and M. Lanore,
+and the authority of the tapestry was vindicated. The famous
+relic appears to be the solitary survivor of a class, for Abbot
+Baudri described in Latin verse a similar work executed for
+Adela, daughter of the Conqueror, and in earlier days the widow
+of Brihtnoth had wrought a similar record of her husband&rsquo;s
+exploits and death at the hard-fought battle of Maldon (991).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:425px; height:258px" src="images/img556a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:254px" src="images/img556b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">1. SIEGE OF DINANT. Note the wooden castle on a mound, and the knight handing over the keys on his lance tip.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:263px" src="images/img556c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:259px" src="images/img556d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">2. THE FUNERAL OF EDWARD THE CONFESSOR AT WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:247px" src="images/img556e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:252px" src="images/img556f1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">3. CORONATION OF HAROLD.</td>
+<td class="caption">4. APPEARANCE OF HALLEY&rsquo;S COMET.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:258px" src="images/img556f2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:259px" src="images/img556f3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">5. THE NORMANS CARRY THEIR ARMS TO THE SHIPS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of G, Bell &amp; Sons.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:417px; height:254px" src="images/img556f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:249px" src="images/img556g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">6. THE NORMANS CROSS TO PEVENSEY.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:253px" src="images/img556h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:254px" src="images/img556i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">7. BUILDING OF HASTINGS CASTLE.</td>
+<td class="caption">8. HAROLD&rsquo;S ADVANCE ANNOUNCED TO WILLIAM.
+THE BURNING OF HASTINGS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:248px" src="images/img556j.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:423px; height:250px" src="images/img556k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">9. THE NORMAN CAVALRY ATTACKS THE ENGLISH SHIELD WALL.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:420px; height:253px" src="images/img556l.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:251px" src="images/img556m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">10. WILLIAM RAISES HIS HELMET TO RALLY HIS MEN.</td>
+<td class="caption">11. ODO, BISHOP OF BAYEUX, WIELDING HIS MACE.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of G. Bell &amp; Sons.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E.A. Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>, vol. iii. (ed. 1875), with summary
+of the discussion to date; <i>Archaeologia</i>, vols. xvii.&mdash;xix.; Dawson
+Turner, <i>Tour in Normandy</i> (1820); C.A. Stothard&rsquo;s illustrations in
+<i>Vetusta Monumenta</i>, vol. vi.; <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, 1837; Bolton
+Corney, <i>Researches and Conjectures on the Bayeux Tapestry</i> (1836-1838);
+A. de Caumont, &ldquo;Un mot sur ... la tapisserie de Bayeux,&rdquo; in <i>Bulletin
+monumental de Vinstilut des provinces</i>, vol. viii. (1841); J. Laffetay,
+<i>Notice historique et descriptive sur la tapisserie</i> ... (1874); J.
+Comte, <i>Tapisserie de Bayeux</i>; F.R. Fowke, <i>The Bayeux Tapestry</i> (ed.
+1898); Marignan, <i>Tapisserie de Bayeux</i> (1902); G. Pans, &ldquo;Tapisserie de
+Bayeux,&rdquo; in <i>Romania</i>, vol. xxxi.; Lanore, &ldquo;La Tapisserie de Bayeux,&rdquo; in
+<i>Bibliothèque de l&rsquo;école des chartes</i>, vol. lxiv. (1903); and J.H.
+Round, &ldquo;The Bayeux Tapestry,&rdquo; in <i>Monthly Review</i>, xvii. (1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYEZID I.<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1347-1403), Ottoman sultan, surnamed <span class="sc">Yilderim</span>
+or &ldquo;LIGHTNING,&rdquo; from the great rapidity of his movements,
+succeeded his father Murad I. on the latter&rsquo;s assassination on the
+field of Kossovo, 1389, and signalized his accession by ordering
+at once the execution of his brother Yakub, who had distinguished
+himself in the battle. His arms were successful both in Europe
+and Asia, and he was the first Ottoman sovereign to be styled
+&ldquo;sultan,&rdquo; which title he induced the titular Abbasid caliph to
+confer on him. After routing the chivalry of Christendom at the
+battle of Nikopoli in 1396, he pursued his victorious career in
+Greece, and Constantinople would doubtless have fallen before
+his attack, had not the emperor Manuel Palaeologus bought him
+off by timely concessions which reduced him practically to the
+position of Bayezid&rsquo;s vassal. But his conquests met with a
+sudden and overpowering check at the hands of Timur (Tamerlane).
+Utterly defeated at Angora by the Mongol invader,
+Bayezid became his prisoner, and died in captivity some months
+later, in March 1403.</p>
+
+<p>Bayezid first married Devlet Shah Khatun, daughter of the
+prince of Kermian, who brought him in dowry Kutaiah and its
+dependencies. Two years before his accession he also married a
+daughter of the emperor John Palaeologus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYEZID II.<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1447-1512), sultan of Turkey, was the son of
+Mahommed II., whom he succeeded in 1481, but only after
+gaining over the janissaries by a large donative, which henceforth
+became for centuries the invariable prerogative of that
+undisciplined body on the accession of a new sultan. Before he
+could establish himself on the throne a long struggle ensued with
+his brother Prince Jem. Being routed, Jem fled for refuge to
+the knights of St John at Rhodes, who, in spite of a safe-conduct
+granted to him, accepted a pension from Bayezid as the price
+for keeping him a close prisoner. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aubusson, Pierre d&rsquo;</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>So long as Jem lived he was a perpetual menace to the sultan&rsquo;s
+peace, and there was considerable rivalry among the sovereigns
+of Europe for the possession of so valuable an instrument for
+bringing pressure to bear upon the Porte for the purpose of
+extracting money or concessions. By common consent the
+prince was ultimately entrusted to Pope Innocent VIII., who
+used him not only to extract an annual tribute out of the sultan,
+but to prevent the execution of Bayezid&rsquo;s ambitious designs in
+the Mediterranean. His successor, Alexander VI., used him for
+a more questionable purpose, namely, not only to extract the
+arrears of the pension due for Jem&rsquo;s safe-keeping, but, by enlarging
+on Charles V.&rsquo;s intention of setting him up as sultan, to
+persuade Bayezid to aid him against the emperor. There
+appears, however, to be no truth in the report that Bayezid
+succeeded in bribing the pope to have Jem poisoned. The
+prince, who had lived on excellent terms with Alexander, died
+at Naples in February 1495, possibly as the result of excesses
+in which he had been deliberately encouraged by the pope.</p>
+
+<p>Whether as a result of his fear of the rivalry of Jem, or of
+his personal character, Bayezid showed little of the aggressive
+spirit of his warlike predecessors; and Machiavelli said that
+another such sultan would cause Turkey to cease being a menace
+to Europe. He abandoned the attack on Rhodes at the first
+check, made concessions, for the sake of peace, to Venice and
+reduced the tribute due fiom Ragusa. His wars were of the
+nature of raids, on the Dalmatian coast and into Croatia,
+Hungary, Moldavia and Poland. The threat of the growing
+power in the Aegean of Venice, which had acquired Cyprus in 1489,
+at last roused him to a more serious effort; and in 1499 the war
+broke out with the republic, which ended in 1502 by the annexation
+to Turkey of Lepanto and Modon, Coron and Navarino in
+the Morea. Bayezid himself conducted the siege of Modon in 1500.</p>
+
+<p>The comparative inactivity of Bayezid in the direction of
+Europe was partly due to preoccupation elsewhere. In the
+south he was threatened by the dangerous rivalry of Kait Bey,
+the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, who had extended his power
+northwards as far as Tarsus and Adana. In 1488 he gained a
+great victory over the Ottomans, and in 1491 a peace was made
+which was not again broken till after Bayezid&rsquo;s death. On the
+side of Persia too, where the decisive battle of Shurur (1502)
+had raised to power Ismail, the first of the modern line of shahs,
+danger threatened the sultan, and the latter years of his reign
+were troubled by the spread, under the influence of the new
+Persian power, of the Shi&rsquo;ite doctrine in Kurdistan and Asia
+Minor. The forces destined to maintain his authority in Asia
+had been entrusted by Bayezid to his three sons, Ahmed, Corcud
+and Selim; and the sultan&rsquo;s declining years were embittered
+by their revolts and rivalry. Soon after the great earthquake
+of 1509, which laid Constantinople in ruins, Selim, the ungovernable
+pasha of Trebizond, whose vigorous rule in Asia had given
+Europe an earnest of his future career as sultan, appeared before
+Adrianople, where Bayezid had sought refuge. The sultan had
+designated Ahmed as his successor, but Selim, though temporarily
+defeated, succeeded in winning over the janissaries.
+On the 25th of April 1512 Bayezid was forced to abdicate in
+his favour, and died a few days later.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.B. Bury in the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. i. chap. iii. and
+bibliography p. 700.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAY ISLANDS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Islas de la Bahía</span>), a small archipelago in
+the Caribbean Sea, off the coast of Honduras, of which country
+it forms an administrative district. Pop. (1905) about 3000,
+including 500 Indians. The archipelago consists of Roatan or
+Ruatan, Guanaja or Bonacca, Utilla, Barbareta, Helena, Morat,
+the Puercos or Hog Islands, and many <i>cays</i> or islets. The Bay
+Islands have a good soil, a fine climate and an advantageous
+position. Roatan, the largest, is about 30 m. long by 9 m.
+broad, with mountains rising to the height of 900 ft., covered
+with valuable woods and abounding with deer and wild hogs.
+Its chief towns are Coxen Hole and Puerto Real. Its trade is
+chiefly with New Orleans in plantains, cocoa-nuts, pineapples
+and other fruit. Guanaja is 9 m. long by 5 m. broad; it lies
+15 m. E.N.E. of Roatan. Wild hogs abound in its thickly-wooded
+limestone hills. The other islands are comparatively
+small, and may, in some cases, be regarded as detached parts of
+Roatan, with which they are connected by reefs. Guanaja was
+discovered in 1502 by Columbus, but the islands were not
+colonized until the 17th century, when they were occupied by
+British logwood cutters from Belize, and pearlers from the
+Mosquito Coast. Forts were built on Roatan in 1742, but
+abandoned in 1749. In 1852 the islands were annexed by Great
+Britain. In 1859 they were ceded to Honduras.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYLE, PIERRE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1647-1706), French philosopher and man
+of letters, was born on the 18th of November 1647, at le
+Carla-le-Comte, near Pamiers (Ariège). Educated by his father, a
+Calvinist minister, and at an academy at Puylaurens, he afterwards
+entered a Jesuit college at Toulouse, and became a Roman
+Catholic a month later (1669). After seventeen months he
+resumed his former religion, and, to avoid persecution, fled to
+Geneva, where he became acquainted with Cartesianism. For
+some years he acted under the name of Bèle as tutor in various
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span>
+Parisian families, but in 1675 he was appointed to the chair
+of philosophy at the Protestant university of Sedan. In 1681
+the university at Sedan was suppressed, but almost immediately
+afterwards Bayle was appointed professor of philosophy and
+history at Rotterdam. Here in 1682 he published his famous
+<i>Pensées diverses sur la comète de 1680</i> and his critique of Maimbourg&rsquo;s
+work on the history of Calvinism. The great reputation
+achieved by this critique stirred the envy of Bayle&rsquo;s colleague,
+P. Jurieu, who had written a book on the same subject. In 1684
+Bayle began the publication of his <i>Nouvelles de la république
+des lettres</i>, a kind of journal of literary criticism. In 1690
+appeared a work entitled <i>Avis important aux refugiés</i>, which
+Jurieu attributed to Bayle, whom he attacked with animosity.
+After a long quarrel Bayle was deprived of his chair in 1693.
+He was not depressed by this misfortune, especially as he was
+at the time closely engaged in the preparation of the <i>Historical
+and Critical Dictionary</i> (<i>Dictionnaire historique et critique</i>). The
+remaining years of Bayle&rsquo;s life were devoted to miscellaneous
+writings, arising in many instances out of criticisms made upon
+his <i>Dictionary</i>. He died in exile at Rotterdam on the 28th of
+December 1706. In 1906 a statue in his honour was erected at
+Pamiers, &ldquo;la réparation d&rsquo;un long oubli.&rdquo; Bayle&rsquo;s erudition,
+despite the low estimate placed upon it by Leclerc, seems to have
+been very considerable. As a constructive thinker, he did little.
+As a critic he was second to none in his own time, and even yet
+one can admire the delicacy and the skill with which he handles
+his subject. The <i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i> (see Louis
+P. Betz, <i>P. Bayle und die Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i>,
+Zürich, 1896) was the first thorough-going attempt to popularize
+literature, and it was eminently successful. The <i>Dictionary</i>,
+however, is Bayle&rsquo;s masterpiece.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>.&mdash;<i>Historical and Critical Dictionary</i> (1695-1697; 1702,
+enlarged; best that of P. des Maizeaux, 4 vols., 1740); <i>Les &OElig;uvres
+de Bayle</i> (3 vols., The Hague); see des Maizeaux, <i>Vie de Bayle</i>;
+L.A. Feuerbach, <i>Pierre Bayle</i> (1838); Damiron, <i>La Philosophie en
+France au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1858-1864); Sainte-Beuve, &ldquo;Du génie
+critique et de Bayle&rdquo; (<i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, 1st Dec. 1835); A. Deschamps,
+<i>La Génèse du scepticisme érudit chez Bayle</i> (Liége, 1878);
+J. Denis, <i>Bayle et Jurieu</i> (Paris, 1886); F. Brunetière, <i>La Critique
+littéraire au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (vol. i., 1890), and <i>La Critique de Bayle</i>
+(1893); Émile Gigas, <i>Choix de la correspondance inédite de Pierre
+Bayle</i> (Paris, 1890, reviewed in <i>Revue critique</i>, 22nd Dec. 1890);
+de Budé, <i>Lettres inédites adressées à J.A. Turretini</i> (Paris, 1887);
+J.F. Stephen, <i>Horae Sabbaticae</i> (London, 1892, 3rd ser. pp. 174-192);
+A. Cazes, <i>P. Bayle, sa vie, ses idées</i>, &amp;c. (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYLO<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (Lat. <i>bajulus</i> or <i>baillivus</i>; cf. Ital. <i>balio</i>, Fr. <i>bailli</i>,
+Eng. <i>bailiff</i>), in diplomacy, the title borne by the Venetian
+representative at Constantinople. His functions were originally
+in the nature of those of a consul-general, but from the 16th
+century onwards he had also the rank and functions of a diplomatic
+agent of the first class. &ldquo;Under the name of bayle,&rdquo;
+says A. de Wicquefort, &ldquo;he performs also the functions of consul
+and judge; not only between members of his own nation, but
+also between all the other merchants who trade in the Levant
+under the flag of St Mark.&rdquo; (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diplomacy</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1797-1839), English songwriter
+and dramatist, was born at Bath on the 13th of October
+1797. He was educated at Winchester and at St Mary Hall,
+Oxford, with a view to entering the church. While on a visit
+to Dublin, however, he discovered his ability to write ballads,
+and on his return to England in 1824 he quickly gained a wide
+reputation with &ldquo;I&rsquo;d be a butterfly,&rdquo; following this up with
+&ldquo;We met&mdash;&rsquo;twas in a crowd,&rdquo; &ldquo;She wore a wreath of roses,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Oh, no, we never mention her,&rdquo; and other light and graceful
+songs for which his name is still remembered. He set some of
+his songs to music himself; a well-known example is &ldquo;Gaily
+the troubadour.&rdquo; Bayly also wrote two novels, <i>The Aylmers</i>
+and <i>A Legend of Killarney</i>, and numerous plays. His most
+successful dramatic piece was <i>Perfection</i>, which was produced
+by Madame Vestris and received high praise from Lord Chesterfield.
+Bayly had married in 1826 an Irish heiress, but her estates
+were mismanaged and the anxiety caused by financial difficulties
+undermined his health. He died on the 22nd of April 1839.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Collected Works</i> (1844) contain a memoir by his wife.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1823-1887), English editor
+and man of letters, the son of a Baptist minister, was born at
+Wellington, Somerset, on the 24th of March 1823. He studied
+at Edinburgh University, where he was a pupil of Sir William
+Hamilton, whose assistant he became and of whose views on
+logic he became the authorized exponent. This teaching was
+embodied in his <i>Essay on the New Analytic of Logical Forms</i>,
+published in 1850, the same year in which he took his London
+University degree. This was followed in the next year by a
+translation of Arnauld&rsquo;s <i>Port Royal Logic</i>. In 1850 he had
+become editor of the <i>Edinburgh Guardian</i>, but after four years&rsquo;
+work his health gave way. He spent two years in Somerset and
+then went to London, becoming, in 1858, assistant editor of the
+<i>Daily News</i>. In 1864 he was appointed professor of logic
+metaphysics and English literature at the university of St
+Andrews, and in 1873 the editorship of the ninth edition of the
+<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> was entrusted to him. He conducted
+it singly until 1881, when the decline of his health rendered it
+necessary to provide him with a coadjutor in the person of
+Prof. W. Robertson Smith. Baynes, however, continued to be
+engaged upon the work until his death on the 31st May 1887,
+shortly before its completion. His article on Shakespeare
+(<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, 9th ed.) was republished in 1894,
+along with other essays on Shakespearian topics and a memoir
+by Prof. Lewis Campbell.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYONET,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a short thrusting weapon, fixed to the muzzle
+or fore-end of a rifle or musket and carried by troops armed with
+the latter weapons. The origin of the word is disputed, but
+there is some authority for the supposition that the name is
+derived from the town of Bayonne, where the short dagger called
+<i>bayonnette</i> was first made towards the end of the 15th century.
+The elder Puységur, a native of Bayonne, says (in his <i>Memoirs</i>,
+published posthumously in Paris, 1747) that when he was
+commanding the troops at Ypres in 1647 his musketeers used
+bayonets consisting of a steel dagger fixed in a wooden haft,
+which fitted into the muzzle of the musket&mdash;in fact plug-bayonets.
+Courts-martial were held on some English soldiers at Tangier
+in 1663-1664 for using their daggers on their comrades. As
+bayonets were at first called daggers, and as there were few or
+no pikemen in Tangier until 1675, the probable conclusion is
+that the troops in Tangier used plug-bayonets. In 1671 plug-bayonets
+were issued to the French regiment of fusiliers then
+raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment
+raised in 1672 and disbanded in 1674, and to the Royal Fusiliers
+when raised in 1685. The danger incurred by the use of this
+bayonet (which put a stop to all fire) was felt so early that the
+younger Puységur saw a ring-bayonet in 1678 which could be
+fixed without stopping the fire. The English defeat at Killiecrankie
+in 1689 was due (among other things) to the use of the
+plug-bayonet; and shortly afterwards the defeated leader,
+General Mackay, introduced a ring-bayonet of his own invention.
+A trial with badly-fitting socket or zigzag bayonets was made
+after the battle of Fleurus, 1690, in the presence of Louis XIV.,
+who refused to adopt them. Shortly after the peace of Ryswick
+(1697) the English and Germans abolished the pike and introduced
+these bayonets, and plates of them are given in Surirey
+de St Remy&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;Artillerie</i>, published in Paris in that
+year; but owing to a military cabal they were not issued to
+the French infantry until 1703. Henceforward the bayonet
+became, with the musket or other firearm, the typical weapon of
+infantry. This bayonet remained in the British service until
+1805, when Sir John Moore introduced a bayonet fastened to
+the musket by a spring clip. The triangular bayonet (so called
+from the cross-section of its blade) was used in the British army
+until the introduction of the magazine rifle, when it was replaced
+by the sword-bayonet or dagger-bayonet. Sword-bayonets&mdash;weapons
+which could be used as sword or dagger apart from the
+rifle&mdash;had long been in use by special troops such as engineers
+and rifles, and many ingenious attempts have been made to
+produce a bayonet fitted for several uses. A long curved sword-bayonet
+with a saw-edged back was formerly used by the Royal
+Engineers, but all troops are now supplied with the plain sword-bayonet.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span>
+The bayonet is usually hung in a scabbard on the belt
+of the soldier and only fixed during the final stages of a battle;
+the reason for this is that the &ldquo;jump&rdquo; of the rifle due to the
+shock of explosion is materially altered by the extra weight at
+the muzzle, which thus deranges the sighting. In the short
+Lee-Enfield rifle of 1903, the bayonet, not being directly attached
+to the barrel, does not influence accuracy, but with the long
+rifles, when the bayonet is fixed, the sight must be raised by
+two or three graduations to ensure correct elevation. In the
+Russian army troops almost invariably carry the bayonet
+(triangular) fixed; the model (1891) of Italian carbine has an
+inseparable bayonet; the United States rifle (the new short
+model of 1903) has a knife bayonet, the model of 1905, which is
+20.5875 in. long, with the lower edge of the blade sharpened along
+its entire length and the upper edge sharpened 5 in. from the
+point; this bayonet is carried in a wooden and leather scabbard
+attached to the cartridge belt. The British bayonet (pattern
+1903) has a blade 1 ft. in length. The length of the rifle and
+bayonet together, considered as an <i>arme blanche</i>, varies considerably,
+that of the French Lebel pattern of 1886 being 6 ft., as
+against the 4 ft. 8¾ in. of the British short Lee-Enfield of 1903.
+The German rifles (1898) have a length with bayonet of 5 ft. 9¾ in.;
+the Russian (1894) 5 ft. 9 in.; and the Japanese 5 ft. 5½ in.
+In 1908 a new British bayonet was approved, 5 in. longer than
+its predecessor of 1903, the shape of the point being modified
+to obtain the thrusting effect of a spear or lance head.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYONNE,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Basses-Pyrénées, 66 m.
+W.N.W. of Pau on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,779.
+Bayonne, a first-class fortified place, is situated at the confluence
+of the Adour and its left-hand tributary, the Nive, about 3 m.
+from the sea. The two rivers divide the town into three nearly
+equal parts, communicating with each other by bridges. Grand
+Bayonne lies on the left bank of the Nive; the two squares
+which lie close together at the mouth of that river constitute
+the most animated quarter of the town. Petit Bayonne lies
+between the right bank of the Nive and the Adour; Saint Esprit,
+dominated by a citadel which is one of the finest works of Vauban,
+occupies the right bank of the Adour. The last is inhabited
+partly by a colony of Jews dating at least from the early 16th
+century. To the north-west of the town are the Allées Marines,
+fine promenades which border the Adour for a mile and a quarter,
+and the Allées Paulmy, skirting the fortifications. The cathedral
+of Ste Marie in Grand Bayonne is an imposing Gothic structure
+of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. It consists of a choir with
+deambulatory and apsidal chapels (the oldest part of the church),
+a transept, nave and aisles. The towers at the west end were
+only completed during the general restoration which took place
+in the latter half of the 19th century. A fine cloister of the 13th
+century adjoins the south side of the church. Ste Marie contains
+glass windows of the 15th and 16th centuries and other rich
+decoration. The Vieux-Château, also in Grand Bayonne, dates
+from the 12th and 15th centuries and is built upon a portion of
+the old Roman fortifications; it is used for military purposes.
+The Château Neuf (15th and 16th centuries) serves as barracks
+and prison. Bayonne is the seat of a bishopric and of a sub-prefect;
+it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
+chamber of commerce, a lycée, a school of music, a library, an
+art museum with a large collection of the works of the painter
+Léon Bonnat, and a branch of the Bank of France. There are
+consulates of the chief nations of Europe, of the United States
+of America and of several Central and South American republics.
+The town also possesses an important military arsenal and
+military hospital. The commerce of Bayonne is much more
+important than its industries, which include the manufacture
+of leather and of chocolate. The port consists of an outer
+harbour, the so-called &ldquo;rade&rdquo; (roadstead) and the port proper,
+and occupies the course of the Adour from its mouth, which is
+obstructed by a shifting bar, to the Pont St Esprit, and the
+course of the Nive as far as the Pont Mayou. Above these two
+bridges the rivers are accessible only to river navigation. Vessels
+drawing from 16 to 22 ft. can make the port in normal weather.
+In the five years 1901-1905 the average value of the imports was
+£502,000, of the exports £572,000; for the five years 1896-1900
+the average value of imports was £637,000, of exports £634,000.
+Exports include timber, mine-props, turpentine, resinous
+material from the Pyrénées and Landes and zinc ore; leading
+imports are the coal and Spanish minerals which supply the
+large metallurgical works of Le Boucau at the mouth of the river,
+the raw material necessary for the chemical works of the same
+town, wine, and the cereals destined for the flour mills of Pau,
+Peyrehorade and Orthez. During the early years of the 20th
+century the shipping of the port increased considerably in
+tonnage. In 1900 there entered 741 vessels, tonnage 277,959; and
+cleared 743, tonnage 276,992. In 1907 there entered 661 vessels,
+tonnage, 336,773; cleared 650, tonnage 335,849.</p>
+
+<p>In the 3rd century Bayonne (<i>Lapurdum</i>) was a Roman military
+post and the principal port of Novempopulana. In the middle
+ages it belonged to the dukes of Aquitaine and then to the kings
+of England, one of whom, John, granted it full communal rights
+in 1216. In 1451 it offered a strenuous opposition to the French,
+by whom it was eventually occupied. By this time its maritime
+commerce had suffered disaster owing to the silting up of its
+port and the deflection of the Adour. New fortifications were
+constructed under Louis XII. and Francis I., and in 1523 the
+town was able to hold out against a Spanish army. In 1565 it
+was the scene of an interview between Charles IX. and Catherine
+de&rsquo; Medici on the one hand and Elizabeth, queen of Spain, and
+the duke of Alva on the other. It is thought that on this occasion
+the plans were formed for the massacres of St Bartholomew, a
+crime in which Bayonne took no part, in 1572. In 1808 Napoleon
+met Charles IV., king of Spain, and his son Ferdinand at the
+Château de Marrac, near the town, and induced them to renounce
+their rights to the crown of Spain, which fell to Napoleon&rsquo;s
+brother Joseph. In 1814, after a severe siege, Bayonne was
+occupied by the English (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Balasque and E. Dulaurens, <i>Études historiques sur la ville
+de Bayonne</i> (3 vols., Bayonne, 1862-1875); E. Ducéré, <i>Bayonne
+historique et pittoresque</i> (Bayonne, 1893), <i>Histoire topographigue et
+anecdotique des rues de Bayonne</i> (Bayonne, 1894); H. Léon, <i>Histoire
+des juifs de Bayonne</i> (Paris, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYONNE,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
+occupying the peninsula (about 5½ m. long and about ¾ m. wide)
+between New York harbour and Newark Bay, and immediately
+adjoining the south boundary of Jersey City, from which it is partly
+separated by the Morris Canal. It is separated from Staten
+Island only by the narrow strip of water known as the Kill van
+Kull, and it has a total water frontage of about 10 m. Pop.
+(1890) 19,033; (1900) 32,722, of whom 10,786 were foreign-born
+(3168 Irish, 1868 Russian, 1656 German); (1910)
+55,545. Land area about 4 sq. m. Bayonne is served by
+the Central of New Jersey and by the Lehigh Valley railways
+(the latter for freight only), and by electric railway lines
+to Newark and Jersey City. The principal public buildings
+are the city hall, the public library, the post-office and the city
+hospital. Besides having a considerable share in the commerce
+of the port of New York, Bayonne is an important manufacturing
+centre; among its manufactures are refined petroleum, refined
+copper and nickel (not from the ore), refined borax, foundry and
+machine-shop products, tubular boilers, electric launches and
+electric motors, chemicals (including ammonia and sulphuric
+and nitric acids), iron and brass products, wire cables and silk
+goods. In 1905 the value of its factory product was $60,633,761,
+an increase of 57.1% over that of 1900, Bayonne ranking third
+in 1905 among the manufacturing cities of the state. It is the
+principal petroleum-distributing centre on the Atlantic seaboard,
+the enormous refineries and storehouses of the Standard Oil
+Company, among the largest in the world, being located here;
+there are connecting pipe lines with the Ohio and Pennsylvania
+oil fields, and with New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia and
+Washington. Much coal is shipped from the city. Bayonne,
+which comprises several former villages (Bayonne, Bergen Point,
+Pamrapo and Centerville), was settled about 1665-1670 by the
+Dutch. Originally a part of Bergen, it was set off as a township
+in 1861. It was chartered as a city in 1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BAYOU<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (pronounced bai-yoo, probably a corruption of Fr.
+<i>boyau</i>, gut), an &ldquo;ox-bow&rdquo; lake left behind by a river that has
+abandoned its old channel in the lower stages of its course.
+Good examples are found in Palmyra Lake, in the Mississippi
+valley below Vicksburg, and in Osage river, Missouri. As a river
+swings from side to side in a series of curves which widen laterally
+where the current is slow and the country more or less level,
+there is a tendency in flood times for the water to impinge more
+strongly upon the convex bank where the curve leaves the main
+channel. This bank will be eaten away, and the process will be
+repeated until the base of the &ldquo;isthmus&rdquo; is cut through, and the
+descending channel meets the returning curve, which is thus
+left stranded and filled with dead water, while the stream runs
+directly past it in the shorter course cut by the flood waters that
+deepen the new channel, and leave an isolated ox-bow lake in
+the old curve.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAYREUTH,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Baireuth</span>, a town of Bavaria, Germany,
+district of Upper Franconia, 58 m. by rail N.N.E. from Nuremberg.
+Pop. (1900) 29,384. In Richard-Wagner-strasse is
+Wagner&rsquo;s house, with his grave in the garden. Franz Liszt
+(1811-1886) is buried here, as well as Jean Paul Friedrich
+Richter, who is commemorated by a monument (1841). His
+house was in Friedrichstrasse. Most of the buildings are of
+comparatively modern date, the city having suffered severely
+from the Hussites in 1430 and from a conflagration in 1621.
+There should be mentioned the palace of Duke Alexander of
+Württemberg, the administrative offices, the statue of King
+Maximilian II. (1860) and the collections of the historical society
+Among the ecclesiastical buildings, the <i>Stadt-Pfarrkirche</i>,
+dating from 1439, and containing the monuments of the margraves
+of Bayreuth, is the most important. Bayreuth is a
+railway junction and has an active trade, chiefly in grain and
+horses. It manufactures woollen, linen and cotton goods,
+leather, delft and other earthenware, and tobacco, and has also
+several breweries and distilleries. The village of St Georgen is a
+suburb to the north east noted for its marble works; and about
+2 m. to the east is the Hermitage, a fanciful building, erected in
+1715 by the margrave George William (d. 1726), with gardens
+containing terraces, statues and fountains. Bayreuth was
+formerly the capital of a principality of the same name, which
+was annexed in 1791 to the kingdom of Prussia. In 1807 it
+was ceded by Prussia to France, which kept possession of it
+till 1810, when it was transferred to Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Wagner Theatre.</i>&mdash;Among the many advantages which
+Wagner gained from his intimacy with Ludwig II., king of
+Bavaria, not the least was the practical support given to his
+plan of erecting a theatre for the ideal performance of his own
+music-dramas. The first plan of building a new theatre for the
+purpose in Munich itself was rejected, because Wagner rightly
+felt that the appeal of his advanced works, like the Nibelungen
+trilogy, would be far stronger if the comparatively small number
+of people who wished to hear them were removed from the distractions
+of a large capital; Bayreuth possessed the desired
+seclusion, being on a line of railway that could not be approached
+from any quarter without changing. The municipality furthered
+Wagner&rsquo;s scheme in every way, and in May 1872 the foundation
+stone of the Festspielhaus was laid, the event being commemorated
+by a notable performance of Beethoven&rsquo;s Choral
+Symphony in the old opera-house. The funds for the erection
+of the theatre were raised in part by the issue of 1000 certificates
+of patronage (<i>Patronatscheine</i>), but the bulk of the sum was
+raised by founding &ldquo;Wagner Societies&rdquo; from St Petersburg
+to Cairo, from London to New York; these societies sprang
+up with such success that the theatre was opened in the summer
+of 1876 with the first complete performance of <i>Der Ring des
+Nibelungen</i>. The theatre, which stands on a height a little
+under a mile from the town, is built from the plans of Gustav
+Semper, the idea of the design being Wagner&rsquo;s own, an experiment
+indeed, but one which succeeded beyond all expectation.
+The seats are arranged on a kind of sloping wedge, in such
+a manner that every one has an almost equally good view of
+the stage, for there are no boxes, and the only galleries are quite
+at the back, one, the <i>Fürstenloge</i>, being reserved for distinguished
+guests, the other, above it, for the townspeople. Immediately
+in front of the foremost row of seats a hood or sloping screen
+of wood covers a part of the orchestra, and another hood of
+similar shape starts from the front of the stage at a slightly
+lower level. Thus there is left a space between the two hoods
+through which the sound of the orchestra ascends with wonderfully
+blended effect; the conductor, sitting at the highest point
+of the orchestra, though under the screen, has a complete view
+of the stage as well as of his instrumentalists, and the sound of
+the orchestra is sent most forcibly in the direction of the stage,
+so that the voices are always well supported.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>As an important addition to the work of the theatre, a permanent
+school has been established at Bayreuth for the sake of training
+young musicians to take part in the festival performances, which
+were at first exclusively, and then partially, undertaken by artists
+from other German and foreign theatres. The special feature upon
+which most stress has been laid, ever since Wagner&rsquo;s death in 1883,
+has been not so much the musical as the dramatic significance of
+the works; it is contended by the inmost circle of Wagnerian
+adherents that none but they can fully realize the master&rsquo;s intentions
+or hand down his traditions. What is called the &ldquo;Bayreuth Idea&rdquo;
+is set forth in much detail from this point of view by Houston Stewart
+Chamberlain, in his <i>Richard Wagner</i> (1897 and 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZA,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada;
+in the Hoya de Baza, a fruitful valley of the Sierra Nevada, not
+far from the small river Gallego, and at the terminus of a railway
+from Lorca. Pop. (1900) 12,770. The dome-shaped mountain
+of Javaleon (4715 ft.) overlooks the town from the north-west.
+The ancient collegiate church of San Maximo occupies the traditional
+site of a cathedral founded by the Visigothic king Reccared
+about 600, and afterwards converted into a mosque. There is
+a brisk local trade in farm produce, and in the linen, hempen
+goods and pottery manufactured in Baza. The town nearly
+doubled its population in the last quarter of the 10th century.
+Sulphurous springs exist in the vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>Baza is the Roman <i>Basti</i>, the medieval <i>Basta</i> or <i>Bastiana</i>;
+and numerous relics of antiquity, both Roman and medieval,
+have been found in the neighbourhood. Its bishopric was
+founded in 306. Under Moorish rule (<i>c.</i> 713-1489) it was one of
+the three most important cities in the kingdom of Granada,
+with an extensive trade, and a population estimated at 50,000.
+In 1489, after a stubborn defence lasting seven months, it was
+captured by the Spaniards under Isabella of Castile, whose
+cannon still adorn the <i>Alameda</i> or public promenade. On the
+10th of August 1810 the French under Marshal Soult defeated a
+large Spanish force close to the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZAAR<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (Pers. <i>bazar</i>, market), a permanent market or
+street of shops, or a group of short narrow streets of stalls under
+one roof. The word has spread westward into Arabic, Turkish
+and, in special senses, into European languages, and eastward
+it has invaded India, where it has been generally adopted. In
+southern India and Ceylon bazaar means a single shop or stall.
+The word seems to have early reached South Europe (probably
+through Turkish), for F. Balducci Pegolotti in his mercantile
+handbook (<i>c.</i> 1340) gives &ldquo;bazarra&rdquo; as a Genoese word for
+market-place. The Malayan peoples have adopted the word as
+<i>pazar</i>. The meaning of the word has been much extended in
+English, where it is now equivalent to any sale, for charitable
+or mere commercial purposes, of mixed goods and fancy work.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANÇOIS<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1811-1888), marshal of
+France, was born at Versailles on the 13th of February 1811.
+He entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, with a view to
+service in Algeria, and received a commission as sub-lieutenant
+in 1833. By his gallantry in action he won the cross of the
+Legion of Honour, and he was promoted lieutenant in 1835.
+He served two campaigns with the Foreign Legion against the
+Carlists in Spain in 1837-38, returning to Africa as captain in
+1839. During the succeeding decade he saw continual active
+service in Africa, and rose to be a brigadier-general with the
+charge of the district of Tlemçen. In the Crimean War he commanded
+a brigade, and maintained his reputation in the trenches
+before Sevastopol. On the capture of the south side he was
+appointed governor of the place, and was promoted general of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span>
+division. He also commanded the French forces in the expedition
+to Kinburn. In Lombardy in 1859 he was wounded when in command
+of a division at Melegnano, and took a conspicuous part in
+the battle of Solferino. For his services in the campaign he
+received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, of which
+he was already (1855) a commander. He commanded with
+great distinction the first division under General (afterwards
+marshal) Forey in the Mexican expedition in 1862, succeeded
+him in supreme command in 1863, and became marshal and
+senator of France in the following year. He at first pursued the
+war with great vigour and success, entering Mexico in 1863 and
+driving President Juarez to the frontier. The marshal&rsquo;s African
+experience as a soldier and as an administrator stood him in
+good stead in dealing with the guerrilleros of the Juarez party,
+but he was less successful in his relations with Maximilian, with
+whose court the French headquarters was in constant strife.
+Here, as later in his own country, Bazaine&rsquo;s policy seems to have
+been directed, at least in part, to his own establishment in the
+rôle of a mayor of the palace. His own army thought that he
+aspired to play the part of a Bernadotte. His marriage to a rich
+Mexican lady, whose family were supporters of Juarez, still
+further complicated his relations with the unfortunate emperor,
+and when at the close of the American Civil War the United
+States sent a powerful war-trained army to the Mexican frontier,
+the French forces were withdrawn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mexico</a></span>, <i>History</i>).
+Bazaine skilfully conducted the retreat and embarkation at Vera
+Cruz (1867). On his return to Paris he was but coldly received
+by his sovereign; public opinion was, however, in his favour,
+and he was held to have been made a scapegoat for the faults of
+others.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (<i>q.v.</i>) Marshal
+Bazaine was placed in command of the III. corps of the Army
+of the Rhine. He took no part in the earlier battles, but
+Napoleon III. soon handed over the chief command of the army
+to him. How far his inaction was the cause of the disaster of
+Spicheren is a matter of dispute. The best that can be said of his
+conduct is that the evil traditions of warfare on a small scale
+and the mania for taking up &ldquo;strong positions,&rdquo; common to the
+French generals of 1870, were in Bazaine&rsquo;s own case emphasized
+by his personal dislike for the &ldquo;schoolmaster&rdquo; Frossard, lately
+the Prince Imperial&rsquo;s tutor and now commander of the army
+corps posted at Spicheren. Frossard himself, the leader of the
+&ldquo;strong positions&rdquo; school, could only blame his own theories
+for the paralysis of the rest of the army, which left the corps at
+Spicheren to fight unsupported. Bazaine, indeed, when called
+upon for help, moved part of his corps forward, but only to &ldquo;take
+up strong positions,&rdquo; not to strike a blow on the battlefield.
+A few days later he took up the chief command, and his tenure of
+it is the central act in the tragedy of 1870. He found the army
+in retreat, ill-equipped and numerically at a great disadvantage,
+and the generals and staffs discouraged and distrustful of one
+another. There was practically no chance of success. The
+question was one of extricating the army and the government
+from a disastrous adventure, and Bazaine&rsquo;s solution of it was
+to bring back his army to Metz. For the events which led up
+to the battles before Metz and the investment of Bazaine&rsquo;s
+whole army in the fortress, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-german War</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span>,
+<i>Battles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to be clearly established that the charges of treason
+to which later events gave so strong a colour had, as yet, no
+foundation in fact. Nor, indeed, can his unwillingness to leave
+the Moselle region, while there was yet time to slip past the
+advancing enemy, be considered even as proof of special
+incompetence. The resolution to stay in the neighbourhood of Metz
+was based on the knowledge that if the slow-moving French
+army ventured far out it would infallibly be headed off and
+brought to battle in the open by superior numbers. In &ldquo;strong
+positions&rdquo; close to his stronghold, however, Bazaine hoped that
+he could inflict damaging repulses and heavy slaughter on the
+ardent Germans, and in the main the result justified the
+expectation. The scheme was creditable, and even heroic, but the
+execution throughout all ranks, from the marshal to the battalion
+commanders, fell far short of the idea. The minutely cautious
+methods of movement, which Algerian experience had evolved
+suitable enough for small African desert columns, which were
+liable to surprise rushes and ambushes, reduced the mobility
+of a large army, which had favourable marching conditions,
+to 5 m. a day as against the enemy&rsquo;s rate of 15. When, before
+he had finally decided to stay in Metz, Bazaine attempted
+half-heartedly to begin a retreat on Verdun, the staff work and
+organization of the movement over the Moselle was so ineffective
+that when the German staff calculated that Bazaine was nearing
+Verdun, the French had in reality barely got their artillery
+and baggage trains through the town of Metz. Even on the
+battlefield the marshal forbade the general staff to appear, and
+conducted the fighting by means of his personal orderly officers.
+After the cumbrous army had passed through Metz it encountered
+an isolated corps of the enemy, which was commanded by the
+brilliant leader Constantin von Alvensleben, and promptly
+attacked the French. At almost every moment of the day
+victory was in Bazaine&rsquo;s hands. Two corps of the Germans
+fought all day for bare existence. But Bazaine had no confidence
+in his generals or his troops, and contented himself
+with inflicting severe losses on the most aggressive portions of
+the German army. Two days later, while the French actually
+retreated on Metz&mdash;taking seven hours to cover 5 to 6 m.&mdash;the
+masses of the Germans gathered in front of him, intercepting his
+communication with the interior of France. This Bazaine
+expected, and feeling certain that the Germans would sooner or
+later attack him in his chosen position, he made no attempt to
+interfere with their concentration. The great battle was fought,
+and having inflicted severe punishment on his assailants, Bazaine
+fell back within the entrenched camp of Metz. But although he
+made no appeals for help, public opinion, alarmed and excited,
+condemned the only remaining army of France, Marshal MacMahon&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Army of Châlons,&rdquo; to rescue Bazaine at all costs. The adventure
+ended at Sedan, and with Sedan the Third Empire collapsed.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point Bazaine had served his country perhaps as
+well as circumstances allowed, and certainly with enough skill
+and a sufficient measure of success to justify his appointment.
+His experience, wide as it was, had not fitted him for the
+command of a large army in a delicate position. Since his Mexican
+expedition, moreover, he had himself fallen into a state of moral
+and physical lethargy, which, imperceptible on the field of battle,
+because his reputation for impassive bearing under fire was
+beyond question, was only too obvious in the staff offices, where
+the work of manoeuvring the army and framing plans and orders
+was chiefly done. But, in spite of these defects, it cannot be
+asserted that any one of Bazaine&rsquo;s subordinates would have done
+better, with the possible exception of Ladmirault, and Ladmirault
+was one of the junior corps commanders.</p>
+
+<p>Bazaine, therefore, in the main justified his reputation for
+ability. He was now to justify his reputation for intriguing and
+underhand diplomacy. If in Mexico he aspired to the rôle of
+mayor of the palace, it was far more so in Metz, where, as
+commander of the only organized army of France, he conceived
+himself to be the ruler of the country&rsquo;s destiny. Accordingly
+he engaged in a series of diplomatic intrigues, some of which to
+this day have never been properly cleared up. Negotiations
+passed between the outer world and the besieged commander,
+the purport of which remains still to some extent obscure, but
+it is beyond question that he proposed with the permission of
+the Germans to employ his army in &ldquo;saving France from herself.&rdquo;
+The scheme, however, collapsed, and the army of the Rhine
+became prisoners of war to the number of 140,000. At the
+moment of the surrender a week&rsquo;s further resistance would have
+enabled the levies of the National Defence government to crush
+the weak forces of the Germans on the Loire and to relieve Paris.
+But the army of Prince Frederick Charles, set free by the
+surrender, hurried up in time to check and to defeat the great
+effort at Orleans (<i>q.v.</i>). The responsibility for this crushing
+blow was naturally enough, and justly enough, placed on Bazaine&rsquo;s
+shoulders, and although, when he returned from captivity, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span>
+marshal enjoyed a brief immunity, he was in 1873 brought to
+trial before a military court. He was found guilty of negotiating
+with and capitulating to the enemy before doing all that was
+prescribed by duty and honour, and sentenced to degradation and
+death, but very strongly recommended to mercy. His sentence
+was commuted to twenty years&rsquo; seclusion, and the humiliating
+ceremonies attending degradation were dispensed with. He
+was incarcerated in the Ile Sainte-Marguérite and treated rather
+as an exile than as a convict; thence he escaped in 1874 to Italy.
+He finally took up his abode in Madrid, where he was treated
+with marked respect by the government of Alfonso XII. He
+died there on the 23rd of September 1888. He published
+<i>Épisodes de la guerre de 1870</i> (Madrid, 1883). He also wrote
+<i>L&rsquo;Armée du Rhin</i> (Paris, 1872).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the bibliography appended to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German
+War</a></span>; also memoir by C. Pelletan in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>; for
+Bazaine&rsquo;s conduct see <i>Bazaine et l&rsquo;armée du Rhin</i> (1873); J. Valfrey,
+<i>Le Maréchal et l&rsquo;armée du Rhin</i> (1873); Count A. de la Guerronière,
+<i>L&rsquo;Homme de Metz</i> (1871); Rossel, <i>Les Derniers Jours de Metz</i> (1871).
+See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bourbaki</a></span> for the curious Regnier episode connected
+with the surrender of Metz.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1819-1891), English
+engineer, was born at Enfield on the 28th of March 1819. At the
+age of seventeen he was articled to an engineer, and a few years
+later he began to practise successfully on his own account. His
+name is best known for the engineering works he carried out in
+London, especially for the construction of the main drainage
+system and the Thames embankment. In 1848 the control of
+London drainage, which had hitherto been divided among eight
+distinct municipal bodies, was consolidated under twelve commissioners,
+who were in 1849 superseded by a second commission.
+Under the latter Bazalgette accepted an appointment which he
+continued to hold under the three successive commissions which
+in the course of a year or two followed the second one, and when
+finally in 1855 these bodies were replaced by the Metropolitan
+Board of Works, he was at once appointed its chief engineer.
+His plans were ready, but the work was delayed by official
+obstruction and formality until 1858. Once begun, however, it
+was vigorously pushed on, and in 1865 the system was formally
+opened. It consisted of 83 m. of large intercepting sewers,
+draining more than 100 sq. m. of buildings, and calculated to deal
+with 420 million gallons a day. The cost was £4,600,000.
+Almost simultaneously Bazalgette was engaged on the plans for
+the Thames embankment. The section between Westminster
+and Vauxhall on the Surrey side was built between 1860 and 1869,
+and the length between Westminster and Blackfriars was
+declared open by the prince of Wales in 1870. The Chelsea
+embankment followed in 1871-1874, and in 1876 Northumberland
+Avenue was formed. The total outlay on the scheme exceeded
+£2,000,000. Bazalgette was also responsible for various other
+engineering works in the metropolitan area, designing, for
+example, new bridges at Putney and Battersea, and the steam
+ferry between north and south Woolwich. He also prepared
+plans for a bridge over the river near the Tower and for a tunnel
+under it at Blackwall, but did not live to see either of these
+projects carried out. He died on the 15th of March 1891 at
+Wimbledon.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZARD, AMAND<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1791-1832), French socialist, the founder
+of a secret society in France corresponding to the Carbonari
+of Italy, was born at Paris. He took part in the defence of
+Paris in 1815, and afterwards occupied a subordinate situation
+in the prefecture of the Seine. About 1820 he united some
+patriotic friends into a society, called <i>Amis de la vérité</i>. From this was developed a complete system of Carbonarism, the
+peculiar principles of which were introduced from Italy by two
+of Bazard&rsquo;s friends. Bazard himself was at the head of the
+central body, and, while taking a general lead, contributed
+extensively to the Carbonarist journal, <i>L&rsquo;Aristarque</i>. An
+unsuccessful outbreak at Belfort ruined the society, and the
+leaders were compelled to conceal themselves. Bazard, after
+remaining for some time in obscurity in Paris, came to the conclusion
+that the ends of those who wished well to the people
+would be most easily attained, not through political agitation,
+but by effecting a radical change in their social condition. This
+train of thinking naturally drew him towards the socialist
+philosophers of the school of Saint-Simon, whom he joined. He
+contributed to their journal, <i>Le Producteur</i>; and in 1828 began
+to give public lectures on the principles of the school (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saint-Simon</a></span>).
+His opposition to the emancipation of women brought
+about a quarrel with Enfantin (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1831, and Bazard found
+himself almost deserted by the members of the society. He
+attacked Enfantin violently, and in a warm discussion between
+them he was struck down by apoplexy. After lingering for a
+few months he died on the 29th of July 1832.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZAS<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span>, a town of south-western France, in the department
+of Gironde, 38½ m. S.S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906)
+town, 2505; commune, 4684. The town, which was the seat
+of a bishop from at least the beginning of the 6th century
+till 1790, has a Gothic church (formerly the cathedral) dating
+from the 13th to the 16th centuries. There are remains of
+ramparts (15th and 16th centuries) and several old houses
+of the 16th century. The vineyards of the vicinity produce
+white wine. The town is capital of an arrondissement, and
+carries on tanning, &amp;c., and trade in the well-known Bazadais
+cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Bazas (<i>Cossio</i>) was capital of the ancient tribe of the
+<i>Vasates</i>, and under the Romans one of the twelve cities of Novempopuluna.
+In later times it was capital of the district of Bazadais.
+It was the scene of much bloodshed during the religious wars
+of the 16th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZIGARS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span>, a nomad gipsy-folk of India, found throughout
+the peninsula, and variously known as Bazigars, Panchpiri,
+Nats, Bediyas, &amp;c. They live a life apart from the surrounding
+Hindu population, and still preserve a certain ethnical
+identity, scarcely justified by any indications given by their
+physique. They make a living as jugglers, dancers, basket-weavers
+and fortune-tellers; and in true European gipsy fashion
+each clan has its king.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZIN, RENÉ<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1853-&emsp;&emsp;), French novelist and man of
+letters, was born at Angers on the 26th of December 1853. He
+studied law in Paris, and on his return to Angers became professor
+of law in the Catholic university there. He contributed
+to Parisian journals a series of sketches of provincial life and
+descriptions of travel, but he made his reputation by <i>Une Tache
+d&rsquo;encre</i> (1888), which received a prize from the Academy. Other
+novels of great charm and delicacy followed: <i>La Sarcelle bleue</i>
+(1892); <i>Madame Corentine</i> (1893); <i>Humble Amour</i> (1894);
+<i>De toute son âme</i> (1897); <i>La Terre qui meurt</i> (1899); <i>Les Oberlé</i>
+(1901), an Alsatian story which was dramatized and acted in the
+following year; <i>L&rsquo;Âme alsacienne</i> (1903); <i>Donatienne</i> (1903);
+<i>L&rsquo;Isolée</i> (1905); <i>Le Blé qui lève</i> (1907); <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;une vieille
+fille</i> (1908). <i>La Terre qui meurt</i>, a picture of the decay of peasant
+farming and a story of La Vendée, is an indirect plea for the
+development of provincial France. A volume of <i>Questions
+littéraires et sociales</i> appeared in 1906. René Bazin was admitted
+to the Academy on the 28th of April 1904.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BAZIRE, CLAUDE<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1764-1794), French revolutionist, was
+deputy for the Côte d&rsquo;Or in the Legislative Assembly, and made
+himself prominent by denouncing the court and the &ldquo;Austrian
+committee&rdquo; of the Tuileries. On the 20th of June 1792 he spoke
+in favour of the deposition of the king. In the Convention he sat
+with the Mountain, opposed adjourning the trial of Louis XVI.,
+and voted for his death. He joined in the attack upon the
+Girondists, but, as member of the committee of general security,
+he condemned the system of the Terror. He was implicated by
+François Chabot in the falsification of a decree relative to the East
+India Company, and though his share seems to have been simply
+that he did not reveal the plot, of which he knew but part, he was
+accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal at the same time as
+Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and was executed on the 5th
+of April 1794.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BDELLIUM<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="bdellion">&#946;&#948;&#941;&#955;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, used by Pliny and Dioscorides as the
+name of a plant which exuded a fragrant gum), a name applied to
+several gums or gum-resins that simulate and are sometimes found
+as adulterants of true myrrh (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BEACH,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a word of unknown origin; probably an old dialect
+word meaning shingle, hence, by transference, the place covered
+by shingle. Beach sometimes denotes the material thrown up by
+the waves, sometimes the long resulting ridge, but more frequently
+the area between high and low water, or even the area between
+land and sea covered with material thrown up by exceptional
+storms.</p>
+
+<p>The actual character of beach material depends upon the
+nature and structure of the rocks inshore, the strength and
+direction of currents, and the force of the waves. The southern
+shore of the Isle of Wight furnishes a good example. The island
+ends westward in the well-known &ldquo;Needles,&rdquo; consisting of chalk
+with flints. The disintegration of this rock by wave action
+separates the finer chalk, which is carried seawards in suspension,
+from the hard flint, which is piled in rough shingle upon the shore.
+The currents sweep constantly eastward up channel, and the
+rough flint shingle is rolled along by wave action toward the
+Ventnor rampart, and ground finer and finer until it arrives as a
+very fine flinty gravel at Ventnor pier. The sweep of Sandown
+Bay follows, where the cliffs are composed for the most part of
+greensand, and here the beach at low water is sandy and smooth.
+The eastern end of the island is again composed of chalk with
+flints, and here the beach material as at the western end consists
+of very coarse flint shingle. In this, as in similar cases, the
+material has been dragged seawards from the land by constant action of
+the undertow that accompanies each retreating tide and each
+returning wave. The resulting accumulated ridge is battered by
+every storm, and thrown above ordinary high-water mark in a
+ridge such as the Chesil Bank or the long grass-grown mound that
+has blocked the old channel of the Yar and diverted its waters
+into Yaverland Bay. Sandown furnishes an instructive example
+of the power of the eastward currents carrying high-storm waves.
+The groins built to preserve the foreshore are piled to the top with
+coarse shingle on the western side, while there is a drop of over
+8 ft. on to the sands east of the wall, many thousands of tons of
+shingle having been moved bodily by the waves and deposited
+against each groin. The force of the waves has been measured on
+the west coast of Scotland and found to be as much as 3 tons per
+square foot. Against these forces the preservation of the shore
+from the advance of the sea becomes an extremely difficult and
+often a hopeless undertaking, since blocks of rock over 100 tons in
+weight have been moved by the waves. The beach is therefore
+unstable in its position. It advances in front of the encroaching
+sea, burying former beaches under the sand and mud of the now
+deeper water, or it retreats when the sea is withdrawn from the
+land or the land rises locally, leaving the old shingle stranded in a
+&ldquo;raised beach,&rdquo; but its formation is in all cases due to the form
+and structure of the shore, the sapping action of the waves, the
+backward drag of the undertow plastering the shore with material,
+which is in turn bombarded by waves and swept by currents that
+cover the finer débris of the undertow with a layer of coarse
+fragments that are re-sorted by the daily action of currents and
+tides.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEACHY HEAD,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a promontory on the coast of Sussex,
+England, S.W. of Eastbourne, about 3 m. from the centre of the
+town. It consists of a perpendicular chalk cliff 532 ft. high, and
+forms the eastern termination of the hill-range known as the
+South Downs. The old Bell Tout lighthouse, 285 ft. above high-water
+mark, erected in 1831 on the second cliff to the westward,
+in 0° 10&prime; 18&Prime; E., 50° 43&prime; 30&Prime; N., has been superseded by a new
+lighthouse built in the sea at the foot of the head itself.</p>
+
+<p><i>Battle of Beachy Head.</i>&mdash;This naval battle, known to the
+French as Bévisier (a corruption of Pevensey), was fought on the
+30th of June 1690. An allied force of 37 British sail of the line,
+under command of the earl of Torrington (Arthur Herbert), and
+of 22 Dutch under C. Evertsen, was at anchor under the headland,
+while a French fleet of over 70 sail, commanded by the comte
+de Tourville, was anchored some miles off to the south-west.
+The French fleet had orders to co-operate with an expected
+Jacobite rising in England. Torrington, to whom the general
+direction of the allied fleet belonged, was much disturbed by the
+enemy&rsquo;s superiority in number, and on the 26th had written to
+the Council of Regency suggesting that he ought to retire to the
+Gunfleet at the mouth of the Thames, and observe the enemy
+from a distance till he could be reinforced. The council, which
+had the support of Admiral Russell, afterwards earl of Orford,
+considered that a retreat to the Gunfleet would have fatal
+consequences, by which they no doubt meant that it would
+leave the French free to land troops for the support of the
+Jacobites. They therefore ordered Herbert not to lose sight of
+the enemy, but rather to fight if he could secure an advantage
+of position. The admiral, who was on very bad terms with the
+council, elected to treat this as a peremptory order to fight. At
+daybreak on the 30th he got under way and bore down on the
+enemy. The wind was at north-east and gave him the weather-gage.
+As his fleet was only 57 sail in all he was not able to engage
+the enemy from end to end, but as the French were arranged
+in a line from east to west he could have fallen on the end nearest
+him, and could have guarded himself by telling off a part of his
+ships to watch the remainder. Torrington preferred to bring
+his fleet down in such a way that his van, consisting of the Dutch
+ships, should be opposite the enemy&rsquo;s van, his centre opposite
+their centre, and his rear should engage their rear. The
+inferiority of the allies in numbers made it therefore inevitable
+that there should be gaps between the different divisions. As
+the fleets actually did come to action, the Dutch with a few
+English ships pressed on the French van, their leading ship being
+abreast of the ninth or tenth Frenchman. Torrington took his
+station opposite the rear of the French centre, leaving a great
+gap between himself and the ships in the van. Being apprehensive
+that the French centre would tack and pass this gap so
+as to put him between two fires, he kept a long way off so as to
+be free to manoeuvre against them if they made the attempt.
+The English rear division, consisting of the English blue
+squadron under Sir Ralph Delaval, fought a close action with
+the French opposite to them. In the meantime the French
+ships, ahead of the leading Dutchman, succeeded in turning to
+windward and putting part of Evertsen&rsquo;s squadron between
+two fires. The Dutch ships suffered heavily, and one of them
+which was dismasted drifted among the French and was taken.
+More severe loss would have followed if the better average
+seamanship of the English and Dutch had not stood them in
+good stead. The tide turned from flood to ebb during the action,
+and the surface current which in the Channel sets to the west
+with the ebb began to carry the fleets with it. The Dutch and
+English dropped anchor. The French, who were not equally
+alert, did not and were carried westward. When the tide turned
+the allies retreated to the Thames, abandoning several of the
+most damaged ships in Pevensey Bay. The pursuit of the
+French was ineffective, for Tourville persisted in keeping his
+ships in line of battle, which forced them to regulate their
+speed by the slowest among them. Torrington was tried for his
+conduct but acquitted.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A full account of the battle of Beachy Head, written with
+ample quotation of documents, and for the purpose of vindicating
+Herbert, will be found in Admiral Colomb&rsquo;s <i>Naval Warfare</i> (London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEACON<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>béacn</i>, a sign, cf. &ldquo;beckon,&rdquo;
+another form of the same word), a signal, especially a fire lit on
+a high hill, structure or building for the purpose of sending a
+message of alarm or of important news over long distances.
+Such was the courier-fire (<span class="grk" title="aggaros pur">&#7940;&#947;&#947;&#945;&#961;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#8166;&#961;</span>) that brought the news
+of the fall of Troy to Argos (Aeschylus, <i>Agamemnon</i>), or the
+chain of signals that told of the approach of the Spanish Armada,
+or which circled the British Isles in the jubilee years of 1887 and
+1897. The word occurs in many names for lofty and conspicuous
+hills, such as Dunkery Beacon in Somerset, the highest point on
+Exmoor. On many such hills the remains of old beacon towers
+and cressets are still found. The word is used generally of a
+lighthouse, but technically it means either a small unattended
+light, a superstructure on a floating buoy, such as a staff and
+cage, or staff and globe, or an unlighted structure, forming a
+conspicuous object at sea, used in each case to guide or warn
+sailors. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lighthouse</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buoy</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1804-1881),
+British statesman, second child and eldest son of Isaac
+D&rsquo;Israeli (<i>q.v.</i>) and Maria Basevi, who were married in 1802, was
+born at No. 6 John Street, Bedford Row, on the 21st of December
+1804. Of Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s other children, Sarah was born in
+1802, Naphtali in 1807, Ralph (Raphael) in 1809, and James
+(Jacob) in 1813. None of the family was akin to Benjamin for
+genius and character, except Sarah, to whom he was deeply
+indebted for a wise, unswerving and sympathetic devotion,
+when, in his earlier days, he needed it most. All Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s
+children were born into the Jewish communion, in which, however,
+they were not to grow up. It is a reasonable inference
+from Isaac&rsquo;s character that he was never at ease in the
+ritual of Judaism. His father died in the winter of 1816, and
+soon afterwards Isaac formally withdrew with all his household
+from the Jewish church. His son Benjamin, who had been
+admitted to it with the usual rites eight days after his birth, was
+baptized at St Andrew&rsquo;s church in Holborn on the 31st of July
+1817. One of Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s reasons for quitting the tents of
+his people was that rabbinical Judaism, with its unyielding
+laws and fettering ceremonies, &ldquo;cuts off the Jews from the great
+family of mankind.&rdquo; Little did he know, when therefore he cut
+off the D&rsquo;Israeli family from Judaism, what great things he was
+doing for one small member of it. The future prime minister
+was then short of thirteen years old, and there was yet time to
+provide the utmost freedom which his birth allowed for the
+faculties and ambitions he was born with. Taking the worldly
+view alone, of course, most fortunate for his aspirations in youth
+was his withdrawal from Judaism in childhood. That it was
+fully sanctioned by his intellect at maturity is evident; but the
+vindication of unbiased choice would not have been readily
+accepted had Disraeli abandoned Judaism of his own will at the
+pushing <i>Vivian Grey</i> period or after. And though a mind like
+Disraeli&rsquo;s might work to satisfaction with Christianity as &ldquo;completed
+Judaism,&rdquo; it could but dwell on a breach of continuity
+which means so much to Jews and which he was never allowed
+to forget amongst Christians. With all, he was proud of his race
+as truly, if not as vehemently, as his paternal grandmother
+detested it. Family pride contributed to the feeling in his case;
+for in his more speculative moods he could look back upon an
+ancestry which was of those, perhaps, who colonized the shores
+of the Mediterranean from before the time of the Captivity.
+More definite is the history of descent from an ennobled Spanish
+family which escaped from the Torquemada persecutions to
+Venice, there found a new home, took a new name, and prospered
+for six generations. The Benjamin D&rsquo;Israeli, Lord Beaconsfield&rsquo;s
+grandfather, who came to England in 1748, was a younger
+son sent at eighteen to try his fortune in London. &ldquo;A man of
+ardent character, sanguine, courageous, speculative, fortunate,
+with a temper which no disappointment could disturb&rdquo; (so
+Lord Beaconsfield described him), he soon made the beginnings
+of a handsome fortune and turned country gentleman. That his
+grandson exaggerated his prosperity is highly probable; but
+that he became a man of wealth and consideration is certain.
+He married twice. His second wife was Sarah Siprout de Gabay,
+&ldquo;a beautiful woman of strong intellect&rdquo; and importunate
+ambitions, who hated the race she belonged to because it was
+despised by others. She felt so keenly the social disabilities it
+brought upon her, and her husband&rsquo;s indifference to them, that
+&ldquo;she never pardoned him his name.&rdquo; Her literary son Isaac
+suffered equally or even more; for though he had ambitions he
+had none that she could recognize as such. She could ridicule
+him for the aspirations which he had not and for those which he
+had; on the other hand, he never heard from her a tender word
+&ldquo;though she lived to be eighty.&rdquo; Nor did any other member of
+her family, according to her grandson.</p>
+
+<p>Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli was devoted to the reading and writing of books
+in domestic quiet; and his son Benjamin suffered appreciably
+from his father&rsquo;s gentle preoccupations. As a child&mdash;unruly
+and disturbing no doubt&mdash;he was sent to a school of small
+account at Blackheath, and was there &ldquo;for years&rdquo; before he
+was recalled at the age of twelve on the death of his grandfather.
+Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli was his father&rsquo;s sole heritor, but change of fortune
+seems to have awakened in him no ambitions for the most hopeful
+of his sons. At fifteen, not before, Benjamin was sent to a
+Unitarian school at Walthamstow&mdash;a well-known school,
+populous enough to be a little world of emulation and conflict
+but otherwise unfit. Not there, nor in any similar institution
+at that illiberal time, perhaps, was a Jewish boy likely to make
+a fortunate entry into &ldquo;the great family of mankind.&rdquo; His
+name, the foreign look of him, and some pronounced incompatibilities
+not all chargeable to young Disraeli (as afterwards
+the name came to be spelt), soon raised a crop of troubles. His
+stay at Walthamstow was brief, his departure abrupt, and he
+went to school no more. With the run of his father&rsquo;s library,
+and the benefits of that born bookman&rsquo;s guidance, he now set
+out to educate himself. This he did with an industry stiffened
+by matchless self-confidence and by ambitions fully mature
+before he was eighteen. Yet he yielded to an attempt to make a
+man of business of him. He was barely seventeen when (in
+November 1821) he was taken into the office of Messrs Swain,
+Stevens and Co., solicitors, in Frederick&rsquo;s Place, Old Jewry.
+Here he remained for three years&mdash;&ldquo;most assiduous in his
+attention to business,&rdquo; said one of the partners, &ldquo;and showing
+great ability in the transaction of it.&rdquo; It was then determined
+that he should go to the bar; and accordingly he was entered
+at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1824. But Disraeli had found other studies
+and an alien use for his pen. Though &ldquo;assiduous in his attention
+to business&rdquo; in Frederick&rsquo;s Place, he found time to write for
+the printer. Dr Smiles, in his <i>Memoirs of John Murray</i>, tells
+of certain pamphlets on the brightening prospects of the Spanish
+South American colonies, then in the first enjoyment of emancipation&mdash;pamphlets
+seemingly written for a Mr Powles, head of a
+great financial firm, whose acquaintance Disraeli had made. In
+the same year, apparently, he wrote a novel&mdash;his first, and never
+published. <i>Aylmer Papillon</i> was the title of it, Dr Smiles
+informs us; and he prints a letter from Disraeli to the John
+Murray of that day, which indicates its character pretty clearly.
+The last chapter, its author says, is taken up with &ldquo;Mr Papillon&rsquo;s
+banishment under the Alien Act, from a ministerial misconception
+of a metaphysical sonnet.&rdquo; About the same time he edited
+a <i>History of Paul Jones</i>, originally published in America, the
+preface of the English edition being Disraeli&rsquo;s first appearance
+as an author. Murray could not publish <i>Aylmer Papillon</i>,
+but he had great hopes of its boyish writer (Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli was
+an old friend of his), &ldquo;took him into his confidence, and related
+to him his experiences of men and affairs.&rdquo; Disraeli had not
+completed his twenty-first year when (in 1825) Murray was
+possessed by the idea of bringing out a great daily newspaper;
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;The Representative.&rdquo;</span>
+and if his young friend did not inspire that idea he
+keenly urged its execution, and was entrusted by
+Murray with the negotiation of all manner of preliminaries,
+including the attempt to bring Lockhart
+in as editor. The title of the paper, <i>The Representative</i>, was
+Disraeli&rsquo;s suggestion. He chose reporters, looked to the setting-up
+of a printing-office, busied himself in all ways to Murray&rsquo;s
+great satisfaction, and, as fully appears from Dr Smiles&rsquo;s account
+of the matter, with extraordinary address. But when these
+arrangements were brought to the point of completion, Disraeli
+dropped out of the scheme and had nothing more to do with it.
+He was to have had a fourth share of the proprietorship, bringing
+in a corresponding amount of capital. His friend Mr Powles,
+whom he had enlisted for the enterprise, was to have had a
+similar share on the same conditions. Neither seems to have paid
+up, and that, perhaps, had to do with the quarrel which parted
+Benjamin Disraeli and John Murray before a sheet of the luckless
+<i>Representative</i> was printed. Many years afterwards (1853)
+Disraeli took an active interest in <i>The Press</i>, a weekly journal
+of considerable merit but meagre fortunes.</p>
+
+<p>At the death of the elder Benjamin (1817), his son Isaac had
+moved from the King&rsquo;s Road, Gray&rsquo;s Inn (now Theobald&rsquo;s Road),
+to No. 6 Bloomsbury Square. Here he entertained the many
+distinguished friends, literary and political, who had been
+drawn to him by his &ldquo;Curiosities&rdquo; and other ingenious works,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span>
+and here his son Benjamin also had their acquaintance and
+conversation. In Bloomsbury Square lived the Austens, and
+to their house, a great resort of similar persons, Mrs Austen
+cordially welcomed him. Murray&rsquo;s friendship and associations
+helped him in like manner, no doubt; and thus was opened
+to Disraeli the younger a world in which he was to make a
+considerable stir. The very much smaller society of that day
+was, of course, more comprehensible to sight and hearing, when
+once you were within its borders, than the society of this.
+Reverberations of the gossip of St James&rsquo;s and Mayfair extended
+to Bloomsbury in those days. Yet Disraeli&rsquo;s range of observation
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Vivan Grey.&rdquo;</span>
+must have been not only brief but limited when he
+sat down at twenty or twenty-one to write <i>Vivian Grey</i>.
+It is therefore a probable conjecture that Mrs Austen,
+a clever woman of the world, helped him from her knowledge.
+His own strongly perceptive imagination (the gift in which
+he was to excel every other politician of his time) and the bent
+of political reading and aspiration from boyhood completed his
+equipment; and so the wonder that so young a man in Disraeli&rsquo;s
+social position should write a book like <i>Vivian Grey</i> is accounted
+for. It was published in 1826. The success of this insolently
+clever novel, the immediate introduction of its author to the
+great world, and the daring eccentricities of dress, demeanour,
+and opinion by which he fixed attention on himself there, have
+always been among the most favourite morsels of Disraeli&rsquo;s
+history. With them it began, and successive generations of
+inquirers into a strange career and a character still shrouded
+and baffling refer to them as settled starting-points of
+investigation. What was the man who, in such a society and with
+political aspirations to serve, could thrive by such vagaries as
+these, or in spite of them? If unaffected, what is to be thought
+of them as keys to character? If affected, what then? Inquiry
+still takes this shape, and when any part of Disraeli&rsquo;s career is
+studied, the laces and essences, the rings over gloves, the jewelled
+satin shirt-fronts, the guitareries and chibouqueries of his early
+days are never remote from memory. The report of them
+can hardly be doubted; and as the last relation was made
+(to the writer of this article) not with intent to ridicule Mr
+Disraeli&rsquo;s taste but to illustrate his conquering abilities, the
+story is repeated here. One of Disraeli&rsquo;s first friends in the world
+of fashion and genius was Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer. &ldquo;And,&rdquo;
+said Sir Henry Bulwer (&ldquo;Pelham&rsquo;s&rdquo; brother), &ldquo;we heard so
+much at the time of Edward&rsquo;s amazingly brilliant new friend
+that we were the less inclined to make his acquaintance.&rdquo; At
+length, however, Sir Edward got up a little dinner-party to
+convince the doubters. It was to meet at the early hour of those
+days at one of the Piccadilly hotels. &ldquo;There was my brother,
+Alexander Cockburn, myself and (I think) Milnes; but for a
+considerable time no Mr Disraeli. Waiting for Mr Disraeli did
+not enhance the pleasure of meeting him, nor when he did arrive
+did his appearance predispose us in his favour. He wore green
+velvet trousers, a canary-coloured waistcoat, low shoes, silver
+buckles, lace at his wrists, and his hair in ringlets.&rdquo; The
+description of the coat is forgotten. &ldquo;We sat down. Not one of us
+was more than five-and-twenty years old. We were all&mdash;if you
+will allow me to include myself&mdash;on the road to distinction,
+all clever, all ambitious, and all with a perfect conceit of ourselves.
+Yet if on leaving the table we had been severally taken aside and
+asked which was the cleverest of the party, we should have been
+obliged to say &lsquo;the man in the green velvet trousers.&rsquo;&rdquo; This
+story is a little lamp that throws much light. Here we see at
+their sharpest the social prejudices that Disraeli had to fight
+against, provocation of them carried to its utmost in every
+way open to him, and complete conquest in a company of young
+men less likely to admit superiority in a wit of their own years,
+probably, than any other that could have been brought together
+at that time.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the publication of <i>Vivian Grey</i>, Disraeli, who is said
+by Froude to have been &ldquo;overtaken by a singular disorder,&rdquo;
+marked by fits of giddiness (&ldquo;once he fell into a trance, and did
+not recover for a week&rdquo;), went with the Austens on a long summer
+tour in France, Switzerland and Italy. Returning to a quiet life
+at Bradenham&mdash;an old manor-house near High Wycombe, which
+his father had taken&mdash;Disraeli put law in abeyance and resumed
+novel-writing. His weakest book, and two or three other productions,
+brief, but in every literary sense the finest of his works,
+were written in the next two or three years. But for <i>Ixion in
+Heaven</i>, <i>The Infernal Marriage</i>, and <i>Popanilla</i>, Disraeli could not
+be placed among the greater writers of his kind; yet none of his
+imaginative books have been so little read as these. The
+mysterious malady continued, and Disraeli set out with William
+<span class="sidenote">Travel.</span>
+Meredith, who was to have married Sarah Disraeli, for
+a tour in southern Europe and the nearer East. He
+saw Cadiz, Seville, Granada, Athens, Constantinople, Jerusalem,
+Cairo, Thebes; played the corsair with James Clay on a yacht
+voyage from Malta to Corfu; visited the terrible Reschid, then
+with a Turkish army in the Albanian capital; landed in Cyprus,
+and left it with an expectation in his singularly prescient mind
+that the island would one day be English. These travels must
+have profited him greatly, and we have our share of the advantage;
+not so much, however, in <i>The Wondrous Tale of Alroy</i> or
+<i>Tancred</i>, or the &ldquo;Revolutionary Epic&rdquo; which he was inspired to
+write on &ldquo;the windy plains of Troy,&rdquo; but in the letters he sent
+home to his sister. These letters, written with the utmost freedom
+and fullness to the one whose affection and intellect he trusted
+more than any, are of the greatest value for interpreting the
+writer. Together with other letters also published some time
+after Disraeli&rsquo;s death, they tell more of him than anything that
+can be found in print elsewhere. They show, for example, that
+his extraordinary exuberances were unforced, leaping by natural
+impulse from an overcharged source. They also show that his
+Oriental fopperies were not so much &ldquo;purposed affectation&rdquo; as
+Froude and others have surmised. That they were so in great
+part is confessed again and again in these letters, but confessed in
+such a way as to reveal that they were permitted for his own
+enjoyment of them as much as planned. The &ldquo;purposed
+affectation&rdquo; sprang from an unaffected delight in gauds of attire,
+gauds of fancy and expression. It was not only to startle and
+impress the world that he paraded his eccentricities of splendour.
+His family also had to be impressed by them. It was to his sober
+father that he wrote, at the age of twenty-six: &ldquo;I like a sailor&rsquo;s
+life much, though it spoils the toilette.&rdquo; It is in a letter from
+Gibraltar to the same hand that we read of his two canes&mdash;&ldquo;a
+morning and an evening cane&rdquo;&mdash;changed as the gun fires. And
+the same correspondent must be told that &ldquo;Ralph&rsquo;s handkerchief
+which he brought me from Paris is the most successful thing I ever
+wore.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When Disraeli returned to England in 1831, all thought of the
+law was abandoned. The pen of romance was again taken up&mdash;the
+poet&rsquo;s also and the politician&rsquo;s. In the next five
+years he wrote <i>Contarini Fleming</i>, the <i>Revolutionary
+Epick, Alroy, Henrietta Temple, What is He?</i> (a
+<span class="sidenote">Literary production.</span>
+pamphlet expository of his opinions), the <i>Runnymede
+Letters</i>, a <i>Vindication of the British Constitution</i>, and other matter
+of less note. The epic, begun in great hope and confidence, was
+ended in less, though its author was to the last unwilling that it
+should be forgotten. The novels revived the success he had with
+<i>Vivian Grey</i>, and restored him to his place among the brilliancies
+and powers of the time. The political writing, too, much of it in
+a garish, extravagant style, exercised his deeper ambitions, and
+stands as witness to the working of original thought and foresight.
+Both qualities are conspicuous in <i>What is He?</i> and the <i>Vindication</i>,
+of which it has been truly said that in these pages he &ldquo;struck
+the keynote to the explanations he afterwards consistently offered
+of all his apparent inconsistencies.&rdquo; Here an interpretation of
+Tory principles as capable of running with the democratic idea,
+and as called upon to do so, is ingeniously attempted. The
+aristocratic principle of government having been destroyed by
+the Reform Bill, and the House of Lords being practically
+&ldquo;abrogated&rdquo; by that measure, it became necessary that Toryism
+should start from the democratic basis, from which it had never
+been alien. The filched liberties of the crown and the people
+should be restored, and the nation redeemed from the oligarchies
+which had stolen from both. When at the beginning of all this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span>
+writing Disraeli entered the political arena as candidate for High
+Wycombe (1832), he was nominated by a Tory and seconded by a
+Radical&mdash;in vain; and vain were two subsequent attempts in the
+autumn of 1832 and in 1834. In the first he was recommended to
+the electors by Daniel O&rsquo;Connell and the Radical Hume. In his
+last candidature at Wycombe he stood on more independent
+ground, commending himself by a series of speeches which fully
+displayed his quality, though the prescience which gemmed them
+with more than one prophetic passage was veiled from his
+contemporaries. Among Disraeli&rsquo;s great acquaintances were
+many&mdash;Lyndhurst at their head&mdash;whose expectations of his
+future were confirmed by the Wycombe speeches. He was
+&ldquo;thought of&rdquo; for various boroughs, Marylebone among the
+number, but his democratic Toryism seems to have stood in his
+way in some places and his inborn dislike of Radicalism in others.
+It was an impracticable situation&mdash;no getting on from it; and so,
+at Lyndhurst&rsquo;s persuasion, as he afterwards acknowledged, he
+determined to side with the Tories. Accordingly, when in the
+spring of 1835 a vacancy occurred at Taunton, Disraeli contested
+the seat in the Tory interest with Carlton Club support. Here
+again he failed, but with enhanced reputation as a fighting
+politician and with other consequences good for notoriety. It
+was at Taunton that Disraeli fell upon O&rsquo;Connell, rather ungratefully;
+whereupon the Liberator was roused to retort on his
+assailant vehemently as &ldquo;a liar,&rdquo; and humorously as a probable
+descendant of the impenitent thief. And then followed the
+challenge which, when O&rsquo;Connell declined it, was fastened on his
+son Morgan, and the interruption of the duel by seizure of Mr
+Disraeli in his bed, and his famous appearance in the Marylebone
+police court. He declared himself very well satisfied with this
+episode, but nothing in it can really have pleased him, not even
+the noise it made.</p>
+
+<p>Here the first period of Disraeli&rsquo;s public life came to an end, a
+period of preliminaries and flourishes, and of what he himself
+called sowing his political wild oats. It was a more
+mature Disraeli who in the general election of 1837 was
+<span class="sidenote">Enters Parliament.</span>
+returned for Maidstone as the colleague of his
+providential friend Mr Wyndham Lewis. Though the
+fortunes of the Tory party were fast reviving under Peel&rsquo;s
+guidance, the victory was denied him on this occasion; but, for
+once, the return of the Whigs to power was no great disappointment
+for the junior member for Maidstone. To gain a footing in
+the House of Commons was all that his confident spirit ever asked,
+and Froude vouches for it that he succeeded only just in time to
+avert financial ruin. His electioneering ventures, the friendly
+backing of bills, and his own expense in keeping up appearances,
+had loaded him with debt. Yet (mark his worldly wisdom) &ldquo;he
+had never entangled his friends in his financial dealings. He had
+gone frankly to the professional money-lenders, who made
+advances to him in a speculation on his success&rdquo;: they were to
+get their money back with large interest or lose it altogether.
+Such conditions were themselves incitement enough to a prompt
+redemption of the promise of parliamentary distinction, even
+without the restless spurring of ambition. And Disraeli had
+another promise to redeem: that which he uttered when he told
+O&rsquo;Connell that they would meet again at Philippi. Therefore
+when, three weeks after the session began, a debate on Irish
+election petitions gave him opportunity, Disraeli attempted that
+first House of Commons speech which imagination still dwells
+upon as something wondrous strange. That he should not have
+known better, even by hearsay, than to address the House of
+Commons in fantastic phrase from the mouth of a fantastic figure
+is indeed remarkable, but not that he retained self-confidence
+enough to tell the unwitting crew who laughed him down that a
+time would come when they would hear him. It was one of the
+least memorable of his prophecies. The speech was a humiliating
+but not an oppressive failure. In about a week afterwards he
+spoke again, which shows how little damage he felt, while the good
+sense, brevity, and blameless manner of the speech (on a copyright
+bill) announced that he could learn. And for some time
+thereafter he affected no importance in the House, though not as
+withdrawing from attention.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, consciously and unconsciously, as is the way
+with men of genius, his mind was working upon problems of
+government, the magnitude, the relations and the natural
+developments of which he was more sensible of than any known
+politician of his time. &ldquo;Sensible of,&rdquo; we say, to mark the
+difference between one sort of understanding and another which
+comes of labour and pains alone. Disraeli studied too, no doubt,
+reading and inquiring and applying set thought, but such means
+were insufficient to put into his mind all that he found there.
+It seems that opinions may be formed of inquiry and study alone,
+which are then constructive; but where intuitive perception or
+the perceptive imagination is a robust possession, the fruits of
+research become assimilative&mdash;the food of a divining faculty
+which needs more or less of it according to the power of divination.
+The better judgment in all affairs derives from this quality,
+which has some very covetable advantages for its possessor.
+His judgments may be held with greater confidence, which is
+an intellectual advantage; and, standing in his mind not so
+<span class="sidenote">Mental characteristics.</span>
+much an edifice as a natural growth, they cannot be
+so readily abandoned at the call of ease or self-interest.
+They may be denied assertion or even outraged for a
+purpose, but they cannot be got rid of,&mdash;which is a
+moral advantage. Disraeli&rsquo;s mind and its judgments were of
+this character. Its greatest gift was not the romantic imagination
+which he possessed abundantly and employed overmuch, but
+the perceptive, interpretative, judicial or divining imagination,
+without which there can be no great man of affairs. Breadth
+of view, insight, foresight, are more familiar but less adequate
+descriptions of a faculty which Disraeli had in such force that
+it took command of him from first to last. Although he knew
+and acted on the principle that &ldquo;a statesman is a practical
+character,&rdquo; whose business is to &ldquo;serve the country according
+to its present necessities,&rdquo; he was unable to confine his vision
+to the nearer consequences of whatever policy, or course of
+action, or group of conditions it rested on. Without effort, and
+even without intention probably, it looked beyond first consequences
+to the farther or the final outcome; and to complete
+the operation, the faculty which detected the remoter consequences
+did not allow them to remain in obscurity, but brought
+them out as actualities no less than the first and perhaps far
+more important than the first. Moreover, it did not allow him
+to keep silence where the remoter consequences were of that
+character, and ought to be provided for betimes. Of course
+silence was always possible. These renderings to foresight
+might be denied assertion either for the sake of present ease (and
+Disraeli&rsquo;s prescience of much of his country&rsquo;s later troubles only
+made him laughed at) or in deference to hopes of personal
+advancement. But the same divining imagination which
+showed him these things also showed him the near time when it
+would be too late to speak of them, and when not to have spoken
+would leave him irredeemably in the common herd of hand-to-mouth
+politicians. Therefore he spoke.</p>
+
+<p>Remembrance of these characteristics&mdash;remembrance, too,
+that his mind, which was neither English nor European, worked
+in absolute detachment&mdash;should accompany the traveller
+through all the turns and incidents of Disraeli&rsquo;s long career.
+They are sometimes puzzling, often speculative; yet nearly all
+that is obscure in them becomes clear, much apparent contradiction
+disappears, when read by these persistent unvarying
+lights. The command which his idiosyncrasies had upon him
+is shown, for example, by reproachful speeches on the treatment
+of Ireland, and by a startling harangue on behalf of the Chartists,
+at a time when such irregularities could but damage him, a new
+man, where he hoped for influence and office. At about the
+same time his political genius directed him to open a resolute
+critical campaign against the Conservatism of the party he
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Coningsby,&rdquo; &ldquo;Sybil.&rdquo;</span>
+proposed to thrive in, and he could but obey. This
+he did in writing <i>Coningsby</i>, a novel of the day and for
+the day, but commended to us of a later generation
+not only by the undimmed truth of its character-portraits,
+but by qualities of insight and foresight which we who
+have seen the proof of them can measure as his contemporaries
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span>
+could not. <i>Sybil</i>, which was written in the following year (1845),
+is still more remarkable for the faculties celebrated in the preceding
+paragraph. When <i>Sybil</i> was written a long historic day
+was ending in England, a new era beginning; and no eyes saw
+so clearly as Disraeli&rsquo;s the death of the old day, the birth of the
+new, or what and how great their differences would be. In
+<i>Coningsby</i> the political conditions of the country were illustrated
+and discussed from the constitutional point of view, and by light
+of the theory that for generations before the passing of the
+Reform Bill the authority of the crown and the liberties of the
+people had been absorbed and extinguished in an oligarchic
+system of government, itself become fossilized and soulless. In
+<i>Sybil</i> were exhibited the social relations of rich and poor (the
+&ldquo;two nations&rdquo;) under this régime, and under changes in which,
+while the peasantry were neglected by a shoddy aristocracy
+ignorant of its duties, factory life and a purblind gospel of
+political economy imbruted the rest of the population. These
+views were enforced by a startling yet strictly accurate representation
+of the state of things in the factory districts at that
+time. Taken from the life by Disraeli himself, accompanied by
+one or two members of the Young England party of which he
+was the head, it was the first of its kind; and the facts as there
+displayed, and Disraeli&rsquo;s interpretation of them&mdash;a marvel of
+perceptive and prophetic criticism&mdash;opened eyes, roused
+consciences, and led direct to many reforms.</p>
+
+<p>These two books, the <i>Vindication</i>, published in 1835, and his
+speeches up to this time and a little beyond, are quite enough
+to show what Disraeli&rsquo;s Tory democracy meant, how truly
+national was its aim, and how exclusive of partisanship for the
+&ldquo;landed interest&rdquo;; though he did believe the stability and
+prosperity of the agricultural class a national interest of the
+first order, not on economic grounds alone or even chiefly. And
+if Disraeli, possessed by these views, became aggressively
+insubordinate some time before Peel&rsquo;s proclaimed conversion
+to Free Trade, we can account for it on reasonable and even
+creditable grounds. Spite, resentment at being passed over
+when Peel formed the 1841 government, is one explanation of
+these outbreaks, and a letter to Peel, lately published, is proof
+to many minds that Disraeli&rsquo;s denial to Peel&rsquo;s face in 1846 that
+he had ever solicited office was daringly mendacious. The
+letter certainly reads like solicitation in the customary half-veiled
+form. All that can be said in doubt is that since the &rsquo;41
+government came into existence on the 6th of September, and
+the letter was written on the 5th, its interpretation as complaint
+of being publicly neglected, as a craving for <i>some</i> mark of
+recognition, is possible. More than possible it is if Disraeli knew on
+the 5th (as he very well might from his friend Lyndhurst, Peel&rsquo;s
+lord chancellor) that the appointments were then complete.
+The pecuniary need of office, if that comes into the question,
+had been lightened, if not extinguished, two years before by his
+marriage with Mrs Wyndham Lewis. Mrs Lewis&mdash;a lady
+fifteen years his senior&mdash;brought him a considerable fortune
+which, however, was but for her life. She lived to a great age,
+and would gladly have lived longer, in any of the afflictions that
+time brings on, to continue her mere money-worth to her
+&ldquo;Dizzy.&rdquo; Her devotion to him, and his devotion to her, is the
+whole known story of their private life; and we may believe
+that nothing ever gratified him more than offering her a coronet
+from Mr Disraeli.</p>
+
+<p>Disraeli made Peel&rsquo;s acquaintance early in his career and
+showed that he was proud of it. In his <i>Life of Lord George
+Bentinck</i> he writes of Peel fairly and even generously. But they
+were essentially antipathetic persons; and it is clear that the
+great minister and complete Briton took no pains to understand
+the dazzling young Jew of whom Lyndhurst thought so much,
+and wished to have little to do with him. Such men make such
+feelings evident; and there is no reason for thinking that when,
+after 1841, Disraeli charged at Peel in obedience to his principles,
+he gave himself pain. It was not long after it had settled in
+office that Peel&rsquo;s government, the creature of an anxious
+Conservative reaction, began to be suspected of drifting toward
+Manchester. That it was forced in that direction we should
+say rather, looking back, for it was a time of dire distress,
+especially in the manufacturing districts of the north; so
+<span class="sidenote">Politics. 1841-67.</span>
+that in his second session Peel had to provide some
+relief by revising the corn laws and reducing import
+dues generally. His measures were supported by
+Disraeli, who understood that Protection must bend to the
+menacing poverty of the time, though unprepared for total
+abolition of the corn tax and strongly of opinion that it was
+not for Peel to abolish it. In the next session (1843) he and his
+Young England party took up a definitely independent rôle,
+which became more sharply critical to the end. Disraeli&rsquo;s first
+strong vote of hostility was on a coercion bill for perishing and
+rebellious Ireland. It was repeated with greater emphasis in
+the session of 1844, also in a condition-of-Ireland debate; and
+from that time forth, as if foreseeing Peel&rsquo;s course and its effect
+on the country party, Disraeli kept up the attack. Meanwhile
+bad harvests deepened the country&rsquo;s distress, Ireland was
+approached by famine, the Anti-Corn-Law League became
+menacingly powerful, and Peel showed signs of yielding to free
+trade. Disraeli&rsquo;s opportunity was soon to come now; and in
+1845, seeing it on the way, he launched the brilliantly destructive
+series of speeches which, though they could not prevent the
+abolition of the corn-laws, abolished the minister who ended
+them. These speeches appeal more to admiration than to
+sympathy, even where the limitations of Disraeli&rsquo;s protectionist
+beliefs are understood and where his perception of the later
+consequences of free trade is most cordially acknowledged. That
+he remained satisfied with them himself is doubtful, unless for
+their foresight, their tremendous effect as instruments of
+punishment, and as they swept him to so much distinction. Within
+three years, on the death of Lord George Bentinck, there was
+none to dispute with him the leadership of the Conservative
+party in the House of Commons.</p>
+
+<p>In the parliament of 1841 he was member for Shrewsbury.
+In 1847 he was returned for Buckinghamshire, and never again
+had occasion to change his constituency. Up to this time his
+old debts still embarrassed him, but now his private and political
+fortunes changed together. Froude reports that he &ldquo;received
+a large sum from a private hand for his <i>Life of Lord George
+Bentinck</i>&rdquo; (published in 1852), &ldquo;while a Conservative millionaire
+took upon himself the debts to the usurers; the 3% with which
+he was content being exchanged for the 10% under which
+Disraeli had been staggering.&rdquo; In 1848 his father Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli
+died, leaving to his son Benjamin nearly the whole of his estate.
+This went to the purchase of Hughenden Manor&mdash;not, of course,
+a great property, but with so much of the pleasant and picturesque,
+of the dignified also, as quite to explain what it was to the
+affectionate fancy of its lord. About this time, too (1851), his
+acquaintance was sought by an old Mrs Brydges Willyams&mdash;born
+a Spanish Jewess and then the widow of a long-deceased
+Cornish squire&mdash;who in her distant home at Torquay had
+conceived a restless admiration for Benjamin Disraeli. She
+wrote to him again and again, pressing for an appointment to
+consult on an important matter of business: would meet him
+at the fountain of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. Her importunity
+succeeded, and the very small, oddly-dressed, strange-mannered
+old lady whom Disraeli met at the fountain became
+his adoring friend to the end of her life. Gratitude for her
+devotion brought him and his wife in constant intimacy
+with her. There were many visits to Torquay; he gratified
+her with gossiping letters about the great people with
+whom and the great affairs with which the man who did so
+much honour to her race was connected, that being the inspiration
+of her regard for him. She died in 1863, leaving him all
+her fortune, which was considerable; and, as she wished,
+was buried at Hughenden, close to the grave where Disraeli
+was to lie.</p>
+
+<p>It is agreed that the first three years of Disraeli&rsquo;s leadership
+in Opposition were skilfully employed in reconstructing the
+shattered Tory party. In doing this he made it sufficiently
+clear that there could be no sudden return to Protectionist
+principles. At the same time, however, he insisted (as he did
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span>
+from first to last) on the enormous importance to the country, to
+the character of its people no less than to its material welfare,
+of agricultural contentment and prosperity; and he also obtained
+<span class="sidenote">As leader in the House of Commons.</span>
+a more general recognition of the fact that &ldquo;the land&rdquo;
+had borne fiscal burdens under the old régime which
+were unfair and unendurable under the new. So far he
+did well; and when in 1852 he took office as chancellor
+of the exchequer in Lord Derby&rsquo;s first administration, the
+prospect was a smiling one for a man who, striving against
+difficulties and prejudices almost too formidable for imagination
+in these days, had attained to a place where he could fancy
+them all giving way. That, however, they were not. New
+difficulties were to arise and old prejudices to revive in full force.
+His first budget was a quaint failure, and was thrown out by a
+coalition of Liberals and Peelites which he believed was formed
+against Mr Disraeli more than against the chancellor of the
+exchequer. It was on this occasion that he exclaimed, &ldquo;England
+does not love coalitions.&rdquo; After a reign of ten months he was
+again in Opposition, and remained so for seven years. Of the
+Crimean War he had a better judgment than those whose weakness
+led them into it, and he could tell them the whole truth of
+the affair in twenty words: &ldquo;You are going to war with an
+opponent who does not want to fight, and whom you are unwilling
+to encounter.&rdquo; Neither were they prepared; and the
+scandals and political disturbances that ensued revealed him as
+a party leader who could act on such occasions with a dignity,
+moderation and sagacity that served his country well, maintained
+the honour of party government and cost his friends nothing.
+The mismanagement of the war broke down the Aberdeen
+government in 1855, and then Disraeli had the mortification of
+seeing a fortunate chance of return to office lost by the timidity
+and distrust of his chief, Lord Derby&mdash;the distrust too clearly
+including the under-valuation of Disraeli himself. Lord Derby
+wanted Lord Palmerston&rsquo;s help, Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s, Mr Sidney
+Herbert&rsquo;s. This arrangement could not be made; Lord Derby
+therefore gave up the attempt to form a ministry and Lord
+Palmerston came in. The next chance was taken in less favouring
+times. The government in which Disraeli was again financial
+minister lasted for less than eighteen months (1858-1859), and
+then ensued another seven years in the cold and yet colder shade
+of Opposition. Both of these seven-year outings were bad, but
+the second by far the worse. Parliamentary reform had become
+a burning question and an embarrassing one for the Tory party.
+An enormous increase of business, consequent upon the use of
+steam machinery and free-trade openings to commerce, filled
+the land with prosperity, and discredited all statesmanship but
+that which steered by the star over Manchester. Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s
+budgets, made possible by this prosperity, were so many triumphs
+for Liberalism. Foreign questions arose which strongly excited
+English feeling&mdash;the arrangements of peace with Russia, Italian
+struggles for freedom, an American quarrel, the &ldquo;Arrow&rdquo; affair
+and the Chinese war, the affair of the French colonels and the
+Conspiracy Bill; and as they arose Palmerston gathered into
+his own sails (except on the last occasion) every wind of popular
+favour. Amid all this the Tory fortunes sank rapidly, becoming
+nearly hopeless when Lord Palmerston, without appreciable
+loss of confidence on his own side, persuaded many Tories in and
+out of parliament that Conservatism would suffer little while
+he was in power. Yet there was great despondency, of course,
+in the Conservative ranks; with despondency discontent; with
+discontent rancour. The prejudice against Disraeli as Jew, the
+revolt at his theatricalisms, the distrust of him as &ldquo;mystery
+man,&rdquo; which up to this time had never died out even among
+men who were his nearest colleagues, were now more openly
+indulged. Out of doors he had a &ldquo;bad press,&rdquo; in parliament
+he had some steady, enthusiastic friends, but more that were
+cold. Sometimes he was seen on the front Opposition bench for
+hours quite alone. Little conspiracies were got up to displace
+him, and might have succeeded but for an unconquerable dread
+of the weapon that destroyed Peel. In this state of things he
+patiently held his ground, working for his party more carefully
+than it knew, and never seizing upon false or discrediting
+advantages. But it was an extremely bad time for Benjamin
+Disraeli.</p>
+
+<p>Though Lord Palmerston stumbled over his Foreign Conspiracy
+Bill in 1858, his popularity was little damaged, and it was in no
+hopeful spirit that the Tories took office again in that year. They
+were perilously weak in the House of Commons, and affairs
+abroad, in which they had small practice and no prestige, were
+alarming. Yet the new administration did very well till, after
+resettling the government of India, and recovering from a blunder
+committed by their Indian secretary, Lord Ellenborough, they
+must needs launch a Reform Bill to put that dangerous question
+out of controversial politics. The well-intended but fantastic
+measure brought in for the purpose was rejected. The country
+was appealed to, with good but insufficient results; and at the
+first meeting of the new parliament the Tories were turned out on
+a no-confidence vote moved by Lord Hartington. Foreign affairs
+supplied the motive: failure to preserve the peace of Europe at
+the time of the Italian war of independence. It is said that the
+foreign office had then in print a series of despatches which would
+have answered its accusers had they been presented when the
+debate began, as for some unexplained reason they were not.
+Lord Palmerston now returned to Downing Street, and while he
+lived Disraeli and his colleagues had to satisfy themselves with
+what was meant for useful criticism, though with small hope that
+it was so for their own service. A Polish insurrection, the
+Schleswig-Holstein question, a commercial treaty with France,
+the Civil War in America, gave Disraeli occasions for speech that
+was always forcible and often wiser than all could see at the time.
+He never doubted that England should be strictly neutral in the
+American quarrel when there was a strong feeling in favour of the
+South. All the while he would have gladly welcomed any just
+means of taking an animated course, for these were dull, dark
+days for the Conservatives as a parliamentary party. Yet,
+unperceived, Conservatism was advancing. It was much more
+than a joke that Palmerston sheltered Conservative principles
+under the Liberal flag. The warmth of his popularity, to which
+Radical applause contributed nothing in his later days, created an
+atmosphere entirely favourable to the quiet growth of Conservatism.
+He died in 1865. Earl Russell succeeded him as prime
+minister, Mr Gladstone as leader of the House of Commons. The
+party most pleased with the change was the Radical; the party
+best served was Disraeli&rsquo;s. Another Reform Bill, memorable for
+driving certain good Liberals into a Cave of Aduilam, broke up
+the new government in a few months; Disraeli contributing to
+the result by the delivery of opinions not new to him and of
+lasting worth, though presently to be subordinated to arguments
+of an inferior order and much less characteristic. &ldquo;At this rate,&rdquo;
+he said in 1866, &ldquo;you will have a parliament that will entirely
+lose its command over the executive, and it will meet with less
+consideration and possess less influence.&rdquo; Look for declining
+statesmanship, inferior aptitude, genius dying off. &ldquo;Instead of
+these you will have a horde of selfish and obscure mediocrities,
+incapable of anything but mischief, and that mischief devised and
+regulated by the raging demagogue of the hour.&rdquo; The Reform
+legislation which promised these results in 1866 was thrown out.
+Lord Derby&rsquo;s third administration was then formed in the
+summer of the same year, and for the third time there was a Tory
+government on sufferance. Its followers were still a minority in
+the House of Commons; an angry Reform agitation was going
+on; an ingenious resolution founded on the demand for an
+enlarged franchise serviceable to Liberals might extinguish the
+new government almost immediately; and it is pretty evident
+that the Tory leaders took office meaning to seek a cure for this
+<span class="sidenote">Reform Bill of 1867.</span>
+desperate weakness by wholesale extension of the
+suffrage. Their excuses and calculations are well
+known, but when all is said, Lord Derby&rsquo;s statement of
+its character, &ldquo;a leap in the dark,&rdquo; and of its intention,
+&ldquo;dishing the Whigs,&rdquo; cannot be bettered. Whether Lord Derby
+or Mr Disraeli originated this resolve has been much discussed,
+and it remains an unsettled question. It is known that Disraeli&rsquo;s
+private secretary, Mr Ralph Earle, quarrelled with him violently
+at about this time; and Sir William Fraser relates that, meeting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span>
+Mr Earle, that gentleman said: &ldquo;I know what your feelings must
+be about this Reform Bill, and I think it right to tell you that it
+was not Disraeli&rsquo;s bill, but Lord Derby&rsquo;s. I know everything
+that occurred.&rdquo; Mr Earle gave the same assurances to the writer
+of these lines, and did so with hints and half-confidences (quite
+intelligible, however) as to the persuasions that wrought upon his
+chief. Mr Earle&rsquo;s listener on these occasions confesses that he
+heard with a doubting mind, and that belief in what he heard still
+keeps company with Mahomet&rsquo;s coffin. One thing, however, is
+clear. To suppose Disraeli satisfied with the excuses made for his
+adoption of the &ldquo;dishing&rdquo; process is forbidden by the whole tenor
+of his teaching and conduct. He could not have become suddenly
+blind to the fallacy of the expectations derived from such a
+course; and all his life it had been his distinction to look above
+the transient and trafficking expedients of the professional
+politician. However, the thing was done. After various
+remodellings, and amid much perturbation, secession, violent
+reproach, the Household Suffrage Bill passed in August 1867.
+Another memorable piece of work, the confederation of Canada,
+had already been accomplished. A few days after parliament met
+<span class="sidenote">Premier, 1868.</span>
+in the next year Lord Derby&rsquo;s failing health compelled
+him to resign and Mr Disraeli became prime minister.
+Irish disaffection had long been astir; the Fenian
+menace looked formidable not only in Ireland but in England also.
+The reconstructed government announced its intention of dealing
+with Irish grievances. Mr Gladstone approved, proposing the
+abolition of the Irish Church to begin with. A resolution to that
+effect was immediately carried against the strong opposition of
+the government. Disraeli insisted that the question should be
+settled in the new parliament which the franchise act called for,
+and he seems to have had little doubt that the country would
+declare against Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s proposal. He was mistaken. It
+was the great question at the polls; and the first elections by the
+new constituencies went violently against the authors of their being.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the next five years is Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s. The Irish
+Church abolished, he set to work with passionate good intention
+on the Irish land laws. The while he did so sedition took courage
+and flourished exceedingly, so that to pacify Ireland the constable
+went hand in hand with the legislator. The abolition of the Irish
+Church was followed by a coercion act, and the land act by suspension
+of <i>Habeas Corpus</i>. Disraeli, who at first preferred retirement
+and the writing of <i>Lothair</i>, came forward from time to time
+to point the moral and predict the end of Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s
+impulsive courses, which soon began to fret the confidence of his
+friends. Some unpleasant errors of conduct&mdash;the case of Sir R.
+Collier (afterwards Lord Monkswell, <i>q.v.</i>), the Ewelme rectory
+case,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the significant Odo Russell
+(Lord Ampthill) episode (to help the government out of a scrape
+the ambassador was accused of exceeding his instructions)&mdash;told yet
+more. Above all, many humiliating proofs that England was losing her
+place among the nations came out in these days, the discovery being
+then new and unendurable. To be brief, in less than four years the
+government had well-nigh worn out its own patience with its own errors,
+failures and distractions, and would gladly have gone to pieces
+when it was defeated on an Irish university bill. But Disraeli,
+having good constitutional reasons for declining office at the
+moment, could not allow this. Still gathering unpopularity, still
+offending, alarming, alienating, the government went on till 1874,
+suddenly dissolved parliament, and was signally beaten, the
+Liberal party breaking up. Like most of his political friends,
+Disraeli had no expectation of such a victory&mdash;little hope, indeed,
+of any distinct success. Yet when he went to Manchester on a
+brief political outing two years before, he was received with such
+acclaim as he had never known in his life. He was then sixty-eight
+years old, and this was his first full banquet of popularity.
+The elation and confidence drawn from the Manchester meetings
+were confirmed by every circumstance of the 1874 elections. But
+he was well aware of how much he owed to his opponents&rsquo; errors,
+seeing at the same time how safely he could lay his future course
+by them. He had always rejected the political economy of his
+time, and it was breaking down. He had always refused to accept
+the economist&rsquo;s dictum without reference to other considerations
+than the turnover of trade; and even Manchester could pardon
+the refusal now. The national spirit, vaporized into a cosmopolitan
+mist, was fast condensing again under mortification and
+insult from abroad uncompensated by any appreciable percentage
+of cash profit. This was a changing England, and one that
+Disraeli could govern on terms of mutual satisfaction; but not if
+the reviving &ldquo;spirit of the country&rdquo; ran to extremes of self-assertion.
+At one of the great Manchester meetings he said, &ldquo;Do
+not suppose, because I counsel firmness and decision at the right
+moment, that I am of that school of statesmen who are favourable
+to a turbulent and aggressive diplomacy. I have resisted it
+during a large part of my life.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But for the hubbub occasioned by the Public Worship Regulation
+Act, the first two years of the 1874 administration had no
+remarkable excitements till near the end of them. The Public
+Worship Act, introduced by the archbishop of Canterbury, was
+meant to restrain ritualism. Disraeli, who from first to last held
+to the Reformed Church as capable of dispensing social good
+as no other organization might, supported the Bill as &ldquo;putting
+down ritualism&rdquo;; spoke very vehemently; gave so much
+offence that at one time neither the bill nor the government
+seemed quite safe. For some time afterwards there was so little
+legislation of the kind called &ldquo;enterprising&rdquo; that even some
+friends of the government began to think it too tame; but at
+the end of the second year an announcement was made which
+put that fear to rest. The news that the khedive&rsquo;s Suez Canal
+<span class="sidenote">Suez Canal shares.</span>
+shares had been bought by the government was
+received with boundless applause. It was a courageous
+thing to do; but it was not a Disraeli conception, nor
+did it originate in any government department. It was suggested
+from without at a moment when the possibility of ever acquiring
+the shares was passing away. On the morning of the 15th of
+November 1875, Mr Frederick Greenwood, then editor of the
+<i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, went to Lord Derby at the foreign office,
+informed him that the khedive&rsquo;s shares were passing into the
+hands of a French syndicate, and urged arrest of the transaction
+by purchase for England. (The shares being private property
+their sale could not, of course, be forbidden.) Lord Derby
+thought there must be a mistake. He could not believe that
+bargaining of that kind could go on in Cairo without coming to
+the knowledge of the British consul there. He was answered
+that nevertheless it was going on. The difficulties of purchase
+by England were then arrayed by Lord Derby. They were
+more than one or two, and of course they had a formidable look,
+but so also had the alternative and the lost opportunity. One
+difficulty had already come into existence, and had to be met
+at once. Lord Derby had either to make direct inquiry of the
+khedive or to let the matter go. If he inquired, and there was
+no such negotiation, his question might be interpreted in a very
+troublesome way; moreover, we should put the idea of selling
+the shares into the khedive&rsquo;s head, which would be unfortunate.
+&ldquo;There&rsquo;s my position, and now what do you say?&rdquo; The
+answer given, Lord Derby drafted a telegram to the British
+consul-general at Cairo, and read it out. It instructed Colonel
+Stanton to go immediately to the khedive and put the question
+point blank. Meanwhile the prime minister would be seen, and
+Lord Derby&rsquo;s visitor might call next day to hear the reply from
+Cairo. It is enough to add here that on receipt of the answer
+the purchase for England was taken up and went to a speedy conclusion.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>As if upon the impulse of this transaction, Disraeli opened
+the next session of parliament with a bill to confer upon the
+queen the title of empress of India&mdash;a measure which offended
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span>
+the instincts of many Englishmen, and, for the time, revived
+the prejudices against its author. More important was the
+revival of disturbances in European Turkey, which, in their
+outcome, were to fill the last chapter of Disraeli&rsquo;s career. But
+for this interruption it is likely that he would have given much
+of his attention to Ireland, not because it was an attractive
+employment for his few remaining years, but because he saw
+with alarm the gathering troubles in that country. And his
+mind was strongly drawn in another direction. In a remarkable
+speech delivered in 1872, he spoke with great warmth of the
+slighting of the colonies, saying that &ldquo;no minister in this country
+will do his duty who neglects any opportunity of reconstructing
+as much as possible our colonial empire, and of responding to
+those distant sympathies which may become the source of
+incalculable strength and happiness to this island.&rdquo; However,
+nothing was done in fulfilment of this duty in the first two years
+<span class="sidenote">Eastern question.</span>
+from 1874, and early in the third the famous Andrassy
+note, the Berlin memorandum, the Bashi-Bazouk
+atrocities, and the accumulative excitement thereby created
+in England, reopened the Eastern question with a vengeance.
+The policy which Disraeli&rsquo;s government now took up may be truly
+called the national policy. Springing from the natural
+suggestions of self-defence against the march of a dangerous
+rivalry, it had the sanction of all British statesmanship for
+generations, backed by the consenting instinct of the people.
+It was quite unsentimental, being pro-Turkish or anti-Russian
+only as it became so in being pro-British. The statesmen by
+whom it was established and continued saw in Russia a power
+which, unless firmly kept within bounds, would dominate Europe;
+more particularly that it would undermine and supersede British
+authority in the East. And without nicely considering the desire
+of Russia to expand to the Mediterranean, the Pacific or in any
+other direction, they thought it one of their first duties
+to maintain their own Eastern empire; or, to put it another
+way, to contrive that Great Britain should be subject to Russian
+ascendancy (if ever), at the remotest period allowed by destiny.
+Such were the ideas on which England&rsquo;s Russian policy was
+founded. In 1876 this policy revived as a matter of course in
+the cabinet, and as spontaneously, though not upon a first
+provocation, became popular almost to fury. And furiously
+popular it remained. But a strong opposing current of feeling,
+equally passionate, set in against the Turks; war began and
+lasted long; and as the agitation at home and the conflict
+abroad went on, certain of Disraeli&rsquo;s colleagues, who were
+staunch enough at the beginning, gradually weakened. It is
+certainly true that Disraeli was prepared, in all senses of the
+word, to take strong measures against such an end to the war
+as the San Stefano treaty threatened. Rather than suffer that,
+he would have fought the Russians in alliance with the Turks,
+and had gone much farther in maturing a scheme of attack and
+defence than was known at the time or is commonly known now.
+That there was a master motive for this resolution may be taken
+for granted; and it is to be found in a belief that not to throw
+back the Russian advance then was to lose England&rsquo;s last chance
+of postponing to a far future the predominance of a great rival
+power in the East. How much or how little judgment shows
+in that calculation, when viewed in the light of later days, we
+do not discuss. What countenance it had from his colleagues
+dropped away. At the end their voices were strong enough to
+insist upon the diplomatic action which at no point falls back
+on the sword; Lord Derby (foreign minister) being among the
+first to make a stand on that resolution, though he was not the
+first seceder from the government. Such diplomacy in such
+conditions is paralytic. It cannot speak thrice, with whatever
+affectation of boldness, without discovering its true character
+to trained ears; which should be remembered when Disraeli&rsquo;s
+successes at Berlin are measured. It should be remembered
+that what with the known timidity of his colleagues, and what
+with the strength and violence of the Russian party in England,
+his achievement at Berlin was like the reclamation of butter
+from a dog&rsquo;s mouth; as Prince Bismarck understood in acknowledging
+Disraeli&rsquo;s gifts of statesmanship. It should also be
+remembered, when his Eastern policy in 1876-1878 is denounced
+as malign and a failure, that it was never carried out. Good or
+bad, ill or well calculated, effective existence was denied to it;
+and a man cannot be said to have failed in what he was never
+permitted to attempt. The nondescript course of action which
+began at the Constantinople conference and ended at Berlin
+was not of his direction until its few last days. It only marked
+at various stages the thwarting and suppression of his policy by
+colleagues who were haunted night and day by memories of the
+Crimean War, and not least, probably, by the fate of the statesmen
+who suffered for its blunders and their own. Disraeli also
+looked back to those blunders, and he was by no means insensible
+to the fate of fallen ministers. But just as he maintained at the
+time of the conflict, and after, that there would have been no
+Crimean War had not the British government convinced the
+tsar that it was in the hands of the peace party, so now he
+believed that a bold policy would prevent or limit war, and at
+the worst put off grave consequences which otherwise would
+make a rapid advance.</p>
+
+<p>As if aware of much of this, the country was well content with
+Disraeli&rsquo;s successes at Berlin, though sore on some points, he
+himself sharing the soreness. Yet there were great days for him
+after his return. At the Berlin conference he had established a
+formidable reputation; the popularity he enjoyed at home was
+affectionately enthusiastic; no minister had ever stood in more
+cordial relations with his sovereign; and his honours in every
+kind were his own achievement against unending disadvantage.
+But he was soon to suffer irretrievable defeat. A confused and
+unsatisfactory war in Afghanistan, troubles yet more unsatisfactory
+in South Africa, conspired with two or three years of
+commercial distress to invigorate &ldquo;the swing of the pendulum&rdquo;
+when he dissolved parliament in 1880. Dissolution the year
+before would have been wiser, but a certain pride forbade. The
+elections went heavily against him. He took the blow with
+composure, and sank easily into a comparative retirement. Yet
+he still watched affairs as a great party leader should, and from
+time to time figured vigorously in debate. Meanwhile he had
+another novel to sit down to&mdash;the poor though highly characteristic
+<i>Endymion</i>; which, to his great surprise and equal pleasure,
+was replaced on his table by a cheque for ten thousand pounds. Yet
+even this satisfaction had its tang of disappointment; for though
+<i>Endymion</i> was not wholly written in his last days, it was in
+no respect the success that <i>Lothair</i> was. This also he could
+bear. His description of his grandfather recurs to us: &ldquo;A man
+of ardent character, sanguine, courageous and fortunate, with a
+temper which no disappointment could disturb.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>As earl of Beaconsfield (failing health had compelled him to
+take refuge in the House of Lords in 1876) Benjamin Disraeli died
+in his house in Curzon Street on the 19th of April 1881. The
+likelihood of his death was publicly known for some days before
+the event, and then the greatness of his popularity and its
+warmth were declared for the first time. No such demonstration
+of grief was expected even by those who grieved the most. He
+lies in Hughenden churchyard, in a rail-enclosed grave, with
+liberty for the turf to grow between him and the sky. Within the
+church is a marble tablet, placed there by his queen, with a
+generous inscription to his memory. The anniversary of his death
+has since been honoured in an unprecedented manner, the 19th of
+April being celebrated as &ldquo;Primrose Day&rdquo;&mdash;the primrose, for
+reasons impossible accurately to define, being popularly supposed
+to have been Disraeli&rsquo;s favourite flower. Even among his friends
+<span class="sidenote">Death and influence.</span>
+in youth (Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer, for example), and
+not improbably among the city men who wagered their
+money in irrecoverable loans to him on the chance of
+his success, there may have been some who compassed the
+thought of Benjamin Disraeli as prime minister and peer; but at
+no time could any fancy have imagined him remembered so enduringly
+as Lord Beaconsfield has been. It is possible that Sarah Disraeli
+(the Myra of <i>Endymion</i>), or that &ldquo;the most severe
+of critics but a perfect wife,&rdquo; may have had such dreams&mdash;hardly
+that they could have occurred to any mind but a devoted
+woman&rsquo;s. Disraeli&rsquo;s life was a succession of surprises, but none
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span>
+was so great as that he should be remembered after death more
+widely, lastingly, respectfully, affectionately, than any other
+statesman in the long reign of Queen Victoria. While he lived he
+did not seem at all cut out for that distinction even as an
+Imperialist. Significant as was the common grief when he died, no
+such consequence could be inferred from it, and certainly not
+from the elections of 1880. It stands, however, this high distinction,
+and with it the thought that it would have been denied to
+him altogether had the &ldquo;adventurer&rdquo; and &ldquo;mystery man&rdquo; of
+the sixties died at the age of threescore years and ten. We have
+said that never till 1872 did he look upon the full cup of popularity.
+It might have been said that even at that time intrigue
+to get rid of him had yet to cease in his own party; and but a few
+years before, a man growing old, he was still in the lowest deeps
+of his disappointments and humiliations. How, then, could it be
+imagined that with six years of power from his seventieth year,
+the Jew &ldquo;adventurer,&rdquo; mysterious and theatrical to the last,
+should fill a greater space in the mind of England twenty years
+after death than Peel or Palmerston after five? Of course it can
+be explained; and when explained, we see that Disraeli&rsquo;s good
+fortune in this respect is not due entirely to his own merits. His
+last years of power might have been followed by as long a period
+of more acceptable government than his own, to the effacement
+of his own from memory; but that did not happen. What did
+follow was a time of universal turbulence and suspicion, in which
+the pride of the nation was wounded again and again. To say
+&ldquo;Majuba&rdquo; and &ldquo;Gordon&rdquo; recalls its deepest hurts, but not all
+of them; and it may be that a pained and angry people, looking
+back, saw in the man whom they lately displaced more than they
+had ever seen before. From that time, at any rate, Disraeli has
+been acknowledged as the regenerator and representative of the
+Imperial idea in England. He has also been accused on the same
+grounds; and if the giver of good wine may be blamed for the
+guest who gets drunk on it, there is justice in the accusation. It
+is but a statement of fact, however, that Disraeli retains his hold
+upon the popular mind on this account mainly. The rekindling
+of the Imperial idea is understood as a timely act of revolt and
+redemption: of revolt against continuous humiliations deeply
+felt, redemption from the fate of nations obviously weak and
+suspected of timidity. It has been called rescue-work&mdash;deliverance
+from the dangers of invited aggression and a philosophical
+neglect of the means of defence. And its first achievement for
+the country (this is again a mere statement of fact) was the
+restoration of a much-damaged self-respect and the creation of a
+great defensive fleet not a day too soon for safety. So much for
+&ldquo;the great heart of the people.&rdquo; Meanwhile political students
+find to their satisfaction that he never courted popularity, and
+never practised the art of working for &ldquo;quick returns&rdquo; of
+sympathy or applause. As &ldquo;adventurer,&rdquo; he should have done
+so; yet he neglected the cultivation of that paying art for the
+wisdom that looks to the long future, and bears its fruit, perchance,
+when no one cares to remember who sowed the seed. So
+it is that to read some of his books and many of his speeches is to
+draw more respect and admiration from their pages than could
+have been found there originally. The student of his life understands
+that Disraeli&rsquo;s claim to remembrance rests not only on the
+breadth of his views, his deep insight, his long foresight, but even
+more on the courage which allowed him to declare opinions
+supplied from those qualities when there was no visible likelihood
+of their justification by experience, and therefore when their
+natural fate was to be slighted. His judgments had to wait the
+event before they were absolved from ridicule or delivered from
+neglect. The event arrives; he is in his grave; but his reputation
+loses nothing by that. It gains by regret that death was
+beforehand with him.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Adventurer,&rdquo; as applied to Disraeli, was a mere term of
+abuse. &ldquo;Mystery-man&rdquo; had much of the same intention, but
+in a blameless though not in a happy sense it was true of him to
+the end of his days. Even to his friends, and to many near him,
+he remained mysterious to the last. It is impossible to doubt
+that some two or three, four or five perchance, were at home in
+his mind, being freely admitted there; but of partial admissions
+to its inner places there seem to have been few or none. Men
+who were long associated with him in affairs, and had much of
+his stinted companionship, have confessed that with every wish
+to understand his character they never succeeded. Sometimes
+they fancied they had got within the topping walls of the maze,
+and might hope to gain the point whence survey could be made
+of the whole; but as often they found themselves, in a moment,
+where they stood at last and at first&mdash;outside. His speeches
+carry us but a little way beyond the mental range; his novels
+rather baffle than instruct. It is commonly believed that Disraeli
+looked in the glass while describing Sidonia in <i>Coningsby</i>.
+We group the following sentences from this description for a
+purpose that will be presently seen:&mdash;(1) &ldquo;He was admired by
+<span class="sidenote">Character.</span>
+women, idolized by artists, received in all circles with
+great distinction, and appreciated for his intellect by
+the very few to whom he at all opened himself.&rdquo;
+(2) &ldquo;For, though affable and generous, it was impossible to
+penetrate him: though unreserved in his manners his frankness was
+limited to the surface. He observed everything, thought ever,
+but avoided serious discussion. If you pressed him for an opinion
+he took refuge in raillery, and threw out some paradox with
+which it was not easy to cope. The secret history of the world
+was Sidonia&rsquo;s pastime. His great pleasure was to contrast the
+hidden motive with the public pretext of transactions.&rdquo;
+(3) &ldquo;He might have discovered a spring of happiness in
+susceptibilities of the heart; but this was a sealed fountain for
+Sidonia. In his organization there was a peculiar, perhaps a great
+deficiency; he was a man without affection. It would be hard to say
+that he had no heart, for he was susceptible of deep emotions;
+but not for individuals. Woman was to him a toy, man a
+machine.&rdquo; These sentences are separately grouped here for the
+sake of suggesting that they will more truly illustrate Disraeli&rsquo;s
+character if taken as follows:&mdash;The first as representing his most
+cherished social ambitions&mdash;in whatever degree achieved. The
+second group as faithfully and closely descriptive of himself;
+descriptive too of a character purposely cloaked. The third as
+much less simple; in part a mixture of truth with Byronic affectation,
+and for the rest (and more significantly), as intimating
+the resolute exercise of extraordinary powers of control over
+the promptings and passions by which so many capable ambitions
+have come to grief. So read, Sidonia and Benjamin Disraeli are
+brought into close resemblance by Disraeli himself; for what in
+this description is untrue to the suspected fundamentals of his
+character is true to his known foibles. But for a general
+interpretation of Lord Beaconsfield and his career none serves so
+well as that which Froude insists on most. He was thoroughly
+and unchangeably a Jew. At but one remove by birth from
+southern Europe and the East, he was an Englishman in nothing
+but his devotion to England and his solicitude for her honour
+and prosperity. It was not wholly by volition and design that
+his mind was strange to others and worked in absolute detachment.
+He had &ldquo;none of the hereditary prepossessions of the
+native Englishman.&rdquo; No such prepossessions disturbed his
+vision when it was bent upon the rising problems of the time, or
+rested on the machinery of government and the kind of men who
+worked it and their ways of working. The advantages of
+Sidonia&rsquo;s intellect and temperament were largely his, in affairs,
+but not without their drawbacks. His pride in his knowledge
+of the English character was the pride of a student; and we may
+doubt if it ever occurred to him that there would have been less
+pride but more knowledge had he been an Englishman. It is
+certain that in shrouding his own character he checked the
+communication of others to himself, and so could continue to
+the end of his career the costly mistake of being theatrical in
+England. There was a great deal too (though little to his blame)
+in Lord Malmesbury&rsquo;s observation that he was not only disliked
+in the House of Commons for his mysterious manner, but
+prejudiced by a pronounced foreign air and aspect. Lord
+Malmesbury does not put it quite as strongly as that, but he
+might have done so with truth. No Englishman could approach
+Disraeli without some immediate consciousness that he was in
+the presence of a foreigner.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span></p>
+
+<p>Lord Beaconsfield has been praised for his integrity in money
+matters; the praise could have been spared&mdash;it does not rise
+high enough. It is also said to his honour that he &ldquo;never
+struck at a little man,&rdquo; and that was well; but it is explained
+as readily by pride and calculation as by magnanimity. A man
+of extraordinary coolness and self-control, his faults in every
+kind were faults of excess: it is the mark of them all. But
+whatever offence they gave, whatever mischief they did, was
+soon exhausted, and has long since been pardoned.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The writer&rsquo;s personal knowledge is largely represented
+in the above article. Among the biographical literature
+available prior to the authoritative <i>Life</i> the following may be
+cited:&mdash;Lord Beaconsfield&rsquo;s Preface to 1849 edition of Isaac
+D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s works; <i>Correspondence with his Sister</i>, and <i>Home Letters</i>,
+edited by Ralph Disraeli; Samuel Smiles, <i>Memoirs and Correspondence
+of John Murray; Life of the Earl of Beaconsfield</i>, by F. Hitchman;
+<i>Memoir</i> by T.E. Kebbel; <i>Memoir</i> by J.A. Froude; <i>Memoir</i>
+by Harold Gorst; Sir William Fraser&rsquo;s <i>Disraeli and his Day; The
+Speeches of Lord Beaconsfield</i>, edited by T.E. Kebbel. In 1904,
+however, the large collection of material for Lord Beaconsfield&rsquo;s
+life, in the hands of his executors Lord Rowton and Lord Rothschild,
+was acquired by <i>The Times</i>, and the task of preparing the biography
+was assigned to Mr W.F. Monypenny, an assistant editor of <i>The
+Times</i> (1894-1899), who was best known to the public as editor of
+the Johannesburg <i>Star</i> during the crisis of 1899-1903.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The crown had in 1871 appointed the Rev. W.W. Harvey
+(1810-1883), a Cambridge man, to the living of Ewelme, near Oxford,
+for which members of the Oxford house of convocation were alone
+eligible. Gladstone was charged with evading this limitation in
+allowing Harvey to qualify for the appointment by being formally
+admitted M.A. by incorporation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For a detailed, if somewhat controversial, account of
+this affair, see Lucien Wolf&rsquo;s article in <i>The Times</i>
+of December 26, 1905, and Mr Greenwood&rsquo;s letters on the subject.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEACONSFIELD,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town of Devon county, Tasmania, on the
+river Tamar, 28 m. direct N.W. of Launceston. Pop. (1901)
+2658. From its port at Beauty Point, 3½ m. distant, with which
+it is connected by a steam tramway, communication is maintained
+with Georgetown and Launceston. It is the centre of
+the most important gold-field in the island.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEACONSFIELD,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a town of South Africa in Griqualand West,
+about 3 m. S.W. of Kimberley, of which it is practically a suburb,
+though possessing a separate municipality. Pop. (1904) 9378, of
+whom 2780 were whites. Beaconsfield was founded in 1870
+near the famous Dutoitspan diamond mine. The land on which
+the town is built belongs to the De Beers Company. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kimberley</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEACONSFIELD,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a town in the Wycombe parliamentary
+division of Buckinghamshire, England. 23 m. W. by N. of London,
+on the main road to Oxford, and on the Great Central &amp; Great
+Western joint railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 1570. It
+lies in a hilly well-wooded district above the valley of the small
+river Wye, a tributary of the Thames. The broad Oxford road
+forms its picturesque main street. It was formerly a posting
+station of importance, and had a considerable manufacture of
+ribbons. The Perpendicular church of St Mary and All Saints is
+the burial place of Edmund Burke (d. 1797), who lived at
+Gregories, or as he named it Butler&rsquo;s Court, near the town. He
+would have taken his title from Beaconsfield had he survived to
+enter the peerage. A monument to his memory was erected in 1898.
+Edmund Waller the poet owned the property of Hall Barn,
+and died here in 1687. His tomb is in the churchyard. Benjamin
+Disraeli chose the title of earl of Beaconsfield in 1876, his wife
+having in 1868 received the title of Viscountess Beaconsfield.
+The opening of railway communication with London in 1906
+resulted in a considerable accretion of residential population.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAD,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> a small globule or ball used in necklaces, and made of
+different materials, as metal, coral, diamond, amber, ivory, stone,
+pottery, glass, rock-crystal and seeds. The word is derived from
+the Middle Eng. <i>bede</i>, from the common Teutonic word for &ldquo;to
+pray,&rdquo; cf. German <i>beten</i> and English <i>bedesman</i>, the meaning
+being transferred from &ldquo;prayer&rdquo; to the spherical bodies strung on a
+rosary and used in counting prayers. Beads have been made
+from remote antiquity, and are found in early Egyptian tombs;
+variegated glass beads, found in the ground in certain parts of
+Africa, as Ashantiland, and highly prized by the natives as
+<i>aggry</i>-beads, are supposed to be of Egyptian or Phoenician origin.
+Beads of the more expensive materials are strung in necklaces
+and worn as articles of personal adornment, while the cheaper
+kinds are employed for the decoration of women&rsquo;s dress. Glass
+beads have long been used for purposes of barter with savage
+tribes, and are made in enormous numbers and varieties,
+especially in Venice, where the manufacture has existed from at
+least the 14th century. Glass, either transparent, or of opaque
+coloured enamel (<i>smalti</i>), or having complex patterns produced
+by the twisting of threads of coloured glass through a transparent
+body, is drawn out into long tubes, from which the beads are
+pinched off, and finished by being rotated with sand and ashes in
+heated cylinders.</p>
+
+<p>In architecture, the term &ldquo;bead&rdquo; is given to a small cylindrical
+moulding, in classic work often cut into bead and reel.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEADLE,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> also <span class="sc">Bedel</span> or <span class="sc">Bedell</span> (from A.S. <i>bydel</i>, from <i>beodan</i>,
+to bid), originally a subordinate officer of a court or deliberative
+assembly, who summoned persons to appear and answer charges
+against them (see Du Cange, <i>supra tit. Bedelli</i>). As such, the
+beadle goes back to early Teutonic times; he was probably
+attached to the moot as its messenger or summoner, being under
+the direction of the reeve or constable of the leet. After the
+Norman Conquest, the beadle seems to have diminished in
+importance, becoming merely the crier in the manor and forest
+courts, and sometimes executing processes. He was also employed
+as the messenger of the parish, and thus became, to a certain
+extent, an ecclesiastical officer, but in reality acted more as
+a constable by keeping order in the church and churchyard during
+service. He also attended upon the clergy, the churchwardens
+and the vestry. He was appointed by the parishioners in vestry,
+and his wages were payable out of the church rate. From the
+Poor Law Act of 1601 till the act of 1834 by which poor-law
+administration was transferred to guardians, the beadle in
+England was an officer of much importance in his capacity of
+agent for the overseers. In all medieval universities the bedel
+was an officer who exercised various executive and spectacular
+functions (H. Rashdall, <i>Hist. of Universities in the Middle Ages</i>,
+i. 193). He still survives in many universities on the continent
+of Europe and in those of Oxford and Cambridge, but
+he is now shorn of much of his importance. At Oxford there are
+four bedels, representing the faculties of law, medicine, arts and
+divinity. Their duties are chiefly processional, the junior or
+sub-bedel being the official attendant on the vice-chancellor, before
+whom he bears a silver mace. At Cambridge there are two, termed
+esquire-bedels, who both walk before the vice-chancellor, bearing maces.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAK<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (early forms <i>beke</i> and <i>becke</i>, from Fr. <i>bec</i>,
+late Lat. <i>beccus</i>, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the
+Celtic <i>bec</i> and <i>beq</i>, however, are taken from the English),
+the horny bill of a bird, and so used of the horny ends of the
+mandibles of the octopus, the duck-billed platypus and other animals;
+hence the rostrum (<i>q.v.</i>) or ornamented prow of ancient war vessels.
+The term is also applied, in classic architecture, to the pendent
+fillet on the edge of the corona of a cornice, which serves as a drip,
+and prevents the rain from flowing inwards.</p>
+
+<p>The slang use of &ldquo;beak&rdquo; for a magistrate or justice of the peace has not
+been satisfactorily explained. The earlier meaning, which lasted down to
+the beginning of the 19th century, was &ldquo;watchman&rdquo; or &ldquo;constable.&rdquo; According
+to <i>Slang and its Analogues</i> (J.S. Farmer and W.E. Henley, 1890), the
+first example of its later use is in the name of &ldquo;the Blind Beak,&rdquo; which
+was given to Henry Fielding&rsquo;s half-brother, Sir John Fielding (about 1750).
+Thomas Harman, in his book on vagrants, <i>Caveat or Warening for commen
+cursitors, Vulgarely called Vagabones</i>, 1573, explains <i>harmans
+beck</i> as &ldquo;counstable,&rdquo; <i>harman</i> being the word for the stocks.
+Attempts have been made to connect &ldquo;beak&rdquo; in this connexion with the Old
+English <i>beag</i>, a gold torque or collar, worn as a symbol of
+authority, but this could only be plausible on the assumption that
+&ldquo;magistrate&rdquo; was the earlier significance of the word.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAKER<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (Scottish <i>bicker</i>, Lat. <i>bicarium</i>, Ger. <i>Becher</i>,
+a drinking-bowl), a large wide-mouthed drinking-cup or laboratory vessel.
+See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drinking-Vessels</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEALE, DOROTHEA<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1831-1906), English schoolmistress, was born on the
+21st of March 1831 in London, her father being a physician of good family
+and cultivated tastes. She had already shown a strong intellectual bent
+and considerable force of character when in 1848 she was one of the first
+to attend lectures at the newly opened Queen&rsquo;s College for Ladies,
+London, and from 1849 to 1856 she herself took classes there. In 1857
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span>
+for a few months she became head teacher of the Clergy
+Daughters&rsquo; school at Casterton, Westmoreland, but narrow
+religious prejudices on the part of the governors led to her
+retirement. In 1858 she was appointed principal of the Ladies
+College at Cheltenham (opened 1854), then in very low water.
+Her tact and strenuousness, backed by able financial management,
+led to its success being thoroughly established by 1864,
+and as the college increased in numbers new buildings were
+erected from 1873 onwards. Under Miss Beale&rsquo;s headship it
+grew into one of the great girls&rsquo; schools of the country, and its
+development and example played an important part in the
+revolution effected in regard to the higher education of women.
+Miss Beale retained her post till her death on the 9th of November
+1906. Strongly religious by nature, broad-minded and keenly
+interested in all branches of culture, she exercised a far-reaching
+influence on her pupils.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Her <i>Life</i> was written by Elizabeth Raikes (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAM<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>béam</i>, cf. Ger. <i>Baum</i>, a tree, to which
+sense may be referred the use of &ldquo;beam&rdquo; as meaning the rood
+or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as hornbeam),
+a solid piece of timber, as a beam of a house, of a plough,
+a loom, or a balance. In the last case, from meaning simply the
+cross-bar of the balance, &ldquo;beam&rdquo; has come to be used of the
+whole, as in the expression &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s beam,&rdquo; or &ldquo;common
+beam,&rdquo; which refers to the old English standard balance for
+wholesale goods, for several hundred years in the custody of the
+Grocers&rsquo; Company, London. As a nautical term, &ldquo;beam&rdquo; was
+transferred from the main cross-timbers to the side of the ship;
+thus &ldquo;on the weather-beam&rdquo; means &ldquo;to windward,&rdquo; and a
+ship is said to be &ldquo;wide in the beam&rdquo; when she is wide
+horizontally. The phrase &ldquo;to be on one&rsquo;s beam-ends,&rdquo; denoting a
+position of extreme peril or helplessness, is borrowed from the
+position of a ship which has heeled over so far as to stand on the
+ends of her horizontal beams. The meaning of &ldquo;beam&rdquo; for
+shafts or rays of light comes apparently from the use of the word
+to translate the Latin <i>columna lucis</i>, a pillar of light.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAN<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. <i>Bohne</i>), the seed of
+certain leguminous plants cultivated for food all over the world,
+and furnished chiefly by the genera <i>Vicia, Phaseolus, Dolichos</i>
+and others. The common bean, in all its varieties, as cultivated
+in Britain and on the continents of Europe and America, is the
+produce of <i>Vicia Faba</i>. The French bean, kidney bean, or
+haricot, is the seed of <i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>; but in India several
+other species of this genus of plants are raised, and form no small
+portion of the diet of the inhabitants. Besides these there are
+numerous other pulses cultivated for the food both of man and
+domestic animals, to which the name bean is frequently given.
+The common bean is even more nutritious than wheat; and it
+contains a very high proportion of nitrogenous matter under the
+form of legumin, which amounts on an average to 24%. It is,
+however, a rather coarse food, and difficult of digestion, and is
+chiefly used to feed horses, for which it is admirably adapted.
+In England French beans are chiefly, almost exclusively, used
+in the green state; the whole pod being eaten as a table vegetable
+or prepared as a pickle. It is wholesome and nutritious; and
+in Holland and Germany the pods are preserved in salt by almost
+every family for winter and spring use. The green pods are cut
+across obliquely, most generally by a machine invented for the
+purpose, and salted in barrels. When wanted for use they are
+steeped in fresh water to remove the salt, and broiled or stewed
+they form an agreeable addition to the diet at a time when no
+other vegetable may be had.</p>
+
+<p>The broad bean&mdash;<i>Vicia Faba</i>, or <i>Faba vulgaris</i>, as it is known
+by those botanists who regard the slight differences which
+distinguish it from the great majority of the species of the vetch
+genus (<i>Vicia</i>) as of generic importance&mdash;is an annual which has
+been cultivated fiom prehistoric times for its nutritious seeds.</p>
+
+<p>The lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and northern Italy in the
+bronze age cultivated a small-fruited variety, and it was grown
+in ancient Egypt, though, according to Herodotus, regarded
+by the priests as unclean. The ancient Greeks called it <span class="grk" title="kuamos">&#954;&#973;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+the Latins <i>faba</i>, but there is no suggestion that the plant is a
+native of Europe. Alphonse de Candolle (<i>Origin of Cultivated
+Plants</i>, p. 320) concludes that the bean was introduced into
+Europe probably by the western Aryans at the time of their
+earliest migrations. He suggests that its wild habitat was twofold
+some thousands of years ago, one of the centres being to the
+south of the Caspian, the other in the north of Africa, and that
+its area has long been in process of diminution and extinction.
+The nature of the plant favours this hypothesis, for its seed has
+no means of dispersing itself, and rodents or other animals can
+easily make prey of it; the struggle for existence which was
+going against this plant as against maize would have gradually
+isolated it and caused it to disappear, if man had not saved it by
+cultivation. It was introduced into China a little before the
+Christian era, later into Japan and more recently into India,
+though it has been suggested that in parts of the higher Himalayas
+its cultivation has survived from very ancient times. It
+is a plant which will flourish in all ordinary good garden soil.
+The seeds are sown about 4 in. apart, in drills 2½ ft. asunder for
+the smaller and 3 ft. for the larger sorts. The soil should,
+preferably, be a rather heavy loam, deeply worked and well
+enriched. For an early crop, seeds may be sown in November,
+and protected during winter in the same manner as early peas.
+An early crop may also be obtained by dibbling in the seeds in
+November, sheltering by a frame, and in February transplanting
+them to a warm border. Successional crops are obtained by
+sowing suitable varieties from January to the end of June. All
+the culture necessary is that the earth be drawn up about the
+stems. The plants are usually topped when the pods have set,
+as this not only removes the black aphides which often settle
+there, but is also found to promote the filling of the pods.</p>
+
+<p>The following are some of the best sorts:&mdash;for early use,
+Early Mazagan, Long-pod, Marshall&rsquo;s Early Prolific and Seville
+Long-pod; for late use, Carter&rsquo;s Mammoth Long-pod and Broad
+Windsor.</p>
+
+<p>The horse-bean is a variety&mdash;var. <i>equina</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cultivation of Field-bean</i>.&mdash;Several varieties of <i>Vicia Faba</i>
+(<i>e.g.</i> the horse bean, the mazagan, the tick bean, the winter
+bean) are cultivated in the field for the sake both of the grain,
+which is used as food for live-stock, and of the haulm, which
+serves for either fodder or litter. They are best adapted for
+heavy soils such as clays or clayey loams. The time for sowing
+is from the end of January to the beginning of March, or in the
+case of winter beans from the end of September to the middle
+of November. The bean-crop is usually interposed between two
+crops of wheat or some other cereal. If spring beans are to be
+sown, the land after harvest is dressed with farmyard manure,
+which is then ploughed in. In January the soil is levelled with
+the harrows, and the seed, which should be hard and light brown
+in colour, is drilled in rows from 15 to 24 in. apart at the rate
+of from 2 to 2½ bushels to the acre and then harrowed in. The
+alternative is to &ldquo;dibble&rdquo; the seed in the furrow left by the
+autumn ploughing and cover it in with the harrows; or the
+land may be ridged with the double-breasted plough, manure
+deposited in the furrows and the seed sown broadcast, the ridges
+being then split back so as to cover both manure and seed.
+After the plant shows, horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing between
+the rows is carried on so long as the plant is small enough to
+suffer no injury therefrom. The routine of cultivation for
+winter beans hardly differs from that described except as regards
+the time of sowing.</p>
+
+<p>Beans are cut when the leaf is fallen and the haulm is almost
+black either with the fagging hook or the reaping machine, though
+the stoutness of the stalks causes a severe strain on the latter
+implement. They are tied and stocked, and are so left for a
+considerable time before stacking. There is less fear of injury to
+the crop through damp than in the case of other cereals. Their
+value for feeding purposes increases in the stack, where they may
+remain for a year or more before threshing. Pea and bean
+weevils, both striped (<i>Sitones lineatus</i>) and spotted (<i>Sitones
+crinitus</i>), and the bean aphis (<i>Aphis rumicis</i>), are noted pests of
+the crop. Winter beans come to maturity earlier than the
+spring-sown varieties, and are therefore strong enough to resist
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span>
+the attacks of the aphis by the end of June, when it begins its
+ravages. Field-beans yield from 25 to 35 bushels to the acre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phascolus vulgaris</i>, the kidney, French or haricot bean, an
+annual, dwarf and bushy in growth, is widely cultivated in temperate,
+sub-tropical and tropical regions, but is nowhere known as
+a wild plant. It was long supposed to be of Indian origin, an idea
+which was disproved by Alphonse de Candolle, who sums up the
+facts bearing on its origin as follows:&mdash;<i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i> has not
+been long cultivated in India, the south-west of Asia and Egypt,
+and it is not certain that it was known in Europe before the discovery
+of America. At the latter epoch the number of varieties
+in European gardens suddenly increased, and all authors began
+to mention them. The majority of the species of the genus exist
+in South America, and seeds apparently belonging to the species
+in question have been found in Peruvian tombs of an uncertain
+date, intermixed with many species, all American. Hence it is
+probable that the plant is of South American origin.</p>
+
+<p>It is a tender annual, and should be grown in a rich light loamy
+soil and a warm sheltered situation. The soil should be well
+enriched with hot-bed dung. The earliest crop may be sown by
+the end of March or beginning of April. If, however, the temperature
+of the soil is below 45°, the beans make but little progress.
+The main crops should be got in early in May; and a later
+sowing may be made early in July. The earlier plantings may be
+sown in small pots, and put in frames or houses, until they can be
+safely planted out-of-doors. A light covering of straw or some
+other simple shelter suffices to protect from late frosts. The seeds
+should be covered 1½ or 2 in. deep, the distance between the rows
+being about 2 ft., or for the dwarfest sorts 18 in., and that between
+plants from 4 to 6 in. The pods may be used as a green vegetable,
+in which case they should be gathered whilst they are so crisp as
+to be readily snapped in two when bent; but when the dry seeds
+are to be used the pods should be allowed to ripen. As the green
+pods are gathered others will continue to be formed in abundance,
+but if old seed-forming pods are allowed to remain the formation
+of young ones will be greatly checked. There are numerous
+varieties; among the best are Canadian Wonder, Canterbury
+and Black Negro.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phaseolus multiflorus</i>, scarlet runner, is nearly allied to <i>P.
+vulgaris</i>, of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety, but
+differs in its climbing habit. It is naturally perennial and has a
+thick fleshy root, but is grown in Great Britain as a tender annual.
+Its bright, generally scarlet flowers, arranged in long racemes, and
+the fact that it will flourish in any ordinary good garden soil,
+combine to make it a favourite garden plant. It is also of interest
+as being one of the few plants that twine in a direction contrary
+to the apparent motion of the sun. The seeds of the runner beans
+should be sown in an open plot,&mdash;the first sowing in May, another
+at the beginning of June, and a third about the middle of June.
+In the London market-gardens they are sown 8 to 12 in. apart, in
+4 ft. rows if the soil is good. The twining tops are pinched or cut
+off when the plants are from 2 to 2½ ft. high, to save the expense
+of staking. It is better, however, in private gardens to have the
+rows standing separately, and to support the plants by stakes 6 or
+7 ft. high and about a foot apart, the tops of the stakes being
+crossed about one-third down. If the weather is dry when the
+pods are forming abundantly, plenty of tepid water should be
+supplied to the plants. In training the shoots to their supports,
+they should be twined from right to left, contrary to the course
+of the sun, or they will not lay hold. By frequently picking the
+pods the plants are encouraged to form fresh blooms from which
+pods may be picked until the approach of frost.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary scarlet runner is most commonly grown, but there
+is a white-flowered variety which has also white seeds; this is
+very prolific and of excellent quality. Another variety called
+Painted Lady, with the flowers red and white, is very ornamental,
+but not so productive. Carter&rsquo;s Champion is a large-podded
+productive variety.</p>
+
+<p>Another species <i>P. lunatus</i>, the Lima bean, a tall biennial with
+a scimitar-shaped pod (whence the specific name) 2 to 3 in. long
+containing a few large seeds, is widely cultivated in the warmer parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The young pods of another leguminous climbing herb, <i>Dolichos
+Lablab</i>, as well as the seeds, are widely used in the tropics, as we
+use the kidney bean. The plant is probably a native of tropical
+Africa, but is now generally cultivated in the tropics. The word
+<i>Dolichos</i> is of Greek origin, and was used by Theophrastus for the
+scarlet runner.</p>
+
+<p>Another species, <i>D. biflorus</i>, is the horse gram, the seed of
+which is eaten by the poorer class of natives in India, and is also,
+as are the pods, a food for horses and cattle.</p>
+
+<p>The Soy bean, <i>Glycine hispida</i>, was included by Linnaeus in
+the genus <i>Dolichos</i>. It is extensively cultivated in China and
+Japan, chiefly for the pleasant-flavoured seed from which is
+prepared a piquant sauce. It is also widely grown in India,
+where the bean is eaten, while the plant forms a valuable fodder;
+it is cultivated for the latter purpose in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Other references to beans will be found under special headings,
+such as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calabar Bean</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Locust-Tree</a></span>. There are also several
+non-leguminous seeds to which the popular name bean is attached.
+Among these may be mentioned the sacred Egyptian or Pythagorean
+bean (<i>Nelumbium speciosum</i>), and the Ignatius bean
+(probably <i>Strychnos multiflora</i>), a source of strychnine.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Greeks and Romans made use of beans in gathering
+the votes of the people, and for the election of magistrates. A
+white bean signified absolution, and a black one condemnation.
+Beans had a mysterious use in the <i>lemuralia</i> and <i>parentalia</i>,
+where the master of the family, after washing his hands three
+times, threw black beans over his head nine times, reiterating
+the words &ldquo;I redeem myself and my family by these beans.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAN-FEAST,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> primarily an annual dinner given by an employer
+to his workpeople, and then colloquially any jollification.
+The phrase is variously derived. The most probable theory is
+that which connects it with the custom in France, and afterwards
+in Germany and England, of a feast on Twelfth Night, at which
+a cake with a bean buried in it was a great feature. The bean-king
+was he who had the good fortune to have the slice of cake in
+which was the bean. This choosing of a king or queen by a bean
+was formerly a common Christmas diversion at the English and
+Scottish courts, and in both English universities. This monarch
+was master of the revels like his congener the lord of misrule. A
+clue to his original functions is possibly found in the old popular
+belief that the weather for the ensuing twelve months was
+determined by the weather of the twelve days from Christmas to
+Twelfth Night, the weather of each particular month being prognosticated
+from each day. Thus the king of the bean of Twelfth
+Night may have originally reigned for the twelve days, his chief
+duty being the performance of magical ceremonies for ensuring
+good weather during the ensuing twelve months. Probably in
+him and the lord of misrule it is correct to find the lineal descendant
+of the old king of the Saturnalia, the real man who personated
+Saturn and, when the revels ceased, suffered a real death in his
+assumed character. Another but most improbable derivation for
+bean-feast connects it with M.E. <i>bene</i> &ldquo;prayer,&rdquo; &ldquo;request,&rdquo; the
+allusion being to the soliciting of alms towards the cost of their
+Twelfth Night dinner by the workpeople.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wayzgoose</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Misrule, Lord of</a></span>; also J. Boemus, <i>Mores,
+leges et ritus omnium gentium</i> (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; Laisnel
+de la Salle, <i>Croyances et légendes du centre de la France</i>, i. 19-29;
+Lec&oelig;ur, <i>Esquisses du Bocage normand</i>, ii. 125; Schmitz, <i>Sitten und
+Sagen des Eifler Volkes</i>, i. 6; Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities of Great
+Britain</i> (Hazlitt&rsquo;s edit. 1905), under &ldquo;Twelfth Night&rdquo;; Cortet,
+<i>Fêtes religieuses</i>, p. 29 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAR,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> properly the name of the European brown bear (<i>Ursus
+arctus</i>), but extended to include all the members of the <i>Ursidae</i>,
+the typical family of Arctoid carnivora, distinguished by their
+massive bodies, short limbs, and almost rudimentary tails.
+With the single exception of the Indian sloth-bear, all the species
+have forty-two teeth, of which the incisors and canines closely
+resemble those of purely carnivorous mammals; while the
+molars, and especially the one known as the &ldquo;sectorial&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;carnassial,&rdquo; have their surfaces tuberculated so as to adapt
+them for grinding vegetable substances. As might have been
+supposed from their dentition, the bears are omnivorous; but
+most prefer vegetable food, including honey, when a sufficient
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span>
+supply of this can be had. The grizzly bear, however, is chiefly
+carnivorous; while the polar bear is almost wholly so.</p>
+
+<p>Bears are five-toed, and provided with formidable claws,
+which are not retractile, and thus better fitted for digging and
+climbing than for tearing. Most climb trees in a slow, lumbering
+fashion, and, in descending, always come hind-quarters first.
+The grizzly bear is said to lose this power of climbing in the
+adult stage. In northern countries bears retire during the
+winter into caves and the hollows of trees, or allow the falling
+snow to cover them, and there remain dormant till the advent
+of spring, about which time the female usually produces her
+young. These are born naked and blind, and it is commonly
+five weeks before they see, or become covered with hair. Before
+hibernating the adults grow very fat, and it is by the gradual
+consumption of this fat&mdash;known in commerce as bear&rsquo;s grease&mdash;that
+such vital action as is necessary to the continuance of life
+is sustained.</p>
+
+<p>The bear family is widely distributed, being found in every
+quarter of the globe except Australia, and in all climates, from
+the highest northern latitudes yet reached by man to the warm
+regions of India and Malaya. In the north-west corner of Africa
+the single representative of the family found on that continent
+occurs.</p>
+
+<p>The polar or white bear (<i>Ursus maritimus</i>), common to the
+Arctic regions of both hemispheres, is distinguished from the
+other species by having the soles of the feet covered with close-set
+hairs,&mdash;in adaptation to the wants of the creature, the bear
+being thereby enabled to walk securely on slippery ice. In the
+whiteness of its fur also, it shows such an assimilation in colour
+to that of surrounding nature as must be of considerable service
+in concealing it from its prey. The food of the white bear
+consists chiefly of seals and fish, in pursuit of which it shows
+great power of swimming and diving, and a considerable degree
+of sagacity; but its food also includes the carcases of whales,
+birds and their eggs, and grass and berries when these can be
+had. That it can sustain life on a purely vegetable diet is proved
+by instances on record of its being fed for years on bread only, in
+confinement. These bears are strong swimmers, Sir Edward
+Sabine having found one &ldquo;swimming powerfully 40 m. from
+the nearest shore, and with no ice in sight to afford it rest.&rdquo;
+They are often carried on floating ice to great distances, and to
+more southern latitudes than their own, no fewer than twelve
+Polar bears having been known to reach Iceland in this way
+during one winter. The female always hibernates, but the male
+may be seen abroad at all seasons. In bulk the white bear
+exceeds most other members of the family, measuring nearly
+9 ft. in length, and often weighing 1600 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p>Land bears have the soles of the feet destitute of hair, and
+their fur more or less shaggy. On these the brown bear (<i>Ursus
+arctus</i>,&mdash;<span class="grk" title="arktos">&#7940;&#961;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span> of Aristotle) is found in one or other of its
+varieties all over the temperate and north temperate regions of
+the eastern hemisphere, from Spain to Japan. The fur is usually
+brownish, but there are black, blackish-grey and yellowish
+varieties. It is a solitary animal, frequenting the wooded parts
+of the regions it inhabits, and living on a mixed diet of fruits,
+vegetable, honey, fish and the smaller animals. In winter it
+hibernates, concealing itself in some hollow or cavern. It does
+not seek to attack man; but when baited, or in defence of its
+young, shows great courage and strength, rising on its hind legs
+and endeavouring to grasp its antagonist in an embrace. Bear-baiting,
+till within comparatively recent times, was a favourite
+sport throughout Europe, but, along with cock-fighting and
+badger-baiting, has gradually disappeared before a more humane
+civilization. It was a favourite pastime among the Romans,
+who imported their bears from Britain, a proof that the animal
+was then comparatively abundant in that country; indeed,
+from reference made to it in early Scottish history, the bear does
+not appear to have been extirpated in Britain before the end of
+the 11th century. It is now found in greatest abundance in
+Norway, Russia and Siberia, where hunting the bear is a favourite
+sport, and where, when dead, its remains are highly valued.
+Among the Kamchadales &ldquo;the skin of the bear,&rdquo; says a traveller,
+&ldquo;forms their beds and their coverlets, bonnets for their heads,
+gloves for their hands and collars for their dogs. The flesh and
+fat are their dainties. Of the intestines they make masks or
+covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the sun
+in the spring, and use them as a substitute for glass, by extending
+them over their windows. Even the shoulder-blades are said
+to be put in requisition for cutting grass.&rdquo; In confinement the
+brown bear is readily tamed; and advantage has been taken
+of the facility with which it can sustain itself on the hind feet
+to teach it to dance to the sound of music. It measures 4 ft. in
+length, and is about 2½ ft. high. Of this species Crowther&rsquo;s
+bear from the Atlas Mountains, the Syrian bear (<i>Ursus arctus
+pyriacus</i>) and the snow or isabelline bear (<i>Ursus arctus isabellinus</i>)
+of the Himalaya are local races, or at most subspecies.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> American
+naturalists regard the big brown bears of Alaska as a distinct
+group. They range from Sitka to the extremity of the Alaskan
+Peninsula, over Kodiak Island, and inland. Their distinctive
+external features are their large size, light-brown colour, high
+shoulders, massive heads of great breadth and shaggy coat.</p>
+
+<p>The grizzly bear (<i>Ursus arctus horribilis</i>, formerly known as <i>U.
+ferox</i>) is regarded by some naturalists as a distinct species and by
+others as a variety of the brown bear, to which it is closely allied.
+It was said to exceed all other American mammals in ferocity of
+disposition and muscular strength. Stories were told of its
+attacking the bison, and it has been reported to carry off the
+carcase of a wapiti, weighing nearly 1000 &#8468;, for a considerable
+distance to its den, there to devour it at leisure. It also eats fruit
+and vegetables. Its fur is usually of a yellowish-brown colour,
+coarse and grizzled, and of little value commercially, while its
+flesh, unlike that of other bears, is uneatable even by the Indians.
+The grizzly bear is now rare in the United States, save in the
+Yellowstone Park and the Clearwater Mountains of Idaho,
+though more common in British Columbia. Several geographical
+races are recognized. The Tibet bear (<i>U. pruinosus</i>) is a
+light-coloured small species.</p>
+
+<p>The American black bear (<i>Ursus americanus</i>) occurs throughout
+the wooded parts of the North American continent, whence it is
+being gradually driven to make room for man. It is similar in
+size to the brown bear, but its fur is of a soft even texture, and of
+a shining black colour, to which it owes its commercial value. At
+the beginning of the 19th century black bears were killed in
+enormous numbers for their furs, which at that time were highly
+valued. In 1803 the skins imported into England numbered
+25,000, but the imports have since decreased to one-half of that
+number. They are chiefly used for military accoutrements. This
+is a timid animal, feeding almost solely on fruits, and lying
+dormant during winter, at which period it is most frequently
+killed. It is an object of superstitious reverence to the Indians,
+who never kill it without apologizing and deploring the necessity
+which impels them to do so.</p>
+
+<p>The Himalayan black bear (<i>U. torquatus</i>) is found in the forest
+regions ranging from the Persian frontier eastward to Assam.
+The average length is about 5 ft.; there is no under-fur, and the
+coat is smooth, black in colour, with the exception of a white
+horseshoe-mark on the chest. It feeds chiefly on fruit and roots,
+but kills sheep, goats, deer, ponies and cattle, and sometimes
+devours carrion.</p>
+
+<p>The small bruang or Malayan bear (<i>Ursus malayanus</i>) is of a
+jet-black colour, with a white semilunar mark on the chest, and
+attains a length of 4½ ft. Its food consists almost solely of
+vegetables and honey, but the latter is its favourite food,&mdash;the
+extreme length and pliability of the tongue enabling it to scoop
+out the honeycombs from the hollows of trees. It is found in the
+Malay Peninsula and Islands, and is readily tamed.</p>
+
+<p>Not much larger than the Malay bear is the South American
+spectacled bear of the Andes (<i>U. ornatus</i>), distinguished from all
+the rest by the presence of a perforation in the lower end of the
+humerus, and hence sometimes separated as <i>Tremarctus</i>. It is
+black, with tawny rings round the eyes, and white cheeks, throat
+and chest. A second race or species exists.</p>
+
+<p>The sloth-bear (<i>Melursus labiatus</i> or <i>ursinus</i>) is distinguished
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span>
+by the absence of one pair of upper incisors, the small size of the
+cheek-teeth and the very extensile character of the lips. It is
+also known as the aswail and the honey-bear, the last name being
+also given to the Malay bear and the kinkajou. It is about the
+size of the brown bear, is covered with long, black hair, and of
+extremely uncouth aspect. It inhabits the mountainous regions
+of India, is readily tamed and is the bear usually exhibited by
+the Hindu jugglers. The food consists of fruits, honey and
+white ants.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of extinct bears first occur in strata of the
+Pliocene age. Those of the great cave bear (<i>Ursus spelaeus</i>),
+found abundantly in certain caverns of central Europe and Asia,
+show that it must have exceeded in size the polar bear of the
+present day. Its remains are also found in similar situations in
+Britain associated with those of an allied species (<i>Ursus priscus</i>).</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Lydekker, in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1897, p. 412.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAR-BAITING<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> and <b>BULL-BAITING,</b> sports formerly very
+popular in England but now suppressed on account of their
+cruelty. They took place in arenas built in the form of theatres
+which were the common resort even of cultivated people. In the
+bear-gardens, which are known to have existed since the time of
+Henry II., the bear was chained to a stake by one hind leg or by
+the neck and worried by dogs. Erasmus, writing (about 1500)
+from the house of Sir Thomas More, spoke of &ldquo;many herds of
+bears maintained in the country for the purpose of baiting.&rdquo;
+Sunday was the favourite day for these sports. Hentzner,
+writing in 1598, describes the bear-garden at Bankside as
+&ldquo;another place, built in the form of a theatre, which serves for
+the baiting of Bulls and Bears. They are fastened behind, and
+then worried by great English bull-dogs, but not without great
+risk to the dogs from the horns of the one and the teeth of the
+other, and it sometimes happens they are killed upon the spot;
+fresh ones are immediately supplied in the places of those that
+are wounded or tired.&rdquo; He also describes the whipping of a
+blinded bear, a favourite variation of bear-baiting. For a famous
+baiting which took place before Queen Elizabeth in 1575 thirteen
+bears were provided. Of it Robert Laneham (fl. 1575) wrote, &ldquo;it
+was a sport very pleasant to see, to see the bear, with his pink
+eyes, tearing after his enemies&rsquo; approach; the nimbleness and
+wait of the dog to take his advantage and the force and experience
+of the bear again to avoid his assaults: if he were bitten in one
+place how he would pinch in another to get free; that if he were
+taken once, then by what shift with biting, with clawing, with
+roaring, with tossing and tumbling he would work and wind
+himself from them; and when he was loose to shake his ears
+twice or thrice with the blood and the slaver hanging about his
+physiognomy.&rdquo; The famous &ldquo;Paris Garden&rdquo; in Southwark was
+the chief bear-garden in London. A Spanish nobleman of the
+time, who was taken to see a pony baited that had an ape tied to
+its back, expressed himself to the effect that &ldquo;to see the animal
+kicking amongst the dogs, with the screaming of the ape, beholding
+the curs hanging from the ears and neck of the pony, is very
+laughable.&rdquo; Butler describes a bear-baiting at length in the first
+canto of his <i>Hudibras</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Puritans endeavoured to put an end to animal-baiting,
+although Macaulay sarcastically suggested that this was &ldquo;not
+because it gave pain to the bear, but because it gave pleasure
+to the spectators.&rdquo; The efforts of the Puritans seem, however,
+to have had little effect, for we find the sport flourishing at the
+Restoration; but the conscience of cultivated people seems to
+have been touched, for Evelyn wrote in his <i>Diary</i>, under the date
+of June 16th, 1670: &ldquo;I went with some friends to the bear-garden,
+where was cock-fighting, dog-fighting, bear and bull baiting, it
+being a famous day for all these butcherly sports, or rather
+barbarous cruelties. The bulls did exceedingly well, but the
+Irish wolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall greyhound, a stately
+creature indeed, who beat a cruel mastiff. One of the bulls
+tossed a dog full into a lady&rsquo;s lap, as she sat in one of the boxes
+at a considerable height from the arena. Two poor dogs were
+killed, and so all ended with the ape on horseback, and I most
+heartily weary of the rude and dirty pastime, which I had not
+seen, I think, in twenty years before.&rdquo; Steele also attacked
+these cruel sports in the <i>Tatler</i>. Nevertheless, when the tsar
+Nicholas I. visited England as cesarevich, he was taken to see a
+prize-fight and a bull-baiting. In this latter form of the sport
+the bull&rsquo;s nose was usually blown full of pepper to render him
+the more furious. The bull was often allowed a hole in the
+ground, into which to thrust his nose and lips, his most vulnerable
+parts. Sometimes the bull was tethered, and dogs, trained
+for the purpose, set upon him one by one, a successful attack
+resulting in the dog fastening his teeth firmly in the bull&rsquo;s snout.
+This was called &ldquo;pinning the bull.&rdquo; A sport called bull-running
+was popular in several towns of England, particularly at Tutbury
+and Stamford. Its establishment at Tutbury was due to John
+of Gaunt, to whose minstrels, on the occasion of their annual
+festival on August 16th the prior of Tutbury, for his tenure,
+delivered a bull, which had his horns sawn off, his ears and tail
+cut off, his nostrils filled with pepper and his whole body smeared
+with soap. The minstrels gave chase to the bull, which became
+the property of any minstrel of the county of Stafford who
+succeeded in holding him long enough to cut off a lock of his hair.
+Otherwise he was returned to the prior. At the dissolution of
+the monasteries this tenure devolved upon the dukes of Devonshire,
+who suppressed it in 1788. At Stamford the running took
+place annually on November 13th, the bull being provided by
+the butchers of the town, the townspeople taking part in the
+chase, which was carried on until both people and beast were
+exhausted, and ended in the killing of the bull. Certain rules
+were strictly observed, such as the prohibition of carrying
+sticks or staves that were shod with iron. The Stamford
+bull-running survived well into the 19th century. Bear-baiting and
+bull-baiting were prohibited by act of parliament in 1835.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1825-1900), American
+painter, was born on the 13th of April 1825 at Painesville, Ohio.
+He studied abroad, and in 1861 removed to New York City,
+where in 1862 he became a member of the National Academy
+of Design. He was a prolific worker and a man of much
+inventiveness and originality, though of modest artistic endowment.
+His humorous treatment of cats, dogs, horses and monkeys,
+generally with some human occupation and expression, usually
+satirical, gave him a great vogue at one time, and his pictures
+were largely reproduced. His brother, James Henry Beard
+(1814-1893), was also a painter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEARD<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (A.S. <i>beard</i>, O.H. and Mod. Ger. <i>Bart</i>, Dan. <i>baard</i>,
+Icel. <i>bar</i>, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &amp;c., O. Slav, <i>barda</i>, Russ.
+<i>barodá</i>. Cf. Welsh <i>barf</i>, Lat. <i>barba</i>, though, according to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i>, the connexion is for phonetic reasons
+doubtful). Modern usage applies this word to the hair grown
+upon a man&rsquo;s chin and cheek. When the chin is shaven, what
+remains upon the cheeks is called whiskers. &ldquo;Moustache&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;moustaches&rdquo; describes the hair upon the upper lip. But the
+words have in the past had less exact meaning. Beard has
+stood alone for all these things, and whisker has in its time
+signified what we now call moustache, as in the case of Robinson
+Crusoe&rsquo;s great pair of &ldquo;Turkish whiskers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The bearded races of mankind have ever held the beard in
+high honour. It is the sign of full manhood; the lad or the
+eunuch is beardless, and the bearded woman is reckoned a witch,
+a loathsome thing to all ages. Also the beard shrinks from the
+profane hand; a tug at the beard is sudden pain and dishonour.
+The Roman senator sat like a carven thing until the wondering
+Goth touched his long beard; but then he struck, although he
+died for the blow. The future King John gave deadly offence
+to the native chieftains, when visiting Ireland in 1185, by
+plucking at their flowing beards.</p>
+
+<p>David&rsquo;s ambassadors had their beards despitefully shaven by
+a bold heathen. Their own king mercifully covered their shame&mdash;&ldquo;Tarry
+ye at Jericho until your beards be grown&rdquo;&mdash;but war
+answered the insult. The oath on the beard is as old as history,
+and we have an echo of it in the first English political ballad
+when Sir Simon de Montfort swears &ldquo;by his chin&rdquo; revenge on
+Warenne.</p>
+
+<p>Adam, our first father, was by tradition created with a beard:
+Zeus Allfather is bearded, and the old painters and carvers who
+hardily pictured the first person of the Trinity gave Him the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span>
+long beard of his fatherhood. The race-fathers have it and the
+ancient heroes. Abraham and Agamemnon, Woden and King
+Arthur and Charlemagne, must all be bearded in our pictures.
+With the Mahommedan peoples the beard as worn by an unshaven
+prophet has ever been in high renown, the more so that
+amongst most of the conquering tribes who first acknowledged
+the unity of God and prophethood of Mahomet it grows freely.
+But before Mahomet&rsquo;s day, kings of Persia had plaited their
+sacred beards with golden thread, and the lords of Nineveh had
+curiously curled and oiled beards such as their winged bull wears.
+Bohadin tells us that Saladin&rsquo;s little son wept for terror when
+he saw the crusaders&rsquo; envoys &ldquo;with their clean-shaven chins.&rdquo;
+Selim I. (1512-1521) comes down as a Turkish sultan who broke
+into holy custom and cut off his beard, telling a remonstrating
+Mufti that his vizier should now have nothing to lead him by.
+But such tampering with tradition has its dangers, and the
+absolute rule of Peter the Great is made clear when we know
+that he taxed Russian beards and shaved his own, and yet died
+in his bed. Alexander the Great did as much and more with his
+well-drilled Macedonians, and was obeyed when he bade them
+shave off the handle by which an enemy could seize them.</p>
+
+<p>With other traditions of their feudal age, the Japanese nation
+has broken with its ancient custom of the razor, and their
+emperor has beard and moustache; a short moustache is common
+amongst Japanese officers and statesmen, and generals and
+admirals of Nippon follow the imperial example. The Nearer
+East also is abandoning the full beard, even in Mahommedan
+lands. Earlier shahs of the Kajar house have glorious beards
+below their girdles, but Ná&#7779;iru&rsquo;d-Dín and his successor have
+shaved their chins. In later years the sultan of Turkey has
+added a beard to his moustache; the khedive of Egypt, son of
+a bearded father, has a soldier&rsquo;s moustache only. In Europe
+the great Russian people is faithful to the beard, Peter&rsquo;s law
+being forgotten. The tsar Alexander III.&rsquo;s beard might have
+satisfied Ivan the Terrible, whose hands played delightedly
+with the five-foot beard of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s agent George
+Killingworth. Indeed the royal houses of Europe are for the
+most part bearded or whiskered. It may be that the race of
+Olivier le Dain, of the man who can be trusted with a sharp
+razor near a crowned king&rsquo;s throat, is extinct. Leopold II.,
+king of the Belgians, however, was in 1909 the only sovereign
+with the full beard unclipped. The Austrian emperor, Francis
+Joseph, retained the moustache and whiskers of the &rsquo;sixties, and
+the German emperor, William II., for a short period,
+commemorated by a few very rare photographs, had a beard,
+although it was never suffered to reach the length of that beard
+which gave his father an air of Charlemagne or Barbarossa. In
+France bearded presidents have followed each other, but it may
+be noted that the waxed moustache and &ldquo;imperial&rdquo; beard of
+the Second Empire is now all but abandoned to the Frenchman
+of English comedy. The modern English fashion of shaving
+clean is rare in France save among actors, and during 1907
+many Parisian waiters struck against the rule which forbade
+them to grow the moustache.</p>
+
+<p>For the most part the clergy of the Roman obedience shave
+clean, as have done the popes for two centuries and more. But
+missionary bishops cultivate the long beard with some pride, and
+the orders have varying customs, the Dominican shaving and the
+Franciscan allowing the hair to grow. The Roman Catholic
+clergy of Dalmatia, secular and regular, are allowed to wear the
+moustache without beard or whiskers, as a concession to national
+prejudices.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst English people, always ready to be swayed by fashion,
+the hair of the face has been, age by age, cherished or shaved
+away, curled or clipped into a hundred devices. Before the
+immigration from Sleswick the Briton knew the use of the razor,
+sometimes shaving his chin, but leaving the moustaches long.
+The old English also wore moustaches and forked beards, but,
+save for aged men, the beard had passed out of fashion before the
+Norman Conquest. Thus, in the Bayeux needlework, Edward
+the king is venerable with a long beard, but Harold and his
+younger fighting men have their chins reaped. &ldquo;The English,&rdquo;
+says William of Malmesbury, &ldquo;leave the upper lip unshaven,
+suffering the hair continually to increase,&rdquo; and to Harold&rsquo;s spies
+the Conqueror&rsquo;s knights, who had &ldquo;the whole face with both lips
+shaven,&rdquo; were strange and priest-like. Matthew Paris had a
+strange idea that the beard was distinctive of Englishmen; he
+asserts that those who remained in England were compelled to
+shave their beards, while the native nobles who went into exile
+kept their beards and flowing locks &ldquo;like the Easterns and
+especially the Trojans.&rdquo; He even believed that &ldquo;William with
+the beard,&rdquo; who headed a rising in London under Richard I.,
+came of a stock which had scorned to shave, out of hatred for the
+Normans, a statement which Thierry developed.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Chanson de Roland</i> shows us &ldquo;the pride of France&rdquo; as
+&ldquo;that good bearded folk,&rdquo; with their beards hanging over coats
+of mail, and it makes the great emperor swear to Naimes by his
+beard. It was only about the year 1000, according to Rodolf
+Glaber, that men began in the north of France to wear short hair
+and shave &ldquo;like actors&rdquo;; and even in the Bayeux tapestry the
+old Norman shipwrights wear the beard. But so rare was hair on
+the face amongst the Norman invaders that William, the forefather
+of the Percys, was known in his lifetime and remembered
+after his death as William &ldquo;Asgernuns&rdquo; or &ldquo;Oht les gernuns,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;William with the moustaches,&rdquo; the epithet revived by one
+of his descendants making our modern name of Algernon. Count
+Eustace of Boulogne was similarly distinguished. Fashion swung
+about after the Conquest, and, in the day of Henry I., Serle the
+bishop could compare bearded men of the Norman-English court
+with &ldquo;filthy goats and bristly Saracens.&rdquo; The crusades, perhaps,
+were accountable for the beards which were oddly denounced as
+effeminate in the young courtiers of William Rufus. Not only
+the Greeks but the Latins in the East sometimes adopted the
+Saracen fashion, and the siege of Antioch (1098) was as unfavourable
+to the use of the razor as that of Sevastopol. When the
+Latins stormed the town by night, bearded knights owed their
+death to the assumption that every Christian would be a shaven
+man. But for more than four centuries diversity is allowed,
+beards, moustaches and shaven faces being found side by side,
+although now and again one fashion or another comes uppermost
+to be followed by those nice in such matters. Henry II. is a close-shaven
+king, and Richard II.&rsquo;s effigy shows but a little tuft on
+each side of the chin, tufts which are two curled locks on the chin
+of Henry IV. But Henry III. is long-bearded, Edward II. curls
+his beard in three great ringlets, and the third Edward&rsquo;s long
+forked beard flows down his breast in patriarchal style. The
+mid-13th century, as seen in the drawings attributed to Matthew
+Paris, is an age of many full and curled beards, although the
+region about the lips is sometimes clipped or shaved. The beard
+is common in the 14th century, the forked pattern being favoured
+and the long drooping moustache. Amongst those who ride with
+him to Canterbury, Chaucer, a bearded poet, notes the merchant&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;forked beard,&rdquo; the white beard of the franklin and the red beard
+of the miller, but the reeve&rsquo;s beard is &ldquo;shave as ny as ever he
+can.&rdquo; Henry of Monmouth and his son are shaven, and thereafter
+beards are rare save with a few old folk until they come
+slowly back with the 16th century. In Ireland the statute
+enacted by a parliament at Trim in 1447 recited that no manner
+of man who will be taken for an Englishman should have beard
+above his mouth&mdash;the upper lip must be shaven at least every
+fortnight or be of equal growth with the nether lip,&mdash;and this
+statute remained unrepealed for nigh upon two hundred years.
+Henry VIII., always a law to himself, brought back the beard to
+favour, Stowe&rsquo;s annals giving 1535 as the year in which he caused
+his beard &ldquo;to be knotted and no more shaven,&rdquo; his hair being
+polled at the same time. Many portraits give his fashion of
+wearing a thin moustache, whose ends met a short and squarely
+trimmed beard parted at the chin, a fashion in which he was
+followed by his brother-in-law Charles Brandon. But it is
+remarkable that those about him rarely imitated their most dread
+sovereign. While Cromwell and Howard the Admiral go clean
+shaven, the Seymour brothers, Denny and Russell, have the
+beard long and flowing. Even the forty shilling a year man, says
+Hooper in 1548, will waste his morning time while he sets his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span>
+beard in order. About this time the clergy began to break with
+the long tradition of smooth faces. A priest in 1531 is
+commanded to abstain from wearing a beard, and Cardinal Pole,
+coming from the court of a bearded pope, appears bearded like a
+Greek patriarch. The law too, the church&rsquo;s kinswoman, begins
+to forbid, a sign of the change, and from 1542 the society of
+Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn makes rules for fining and expelling those who
+appear bearded at their mess, rules which the example of exalted
+lawyers caused to be withdrawn in 1560.</p>
+
+<p>The age of Elizabeth saw lawyers, soldiers, courtiers and
+merchants all bearded. Her Cecils, Greshams, Raleighs, Drakes,
+Dudleys and Walsinghams have the beard. A shaven chin such
+as that seen in the portrait of Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, is
+rare, but the beards take a hundred fashions, and satirists and
+Puritan pamphleteers were busy with them and with the men
+who wasted hours in perfuming or starching them, in dusting
+them with orris powder, in curling them with irons and quills.
+Stubbs gives them a place amongst his abuses. &ldquo;It is a world to
+consider how their mowchatowes must be preserved or laid out
+from one cheek to another and turned up like two horns towards
+the forehead.&rdquo; Of the English variety of beards Harrison has a
+good word: &ldquo;beards of which some are shaven from the chin
+like those of Turks, not a few cut short like to the beard of
+Marquess Otto, some made round like a rubbing brush, others
+with a <i>pique de vant</i> (O! fine fashion) or now and then suffered to
+grow long, the barbers being grown to be so cunning in this behalf
+as the tailors. And therefore if a man have a lean and straight
+face, a Marquess Otto&rsquo;s cut will make it broad and large; if it
+be platter-like, a long slender beard will make it seem the
+narrower; if he be weasel-becked, then much hair left on the
+cheeks will make the owner look big like a bowdled hen, and as
+grim as a goose, if Cornelis of Chelmersford say true.&rdquo; Nevertheless
+he adds that &ldquo;many old men do wear no beards at all.&rdquo; The
+Elizabethan fashions continued under King James, the beard
+trimmed to a point being common wear; but under King
+Charles there is a certain reaction, and the royal style of shaving
+the cheeks and leaving the moustache whose points sweep upward
+and the chin beard like a downward flame is followed by most
+of the gentry. With some the beard disappears altogether or
+remains a mere fleck below the lip. Archbishop Laud has a
+cavalier-like chin tuft and upturned moustache, but Abbot his
+predecessor wore the spade beard, the &ldquo;cathedral beard&rdquo; of
+Randle Holme, seen in all its dignity on the Chigwell brass of
+Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (died 1631), a grim figure
+with his angry moustache and a long and broad beard, cut square
+at the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>From the Restoration year the razor comes more into use.
+Young men shave clean. The restored king curls a few dark hairs
+of a moustache over each cheek, but his brother James is shaven.
+With the reign of Queen Anne the country enters the beardless
+age, and beards, moustaches and whiskers are no more seen. In
+the 18th century the moustache indicated a soldier from beyond
+sea. A Jew or a Turk was known by the beard, an appendage
+loathsome as comic. Matthew Robinson, the second Lord Rokeby,
+was indeed wearing a beard in 1798, but he was reckoned a madman
+therefor, and Phillips&rsquo;s <i>Public Character</i> pictures him as
+&ldquo;the only peer and perhaps the only gentleman of either Great
+Britain or Ireland who is thus distinguished.&rdquo; That George III.
+in his madness should have been left unshaved was a circumstance
+of his misery that wrung the hearts of all loyal folk. But in the
+very year of 1798, when Lord Rokeby&rsquo;s image was engraved for
+the curious, the Worcestershire militia officers quartered near
+Brighton were copying the Austrian moustache of the foreign
+troops, and we may note that the hair of the face, which
+disappeared when wigs came in, began to reappear as wigs went out.
+Early in the 19th century the bucks began to show a patch of
+whisker beside the ear, and the soldier&rsquo;s moustache became a
+common sight. Before Waterloo, guardsmen were complaining
+that officers of humbler regiments imitated their fashion of the
+moustache, and by the Waterloo year most young cavalry
+officers were moustached. The Horse Artillery were the next
+moustached corps, the rest of the army, already whiskered,
+following their example in the &rsquo;fifties. But for a civilian to grow
+a moustache was long reckoned a piece of unseemly swagger.
+Clive Newcome, it will be remembered, wore one until the
+taunting question whether he was &ldquo;going in the Guards&rdquo; shamed
+him into shaving clean. When in 1840 Mr George Frederick
+Muntz appeared in parliament with a full beard there were those
+who felt that this tall Radical had taken his own strange method
+of insulting English parliamentary institutions. James Ward,
+R.A. (d. 1859), painter of animals, was another breaker of the
+unwritten law, defending his beard in a pamphlet of eighteen
+arguments as a thing pleasing at once to the artist and to his
+Creator. Freedom in these matters only came when the troops
+were home from the Crimea, when officers who had grown beards
+and acquired the taste for tobacco during the long months in the
+trenches showed their beards and their cigars in Piccadilly. Then
+came the Volunteer movement, and every man was a soldier,
+taking a soldier&rsquo;s licence. The dominant fashion was the
+moustache, worn with long and drooping whiskers. But the
+&ldquo;Piccadilly weepers&rdquo; of the &rsquo;sixties were out of the mode for
+the younger men when the &rsquo;eighties began, and by the end of the
+century whiskers were seen in the army only upon a few veteran
+officers. The fashion of clean shaving had made some way, the
+popularity of the shaven actor having a part in this. In 1909 all
+modes of dealing with the hair of the face might be recognized,
+but the full beard had become somewhat rare in England and the
+full whiskers rarer still. The upper class showed an inclination
+to shave clean, although the army grudgingly recognized a rule
+which ordered the moustache to be worn. Naval men, by
+regulation, shaved or wore both beard and moustache, but their
+beards were always trimmed. Most barristers shaved the lips,
+although the last judge unable to hear an advocate whose voice a
+moustache interrupted had left the bench. Clergymen followed
+the lay fashions as they did under the first Stuart kings, although
+there was still some prejudice against the moustache as an
+ornament military and inappropriate. A newspaper of 1857,
+describing the appearance of Livingstone the missionary at a
+Mansion House meeting, records that he came wearing a
+moustache, &ldquo;braving the prejudices of his countrymen and thus
+evincing a courage only inferior to that exhibited by him amongst
+the savages of Central Africa.&rdquo; Even as late as 1884 the <i>Pall
+Mall Gazette</i> has some surprised comments on the beard of Bishop
+Ryle, newly consecrated to the see of Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p>The footman, whose full-dress livery is the court dress of a
+hundred years ago, must show no more than the rudimentary
+whisker of the early eighteen-hundreds, and butler, coachman
+and groom come under the same rule. The jockey and the hunt
+whip are shaven likewise, but the courier has the whiskers and
+moustache that once marked him as a foreigner in the English
+milor&rsquo;s service, and the chauffeur, a servant with no tradition
+behind him, is often moustached.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we may speak of the practice of the royal house since
+England came out of the beardless century. The regent took
+the new fashion, and sat &ldquo;in whiskered state,&rdquo; but his brother
+and successor shaved clean and disliked even the hussar&rsquo;s
+moustache. The prince consort wore the moustache as a young
+man, adding whiskers in later years. King Edward VII. wore
+moustache and trimmed beard, and his heir apparent also
+followed the fashion of many fellow admirals.</p>
+<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1872-1898), English
+artist in black and white, was born at Brighton on the 24th of
+August 1872. In 1883 his family settled in London, and in the
+following year he appeared in public as an &ldquo;infant musical
+phenomenon,&rdquo; playing at several concerts with his sister. In
+1888 he obtained a post in an architect&rsquo;s office, and afterwards
+one in the Guardian Life and Fire Insurance Company (1889).
+In 1891, under the advice of Sir Edward Burne-Jones and Puvis
+de Chavannes, he took up art as a profession. In 1892 he
+attended the classes at the Westminster School of Art, then under
+Professor Brown; and from 1893 until his death, at Mentone, on
+the 16th of March 1898, his work came continually before the
+public, arousing a storm of criticism and much hostile feeling.
+Beardsley had an unswerving tendency towards the fantastic of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span>
+the gloomier and &ldquo;unwholesome&rdquo; sort. His treatment of most
+subjects was revolutionary; he deliberately ignored proportion
+and perspective, and the &ldquo;freedom from convention&rdquo; which he
+displayed caused his work to be judged with harshness. In
+certain phases of technique he especially excelled; and his earlier
+methods of dealing with the single line in conjunction with masses
+of black are in their way unsurpassed, except in the art of Japan,
+the country which probably gave his ideas some assistance. He
+was always an ornamentist, rather than an illustrator; and his
+work must be judged from that point of view. His frontispiece
+to <i>Volpone</i> is held by some to be, from this purely technical
+standpoint, one of the best pen-drawings of the age. His posters
+for the Avenue theatre and for Mr Fisher Unwin were among the
+first of the modern cult of that art.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are the chief works which are illustrated with
+drawings by Beardsley: the <i>Bon Mot</i> Library, <i>The Pall Mall
+Budget</i>, and <i>The Studio</i> (1893), Sir Thomas Malory&rsquo;s <i>Morte d&rsquo;Arthur</i>
+(1893-1894), <i>Salomé</i> (1894), <i>The Yellow Book</i> (1894-1895), <i>The Savoy
+Magazine</i> (1896), <i>The Rape of the Lock</i> (1896).</p>
+
+<p>See also J. Pennell, <i>The Studio</i> (1893); Symons, <i>Aubrey Beardsley</i>
+(1898); R. Ross, <i>Volpone</i> (1898); H.C. Marillier, <i>The Early Work
+of Aubrey Beardsley</i> (1899); Smithers, <i>Reproductions of Drawings by
+Aubrey Beardsley</i>; John Lane, <i>The Later Works of Aubrey Beardsley</i>
+(1901); R. Ross, <i>Aubrey Beardsley</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEARDSTOWN,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> a city of Cass county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the
+W. part of the state, on the E. bank of the Illinois river, about
+111 m. N. of St Louis, Missouri. It is served by the Baltimore
+&amp; Ohio South-Western, and the Burlington (Chicago, Burlington
+&amp; Quincy) railways, and by steamboats plying between it and
+St. Louis. Pop. (1890) 4226; (1900) 4827 (444 foreign-born);
+(1910) 6107. The industrial establishments of the city include
+flour, planing and saw mills, the machine shops (of the St Louis
+division) of the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy railway, ice
+factories, pearl button factories and a shoe factory. The fishing
+interests are also important. Beardstown was laid out in 1827
+and was incorporated as a city in 1896. It was named in honour
+of Thomas Beard, who settled in the vicinity in 1820. During
+the Black Hawk War (1832) it was a base of supplies for the
+Illinois troops. The old court house in which Abraham Lincoln,
+in 1854, won his famous &ldquo;Armstrong murder case,&rdquo; is now used
+for a city hall.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEARER,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> strictly &ldquo;one who carries,&rdquo; a term used in India
+for a palanquin-bearer, and now especially for a body-servant.
+The term is also used in connexion with military ambulances,
+and &ldquo;bearer&rdquo; companies formed part of the Royal Army
+Medical Corps until amalgamated with the field-hospitals to
+form field-ambulances (1905). In banking and commerce the
+word is applied to the holder or presenter of a cheque or draft
+not made payable to a specific person; it has also a technical
+use, as in printing, of anything that supports pressure in
+machinery, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEARINGS<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span>. In engineering a &ldquo;bearing&rdquo; is that particular
+kind of support which, besides carrying the load imposed upon
+it by the shaft associated with it, allows the shaft freedom
+to revolve. Or, put in another way, a bearing forms with the
+shaft a pair of elements having one degree of freedom to turn
+relatively to one another about their common axis. The part
+of the shaft in the bearing is commonly called the <i>journal</i>. The
+component parts of a small bearing, pillow block, plummer
+block or pedestal, as it is variously styled, are illustrated in
+fig. 1, and these parts, put together, are further illustrated in
+fig. 2 with the shaft added. Corresponding parts are similarly
+lettered in the two illustrations. The shaft (S) is encircled by the
+<i>brasses</i> (B<span class="su">1</span> and B<span class="su">2</span>) made of gun metal, phosphor bronze or other
+suitable material. The lower brass fits into the main casting
+(A) in the semicircular seat provided for it, and is prevented from
+moving endways by the flanges (F, F) and from turning with the
+shaft by the projections (P, P), which fit into corresponding
+recesses in the casting (A), one of which is shown at <i>p</i>. After the
+shaft has been placed in position, the upper brass (B<span class="su">2</span>) and the
+cap (C) are put on and both are held in place by the bolts (Q<span class="su">1</span>, Q<span class="su">2</span>).
+The brasses are bedded into the main casting (A) and the cap (C)
+respectively at the surfaces D, D, D, D. The complete bearing
+is held to the framework of the machine by bolts (R<span class="su">1</span>, R<span class="su">2</span>) passing
+through holes (H, H) which are slotted to allow endwise adjustment
+of the whole bearing in order to facilitate the alignment of
+the shaft. Oil or other lubricant is introduced through the hole
+(G), and it passes
+through the top
+brass to grooves
+or oilways cut into
+the surface of the
+brass for the purpose
+of distributing
+the oil uniformly to
+the journal.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:361px; height:401px" src="images/img578a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Some form of
+lubricator is usually
+fitted at G in order
+to supply oil to the
+bearing continuously.
+A form of
+lubricator used for
+this purpose is
+shown in place, fig.
+2, and an enlarged
+section is shown in
+fig. 3. It will be
+seen that the lubricator
+consists essentially of a cup the base of which is pierced
+centrally by a tube which reaches to within a small distance of
+the lid of the cup inside, and projects into the oilway leading
+to the journal outside. The annular space round the tube inside
+is filled with oil which is transferred to the central tube and
+thence to the bearing by the capillary action of a cotton wick
+thrust down on a piece of wire. It is only necessary to withdraw
+the wick from the central tube to stop the supply of oil.
+The lubricator is fitted through a hole in the lid which is usually
+plugged with a piece of cane or closed by more elaborate means.
+A line of shafting would be supported by several bearings of the
+kind illustrated, themselves supported by brackets projecting
+from or rigidly fixed to the walls of the workshop, or on frames
+resting on the floor, or on hangers attached to the roof girders
+or principals.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:498px; height:213px" src="images/img578b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 130px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:80px; height:145px" src="images/img578c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In bearings of modern design for supporting a line shaft the
+general arrangement shown in fig. 1 is modified so that the
+alignments of the shaft can be made both vertically or horizontally
+by means of adjusting screws, and the brass is jointed with
+the supporting main body so that it is free to follow the small
+deflections of the shaft which take place when the shaft is working.
+Another modern improvement is the formation
+of an oil reservoir or well in the base of the
+bearing itself, and the transference of the oil from
+this well to the shaft by means of one or two rings
+riding loosely on the shaft. The bottom part of
+the ring dips into the oil contained in the well of
+the bearing and, as the shaft rotates, the ring rolls
+on the shaft and thus carries oil up to the shaft
+continuously, from which it finds its way to the surfaces
+of the shaft and bearing in contact. It should be
+understood that the upper brass is slotted crossways to allow
+the ring to rest on the shaft. When the direction of the load
+carried by the bearing is constant it is unnecessary to provide
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span>
+more than one brass, and the construction is modified accordingly.
+Figs. 4 and 5 show an axle box used for goods wagons on the
+Great Eastern railway, and they also illustrate the method of
+pad lubrication in general use for this kind of bearing. The
+main casting, A, is now uppermost, and is designed so that the
+upper part supports and constrains the spring buckle through
+which the load W is transmitted to the bearing, and the lower
+part inside is arranged to support the brass, B. The brass is
+jointed freely with the main casting by means of a hemispherical
+hump resting in a corresponding recess in the casting. What
+may be called the cap, C, forms the lower part of the axle box,
+but instead of supporting a second brass it is formed into an oil
+reservoir in which is arranged a pad of cotton wick woven on a
+tin frame. The upper part of the pad is formed into a kind of
+brush, shaped to fit the underside of the journal, whilst the lower
+part consists of streamers of wick resting in the oil. The oil is
+fed to the brush by the capillary action of the streamers. The
+reservoirs are filled with oil through the apertures P and O.
+The bottom cap is held in position by the T-headed bolts
+Q<span class="su">1</span> and Q<span class="su">2</span> (fig. 5). By slackening the nuts and turning the T-heads
+fair with the slots in the cap, the cap comes right away
+and the axle may be examined. A leather ring L is fitted as
+shown to prevent dust from entering the axle box.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:545px; height:542px" src="images/img579a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:536px" src="images/img579b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:288px; height:456px" src="images/img579c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Footsteps</i>.&mdash;A bearing arranged to support the lower end of
+a vertical shaft is called a footstep, sometimes a pivot bearing.
+A simple form of footstep is shown in fig 6. A casting A,
+designed so that it can be conveniently bolted to a foundation
+block, cross beam, or bracket is bored out and fitted with a
+brass B, which is turned inside to carry the end of the shaft S.
+The whole vertical load on the shaft is carried by the footstep,
+so that it is important to arrange efficient lubricating apparatus.
+Results of experiments made on a footstep, reported in <i>Proc.
+Inst. Mech. Eng.</i>, 1891, show that if a diametral groove be cut
+in the brass, as indicated at <i>g</i> (fig 6), and if the oil is led to the
+centre of this groove by a channel <i>c</i> communicating with the
+exterior, the rotation of the shaft draws in a plentiful supply of
+oil which radiates from the
+centre and makes its way
+vertically between the shaft
+and the brass and finally
+overflows at the top of the
+brass. The overflowing oil
+may be led away and may
+be re-introduced into the
+footsteps at <i>c</i>. The rotation
+of the shaft thus causes
+a continuous circulation of
+oil through the footstep.
+One experiment from the
+report mentioned above
+may be quoted. A 3-in.
+shaft, revolving 128 times
+per minute and supported
+on a manganese bronze
+bearing lubricated in the
+way explained above sustained
+increasing loads
+until, at a load of 300
+pounds per square inch of
+the area of the end of the
+shaft, it seized. The
+mechanical details of a footstep may be varied for purposes of
+adjustment in a variety of ways similarly to the variations of a
+common bearing already explained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thrust Block Bearing</i>.&mdash;In cases where a bearing is required to
+resist a longitudinal movement of the shaft through it, as for
+example in the case of the propeller shaft of a marine engine or a
+vertical shaft supporting a heavy load not carried on a footstep,
+the shaft is provided with one or more collars which are grooved
+with corresponding recesses in the brasses of the bearing. A
+general sketch of a thrust block for a propeller shaft is shown in
+fig. 7. There are seven collars turned on the shaft and into the
+circumferential grooves between them fit corresponding
+circumferential projections on the brasses, these projections being
+formed in the case illustrated by means of half rings which are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span>
+fitted into grooves turned in the brasses. This method of
+construction allows an individual ring to be replaced or adjusted
+if it should get hot. The total area of the rubbing surfaces should
+be proportioned so that the average load is not more than from 50
+to 70 &#8468; per sq. in. Arrangements are usually made for cooling a
+thrust block with water in case of heating. The spindles of
+drilling machines, boring machine spindles, turbine shafts may be
+cited as examples of vertical shafts supported on one collar.
+Experiments on the friction of a collar bearing have been made
+by the Research Committee of the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers (<i>Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.</i>, 1888).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:512px; height:170px" src="images/img579d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Roller and Ball Bearings</i>.&mdash;If rollers are placed between two
+surfaces having relative tangential motion the frictional resistance
+to be overcome is the small resistance to rolling. The rollers move
+along with a velocity equal to one half the relative velocity of the
+surfaces. This way of reducing frictional resistance has been
+applied to all kinds of mechanical contrivances, including bearings
+for shafts, railway axle boxes, and axle boxes for tramcars. An
+example of a roller bearing for a line shaft is illustrated in figs. 8
+and 9. The main casting, A, and cap, C, bolted together, form a
+spherical seating for the part of the bearing E corresponding to
+the brasses in a bearing of the usual type. Between the inside of
+the casting E and the journal are placed rollers held in position
+relatively to one another by a &ldquo;squirrel cage&rdquo; casting, the
+section of the bars of which are clearly shown in the half sectional
+elevation, fig. 9. This squirrel cage ensures that the several axes
+of the rollers keep parallel to the axis of the journal during the
+rolling motion. The rollers are made of hard tool steel, and the
+surfaces of the journal and bearing between which they roll are
+hardened.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:523px; height:177px" src="images/img580a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Two rings of balls may be used instead of a single ring of
+rollers, and the kind of ball bearing thus obtained is in general
+use principally in connexion with bicycles and motor cars (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bicycle</a></span>). In ball bearings the load is concentrated at a few
+points, the points where the balls touch the race, and in the roller
+bearing at a few lines, the lines of contact between the rollers and
+the surfaces of the journal and bearing; consequently the load
+which bearings of this kind carry must not be great enough to
+cause any indentation at the points or lines of contact. Both
+rollers and balls, and the paths on which they roll, therefore, are
+made of hard material; further, balls and rollers must all be
+exactly the same size in an individual bearing in order to distribute
+the load between the points or lines of contact as uniformly
+as possible. The finest workmanship is required therefore
+to make good roller or good ball bearings.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:213px; height:282px" src="images/img580b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Bearings for High Speeds and Forced Lubrication</i>.&mdash;When the
+shaft turns the metallic surfaces of the brass and the journal are
+prevented from actual contact by a film of oil which is formed and
+maintained by the motion of the shaft and which sustains the
+pressure between the journal and the brass provided the surfaces
+are accurately formed and the supply of oil is unlimited. This
+film changes what would otherwise be the friction between
+metallic surfaces into a viscous resistance within the film itself.
+When through a limited supply of oil or imperfect lubrication
+this film is imperfect or fails altogether and allows the journal to
+make metallic contact with the brass, the friction increases; and
+it may increase so much that the bearing rapidly becomes hot and
+may ultimately seize, that is to say the rubbing surfaces may
+become stuck together. With the object of reducing the friction
+at the points of metallic contact and of confining the damage of a
+hot bearing to the easily renewable brass, the latter is partially,
+sometimes wholly, lined with a soft fusible metal, technically
+known as white metal, which melts away before actual seizure
+takes place, and thus saves the journal which is more expensive
+because it is generally formed on a large and expensive shaft.
+However perfectly the film fulfils its function, the work required
+to overcome the viscous resistance of the film during the continuous
+rotation of the shaft appears as heat, and in consequence
+the temperature of the bearing gradually rises until the rate at
+which heat is produced is equal to the rate at which it is radiated
+from the bearing. Hence in order that a journal may revolve
+with a minimum resistance and without undue heating two
+precautions must be taken: (1) means must be taken to ensure
+that the film of oil is complete and never fails; and (2) arrangements
+must be made for controlling the temperature should it rise
+too high. The various lubricating devices already explained
+supply sufficient oil to form a partial film, since experiments have
+shown that the friction of bearings lubricated in this way is akin
+to solid friction, thus indicating at least partial metallic contact.
+In order to supply enough oil to form and maintain a film with
+certainty the journal should be run in an oil bath, or oil should be
+supplied to the bearing under pressure sufficient to force it in
+between the surfaces against the load. A bearing to which forced
+lubrication and water cooling are applied is illustrated in fig. 10,
+which represents one of the bearings of a Westinghouse turbo-alternator
+installed at the power station of the Underground
+Electric Railways Company of London at Lots Road, Chelsea.
+Oil flows under pressure from a tank
+on the top of a tower along a supply
+pipe to the oil inlet O, and after
+passing through the bearing and
+performing its duty as a film it falls
+away from each end of the journal
+into the bottom of the main casting,
+from which a pipe, E, conveys the
+oil back to the base of the tank tower
+where it is cooled and finally pumped
+back into the tank. There is thus a
+continuous circulation of oil through
+the bearing. The space C is for cooling
+water; in fact the bearing is water
+jacketed and the jacket is connected
+to a supply pipe and a drain pipe so
+that a continuous circulation may be
+maintained if desired. This bearing is 12 in. in diameter and
+48 in. long, and it carries a load of about 12.8 tons. The rise in
+temperature of the bearing under normal conditions of working
+without water circulating in the jacket is approximately 38° F.
+The speed of rotation is such that the surface velocity is about
+50 ft. per second.</p>
+
+<p>Forced lubrication in connexion with the bearings of high-speed
+engines was introduced in 1890 by Messrs Belliss &amp; Morcom,
+Ltd., under patents taken out in the name of A.C. Pain. It
+should be understood that providing the film of oil in the bearing
+of an engine can be properly maintained a double-acting engine
+can be driven at a high speed without any knocking, and without
+perceptible wear of the rubbing surfaces. Fig. 11 shows that the
+general arrangement of the bearings of a Belliss &amp; Morcom
+engine arranged for forced lubrication. A small force-pump F,
+driven from the eccentric strap X, delivers oil into the pipe P,
+along which it passes to A, the centre of the right-hand main
+bearing. There is a groove turned on the inside of the brass
+from which a slanting hole leads to B. The oil when it arrives
+at A thus has two paths open to it, one to the right and left of
+the groove through the bearing, the other along the slanting
+hole to B. At B it divides again into two streams, one stream
+going upwards to the eccentric sheave, and a part continuing
+up the pipe Q to the eccentric pin. The second stream from B
+follows the slanting hole in the crank shaft to C, where it is led
+to the big end journal through the pipe R to the crosshead pin,
+and through the slanting hole to D, where it finds its way into the
+left main bearing. The oil forced through each bearing falls
+away to the right and to the left of the journal and drops into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span>
+the bottom of the engine framing, whence it is again fed to the
+pump through a strainer. The parts of an engine lubricated in
+this way must be entirely enclosed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:359px; height:637px" src="images/img581a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Load on bearings.</i>&mdash;The distribution of pressure over the
+film of lubricant separating the rubbing surfaces of a
+bearing is variable, being greatest at a point near but not
+at the crown of the brass, and falling away to zero in all
+directions towards the boundaries of the film. It is usual
+in practice to ignore this variation of pressure through
+the film, and to indicate the severity with which the
+bearing is loaded by stating the load per square inch of
+the rubbing surfaces projected on to the diametral
+plane of the journal. Thus the projected area of the
+surfaces of a journal 6 in. in diameter and 8 in. long is
+48 sq. in., and if the total load carried by the bearing is 20,000 pounds, the
+bearing would be said to carry a load of 417 pounds per square
+inch. When a shaft rotates in a bearing continuously in one
+direction the load per square inch with which it is safe to load
+the bearing in order to avoid undue heating is much less than if
+the motion is intermittent. A table of a few values of the bearing
+loads used in practice is given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lubricants</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Bearing Friction.</i>&mdash;If W is the total load on a bearing, and if µ is
+the coefficient of friction between the rubbing surfaces, the tangential
+resistance to turning is expressed by the product µW. If v is the
+relative velocity of the rubbing surfaces, the work done per second
+against friction is µWv foot pounds. This quantity of work is converted
+into heat, and the heat produced per second is therefore
+µWv/778 British Thermal Units. The coefficient µ is a variable
+quantity, and bearing in mind that a properly lubricated journal is
+separated from its supporting brass by a film of lubricant it might
+be expected that µ would have values characteristic of the coefficient
+of friction between two metallic surfaces, merging into the
+characteristics properly belonging to fluid friction, according as the
+oil film varied from an imperfect to a perfect condition, that is,
+according as the lubrication is partial or complete, completeness
+being attained by the use of an oil bath or by some method of forced
+lubrication. This expectation is entirely borne out by experimental
+researches. Beauchamp Tower (&ldquo;Report on Friction Experiments,&rdquo;
+<i>Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.</i>, November 1883) found that when oil was
+supplied to a bearing by means of a pad the coefficient of friction
+was approximately constant with the value of <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">100</span>, thus following the
+law of solid friction; but when the journal was lubricated by means
+of an oil bath the coefficient of friction varied nearly inversely as
+the load on the bearing, thus making µW = constant. The tangential
+resistance in this case is characteristic of fluid friction since it is
+independent of the pressure. Tower&rsquo;s experiments were carried
+out at a nearly constant temperature. The later experiments of
+O. Lasche (<i>Zeitsch. Verein deutsche Ingenieure</i>, 1902, 46,
+pp. 1881 et seq.) show how µ depends upon the temperature. Lasche&rsquo;s main
+results with regard to the variation of µ are briefly:&mdash;µW is a constant
+quantity, thus confirming Tower&rsquo;s earlier experiments; µ is
+practically independent of the relative velocity of the rubbing
+surfaces within the limits of 3 to 50 ft. per second; and the
+product µt is constant, t being the temperature of the bearing.
+Writing p for the load per unit of projected area of the bearing,
+Lasche found that the result of the experiments could be expressed
+by the simple formula pµt = constant = 2, where p = the pressure in
+kilograms per square centimetre, and t = the temperature in degrees
+centigrade. If p is changed to pounds per square inch the constant
+in the expression is approximately 30. The expression is valid
+between limits of pressure 14 to 213 pounds per square inch, limits of
+temperature 30° to 100° C., and between limits of velocity 3 to 50 ft.
+per second.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:280px; height:265px" src="images/img581b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Theory of Lubrication.</i>&mdash;After the publication of Tower&rsquo;s
+experiments on journal friction Professor Osborne Reynolds showed
+(<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1886, p. 157) that the facts observed in connexion
+with a journal lubricated by means of an oil bath could be explained by
+a theory based upon the general principles of the motion of a viscous
+fluid. It is first established as an essential part of the theory that
+the radius of the brass must be slightly greater than the radius of
+the journal as indicated in fig. 12, where J is the centre of the journal
+and I the centre of the brass. Given this difference of curvature
+and a sufficient supply of oil, the rotation of the journal
+produces and maintains an oil film between the rubbing
+surfaces, the circumferential extent of which depends upon
+the rate of the oil supply and the external load. With an
+unlimited supply of oil, that is with oil-bath lubrication, the
+film extends continuously to the extremities of the brass,
+unless such extension would lead to negative pressures and
+therefore to a discontinuity, in which case the film ends
+where the pressures in the film become negative. The
+minimum distance between the journal and the brass occurs at
+the point H (fig. 12), on the off side of the point O where the line
+of action of the load cuts the surface of the journal. To the right
+and left of H the thickness of the film gradually increases, this being
+the condition that the oil-flow to and from the film may be
+automatically maintained. With an unlimited supply of oil the point H
+moves farther from O as the load increases until it reaches a
+maximum distance, and then it moves back again towards O as the
+load is further increased until a limiting load is reached at which
+the pressure in the film becomes negative at the boundaries of the
+film, when the boundaries recede from the edges of the brass as
+though the supply of oil were limited.</p>
+
+<p>In the mathematical development of the theory it is first necessary
+to define the coefficient of viscosity. This is done as follows:&mdash;If
+two parallel surfaces AB, CD are separated by a viscous film, and if
+whilst CD is fixed AB moves in a tangential direction with velocity
+U, the surface of the film in contact with CD clings to it and remains
+at rest, whilst the lower surface of the film clings to and moves with
+the surface AB. At intermediate points in the film the tangential
+motion of the fluid will vary uniformly from zero to U, and the
+tangential resistance will be F = µU/h, where µ is the coefficient of
+viscosity and h is the thickness of the film. With this definition of
+viscosity and from the general equations representing the stress in
+a viscous fluid, the following equation is established, giving the
+relations between p, the pressure at any point in the film, h the
+thickness of the film at a point x measured round the circumference of
+the journal in the direction of relative motion, and U the relative
+tangential velocity of the surfaces,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">(</span>h³</td> <td>dp</td>
+ <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">)</span> = 6µU</td> <td>dh</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">dx</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">In this equation all the quantities are independent of the co-ordinate
+parallel to the axis of the journal, and U is constant. The thickness
+of the film h is some function of x, and for a journal Professor
+Reynolds takes the form,</p>
+
+<p class="center">h = a {1 + c sin(&theta; &minus; &phi;<span class="su">0</span>)},</p>
+
+<p class="noind">in which the various quantities have the significance indicated in
+fig. 12. Reducing and integrating equation (1) with this value of h
+it becomes</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dp</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>6RµUc {sin(&theta; &minus; &phi;<span class="su">0</span>) &minus; sin(&phi;<span class="su">1</span> &minus; &phi;<span class="su">0</span>)}</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">d&theta;</td> <td class="denom">a²{1 + c sin(&theta; &minus; &phi;<span class="su">0</span>)}³</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">&phi;<span class="su">1</span> being the value of &theta; for which the pressure is a maximum. In
+order to integrate this the right-hand side is expanded into a
+trigonometrical series, the values of the coefficients are computed, and the
+integration is effected term by term. If, as suggested by Professor
+J. Perry, the value of h is taken to be h = h<span class="su">0</span> + ax², where h<span class="su">0</span>
+is the minimum thickness of the film, the equation reduces to the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>dp</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>6µU</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>C</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">(h<span class="su">0</span> + ax²)²</td>
+<td class="denom">(h<span class="su">0</span> + ax²)³</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and this can be integrated. The process of reduction from the form
+(1) to the form (3) with the latter value of h, is shown in full in
+<i>The Calculus for Engineers</i> by Professor Perry (p. 331), and also
+the final solution of equation (3), giving the pressure in terms of x.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span></p>
+
+<p>Professor Reynolds, applying the results of his investigation to
+one of Tower&rsquo;s experiments, plotted the pressures through the film
+both circumferentially and longitudinally, and the agreement with
+the observed pressure of the experiment was exceedingly close. The
+whole investigation of Professor Reynolds is a remarkable one, and
+is in fact the first real explanation of the fact that oil is able to insinuate
+itself between the journal and the brass of a bearing carrying
+a heavy load. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lubrication</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. E. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAR-LEADER,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> formerly a man who led bears about the
+country. In the middle ages and Tudor times these animals
+were chiefly used in the brutal sport of bear-baiting and were
+led from village to village. Performing bears were also common,
+and are even still sometimes seen perambulating the country
+with their keepers, generally Frenchmen or Italians. The
+phrase &ldquo;bear-leader&rdquo; has now come colloquially to mean a
+tutor or guardian, who escorts any lad of rank or wealth on his
+travels.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÉARN,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> formerly a small frontier province in the south of
+France, now included within the department of Basses-Pyrénées.
+It was bounded on the W. by Soule and Lower Navarre, on the
+N. by Chalosse, Tursan and Astarac, E. by Bigorre and S. by the
+Pyrénées. Its name can be traced back to the town of Beneharnum
+(Lescar). The <i>civitas Beneharnensium</i> was included in
+the <i>Novempopulania</i>. It was conquered by the Vascones in the
+6th century, and in 819 became a viscounty dependent on the
+dukes of Aquitaine&mdash;a feudal link which was broken in the
+11th century, when the viscounts ceased to acknowledge any
+suzerain. They then reigned over the two dioceses of Lescar
+and Oloron; but their capital was Morlaas, where they had a
+mint which was famous throughout the middle ages. In the
+13th century Gaston VII., of the Catalonian house of Moncade,
+made Orthez his seat of government. His long reign (1229-1290)
+was a perpetual struggle with the kings of France and England,
+each anxious to assert his suzerainty over Béarn. As Gaston
+left only daughters, the viscounty passed at his death to the
+family of Foix, from whom it was transmitted through the
+houses of Grailly and Albret to the Bourbons, and they, in the
+person of Henry IV., king of Navarre, made it an apanage of
+the crown of France. It was not formally incorporated in the
+royal domains, however, until 1620. None of these political
+changes weakened the independent spirit of the Béarnais. From
+the 11th century onward, they were governed by their own
+special customs or <i>fors</i>. These were drawn up in the language
+of the country, a Romance dialect (1288 being the date of the
+most ancient written code), and are remarkable for the manner
+in which they define the rights of the sovereign, determining
+the reciprocal obligations of the viscount and his subjects or
+vassals. Moreover, from the 12th century Béarn enjoyed a kind
+of representative government, with <i>cours plénières</i> composed of
+deputies from the three estates. From 1220 onward, the
+judiciary powers of these assemblies were exercised by a <i>cour
+majour</i> of twelve barons <i>jurats</i> charged with the duty of maintaining
+the integrity of the <i>fors</i>. When Gaston-Phoebus
+wished to establish a regular annual hearth-tax (<i>fouage</i>) in the
+viscounty, he convoked the deputies of the three estates in
+assemblies called <i>états</i>. These soon acquired extensive political
+and financial powers, which continued in operation till 1789.
+Although, when Béarn was annexed to the domains of the crown,
+it was granted a <i>conseil d&rsquo;état</i> and a parlement, which sat at Pau,
+the province also retained its <i>fors</i> until the Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Olhagaray, <i>Histoire de Foix, Béarn et Navarre</i> (1609);
+Pierre de Marca, <i>Histoire de Béarn</i> (1640). This work does not go
+beyond the end of the 13th century; it contains a large number of
+documents. Faget de Baure, <i>Essais historiques sur le Béarn</i> (1818);
+<i>Les Fors de Béarn</i>, by Mazure and Hatoulet (1839), completed by
+J. Brissaud and P. Rogé in <i>Textes additionnels aux anciens Fors de
+Béarn</i> (1905); Léon Cadier, <i>Les États de Béarn depuis leur origine
+jusqu&rsquo;au commencement du XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAS<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bias</span>, a river of India. The Beas, which was the
+Hyphasis of the Greeks, is one of the Five Rivers of the Punjab.
+It issues in the snowy mountains of Kulu at an altitude of
+13,326 ft. above sea-level, flows through the Kangra valley and
+the plains of the Punjab, and finally joins the Sutlej after a
+course of 290 m. It is crossed by a railway bridge near
+Jullundur.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAT<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (a word common in various forms to the Teutonic
+languages; it is connected with the similar Romanic words
+derived from the Late Lat. <i>battere</i>), a blow or stroke; from the
+many applications of the verb &ldquo;to beat&rdquo; come various meanings
+of the substantive, in some of which the primary sense has
+become obscure. It is applied to the throbbing of the pulse or
+heart, to the beating of a drum, either for retreat, or charge, or
+to quarters; in music to the alternating sound produced by the
+striking together of two notes not exactly of the same pitch (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>), and also to the movement of the baton by which a
+conductor of an orchestra or chorus indicates the time, and to
+the divisions of a bar. As a nautical term, a &ldquo;beat&rdquo; is the
+zigzag course taken by a ship in sailing against the wind. The
+application of the word to a policeman&rsquo;s or sentry&rsquo;s round comes
+either from beating a covert for game and hence the term means
+an exhaustive search of a district, or from the repeated strokes
+of the foot in constantly walking up and down. In this sense
+the word is used in America, particularly in Alabama and
+Mississippi, of a voting precinct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEATIFICATION<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>beatus</i>, happy, blessed, and
+<i>facere</i>, to make), the act of making blessed; in the Roman
+Catholic Church, a stage in the process of canonization (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEATON<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bethune</span>), <b>DAVID,</b> (<i>c.</i> 1494-1546), Scottish
+cardinal and archbishop of St Andrews, was a younger son of
+John Beaton of Balfour in the county of Fife, and is said to have
+been born in the year 1494. He was educated at the universities
+of St Andrews and Glasgow, and in his sixteenth year was sent to
+Paris, where he studied civil and canon law. About this time he
+was presented to the rectory of Campsie by his uncle James
+Beaton, then archbishop of Glasgow. When James Beaton was
+translated to St Andrews in 1522 he resigned the rich abbacy of
+Arbroath in his nephew&rsquo;s favour, under reservation of one half of
+the revenues to himself during his lifetime. The great ability of
+Beaton and the patronage of his uncle ensured his rapid promotion
+to high offices in the church and kingdom. He was sent by
+King James V. on various missions to France, and in 1528 was
+appointed keeper of the privy seal. He took a leading part in the
+negotiations connected with the king&rsquo;s marriages, first with
+Madeleine of France, and afterwards with Mary of Guise. At the
+French court he was held in high estimation by King Francis I.,
+and was consecrated bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc in
+December 1537. On the 20th of December 1538 he was appointed
+a cardinal priest by Pope Paul III., under the title of St Stephen
+in the Coelian Hill. He was the only Scotsman who had been
+named to that high office by an undisputed right, Cardinal
+Wardlaw, bishop of Glasgow, having received his appointment
+from the anti-pope Clement VII. On the death of Archbishop
+James Beaton in 1539, the cardinal was raised to the primatial
+see of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>Beaton was one of King James&rsquo;s most trusted advisers, and it
+was mainly due to his influence that the king drew closer the
+French alliance and refused Henry VIII.&rsquo;s overtures to follow
+him in his religious policy. On the death of James in December
+1542 he attempted to assume office as one of the regents for the
+infant sovereign Mary, founding his pretensions on an alleged will
+of the late king; but his claims were disregarded, and the earl of
+Arran, head of the great house of Hamilton, and next heir to the
+throne, was declared regent by the estates. The cardinal was, by
+order of the regent, committed to the custody of Lord Seaton;
+but his imprisonment was merely nominal, and he was soon again
+at liberty and at the head of the party opposed to the English
+alliance. Arran too was soon won over to his views, dismissed
+the preachers by whom he had been surrounded, and joined the
+cardinal at Stirling, where in September 1543 Beaton crowned
+the young queen. In the same year he was raised to the office of
+chancellor of Scotland, and was appointed protonotary apostolic
+and legate <i>a latere</i> by the pope. Had Beaton confined himself to
+secular politics, his strenuous opposition to the plans of Henry
+VIII. for the subjugation of Scotland would have earned him the
+lasting gratitude of his countrymen. Unfortunately politics were
+inextricably interwoven with the religious controversies of the
+time, and resistance to English influence involved resistance to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span>
+the activities of the reformers in the church, whose ultimate
+victory has obscured the cardinal&rsquo;s genuine merits as a statesman.
+During the lifetime of his uncle, Beaton had shared in the efforts
+of the hierarchy to suppress the reformed doctrines, and pursued
+the same line of conduct still more systematically after his
+elevation to the primacy. The popular accounts of the persecution
+for which he was responsible are no doubt exaggerated, and
+it sometimes ceased for considerable periods so far as capital
+punishments were concerned. When the sufferers were of humble
+rank not much notice was taken of them. It was otherwise when
+a more distinguished victim was selected in the person of George
+Wishart. Wishart had returned to Scotland, after an absence of
+several years, about the end of 1544. His sermons produced a
+great effect, and he was protected by several barons of the
+English faction. These barons, with the knowledge and approbation
+of King Henry, were engaged in a plot to assassinate the
+cardinal, and in this plot Wishart is now proved to have been a
+willing agent. The cardinal, though ignorant of the details of the
+plot, perhaps suspected Wishart&rsquo;s knowledge of it, and in any
+case was not sorry to have an excuse for seizing one of the most
+eloquent supporters of the new opinions. For some time he was
+unsuccessful; but at last, with the aid of the regent, he arrested
+the preacher, and carried him to his castle of St Andrews. On the
+28th of February 1546 Wishart was brought to trial in the
+cathedral before the cardinal and other judges, the regent
+declining to take any active part, and, being found guilty of
+heresy, was condemned to death and burnt.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Wishart produced a deep effect on the Scottish
+people, and the cardinal became an object of general dislike,
+which encouraged his enemies to proceed with the design they
+had formed against him. Naturally resolute and fearless, he
+seems to have under-estimated his danger, the more so since his
+power had never seemed more secure. He crossed over to Angus,
+and took part in the wedding of his illegitimate daughter with the
+heir of the earl of Crawford. On his return to St Andrews he
+took up his residence in the castle. The conspirators, the chief
+of whom were Norman Leslie, master of Rothes, and William
+Kirkaldy of Grange, contrived to obtain admission at daybreak
+of the 29th of May 1546, and murdered the cardinal under
+circumstances of horrible mockery and atrocity.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Beaton has already been indicated. As a
+statesman he was able, resolute, and in his general policy patriotic.
+As an ecclesiastic he maintained the privileges of the hierarchy
+and the dominant system of belief conscientiously, but always
+with harshness and sometimes with cruelty. His immoralities,
+like his acts of persecution, were exaggerated by his opponents;
+but his private life was undoubtedly a scandal to religion, and has
+only the excuse that it was not worse than that of most of his
+order at the time. The authorship of the writings ascribed to him
+in several biographical notices rests on no better authority than
+the apocryphal statements of Thomas Dempster.</p>
+
+<p>Beaton&rsquo;s uncle, James Beaton, or Bethune (d. 1539), archbishop
+of Glasgow and St Andrews, was lord treasurer of Scotland
+before he became archbishop of Glasgow in 1509, was chancellor
+from 1513 to 1526, and was appointed archbishop of St Andrews
+and primate of Scotland in 1522. He was one of the regents
+during the minority of James V., and was chiefly responsible for
+this king&rsquo;s action in allying himself with France and not with
+England. He burned Patrick Hamilton and other heretics, and
+died at St Andrews in September 1539.</p>
+
+<p>This prelate must not be confused with another, James Beaton,
+or Bethune (1517-1603), the last Roman Catholic archbishop of
+Glasgow. A son of John Bethune of Auchmuty and a nephew of
+Cardinal Beaton, James was a trusted adviser of the Scottish
+regent, Mary of Lorraine, widow of James V., and a determined
+foe of the reformers. In 1552 he was consecrated archbishop of
+Glasgow, but from 1560 until his death in 1603 he lived in Paris,
+acting as ambassador for Scotland at the French court.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See John Knox, <i>Hist. of the Reformation in Scotland</i>, ed.
+D. Laing (1846-1864); John Spottiswoode, archbishop of St Andrews,
+<i>Hist. of the Church of Scotland</i> (Spottiswoode Soc., 1847-1851);
+Art. in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> and works there quoted; and A. Lang,
+<i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, vols. i. and ii. (1900-1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEATRICE,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Gage county, in S.E.
+Nebraska, U.S.A., about 40 m. S. of Lincoln. Pop. (1900) 7875
+(852 foreign-born); (1910) 9356. It is served by the Chicago,
+Burlington &amp; Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific, and
+the Union Pacific railways. Beatrice is the seat of the state
+institute for feeble-minded youth, and has a Carnegie library.
+The city is very prettily situated in the valley of the Big Blue
+river, in the midst of a fine agricultural region. Among its
+manufactures are dairy products (there is a large creamery),
+canned goods, flour and grist mill products, gasoline engines,
+well-machinery, barbed wire, tiles, ploughs, windmills, corn-huskers,
+and hay-balers. Beatrice was founded in 1857, becoming
+the county-seat in the same year. It was reached by its first
+railway and was incorporated as a town in 1871, was chartered as
+a city in 1873, and in 1901 became a city of the first class.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEATTIE, JAMES<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1735-1803), Scottish poet and writer on
+philosophy, was born at Laurencekirk, Kincardine, Scotland,
+on the 25th of October 1735. His father, a small farmer and
+shopkeeper, died when he was very young; but an elder brother
+sent him to Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he gained a
+bursary. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster of Fordoun
+in his native county. Here he had as neighbours the eccentric
+Francis Garden (afterwards Lord Gardenstone, judge of the
+supreme court of Scotland), and Lord Monboddo. In 1758 he
+became an usher in the grammar school of Aberdeen, and two
+years later he was made professor of moral philosophy at
+Marischal College. Here he became closely acquainted with
+Dr Thomas Reid, Dr George Campbell, Dr Alexander Gérard
+and others, who formed a kind of literary or philosophic society
+known as the &ldquo;Wise Club.&rdquo; They met once a fortnight to
+discuss speculative questions, David Hume&rsquo;s philosophy being
+an especial object of criticism. In 1761 Beattie published a
+small volume of <i>Original Poems and Translations</i>, which contained
+little work of any value. Its author in later days destroyed
+all the copies he found. In 1770 Beattie published his <i>Essay
+on the Nature and Immutability of Truth in opposition to sophistry
+and scepticism</i>, the object of which, as explained by its author,
+was to &ldquo;prove the universality and immutability of moral
+sentiment&rdquo; (letter to Sir W. Forbes, 17th January 1765). It
+was in fact a direct attack on Hume, and part of its great popularity
+was due to the fact. Hume is said to have justly complained
+that Beattie &ldquo;had not used him like a gentleman,&rdquo; but
+made no answer to the book, which has no philosophical value.
+Beattie&rsquo;s portrait, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, hangs at Marischal
+College, Aberdeen. The philosopher is painted with the <i>Essay
+on Truth</i> in his hand, while a figure of Truth thrusts down
+three figures representing, according to Sir W. Forbes, sophistry,
+scepticism and infidelity. Reynolds in a letter to Beattie
+(February 1774) intimates that he is well enough pleased that
+one of the figures is identified with Hume, and that he intended
+Voltaire to be one of the group. Beattie visited London in 1773,
+and was received with the greatest honour by George III., who
+conferred on him a pension of £200 a year. In 1771 and 1774
+he published the first and second parts of <i>The Minstrel</i>, a poem
+which met with great and immediate success. The Spenserian
+stanza in which it is written is managed with smoothness and
+skill, and there are many fine descriptions of natural scenery.
+It is entirely on his poetry that Beattie&rsquo;s reputation rests. The
+best known of his minor poems are &ldquo;The Hermit&rdquo; and &ldquo;Retirement.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1773 he was offered the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh
+University, but did not accept it. Beattie made many
+friends, and lost none. &ldquo;We all love Beattie,&rdquo; said Dr Johnson.
+&ldquo;Mrs Thrale says, if ever she has another husband she will have
+him.&rdquo; He was in high favour too with Mrs Montagu and the
+other <i>bas bleus</i>. Beattie was unfortunate in his domestic life.
+Mary Dunn, whom he married in 1767, became insane, and his
+two sons died just as they were attaining manhood. The elder,
+James Hay Beattie, a young man of great promise, who at the
+age of nineteen had been associated with his father in his
+professorship, died in 1790. In 1794 the father published <i>Essays
+and Fragments in Prose and Verse by James Hay Beattie</i> with a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span>
+touching memoir. The younger brother died in 1796. Beattie
+never recovered from this second bereavement. His mind was
+seriously affected, and, although he continued to lecture occasionally,
+he neither wrote nor studied. In April 1799 he had a
+stroke of paralysis, and died on the 18th of August 1803.</p>
+
+<p>Beattie&rsquo;s other poetical works include <i>The Judgment of Paris</i>
+(1765), and &ldquo;Verses on the death of [Charles] Churchill,&rdquo; a
+bitter attack which the poet afterwards suppressed. The best
+edition is the <i>Poetical Works</i> (1831, new ed. 1866) in the
+<i>Aldine Edition of the British Poets</i>, with an admirable memoir by
+Alexander Dyce.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>An Account of the Life of James Beattie</i> (1804), by A.
+Bower; and <i>An Account of the Life and Writings of James Beattie</i>
+(1807), by Sir William Forbes; a quantity of new material is to be found
+in <i>Beattie and his Friends</i> (1904), by the poet&rsquo;s great-grand-niece,
+Margaret Forbes; and <i>James Beattie, the Minstrel. Some Unpublished
+Letters</i>, edited by A. Mackie (Aberdeen, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEATUS,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> of Liebana and Valcavado, Spanish priest and monk,
+theologian and geographer, was born about 730, and died in 798.
+About 776 he published his <i>Commentaria in Apocalypsin</i>, containing
+one of the oldest Christian world-maps. He took a
+prominent part in the Adoptionist controversy, and wrote
+against the views of Felix of Urgel, especially as upheld by
+Elipandus of Toledo. As confessor to Queen Adosinda, wife of
+King Silo of Oviedo (774-783), and as the master of Alcuin and
+Etherius of Osma, Beatus exercised wide influence. His original
+map, which was probably intended to illustrate, above all, the
+distribution of the Apostolic missions throughout the world&mdash;depicting
+the head of Peter at Rome, of Andrew in Achaia, of
+Thomas in India, of James in Spain, and so forth&mdash;has survived
+in ten more or less modified copies. One only of these&mdash;the
+&ldquo;Osma&rdquo; of 1203&mdash;preserves the Apostolic pictures; among
+the remaining examples, that of &ldquo;St Sever,&rdquo; now at Paris, and
+dating from about 1030, is the most valuable; that of &ldquo;Valcavado,&rdquo;
+recently in the Ashburnham Library, executed in 970,
+is the earliest; that of &ldquo;Turin,&rdquo; dating from about 1100, is
+perhaps the most curious. Three others&mdash;&ldquo;Valladolid&rdquo; of
+about 1035, &ldquo;Madrid&rdquo; of 1047, and &ldquo;London&rdquo; of 1109&mdash;are
+derivatives of the &ldquo;Valcavado-Ashburnham&rdquo; of 970; the
+eighth, &ldquo;Paris II,&rdquo; is connected, though not very intimately,
+with &ldquo;St Sever,&rdquo; otherwise &ldquo;Paris I&rdquo;; the ninth and tenth,
+&ldquo;Gerona&rdquo; and &ldquo;Paris III,&rdquo; belong to the Turin group of
+Beatus maps. All these works are emphatically of &ldquo;dark-age&rdquo;
+character; very seldom do they suggest the true forms of
+countries, seas, rivers or mountains, but they embody some useful
+information as to early medieval conditions and history. St
+Isidore appears to be their principal authority; they also draw,
+directly or indirectly, from Orosius, St Jerome, St Augustine,
+and probably from a lost map of classical antiquity, represented
+in a measure by the Peutinger Table of the 13th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief MSS. of the <i>Commentaria in Apocalypsin</i> are (1-3)
+Paris, National Library, Lat. 8878; Lat. nouv. acq. 1366 and 2290;
+(4) Ashburnham MSS. xv.; (5) London, B. Mus., Addit. MSS.
+11695; (6) Turin, National Library 1, ii. (1); (7) Valladolid,
+University Library, 229; (8) the MS. in the Episcopal Library at Osma, in Old Castile.</p>
+
+<p>There is only one complete edition of the text, that by Florez
+(Madrid, 1770). See also Konrad Miller, <i>Die Weltkarte des Beatus</i>,
+Heft I. of <i>Mappaemundi: die ältesten Weltkarten</i> (Stuttgart, 1895);
+d&rsquo;Avezac in <i>Annales de ... géographie</i> (June 1870); Beazley,
+<i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, i. 387-388 (1897); ii. 549-559; 591-605 (1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUCAIRE,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department
+of Gard, 17 m. E. by S. of Nîmes on the Paris-Lyon railway.
+Pop. (1906) 7284. Beaucaire is situated on the right bank of the
+Rhone, opposite Tarascon, with which it is connected by two
+handsome bridges, a suspension-bridge of four spans and 1476 ft.
+in length, and a railway bridge. A triangular keep, a chapel,
+and other remains of a château (13th and 14th centuries) of the
+counts of Toulouse stand on the rocky pine-clad hill which rises
+to the north of the town; the chapel, dedicated to St Louis,
+belongs to the latest period of Romanesque architecture, and
+contains fine sculptures. The town derives celebrity from the
+great July fair, which has been held here annually since the 12th
+century, but has now lost its former importance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fair</a></span>).
+Beaucaire gives its name to the canal which communicates with
+the sea (near Aigues-Mortes) and connects it with the Canal du
+Midi, forming part of the line of communication between the
+Rhone and the Garonne. The town is an important port on the
+Rhone, and its commerce, the chief articles of which are wine, and
+freestone from quarries in the vicinity, is largely water-borne.
+Among its industries are distilling and the manufacture of
+furniture, and the preparation of vermicelli, sausages and other
+provisions.</p>
+
+<p>Beaucaire occupies the site of the ancient <i>Ugernum</i>, and
+several remains of the Roman city have been discovered, as well
+as (in 1734) the road that led from Nîmes. The present name
+is derived from <i>Bellum Quadrum</i>, a descriptive appellation
+applied in the middle ages either to the château or to the rock
+on which it stands. In 1125 Beaucaire came into the possession
+of the counts of Toulouse, one of whom, Raymund VI., established
+the importance of its fairs by the grant of privileges. In
+the Wars of the League it suffered severely, and in 1632 its
+castle was destroyed by Richelieu.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUCE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Belsia</i>), a physical region of north-central
+France, comprising large portions of the departments of Eure-et-Loir
+and Loir-et-Cher, and also extending into those of Loiret
+and Seine-et-Oise. It has an area of over 2800 sq. m., its limits
+being roughly defined by the course of the Essonne on the E.,
+of the Loire on the S., and of the Brenne, the Loir and the Eure
+towards the W., though in the latter direction it extends somewhat
+beyond these boundaries. The Beauce is a treeless, arid
+and monotonous plain of limestone formation; windmills and
+church spires are the only prominent features of the landscape.
+Apart from the rivers on its borders, it is watered by insignificant
+streams, of which the Conie in the west need alone be
+mentioned. The inhabitants live in large villages, and are
+occupied in agriculture, particularly in the cultivation of wheat,
+for which the Beauce is celebrated. Clover and lucerne are
+the other leading crops, and large flocks of sheep are kept in the
+region. Chartres is its chief commercial centre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUCHAMP,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> the name of several important English families.
+The baronial house of Beauchamp of Bedford was founded at
+the Conquest by Hugh de Beauchamp, who received a barony
+in Bedfordshire. His eldest son Simon left a daughter, whose
+husband Hugh (brother of the count of Meulan) was created
+earl of Bedford by Stephen. But the heir-male, Miles de Beauchamp,
+nephew of Simon, held Bedford Castle against the king
+in 1137-1138. From his brother Payn descended the barons of
+Bedford, of whom William held Bedford Castle against the royal
+forces in the struggle for the Great Charter, and was afterwards
+made prisoner at the battle of Lincoln, while John, who sided
+with the barons under Simon de Montfort, fell at Evesham.
+With him the line ended, but a younger branch was seated at
+Eaton Socon, Beds., where the earthworks of their castle remain,
+and held their barony there into the 14th century.</p>
+
+<p>The Beauchamps of Elmley, Worcestershire, the greatest
+house of the name, were founded by the marriage of Walter de
+Beauchamp with the daughter of Urise d&rsquo;Abetot, a Domesday
+baron, which brought him the shrievalty of Worcestershire, the
+office of a royal steward, and large estates. His descendant
+William, of Elmley, married Isabel, sister and eventually heiress
+to William Mauduit, earl of Warwick, and their son succeeded
+in 1268 to Warwick Castle and that earldom, which remained
+with his descendants in the male line till 1445. The earls of the
+Beauchamp line played a great part in English history. Guy,
+the 2nd, distinguished himself in the Scottish campaigns of
+Edward I., who warned him at his death against Piers Gaveston.
+Under Edward II. he was one of the foremost foes of Piers, who
+had styled him &ldquo;the black cur of Arden,&rdquo; and with whose death
+he was closely connected. As one of the &ldquo;lords ordainers&rdquo; he
+was a recognized leader of the opposition to Edward II. By
+the heiress of the Tonis he left at his death in 1315 a son Earl
+Thomas, who distinguished himself at Crécy and Poitiers, was
+marshal of the English host, and, with his brother John, one of
+the founders of the order of the Garter. In 1369 his son Earl
+Thomas succeeded; from 1376 to 1379 he was among the lords
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span>
+striving for reform, and in the latter year he was appointed
+governor to the king. Under Richard II. he joined the lords
+appellant in their opposition to the king and his ministers, and
+was in power with them 1388-1389; treacherously arrested by
+Richard in 1397, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London (the
+Beauchamp Tower being called after him), but liberated by
+Henry IV. on his triumph (1399). In 1401 he was succeeded
+by his son Earl Richard, a brave and chivalrous warrior, who
+defeated Owen Glendower, fought the Percys at Shrewsbury,
+and, after travelling in state through Europe and the Holy Land,
+was employed against the Lollards and afterwards as lay
+ambassador from England to the council of Constance (1414).
+He held command for a time at Calais, and took an active part
+in the French campaigns of Henry V., who created him earl
+and count of Aumale in Normandy. He had charge of the
+education of Henry VI., and in 1437 was appointed lieutenant
+of France and of Normandy. Dying at Rouen in 1439, he left
+by Isabel, widow of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Worcester, a
+son, Earl Henry, who was created duke of Warwick, 1445, and
+is alleged, but without authority, to have been crowned king of
+the Isle of Wight by Henry VI. He died, the last of his line, in
+June 1445. On the death of Anne, his only child, in 1449, his
+vast inheritance passed to Anne, his sister of the whole blood,
+wife of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury (&ldquo;the Kingmaker&rdquo;),
+who thereupon became earl of Warwick.</p>
+
+<p>Of the cadet branches of the house, the oldest was that of
+Powyke and Alcester, which obtained a barony in 1447 and
+became extinct in 1496; from it sprang the Beauchamps, Lords
+St. Amand from 1448, of whom was Richard, bishop of Salisbury,
+first chancellor of the order of the Garter, and who became
+extinct in 1508, being the last known male heirs of the race.
+Another cadet was Sir John Beauchamp of Holt, minister of
+Richard II., who was created Lord Beauchamp of Kidderminster
+(the first baron created by patent) 1387, but beheaded 1388;
+the barony became extinct with his son in 1400. Roger, Lord
+Beauchamp of Bletsoe, summoned in 1363, is said to have been
+descended from the Powyke branch; his line ended early in the
+15th century. Later cadets were John, brother of the 3rd earl,
+who carried the standard at Crécy, became captain of Calais,
+and was summoned as a peer in 1350, but died unmarried; and
+William, brother of the 4th earl, who was distinguished in the
+French wars, and succeeding to the lands of the Lords Abergavenny
+was summoned in that barony 1392; his son was created
+earl of Worcester in 1420, but died without male issue in 1422;
+from his daughter, who married Sir Edward Neville, descended
+the Lords Abergavenny.</p>
+
+<p>The Lords Beauchamp of &ldquo;Hache&rdquo; (1299-1361) were so
+named from their seat of Hatch Beauchamp, Somerset, and
+were of a wholly distinct family. Their title, &ldquo;Beauchamp of
+Hache,&rdquo; was revived for the Seymours in 1536 and 1559. The
+title of &ldquo;Beauchamp of Powyke&rdquo; was revived as a barony in
+1806 for Richard Lygon (descended through females from the Beauchamps
+of Powyke), who was created Earl Beauchamp in 1815.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir W. Dugdale, <i>Baronage</i> (1675-1676) and <i>Warwickshire</i>
+(2nd ed., 1730); G.E. C[okayne], <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898);
+W. Courthope, <i>Rows Roll</i> (1859); and J.H. Round, <i>Geoffrey de
+Mandeville</i> (1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> French historian and man of
+letters, was born at Monaco in 1767, and died in 1832. In 1784
+he entered a Sardinian regiment of marines, but on the outbreak
+of war with the French Republic, he refused to fight in what he
+considered an unjust cause, and was imprisoned for several
+months. After being liberated he took up his residence in Paris,
+where he obtained a post in one of the government offices. On
+the fall of Robespierre, Beauchamp was transferred to the <i>bureau</i>
+of the minister of police, and charged with the superintendence of
+the press. This situation opened up to him materials of which he
+made use in his first and most popular historical work, <i>Histoire
+de la Vendée et des Chouans</i>, 3 vols., 1806. The book, received with
+great favour by the people, was displeasing to the authorities.
+The third edition was confiscated; its writer was deprived of his
+post, and in 1809 was compelled to leave Paris and take up his
+abode in Reims. In 1811 he obtained permission to return, and
+again received a government appointment. This he had to resign
+on the Restoration, but was rewarded with a small pension,
+which was continued to his widow after his death.</p>
+
+<p>Beauchamp wrote extensively for the public journals and for
+the magazines. His biographical and historical works are
+numerous, and those dealing with contemporary events are
+valuable, owing to the sources at his disposal. They must,
+however, be used with great caution. The following are worth
+mention:&mdash;<i>Vie politique, militaire et privée du général Moreau</i>
+(1814); <i>Catastrophe de Murat, ou Récit de la dernière révolution de
+Naples</i> (1815); <i>Histoire de la guerre d&rsquo;Espagne et du Portugal,
+1807-1813</i> (2 vols., 1810); <i>Collection de mémoires relatifs aux
+révolutions d&rsquo;Espagne</i> (2 vols., 1824); <i>Histoire de la révolution de
+Piémont</i> (2 vols., 1821, 1823); <i>Mémoires secrets et inédits pour
+servir à l&rsquo;histoire contemporaine</i> (2 vols., 1825). The <i>Mémoires de
+Fouché</i> have also been ascribed to him, but it seems certain that
+he only revised and completed a work really composed by Fouché
+himself.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See an article by Louis Madelin in <i>La Revolution française</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> the name of the family descended from the union
+of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, with Catherine, wife of Sir
+Hugh Swynford, taken from a castle in Anjou which belonged to
+John of Gaunt. There were four children of this union&mdash;John,
+created earl of Somerset and marquess of Dorset; Henry, afterwards
+bishop of Winchester and cardinal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beaufort,
+Henry</a></span>); Thomas, made duke of Exeter and chancellor; and
+Joan, who married Ralph Neville, first earl of Westmorland, and
+died in 1440. In 1396, some years after the birth of these
+children, John of Gaunt and Catherine were married, and in 1397
+the Beauforts were declared legitimate by King Richard II. In
+1407 this action was confirmed by their half-brother, King
+Henry IV., but on this occasion they were expressly excluded
+from the succession to the English throne.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Beaufort</span>, earl of Somerset (<i>c.</i> 1373-1410), assisted
+Richard II. in 1397 when the king attacked the lords appellants,
+and made himself an absolute ruler. For these services he was
+made marquess of Dorset, but after the deposition of Richard in
+1399, he was degraded to his former rank as earl. In 1401,
+however, he was declared loyal, and appeared later in command
+of the English fleet. He married Margaret, daughter of Thomas
+Holland, second earl of Kent, and died in March 1410, leaving
+three sons, Henry, John, and Edmund, and two daughters, Jane
+or Joan, who married James I., king of Scotland, and Margaret,
+who married Thomas Courtenay, earl of Devon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Thomas Beaufort</span> (d. 1426) held various high offices under
+Henry IV., and took a leading part in suppressing the rising in the
+north in 1405. He became chancellor in 1410, but resigned this
+office in January 1412 and took part in the expedition to France
+in the same year. He was then created earl of Dorset, and when
+Henry V. became king in 1413, he was made lieutenant of
+Aquitaine and took charge of Harfleur when this town passed into
+the possession of the English. In 1416 he became lieutenant of
+Normandy, and was created duke of Exeter; and returning to
+England he compelled the Scots to raise the siege of Roxburgh.
+Crossing to France in 1418 with reinforcements for Henry V., he
+took an active part in the subsequent campaign, was made
+captain of Rouen, and went to the court of France to treat for
+peace. He was then captured by the French at Baugé, but was
+soon released and returned to England when he heard of the death
+of Henry V. in August 1422. He was one of Henry&rsquo;s executors,
+and it is probable that the king entrusted his young son, King
+Henry VI., to his care. However this may be, Exeter did not
+take a very prominent part in the government, although he was
+a member of the council of regency. Having again shared in the
+French war, the duke died at Greenwich about the end of the
+year 1426. He was buried at Bury St. Edmunds, where his
+remains were found in good condition 350 years later. He
+married Margaret, daughter of Sir Thomas Neville of Nornby, but
+left no issue. The Beaufort family was continued by <span class="sc">Henry
+Beaufort</span> (1401-1419), the eldest son of John Beaufort, earl of
+Somerset, who was succeeded as earl of Somerset by his brother
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span>
+<span class="sc">John Beaufort</span> (1403-1444). The latter fought under Henry V.
+in the French wars, and having been taken prisoner remained in
+France as a captive until 1437. Soon after his release he returned
+to the war, and after the death of Richard Beauchamp, earl of
+Warwick, in 1439, acted as commander of the English forces, and,
+with his brother Edmund, was successful in recapturing Harfleur.
+Although chagrined when Richard, duke of York, was made
+regent of France, Beaufort led an expedition to France in 1442,
+and in 1443 was made duke of Somerset. He died, probably by
+his own hand, in May 1444. He married Margaret, daughter of
+Sir John Beauchamp, and left a daughter, <span class="sc">Margaret Beaufort</span>,
+afterwards countess of Richmond and Derby, who married, for
+her first husband, Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, by whom
+she became the mother of King Henry VII. In this way the
+blood of the Beauforts was mingled with that of the Tudors, and
+of all the subsequent occupants of the English throne.</p>
+
+<p>The title of earl of Somerset descended on the death of John
+Beaufort in 1444 to his brother <span class="sc">Edmund Beaufort</span>, duke of
+Somerset (<i>q.v.</i>), who was killed at St Albans in 1455. By his
+marriage with Eleanor Beauchamp, daughter of the fifth earl of
+Warwick, he left three sons, Henry, Edmund and John, and a
+daughter, Margaret.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Henry Beaufort</span> (1436-1464) became duke of Somerset in
+1455, and soon began to take part in the struggle against Richard,
+duke of York, but failed to dislodge Richard&rsquo;s ally, Richard
+Neville, earl of Warwick, from Calais. He took part in the
+victory of the Lancastrians at Wakefield in 1460, escaped from
+the carnage at Towton in 1461, and shared the attainder of
+Henry VI. in the same year. In May 1464 he was captured at
+Hexham and was beheaded immediately after the battle. The
+title of duke of Somerset was assumed by his brother, <span class="sc">Edmund
+Beaufort</span> (<i>c</i>. 1438-1471), who fled from the country after the
+disasters to the Lancastrian arms, but returned to England in
+1471, in which year he fought at Tewkesbury, and in spite of a
+promise of pardon was beheaded after the battle on the 6th of
+May 1471. His younger brother <span class="sc">John Beaufort</span> had been killed
+probably at this battle, and so on the execution of Edmund the
+family became extinct.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Margaret Beaufort</span> married Humphrey, earl of Stafford, and
+was the mother of Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham. Henry
+Beaufort, third duke of Somerset (d. 1464), left an illegitimate
+son, Charles Somerset, who was created earl of Worcester by
+Henry VIII. in 1514. His direct descendant, Henry Somerset,
+fifth earl of Worcester, was a loyal partisan of Charles I. and in
+1642 was created marquess of Worcester. His grandson, Henry,
+the third marquess, was made duke of Beaufort in 1682, and the
+present duke of Beaufort is his direct descendant.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Thomas Walsingham, <i>Historia Anglicana</i>, edited by H.T.
+Riley (London, 1863-1864); W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History of
+England</i>, vols. ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895); <i>The Paston Letters</i>,
+edited by James Gairdner (London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT, FRANÇOIS DE VENDÔME,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc de</span> (1616-1669),
+a picturesque figure in French history of the 17th century,
+was the second son of César de Vendôme, and grandson of Henry
+IV., by Gabrielle d&rsquo;Estrées. He began his career in the army and
+served in the first campaigns of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, but his
+ambitions and unscrupulous character soon found a more
+congenial field in the intrigues of the court. In 1642 he joined in
+the conspiracy of Cinq Mars against Richelieu, and upon its
+failure was obliged to live in exile in England until Richelieu&rsquo;s
+death. Returning to France, he became the centre of a group,
+known as the &ldquo;Importants,&rdquo; in which court ladies predominated,
+especially the duchess of Chevreuse and the duchess of Montbazon.
+For an instant after the king&rsquo;s death, this group seemed likely to
+prevail, and Beaufort to be the head of the new government.
+But Mazarin gained the office, and Beaufort, accused of a plot to
+murder Mazarin, was imprisoned in Vincennes, in September
+1643. He escaped on the 31st of May 1648, just in time to join
+the Fronde, which began in August 1648. He was then with the
+parlement and the princes, against Mazarin. His personal
+appearance, his affectation of popular manners, his quality of
+grandson (legitimized), of Henry IV., rendered him a favourite
+of the Parisians, who acclaimed him everywhere. He was known
+as the <i>Roi des Halles</i> (&ldquo;king of the markets&rdquo;), and popular
+subscriptions were opened to pay his debts. He had hopes of
+becoming prime minister. But among the members of the
+parlement and the other leaders of the Fronde, he was regarded
+as merely a tool. His intelligence was but mediocre, and he
+showed no talent during the war. Mazarin, on his return to
+Paris, exiled him in October 1652; and he was only allowed to
+return in 1654, when the cardinal had no longer any reason to
+fear him. Henceforth Beaufort no longer intrigued. In 1658 he
+was named general superintendent of navigation, or chief of the
+naval army, and faithfully served the king in naval wars from
+that on. In 1664 he directed the expedition against the pirates of
+Algiers. In 1669 he led the French troops defending Candia
+against the Turks, and was killed in a night sortie, on the I5th of
+June 1669. His body was brought back to France with great
+pomp, and official honours rendered it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the memoirs of the time, notably those of La Rochefoucauld,
+the Cardinal de Retz, and Madame de Motteville. Also D&rsquo;Avenel,
+<i>Richelieu et la monarchic absolue</i> (1884); Cheruel, <i>La France sous le
+ministère Mazarin</i> (1879); and <i>La France sous la minorité de
+Louis XIV</i> (1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT, HENRY<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1377-1447), English cardinal and
+bishop of Winchester, was the second son of John of Gaunt, duke
+of Lancaster, by Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford. His
+parents were not married until 1396, and in 1397 King Richard II.
+declared the four children of this union to be legitimate. Henry
+spent some of his youth at Aix la-Chapelle, and having entered
+the church received various appointments, and was consecrated
+bishop of Lincoln in July 1398. When his half-brother became
+king as Henry IV. in 1399, Beaufort began to take a prominent
+place in public life; he was made chancellor in 1403, but he
+resigned this office in 1404, when he was translated from Lincoln
+to Winchester as the successor of William of Wykeham. He
+exercised considerable influence over the prince of Wales, afterwards
+King Henry V., and although he steadily supported the
+house of Lancaster he opposed the party led by Thomas Arundel,
+archbishop of Canterbury. A dispute over money left by John
+Beaufort, marquess of Dorset, caused or widened a breach in the
+royal family which reached a climax in 1411. The details are not
+quite clear, but it seems tolerably certain that the prince and the
+bishop, anxious to retain their power, sought to induce Henry IV.
+to abdicate in favour of his son. Angry at this request, the king
+dismissed his son from the council, and Beaufort appears to have
+shared his disgrace. When Henry V. ascended the throne in 1413
+the bishop again became chancellor and took a leading part in the
+government until 1417, when he resigned his office, and proceeded
+to the council which was then sitting at Constance. His arrival
+had an important effect on the deliberations of this council, and
+the compromise which was subsequently made between the rival
+parties was largely his work. Grateful for Beaufort&rsquo;s services,
+the new pope Martin V. offered him a cardinal&rsquo;s hat which Henry
+V. refused to allow him to accept. Returning to England, he
+remained loyal to Henry; and after the king&rsquo;s death in 1422 became
+a member of the council and was the chief opponent of the
+wild and selfish schemes of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. In
+1424 he became chancellor for the third time, and was mainly
+responsible for the conduct of affairs during Gloucester&rsquo;s expedition
+to Hainaut. He was disliked by the citizens of London;
+and this ill-feeling was heightened when Gloucester, who was a
+favourite of the Londoners, returned to England and was doubtless
+reproached by Beaufort for the folly of his undertaking. A riot
+took place in London, and at the bishop&rsquo;s entreaty, the protector,
+John, duke of Bedford, came back to England. As this dispute
+was still unsettled when the parliament met at Leicester in
+February 1426, Bedford and the lords undertook to arbitrate.
+Charged by Gloucester with treason against Henry IV. and his
+successors, Beaufort denied the accusations. But although a
+reconciliation was effected, the bishop evidently regarded this as
+a defeat; and having resigned the chancellorship his energies
+were diverted into another channel.</p>
+
+<p>Anxious to secure his aid for the crusade against the Hussites,
+Pope Martin again offered him a cardinal&rsquo;s hat, which Beaufort
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span>
+accepted. He went to France in 1427, and was then appointed
+papal legate for Germany, Hungary and Bohemia; and proceeding
+eastwards, he made a bold but futile effort to rally the
+crusaders at Tachau. Returning to England to raise money for a
+fresh crusade, he was received with great state in London; but
+his acceptance of the cardinalate had weakened his position and
+Gloucester refused to recognize his legatine commission. Beaufort
+gave way on this question, but an unsuccessful attempt was
+made in 1429 to deprive him of his see. Having raised some
+troops he set out for Bohemia; but owing to the disasters which
+had just attended the English arms in France, he was induced to
+allow these soldiers to serve in the French war; and in February
+1431 the death of Martin V. ended his commission as legate.
+Meanwhile an attempt on the part of Gloucester to exclude the
+cardinal from the council had failed, and it was decided that his
+attendance was required except during the discussion of questions
+between the king and the papacy. He accompanied King
+Henry VI. to Normandy in April 1430, and in December 1431
+crowned him king of France. About this time Gloucester made
+another attempt to deprive Beaufort of his see, and it was argued
+in the council that as a cardinal he could not hold an English
+bishopric. The general council was not inclined to press the case
+against him; but the privy council, more clerical and more
+hostile, sealed writs of praemunire and attachment against him,
+and some of his jewels were seized. On his return to England he
+attended the parliament in May 1432, and asked to hear the
+charges against him. The king declared him loyal, and a statute
+was passed freeing him from any penalties which he might have
+incurred under the Statute of Provisors or in other ways. He
+supported Bedford in his attempts to restore order to the finances.
+In August 1435 he attended the congress at Arras, but was unable
+to make peace with France; and after Bedford&rsquo;s death his
+renewed efforts to this end were again opposed by Gloucester, who
+favoured a continuance of the war. On two occasions the council
+advised the king to refuse him permission to leave England, but
+in 1437 he obtained a full pardon for all his offences. In 1439 and
+1440 he went to France on missions of peace, and apparently at
+his instigation the English council decided to release Charles,
+duke of Orleans. This step further irritated Gloucester, who drew
+up and presented to the king a long and serious list of charges
+against Beaufort; but the council defended the policy of the
+cardinal and ignored the personal accusations against him.
+Beaufort, however, gradually retired from public life, and after
+witnessing the conclusion of the treaty of Troyes died at Wolvesey
+palace, Winchester, on the 10th of April 1447. The &ldquo;black
+despair&rdquo; which Shakespeare has cast round his dying hours
+appears to be without historical foundation. He was buried in
+Winchester cathedral, the building of which he finished. He
+also refounded and enlarged the hospital of St Cross near
+Winchester.</p>
+
+<p>Beaufort was a man of considerable wealth, and on several
+occasions he lent large sums of money to the king. He was the
+lover of Lady Alice Fitzalan, daughter of Richard, earl of
+Arundel, by whom he had a daughter, Joan, who married Sir
+Edward Stradling of St Donat&rsquo;s in Glamorganshire. His
+interests were secular and he was certainly proud and ambitious;
+but Stubbs has pictured the fairer side of his character when he
+observes that Beaufort &ldquo;was merciful in his political enmities,
+enlightened in his foreign policy; that he was devotedly faithful,
+and ready to sacrifice his wealth and labour for the king; that
+from the moment of his death everything began to go wrong, and
+went worse and worse until all was lost.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Historiae Croylandensis continuatio</i>, translated by H.T. Riley
+(London, 1854); <i>Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council</i>,
+edited by N.H. Nicolas (London, 1834-1837); Aeneas Sylvius
+Piccolomini, <i>Historica Bohemica</i> (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1707);
+W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895): M.
+Creighton, <i>A History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation</i>
+(London, 1897); and L.B. Radford, <i>Henry Beaufort</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (d. 1795), French historian, of whose
+life little is known. In 1738 he published at Utrecht a <i>Dissertation
+sur l&rsquo;incertitude des cinq premiers siècles de l&rsquo;histoire romaine</i>,
+in which he showed what untrustworthy guides even the historians
+of highest repute, such as Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
+were for that period, and pointed out by what methods
+and by the aid of what documents truly scientific bases might be
+given to its history. This was an ingenious plea, bold for its time,
+against traditional history such as Rollin was writing at that very
+moment. A German, Christopher Saxius, endeavoured to refute
+it in a series of articles published in vols. i.-iii. of the <i>Miscellanea
+Liviensia</i>. Beaufort replied by some brief and ironical <i>Remarques</i>
+in the appendix to the second edition of his <i>Dissertation</i> (1750).
+Beaufort also wrote an <i>Histoire de César Germanicus</i> (Leyden,
+1761), and <i>La République romaine, ou plan général de L&rsquo;ancien
+gouvernement de Rome</i> (The Hague, 1766, 2 vols. quarto). Though
+not a scholar of the first rank, Beaufort has at least the merit of
+having been a pioneer in raising the question, afterwards elaborated
+by Niebuhr, as to the credibility of early Roman history.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT SCALE,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a series of numbers from 0 to 12 arranged
+by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) in 1805, to indicate
+the strength of the wind from a calm, force 0, to a hurricane, force
+12, with sailing directions such as &ldquo;5, smacks shorten sails&rdquo; for
+coast purposes, and &ldquo;royals, &amp;c., &lsquo;full and by&rsquo;&rdquo; for the open sea.
+An exhaustive report was made in 1906 by the Meteorological
+Office on the relation between the estimates of wind-force
+according to Beaufort&rsquo;s scale and the velocities recorded by
+anemometers belonging to the office, from which the following
+table is taken:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Beaufort scale.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Corresponding wind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Limits of hourly<br />velocity.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Numbers.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Miles per hour.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Calm</td> <td class="tcl rb">Under 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1-3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Light breeze</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;2-12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4-5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Moderate wind</td> <td class="tcc rb">13-23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6-7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Strong wind</td> <td class="tcc rb">24-37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8-9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gale</td> <td class="tcc rb">38-55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10-11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Storm</td> <td class="tcc rb">56-75</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Hurricane</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Above 75</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT WEST,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> in Cape province, South Africa, the
+capital of a division of this name, 339 m. by rail N.E. of Cape
+Town. Pop.(1904) 5481. The largest town in the western part
+of the Great Karroo, it lies, at an elevation of 2792 ft., at the foot
+of the southern slopes of the Nieuwveld mountains. It has several
+fine public buildings and the streets are lined with avenues of
+pear trees, while an abundant supply of water, luxuriant orchards,
+fields and gardens give it the appearance of an oasis in the desert.
+It is a favourite resort of invalids. The town was founded in 1819,
+and in its early days was largely resorted to by Griquas and
+Bechuana for the sale of ivory, skins and cattle. The Beaufort
+West division has an area of 6374 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of
+10,762, 45% being whites. Sheep-farming is the principal
+industry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUGENCY,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> a town of central France, in the department of
+Loiret, 16 m. S.W. of Orleans on the Orleans railway, between
+that city and Blois. Pop. (1906) 2993. It is situated at the foot
+of vine-clad hills on the right bank of the Loire, to the left bank of
+which it is united by a bridge of twenty-six arches, many of them
+dating from the 13th century. The chief buildings are the
+château, mainly of the 15th century, of which the massive donjon
+of the 11th century known as the Tour de César is the oldest
+portion; and the abbey-church of Notre-Dame, a building in the
+Romanesque style of architecture, frequently restored. Some of
+the buildings of the Benedictine abbey, to which this church
+belonged, remain. The hôtel de ville, the façade of which is
+decorated with armorial bearings of Renaissance carving, and the
+church of St Étienne, an unblemished example of Romanesque
+architecture, are of interest. Several old houses, some remains of
+the medieval ramparts and the Tour de l&rsquo;Horloge, an ancient
+gateway, are also preserved. The town carries on trade in grain,
+and has flour mills.</p>
+
+<p>The lords of Beaugency attained considerable importance in
+the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries; at the end of the 13th century
+the fief was sold to the crown, and afterwards passed to the
+house of Orleans, then to those of Dunois and Longueville and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
+ultimately again to that of Orleans. Joan of Arc defeated the
+English here in 1429. In 1567 the town was sacked and burned
+by the Protestants. On the 8th, 9th and 10th of December
+1870 the German army, commanded by the grand-duke of
+Mecklenburg, defeated the French army of the Loire, under
+General Chanzy, in the battle of Beaugency (or Villorceau-Josnes),
+which was fought on the left bank of the Loire to the N.W. of
+Beaugency.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUHARNAIS,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> the name of a French family, well known
+from the 15th century onward in Orléanais, where its members
+occupied honourable positions. One of them, Jean Jacques de
+Beauharnais, seigneur de Miramion, had for wife Marie Bonneau,
+who in 1661 founded a female charitable order, called after her
+the Miramiones. François de Beauharnais, marquis de la
+Ferté-Beauharnais, was a deputy in the states-general of 1789, and a
+devoted defender of the monarchy. He emigrated and served
+in Condé&rsquo;s army. Later he gave his adherence to Napoleon, and
+became ambassador in Etruria and Spain; he died in 1823. His
+brother Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, married Josephine
+Tascher de la Pagerie (afterwards the wife of Napoleon
+Bonaparte) and had two children by her&mdash;Eugène de
+Beauharnais (<i>q.v.</i>) and Hortense, who married Louis Bonaparte,
+king of Holland, and became mother of Napoleon III. Claude de
+Beauharnais, comte des Roches-Baritaud, uncle of the marquis
+and of the vicomte de Beauharnais, served in the navy and
+became a vice-admiral. He married Marie Anne Françoise
+(called Fanny) Mouchard, a woman of letters who had a celebrated
+salon. His son, also named Claude (d. 1819), was created a peer
+of France in 1814, and was the father of Stéphanie de
+Beauharnais, who married the grand-duke of Baden. The house of
+Beauharnais is still represented in Russia by the dukes of
+Leuchtenberg, descendants of Prince Eugène.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUHARNAIS, EUGÈNE DE<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1781-1824), step-son of
+Napoleon I., was born at Paris on the 3rd of September 1781.
+He was the son of the general Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais
+(1760-1794) and Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie. The
+father, who was born in Martinique, and served in the American
+War of Independence, took part in the politics of the French
+Revolution, and in June-August 1793 commanded the army
+of the Rhine. His failure to fulfil the tasks imposed on him
+(especially that of the relief of Mainz) led to his being arrested,
+and he was guillotined (23rd June 1794) not long before the fall
+of Robespierre. The marriage of his widow Josephine to
+Napoleon Bonaparte in March 1796 was at first resented by
+Eugène and his sister Hortense; but their step-father proved
+to be no less kind than watchful over their interests. In the
+Italian campaigns of 1796-1797 Eugène served as aide-de-camp
+to Bonaparte, and accompanied him to Egypt in the same
+capacity. There he distinguished himself by his activity and
+bravery, and was wounded during the siege of Acre. Bonaparte
+brought him back to France in the autumn of 1799, and it is
+known that the intervention of Eugène and Hortense helped
+to bring about the reconciliation which then took place between
+Bonaparte and Josephine. The services rendered by Eugène
+at the time of the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of Brumaire (1799) and during the
+Consulate (1799-1804) served to establish his fortunes, despite
+the efforts of some of the Bonapartes to destroy the influence
+of the Beauharnais and bring about the divorce of Josephine.</p>
+
+<p>After the proclamation of the Empire, Eugène received the
+title of prince, with a yearly stipend of 200,000 francs, and
+became general of the <i>chasseurs à cheval</i> of the Guard. A year
+later, when the Italian republic became the kingdom of Italy,
+with Napoleon as king, Eugène received the title of viceroy,
+with large administrative powers. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span>.) Not long after
+the battle of Austerlitz (2nd December 1805) Napoleon dignified
+the elector of Bavaria with the title of king and arranged a
+marriage between Eugène and the princess Augusta Amelia of
+Bavaria. On the whole the government of Eugène gave general
+satisfaction in the kingdom of Italy; it comprised the districts
+between the Simplon Pass and Rimini, and also after the peace
+of Presburg (December 1805), Istria and Dalmatia. In 1808
+(on the further partition of the papal states) the frontier of the
+kingdom was extended southwards to the borders of the kingdom
+of Naples, in the part known as the Abruzzi. In the campaign
+of 1809 Eugène commanded the army of Italy, with General
+(afterwards Marshal) Macdonald as his <i>adlatus</i>. The battle of
+Sacile, where he fought against the Austrian army of the Archduke
+John, did not yield proofs of military talent on the part
+of Eugène or of Macdonald; but on the retreat of the enemy
+into Austrian territory (owing to the disasters of their main
+army on the Danube) Eugène&rsquo;s forces pressed them vigorously
+and finally won an important victory at Raab in the heart of the
+Austrian empire. Then, joining the main army under Napoleon,
+in the island of Lobau in the Danube, near Vienna, Eugène and
+Macdonald acquitted themselves most creditably in the great
+battle of Wagram (6th July 1809). In 1810 Eugène received
+the title of grand-duke of Frankfort. Equally meritorious were
+his services and those of the large Italian contingent in the
+campaign of 1812 in Russia. He and they distinguished themselves
+especially at the battles of Borodino and Malojaroslavitz;
+and on several occasions during the disastrous retreat which
+ensued, Eugène&rsquo;s soldierly constancy and devotion to Napoleon
+shone out conspicuously in 1813-1814, especially by contrast
+with the tergiversations of Murat. On the downfall of the
+Napoleonic régime Eugène retired to Munich, where he continued
+to reside, with the title duke of Leuchtenberg and prince of
+Eichstädt. He died in 1824, leaving two surviving sons and three
+daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details concerning Eugène see <i>Mémoires et correspondance
+politique et militaire du Prince Eugène</i>, edited by Baron A.
+Ducasse (10 vols., Paris, 1858-1860); F.J.A. Schneidewind,
+<i>Prinz Eugen, Herzog van Leuchtenberg in den Feldzügen seiner Zeit</i>
+(Stockholm, 1857); A. Purlitzer, <i>Une Idylle sous Napoléon I<span class="sp">er</span>: le
+roman du Prince Eugène</i> (Paris, 1895); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa
+famille</i> (Paris, 1897-1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUJEU<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span>. The French province of Beaujolais was formed
+by the development of the ancient seigniory of Beaujeu (department
+of Rhône, arrondissement of Villefranche). The lords of
+Beaujeu held from the 10th century onwards a high rank in
+feudal society. In 1210 Guichard of Beaujeu was sent by Philip
+Augustus on an embassy to Pope Innocent III.; he was present
+at the French attack on Dover, where he died in 1216. His son
+Humbert took part in the wars against the Albigenses and
+became constable of France. Isabeau, daughter of this Humbert,
+married Renaud, count of Forez; and their second son, Louis,
+assumed the name and arms of Beaujeu. His son Guichard,
+called the Great, had a very warlike life, fighting for the king of
+France, for the count of Savoy and for his own hand. He was
+taken prisoner by the Dauphinois in 1325, thereby losing
+important estates. Guichard&rsquo;s son, Edward of Beaujeu, marshal
+of France, fought at Crécy, and perished in the battle of Ardres
+in 1351. His son died without issue in 1374, and was succeeded
+by his cousin, Edward of Beaujeu, lord of Perreux, who gave
+his estates of Beaujolais and Dombes to Louis II., duke of
+Bourbon, in 1400. Pierre de Bourbon was lord of Beaujeu in
+1474, when he married Anne of France, daughter of Louis XI.,
+and this is why that princess retained the name of lady of
+Beaujeu. Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., got Beaujolais
+assigned to herself despite the claims of the constable de Bourbon.
+In 1531 the province was reunited to the crown; but Francis II.
+gave it back to the Montpensier branch of the Bourbons in 1560,
+from which house it passed to that of Orleans. The title of
+comte de Beaujolais was borne by a son of Philippe &ldquo;Égalité,&rdquo;
+duke of Orleans, born in 1779, died in 1808.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAULIEU,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> a village in the French department of Alpes-Maritimes.
+Pop. (1906) 1460. It is about 4 m. by rail E. of
+Nice (1¼ m. from Villefranche), and on the main line between
+Marseilles and Mentone; it is also connected with Nice and
+Mentone by an electric tramway. Of late years it has become
+a much frequented winter resort, and many handsome villas
+(among them that built by the 3rd marquess of Salisbury) have
+been constructed in the neighbourhood. The harbour has been
+extended and adapted for the reception of yachts.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAULY<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (pronounced <i>Bewley</i>; a corruption of <i>Beaulieu</i>), a
+town of Inverness-shire, Scotland, on the Beauly, 10 m. W. of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
+Inverness by the Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 855. Its
+chief interest is the beautiful remains of the Priory of St John,
+founded in 1230 by John Bisset of the Aird, for Cistercian monks.
+At the Reformation the buildings (except the church, now a
+ruin) passed into the possession of Lord Lovat. On the right
+bank of the river is the site of Lovat Castle, which once belonged
+to the Bissets, but was presented by James VI. to Hugh Fraser
+and afterwards demolished. To the south-east is the church of
+Kirkhill containing the vault of the Lovats. Three miles south
+of Beauly is Beaufort Castle, the chief seat of the Lovats, a fine
+modern mansion in the Scottish baronial style. It occupies the
+site of a fortress erected in the time of Alexander II., which was
+besieged in 1303 by Edward I. This was replaced by several
+castles in succession, of which one&mdash;Castle Dounie&mdash;was taken
+by Cromwell and burned by the duke of Cumberland in 1746,
+the conflagration being witnessed from a neighbouring hill by
+Simon, Lord Lovat, before his capture on Loch Morar. The
+land around Beauly is fertile and the town drives a brisk trade in
+coal, timber, lime, grain and fish.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMANOIR,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> a seigniory in what is now the department of
+Côtes-du-Nord, France, which gave its name to an illustrious
+family. Jean de Beaumanoir, marshal of Brittany for Charles of
+Blois, and captain of Josselin, is remembered for his share in the
+famous battle of the Thirty. This battle, sung by an unknown
+trouvère and retold with variations by Froissart, was an episode
+in the struggle for the succession to the duchy of Brittany
+between Charles of Blois, supported by the king of France, and
+John of Montfort, supported by the king of England. John
+Bramborough, the English captain of Ploërmel, having continued
+his ravages, in spite of a truce, in the district commanded by the
+captain of Josselin, Jean de Beaumanoir sent him a challenge,
+which resulted in a fight between thirty picked champions,
+knights and squires, on either side, which took place on the 25th
+of March 1351, near Ploërmel. Beaumanoir commanded thirty
+Bretons, Bramborough a mixed force of twenty Englishmen, six
+German mercenaries and four Breton partisans of Montfort. The
+battle, fought with swords, daggers and axes, was of the most
+desperate character, in its details very reminiscent of the last
+fight of the Burgundians in the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, especially
+in the celebrated advice of Geoffrey du Bois to his wounded leader, who
+was asking for water: &ldquo;Drink your blood, Beaumanoir; that
+will quench your thirst!&rdquo; In the end the victory was decided by
+Guillaume de Montauban, who mounted his horse and overthrew
+seven of the English champions, the rest being forced to surrender.
+All the combatants on either side were either dead or seriously
+wounded, Bramborough being among the slain. The prisoners
+were well treated and released on payment of a small ransom.
+(See <i>Le Poème du combat des Trente</i>, in the <i>Panthéon littéraire</i>;
+Froissart, <i>Chroniques</i>, ed. S. Luce, c. iv. pp. 45 and 110 ff., and pp. 338-340).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Jean de Beaumanoir</span> (1551-1614), seigneur and afterwards
+marquis de Lavardin, count of Nègrepelisse by marriage, served
+first in the Protestant army, but turned Catholic after the
+massacre of St Bartholomew, in which his father had been killed,
+and then fought against Henry of Navarre. When that prince
+became king of France, Lavardin changed over to his side, and
+was made a marshal of France. He was governor of Maine,
+commanded an army in Burgundy in 1602, was ambassador
+extraordinary to England in 1612, and died in 1614. One of his
+descendants, Henry Charles, marquis de Lavardin (1643-1701),
+was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1689, on the occasion of a
+difference between Louis XIV. and Innocent XI.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE RÉMI,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sire de</span> (<i>c.</i> 1250-1296),
+French jurist, was born in the early part of the 13th
+century and died in 1296. The few facts known regarding his
+life are to be gathered from legal documents in which his name
+occurs. From these it appears that in 1273 he filled the post of
+<i>bailli</i> at Senlis, and in 1280 held a similar office at Clermont. He
+is also occasionally referred to as presiding at the assizes held at
+various towns. His great work is entitled <i>Coutumes de Beauvoisis</i>
+and first appeared in 1690, a second edition with introduction by
+A.A. Beugnot being published in 1842. It is regarded as one of
+the best works bearing on old French law, and was frequently
+referred to with high admiration by Montesquieu. Beaumanoir
+also obtained fame as a poet, and left over 20,000 verses, the best
+known of his poems being <i>La Manekine</i>, <i>Jehan et Blonde</i> and <i>Salut d&rsquo;amour</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1732-1799),
+French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of
+January 1732. His father, a watchmaker named Caron, brought
+him up to the same trade. He was an unusually precocious and
+lively boy, shrewd, sagacious, passionately fond of music and
+imbued with a strong desire for rising in the world. At the age of
+twenty-one he invented a new escapement for watches, which
+was pirated by a rival maker. Young Caron at once published
+his grievance in the <i>Mercure</i>, and had the matter referred to the
+Academy of Sciences, which decided in his favour. This affair
+brought him into notice at court; he was appointed, or at least
+called himself, watchmaker to the king, who ordered from him a
+watch similar to one he had made for Mme de Pompadour. His
+handsome figure and cool assurance enabled him to make his way
+at court. Mme Franquet, the wife of an old court official,
+persuaded her husband to make over his office to young Caron,
+and, on her husband&rsquo;s death, a few months later, married the
+handsome watchmaker. Caron at the same time assumed the
+name Beaumarchais; and four years later, by purchasing the
+office of secretary to the king obtained a patent of nobility.</p>
+
+<p>At court his musical talents brought him under the notice of
+the king&rsquo;s sisters, who engaged him to teach them the harp. This
+position enabled him to confer a slight favour on the great banker
+Joseph Duverney, who testified his gratitude by giving Beaumarchais
+a share in his speculations. The latter turned the
+opportunity to good account, and soon realized a handsome
+fortune. In 1764 he took a journey to Spain, partly with
+commercial objects in view, but principally on account of the
+Clavijo affair. José Clavijo y Fajardo had twice promised to
+marry the sister of Beaumarchais, and had failed to keep his word.
+The adventure had not the tragic ending of Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Clavigo</i>, for
+Beaumarchais did not pursue his vengeance beyond words.
+Beaumarchais made his first essay as a writer for the stage with
+the sentimental drama <i>Eugénie</i> (1767), in which he drew largely
+on the Clavijo incident. This was followed after an interval of
+two years by <i>Les Deux Amis</i>, but neither play had more than
+moderate success. His first wife had died within a year of the
+marriage and in 1768 Beaumarchais married Mme Lévêque.
+Her death in 1771 was the signal for unfounded rumours of
+poisoning. Duverney died in 1770; but some time before his
+death a duplicate settlement of the affairs between him and
+Beaumarchais had been drawn up, in which the banker acknowledged
+himself debtor to Beaumarchais for 15,000 francs.
+Duverney&rsquo;s heir, the comte de La Blache, denied the validity of
+the document though without directly stigmatizing it as a
+forgery. The matter was put to trial. Beaumarchais gained his
+cause, but his adversary at once carried the case before the
+parlement. In the meantime the duc de Chaulnes forced
+Beaumarchais into a quarrel over Mdlle Menard, an actress at the
+Comédie Italienne, which resulted in the imprisonment of both
+parties. This moment was chosen by La Blache to demand
+judgment from the parlement in the matter of the Duverney
+agreement. Beaumarchais was released from prison for three or
+four days to see his judges. He was, however, unable to obtain
+an interview with Goezman, the member of the parlement
+appointed to report on his case. At last, just before the day on
+which the report was to be given in, he was informed privately
+that, by presenting 200 <i>louis</i> to Mme Goezman and 15 to her
+secretary, the desired interview might take place, if the result
+should prove unfavourable the money would be refunded. The
+money was sent and the interview obtained; but the decision
+was adverse, and 200 <i>louis</i> were returned, the 15 going as business
+expenses to the secretary. Beaumarchais, who had learned that
+there was no secretary save Mme Goezman herself, insisted on
+restitution of the 15 <i>louis</i>, but the lady denied all knowledge of
+the affair. Her husband, who was probably not cognisant of the
+details of the transaction at first, doubtless thought the defeated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span>
+litigant would be easily put down, and at once brought an
+accusation against him for an attempt to corrupt justice. The
+battle was fought chiefly through the <i>Mémoires</i>, or reports
+published by the adverse parties, and in it Beaumarchais&rsquo;s
+success was complete. For vivacity of style, fine satire and
+broad humour, his famous <i>Mémoires</i>  have never been surpassed.
+Even Voltaire was constrained to envy them. Beaumarchais
+was skilful enough to make his particular case of universal
+application. He was attacking the parlement through one of its
+members, and the parlement was the universally detested body
+formed by the chancellor Maupeou. The <i>Mémoires</i> were,
+therefore, hailed with general delight; and the author, from
+being perhaps the most unpopular man in France, became at once
+the idol of the people. The decision went against Beaumarchais.
+The parlement condemned both him and Mme Goezman <i>au
+blâme</i>, <i>i.e.</i> to civic degradation, while the husband was obliged
+to abandon his position. Beaumarchais was reduced to great
+straits, but he obtained restitution of his rights within two years,
+and finally triumphed over his adversary La Blache.</p>
+
+<p>During the next few years he was engaged in the king&rsquo;s
+secret service. One of his missions was to England to destroy
+the <i>Mémoires secrets d&rsquo;une femme publique</i> in which Charles
+Theveneau de Morande made an attack on Mme Du Barry.
+Beaumarchais secured this pamphlet, and burnt the whole
+impression in London. Another expedition to England and
+Holland to seize a pamphlet attacking Marie Antoinette
+led to a series of incidents more amazing than the intrigues
+in Beaumarchais&rsquo;s own plays, but his own account must
+be received with caution. Beaumarchais pursued the libeller
+to Germany and overtook him in a wood near Neustadt. After
+a struggle he had gained possession of the document when he
+was attacked by brigands. Unfortunately the wound alleged
+to have been received in this fight was proved to be self-inflicted.
+The Austrian government regarded Beaumarchais with a
+suspicion justified by the circumstances. He was imprisoned
+for some time in Vienna, and only released on the receipt of
+explanations from Paris.</p>
+
+<p>His various visits to England led him to take a deep interest
+in the impending struggle between the American colonies and
+the mother-country. His sympathies were entirely with the
+former; and by his unwearied exertions he succeeded in inducing
+the French government to give ample, though private, assistance
+in money and arms to the Americans. He himself, partly on
+his own account, but chiefly as the agent of the French and
+Spanish governments, carried on an enormous traffic with
+America. Under the name of Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie,
+he employed a fleet of forty vessels to provide help for the
+insurgents.</p>
+
+<p>During the same period he produced his two famous comedies.
+The earlier, <i>Le Barbier de Seville</i>, after a prohibition of two years,
+was put on the stage in 1775. The first representation was a
+complete failure. Beaumarchais had overloaded the last scene
+with allusions to the facts of his own case and the whole action
+of the piece was laboured and heavy. But he cut down and
+remodelled the piece in time for the second representation, when
+it achieved a complete success. The intrigues which were
+necessary in order to obtain a licence for the second and more
+famous comedy, <i>Le Mariage de Figaro</i>, are highly amusing, and
+throw much light on the unsettled state of public sentiment at
+the time. The play was completed in 1778, but the opposition
+of Louis XVI., who alone saw its dangerous tendencies, was not
+overcome till 1784. The comedy had an unprecedented success.
+The principal character in both plays, Figaro, is a completely
+original conception; in fact Beaumarchais drew a portrait of
+himself in the resourceful adventurer, who, for mingled wit,
+shrewdness, gaiety and philosophic reflection, may not unjustly
+be ranked with Tartuffe. To English readers the Figaro plays
+are generally known through the adaptations of them in the
+grand opera of Mozart and Rossini; but in France they long
+retained popularity as acting pieces. The success of <i>Le Mariage
+de Figaro</i> was helped on by the methods of self-advertisement
+so well understood by Beaumarchais. The proceeds of the
+fiftieth performance were devoted to a charity, the choice of
+which provoked numerous epigrams. Beaumarchais had the
+imprudence to retaliate by personalities that were reported by
+his enemies to be dedicated against the king and queen. Beaumarchais
+was imprisoned for a short time by royal order in the
+prison of St Lazare. Brilliant pamphleteer as he was, Beaumarchais
+was at last to meet more than his match. He undertook
+to defend the company of the &ldquo;Eaux de Paris,&rdquo; in which he had
+a large interest, against Mirabeau, and brought down on himself
+an invective to which he could offer no reply. His real influence
+was gone from that date (1785-1786). Shortly afterwards he
+was violently attacked by Nicolas Bergasse, whom he sued for
+defamation of character. He gained his case, but his reputation
+had suffered in the pamphlet war. Beaumarchais&rsquo;s later productions,
+the bombastic opera <i>Tarare</i> (1787) and the drama <i>La
+Mère coupable</i> (1792), which was very popular, are in no way
+worthy of his genius.</p>
+
+<p>By his writings Beaumarchais contributed greatly, though
+quite unconsciously, to hurry on the events that led to the
+Revolution. At heart he hardly seems to have been a republican,
+and the new state of affairs did not benefit him. The astonishing
+thing is that the society travestied in <i>Le Mariage de Figaro</i> was
+the most vehement in its applause. The court looked on at a
+play justly characterized by Napoleon as the &ldquo;revolution
+already in action&rdquo; apparently without a suspicion of its real
+character. His popularity had been destroyed by the Mirabeau
+and Bergasse affairs, and his great wealth exposed him to the
+enmity of the envious. A speculation into which he entered,
+to supply the Convention with muskets from Holland, proved
+a ruinous failure. He was accused of concealing arms and corn
+in his house, but when his house was searched nothing was
+discovered but some thousands of copies of the edition (1783-1790)
+of the works of Voltaire which he had had printed at his
+private press at Kehl, in Baden. He was charged with treason
+to the republic and was imprisoned in the Abbaye on the 20th
+of August 1792. A week later he was released at the intercession
+of Mme Houret de la Marinière, who had been his mistress. He
+took refuge in Holland and England. His memoirs entitled,
+<i>Mes six époques</i>, detailing his sufferings under the republic, are
+not unworthy of the Goezman period. His courage and happy
+disposition never deserted him, although he was hunted as an
+agent of the Convention in Holland and England, while in Paris
+he was proscribed as an <i>émigré</i>. He returned to Paris in 1796,
+and died there, suddenly, on the 18th of May 1799.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gudin de la Brenellerie&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de Beaumarchais</i> (1809) was
+edited by M. Maurice Tourneux in 1888. See also L. de Loménie,
+<i>Beaumarchais et son temps</i> (1855), Eng. trans. by H.S. Edwards,
+(4. vols., 1856); A. Hallay&rsquo;s <i>Beaumarchais</i> (1897); M. de Lescure,
+<i>Éloge de Beaumarchais</i> (1886); and Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du
+lundi</i>, vol. vi. Beaumarchais&rsquo;s works have been edited by Gudin
+(7 vols., 1809); by Furne (6 vols., 1827); and by É. Fournier (1876).
+A variorum edition of his <i>Théâtre complet</i> was published by MM.
+d&rsquo;Heylli and de Marescot (4 vols., 1869-1875); and a <i>Bibliographie
+des &oelig;uvres de Beaumarchais</i>, by H. Cordier in 1883.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMARIS,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, and the
+county town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the Bay of
+Beaumaris, not far from Penmon, the northern entrance of the
+Menai Strait. Pop. (1901) 2326. It has but one considerable
+street. The large castle chapel, dedicated to the Virgin, has
+some fine monuments. David Hughes, of Jesus College, Oxford,
+founded the free grammar school in 1603. Buildings include
+town-hall and county-hall, with St Mary&rsquo;s church of the 13th
+century, with chancel of the 16th. Practically without trade
+and with no manufactures, Beaumaris is principally noted as a
+bathing-place. Its earliest charter dates from 1283 and was
+revised under Elizabeth. The town was formerly called Barnover
+and, still earlier, Rhosfair, and bears its present name of French
+origin since Edward I. built its castle in 1293. This extensive
+building was erected on low ground, so that the fosse might
+communicate with the sea, and vessels might unload under its
+walls. The castle capitulated, after siege, to General Mytton
+(1646).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> <span class="sc">Belmont</span>, or <span class="sc">Bellomont</span>, the name of a
+Norman and English family, taken from Beaumont-le-Roger in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span>
+Normandy. Early in the 11th century Roger de Beaumont, a
+kinsman of the dukes of Normandy, married a daughter of
+Waleran, count of Meulan, and their son, <span class="sc">Robert de Beaumont</span>
+(d. 1118), became count of Meulan or Mellent about 1080.
+Before this date, however, he had fought at Hastings, and had
+added large estates in Warwickshire to the Norman fiefs of
+Beaumont and Pont Audemer, which he received when his
+father entered the abbey of St Peter at Préaux. It was during
+the reigns of William II. and Henry I. that the count rose to
+eminence, and under the latter monarch he became &ldquo;the first
+among the counsellors of the king.&rdquo; A &ldquo;strenuous and sagacious
+man&rdquo; he rendered valuable service to both kings in their Norman
+wars, and Henry I. was largely indebted to him for the
+English crown. He obtained lands in Leicestershire, and it has
+been said he was created earl of Leicester; this statement,
+however, is an error, although he exercised some of the privileges
+of an earl. His abilities as a counsellor, statesman and diplomatist
+gained him the admiration of his contemporaries, and
+Henry of Huntingdon describes him as &ldquo;the wisest man between
+this and Jerusalem.&rdquo; He seems to have been a man of independent
+character, for he assisted Anselm against William Rufus,
+although he supported Henry I. in his quarrel with Pope Paschal
+II. When Robert died on the 5th of June 1118 his lands appear
+to have been divided between his twin sons, Robert and Waleran,
+while a third son, Hugh, became earl of Bedford in 1138.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Robert de Beaumont</span> (1104-1168), justiciar of England,
+married a granddaughter of Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, and
+receiving his father&rsquo;s English fiefs in 1118 became earl of
+Leicester. He and his brother, Waleran, were the chief advisers
+of Stephen, and helped this king to seize the bishops of Salisbury
+and Lincoln in 1139; later, however, Robert made his peace with
+Henry II., and became chief justiciar of England. First among
+the lay nobles he signed the Constitutions of Clarendon, he sought
+to reconcile Henry and Archbishop Becket, and was twice in
+charge of the kingdom during the king&rsquo;s absences in France.
+The earl founded the abbey of St Mary de Pré at Leicester and
+other religious houses, and by a charter confirmed the burgesses
+of Leicester in the possession of their merchant-gild and customs.
+His son, Robert, succeeded to the earldom of Leicester, and with
+other English barons assisted prince Henry in his revolt against
+his father the king in 1173. For this participation, and also
+on a later occasion, he was imprisoned; but he enjoyed the
+favour of Richard I., and died in Greece when returning from a
+pilgrimage in 1190. His son and heir, Robert, died childless
+in 1204.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Waleran de Beaumont</span> (1104-1166) obtained his father&rsquo;s
+French fiefs and the title of count of Meulan in 1118. After
+being imprisoned for five years by Henry I. he spent some time
+in England, and during the civil war between Stephen and the
+empress Matilda he fought for the former until about 1150,
+when he deserted the king and assisted the empress. His later
+history appears to have been uneventful. The county of Meulan
+remained in possession of the Beaumont family until 1204, when
+it was united with the royal domain.</p>
+
+<p>Another member of the Beaumont family, possibly a relative
+of the earlier Beaumonts, was <span class="sc">Louis de Beaumont</span> (d. 1333),
+bishop of Durham from 1317 until his death. This prelate was
+related to the English king, Edward II., and after a life spent
+in strife and ostentation, he died on the 24th of September 1333.
+<span class="sc">John Beaumont</span>, master of the rolls under Edward VI., was
+probably a member of the same family. A dishonest and corrupt
+judge, he was deprived of his office and imprisoned in 1552.</p>
+
+<p>The barony of Beaumont dates from 1309, when <span class="sc">Henry
+Beaumont</span> (d. 1340), who was constable of England in 1322, was
+summoned to parliament under this title. It was retained by
+his descendants until the death of William, the 7th baron and
+the 2nd viscount,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in 1507, when it fell into abeyance. In 1840
+the barony was revived in favour of Miles Thomas Stapleton (1805-1854),
+a descendant of Joan, Baroness Lovel, a daughter
+of the 6th baron, and it has since been retained by his descendants.</p>
+
+<p>In 1906 <span class="sc">Wentworth Blackett Beaumont</span> (1829-1907), the
+head of a family well known in the north of England, was created
+Baron Allendale.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> His father John (d. 1460), the 6th baron, great chamberlain and
+constable of England, was the first person advanced to the dignity of a viscount in England.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1703-1781), French ecclesiastic
+and archbishop of Paris, was a cadet of the Les Adrets and
+Saint-Quentin branch of the illustrious Dauphiné family of
+Beaumont. He became bishop of Bayonne in 1741, then archbishop
+of Vienne in 1743, and in 1746, at the age of forty-three,
+archbishop of Paris. Beaumont is noted for his struggle with the
+Jansenists. To force them to accept the bull <i>Unigenitus</i> which
+condemned their doctrines, he ordered the priests of his diocese
+to refuse absolution to those who would not recognize the bull,
+and to deny funeral rites to those who had confessed to a
+Jansenist priest. While other bishops sent Beaumont their
+adhesion to his crusade, the parlement of Paris threatened to
+confiscate his temporalities. The king forbade the parlement
+to interfere in these spiritual questions, and upon its proving
+obdurate it was exiled (September 18, 1753). The &ldquo;royal
+chamber,&rdquo; which was substituted, having failed to carry on the
+administration of justice properly, the king was obliged to recall
+the parlement, and the archbishop was sent into honourable
+exile (August 1754). An effort was made to induce him to
+resign the active duties of his see to a coadjutor, but in spite
+of the most tempting offers&mdash;including a cardinal&rsquo;s hat&mdash;he
+refused. On the contrary, to his polemic against the Jansenists
+he added an attack on the <i>philosophes</i>, and issued a formal
+mandatory letter condemning Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Émile</i>. Rousseau
+replied in his masterly <i>Lettre à M. de Beaumont</i> (1762), in which
+he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is
+essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by
+force.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>De Beaumont&rsquo;s <i>Mandements, lettres et instructions pastorales</i> were
+published in two volumes in 1780, the year before his death.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1583-1627), English poet, second
+son of the judge, Sir Francis Beaumont, was born at Grace-Dieu
+in Leicestershire in 1583. The deaths of his father (in 1598)
+and of his elder brother, Sir Henry Beaumont (in 1605), made
+the poet early the head of this brilliant family; the dramatist,
+Francis Beaumont, being a younger brother. John went to
+Oxford in February 1597, and entered as a gentleman commoner
+in Broadgates Hall, the present Pembroke College. He was
+admitted to the Inner Temple in 1600, but on the death of Henry
+he no doubt went down to Grace-Dieu to manage the family
+estates. He began to write verse early, and in 1602, at the age
+of nineteen, he published anonymously his <i>Metamorphosis of
+Tabacco</i>, written in very smooth couplets, in which he addressed
+Drayton as his &ldquo;loving friend.&rdquo; He lived in Leicestershire for
+many years as a bachelor, being one &ldquo;who never felt Love&rsquo;s
+dreadful arrow.&rdquo; But in process of time he became a tardy
+victim, and married a lady of the Fortescue family, who bore
+him four stout sons, the eldest of whom, another John, was
+accounted one of the most athletic men of his time. &ldquo;He could
+leap 16 ft. at one leap, and would commonly, at a stand-leap,
+jump over a high long table in the hall, light on a settle beyond
+the table, and raise himself straight up.&rdquo; This magnificent
+young man was not without literary taste; he edited his father&rsquo;s
+posthumous poems, and wrote an enthusiastic elegy on him; he
+was killed in 1644 at the siege of Gloucester. Another of Sir
+John Beaumont&rsquo;s sons, Gervaise, died in childhood, and the
+incidents of his death are recorded in one of his father&rsquo;s most
+touching poems. Sir John Beaumont concentrated his powers
+on a poem in eight books, entitled <i>The Crown of Thorns</i>, which
+was greatly admired in MS. by the earl of Southampton and
+others, but which is lost. After long retirement, Beaumont was
+persuaded by the duke of Buckingham to move in larger circles;
+he attended court and in 1626 was made a baronet. This
+honour he did not long survive, for he died on the 19th of April
+1627, and was buried in Westminster Abbey ten days later.
+The new Sir John, the strong man, published in 1629 a volume
+entitled <i>Bosworth Field; with a taste of the variety of other Poems
+left by Sir John Beaumont</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span>
+No more &ldquo;tastes&rdquo; were ever vouchsafed, so that it is by this volume and by the juvenile
+<i>Metamorphosis of Tobacco</i> that Beaumont&rsquo;s reputation has to
+stand. Of late years, the peculiarities of John Beaumont&rsquo;s
+prosody have drawn attention to his work. He wrote the heroic
+couplet, which was his favourite measure, with almost unprecedented
+evenness. Bosworth Field, the scene of the battle
+of which Beaumont&rsquo;s principal poem gives a vaguely epical
+narrative, lay close to the poet&rsquo;s house of Grace-Dieu. He
+writes on all occasions with a smoothness which was very remarkable
+in the first quarter of the 17th century, and which marks
+him, with Edmund Waller and George Sandys, as one of the
+pioneers of the classic reformation of English verse.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The poems of Sir John Beaumont were included in A. Chalmers&rsquo;s
+<i>English Poets</i>, vol. vi. (1810). An edition, with &ldquo;memorial
+introduction&rdquo; and notes, was included (1869) in Dr A.B. Grosart&rsquo;s
+<i>Fuller Worthies&rsquo; Library</i>; and the <i>Metamorphosis of Tobacco</i>
+was included in J.P. Collier&rsquo;s <i>Illustrations of Early English
+Popular Literature</i>, vol. i. (1863).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> and <b>FLETCHER,</b> English dramatists<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The
+names of <span class="sc">Francis Beaumont</span> (1584-1616) and <span class="sc">John Fletcher</span>
+(1579-1625) are inseparably connected in the history of the
+English drama. John Fletcher was born in December 1579 at
+Rye in Sussex, and baptized on the 20th of the same month.
+Richard Fletcher, his father, afterwards queen&rsquo;s chaplain, dean
+of Peterborough, and bishop successively of Bristol, Worcester
+and London, was then minister of the parish in which the son was
+born who was to make their name immortal. That son was just
+turned of seven when the dean distinguished and disgraced
+himself as the spiritual tormentor of the last moments on earth
+of Mary Stuart. When not quite twelve he was admitted
+pensioner of Bene&rsquo;t College, Cambridge, and two years later was
+made one of the Bible-clerks: of this college Bishop Fletcher had
+been president twenty years earlier, and six months before his
+son&rsquo;s admission had received from its authorities a first letter of
+thanks for various benefactions, to be followed next year by a
+second. Four years later than this, when John Fletcher wanted
+five or six months of his seventeenth year, the bishop died
+suddenly of over much tobacco and the displeasure of Queen
+Elizabeth at his second marriage&mdash;this time, it appears, with a
+lady of such character as figures something too frequently on the
+stage of his illustrious son. He left eight children by his first
+marriage in such distress that their uncle, Dr Giles Fletcher,
+author of a treatise on the Russian commonwealth which is still
+held in some repute, was obliged to draw up a petition to the
+queen on their behalf, which was supported by the intercession
+of Essex, but with what result is uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>From this date we know nothing of the fortunes of John
+Fletcher, till the needy orphan boy of seventeen reappears as the
+brilliant and triumphant poet whose name is linked for all time
+with the yet more glorious name of Francis Beaumont, third and
+youngest son of Sir Francis Beaumont of Grace-Dieu, one of the
+justices of the common pleas&mdash;born, according to general report,
+in 1586, but, according to more than one apparently irrefragable
+document, actually born two years earlier. The first record of
+his existence is the entry of his name, together with those of his
+elder brothers Henry and John, as a gentleman-commoner of
+Broadgates Hall, Oxford, now supplanted by Pembroke College.
+But most lovers of his fame will care rather to remember the
+admirable lines of Wordsworth on the &ldquo;eager child&rdquo; who played
+among the rocks and woodlands of Grace-Dieu; though it may be
+doubted whether even the boy&rsquo;s first verses were of the peaceful
+and pastoral character attributed to them by the great laureate
+of the lakes. That passionate and fiery genius which was so soon
+and for so short a time to &ldquo;shake the buskined stage&rdquo; with heroic
+and tragic notes of passion and of sorrow, of scorn and rage, and
+slighted love and jealousy, must surely have sought vent from the
+first in fancies of a more ardent and ambitious kind; and it
+would be a likelier conjecture that when Frank Beaumont (as we
+know on more authorities than one that he was always called by
+his contemporaries, even in the full flush of his adult
+fame&mdash;&ldquo;never more than Frank,&rdquo; says Heywood) went to college at the
+ripe age of twelve, he had already committed a tragedy or two in
+emulation of <i>Tamburlaine</i>, <i>Andronicus</i> or <i>Jeronymo</i>.
+The date of his admission was the 4th of February 1597; on the 22nd
+of April of the following year his father died; and on the 3rd of
+November 1600, having left Oxford without taking his degree, the
+boy of fifteen was entered a member of the Inner Temple, his two
+brothers standing sponsors on the grave occasion. But the son
+of Judge Beaumont was no fitter for success at the bar than the
+son of Bishop Fletcher for distinction in the church: it is
+equally difficult to imagine either poet invested with either
+gown. Two years later appeared the poem of <i>Salmacis and Hermaphroditus</i>,
+generally attributed to Beaumont, a voluptuous and voluminous
+expansion of the Ovidian legend, not on the whole discreditable
+to a lad of eighteen, fresh from the popular love-poems of
+Marlowe and Shakespeare, which it naturally exceeds in
+long-winded and fantastic diffusion of episodes and conceits. At
+twenty-three Beaumont prefixed to the magnificent masterpiece
+of Ben Jonson some noticeable verses in honour of his &ldquo;dear
+friend&rdquo; the author; and in the same year (1607) appeared the
+anonymous comedy of <i>The Woman-Hater</i>, usually assigned to
+Fletcher alone; but being as it is in the main a crude and puerile
+imitation of Jonson&rsquo;s manner, and certainly more like a man&rsquo;s
+work at twenty-two than at twenty-eight, internal evidence
+would seem to justify, or at least to excuse those critics who in
+the teeth of high authority and tradition would transfer from
+Fletcher to Beaumont the principal responsibility for this first
+play that can be traced to the hand of either. As Fletcher also
+prefixed to the first edition of <i>Volpone</i> a copy of commendatory
+verses, we may presume that their common admiration for a common
+friend was among the earliest and strongest influences
+which drew together the two great poets whose names were
+thenceforward to be for ever indivisible. During the dim eleven
+years between the death of his father and the dawn of his fame,
+we cannot but imagine that the career of Fletcher had been
+unprosperous as well as obscure. From seventeen to twenty-eight
+his youth may presumably have been spent in such painful
+struggles for success, if not for sustenance, as were never known
+to his younger colleague, who, as we have seen, was entered at
+Oxford a few months after Fletcher must in all likelihood have
+left Cambridge to try his luck in London: a venture most
+probably resolved on as soon as the youth had found his family
+reduced by the father&rsquo;s death to such ruinous straits that any
+smoother course can hardly have been open to him. Entering
+college at the same age as Fletcher had entered six years earlier,
+Beaumont had before him a brighter and briefer line of life than
+his elder. But whatever may have been their respective situations
+when, either by happy chance or, as Dyce suggests, by the good
+offices of Jonson, they were first brought together, their intimacy
+soon became so much closer than that of ordinary brothers that
+the household which they shared as bachelors was conducted on
+such thoroughly communistic principles as might have satisfied
+the most trenchant theorist who ever proclaimed as the cardinal
+point of his doctrine, a complete and absolute community of bed
+and board, with all goods thereto appertaining. But in the year
+following that in which the two younger poets had united in
+homage to Jonson, they had entered into a partnership of more
+importance than this in &ldquo;the same clothes and cloak, &amp;c.,&rdquo; with
+other necessaries of life specified by Aubrey.</p>
+
+<p>In 1608, if we may trust the reckoning which seems trust-worthiest,
+the twin stars of our stage rose visibly together for the
+first time. The loveliest, though not the loftiest, of tragic plays
+that we owe to the comrades or the successors of Shakespeare,
+<i>Philaster</i>, has generally been regarded as the first-born
+issue of their common genius. The noble tragedy of <i>Thierry and Theodoret</i>
+has sometimes been dated earlier and assigned to Fletcher
+alone; but we can be sure neither of the early date nor the single
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span>
+authorship. The main body of the play, comprising both the
+great scenes which throw out into full and final relief the character
+of either heroine for perfect good or evil, bears throughout the
+unmistakable image and superscription of Fletcher; yet there
+are parts which for gravity and steady strength of style, for
+reserve and temperance of effect, would seem to suggest the
+collaboration of a calmer and more patient hand; and these more
+equable and less passionate parts of the poem recall rather the
+touch of Massinger than of Beaumont. In the second act, for
+example, the regular structure of the verse, the even scheme of
+the action, the exaggerated braggardism which makes of the hero
+a mere puppet or mouthpiece of his own self-will, are all qualities
+which, for better or for worse, remind us of the strength or the
+weakness of a poet with whom we know that Fletcher, before or
+after his alliance with Beaumont, did now and then work in
+common. Even the Arbaces of Beaumont, though somewhat too
+highly coloured, does not &ldquo;write himself down an ass,&rdquo; like
+Thierry on his first entrance, after the too frequent fashion of
+Massinger&rsquo;s braggarts and tyrants; does not proclaim at starting
+or display with mere wantonness of exposure his more unlovely
+qualities in the naked nature of their deformity. Compare also
+the second with the first scene of the fourth act. In style and
+metre this second scene is as good an example of Massinger as the
+first is of Fletcher at his best. Observe especially in the elaborate
+narrative of the pretended self-immolation of Ordella these
+distinctive notes of the peculiar style of Massinger; the excess of
+parenthetic sentences, no less than five in a space of twenty lines;
+the classical common-place of allusion to Athens, Rome and
+Sparta in one superfluous breath; the pure and vigorous but
+somewhat level and prosaic order of language, with the use of
+certain cheap and easy phrases familiar to Massinger as catchwords;
+the flat and feeble terminations by means of which the
+final syllable of one verse runs on into the next without more pause
+or rhythm than in a passage of prose; the general dignity and
+gravity of sustained and measured expression. These are the
+very points in which the style of Massinger differs from that of
+Fletcher; whose lightest and loosest verses do not overlap each
+other without sensible distinction between the end of one line and
+the beginning of the next; who is often too fluent and facile to
+be choice or forcible in his diction, but seldom if ever prosaic or
+conventional in phrase or allusion, and by no means habitually
+given to weave thoughts within thoughts, knit sentence into
+sentence, and hang whole paragraphs together by the help of loops
+and brackets. From these indications we might infer that this
+poem belongs altogether to a period later than the death of
+Beaumont; though even during his friend&rsquo;s life it appears that
+Fletcher was once at least allied with Massinger and two lesser
+dramatists in the composition of a play, probably the <i>Honest
+Man&rsquo;s Fortune</i>, of which the accounts are to be found in Henslowe&rsquo;s
+papers.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly eight years of toil and triumph of joyous and glorious
+life were spared by destiny to the younger poet between the date
+assigned to the first radiant revelation of his genius in <i>Philaster</i>
+and the date which marks the end of all his labours. On the 6th
+of March 1616 Francis Beaumont died&mdash;according to Jonson and
+tradition, &ldquo;ere he was thirty years of age,&rdquo; but this we have seen
+to be inconsistent with the registry of his entrance at Oxford. If
+we may trust the elegiac evidence of friends, he died of his own
+genius and fiery overwork of brain; yet from the magnificent and
+masculine beauty of his portrait one should certainly never have
+guessed that any strain of spirit or stress of invention could have
+worn out so long before its time so fair and royal a temple for so
+bright and affluent a soul. A student of physiognomy will not
+fail to mark the points of likeness and of difference between the
+faces of the two friends; both models of noble manhood, handsome
+and significant in feature and expression alike;&mdash;Beaumont&rsquo;s
+the statelier and serener of the two, with clear thoughtful eyes,
+full arched brows, and strong aquiline nose, with a little cleft at
+the tip; a grave and beautiful mouth, with full and finely curved
+lips; the form of face a long pure oval, and the imperial head with
+its &ldquo;fair large front&rdquo; and clustering hair set firm and carried high
+with an aspect at once of quiet command and kingly observation:
+Fletcher&rsquo;s a more keen and fervid face, sharper in outline every
+way, with an air of bright ardour and glad fiery impatience;
+sanguine and nervous, suiting the complexion and colour of hair;
+the expression of the eager eyes and lips almost recalling that of a
+noble hound in act to break the leash it strains at;&mdash;two heads as
+lordly of feature and as expressive of aspect as any gallery of great
+men can show. That spring of 1616, we may note in passing, was
+the darkest that ever dawned upon England or the world; for,
+just forty-eight days afterwards, it witnessed, on the 23rd of
+April, the removal from earth of the mightiest genius that ever
+dwelt among men. Scarcely more than a month and a half divided
+the death-days of Beaumont and of Shakespeare. Some three
+years earlier by Dyce&rsquo;s estimate, when about the age of twenty-nine,
+Beaumont had married Ursula, daughter and co-heiress to
+Henry Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by whom he left two daughters,
+one of them posthumous. Fletcher survived his friend just nine
+years and five months; he died &ldquo;in the great plague, 1625,&rdquo; and
+was buried on the 29th of August in St Saviour&rsquo;s, Southwark; not,
+as we might have wished, beside his younger fellow in fame, who
+but three days after his untimely death had added another
+deathless memory to the graves of our great men in Westminster
+Abbey, which he had sung in such noble verse. Dying when just
+four months short of forty-six, Fletcher had thus, as well as we
+can now calculate, altogether some fourteen years and six months
+more of life than the poet who divides with him the imperial
+inheritance of their common glory.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect union in genius and in friendship which has made
+one name of the two names of these great twin brothers in song
+is a thing so admirable and so delightful to remember, that
+it would seem ungracious and unkindly to claim for either a
+precedence which we may be sure he would have been eager to
+disclaim. But if a distinction must be made between the
+Dioscuri of English poetry, we must admit that Beaumont was
+the twin of heavenlier birth. Only as Pollux was on one side a
+demigod of diviner blood than Castor can it be said that on any
+side Beaumont was a poet of higher and purer genius than
+Fletcher; but so much must be allowed by all who have eyes
+and ears to discern in the fabric of their common work a distinction
+without a difference. Few things are stranger than the
+avowal of so great and exquisite a critic as Coleridge, that he
+could trace no faintest line of demarcation between the plays
+which we owe mainly to Beaumont and the plays which we owe
+solely to Fletcher. To others this line has always appeared in
+almost every case unmistakable. Were it as hard and broad
+as the line which marks off, for example, Shakespeare&rsquo;s part
+from Fletcher&rsquo;s in <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, the harmony would
+of course be lost which now informs every work of their common
+genius, and each play of their writing would be such another
+piece of magnificent patchwork as that last gigantic heir of
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s invention, the posthumous birth of his parting
+Muse which was suckled at the breast of Fletcher&rsquo;s as a child of
+godlike blood might be reared on the milk of a mortal mother&mdash;or
+in this case, we might sometimes be tempted to say, of a she-goat
+who left in the veins of the heaven-born suckling somewhat
+too much of his nurse Amalthaea. That question however
+belongs in any case more properly to the study of Shakespeare
+than to the present subject in hand. It may suffice here to
+observe that the contributions of Fletcher to the majestic temple
+of tragedy left incomplete by Shakespeare show the lesser
+workman almost equally at his best and at him worst, at his
+weakest and at his strongest. In the plays which we know by
+evidence surer than the most trustworthy tradition to be the
+common work of Beaumont and Fletcher, there is indeed no
+trace of such incongruous and incompatible admixture as leaves
+the greatest example of romantic tragedy&mdash;for <i>Cymbeline</i> and
+the <i>Winter&rsquo;s Tale</i>, though not guiltless of blood, are in their
+issues no more tragic than <i>Pericles</i> or the <i>Tempest</i>&mdash;a unique
+instance of glorious imperfection, a hybrid of heavenly aid other
+than heavenly breed, disproportioned and divine. But throughout
+these noblest of the works inscribed generally with the names
+of both dramatists we trace on every other page the touch of
+a surer hand, we hear at every other turn the note of a deeper
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span>
+voice, than we can ever recognize in the work of Fletcher alone.
+Although the beloved friend of Jonson, and in the field of comedy
+his loving and studious disciple, yet in that tragic field where his
+freshest bays were gathered Beaumont was the worthiest and
+the closest follower of Shakespeare. In the external but essential
+matter of expression by rhythm and metre he approves himself
+always a student of Shakespeare&rsquo;s second manner, of the style
+in which the graver or tragic part of his historical or romantic
+plays is mostly written; doubtless, the most perfect model that
+can be studied by any poet who, like Beaumont, is great enough
+to be in no danger of sinking to the rank of a mere copyist, but
+while studious of the perfection set before him is yet conscious
+of his own personal and proper quality of genius, and enters the
+presence of the master not as a servant but as a son. The
+general style of his tragic or romantic verse is as simple and
+severe in its purity of note and regularity of outline as that of
+Fletcher&rsquo;s is by comparison lax, effusive, exuberant. The
+matchless fluency and rapidity with which the elder brother
+pours forth the stream of his smooth swift verse gave probably
+the first occasion for that foolish rumour which has not yet fallen
+duly silent, but still murmurs here and there its suggestion that
+the main office of Beaumont was to correct and contain within
+bounds the overflowing invention of his colleague. The poet
+who while yet a youth had earned by his unaided mastery of
+hand such a crown as was bestowed by the noble love and the
+loving &ldquo;envy&rdquo; of Ben Jonson was, according to this tradition,
+a mere precocious pedagogue, fit only to revise and restrain the
+too liberal effusions of his elder in genius as in years. Now, in
+every one of the plays common to both, the real difficulty for a
+critic is not to trace the hand of Beaumont, but to detect the
+touch of Fletcher. Throughout the better part of every such
+play, and above all of their two masterpieces, <i>Philaster</i>
+and <i>The Maid&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>, it should be clear to the most
+sluggish or cursory of readers that he has not to do with the
+author of <i>Valentinian</i> and <i>The Double Marriage</i>.
+In those admirable tragedies the style is looser, more
+fluid, more feminine. From the first scene to the last we
+are swept as it were along the race of a running river, always
+at full flow of light and buoyant melody, with no dark reaches
+or perilous eddies, no stagnant pools or sterile sandbanks;
+its bright course only varied by sudden rapids or a stronger
+ripple here and there, but in rough places or smooth
+still stirred and sparkling with summer wind and sun. But in
+those tragic poems of which the dominant note is the note of
+Beaumont&rsquo;s genius a subtler chord of thought is sounded, a
+deeper key of emotion is touched, than ever was struck by
+Fletcher. The lighter genius is palpably subordinate to the
+stronger, and loyally submits itself to the impression of a loftier
+spirit. It is true that this distinction is never grave enough to
+produce a discord: it is also true that the plays in which the
+predominance of Beaumont&rsquo;s mind and style is generally perceptible
+make up altogether but a small section of the work that
+bears their names conjointly; but it is no less true that within
+this section the most precious part of that work is comprised.
+Outside it we shall find no figures so firmly drawn, no such
+clearness of outline, no such cunning of hands as we recognize
+in the three great studies of Bellario, Evadne and Aspatia. In
+his male characters, as for instance in the parts of Philaster and
+Arbaces, Beaumont also is apt to show something of that
+exaggeration or inconsistency for which his colleague is perhaps
+more frequently and more heavily to blame; but in these there
+is not a jarring note, not a touch misplaced; unless, indeed, a
+rigid criticism may condemn as unfeminine and incongruous with
+the gentle beauty of her pathetic patience the device by which
+Aspatia procures herself the death desired at the hand of
+Amintor. This is noted as a fault by Dyce; but may well be
+forgiven for the sake of the magnificent scene which follows, and
+the highest tragic effect ever attained on the stage of either poet.
+That this as well as the greater part of those other scenes which
+are the glory of the poem is due to Beaumont might readily be
+shown at length by the process of comparison. The noble scene
+of regicide, which it was found expedient to cancel during the
+earlier years of the Restoration, may indeed be the work of
+Fletcher; but the part of Evadne must undoubtedly be in the
+main assigned to the more potent hand of his fellow. There is
+a fine harmony of character between her naked audacity in the
+second act and her fierce repentance in the fourth, which is
+not unworthy a disciple of the tragic school of Shakespeare;
+Fletcher is less observant of the due balance, less heedful of the
+nice proportions of good and evil in a faulty and fiery nature,
+compounded of perverse instinct and passionate reaction. From
+him we might have had a figure as admirable for vigour of
+handling, but hardly in such perfect keeping as this of Beaumont&rsquo;s
+Evadne, the murderess-Magdalen, whose penitence is of
+one crimson colour with her sin. Nor even in Fletcher&rsquo;s Ordella,
+worthy as the part is throughout even of the precious and
+exquisite praise of Lamb, is there any such cunning touch of
+tenderness or delicate perfume of pathos as in the parts of
+Bellario and Aspatia. These have in them a bitter sweetness,
+a subtle pungency of mortal sorrow and tears of divine delight,
+beyond the reach of Fletcher. His highest studies of female
+character have dignity, energy, devotion of the heroic type;
+but they never touch us to the quick, never waken in us any
+finer and more profound sense than that of applause and admiration.
+There is a modest pathos now and then in his pictures of
+feminine submission and slighted or outraged love; but this
+submission he is apt to make too servile, this love too dog-like
+in its abject devotion to retain that tender reverence which so
+many generations of readers have paid to the sweet memories
+of Aspatia and Bellario. To excite compassion was enough for
+Fletcher as in the masculine parts of his work it was enough for
+him to excite wonder, to sustain curiosity, to goad and stimulate
+by any vivid and violent means the interest of readers or spectators.
+The single instance of noble pathos, the one scene he has
+left us which appeals to the higher and purer kind of pity, is the
+death of the child Hengo in <i>Bonduca</i>&mdash;a scene which of itself
+would have sufficed to enrol his name for ever on the list of our
+great tragic poets. To him we may probably assign the whole
+merit of that fiery and high-toned tragedy, with all its spirit and
+splendour of national and martial passion; the conscious and
+demonstrative exchange of courtesy between Roman and Briton,
+which is one of the leading notes of the poem, has in it a touch of
+overstrained and artificial chivalry characteristic of Fletcher;
+yet the parts of Caratach and Poenius may be counted among
+the loftiest and most equal of his creations. But no surer test
+or better example can be taken of the distinctive quality which
+denotes the graver genius of either poet than that supplied by
+a comparison of Beaumont&rsquo;s <i>Triumph of Love</i> with Fletcher&rsquo;s
+<i>Triumph of Death</i>. Each little play, in the brief course of its
+single act, gives proof of the peculiar touch and special trick
+of its author&rsquo;s hand: the deeper and more delicate passion of
+Beaumont, the rapid and ardent activity of Fletcher, have
+nowhere found a more noticeable vent for the expression respectively
+of the most tender and profound simplicity of quiet sweetness,
+the most buoyant and impatient energy of tragic emotion.</p>
+
+<p>In the wider field of their comic or romantic drama it is yet
+easier to distinguish the respective work of either hand. The
+bias of Fletcher was towards mixed comedy; his lightest and
+wildest humour is usually crossed or tempered by an infusion
+of romance; like Shakespeare in this one point at least, he has
+left no single play without some touch on it of serious interest,
+of poetic eloquence or fancy, however slight and fugitive.
+Beaumont, evidently under the imperious influence of Ben
+Jonson&rsquo;s more rigid theories, seems rather to have bent his
+genius with the whole force of a resolute will into the form or
+mould prescribed for comedy by the elder and greater comic poet.
+The admirable study of the worthy citizen and his wife, who
+introduce to the stage and escort with their applause <i>The Knight
+of the Burning Pestle</i> through his adventurous career to its
+untimely end, has all the force and fulness of Jonson&rsquo;s humour
+at its best, with more of freshness and freedom. In pure comedy,
+varied with broad farce and mock-heroic parody, Beaumont was
+the earliest as well as the ablest disciple of the master whose
+mantle was afterwards to be shared among the academic poets
+of a younger generation, the Randolphs and Cartwrights who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
+sought shelter under the shadow of its voluminous folds. The
+best example of the school of Jonson to be found outside the
+ample range of his own work is <i>The Scornful Lady</i>, a comedy
+whose exceptional success and prolonged popularity must have
+been due rather to the broad effect of its forcible situations, its
+wealth and variety of ludicrous incidents, and the strong gross
+humour of its dialogue, than to any finer quality of style, invention
+or character. It is the only work of Beaumont and Fletcher
+which a critic who weighs the meaning of his words can admit
+to be as coarse as the coarsest work of Ben Jonson. They are
+prone, indeed, to indulge elsewhere in a wanton and exuberant
+licence of talk; and Fletcher, at least, is liable to confuse the
+shades of right and wrong, to deface or efface the boundary lines
+of good and evil, to stain the ermine of virtue and palliate the
+nakedness of vice with the same indecorous and incongruous
+laxity of handling. Often in mere haste to despatch the business
+of a play, to huddle up a catastrophe or throw out some particular
+scene into sharp and immediate relief, he will sacrifice all seemliness
+and consistency of character to the present aim of stage
+effect, and the instant impression of strong incident or audacious
+eloquence. His heroines are too apt to utter sentiments worthy
+of Diana in language unworthy of Doll Tearsheet. But in this
+play both style and sentiment are throughout on a lower level,
+the action and emotion are of a baser kind than usual; the
+precept of Aristotle and the practice of Jonson have been so
+carefully observed and exaggerated that it might almost be said
+to offer us in one or two places an imitation not merely of the
+sorrier but of the sorriest qualities of human nature; and full
+as it is of spontaneous power and humorous invention, the
+comedy extolled by the moral Steele (with just so much of
+reservation as permits him to deprecate the ridicule cast upon
+the clerical character) is certainly more offensive to artistic law
+and aesthetic judgment by the general and ingrained coarseness
+of its tone, than the tragi-comedy denounced by the immoral
+Dryden as exceeding in licence his own worst work and that of
+his fellow playwrights; an imputation, be it said in passing, as
+groundless as the protest pleaded on their behalf is impudent;
+for though we may hardly agree with the uncompromising
+panegyrist who commends that play in particular to the approval
+of &ldquo;the austere scarlet&rdquo; (remembering, perhaps, that Aristophanes
+was the chosen bedfellow of Chrysostom), there is at least no
+such offence against art or taste in the eccentricity of its
+situations or the daring of its dialogue. The buoyant and
+facile grace of Fletcher&rsquo;s style carries him lightly across quagmires
+in which a heavier-footed poet, or one of slower tread,
+would have stuck fast, and come forth bemired to the knees.
+To Beaumont his stars had given as birthright the gifts of tragic
+pathos and passion, of tender power and broad strong humour;
+to Fletcher had been allotted a more fiery and fruitful force of
+invention, a more aerial ease and swiftness of action, a more
+various readiness and fulness of bright exuberant speech. The
+genius of Beaumont was deeper, sweeter, nobler than his elder&rsquo;s;
+the genius of Fletcher more brilliant, more supple, more prodigal,
+and more voluble than his friend&rsquo;s. Without a taint or a shadow
+on his fame of such imitative servility as marks and degrades
+the mere henchman or satellite of a stronger poet, Beaumont
+may fairly be said to hold of Shakespeare in his tragedy, in his
+comedy of Jonson; in each case rather as a kinsman than as a
+client, as an ally than as a follower: but the more special
+province of Fletcher was a land of his own discovering, where
+no later colonist has ever had power to settle or to share his
+reign. With the mixed or romantic comedy of Shakespeare it
+has nothing in common except the admixture or alternation of
+graver with lighter interest, of serious with humorous action.
+Nothing is here of his magic exaltation or charm of fairy empire.
+The rare and rash adventures of Fletcher on that forbidden track
+are too sure to end in pitiful and shameful failure. His crown
+of praise is to have created a wholly new and wholly delightful
+form of mixed comedy or dramatic romance, dealing merely
+with the humours and sentiments of men, their passions and
+their chances; to have woven of all these a web of emotion
+and event with such gay dexterity, to have blended his colours
+and combined his effects with such exquisite facility and swift
+light sureness of touch, that we may return once and again from
+those heights and depths of poetry to which access was forbidden
+him, ready as ever to enjoy as of old the fresh incomparable
+charm, the force and ease and grace of life, which fill and animate
+the radiant world of his romantic invention. Neither before
+him nor after do we find, in this his special field of fancy and of
+work, more than shadows or echoes of his coming or departing
+genius. Admirable as are his tragedies already mentioned, rich
+in splendid eloquence and strong in large grasp of character as
+is the Roman history of <i>The False One</i>, full of interest
+and vigour as is the better part of <i>Rollo Duke of Normandy</i>,
+and sublime in the loveliness of passion as is the one scene of
+perfect beauty and terror which crowns this latter tragedy,
+Fletcher may claim a yet higher and more special station among his great dramatic
+peers by right of his comic and romantic than by right of his
+tragic and historic plays. Even in these he is more a romantic
+than a tragic poet. The quality of his genius, never sombre or
+subtle or profound, bears him always towards fresh air and
+sunshine. His natural work is in a midday world of fearless
+boyish laughter and hardly bitter tears. There is always more
+of rainbow than of storm in his skies; their darkest shadow is
+but a tragic twilight. What with him is the noon of night would
+seem as sunshine on the stage of Ford or Webster. There is
+but one passage in all these noble plays which lifts us beyond a
+sense of the stage, which raises our admiration out of speech
+into silence, tempers and transfigures our emotion with a touch
+of awe. And this we owe to the genius of Beaumont, exalted
+for an instant to the very tone and manner of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+tragedy, when Amintor stands between the dead and the dying
+woman whom he has unwittingly slain with hand and tongue.
+The first few lines that drop from his stricken lips are probably
+the only verses of Beaumont or Fletcher which might pass for
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s even with a good judge of style&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">&ldquo;This earth of mine doth tremble,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>But in Fletcher&rsquo;s tragedy, however we may be thrilled and
+kindled with high contagious excitement, we are never awed into
+dumb delight or dread, never pierced with any sense of terror or
+pity too deep or even deep enough for tears. Even his Brunhalts
+and Martias can hardly persuade us to forget for the moment
+that &ldquo;they do but jest, poison in jest.&rdquo; A critic bitten with the
+love of classification might divide those plays of Fletcher usually
+ranked together as comedies into three kinds: the first he would
+class under the head of pure comedy, the next of heroic or
+romantic drama, the third of mixed comedy and romance; in
+this, the last and most delightful division of the poet&rsquo;s work the
+special qualities of the two former kinds being equally blended
+and delicately harmonized. The most perfect and triumphant
+examples of this class are <i>The Spanish Curate, Monsieur Thomas,
+The Custom of the Country</i>, and <i>The Elder Brother</i>. Next
+to these and not too far below them, we may put <i>The Little
+French Lawyer</i> (a play which in its broad conception of a
+single eccentric humour suggests the collaboration of Beaumont
+and the influence of Jonson, but in style and execution throughout
+is perfect Fletcher), <i>The Humorous Lieutenant</i> (on which
+an almost identical verdict might be passed), <i>Women Pleased,
+Beggars&rsquo; Bush</i>, and perhaps we might add <i>The Fair Maid
+of the Inn</i>; in most if not in all of which the balance of
+exultant and living humour with serious poetic interest of a
+noble and various kind is held with even hand and the skill of
+a natural master. In pure comedy <i>Rule a Wife and have a Wife</i>
+is the acknowledged and consummate masterpiece of Fletcher.
+Next to it we might class, for comic spirit and force of character,
+<i>Wit without Money, The Wildgoose Chase, The Chances</i>,
+and <i>The Noble Gentleman</i>, a broad poetic farce to whose
+overflowing fun and masterdom of extravagance no critic has
+ever done justice but Leigh Hunt, who has ventured, not without
+reason, to match its joyous and preposterous audacities of
+superlative and sovereign foolery with the more
+sharp-edged satire and practical merriment of <i>King and No
+King</i>, where the keen prosaic humour of Bessus and his
+swordsmen is as typical of the comic style in which Beaumont
+had been trained up under Ben Jonson as the high interest and graduated action of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
+serious part of the play are characteristic of his more earnest
+genius. Among the purely romantic plays of Fletcher, or those
+in which the comic effect is throughout subordinate to the
+romantic, <i>The Knight of Malta</i> seems most worthy of the highest
+place for the noble beauty and exaltation of spirit which informs
+it with a lofty life, for its chivalrous union of heroic passion and
+Catholic devotion. This poem is the fairest and the first example
+of those sweet fantastic paintings in rose-colour and azure of
+visionary chivalry and ideal holiness, by dint of which the
+romance of more recent days has sought to cast the glamour of a
+mirage over the darkest and deadliest &ldquo;ages of faith.&rdquo; The pure
+and fervent eloquence of the style is in perfect keeping with the
+high romantic interest of character and story. In the same class
+we may rank among the best samples of Fletcher&rsquo;s workmanship
+<i>The Pilgrim, The Loyal Subject, A Wife for a Month, Love&rsquo;s
+Pilgrimage</i>, and <i>The Lover&rsquo;s Progress</i>,&mdash;rich all of them in
+exquisite writing, in varied incident, in brilliant effects and
+graceful and passionate interludes. In <i>The Coxcomb</i>, and <i>The
+Honest Man&rsquo;s Fortune</i>&mdash;two plays which, on the whole, can
+hardly be counted among the best of their class&mdash;there are tones
+of homelier emotion, touches of a simpler and more pathetic
+interest than usual; and here, as in the two admirable first
+scenes between Leucippus and Bacha, which relieve and redeem
+from contempt the tragic burlesque of <i>Cupid&rsquo;s Revenge</i>, the note
+of Beaumont&rsquo;s manner is at once discernible.</p>
+
+<p>Even the most rapid revision of the work done by these great
+twin poets must impress every capable student with a sense of
+the homage due to this living witness of their large and liberal
+genius. The loss of their names from the roll of English poetry
+would be only less than the loss of the few greatest inscribed on
+it. Nothing could supply the want of their tragic, their comic or
+romantic drama; no larger or more fiery planet can ever arise to
+supplant or to eclipse the twin lights of our zodiac. Whatever
+their faults of shortcoming or excess, there is in their very names
+or the mere thought of their common work a kind of special and
+personal attraction for all true lovers of high dramatic poetry.
+There is the glory and grace of youth in all they have left us; if
+there be also somewhat too much of its graceless as well as its
+gracious qualities, yet there hangs about their memory as it were
+a music of the morning, a breath and savour of bright early
+manhood, a joyous and vigorous air of free life and fruitful
+labour, which might charm asleep for ever all thought or blame
+of all mortal infirmity or folly, or any stain of earth that may
+have soiled in passing the feet of creatures half human and half
+divine while yet they dwelt among men. For good or for evil,
+they are above all things poets of youth; we cannot conceive of
+them grown grey in the dignity of years, venerable with the
+authority of long life, and weighted with the wisdom of experience.
+In the Olympian circle of the gods and giants of our race who on
+earth were their contemporaries and corrivals, they seem to move
+among the graver presences and figures of sedater fame like the
+two spoilt boys of heaven, lightest of foot and heart and head of
+all the brood of deity. Shakespeare may have smiled as Jonson
+may have nodded approval of their bright swift work, neither of
+these great elders grudging his praise to the special charm which
+won for it a preference during one generation at least even over
+their own loftier and weightier verse; and indeed the advance in
+natural ease, in truth and grace of dialogue, is alike manifest
+whether we turn to such of their comic characters as Valentine
+and Don John, Rutilio and Monsieur Thomas, from the Truewit
+of Jonson or even from the Mercutio of Shakespeare; the one too
+stiff with classic starch, the other too full of mere verbal catches
+and forced conceits, to persuade us that either can in any age have
+fairly represented the light free talk and facile humour of its
+youth. In another field than this Beaumont and Fletcher hold as
+high and secure a station of their own as any poet of their race.
+In perfect workmanship of lyrical jewellery, in perfect bloom and
+flower of song-writing, they equal all compeers whom they do not
+excel; the blossoms of their growth in this kind may be matched
+for colour and fragrance against Shakespeare&rsquo;s, and for morning
+freshness and natural purity of form exceed the finest grafts of
+Jonson. <i>The Faithful Shepherdess</i> alone might speak for Fletcher
+on this score, being as it is simply a lyric poem in semi-dramatic
+shape, to be judged only as such, and as such almost faultless;
+but in no wise to be classed for praise or blame among the acting
+plays of its author, whose one serious error in the matter was the
+submission of his Dryad to the critical verdict of an audience too
+probably in great part composed of clowns and satyrs far unlike
+the loving and sweet-tongued sylvan of his lovely fancy. And
+whether we assign to him or to Beaumont the divine song of
+melancholy (<i>moestius lacrymis Simonideis</i>), perfect in form as
+Catullus and profound in sentiment as Shelley, which Milton
+himself could but echo and expand, could not heighten or deepen
+its exquisite intensity of thought and word alike, there will
+remain witness enough for the younger brother of a lyric power as
+pure and rare as his elder&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p>The excess of influence and popularity over that of other poets
+usually ascribed to the work of Beaumont and Fletcher for
+some half century or so after their own time has perhaps been
+somewhat overstated by tradition. Whatever may have been
+for a season the fashion of the stage, it is certain that Shakespeare
+can show two editions for one against them in folio; four in all
+from 1623 to 1685, while they have but their two of 1647 and
+1679. Nor does one see how it can accurately or even plausibly
+be said that they were in any exact sense the founders of a school
+either in comedy or in tragedy. Massinger, for some years their
+survivor, and in some points akin to them as a workman, cannot
+properly be counted as their disciple; and no leading poet of
+the time had so much in common with them as he. At first
+sight, indeed, his choice of romantic subject and treatment of
+foreign stories, gathered from the fertile tale-tellers of the south,
+and ranging in date from Boccaccio to Cervantes, may seem to
+mark him out as a member of the same school; but the deepest
+and most distinctive qualities of his genius set it far apart from
+theirs; though undoubtedly not so far that any discrepancy or
+discord should impair the excellence or injure the keeping of
+works in which he took part with Fletcher. Yet, placed beside
+theirs, the tone of his thought and speech seems by comparison
+severe as well as sober, and sad as well as severe. Their extravagant
+and boyish insanity of prostrate royalism is not more
+alien from his half pensive and half angry undertone of political
+protest than his usually careful and complete structure of story
+from their frequently lax and slovenly incoherence of character
+or plot, than his well composed and proportioned metre from
+their lighter and looser melodies, than the bitter insistence and
+elaborate acrimony of his judicial satire on hypocrisy or oppression
+from the gaiety or facility of mood which suffers them in
+the shifting of a scene to redeem their worst characters by some
+juggler&rsquo;s trick of conversion at the last moment allowed them
+to wind up a play with universal reconciliation and an act of
+oblivion on all hands. They could hardly have drawn with such
+steady skill and explicit finish an Overreach or a Luke; but the
+strenuous and able work of Massinger at its highest point of
+success has no breath in it of their brighter and more immediate
+inspiration. Shirley, on the other hand, may certainly be classed
+as a pupil who copied their style in water-colour; his best
+tragedy and his best comedy, <i>The Traitor</i> and <i>The Lady of
+Pleasure</i>, might pass muster undetected among the plays of
+Fletcher, and might fairly claim to take rank above the lowest
+class of these. In the finest work of Middleton we recognize an
+almost exact reproduction of Fletcher&rsquo;s metrical effects,&mdash;a
+reverberation of that flowing music, a reiteration of those
+feminine final notes. In his later tragi-comedies, throughout
+his masterpiece of <i>Women beware Women</i>, and in the noble
+scenes which make up the tragic or serious parts of <i>The Changeling</i>
+or <i>The Spanish Gipsy</i>,&mdash;wherever, in a word, we find the
+admirable but unequal genius of this poet at its best&mdash;we find
+a likeness wholly wanting in his earlier and ruder work, which
+undoubtedly suggests the influence of Fletcher. Other instances
+of imitation, other examples of discipleship, might perhaps be
+found among lesser men of the next generation; but the mass
+of succeeding playwrights began in a very short time to lower
+the style and debase the scheme of dramatic poetry; and
+especially to loosen the last ties of harmony, to deface the very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span>
+form and feature of tragic verse. In Shirley, the last and least
+of those in whom the lineal blood of the old masters was yet
+discernible, we find side by side with the fine ancestral indications
+of legitimate descent exactly such marks of decadence rather
+than degeneracy as we might have anticipated in the latest heir
+of a long line which began with the rise of Marlowe, &ldquo;sun of the
+morning,&rdquo; in the highest heaven of our song, to prepare a pathway
+for the sun. After Shakespeare there was yet room for
+Beaumont and Fletcher; but after these and the other constellations
+had set, whose lights filled up the measure of that
+diviner zodiac through which he moved, there was but room
+in heaven for the pallid moonrise of Shirley; and before this
+last reflex from a sunken sun was itself eclipsed, the glory had
+passed away from English drama, to alight upon that summit of
+epic song, whence Milton held communion with darkness and
+the stars.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. C. S.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Bibliographical Appendix</p>
+
+<p>The chief collected editions of the plays of Beaumont and
+Fletcher are: <i>Comedies and Tragedies written by Francis Beaumont
+and John Fletcher Gentlemen</i>, printed by Humphrey
+Moseley in folio in 1647 as containing plays &ldquo;never printed
+before&rdquo;; <i>Fifty Comedies and Tragedies written, &amp;c.</i> (fol. 1679);
+<i>Works ...</i> (11 vols. 1843-1846), edited by Alexander Dyce,
+which superseded earlier editions by L. Theobald, G. Colman
+and H. Weber, and presented a modernized text; a second
+two-volume edition by Dyce in 1852; <i>The Works of Francis
+Beaumont and John Fletcher</i> (15 vols. 1905, &amp;c.) edited by Arnold
+Glover and A.R. Waller in the &ldquo;Cambridge English Classics&rdquo;
+from the text of the 2nd folio, and giving variant readings from
+all separate issues of the plays previous to that edition; and
+<i>Works ...</i> (12 vols. 1904, &amp;c.), under the general editorship
+of A.H. Bullen, the text of which is founded on Dyce but with
+many variant readings, the last volume containing memoirs
+and excursuses by the editor.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of all critical work on Beaumont and Fletcher
+is to be found in Dyce. Discrimination between the work of the
+two dramatists and their collaborators has been the object of a
+series of studies for the establishment of metrical and other tests.
+Fletcher&rsquo;s verse is recognizable by the frequency of an extra
+syllable, often an accented one, at the end of a line, the use of
+stopped lines, and the frequency of trisyllabic feet. He thus
+obtained an adaptable instrument enabling him to dispense
+with prose even in comic scenes. The pioneer work in these
+matters was done by F.G. Fleay in a paper read before the New
+Shakspere Society in 1874 on &ldquo;Metrical Tests as applied to
+Fletcher, Beaumont and Massinger.&rdquo; His theories were further
+developed in the article &ldquo;Fletcher&rdquo; in his <i>Biog. Chron. of the
+Eng. Drama</i>. Further investigations were published by R. Boyle
+in <i>Englische Studien</i> (vols. v.-x., Heilbronn, 1882-1887), and in
+the New Shakspere Society <i>Transactions</i> (1880-1886), by Benno
+Leonhardt in <i>Anglia</i> (Halle, vols. xix. <i>seq.</i>), and by E.H. Oliphant
+in <i>Englische Studien</i> (vols. xiv. <i>seq.</i>). Mr Oliphant restores to
+Beaumont much which other critics had been inclined to deny
+him. On the sources of the plays see E. Köppel in <i>Münchener
+Beiträge zur roman. u. eng. Phil.</i> (Erlangen and Leipzig, 1895).
+Consult further articles by A.H. Bullen and R. Boyle respectively
+on Fletcher and Massinger in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i>; G.C.
+Macaulay, <i>Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study</i> (1883); and
+Dr A.W. Ward&rsquo;s chapter on &ldquo;Beaumont and Fletcher&rdquo; in
+vol. ii. of his <i>Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit.</i> (new ed. 1899).</p>
+
+<p>A list of the plays attributed to Beaumont and Fletcher, with
+some details, is added, with the premiss that beyond the main
+lines of criticism laid down in Mr Swinburne&rsquo;s article above it is
+often difficult to dogmatize on authorship. Even in cases where
+the play was produced long after Beaumont had ceased to write
+for the stage there can be no certainty that we are not dealing
+with a piece which is an adaptation of an earlier play by a later
+hand.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Joint Works of Beaumont and Fletcher.&mdash;The Scornful Lady</i>
+(acted <i>c.</i> 1609, pr. 1616) is a farcical comedy of domestic life, in
+which Oliphant finds traces of alteration by a third and perhaps a
+fourth hand. <i>Philaster or Love Lies a-Bleeding</i> is assigned by
+Macaulay to Beaumont practically in its entirety, while Fleay
+attributes only three scenes to Fletcher. It was probably acted c.
+1609, and was printed 1620; it was revised (1695) by Elkanah Settle
+and (1763) by the younger Colman, probably owing its long popularity
+to the touching character of Bellario. Beaumont&rsquo;s share also
+predominated in <i>The Maid&rsquo;s Tragedy</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1609, pr. 1619), in <i>A
+King and No King</i> (acted at court December 26, 1611, and perhaps earlier, pr.
+1619), while <i>The Knight of the Burning Pestle</i> (<i>c.</i> 1610, pr.
+1613), burlesquing the heroic and romantic play of which Heywood&rsquo;s
+<i>Four Prentices</i> is an example, might perhaps be transferred entire to
+Beaumont&rsquo;s account. In <i>Cupid&rsquo;s Revenge</i> (acted at court January
+1612, and perhaps at Whitefriars in 1610, pr. 1615), founded on
+Sidney&rsquo;s <i>Arcadia</i>, the two dramatists appear to have had a third
+collaborator in Massinger and perhaps a fourth in Nathaniel Field.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Coxcomb</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1610, and by the Children of the Queen&rsquo;s
+Revels in 1612, pr. 1647) seems to have undergone later revision by
+Massinger. Fletcher&rsquo;s collaboration with other dramatists had
+begun during his connexion with Beaumont, who apparently ceased
+to write for the stage two or three years before his death.</p>
+
+<p><i>Works Assigned to Beaumont&rsquo;s Sole Authorship.&mdash;The Woman Hater</i>
+(pr. 1607, as &ldquo;lately acted by the children of Paul&rsquo;s&rdquo;) was assigned
+formerly to Fletcher. The <i>Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray&rsquo;s Inn</i>
+was presented at Whitehall on the 26th of February 1612, on the
+marriage of the Prince and Princess Palatine. Of <i>Four Plays, or
+Moral Representations, in One</i> (acted 1608, pr. 1647), the <i>Induction</i>,
+with <i>The Triumph of Honour</i> and <i>The Triumph of Love</i>, both founded
+on tales from the <i>Decameron</i>, are by Beaumont.</p>
+
+<p><i>Works Assigned to Fletcher&rsquo;s Sole Authorship.&mdash;The Faithful
+Shepherdess</i> (pr. <i>c.</i> 1609) was ill received on its original production,
+but was revived in 1634. That Fletcher was the sole author is
+practically unquestioned, though Ben Jonson in Drummond&rsquo;s
+<i>Conversations</i> is made to assert that &ldquo;Beaumont and Fletcher ten
+years since hath written <i>The Faithful Shepherdess</i>.&rdquo; It was translated
+into Latin verse by Sir R. Fanshawe in 1658, and Milton&rsquo;s
+<i>Comus</i> owes not a little to it. In <i>Four Plays in One</i>, the two last,
+<i>The Triumph of Death</i> and <i>The Triumph of Time</i>, are Fletcher&rsquo;s. In
+the indifferent comedy of <i>The Captain</i> (acted 1612-1613, revived
+1626, pr. 1647) there is no definite evidence of any other hand than
+Fletcher&rsquo;s, though the collaboration of Beaumont, Massinger and
+Rowley has been advanced. Other Fletcher plays are: <i>Wit Without
+Money</i> (acted 1614, pr. 1639); the two romantic tragedies of <i>Bonduca</i>
+(in which Caradach or Caractacus is the chief figure rather than
+Bonduca or Boadicea) and <i>Valentinian</i>, both dating from <i>c.</i> 1616
+and printed in the first folio; <i>The Loyal Subject</i> (acted 1618, revived
+at court 1633, pr. 1647); <i>The Mad Lover</i> (acted before March 1619,
+pr. 1647), which borrows something from the story of Mundus and
+Paulina in Josephus (bk. xviii.); <i>The Humorous Lieutenant</i> (1619,
+pr. 1647); <i>Woman Pleased</i> (<i>c.</i> 1620, pr. 1647); <i>The Woman&rsquo;s Prize or
+The Tamer Tam&rsquo;d</i> (produced probably between 1610 and 1613, acted
+1633 at Blackfriars and at court, pr. 1647), a kind of sequel to <i>The
+Taming of the Shrew</i>; <i>The Chances</i> (uncertain date, pr. 1647), taken
+from <i>La Sennora Cornelia</i> of Cervantes, and repeatedly revived after
+the Restoration and in the 18th century; <i>Monsieur Thomas</i> (acted
+perhaps as early as 1609, pr. 1639); <i>The Island Princess</i> (<i>c.</i> 1621, pr.
+1647); <i>The Pilgrim</i> and <i>The Wild Goose-Chase</i> (pr. 1652), the second
+of which was adapted in prose by Farquhar, both acted at court in
+1621, and possibly then not new pieces; <i>A Wife for a Month</i> (acted
+1624, pr. 1647); <i>Rule a Wife and Have a Wife</i> (lic. 1624, pr. 1640).
+<i>The Pilgrim</i> received additions from Dryden, and was adapted by Vanbrugh.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fletcher in Collaboration with other Dramatists</i>.&mdash;External evidence
+of Fletcher&rsquo;s connexion with Massinger is given by Sir Aston Cokaine,
+who in an epitaph on Fletcher and Massinger wrote: &ldquo;Playes they did
+write together, were great friends,&rdquo; and elsewhere claimed for
+Massinger a share in the plays printed in the 1647 folio. James
+Shirley and William Rowley have their part in the works that used
+to be included in the Beaumont and Fletcher canon; and to a
+letter from Field, Daborne and Massinger, asking for £5 for their
+joint necessities from Henslowe about the end of 1615, there is
+a postscript suggesting the deduction of the sum from the &ldquo;mony
+remaynes for the play of Mr Fletcher and ours.&rdquo; The problem is
+complicated when the existing versions of the play are posterior to
+Fletcher&rsquo;s lifetime, that is, revisions by Massinger or another of
+pieces which were even originally of double authorship. In this way
+Beaumont&rsquo;s work may be concealed under successive revisions, and
+it would be rash to assert that none of the late plays contains anything
+of his. Mr R. Boyle joins the name of Cyril Tourneur to those of Fletcher
+and Massinger in connexion with <i>The Honest Man&rsquo;s Fortune</i>
+(acted 1613, pr. 1647), which Fleay identifies with &ldquo;the play
+of Mr Fletcher&rsquo;s and ours.&rdquo; <i>The Knight of Malta</i>
+(acted 1618-1619, pr. 1647) is in its existing form a revision by
+Fletcher, Massinger, and possibly Field, of an earlier play which
+Oliphant thinks was probably written by Beaumont about 1608. The same
+remarks (with the exclusion of Field&rsquo;s name) apply to <i>Thierry
+and Theodoret</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1617, pr. 1621), perhaps a satire
+on contemporary manners at the French court, though Beaumont&rsquo;s share
+in either must be regarded as problematical. Fletcher and Massinger&rsquo;s
+great tragedy of <i>Sir John van Olden Barnaveldt</i> (acted 1619) was
+first printed in Bullen&rsquo;s
+<i>Old Plays</i> (vol. ii., 1883). They followed it up with <i>The Custom of the Country</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
+(acted 1619, pr. 1647), based on an English translation
+(1619) of <i>Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda; The Double Marriage</i>
+(<i>c.</i> 1620, pr. 1647); <i>The Little French Lawyer</i> (<i>c.</i> 1620, pr. 1647), the
+plot of which can be traced indirectly to a <i>novellino</i> by Massuccio
+Salernitano; <i>The Laws of Candy</i> (<i>c.</i> 1618, pr. 1647), of disputed
+authorship; <i>The False One</i> (<i>c.</i> 1620, pr. 1647), dealing with the
+subject of Caesar and Cleopatra; <i>The Spanish Curate</i> (acted 1622, pr.
+1647), repeatedly revived after the Restoration, was derived from
+Leonard Digges&rsquo;s translation (1622) of a Spanish novel, <i>Gerardo, the
+Unfortunate Spaniard; The Prophetess</i> (1622, pr. 1647), afterwards
+made into an opera by Betterton to Purcell&rsquo;s music; <i>The Sea-Voyage</i>
+(1622, pr. 1647); <i>The Elder Brother</i> (perhaps originally written by
+Fletcher <i>c</i>. 1614; revised and acted 1635, pr. 1647); <i>Beggar&rsquo;s Bush</i>
+(acted at court 1622, probably then not new, pr. 1647); and <i>The
+Noble Gentleman</i> (1625-1626, pr. 1647). Fletcher only had a small
+share in <i>Wit at Several Weapons</i>&mdash;&ldquo;if he but writ an act or two,&rdquo;
+says an epilogue on its revival (1623 or 1626),&mdash;and the play is
+probably a revision by Rowley and Middleton of an early Beaumont
+and Fletcher play. <i>A Very Woman</i> (1634, pr. 1655) is a revision by
+Massinger of <i>The Woman&rsquo;s Plot</i> ascribed to Fletcher and acted at
+court in 1621. Field worked with Fletcher and Massinger on the
+lost play of the <i>Jeweller of Amsterdam</i> (1619), as on the <i>Faithful
+Friends</i> (1613-1614) and <i>The Queen of Corinth</i> (<i>c.</i> 1618, pr. 1647).
+<i>The Lover&rsquo;s Progress</i> (acted 1634, pr. 1647) is probably a revision by
+Massinger of the Fletcher play licensed in 1623 as <i>The Wandering
+Lovers</i>, and is perhaps identical with <i>Cleander</i>, licensed in 1634.
+<i>Love&rsquo;s Cure or The Martial Maid</i> (1623 or 1625) is thought by Mr
+Fleay to be a revision by Massinger of a Beaumont and Fletcher
+play produced as early as 1607-1608. W. Rowley joined Fletcher
+in <i>The Maid in the Mill</i> (1623, pr. 1647), and had a share with
+Massinger in the revision of <i>The Fair Maid of the Inn</i> (licensed 1626,
+pr. 1647), based on <i>La illustre Fregona</i> of Cervantes. <i>Nice Valour</i>
+(acted 1625-1626, pr. 1647) seems to have been altered by Middleton
+from an earlier play; <i>The Widow</i>, printed in 1652 as by Jonson,
+Fletcher and Middleton, must be ascribed almost exclusively to
+Middleton. <i>The Night Walker</i> (1633) is a revision by Shirley of a
+Fletcher play.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fletcher and Jonson in Collaboration</i>.&mdash;The history of <i>The Bloody
+Brother or Rollo, Duke of Normandy</i>, printed in 1637 as by &ldquo;B.J.F.,&rdquo;
+is matter of varied speculation. Mr Oliphant thinks the basis of the
+play to be an early work (<i>c</i>. 1604) of Beaumont, on which is superimposed
+a revision (1616) by Fletcher, Jonson and Middleton, and a
+subsequent revision (1636-1637) by Massinger. The general view
+is that the main portion of the play is referable to Jonson and
+Fletcher. Jonson apparently had a share in Fletcher&rsquo;s <i>Love&rsquo;s
+Pilgrimage</i> (pr. 1647), which seems to have been revised by Massinger
+in 1635.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fletcher and Shakespeare</i>.&mdash;<i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i> was printed
+in 1634 as by Mr John Fletcher and Mr William Shakespeare. If its
+first representation was in 1625 it was in the year of Fletcher&rsquo;s death.
+It was included in the second folio of Beaumont and Fletcher&rsquo;s
+comedies and tragedies. If Shakespeare and Fletcher worked in
+concert it was probably in 1612-1613, and the existing play probably
+represents a revision by Massinger in 1625. <i>Henry VIII.</i> (played
+at the Globe in 1613) is usually ascribed mainly to Fletcher
+and Massinger, and the conditions of its production were probably
+similar. Fletcher and Shakespeare are together credited at
+Stationers&rsquo; Hall with the lost play of <i>Cardenio</i>, destroyed by
+Warburton&rsquo;s cook.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Recent research has resulted in some variation of opinion
+as to the precise authorship of some of the plays commonly attributed
+to them; but this article, contributed to the ninth edition of the
+<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, remains the classical modern criticism
+of Beaumont and Fletcher, and its value is substantially unaffected.
+As representing to the end the views of its distinguished author,
+it is therefore retained as written, the results of later research being epitomized
+in the Bibliographical Appendix at the end. (<i>Ed.</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
+Texas, U.S.A., situated on the Neches river, in the E. part of
+the state, about 28 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and 72 m. N.E.
+of Galveston. Pop. (1890) 3296; (1900) 9427, of whom 2953
+were negroes; (1910, census) 20,640. It is served by the
+Gulf &amp; Interstate, the Gulf, Colorado &amp; Santa Fé, the Kansas
+City Southern, the Texas &amp; New Orleans, the Colorado Southern,
+New Orleans &amp; Pacific, the Beaumont, Sour Lake &amp; Western
+(from Beaumont to Sour Lake, Tex.), and the (short) Galveston,
+Beaumont &amp; North-Eastern railways. The Neches river from
+Beaumont to its mouth has a depth of not less than 19 ft.;
+from its mouth extends a canal (9 ft. deep, 100 ft. wide, and 12 m.
+long) which connects with the Port Arthur Canal (180 ft. wide
+and 25 ft. deep) extending to the sea. Situated in the midst of
+a region covered with dense forests of pine and cypress, Beaumont
+is one of the largest lumber centres of the southern states;
+it is also the centre of a large rice-growing region. The
+manufactories include rice mills, saw mills, sash, door and blind
+factories, shingle mills, iron works, oil refineries, broom factories
+and a dynamite factory. In 1905 the cleaning and polishing of
+rice was the most important industry, its output being valued
+at $1,203,123, being nearly twice the value of the product of the
+rice mills of the city in 1900, 25.9% of the total value of the
+state&rsquo;s product of polished and cleaned rice, 46.1% of the value
+($2,609,829) of all of Beaumont&rsquo;s factory products, and about
+7.4% of the value of the product of polished and cleaned rice
+for the whole United States in 1905. After the sinking of oil
+wells in 1901, Beaumont became one of the principal oil-producing
+places in the United States; its oil refineries are connected
+by pipe lines with the surrounding oil fields, and two 6-in. pipe
+lines extend from Beaumont to Oklahoma. Beaumont was first
+settled in 1828, and was first chartered as a city in 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUNE,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Côte-d&rsquo;Or, on the Bouzoise, 23 m.
+S.S.W. of Dijon on the main line of the Paris-Lyon railway.
+Pop. (1906) 11,668. Beaune lies at the foot of the hills of Côte-d&rsquo;Or.
+Portions of its ancient fortifications are still to be seen,
+but they have been for the most part replaced by a shady
+promenade which separates the town from its suburbs. The
+most interesting feature of Beaune is the old hospital of St
+Esprit, founded in 1443 by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of Burgundy.
+Though it is built largely of wood, the fabric is in good preservation.
+The exterior is simple, but the buildings which surround
+the main courtyard have high-pitched roofs surmounted by
+numerous dormer windows with decorated gables, recalling the
+Flemish style of architecture. In the interior there are several
+interesting apartments; the chief of these is the ample
+council chamber with its fine tapestries, where an important
+wine sale is held annually. The hospital possesses many
+artistic treasures, among them the mural paintings of the 17th
+century in the Salle St Hugues and an altar-piece, the Last
+Judgment, attributed to Roger van der Weyden. The principal
+church of the town, Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the 12th
+and 13th centuries, has a fine central tower and a triple portal
+with handsome wooden doors. In the interior there is some
+valuable tapestry of the 15th century, and other works of art.
+Two round towers (15th century) are a survival of the castle
+of Beaune, dismantled by Henry IV. A belfry of 1403 and
+several houses of the Renaissance period, some of which are
+built over ancient wine-cellars, are architecturally notable.
+There is a statue to the mathematician, G. Monge, born in the
+town (1746), and a monument to Pierre Joigneaux the politician
+(d. 1892). Beaune has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a chamber of commerce, a school of agriculture and
+viticulture and colleges for girls and boys. It carries on
+considerable trade in live-stock and cereals and in the vegetables of
+its market-gardens, and manufactures of casks, corks, white
+metal, oil, vinegar and machinery for the wine-trade are
+included among the industries; it is chiefly important for its
+vineyards and as the centre of the wine-trade of Burgundy.</p>
+
+<p>Beaune was a fortified Roman camp and a stronghold during
+the middle ages. It was the capital of a separate county which
+in 1227 was united to the duchy of Burgundy; it then became
+the first seat of the Burgundian parlement or <i>jours généraux</i>
+and a ducal residence. On the death of Charles the Bold, it
+sided with his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, but was besieged
+and taken by the forces of Louis XI. in 1478. Its rank as
+commune, conceded to it in 1203, was confirmed by Francis I.
+in 1521. In the Wars of Religion it at first sided with the
+League, but afterwards opened its gates to the troops of Henry
+IV., from whom it received the confirmation of its communal
+privileges and permission to demolish its fortifications. The
+revocation of the edict of Nantes struck a severe blow at the
+cloth and iron industries, which had previously been a source
+of prosperity to the town. In the 18th century there were no
+fewer than seven monastic buildings in Beaune, besides a Bernardine
+abbey, a Carthusian convent and an ecclesiastical college.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1772-?), French adventurer,
+the son of a poor vinegrower named Leuthraud, was born
+about 1772. He received the name Beauregard from a nobleman
+in whose service he was engaged as valet. On the outbreak of the
+revolution, this nobleman converted all his fortune into gold,
+and entrusting the bag containing the cash to his valet, fled to
+the frontier. For security&rsquo;s sake master and man took different
+roads, but Beauregard turned back with the money to Paris.
+By speculations in provisions and military equipments under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span>
+the Directorate he amassed a considerable fortune, and styling
+himself the marquis de Beauregard, purchased a splendid
+mansion and began giving magnificent entertainments. Detected
+at the height of his success, the impostor was arrested
+and condemned to four years in irons and to be branded. He
+soon escaped from prison, and had the audacity to reappear in
+Paris and start his old life afresh. After a short time, however,
+he disappeared again, and is supposed to have committed
+suicide. It is probable that most of the information available
+about him is a blend of fact and fiction.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1818-1893),
+American soldier, was born near New Orleans, Louisiana, on the
+28th of May 1818. At the United States military academy he
+graduated second in his class in July 1838, and was appointed
+lieutenant of engineers. In the Mexican War he distinguished
+himself in siege operations at Vera Cruz, and took part in all
+the battles around Mexico, being wounded at Chapultepec, and
+receiving the brevets of captain and major. In 1853 he became
+captain and was in charge of fortification and other engineer
+works of various points, on the Gulf coast from 1853 to 1860.
+He had just been appointed superintendent of West Point when
+the secession of his state brought about his resignation (20th
+February 1861). As a brigadier-general of the new Confederate
+army he directed the bombardment of Fort Sumter, S.C. As
+the commander of the Southern &ldquo;Army of the Potomac&rdquo; he
+opposed McDowell&rsquo;s advance to Bull Run, and during the battle
+was second in command under Joseph E. Johnston, who had
+joined him on the previous evening. He was one of the five full
+generals appointed in August 1861, and in 1862 was second in
+command under Sidney Johnston on the Tennessee. After
+Johnston&rsquo;s death he directed the battle of Shiloh, subsequent
+to which he retired to Corinth. This place he defended against
+the united armies under Halleck, until the end of May 1862,
+when he retreated in good order to the southward. His health
+now failing, he was employed in less active work. He defended
+Charleston against the Union forces from September 1862 to
+April 1864. In May 1864 he fought a severe and eventually
+successful battle at Drury&rsquo;s Bluff against General Butler and
+the Army of the James. Later in the year he endeavoured to
+gather troops wherewith to oppose Sherman&rsquo;s advance from
+Atlanta, and eventually surrendered with Johnston&rsquo;s forces in
+April 1865. After the war he engaged in railway management,
+became adjutant-general of his state and managed the Louisiana
+lottery. He declined high commands which were offered to him
+in the Rumanian and later in the Egyptian armies. General
+Beauregard died in New Orleans on the 20th of February 1893.
+He was the author of <i>Principles and Maxims of the Art of War</i>
+(Charleston, 1863); <i>Report on the Defence of Charleston</i> (Richmond, 1864).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Alfred Roman, <i>Military Operations of General Beauregard</i> (New York, 1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1659-1738), French Protestant
+divine, was born at Niort on the 8th of March 1659. After
+studying theology at the Protestant academy of Saumur, he was
+ordained at the age of twenty-two, becoming pastor at
+Chatillon-sur-Indre. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes
+he fled to Rotterdam (November 1685), and in 1686 was appointed chaplain
+to the princess of Dessau, Henrietta Catherine of Orange. In
+1693, on the death of the prince of Dessau, he went to Berlin and
+became chaplain to the court at Oranienbaum, and in 1695 pastor
+of the French church at Berlin. He became court preacher,
+counsellor of the Consistory, director of the <i>Maison française</i>,
+a hospice for French people, inspector of the French gymnasium and
+superintendent of all the French churches in Brandenburg. He died
+on the 5th of June 1738. He had strong sense with profound
+erudition, was one of the best writers of his time and
+an excellent preacher.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUVAIS,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of the department
+of Oise, 49 m. N. by W. of Paris, on the Northern railway.
+Pop. (1906) 17,045. Beauvais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the
+left bank of the Thérain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its
+ancient ramparts have been destroyed, and it is now surrounded
+by boulevards, outside which run branches of the Thérain. In
+addition, there are spacious promenades in the north-east of the
+town. Its cathedral of St Pierre, in some respects the most
+daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists only of a
+transept and choir with apse and seven apse-chapels. The
+vaulting in the interior exceeds 150 ft. in height. The small
+Romanesque church of the 10th century known as the Basse-Oeuvre
+occupies the site destined for the nave. Begun in 1247,
+the work was interrupted in 1284 by the collapse of the vaulting
+of the choir, in 1573 by the fall of a too ambitious central tower,
+after which little addition was made. The transept was built
+from 1500 to 1548. Its façades, especially that on the south,
+exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved
+wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are masterpieces
+respectively of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship. The church
+possesses an elaborate astronomical clock (1866) and
+tapestries of the 15th and 17th centuries; but its chief artistic
+treasures are stained glass windows of the 13th, 14th and 16th
+centuries, the most beautiful of them from the hand of the
+Renaissance artist, Engrand Le Prince, a native of Beauvais. To
+him also is due some of the stained glass in St. Étienne, the second
+church of the town, and an interesting example of the transition
+stage between the Romanesque and Gothic styles.</p>
+
+<p>In the Place de l&rsquo;Hôtel de Ville and in the old streets near the
+cathedral there are several houses dating from the 12th to the
+16th centuries. The hôtel de ville, close to which stands the
+statue of Jeanne Hachette (see below), was built in 1752. The
+episcopal palace, now used as a court-house, was built in the
+16th century, partly upon the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The
+industry of Beauvais comprises, besides the state manufacture of
+tapestry, which dates from 1664, the manufacture of various
+kinds of cotton and woollen goods, brushes, toys, boots and shoes,
+and bricks and tiles. Market-gardening flourishes in the vicinity
+and an extensive trade is carried on in grain and wine.</p>
+
+<p>The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of
+assizes; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
+together with a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of
+France, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée and training
+colleges.</p>
+
+<p>Beauvais was known to the Romans as <i>Caesaromagus</i>, and took
+its present name from the Gallic tribe of the Bellovaci, whose
+capital it was. In the 9th century it became a countship, which
+about 1013 passed to the bishops of Beauvais, who ultimately
+became peers of France. In 1346 the town had to defend itself
+against the English, who again besieged it in 1433. The siege
+which it suffered in 1472 at the hands of the duke of Burgundy
+was rendered famous by the heroism of the women, under the
+leadership of Jeanne Hachette, whose memory is still celebrated
+by a procession on the 14th of October (the feast of Ste Angadrème),
+in which the women take precedence of the men.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See V. Lhuillier, <i>Choses du vieux Beauvais et au Beauvaisis</i> (1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUVILLIER,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> the name of a very ancient French family
+belonging to the country around Chartres, members of which are
+found filling court offices from the 15th century onward. For
+Charles de Beauvillier, gentleman of the chamber to the king,
+governor and <i>bailli</i> of Blois, the estate of Saint Aignan was created a countship in 1537. François de Beauvillier, comte de Saint
+Aignan, after having been through the campaigns in Germany
+(1634-1635), Franche-Comté (1636), and Flanders (1637), was
+sent to the Bastille in consequence of his having lost the battle of
+Thionville in 1640. In reward for his devotion to the court party
+during the Fronde he obtained many signal favours, and Saint
+Aignan was raised to a duchy in the peerage of France (duché-pairie)
+in 1663. His son Paul, called the duc de Beauvillier, was
+several times ambassador to England; he became chief of the
+council of finance in 1685, governor of the dukes of Burgundy,
+Anjou and Berri from 1689 to 1693, minister of state in 1691, and
+grandee of Spain in 1701. He married a daughter of Colbert.
+Paul Hippolyte de Beauvillier, comte de Montrésor, afterwards
+duc de Saint Aignan, was ambassador at Madrid from 1715 to
+1718 and at Rome in 1731, and a member of the council of
+regency in 1719.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> the <i>nom de plume</i> of <span class="sc">Eugène
+Auguste Roger de Bully</span> (1806-1866), French writer, who
+was born on the 8th of November 1806 in Paris. He was the son
+and nephew of public officials who did not approve his literary
+inclinations, and it was at their request that he wrote over the
+signature of Roger de Beauvoir. A good-looking young fellow,
+of independent means, an indefatigable <i>viveur</i>, he astonished all
+Paris with his ostentatious luxury and his adventures, while his
+romantic novels gave him a more serious if not durable reputation.
+Among the best of them are <i>L&rsquo;Écolier de Cluny ou le Sophisme</i>
+(1832), which is said to have furnished Alexandre Dumas and
+Theodore Gaillardet (1808-1882) with the idea of the <i>Tour de
+Nesle</i>, and <i>Le Chevalier de Saint Georges</i> (1840). He had married
+in 1847 an actress, Eléonore Léocadie Doze (1822-1859), from
+whom he obtained a judicial separation a year or two later after
+a long and notorious trial, following which his mother-in-law got
+him imprisoned for three months and fined 500 francs for a
+satirical poem, <i>Mon Procès</i> (1849). Ruined by extravagance
+and tied to his chair by gout, he spent the last years of his life
+in retirement, and died in Paris on the 27th of August 1866.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAUX, CECILIA<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (1863-&emsp;&emsp;), American portrait-painter,
+was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became a pupil
+of William Sartain. But her real art training was obtained in
+Paris, where she started in the <i>atelier</i> Julian and had the coaching
+of painters like Robert-Fleury, Bouguereau and Dagnan
+Bouveret. In 1890 she exhibited at the Paris Exposition.
+Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in 1893 the gold
+medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at
+the New York National Academy, and later various other
+distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy
+of Design, New York, in 1902. Among her portraits are those
+of Bishop-Coadjutor Greer (exhibited at the Salon in 1896);
+Mrs Roosevelt and her daughter; and Mrs Larz Anderson.
+Her &ldquo;Dorothea and Francesca,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Ernesta and her Little
+Brother,&rdquo; are good examples of her skill in painting children.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAVER,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the largest European aquatic representative of the
+mammalian order <span class="sc">Rodentia</span> (<i>q.v.</i>), easily recognized by its large
+trowel-like, scaly tail, which is expanded in the horizontal
+direction. The true beaver (<i>Castor fiber</i>) is a native of Europe
+and northern Asia, but it is represented in North America by a
+closely-allied species (<i>C. canadensis</i>), chiefly distinguished by
+the form of the nasal bones of the skull. Beavers are nearly
+allied to the squirrels (<i>Sciuridae</i>), agreeing in certain structural
+peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the <i>Sciuridae</i> the
+two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are
+quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habits are
+arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or <i>Castoridae</i> these
+bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is depressed,
+expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic. Beavers have
+webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double.
+In length beavers&mdash;European and American&mdash;measure about
+2 ft. exclusive of the tail, which is about 10 in. long. They are
+covered with a fur to which they owe their chief commercial
+value; this consists of two kinds of hair&mdash;the one close-set,
+silky and of a greyish colour, the other much coarser and
+longer, and of a reddish brown. Beavers are essentially aquatic
+in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by
+necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver
+has not only been exterminated there, but likewise in most of
+the countries of the continent, although a few remain on the
+Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of Scandinavia. The American
+species is also greatly diminished in numbers from incessant
+pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur. Beavers are sociable
+anirrals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water of
+sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and
+boughs of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the
+neighbourhood they make their &ldquo;lodges,&rdquo; which are roomy
+chambers, with the entrance beneath the water. The mud is
+plastered down by the fore-feet, and not, as often supposed, by
+the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder. They are mainly
+nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of
+water plants. The dam differs in shape according to the nature
+of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it
+is almost straight; where the current is considerable it is curved,
+with its convexity towards the stream. The materials made use
+of are driftwood, green willows, birch and poplars; also mud
+and stones intermixed in such a manner as contributes to the
+strength of the dam, but there is no particular method observed,
+except that the work is carried on with a regular sweep, and that
+all the parts are made of equal strength. &ldquo;In places,&rdquo; writes
+Hearne, &ldquo;which have been long frequented by beavers undisturbed,
+their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank,
+capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as
+the willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up,
+they by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I
+have seen in some places so tall that birds have built their nests
+among the branches.&rdquo; Their houses are formed of the same
+materials as the dams, with little order or regularity of structure,
+and seldom contain more than four old, and six or eight young
+beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of the larger
+houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts of
+the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for
+the apartments have usually no communication with each other
+except by water. The beavers carry the mud and stones with
+their fore-paws and the timber between their teeth. They
+always work in the night and with great expedition. They
+cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, which,
+freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone,
+so that neither wolves nor wolverines can disturb their repose.</p>
+
+<p>The favourite food of the American beaver is the water-lily
+(<i>Nuphar luteum</i>), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk,
+and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also
+gnaw the bark of birch, poplar and willow trees; but during
+the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries,
+is consumed. When the ice breaks up in spring they always
+leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before
+the fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations,
+and lay in their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to
+repair the houses till the frost sets in, and never finish the outer
+coating till the cold becomes severe. When they erect a new
+habitation they fell the wood early in summer, but seldom begin
+building till towards the end of August.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of the American beaver is eaten by the Indians, and
+when roasted in the skin is esteemed a delicacy and is said to
+taste like pork. <i>Castoreum</i> is a substance contained in two
+pear-shaped pouches situated near the organs of reproduction,
+of a bitter taste and slightly foetid odour, at one time largely
+employed as a medicine, but now used only in perfumery.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other
+superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe;
+while in the Pleistocene formations of England and Siberia occur
+remains of a giant extinct beaver, <i>Trogontherium cuvieri</i>, representing
+a genus by itself.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an account of beavers in Norway see R. Collett, in the <i>Bergens
+Museum Aarbog</i> for 1897. See also R.T. Martin, <i>Castorologia, a
+History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver</i> (London, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf.
+Sanskrit <i>babhrús</i>, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. <i>fiber</i>, Ger. <i>Biber</i>,
+Swed. <i>bafver</i>, Russ. <i>bobr&rsquo;</i>; the root <i>bhru</i> has given &ldquo;brown,&rdquo; and,
+through Romanic, &ldquo;bronze&rdquo; and &ldquo;burnish.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAVER<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>bavière</i>, a child&rsquo;s bib, from <i>bave</i>, saliva),
+the lower part of the helmet, fixed to the neck-armour to protect
+the face and cheeks; properly it moved upwards, as the visor
+moved down, but the word is sometimes used to include the visor.
+The right form of the word, &ldquo;baver,&rdquo; has been altered from a
+confusion with &ldquo;beaver,&rdquo; a hat made of beaver-fur or a silk
+imitation, also, in slang, called a &ldquo;castor,&rdquo; from the zoological
+name of the beaver family.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAVER DAM,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> a city of Dodge county, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
+situated in the S.E. part of the state, 63 m. N.W. of Milwaukee,
+on Beaver Lake, which is 9 m. long and 3 m. wide. Pop. (1890)
+4222; (1900) 5128, of whom 1023 were foreign-born; (1905)
+5615; (1910) 6758. Most of the population is of German
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
+descent. Beaver Dam is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp;
+St Paul railway. The city is a summer resort, has a public
+library, and is the seat of Wayland Academy (1855, Baptist),
+a co-educational preparatory school affiliated with the university
+of Chicago. Beaver Dam is situated in the midst of a fine farming
+country; it has a good water-power derived from Beaver
+Lake, and among its manufactures are woollen and cotton goods,
+malleable iron, foundry products, gasolene engines, agricultural
+implements, stoves and beer. The city was first settled about
+1841, and was incorporated in 1856.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAVER FALLS,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on Beaver river, about 3½ m. from its confluence with
+the Ohio, opposite New Brighton, and about 32 m. N.W. of
+Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 9735; (1900) 10,054, of whom 1554
+were foreign-born; (1910), census, 12,191. The borough is
+served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg &amp; Lake Erie
+railways. It is built for the most part on a plateau about 50 ft.
+above the river, hemmed in on either side by hills that rise
+abruptly, especially on the W., to a height of more than 200 ft.
+Bituminous coal, natural gas and oil abound in the vicinity;
+the river provides excellent water-power; the borough is a
+manufacturing centre of considerable importance, its products
+including iron and steel bridges, boilers, steam drills, carriages,
+saws, files, axes, shovels, wire netting, stoves, glass-ware, scales,
+chemicals, pottery, cork, decorative tile, bricks and typewriters.
+In 1905 the city&rsquo;s factory products were valued at $4,907,536.
+Geneva College (Reformed Presbyterian, co-educational),
+established in 1849 at Northwood, Logan county, Ohio, was
+removed in 1880 to the borough of College Hill (pop. in 1900, 899),
+1 m. N. of Beaver Falls; it has a preparatory and a collegiate
+department, departments of music, oratory and art, and a
+physical department, and in 1907-1908 had 13 instructors and 235
+students. Beaver Falls was first settled in 1801; was laid out as
+a town and named Brighton in 1806; received its present name
+a few years later; and in 1868 was incorporated as a borough.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEAWAR,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Nayanagar</span>, a town of British India, the
+administrative headquarters of Merwara district in Ajmere-Merwara.
+It is 33 m. from Ajmere. Pop. (1901) 21,928. It is
+an important centre of trade, especially in raw cotton, and has
+cotton presses and the Krishna cotton mills. It was founded
+by Colonel Dixon in 1835.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (1840-&emsp;&emsp;), German socialist,
+was born at Cologne on the 22nd of February 1840; he became
+a turner and worked at Leipzig. Here he took a prominent part
+in the workmen&rsquo;s movement and in the association of working
+men which had been founded under the influence of Schultz-Delitzsch;
+at first an opponent of socialism, he came under the
+influence of Liebknecht, and after 1865 he was a confirmed
+advocate of socialism. With Liebknecht he belonged to the
+branch of the socialists which was in close correspondence with
+Karl Marx and the International, and refused to accept the
+leadership of Schweitzer, who had attempted to carry on the
+work after Lassalle&rsquo;s death. He was one of those who supported
+a vote of want of confidence in Schweitzer at the Eisenach
+conference in 1867, from which his party was generally known as
+&ldquo;the Eisenacher.&rdquo; In this year he was elected a member of the
+North German Reichstag for a Saxon constituency, and, with
+an interval from 1881 to 1883, remained a member of the German
+parliament. His great organizing talent and oratorical power
+quickly made him one of the leaders of the socialists and their
+chief spokesman in parliament. In 1870 he and Liebknecht
+were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary
+subsidy required for the war with France; the followers of
+Lassalle, on the other hand, voted for the government proposals.
+He was the only Socialist who was elected to the Reichstag in
+1871, but he used his position to protest against the annexation
+of Alsace-Lorraine and to express his full sympathy with the
+Paris Commune. Bismarck afterwards said that this speech
+of Bebel&rsquo;s was a &ldquo;ray of light,&rdquo; showing him that Socialism was
+an enemy to be fought against and crushed; and in 1872 Bebel
+was accused in Brunswick of preparation for high treason, and
+condemned to two years&rsquo; imprisonment in a fortress, and, for
+insulting the German emperor, to nine months&rsquo; ordinary imprisonment.
+After his release he helped to organize, at the congress
+of Gotha, the united party of Social Democrats, which
+had been formed during his imprisonment. After the passing
+of the Socialist Law he continued to show great activity in the
+debates of the Reichstag, and was also elected a member of the
+Saxon parliament; when the state of siege was proclaimed in
+Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886 condemned
+to nine months&rsquo; imprisonment for taking part in a secret society.
+Although the rules of the Social Democratic party do not recognize
+a leader or president, Bebel subsequently became by far
+the most influential member of the party. In the party meetings
+of 1890 and 1891 his policy was severely attacked, first by the
+extremists, the &ldquo;young&rdquo; Socialists from Berlin, who wished
+to abandon parliamentary action; against these Bebel won a
+complete victory. On the other side he was involved in a
+quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put aside
+from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the
+Socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bringing
+about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual
+amelioration. This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel
+came to be regarded as the chief exponent of the traditional
+views of the orthodox Marxist party. He was exposed to some
+natural ridicule on the ground that the &ldquo;Kladderadatsch,&rdquo; which
+he often spoke of as imminent, failed to make its appearance.
+On the other hand, though a strong opponent of militarism, he
+publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany must not
+expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. His
+book, <i>Die Frau und der Socialismus</i> (1893), which went through
+many editions and contained an attack on the institution of marriage,
+identified him with the most extreme forms of Socialism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Mehring, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Social-Demokratie</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1898); <i>Reports of the Annual Meetings of the Social
+Democratic Party</i>, Berlin Vorwarts Publishing Company (from 1890);
+B. Russell, <i>German Social-Democracy</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECCAFICO<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (Ital. for &ldquo;fig-pecker&rdquo;), a small migratory bird
+of the warbler (<i>Sylviidae</i>) family, which frequents fig-trees and
+vineyards, and, when fattened, is considered a great delicacy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1486-1551), Italian
+painter, of the school of Siena. In the early days of the Tuscan
+republics Siena had been in artistic genius, and almost in political
+importance, the rival of Florence. But after the great plague in
+1348 the city declined; and though her population always comprised
+an immense number of skilled artists and artificers, yet
+her school did not share in the general progress of Italy in the
+15th century. About the year 1500, indeed, Siena had no native
+artists of the first importance; and her public and private
+commissions were often given to natives of other cities. But
+after the uncovering of the works of Raphael and Michelangelo
+at Rome in 1508, all the schools of Italy were stirred with the
+desire of imitating them. Among these accomplished men who
+now, without the mind and inspiration of Raphael or Michelangelo,
+mastered a great deal of their manner, and initiated the
+decadence of Italian art, several of the most accomplished arose
+in the school of Siena. Among these was Domenico, the son of a
+peasant, one Giacomo di Pace, who worked on the estate of a
+well-to-do citizen named Lorenzo Beccafumi. Seeing some signs
+of a talent for drawing in his labourer&rsquo;s son, Lorenzo Beccafumi
+took the boy into his service and presently adopted him, causing
+him to learn painting from masters of the city. Known afterwards
+as Domenico Beccafumi, or earlier as Il Mecarino (from
+the name of a poor artist with whom he studied), the peasant&rsquo;s
+son soon gave proof of extraordinary industry and talent. In
+1509 he went to Rome and steeped himself in the manner of the
+great men who had just done their first work in the Vatican.
+Returning to his native town, Beccafumi quickly gained employment
+and a reputation second only to Sodoma. He painted a
+vast number both of religious pieces for churches and of mythological
+decorations for private patrons. But the work by which
+he will longest be remembered is that which he did for the
+celebrated pavement of the cathedral of Siena. For a hundred
+and fifty years the best artists of the state had been engaged
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span>
+laying down this pavement with vast designs in <i>commesso</i> work,&mdash;white
+marble, that is, engraved with the outlines of the subject in
+black, and having borders inlaid with rich patterns in many
+colours. From the year 1517 to 1544 Beccafumi was engaged in
+continuing this pavement. He made very ingenious improvements
+in the technical processes employed, and laid down
+multitudinous scenes from the stories of Ahab and Elijah, of
+Melchisedec, of Abraham and of Moses. These are not so interesting
+as the simpler work of the earlier schools, but are much
+more celebrated and more jealously guarded. Such was their
+fame that the agents of Charles I. of England, at the time when
+he was collecting for Whitehall, went to Siena expressly to try
+and purchase the original cartoons. But their owner would not
+part with them, and they are now in the Siena Academy and
+elsewhere. The subjects have been engraved on wood, by the
+hand, as it seems, of Beccafumi himself, who at one time or
+another essayed almost every branch of fine art. He made a
+triumphal arch and an immense mechanical horse for the procession
+of the emperor Charles V. on his entry into Siena. In
+his later days, being a solitary liver and continually at work, he
+is said to have accelerated his death by over-exertion upon the
+processes of bronze-casting.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (1716-1781), Italian
+physicist, was born at Mondovi on the 3rd of October 1716, and
+entered the religious order of the Pious Schools in 1732. He
+became professor of experimental physics, first at Palermo and
+then at Rome, and was appointed to a similar situation at Turin
+in 1748. He was afterwards made tutor to the young princes de
+Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally at
+Turin during the remainder of his life. In May 1755 he was
+elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and published
+several papers on electrical subjects in the <i>Phil. Trans</i>.
+He died at Turin on the 27th of May 1781. Beccaria did much, in the
+way both of experiment and exposition, to spread a knowledge
+of the electrical researches of Franklin and others. His principal
+work was the treatise <i>Dell&rsquo; Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale</i>
+(1753), which was translated into English in 1776.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marchese de</span> (1735-1794),
+Italian publicist, was born at Milan on the 15th of March
+1735. He was educated in the Jesuit college at Parma, and
+showed at first a great aptitude for mathematics. The study
+of Montesquieu seems to have directed his attention towards
+economic questions; and his first publication (1762) was a
+tract on the derangement of the currency in the Milanese states,
+with a proposal for its remedy. Shortly after, in conjunction
+with his friends the Verris, he formed a literary society, and began
+to publish a small journal, in imitation of the <i>Spectator</i>,
+called <i>Il Caffè</i>. In 1764 he published his brief but justly
+celebrated treatise <i>Dei Delitti e delle Pene</i> (&ldquo;On Crimes and Punishments&rdquo;).
+The weighty reasonings of this work were expounded with all the
+additional force of a clear and animated style. It pointed out
+distinctly and temperately the grounds of the right of punishment,
+and from these principles deduced certain propositions as to the
+nature and amount of punishment which should be inflicted for
+any crime. The book had a surprising success. Within eighteen
+months it passed through six editions. It was translated into
+French by Morellet in 1766, and published with an anonymous
+commentary by Voltaire. An English translation appeared in
+1768 and it was translated into several other languages. Many
+of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal European
+nations are traceable to Beccaria&rsquo;s treatise. In November 1768
+he was appointed to the chair of law and economy, which had
+been founded expressly for him at the Palatine college of Milan.
+His lectures on political economy, which are based on strict
+utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with the theories
+of the English school of economists. They are published in the
+collection of Italian writers on political economy (<i>Scrittori
+Classici Italiani di Economia politico</i>., vols. xi. and xii.).
+In 1771 Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic council;
+and in 1791 he was appointed one of the board for the reform of
+the judicial code. In this post his labours were of very great
+value. He died at Milan on the 28th of November 1794.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECCLES,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, in the
+Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; on the
+right bank of the river Waveney, 109 m. N.E. from London by
+the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 6898. It has a pleasant,
+well-wooded site overlooking the flat lands bordering the
+Waveney. The church of St Michael, wholly Perpendicular, is a
+fine example of the style, having an ornate south porch of two
+storeys and a detached bell tower. There are a grammar school
+(1712), and boys&rsquo; school and free school on the foundation of Sir
+John Leman (1631). Rose Hall, in the vicinity, is a moated
+manor of brick, of the 16th century. Printing works, malting,
+brick and tile, and agricultural implement works are the chief
+industries. Beccles was incorporated in 1584. It is governed by
+a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2017 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECERRA, GASPAR<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1520-1570), Spanish painter and
+sculptor, was born at Baéza in Andalusia. He studied at Rome,
+it is said under Michelangelo, and assisted Vasari in painting
+the hall of the Concelleria. He also contributed to the anatomical
+plates of Valverde. After his return to Spain he was extensively
+employed by Philip II., and decorated many of the rooms in
+the palace at Madrid with frescoes. He also painted altar-pieces
+for several of the churches, most of which have been destroyed.
+His fame as a sculptor almost surpassed that as a painter. His
+best work was a magnificent figure of the Virgin, which was
+destroyed during the French war. He became court painter at
+Madrid in 1563, and played a prominent part in the establishment
+of the fine arts in Spain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÊCHE-DE-MER<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (sometimes explained as &ldquo;sea-spade,&rdquo; from
+the shape of the prepared article, but more probably from the
+Port, <i>bicho</i>, a worm or grub), or <span class="sc">Trepang</span> (Malay, <i>tripang</i>),
+an important food luxury among the Chinese and other Eastern
+peoples, connected with the production of which considerable
+trade exists in the Eastern Archipelago and the coasts of New
+Guinea, and also in California. It consists of several species
+of echinoderms, generally referred to the genus <i>Holothuria</i>,
+especially <i>H. edulis</i>. The creatures, which exist on coral
+reefs, have bodies from 6 to 15 in. long, shaped like a cucumber, hence
+their name of &ldquo;sea-cucumbers.&rdquo; The skin is sometimes covered
+with spicules or prickles, and sometimes quite smooth, and with
+or without &ldquo;teats&rdquo; or ambulacral feet disposed in rows. Five
+varieties are recognized in the commerce of the Pacific Islands,
+the finest of which is the &ldquo;brown with teats.&rdquo; The large black
+come next in value, followed by the small black, the red-bellied
+and the white. They are used in the gelatinous soups which form
+an important article of food in China. They are prepared for
+use by being boiled for about twenty minutes, and then dried
+first in the sun and afterwards over a fire, so that they are
+slightly smoked.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1635-1682), German chemist,
+physician, scholar and adventurer, was born at Spires in 1635.
+His father, a Lutheran minister, died while he was yet a child,
+leaving a widow and three children. The mother married again;
+the stepfather spent the tiny patrimony of the children; and
+at the age of thirteen Becher found himself responsible not
+only for his own support but also for that of his mother and
+brothers. He learned and practised several small handicrafts, and
+devoting his nights to study of the most miscellaneous description
+earned a pittance by teaching. In 1654, at the age of nineteen,
+he published an edition of Salzthal&rsquo;s <i>Tractatus de lapide
+trismegisto</i>; his <i>Metallurgia</i> followed in 1660; and the
+next year appeared his <i>Character pro notitia linguarum universali</i>,
+in which he gives 10,000 words for use as a universal language.
+In 1663 he published his <i>Oedipum Chemicum</i> and a book on
+animals, plants and minerals (<i>Thier- Kräuter- und Bergbuch</i>).
+At the same time he was full of schemes, practical and unpractical.
+He negotiated with the elector palatine for the establishment
+of factories at Mannheim; suggested to the elector of Bavaria
+the creation of German colonies in Guiana and the West Indies;
+and brought down upon himself the wrath of the Munich
+merchants by planning a government monopoly of cloth manufacture
+and of trade. He fled from Munich, but found a ready
+welcome elsewhere. In 1666 he was appointed teacher of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span>
+medicine at Mainz and body-physician to the archbishop-elector;
+and the same year he was made councillor of commerce (<i>Commerzienrat</i>)
+at Vienna, where he had gained the powerful support of
+Albrecht, Count Zinzendorf, prime minister and grand chamberlain
+of the emperor Leopold I. Sent by the emperor on a mission
+to Holland, he there wrote in ten days his <i>Methodus Didactica</i>,
+which was followed by the <i>Regeln der Christlichen Bundesgenossenschaft</i>
+and the <i>Politischer Discurs vom Auj- und Abblühen der
+Städte</i>. In 1669 he published his <i>Physica subterranea</i>, and the
+same year was engaged with the count of Hanau in a scheme
+for settling a large territory between the Orinoco and the Amazon.
+Meanwhile he had been appointed physician to the elector of
+Bavaria; but in 1670 he was again in Vienna advising on the
+establishment of a silk factory and propounding schemes for a
+great company to trade with the Low Countries and for a canal
+to unite the Rhine and Danube. He then returned to Bavaria,
+and his absence bringing him into ill odour at Vienna, he
+complained of the incompetence of the council of commerce
+and dedicated a tract on trade (<i>Commercien-Tractat</i>) to the
+emperor Leopold. His <i>Psychosophia</i> followed, and &ldquo;An invitation
+to a psychological community&rdquo; (<i>Einladung zu einer
+psychologischen Societät</i>), for the realization of which Duke
+Gustavus Adolphus of Mecklenburg-Gustrow (d. 1695) offered
+him in 1674 a site in his duchy. The plan came to nothing, and
+next year Becher was again busy at Vienna, trying to transmute
+Danube sand into gold, and writing his <i>Theses chemicae veritatem
+transmutationis metallorum evincentes</i>. For some reason he
+incurred the disfavour of Zinzendorf and fled to Holland, where
+with the aid of the government he continued his experiments.
+Pursued even there by the resentment of his former
+patron, he crossed to England, whence he visited the mines of
+Scotland at the request of Prince Rupert. He afterwards went
+for the same purpose to Cornwall, where he spent a year. At
+the beginning of 1680 he presented a paper to the Royal Society,
+<i>De nova temporis dimetiendi ratione et accurata horologiorum
+constructione</i>, in which he attempted to deprive Huygens of
+the honour of applying the pendulum to the measurement of
+time. The views of Becher on the composition of substances
+mark little essential advance on those of the two preceding
+centuries, and the three elements or principles of salt, mercury
+and sulphur reappear as the vitrifiable, the mercurial and the
+combustible earths. When a substance was burnt he supposed that
+the last of these, the <i>terra pinguis</i>, was liberated, and this
+conception is the basis on which G.E. Stahl founded his doctrine
+of &ldquo;phlogiston.&rdquo; His ideas and experiments on the nature
+of minerals and other substances are voluminously set forth in
+his <i>Physica Subterranea</i> (Frankfort, 1669); an edition of this,
+published at Leipzig in 1703, contains two supplements
+(<i>Experimentum chymicum novum</i> and <i>Demonstratio Philosophica</i>),
+proving the truth and possibility of transmuting metals, <i>Experimentum
+novum ac curiosum de minera arenaria perpetua</i>, the
+paper on timepieces already mentioned and also <i>Specimen
+Becherianum</i>, a summary of his doctrines by Stahl, who in the
+preface acknowledges indebtedness to him in the words <i>Becheriana
+sunt quae profero</i>. At Falmouth he wrote his <i>Laboratorium
+portabile</i> and at Truro the <i>Alphabetum minerale</i>. In 1682 he
+returned to London, where he wrote the <i>Chemischer Glückshafen
+oder grosse Concordanz und Collection van 1500 Processen</i> and
+died in October of the same year.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECHUANA,<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> a South African people, forming a branch of the
+great Bantu-Negroid family. They occupy not only Bechuanaland,
+to which they have given their name, and Basutoland, but
+are the most numerous native race in the Orange River Colony
+and in the western and northern districts of the Transvaal. It
+seems certain that they reached their present home later than
+the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples who came down the east coast
+of the continent, but it is probable that they started on their
+southward journey before the latter. It would appear that the
+forerunners of the movement were the Bakalahari and Balala,
+who were subsequently reduced to the condition of serfs by the
+later arrivals, and who by intermingling to a certain extent with
+the aborigines gave rise to the &ldquo;Kalahari Bushmen&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kalahari Desert</a></span>). The Bechuana family may be classed in two
+great divisions, the western or Bechuana proper, and the eastern
+or Basuto. The Bechuana proper consist of a large number of
+tribes, whose early history is extremely confused and involved
+owing to continual inter-tribal wars and migrations, during
+which many tribes were practically annihilated. Further
+confusion was produced by subsequent marauding expeditions
+by the coast &ldquo;Kaffirs.&rdquo; An ingenious attempt to disentangle
+the highly complicated tribal movements which took place in
+the early 19th century may be found in Stow&rsquo;s <i>Native Races
+of South Africa</i>. One migration of particular interest calls for
+mention. In the early part of the 19th century a number of
+Basuto, led by the chief Sebituane, crossed the Zambezi near the
+Victoria Falls, and, under the name Makololo, established a
+supremacy over the Barotse and neighbouring tribes on the upper
+portion of the river, imposing their language on the conquered
+peoples. After the death of Sekeletu, Sebituane&rsquo;s successor,
+the vassal tribes arose and exterminated their conquerors. Only
+a few escaped, whom Sekeletu had sent with David Livingstone
+to the coast. These established themselves to the south of Lake
+Nyasa, where they are still to be found. Sesuto speech, however,
+still prevails in Barotseland. The chief Bechuana tribes were the
+Batlapin and Barolong (the last including the Baratlou, Bataung,
+Barapulana and Baseleka), together with the great Bakuena or
+Bakone people (including the Bahurutsi, Batlaru, Bamangwato,
+Batauana, Bangwaketse and Bakuena). The clans representing
+the southern Bakuena were in comparatively recent times
+welded together to form the Basuto nation, of which the founder
+was the chief Moshesh (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basutoland</a></span>). The Basuto have
+been not only influenced in certain cultural details (<i>e.g.</i> the form
+of their huts) by the neighbouring Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples,
+but have moreover received an infusion of their blood which
+has improved their physique. They are good riders and make
+considerable use of their horses in war and the chase.</p>
+
+<p>The Bechuana, though not so tall as Kaffirs, average 5 ft. 6 in.
+in stature; they are of slender build and their musculature is
+but moderately developed except where a Kaffir strain is found.
+Their skin is of a reddish-brown or bronze colour, and their
+features are fairly regular, though in all cases coarser than those
+of Europeans. One of their chief peculiarities lies in the fact
+that each tribe respects (usually) a particular animal, which the
+members of the tribe may not eat, and the killing of which, if
+necessary, must be accompanied by profuse apologies and
+followed by subsequent purification. Many of the tribes take
+their name from their <i>siboko</i>, as the animal in question is called;
+<i>e.g.</i> the Batlapin, &ldquo;they of the fish&rdquo;; Bakuena, &ldquo;they of the
+crocodile.&rdquo; The <i>siboko</i> of the Barolong, who as a tribe are
+accomplished smiths, is not an animal but the metal iron; other
+tribes have adopted as their particular emblem respectively
+the sun, rain, dew, &amp;c. Certain ceremonies are performed in
+honour of the tribal emblem, hence an inquiry as to the tribe
+of an individual is put in the form &ldquo;What do you dance?&rdquo;
+In certain tribes the old and feeble and the sickly children were
+killed, and albinos and the deaf and dumb exposed; those born
+blind were strangled, and if a mother died in childbirth the
+infant was buried alive in the same grave. With the extension
+of British authority these practices were prohibited. Circumcision
+is universally practised, though there is no fixed age for
+it. It is performed at puberty, when the boys are secluded for
+a period in the bush. The operation is accompanied by whipping
+and even tortures. Girls at puberty must undergo trials of
+endurance, <i>e.g.</i> the holding of a bar of heated iron without crying
+out. The Bechuana inhabit, for the most part, towns of considerable
+size, containing from 5000 to 40,000. Politically they
+live under a tribal despotism limited by a council of elders, the
+chief seldom exercising his individual authority independently,
+though the extent of his power naturally depends on his personality.
+They have their public assemblies, but only when circumstances,
+chiefly in reference to war, require. These are
+generally characterized by great freedom of speech, and there
+is no interruption of the speaker. The chief generally closes the
+meeting with a long speech, referring to the subjects which each
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span>
+speaker has either supported or condemned, not forgetting to
+clear his own character of any imputation. These public
+assemblies are now, except in Basutoland, of very rare occurrence.
+The clothing of the men consists of a leather bandage;
+the women wear a skin apron, reaching to the knee, under
+which is a fringed girdle. Skin cloaks (<i>kaross</i>) are worn by both
+sexes, with the difference that the male garment is distinguished
+by a collar. The hair is kept short for the most part; women
+shave the head, leaving a tuft on the crown which is plastered
+with fat and earth, and adorned with beads. Beads are worn,
+and various bracelets of iron, copper and brass.</p>
+
+<p>The Bechuana are mainly an agricultural people, the Bangwaketse
+and Bakuena excelling as cultivators. Cattle they
+possess, but these are used chiefly for the purpose of purchasing
+wives, especially among the Basuto. At the same time they are
+excellent craftsmen, and show no little skill in smelting and
+working iron and copper and the preparation of hides and
+pottery vessels. The most efficient smiths are the Barolong
+and Bamangwato (the latter were spared by the Matabele chief
+Umsilikazi on this account); the Bangwaketse excel as potters;
+the Barolong as wood carvers, and the Bakuena as hut builders.
+The huts, with the exception of those of the Basuto who have
+adopted the Kaffir model, are cylindrical, with clay-plastered
+walls and a conical roof of thatch. In spite of the constant
+tribal feuds dating from the beginning of the 19th century, the
+Bechuana cannot be classed as a warlike people, especially
+when they are compared with the Zulu. Their weapons consist
+of the throwing assegai, usually barbed, axes, daggers in carved
+sheaths, and, occasionally, bows and arrows, the last sometimes
+poisoned. Hide shields of a peculiar shape, resembling a
+depressed hour-glass, are found except among the Basuto, who
+use a somewhat different pattern. Hunting usually takes the
+form of great drives organized in concert, and the game is driven
+by means of converging fences to a large pitfall or series of pits.
+Their religious beliefs are very vague; they appear to recognize
+a somewhat indeterminate spirit of, mainly, evil tendencies,
+called <i>Morimo</i>. The plural form of this word, <i>Barimo</i>, is used
+of the <i>manes</i> of dead ancestors, to whom a varying amount of
+reverence is paid. There is universal belief in charms and
+witchcraft, and divination by means of dice is common. Witchdoctors,
+who are supposed to counteract evil magic, play a not
+insignificant part, and the magician who claims the power of
+making rain occupies a very important position, as might be
+expected among an agricultural people inhabiting a country
+where droughts are not infrequent. They have a great dread
+of anything connected with death; when an old man is on the
+point of expiring, a net is thrown over him, and he is dragged
+from his hut by a hole in the wall, if possible before life is extinct.
+The dead are buried in a sitting position with their faces to
+the north, in which direction lies their ancestral home. Under
+the influence of missionaries, however, large numbers of the
+Bechuana have become Christianized, and many of the customs
+mentioned are no longer practised.</p>
+
+<p>Polygamy is the rule, but, except in the case of chiefs, is not
+found to the same extent as among the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffirs].
+The woman is purchased from her father, chiefly by means of
+cattle, though among the western Bechuana other articles are
+included, many of which become the property of the girl herself.
+The wives live in separate huts, and the first is given priority
+over those purchased subsequently. Chastity after marriage
+is the rule, and adultery and rape are severely punished, as
+offences against property. Cannibalism is found, but is rare
+and confined to certain tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The Bechuana language, which belongs to the Bantu linguistic
+family, is copious, with but few slight dialectic differences,
+and is free from the Hottentot elements found in the Kaffir and
+Zulu tongues. The richness of the language may be judged
+from the fact that, though only oral until reduced to writing by
+the missionaries, it has sufficed for the translation of the whole
+Bible.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;G.W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i>
+(London, 1905); Gustav Fritsch, <i>Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrikas</i>
+(Breslau, 1872); Robert Moffat, <i>Missionary Labours and Scenes in
+Southern Africa</i> (1842); David Livingstone, <i>Missionary Travels and
+Researches in South Africa</i> (London, 1857); J.C. MacGregor, <i>Basuto
+Traditions</i> (Cape Town, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. A. J.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECHUANALAND<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (a name given from its inhabitants, the
+Bechuana, <i>q.v.</i>), a country of British South Africa occupying
+the central part of the vast tableland which stretches north to the
+Zambezi. It is bounded S. by the Orange river, N.E. and E.
+by Matabeleland, the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, and
+W. and N. by German South-West Africa. Bechuanaland
+geographically and ethnically enjoys almost complete unity, but
+politically it is divided as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. British Bechuanaland, since 1895 an integral part of Cape
+Colony. Area, 51,424 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 84,210, of whom
+9276 were whites.</p>
+
+<p>II. The Bechuanaland Protectorate, the northern part of
+the country, governed on the lines of a British crown colony.
+Area (estimated), 225,000 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 120,776, of whom
+Europeans numbered 1004. The natives, in addition to the
+Bechuana tribes, include some thousands of Bushmen (Masarwa).
+Administratively attached to the protectorate is the Tati
+concession, which covers 2500 sq. m. and forms geographically the
+south-west corner of Matabeleland.</p>
+
+<p>The Griqualand West province of Cape Colony belongs also
+geographically to Bechuanaland, and except in the Kimberley
+diamond mines region is still largely inhabited by Bechuana.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griqualand</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Features</i>.&mdash;The average height of the tableland of
+which Bechuanaland consists is nearly 4000 ft. The surface is
+hilly and undulating with a general slope to the west, where the
+level falls in considerable areas to little over 2000 ft. A large
+part of the country is covered with grass or shrub, chiefly acacia.
+There is very little forest land. The western region, the Kalahari
+Desert (<i>q.v.</i>), is mainly arid, with a sandy soil, and is covered in
+part by dense bush. In the northern region are large marshy
+depressions, in which the water is often salt. The best known of
+these depressions, Ngami (<i>q.v.</i>), lies to the north-west and is
+the central point of an inland water system apparently in process
+of drying up. To the north-east and connected with Ngami
+by the Botletle river, is the great Makari-Kari salt pan, which
+also drains a vast extent of territory, receiving in the rainy
+season a large volume of water. The marsh then becomes a
+great lake, the water surface stretching beyond the horizon,
+while in the dry season a mirage is often seen. The permanent
+marsh land covers a region 60 m. from south to north and from
+30 to 60 m. east to west. In the south the rivers, such as the
+Molopo and the Kuruman, drain towards the Orange. Other
+streams are tributaries of the Limpopo, which for some distance
+is the frontier between Bechuanaland and the Transvaal.</p>
+
+<p>The rivers of Bechuanaland are, with few exceptions, intermittent
+or lose themselves in the desert. It is evident, however,
+from the extent of the beds of these streams and of others now
+permanently dry, and from remains of ancient forests, that at
+a former period the country must have been abundantly watered.
+From the many cattle-folds and walls of defence scattered over
+the country, and ruins of ancient settlements, it is also evident
+that at that period stone-dykes were very common. The increasing
+dryness of the land is partly, perhaps largely, attributable
+to the cutting down of timber trees both by natives and by
+whites, and to the custom of annually burning the grass, which
+is destructive to young wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate is healthy and bracing, except in the
+lower valleys along the river banks and in the marsh land,
+where malarial fever is prevalent. Though in great part within
+the tropics, the heat is counteracted by the dryness of the air.
+Throughout the year the nights are cool and refreshing; in
+winter the cold at night is intense. In the western regions the
+rainfall does not exceed 10 in. in the year; in the east the average
+rainfall is 26 in. and in places as much as 30 in. The rainy season
+is the summer months, November to April, but the rains are
+irregular, and, from the causes already indicated, the rainfall
+is steadily declining. From December to February violent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
+thunder and hail storms are experienced. In the whiter or dry
+season there are occasional heavy dust storms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;The greater part of Bechuanaland is covered with
+superficial deposits consisting of the sands of the desert regions
+of the Kalahari and the alluvium and saliferous marls of the
+Okavango basin. The oldest rocks, granites, gneisses and
+schistose sandstones, the Ngami series, rise to the surface in
+the east and south-east and doubtless immediately underlie much
+of the sand areas. A sandstone found in the neighbourhood of
+Palapye is considered to be the equivalent of the Waterberg
+formation of the Transvaal. The Karroo formation and associate
+dolerites (<i>Loalemandelstein</i>) occur in the same region. A deposit
+of sinter and a calcareous sandstone, known as the Kalahari
+Kalk, considered by Dr Passarge to be of Miocene age, overlies
+a sandstone and curious breccia (<i>Botletle Schnichten</i>). These
+deposits are held by Passarge to indicate Tertiary desert conditions,
+to which the basin of the Zambezi is slowly reverting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;Until towards the close of the 19th century Bechuanaland
+abounded in big game, and the Kalahari is still the home
+of the lion, leopard, hyena, jackal, elephant, hippopotamus,
+rhinoceros, buffalo, antelope of many species, ostrich and even
+the giraffe. Venomous reptiles, <i>e.g.</i> puff-adders and cobras, are
+met with, enormous frogs are common, and walking and flying
+locusts, mosquitoes, white ants, flying beetles, scorpions, spiders
+and tarantulas are very numerous. The crocodile is found in
+some of the rivers. Many of the rivers are well stocked with
+fish. In those containing water in the rainy season only, the fish
+preserve life when the bed is dry by burrowing deeply in the
+ooze before it hardens. The principal fish are the baba or cat-fish
+(<i>clarias</i> sp.) and the yellow-fish, both of which attain considerable
+size. Bustards (the great kori and the koorhaan) are common.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;In the eastern district are stretches of grass land, both
+sweet and sour veld. In the &ldquo;bush&rdquo; are found tufts of tall
+coarse grass with the space between bare or covered with
+herbaceous creepers or water-bearing tubers. A common creeper
+is one bearing a small scarlet cucumber, and a species of watermelon
+called <i>tsoma</i> is also abundant. Of the melon and cucumber
+there are both bitter and sweet varieties. Besides the grass and
+the creepers the bush is made up of berry-yielding bushes (some
+of the bushes being rich in aromatic resinous matter), the wait-a-bit
+thorn and white thorned mimosa. The indigo and cotton
+plants grow wild. Among the rare big trees&mdash;found chiefly
+in the north-east&mdash;are baobab and palmyra and certain fruit
+trees, one bearing a pink plum. There are remains of ancient
+forests consisting of wild olive trees and the camel thorn, near
+which grows the <i>ngotuane</i>, a plant with a profusion of fine,
+strongly scented yellow flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chief Towns</i>.&mdash;The chief town in southern Bechuanaland, <i>i.e.</i>
+the part incorporated in Cape Colony, is Mafeking (<i>q.v.</i>), near
+the headwaters of the Molopo river. It is the headquarters of
+the Barolong tribe, and although within the Cape border is the
+seat of the administration of the protectorate. Vryburg (pop.,
+1904, 2985), founded by Boer filibusters in 1882, and Taungs,
+are towns on the railway between Kimberley and Mafeking.
+Taungs has some 22,000 inhabitants, being the chief kraal of
+the Batlapin tribe. About 7 m. south of Vryburg, at Tiger Kloof,
+is an Industrial Training Institute for natives founded in 1904
+by the London Missionary Society. Upington (2508) on the north
+bank of the Orange, an agricultural centre, is the chief town
+in Gordonia, the western division of southern Bechuanaland.
+Kuruman (<i>q.v.</i>) is a native town near the source of the Kuruman
+river, 85 m. south-west of Vryburg. It has been the scene of
+missionary labours since the early years of the 19th century.
+North of Mafeking on the railway to Bulawayo are the small
+towns of Gaberones and Francistown. The last named is the
+chief township in the Tati concession, the centre of a gold-mining
+region, and the most important white settlement in the protectorate.
+Besides these places there are five or six large native
+towns, each the headquarters of a distinct tribe. The most
+important is Serowe, with over 20,000 inhabitants, the capital of
+the Bamangwato, founded by the chief Khama in 1903. It is
+about 250 m. north-north-east of Mafeking, and took the place of
+the abandoned capital Palapye, which in its turn had succeeded
+Shoshong. The chief centre in the western Kalahari is Lehututu.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture and Trade</i>.&mdash;The soil is very fertile, and if properly
+irrigated would yield abundant harvests. Unirrigated land laid
+under wheat by the natives is said to yield twelve bushels an
+acre. Cereals are grown in many of the river valleys. Maize
+and millet are the chief crops. The wealth of the Bechuana
+consists principally in their cattle, which they tend with great
+care, showing a shrewd discrimination in the choice of pasture
+suited to oxen, sheep and goats. Water can usually be obtained
+all the year round by sinking wells from 20 to 30 ft. deep. The
+&ldquo;sweet veld&rdquo; is specially suitable to cattle, and the finer shorter
+grass which succeeds it affords pasturage for sheep.</p>
+
+<p>Gold mines are worked in the Tati district, the first discoveries
+having been made there in 1864. There are gold-bearing quartz
+reefs at Madibi, near Mafeking, where mining began in 1906.
+Diamonds have been found near Vryburg. The existence of coal
+near Palapye about 60 ft. below the surface has been proved.
+The coal, however, is not mined, and much of the destruction of
+timber in southern Bechuanaland was caused by the demand for
+fuel for Kimberley. Copper ore has been found near Francistown.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly there was a trade in ostrich feathers and ivory; but
+this has ceased, and the chief trade has since consisted in supplying
+the natives with European goods in exchange for cattle,
+hides, the skins and horns of game, firewood and fencing poles,
+and in forwarding goods north and south. The protectorate is a
+member of the South African Customs Union. The value of the
+goods imported into the protectorate in 1906 was £118,322; the
+value of the exports was £77,736. The sale of spirits to natives is
+forbidden.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications</i>.&mdash;As the great highway from Cape Colony to
+the north, Bechuanaland has been described as the &ldquo;Suez canal
+of South Africa.&rdquo; The trunk railway from Cape Town to the
+Victoria Falls traverses the eastern edge of Bechuanaland
+throughout its length. The railway enters the country at
+Fourteen Streams, 695 m. from Cape Town, and at Ramaquabane,
+584 m. farther north, crosses into Rhodesia. The old trade route
+to Bulawayo, which skirts the eastern edge of the Kalahari, is
+now rarely used. Wagon tracks lead to Ngami, 320 m. N.W.
+from Palapye Road Station, and to all the settlements. From
+the scarcity of water on the main routes through the Kalahari
+these roads are known as &ldquo;the thirsts&rdquo;; along some of them
+wells have been sunk by the administration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government</i>.&mdash;The protectorate is administered by a resident
+commissioner, responsible to the high commissioner for South
+Africa. Legislation is enacted by proclamations in the name of
+the high commissioner. Order is maintained by a small force of
+semi-military police recruited in Basutoland and officered by
+Europeans. Revenue is obtained mostly from customs and a hut
+tax, while the chief items of expenditure have been the police
+force and a subsidy of £20,000 per annum towards the cost of the
+railway, a liability which terminated in the year 1908. The
+average annual revenue for the five years ending the 31st of March
+1906 was £30,074; the average annual expenditure during the same
+period was £80,114. There is no public debt, the annual deficiency
+being made good by a grant-in-aid from the imperial exchequer.
+The tribal organization of the Bechuana is maintained, and
+native laws and customs, with certain modifications, are upheld.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;Bechuanaland was visited by Europeans towards
+the close of the 18th century. The generally peaceful disposition
+of the tribes rendered the opening up of the country
+comparatively easy. The first regular expedition to
+<span class="sidenote">Missionary work.</span>
+penetrate far inland was in 1801-1802, when John
+(afterwards Sir John) Truter, of the Cape judicial bench, and
+William Somerville&mdash;an army physician and afterwards husband
+of Mary Somerville&mdash;were sent to the Bechuana tribes to buy
+cattle. The London Missionary Society established stations in
+what is now Griqualand West in 1803, and in 1818 the station of
+Kuruman, in Bechuanaland proper, was founded. In the meantime
+M.H.K. Lichtenstein (1804) and W.J. Burchell (1811-1812),
+both distinguished naturalists, and other explorers, had made
+familiar the general characteristics of the southern part of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
+country. The Rev. John Campbell, one of the founders of the
+Bible Society, also travelled in southern Bechuanaland and the
+adjoining districts in 1812-1814 and 1819-1821, adding considerably
+to the knowledge of the river systems. About 1817
+Mosilikatze, the founder of the Matabele nation, fleeing from the
+wrath of Chaka, the Zulu king, began his career of conquest,
+during which he ravaged a great part of Bechuanaland and
+enrolled large numbers of Bechuana in his armies. Eventually
+the Matabele settled to the north-east in the country which
+afterwards bore their name. In 1821 Robert Moffat arrived at
+Kuruman as agent of the London Missionary Society, and made
+it his headquarters for fifty years. Largely as the result of the
+work of Moffat (who reduced the Bechuana tongue to writing),
+and of other missionaries, the Bechuana advanced notably in
+civilization. The arrival of David Livingstone in 1841 marked
+the beginning of the systematic exploration of the northern
+regions. His travels, and those of C.J. Andersson (1853-1858)
+and others, covered almost every part of the country hitherto unknown.
+In 1864 Karl Mauch discovered gold in the Tati district.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the first contact of the Bechuana with white men
+the Cape government was the only civilized authority in South
+Africa; and from this cause, and the circumstance
+that the missionaries who lived among and exercised
+<span class="sidenote">Boer encroachment.</span>
+great influence over them were of British nationality,
+the connexion between Bechuanaland and the Cape
+became close. As early as 1836 an act was passed extending the
+jurisdiction of the Cape courts in certain cases as far north as 25°
+S.&mdash;a limit which included the southern part of Bechuanaland.
+Although under strong British influence the country was nevertheless
+ruled by its own chiefs, among whom the best-known in
+the middle of the 19th century were Montsioa, chief of the
+Barolong, and Sechele, chief of the Bakwena and the friend of
+Livingstone. At this period the Transvaal Boers were in a very
+unsettled state, and those living in the western districts showed
+a marked inclination to encroach upon the lands of the Bechuana.
+In 1852 Great Britain by the Sand river convention acknowledged
+the independence of the Transvaal. Save the Vaal river no
+frontier was indicated, and &ldquo;boasting,&rdquo; writes Livingstone in his
+<i>Missionary Travels</i>, &ldquo;that the English had given up all the
+blacks into their power ... they (the Boers) assaulted the
+Bakwains&rdquo; (Bakwena).</p>
+
+<p>With this event the political history of Bechuanaland may be
+said to have begun. Not only was Sechele attacked at his
+capital Kolobeng, and the European stores and Livingstone&rsquo;s
+house there looted, but the Boers stopped a trader named M&lsquo;Cabe
+from going northward. Again to quote Livingstone, &ldquo;The
+Boers resolved to shut up the interior and I determined to open
+the country.&rdquo; In 1858 the Boers told the missionaries that
+they must not go north without their (the Boers&rsquo;) consent.
+Moffat complained to Sir George Grey, the governor of Cape
+Colony, through whose intervention the molestation by Transvaal
+Boers of British subjects in their passage through Bechuanaland
+was stopped. At a later date (1865) the Boers tried to raise
+taxes from the Barolong, but without success, a commando sent
+against them in 1868 being driven off by Montsioa&rsquo;s brother
+Molema. This led to a protest (in 1870) from Montsioa, which
+he lodged with a landdrost at Potchefstroom in the Transvaal,
+threatening to submit the matter to the British high commissioner
+if any further attempt at taxation were made on the part
+of the Boers. The Boers then resorted to cajolery, and at a
+meeting held in August 1870, at which President Pretorius and
+Paul Kruger represented the Transvaal, invited the Barolong
+to join their territories with that of the republic, in order to save
+them from becoming British. Montsioa&rsquo;s reply was short: &ldquo;No
+one ever spanned-in an ass with an ox in one yoke.&rdquo; In the
+following year the claims of the Boers, the Barolong, and other
+tribes were submitted to the arbitration of R.W. Keate, lieutenant-governor
+of Natal, and his award placed Montsioa&rsquo;s
+territory outside the limits of the Transvaal. This attempt of
+the Boers to gain possession of Bechuanaland having failed,
+T.F. Burgers, the president of the Transvaal in 1872, endeavoured
+to replace Montsioa as chief of the Barolong by Moshette, whom
+he declared to be the rightful ruler and paramount chief of that
+people. The attacks of the Boers at length became so unbearable
+that Montsioa in 1874 made a request to the British authorities
+to be taken under their protection. In formulating this appeal
+he declared that when the Boers were at war with Mosilikatze,
+chief of the Matabele, he had aided them on the solemn understanding
+that they were to respect his boundaries. This promise
+they had broken. Khama, chief of the Bamangwato in northern
+Bechuanaland, wrote in August 1876 to Sir Henry Barkly
+making an appeal similar to that sent by the Barolong. The
+letter contained the following significant passages:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;I write to you, Sir Henry, in order that your queen may
+preserve for me my country, it being in her hands. The Boers are
+coming into it, and I do not like them.&rdquo; &ldquo;Their actions are cruel
+among us black people. We are like money, they sell us and our
+children.&rdquo; &ldquo;I ask Her Majesty to defend me, as she defends all her
+people. There are three things which distress me very much&mdash;war,
+selling people, and drink. All these things I shall find in the
+Boers, and it is these things which destroy people to make an end
+of them in the country. The custom of the Boers has always been
+to cause people to be sold, and to-day they are still selling people.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The statements of Khama in this letter do not appear to have
+been exaggerated. The testimony of Livingstone confirms them,
+and even a Dutch clergyman, writing in 1869, described the
+system of apprenticeship of natives which obtained among the
+Boers &ldquo;as slavery in the fullest sense of the word.&rdquo; These
+representations on the part of the Barolong, and the Bamangwato
+under Khama, supported by the representations of Cape
+politicians, led in 1878 to the military occupation of southern
+Bechuanaland by a British force under Colonel (afterwards
+General Sir Charles) Warren. A small police force continued
+to occupy the district until April 1881, but, ignoring the wishes
+of the Bechuana and the recommendations of Sir Bartle Frere
+(then high commissioner), the home government refused to take
+the country under British protection. On the withdrawal of
+the police, southern Bechuanaland fell into a state of anarchy,
+nor did the fixing (on paper) of the frontier between it and the
+Transvaal by the Pretoria convention of August 1881 have any
+beneficial effect. There was fighting between Montsioa and
+Moshette, while Massow, a Batlapin chief, invited the aid of the
+Boers against Mankoroane, who claimed to be paramount chief
+of the Batlapin. The Transvaal War of that date offered opportunities
+to the freebooting Boers of the west which were not to
+be lost. At this time the British, wearied of South African
+troubles, were disinclined to respond to native appeals for help.
+<span class="sidenote">Stellaland and Goshen.</span>
+Consequently the Boers proceeded without let or
+hindrance with their conquest and annexation of
+territory. In 1882 they set up the republic of Stellaland,
+with Vryburg as its capital, and forthwith
+proceeded to set up the republic of Goshen, farther north, in
+spite of the protests of Montsioa, and established a small town
+called Rooi Grond as capital. They then summoned Montsioa
+to quit the territory. The efforts of the British authorities at
+this period (1882-1883) to bring about a satisfactory settlement
+were feeble and futile, and fighting continued until peace was
+made entirely on Boer lines. The Transvaal government was
+to have supreme power, and to be the final arbiter in case of
+future quarrels arising among the native chiefs. This agreement,
+arrived at without any reference to the British government, was
+a breach of the Pretoria convention, and led to an intimation on
+the part of Great Britain that she could not recognize the new
+republics. In South Africa, as well as in England, strong feeling
+was aroused by this act of aggression. Unless steps were taken
+at once, the whole of Bechuanaland might be permanently lost,
+while German territory on the west might readily be extended
+to join with that of the Boers. In the London convention of
+February 1884, conceded by Lord Derby in response to the
+overtures of Boer delegates, the Transvaal boundaries were
+again defined, part of eastern Bechuanaland being included in
+Boer territory. In spite of the convention the Boers remained
+in Stellaland and Goshen&mdash;which were west of the new Transvaal
+frontier, and in April 1884 the Rev. John Mackenzie, who had
+succeeded Livingstone, was sent to the country to arrange
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span>
+matters. He found very little difficulty in negotiating with the
+various Bechuana chiefs, but with the Boers he was not so
+successful. In Goshen the Boers defied his authority, while
+in Stellaland only a half-hearted acceptance of it was given.
+At the instance of the new Cape government, formed in May
+and under control of the Afrikander Bond, Mackenzie, who was
+accused of being too &ldquo;pro-Bechuana&rdquo; and who had been refused
+the help of any armed force, was recalled on the 30th of July by
+the high commissioner, Sir Hercules Robinson. In his place
+Cecil Rhodes, then leader of the Opposition in the Cape parliament,
+was sent to Bechuanaland.</p>
+
+<p>Rhodes&rsquo;s mission was attended with great difficulty. British
+prestige after the disastrous Boer War of 1881 was at a very low
+ebb, and he realized that he could not count on any
+active help from the imperial or colonial authorities.
+<span class="sidenote">Rhodes&rsquo;s Mission.</span>
+He adopted a tone of conciliation, and decided that
+the Stellaland republic should remain under a sort of British
+suzerainty. But in Goshen the Boers would let him do nothing.
+Commandant P.J. Joubert, after meeting him at Rooi Grond,
+entered the country and attacked Montsioa. Rhodes then left
+under protest, declaring that the Boers were making war against
+Great Britain. The Boers now (10th of September) proclaimed
+the country under Transvaal protection. This was a breach of
+the London convention, and President Kruger explained that
+the steps had been taken in the &ldquo;interests of humanity.&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote">Warren expedition.</span>
+Indignant protest in Cape Town and throughout
+South Africa, as well as England, led to the despatch
+in October 1884 of the Warren expedition, which was
+sent out by the British government to remove the filibusters, to
+bring about peace in the country, and to hold it until further
+measures were decided upon. Before Sir Charles Warren
+reached Africa, Sir Thomas Upington, the Cape premier, and
+Sir Gordon Sprigg, the treasurer-general, went to Bechuanaland
+and arranged a &ldquo;settlement&rdquo; which would have left the Boer
+filibusters in possession, but the imperial government refused
+to take notice of this &ldquo;settlement.&rdquo; Public opinion throughout
+Great Britain was too strong to be ignored. The limit of concessions
+to the Boers had been reached, and Sir Charles Warren&rsquo;s
+force&mdash;4000 strong&mdash;had reached the Vaal river in January 1885.
+On the 22nd of January Kruger met Warren at the Modder
+river, and endeavoured to stop him from proceeding farther,
+saying that he would be responsible for keeping order in the
+country. Warren, however, continued his march, and without
+firing a shot broke up the republics of Stellaland and Goshen.
+Bechuanaland was formally taken under British protection
+(30th of September 1885), and the sphere of British influence
+was declared to extend N. to 22° S. and W. to 20° E. (which last-mentioned
+line marks the eastern limit of German South-West Africa).</p>
+
+<p>The natives cheerfully accepted this new departure in British
+policy, and from this time forward Khama&rsquo;s country was known
+as the British protectorate of Bechuanaland. That portion
+lying to the south of the Molopo river was described as British
+Bechuanaland, and was constituted a crown colony. In 1891
+<span class="sidenote">British protectorate.</span>
+the northern frontier of the protectorate was extended
+to its present boundaries, and the whole of it placed
+under the administration of a resident commissioner,
+a protest being made at the time by the British South
+Africa Company on the ground that the protectorate was
+included in the sphere of their charter. Under the able administration
+(1885-1895) of Sir Sidney Shippard (<i>q.v</i>.) peace was
+maintained among the natives, who have shown great loyalty
+to British rule.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the country shows how much has been due to
+the efforts of men like Livingstone, Mackenzie and Rhodes. It
+is quite clear that had they not represented the true state of
+affairs to the authorities the whole of this territory would have
+gradually been absorbed by the Boers, until they had effected a
+union with the Germans on the west. The great road to the
+north would thus have been effectually shut against trade and
+British colonization. With regard to the precise effect of
+missionary influence upon the natives, opinion will always
+remain divided. But Livingstone, who was not only a missionary
+but also an enlightened traveller, stated that a considerable
+amount of benefit had been conferred upon the native
+races by missionary teaching. Livingstone was a great advocate
+of the prohibition of alcohol among the natives, and that policy
+was always adhered to by Khama.</p>
+
+<p>In 1891 the South African Customs Union was extended to
+British Bechuanaland, and in 1895 the country was annexed to
+Cape Colony. At the same time it was provisionally arranged
+that the Bechuanaland protectorate should pass under the
+administration of the British South Africa Company (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhodesia</a></span>).
+Khama and two other Bechuana chiefs came to
+England and protested against this arrangement. The result was
+that their territories and those of other petty chiefs lying to the
+north of the Molopo were made native reserves, into which the
+importation of alcohol was forbidden. A British resident officer
+was to be appointed to each of the reserves. A stipulation,
+however, was made with these chiefs that a strip of country
+sufficient for the purposes of a railway to Matabeleland should be
+conceded to the Chartered Company. In December 1895 the
+occurrence of the Jameson Raid, which started from these
+territories, prevented the completion of negotiations, and the
+administration of the protectorate remained in the hands of the
+imperial government. The administration, besides fostering the
+scanty material resources of the country, aids the missionaries in
+their endeavours to raise the Bechuanas in the scale of civilization.
+The results are full of encouragement. The natives proved
+staunch to the British connexion during the war of 1899-1902,
+and Khama and other chiefs gave help by providing transport.
+Anxiety was caused on the western frontier during the German
+campaigns against the Hottentots and Herero (1903-1908), many
+natives seeking refuge in the protectorate. A dispute concerning
+the chieftainship of the Batawana in the Ngami district threatened
+trouble in 1906, but was brought to a peaceful issue. The
+Bechuana were entirely unaffected by the Kaffir rebellion in
+Natal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Of early works the most valuable are David
+Livingstone, <i>Missionary Travels in South Africa</i> (London, 1857);
+Robert Moffat, <i>Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa</i>
+(London, 1842); J. Campbell, <i>Travels in South Africa</i> (London, 1815),
+<i>Travels ... a Second Journey</i> ... (2 vols., London, 1822);
+and A.A. Anderson, <i>Twenty-five Years in a Waggon in the Gold Regions
+of Africa</i>, vol. i. (London, 1887). See also J.D. Hepburn,
+<i>Twenty Years in Khama&rsquo;s Country</i> (London, 1895); S. Passarge&rsquo;s
+<i>Die Kalahari</i> (Berlin, 1904) deals chiefly with geological and allied
+questions; John Mackenzie&rsquo;s <i>Austral Africa, Losing it or Ruling it</i>
+(London, 1887); <i>John Mackenzie</i>, a biography by W.D. Mackenzie
+(London, 1902); and the article &ldquo;Bechuanaland&rdquo; by Sir S. Shippard
+in <i>British Africa</i> (London, 1899), give the story of the beginnings of
+British rule in the protectorate. Of larger works dealing incidentally
+with Bechuanaland consult G.M. Theal&rsquo;s <i>History of South Africa</i>;
+E.A. Pratt&rsquo;s <i>Leading Points in South African History</i> (London,
+1900); and <i>Cecil Rhodes, His Political Life and Speeches</i>, by Vindex
+(London, 1900). See also the <i>Statistical Register, Cape of Good Hope</i>,
+issued yearly at Cape Town, and the <i>Annual Report, Bechuanaland Protectorate</i>,
+issued by the Colonial Office, London.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.; A. P. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (1757-1832), German philologist,
+historian, theologian and antiquarian, one of the most learned
+men of his time, was born at Leipzig on the 22nd of January
+1757. He studied at Leipzig University, where he was appointed
+(1785) professor of Greek and Latin literature. This post he
+resigned in 1819 in order to take up the professorship of history,
+but resumed it in 1825. He also had the management of the
+university library, was director of the institute for the deaf and
+dumb, and filled many educational and municipal offices. In
+1784 he founded a philological society, which grew into a philological seminary, superintended by him until his death. In 1808
+he was made a <i>Hofrath</i> by the king of Saxony, and in 1820 a
+knight of the civil order of merit. His philological lectures, in
+which grammar and criticism were subordinated to history, were
+largely attended by hearers from all parts of Germany. He died
+at Leipzig on the 13th of December 1832. He edited a number
+of classical authors: <i>Pedo Albinovanus</i> (1783), Pindar and the
+Scholia (1792-1795), Aristophanes (with others, 1794, &amp;c.),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span>
+Euripides (1778-1788), Apollonius Rhodius (1797), Demosthenes
+<i>De Pace</i> (1799), Plato (1813-1819), Cicero (1795-1807), Titus
+Calpurnius Siculus (1803). He translated Ferguson&rsquo;s <i>Fall of the
+Roman Republic</i> and Goldsmith&rsquo;s <i>History of Greece</i>, and added
+two volumes to Bauer&rsquo;s Thucydides. He also wrote on theological
+and historical subjects, and edited philological and
+bibliographical journals. He possessed a large and valuable
+library of 24,000 volumes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Nobbe, <i>Vita C.D. Beckii</i> (1837);
+and G. Hermann, <i>Opuscula</i>, v. 312.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECK<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Beek</span>), <b>DAVID</b> (1621-1656), Dutch portrait-painter,
+was born at Arnheim in Guelderland. He was trained by Van Dyck,
+from whom he acquired the fine manner of pencilling and
+sweet style of colouring peculiar to that great master. He
+possessed likewise that freedom of hand and readiness, or rather
+rapidity of execution, for which Van Dyck was so remarkable,
+insomuch that when King Charles I. observed the expeditious
+manner of Beck&rsquo;s painting, he exclaimed, &ldquo;Faith! Beck, I believe
+you could paint riding post.&rdquo; He was appointed portrait-painter
+and chamberlain to Queen Christina of Sweden, and he executed
+portraits of most of the sovereigns of Europe to adorn her gallery.
+His death at the Hague was suspected of being due to poisoning.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> (1761-1840), German philosopher,
+was born at Danzig in 1761. Educated at Königsberg, he became
+professor of philosophy first at Halle (1791-1799) and then
+at Rostock. He devoted himself to criticism and explanation
+of the doctrine of Kant, and in 1793 published the <i>Erläuternder
+Auszug aus Kants kritischen Schriften</i>, which has been widely
+used as a compendium of Kantian doctrine. He endeavoured to
+explain away certain of the contradictions which are found in
+Kant&rsquo;s system by saying that much of the language is used in
+a popular sense for the sake of intelligibility, <i>e.g.</i> where Kant
+attributes to things-in-themselves an existence under the
+conditions of time, space and causality, and yet holds that they
+furnish the material of our apprehensions. Beck maintains that
+the real meaning of Kant&rsquo;s theory is idealism; that of objects
+outside the domain of consciousness, knowledge is impossible,
+and hence that nothing positive remains when we have removed the
+subjective element. Matter is deduced by the &ldquo;original synthesis.&rdquo;
+Similarly, the idea of God is a symbolical representation
+of the voice of conscience guiding from within. The value of
+Beck&rsquo;s exegesis has been to a great extent overlooked owing to
+the greater attention given to the work of Fichte. Beside the
+three volumes of the <i>Erläuternder Auszug</i>, he published the
+<i>Grundriss der krit. Philosophie</i> (1796), containing an interpretation
+of the Kantian <i>Kritik</i> in the manner of Salomon Maimon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ueberweg, <i>Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos. der Neuzeit</i>;
+Dilthey in the <i>Archiv für Geschichte der Philos.</i>,
+vol. ii. (1889), pp. 592-650. For Beck&rsquo;s letters to Kant,
+see R. Reicke, <i>Aus Kants Briefwechsel</i> (Königsberg, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKENHAM,<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary
+division of Kent, England, 10 m. S.S.E. of London
+by the South Eastern &amp; Chatham railway. Pop. (1881) 13,045;
+(1901) 26,331. It is a long straggling parish extending
+from the western tower of the Crystal Palace almost to the south
+end of Bromley, and contains the residential suburb of Shortlands.
+Its rapid increase in size in the last decade of the 19th
+century was owing to the popularity which it attained as a place
+of residence for London business men. It retains, however,
+some of its rural character, and has wide thoroughfares and
+many handsome residences standing in extensive grounds.
+King William IV.&rsquo;s Naval Asylum was endowed by Queen Adelaide
+for 12 widows of naval officers. The church of St George was built
+in 1866 on the site of an ancient Perpendicular church.
+Some 16th-century brasses, an altar tomb and a piscina were
+removed hither from the old church. The tower of the church was
+completed in 1903, and furnished with two bells in memory of
+Cecil Rhodes, in addition to the old bells, one of which dates from 1624.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKER, HEINRICH<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (1770-1822), German actor, whose
+real name was <span class="sc">Blumenthal</span>, was born at Berlin. He obtained,
+while quite a young man, an appointment in the court theatre
+at Weimar, at that time under Goethe&rsquo;s auspices. The poet
+recognized his talent, appointed him stage-manager, entrusted
+him with several of the leading roles in his dramas and consulted
+him in all matters connected with the staging of his plays.
+For many years Becker was the favourite of the Weimar stage,
+and although he was at his best in comedy, he played, to Goethe&rsquo;s
+great satisfaction, Vansen in <i>Egmont</i>, and was also seen to great
+advantage in the leading parts of several of Schiller&rsquo;s plays;
+notably Burleigh in <i>Maria Stuart</i>, Karl Moor in <i>Die Räuber</i>,
+and Antonio in <i>Torquato Tasso</i>. Becker left Weimar in the
+spring of 1809, played for a short time at Hamburg (under
+Schröder) and at Breslau, and then began a wandering life,
+now joining travelling companies, now playing at provincial
+theatres. Broken in health and ruined in fortune he returned
+in 1820 to Weimar, where he was again cordially received by
+Goethe, who reinstated him at the theatre. After playing for two
+short years with indifferent success, he died at Weimar in 1822.</p>
+
+<p>Becker was twice married. His first wife, <span class="sc">Christiane Luise
+Amalie Becker</span> (1778-1797), was the daughter of a theatrical
+manager and dramatic poet, Johann Christian Neumann, and
+made her first stage appearance in 1787 at Weimar. Here she
+received some training from Goethe and from Corona Schröter,
+the singer, and her beauty and charm made her the favourite
+both of court and public. She married Heinrich Becker in 1793.
+She died on the 22nd of September 1797. Her last part was that
+of Euphrosyne in the opera <i>Das Petermännchen</i>, and it is under
+this name that Goethe immortalized her in a poem which first
+appeared in Schiller&rsquo;s <i>Musen Almanack</i> of 1799.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (1796-1846), German classical
+archaeologist, was born at Dresden. At first destined for a
+commercial life, he was in 1812 sent to the celebrated school at
+Pforta. In 1816 he entered the university of Leipzig, where he
+studied under Beck and Hermann. After holding subordinate
+posts at Zerbst and Meissen, he was in 1842 appointed professor
+of archaeology at Leipzig. He died at Meissen on the 30th of
+September 1846. The works by which Becker is most widely known
+are the <i>Gallus</i> or <i>Römische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts</i>
+(1838, new ed. by Göll, 1880-1882), and the <i>Charicles</i> or
+<i>Bilder altgriechischer Sitte</i>, (1840, new ed. by Göll, 1877-1878).
+These two books, which have been translated into English by Frederick
+Metcalfe, contain a very interesting description of the everyday
+life of the ancient Greeks and Romans, in the form of a romance.
+The notes and appendixes are valuable. More important is the
+great <i>Handbuch der röm. Alterthümer</i> (1843-1868), completed
+after Becker&rsquo;s death by Marquardt and Mommsen. Becker&rsquo;s treatises
+<i>De Comicis Romanorum Fabulis</i> (1837),
+<i>De Romae Veteris Muris atque Portis</i> (1842),
+<i>Die römische Topographie in Rom</i> (1844),
+and <i>Zur römischen Topographie</i> (1845) may also be mentioned.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKET, THOMAS<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1118-1170), by his contemporaries
+more commonly called Thomas of London, English chancellor
+and archbishop of Canterbury under Henry II., was born about
+the year 1118 in London. His mother was a native of Caen;
+his father, who came of a family of small Norman landowners,
+had been a citizen of Rouen, but migrated to London before the
+birth of Thomas, and held at one time the dignified office of
+portreeve, although he ended his life in straitened circumstances.
+The young Thomas received an excellent education. At the
+age of ten he was put to school with the canons of Merton priory
+in Surrey. Later he spent some time in the schools of London,
+which enjoyed at that time a high reputation, and finally studied
+theology at Paris. Returning at the age of twenty-two he was
+compelled, through the misfortunes of his parents, to become
+a notary in the service of a wealthy kinsman, Osbert Huit Deniers,
+who was of some importance in London politics. About 1142
+a family friend brought Thomas under the notice of Archbishop
+Theobald, of whose household he at once became an inmate.
+He accompanied the primate to Rome in 1143, and also to the
+council of Reims (1148), which Theobald attended in defiance of
+a prohibition from the king. It appears to have been at some
+time between the dates of these two journeys that he visited
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span>
+Bologna and Auxerre, and began those studies in the canon law
+to which he was in no small degree indebted for his subsequent
+advancement and misfortunes. Although the bent of his mind
+was legal, he never made himself an expert jurist; but he had
+the art of turning his knowledge, such as it was, to excellent
+account. In 1151 he was sent to Rome by the archbishop with
+instructions to dissuade the Curia from sanctioning the coronation
+of Stephen&rsquo;s eldest son Eustace. It is said that Thomas
+distinguished himself by the ability with which he executed his
+commission; in any case it gave him a claim on the gratitude of
+the Angevin party which was not forgotten. In 1154 he was
+promoted to be archdeacon of Canterbury, after first taking
+deacon&rsquo;s orders. In the following year Henry II., at the primate&rsquo;s
+recommendation, bestowed on him the important office of
+chancellor. In this capacity Thomas controlled the issue of
+royal writs and the distribution of ecclesiastical patronage;
+but it was more important for his future that he had ample
+opportunities of exercising his personal fascination upon a prince
+who was comparatively inexperienced, and thirteen or fourteen
+years his junior. He became Henry&rsquo;s bosom friend and was consulted
+in all affairs of state. It had been the hope of Theobald
+that Becket&rsquo;s influence would be exercised to support the
+extensive privileges which the Church had wrested from Stephen.
+But the chancellor, although preserving friendly relations with
+his old patron, subordinated the interests of the Church to those
+of his new master. Under his administration the Church was
+severely taxed for the prosecution of Henry&rsquo;s foreign wars;
+and the chancellor incurred the reproach &ldquo;of plunging his sword
+into the bowels of his mother.&rdquo; Like Wolsey he identified
+himself with the military aspirations of his sovereign. It was
+Thomas who organized the Toulouse campaign of 1159; even
+in the field he made himself conspicuous by commanding a
+company of knights, directing the work of devastation, and
+superintending the conduct of the war after the king had
+withdrawn his presence from the camp. When there was war with
+France upon the Norman border, the chancellor acted as Henry&rsquo;s
+representative; and on one occasion engaged in single combat
+and unhorsed a French knight of reputation. Later it fell to
+his part to arrange the terms of peace with France. He
+discharged the duties of an envoy with equal magnificence and
+dexterity; the treaty of May 1160, which put an end to the war,
+was of his making.</p>
+
+<p>In 1162 he was transferred to a new sphere of action. Henry
+bestowed on him the see of Canterbury, left vacant by the
+death of Theobald. The appointment caused some murmurs;
+since Becket, at the time when it was made, was still a simple
+deacon. But it had been desired by Theobald as the one means
+of averting an attack on clerical privileges which had been
+impending almost since the accession of Henry II.; and the
+bishops accepted it in silence. Henry on his side looked to find
+in Becket the archbishop a coadjutor as loyal as Becket the
+archdeacon; and anticipated that the Church would once more
+be reduced to that state of dependence in which she had stood
+during the latter years of Henry I. Becket, however, disappointed
+all the conflicting expectations excited by his appointment.
+He did not allow himself to be made the king&rsquo;s tool; nor on the
+other hand did he attempt to protect the Church by humouring
+the king in ordinary matters. He devoted himself to ascetic
+practices, confined himself to the society of churchmen, and
+resigned the chancellorship in spite of a papal dispensation
+(procured by the king) which authorized him to hold that office
+concurrently with the primacy. By nature a violent partisan,
+the archbishop now showed himself the uncompromising champion
+of his order and his see. Hence he was on the worst of terms
+with the king before a year had elapsed. They came
+into open conflict at the council of Woodstock (July 1163), when
+Becket successfully opposed the king&rsquo;s proposal that a land-tax,
+known as the sheriff&rsquo;s aid, which formed part of that official&rsquo;s
+salary, should be henceforth paid into the Exchequer. But
+there were more serious differences in the background. Becket
+had not shrunk from excommunicating a tenant in chief who
+had encroached upon the lands of Canterbury, and had protected
+against the royal courts a clerk named Philip de Brois who was
+charged with an assault upon a royal officer. These disputes
+involved questions of principle which had long occupied
+Henry&rsquo;s attention, and Becket&rsquo;s defiant attitude was answered
+by the famous Constitutions of Clarendon (<i>q.v.</i>), in which the
+king defined, professedly according to ancient use and custom,
+the relations of Church and State. Becket and the bishops were
+required to give these constitutions their approval. Henry&rsquo;s
+demands were more defensible in substance than might be
+supposed from the manner in which he pressed them on the
+bishops. On the most burning question, that of criminous
+clerks, he offered a compromise. He was willing that the accused
+should be tried in the courts Christian provided that the punishment
+of the guilty were left to the lay power. Becket&rsquo;s opposition
+rested upon a casuistic interpretation of the canon law,
+and an extravagant conception of the dignity attaching to the
+priesthood; he showed, moreover, a disposition to quibble, to
+equivocate, and to make promises which he had no intention
+of fulfilling. His conduct may be excused on the ground that
+the bishops were subjected to unwarrantable intimidation. But
+when he renounced his promise to observe the constitutions his
+conduct was reprobated by the other bishops, although approved
+by the pope. It was fortunate for Becket&rsquo;s reputation that
+Henry punished him for his change of front by a systematic
+persecution in the forms of law. The archbishop was thus
+enabled to invoke the pope&rsquo;s assistance, and to quit the country
+with some show of dignity.</p>
+
+<p>Becket fled to France in November 1164. He at once succeeded
+in obtaining from Alexander III. a formal condemnation
+of the constitutions. But Alexander, a fugitive from Italy and
+menaced by an alliance of the emperor with an antipope, was
+indisposed to take extreme measures against Henry; and six
+years elapsed before the king found himself definitely confronted
+with the choice between an interdict and a surrender. For the
+greater part of this time the archbishop resided at the Burgundian
+monastery of Pontigny, constantly engaged in negotiations with
+Alexander, whose hand he desired to force, and with Henry, from
+whom he hoped to extract an unconditional submission. In
+1166 Becket received from the pope a commission to publish
+what censures he thought fit; of which he at once availed himself
+to excommunicate the king&rsquo;s principal counsellors. In 1169 he
+took the same step against two of the royalist bishops. In
+more sweeping measures, however, the pope refused to support
+him, until in 1170 Henry infringed the rights of Canterbury
+by causing Archbishop Roger of York to crown the young king.
+In that year the threats of the pope forced Henry to a reconciliation
+which took place later at Fréteval on the 22nd of July.
+It was a hollow truce, since the subject of the constitutions was
+not mentioned; and Thomas returned to England with the
+determination of riding roughshod over the king&rsquo;s supporters.
+If he had not given a definite pledge to forgive the bishops who
+had taken part in the young king&rsquo;s coronation, he had at least
+raised expectations that he would overlook all past offences.
+But the archbishop prevailed upon the pope to suspend the
+bishops, and before his return published papal letters which,
+in announcing these sentences, spoke of the constitutions as null
+and void. It was only to be expected that such a step, which
+was virtually a declaration of war against the king, should arouse
+in him the strongest feelings of resentment. The archbishop&rsquo;s
+murder, perpetrated within a month of his return to England
+(29th December 1170), was, however, the work of over zealous
+courtiers and regretted by no one more than Henry.</p>
+
+<p>Becket was canonized in 1172. Within a short time his shrine
+at Canterbury became the resort of innumerable pilgrims.
+Plenary indulgences were given for a visit to the shrine, and an
+official register was kept to record the miracles wrought by the
+relics of the saint. The shrine was magnificently adorned with
+the gold and silver and jewels offered by the pious. It was
+plundered by Henry VIII., to whom the memory of Becket was
+specially obnoxious; but the reformers were powerless to
+expunge the name of the saint from the Roman calendar, on
+which it still remains. Even to those who are in sympathy with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span>
+the principles for which he fought, the posthumous reputation
+of Becket must appear strangely exaggerated. It is evident
+that in the course of his long struggle with the state he fell more
+and more under the dominion of personal motives. At the last
+he fought not so much for an idea as for the humiliation of an
+opponent by whom he had been ungenerously treated. William
+of Newburgh appears to express the verdict of the most impartial
+contemporaries when he says that the bishop was <i>zelo justitiae
+fervidus, utrum autem plene secundum scientiam novit Deus</i>:
+&ldquo;burning with zeal for justice, but whether altogether according
+to wisdom God knows.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>Original:</i>&mdash;The correspondence of Becket and
+most of the contemporary biographies are collected by J.C. Robertson
+in <i>Materials for the History of Thomas Becket</i> (7 vols., Rolls
+Series, 1875-1885). See also the <i>Vie de Saint Thomas</i>, by Garníer
+de Pont Sainte Maxence (ed. Hippeau, Paris, 1859). For the
+chronology of the controversy see Eyton&rsquo;s <i>Itinerary of Henry II.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Modern:</i>&mdash;Morris, <i>Life and Martyrdom of St Thomas Becket</i> (London, 1885);
+Lhuillier, <i>Saint Thomas de Cantorbéry</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1891-1892);
+J.C. Robertson, <i>Becket</i> (London, 1859);
+F.W.  Maitland, <i>Roman Canon Law in the Church of England</i>, c. iv.;
+J.A. Froude in his <i>Short Studies</i>, vol. iv.,
+and Freeman in his <i>Historical Essays</i> (1871),
+give noteworthy but conflicting appreciations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> (1760-1844), English author, son of
+Alderman William Beckford (1709-1770), was born on the 1st
+of October 1760. His father was lord mayor of London in
+1762 and again in 1769; he was a famous supporter of John
+Wilkes, and on his monument in the Guildhall were afterwards
+inscribed the words of his manly and outspoken reproof to
+George III. on the occasion of the City of London address to
+the king in 1770. At the age of eleven young Beckford inherited
+a princely fortune from his father. He married Lady Margaret
+Gordon in 1783, and spent his brief married life in Switzerland.
+After his wife&rsquo;s death (1786) he travelled in Spain and Portugal,
+and wrote his <i>Portuguese Letters</i> (published 1834, 1835), which
+rank with his best work. He afterwards returned to England,
+and after selling his old house, Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, began
+to build a magnificent residence there, on which he expended in
+about eighteen years the sum of £273,000. His eccentricities,
+together with the strict seclusion in which he lived, gave rise
+to scandal, probably unjustified. In 1822 he sold his house,
+together with its splendid library and pictures, to John Farquhar,
+and soon after one of the towers, 260 ft. high, fell, destroying
+part of the villa in the ruins. Beckford erected another lofty
+structure on Lansdowne Hill, near Bath, where he continued to
+reside till his death in 1844. His first work,
+<i>Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters</i> (1780)
+was a slight, sarcastic <i>jeu d&rsquo;esprit</i>. In 1782 he wrote in French
+his oriental romance, <i>The History of the Caliph Vathek</i>,
+which appeared in English, translated by the Rev. Samuel Henley,
+in 1786 and has taken its place as one of the finest productions
+of luxuriant imagination.</p>
+
+<p>Beckford&rsquo;s wealth and large expenditure, his position as a
+collector and patron of letters (he bought Gibbon&rsquo;s library at
+Lausanne), his literary industry, and his reputation as author
+of <i>Vathek</i>, make him an interesting figure in literary history.
+He had a seat in parliament from 1784 to 1793, and again from
+1806 to 1820. He left two daughters, the eldest of whom was
+married to the 10th duke of Hamilton.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Cyrus Redding&rsquo;s <i>Memoir</i> (1859) is the only full biography, but prolix;
+see Dr R. Garnett&rsquo;s introduction to his edition of <i>Vathek</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKINGTON<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bekynton</span>), <b>THOMAS</b> (<i>c.</i> 1390-1465),
+English statesman and prelate, was born at Beckington in
+Somerset, and was educated at Winchester and New College,
+Oxford. Having entered the church he held many ecclesiastical
+appointments, and became dean of the Arches in 1423; then
+devoting his time to secular affairs he was sent on an embassy to
+Calais in 1439, and to John IV., count of Armagnac, in 1442.
+At this time Beckington was acting as secretary to Henry VI.,
+and soon after his return in 1443 he was appointed lord privy
+seal and bishop of Bath and Wells. The bishop erected many
+buildings in Wells, and died there on the 14th of January 1465.
+The most important results of Beckington&rsquo;s missions to France
+were one Latin journal, written by himself, referring to the
+embassy to Calais; and another, written by one of his attendants,
+relating to the journey to Armagnac.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Beckington&rsquo;s own journal is published in the <i>Proceedings of the
+Privy Council</i>, vol. v., edited by N.H. Nicolas (1835); and the other
+journal in the <i>Official Correspondence of Thomas Bekynton</i>, edited by
+G. Williams for the Rolls Series (1872), which contains many interesting
+letters. This latter journal has been translated into English
+by N.H. Nicolas (1828). See G.G. Perry, &ldquo;Bishop Beckington and
+Henry VI.,&rdquo; in the <i>English Historical Review</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKMANN, JOHANN<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> (1739-1811), German scientific author,
+was born on the 4th of June 1739 at Hoya in Hanover, where his
+father was postmaster and receiver of taxes. He was educated
+at Stade and the university of Göttingen. The death of his
+mother in 1762 having deprived him of his means of support,
+he went in 1763 on the invitation of the pastor of the Lutheran
+community, Anton Friedrich Büsching, the founder of the
+modern historic statistical method of geography, to teach natural
+history in the Lutheran academy, St Petersburg. This office he
+relinquished in 1765, and travelled in Denmark and Sweden,
+where he studied the methods of working the mines, and made
+the acquaintance of Linnaeus at Upsala. In 1766 he was
+appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy at Göttingen.
+There he lectured on political and domestic economy with such
+success that in 1770 he was appointed ordinary professor. He
+was in the habit of taking his students into the workshops,
+that they might acquire a practical as well as a theoretical
+knowledge of different processes and handicrafts. While thus
+engaged he determined to trace the history and describe the
+existing condition of each of the arts and sciences on which he
+was lecturing, being perhaps incited by the <i>Bibliothecae</i> of
+Albrecht von Haller. But even Beckmann&rsquo;s industry and
+ardour were unable to overtake the amount of study necessary
+for this task. He therefore confined his attention to several
+practical arts and trades; and to these labours we owe his
+<i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Erfindungen</i> (1780-1805), translated
+into English as the <i>History of Inventions</i>&mdash;a work in which he
+relates the origin, history and recent condition of the various
+machines, utensils, &amp;c., employed in trade and for domestic
+purposes. This work entitles Beckmann to be regarded as the
+founder of scientific technology, a term which he was the first
+to use in 1772. In 1772 Beckmann was elected a member of the
+Royal Society of Göttingen, and he contributed valuable scientific
+dissertations to its proceedings until 1783, when he withdrew
+from all further share in its work. He died on the 3rd of February
+1811. Other important works of Beckmann are
+<i>Entwurf einer allgemeinen Technologie</i> (1806);
+<i>Anleitung zur Handelswissenschaft</i> (1789);
+<i>Vorbereitung zur Warenkunde</i> (1795-1800); <i>Beiträge zur
+Ökonomie, Technologie, Polizei- und, Kameralwissenschaft</i> (1777-1791).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), American portrait-painter,
+was born at Hannibal, Missouri, on the 23rd of September 1852.
+He studied in the National Academy of
+Design, New York City, of which he afterwards became a member,
+and in Paris (1873-1878) under Carolus Duran. Returning to the
+United States in 1878, he gradually became a prominent figure
+in American art. He took an active part in the formation of
+the Fine Arts Society, and was president of the National Free
+Art League, which attempted to secure the repeal of the American
+duty on works of art. Among his portraits are those of W.M. Chase (1882),
+of Miss Jordan (1883), of Mark Twain, T.A. Janvier, General Schofield
+and William Walton. He decorated one of the domes of the
+Manufactures Building at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span> (1772-1831), British general,
+was the son of Major-General John Beckwith, who was
+colonel of the 20th regiment (Lancashire Fusiliers) in the charge
+at Minden. In 1791 he entered the 71st regiment (then commanded
+by Colonel David Baird), in which he served in India
+and elsewhere until 1800, when he obtained a company in Colonel
+Coote Manningham&rsquo;s experimental regiment of riflemen, shortly
+afterwards numbered as the 95th Rifles and now called the Rifle
+Brigade. In 1802 he was promoted major, and in the following
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span>
+year lieutenant-colonel. Beckwith was one of the favourite
+officers of Sir John Moore in the famous camp of Shorncliffe, and
+aided that general in the training of the troops which afterwards
+became the Light Division. In 1806 he served in the expedition
+to Hanover, and in 1807 in that which captured Copenhagen. In
+1806 the Rifles were present at Vimeira, and in the campaign of
+Sir John Moore they bore the brunt of the rearguard fighting.
+Beckwith took part in the great march of Craufurd to the field of
+Talavera, in the advanced guard fights on the Coa in 1810 and
+in the campaign in Portugal. On the formation of the Light
+Division he was given a brigade command in it. After the
+brilliant action of Sabugal, Beckwith had to retire for a time
+from active service, but the Rifles and the brigade he had
+trained and commanded added to their fame on every subsequent
+battlefield. In 1812 he went to Canada as assistant
+quartermaster-general, and he took part in the war against the
+United States. In 1814 he became major-general, and in 1815 was
+created K.C.B. In 1827 he was made colonel commandant of the
+Rifle Brigade. He went to India as commander-in-chief at Bombay
+in 1829, and was promoted lieutenant-general in the following year.
+He died on the 15th of January 1831 at Mahableshwar.</p>
+
+<p>His elder brother, Sir <span class="sc">George Beckwith</span> (1753-1823), distinguished
+himself as a regimental officer in the American War
+of Independence, and served subsequently in high administrative
+posts and in numerous successful military operations in the
+West Indies during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.
+He was made a K.B. for his capture of Martinique in 1809,
+and attained the full rank of general in 1814. Sir George Beckwith
+commanded the forces in Ireland, 1816-1820.
+He died in London on the 20th of March 1823.</p>
+
+<p>Their nephew, Major-General <span class="sc">John Charles Beckwith</span> (1789-1862),
+joined the 50th regiment in 1803, exchanging in
+1804 into the 95th Rifles, with which regiment he served in
+the Peninsular campaigns of 1808-10. He was subsequently
+employed on the staff of the Light Division, and he was repeatedly
+mentioned in despatches, becoming in 1814 a brevet-major,
+and after the battle of Waterloo (in which he lost a leg)
+lieutenant-colonel and C.B. In 1820 he left active service.
+Seven years later an accident drew his attention to the Waldenses,
+whose past history and present condition influenced him so
+strongly that he settled in the valleys of Piedmont. The rest
+of his life was spent in the self-imposed task of educating
+the Waldenses, for whom he established and maintained a large
+number of schools, and in reviving the earlier faith of the people.
+In 1848 King Charles Albert made him a knight of the order of
+St Maurice and St Lazarus. He was promoted colonel in the
+British army in 1837 and major-general in 1846. He died on
+the 19th of July 1862 at La Torre, Piedmont.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECKX, PIERRE JEAN<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span> (1795-1887), general of the Society
+of Jesus, was born at Sichem in Belgium on the 8th of February 1795,
+and entered the novitiate of the order at Hildesheim in 1819.
+His first important post was as procurator for the province
+of Austria, 1847; next year he became rector of the Jesuit
+college at Louvain, and, after serving as secretary to the
+provincials of Belgium and Austria, was elected head of the order
+in 1853. His tenure of office was marked by an increased zeal
+for missions in Protestant lands, and by the removal of the
+society&rsquo;s headquarters from Rome to Fiesole near Florence in 1870.
+His chief literary work was the often-translated
+<i>Month of Mary</i> (Vienna, 1843). He retired in September 1883,
+being succeeded by Anthony M. Anderledy, a Swiss, who had seen
+service in the United States. He died at Rome on the 4th of March 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECQUE, HENRY FRANÇOIS<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span> (1837-1899), French dramatist,
+was born on the 9th of April 1837 in Paris. He wrote the book
+of an opera <i>Sardanapale</i> in imitation of Lord Byron for the
+music of M. Victorin Joncières in 1867, but his first important
+work, <i>Michel Pauper</i>, appeared in 1870. The importance of this
+sombre drama was first realized when it was revived at the
+Odéon in 1886. <i>Les Corbeaux</i> (1882) established Becque&rsquo;s position
+as an innovator, and in 1885 he produced his most successful
+play, <i>La Parisienne</i>. Becque produced little during the last
+years of his life, but his disciples carried on the tradition he had
+created. He died in May 1899.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Querelles littéraires</i> (1890), and <i>Souvenirs d&rsquo;un auteur
+dramatique</i> (1895), consisting chiefly of reprinted articles in which he
+does not spare his opponents. His <i>Théâtre complet</i> (3 vols., 1899)
+includes <i>L&rsquo;Enfant prodigue</i> (Vaudeville Theatre, 6th of Nov. 1868);
+<i>Michel Pauper</i> (Théâtre de la Porte-Saint-Martin, 17th of June 1870);
+<i>L&rsquo;Enlèvement</i> (Vaudeville, 18th of Nov. 1871);
+<i>La Navette</i> (Gymnase, 15th of Nov. 1878);
+<i>Les Honnêtes Femmes</i> (Gymnase, 1st of Jan. 1880);
+<i>Les Corbeaux</i> (Comédie Française, 14th of Sept. 1882);
+<i>La Parisienne</i> (Théâtre de la Renaissance, 7th of Feb. 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÉCQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span> (1836-1870), Spanish poet and
+romance-writer, was born at Seville on the 17th of February
+1836. Left an orphan at an early age, he was educated by his
+godmother, refused to adopt any profession, and drifted to
+Madrid, where he obtained a small post in the civil service.
+He was dismissed for carelessness, became an incorrigible
+Bohemian, and earned a precarious living by translating foreign
+novels; he died in great poverty at Madrid on the 22nd of
+December 1870. His works were published posthumously in 1873.
+In such prose tales as <i>El Rayo de Luna</i> and <i>La Mujer de
+piedra</i>, Bécquer is manifestly influenced by Hoffmann, and as a
+poet he has analogies with Heine. He dwells in a fairyland of
+his own, crooning a weird elfin music which has no parallel in
+Spanish; his work is unfinished and unequal, but it is singularly
+free from the rhetoric characteristic of his native Andalusia,
+and its lyrical ardour is of a beautiful sweetness and sincerity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BECQUEREL,<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span> the name of a French family, several members
+of which have been distinguished in chemical and physical
+research.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Antoine César Becquerel</span> (1788-1878), was born at Châtillon
+sur Loing on the 8th of March 1788. After passing through the
+École Polytechnique he became <i>ingénieur-officier</i> in 1808, and
+saw active service with the imperial troops in Spain from 1810
+to 1812, and again in France in 1814. He then resigned from
+the army and devoted the rest of his life to scientific investigation.
+His earliest work was mineralogical in character, but he soon
+turned his attention to the study of electricity and especially
+of electrochemistry. In 1837 he received the Copley medal
+from the Royal Society &ldquo;for his various memoirs on electricity,
+and particularly for those on the production of metallic sulphurets
+and sulphur by the long-continued action of electricity of very
+low tension,&rdquo; which it was hoped would lead to increased knowledge
+of the &ldquo;recomposition of crystallized bodies, and the
+processes which may have been employed by nature in the
+production of such bodies in the mineral kingdom.&rdquo; In biological
+chemistry he worked at the problems of animal heat and
+at the phenomena accompanying the growth of plants, and he
+also devoted much time to meteorological questions and
+observations.  He was a prolific writer, his books including
+<i>Traité d&rsquo;électricité et du magnétisme</i> (1834-1840),
+<i>Traité de physique dans ses rapports avec la chimie</i> (1842),
+<i>Éléments de l&rsquo;électro-chimie</i> (1843),
+<i>Traité complet du magnétisme</i> (1845),
+<i>Éléments de physique terrestre et de météorologie</i> (1847), and
+<i>Des climats et de l&rsquo;influence qu&rsquo;exercent
+les sols boisés et déboisés</i> (1853). He died on the 18th
+of January 1878 in Paris, where from 1837 he had been professor
+of physics at the Musée d&rsquo;Histoire Naturelle.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Alexandre Edmond Becquerel</span> (1820-1891), was
+born in Paris on the 24th of March 1820, and was in turn his
+pupil, assistant and successor at the Musée d&rsquo;Histoire Naturelle;
+he was also appointed professor at the short-lived Agronomic
+Institute at Versailles in 1849, and in 1853 received the chair
+of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. Edmond
+Becquerel was associated with his father in much of his work,
+but he himself paid special attention to the study of light,
+investigating the photochemical effects and spectroscopic
+characters of solar radiation and the electric light, and the
+phenomena of phosphorescence, particularly as displayed by
+the sulphides and by compounds of uranium. It was in connexion
+with these latter inquiries that he devised his phosphoroscope,
+an apparatus which enabled the interval between exposure
+to the source of light and observation of the resulting effects to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span>
+be varied at will and accurately measured. He published in
+1867-1868 a treatise in two volumes on <i>La Lumière, ses causes
+et ses effets</i>. He also investigated the diamagnetic and paramagnetic properties of substances; and was keenly interested
+in the phenomena of electrochemical decomposition, accumulating
+much evidence in favour of Faraday&rsquo;s law and proposing
+a modified statement of it which was intended to cover certain
+apparent exceptions. He died in Paris on the 11th of May 1891.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Antoine Henri Becquerel</span> (1852-1908), son of the last-named,
+who succeeded to his chair at the Musée d&rsquo;Histoire
+Naturelle in 1892, was born in Paris on the 15th of December
+1852, studied at the École Polytechnique, where he was appointed
+a professor in 1895, and in 1875 entered the department <i>des
+ponts et chaussées</i>, of which in 1894 he became <i>ingénieur en chef</i>. He was distinguished as the discoverer of radioactivity, having found in 1896 that uranium at ordinary temperatures emits an
+invisible radiation which in many respects resembles Röntgen
+rays, and can affect a photographic plate after passing through
+thin plates of metal. For his researches in this department he
+was in 1903 awarded a Nobel prize jointly with Pierre Curie.
+He also engaged in work on magnetism, the polarization of light,
+phosphorescence and the absorption of light in crystals. He
+died at Croisic in Brittany on the 25th of August 1908.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BED<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span> (a common Teutonic word, cf. German <i>Bett</i>, probably
+connected with the Indo-European root <i>bhodh</i>, seen in the
+Lat. <i>fodere</i>, to dig; so &ldquo;a dug-out place&rdquo; for safe resting, or
+in the same sense as a garden &ldquo;bed&rdquo;), a general term for a
+resting or sleeping place for men and animals, and in particular
+for the article of household furniture for that object, and so used
+by analogy in other senses, involving a supporting surface or
+layer. The accompaniments of a domestic bed (bedding, coverlets,
+etc.) have naturally varied considerably in different times,
+and its form and decoration and social associations have considerable
+historical interest. The Egyptians had high bedsteads
+which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and
+curtains to hang round. Often there was a head-rest as well,
+semi-cylindrical and made of stone, wood or metal. Assyrians,
+Medes and Persians had beds of a similar kind, and frequently
+decorated their furniture with inlays or <i>appliqués</i> of metal,
+mother-of-pearl and ivory. The oldest account of a bedstead
+is probably that of Ulysses which Homer describes him as making
+in his own house, but he also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork
+of beds with gold, silver and ivory. The Greek bed had
+a wooden frame, with a board at the head and bands of hide
+laced across, upon which skins were placed. At a later period
+the bedstead was often veneered with expensive woods; sometimes
+it was of solid ivory veneered with tortoise-shell and with
+silver feet; often it was of bronze. The pillows and coverings
+also became more costly and beautiful; the most celebrated
+places for their manufacture were Miletus, Corinth and Carthage.
+Folding beds, too, appear in the vase paintings. The Roman
+mattresses were stuffed with reeds, hay, wool or feathers; the
+last was used towards the end of the Republic, when custom
+demanded luxury. Small cushions were placed at the head
+and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high and could
+only be ascended by the help of steps. They were often arranged
+for two persons, and had a board or railing at the back as well
+as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were sometimes
+very costly, generally purple embroidered with figures
+in gold; and rich hangings fell to the ground masking the front.
+The bedsteads themselves were often of bronze inlaid with silver,
+and Elagabalus, like some modern Indian princes, had one of
+solid silver. In the walls of some of the houses at Pompeii
+bed niches are found which were probably closed by curtains
+or sliding partitions. The marriage bed, <i>lectus genialis</i>,
+was much decorated, and was placed in the atrium opposite the door. A
+low pallet-bed used for sick persons was known as <i>scimpodium</i>.
+Other forms of couch were called <i>lectus</i>, but were not beds in
+the modern sense of the word except the <i>lectus funebris</i>, on
+which the body of a dead person lay in state for seven days,
+clad in a toga and rich garments, and surrounded by flowers and foliage.
+This bed rested on ivory legs, over which purple blankets
+embroidered with gold were spread, and was placed in the atrium
+with the foot to the door and with a pan of incense by its side.
+The ancient Germans lay on the floor on beds of leaves covered
+with skins, or in a kind of shallow chest filled with leaves and
+moss. In the early middle ages they laid carpets on the floor
+or on a bench against the wall, placed upon them mattresses
+stuffed with feathers, wool or hair, and used skins as a covering.
+They appear to have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping themselves
+in the large linen sheets which were stretched over the
+cushions. In the 13th century luxury increased, and bedsteads
+were made of wood much decorated with inlaid, carved and
+painted ornament. They also used folding beds, which served
+as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon
+leather. At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed,
+while silk-covered skins served as coverlets. Curtains were hung
+from the ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall.
+The Carolingian MSS. show metal bedsteads much higher at
+the head than at the feet, and this shape continued in use till
+the 13th century in France, many cushions being added to raise
+the body to a sloping position. In the 12th-century MSS. the
+bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving and painting,
+and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony.
+Curtains were hung above the bed, and a small hanging lamp
+is often shown. In the 14th century the woodwork became of
+less importance, being generally entirely covered by hangings
+of rich materials. Silk, velvet and even cloth of gold were much
+used. Inventories from the beginning of the 14th century give
+details of these hangings lined with fur and richly embroidered.
+Then it was that the tester bed made its first appearance, the
+tester being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the walls,
+a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut
+in by double curtains, sometimes even so as to exclude all
+draughts. The space between bed and wall was called the
+<i>ruelle</i>, and very intimate friends were received there. In the
+15th century beds became very large, reaching to 7 or 8 ft.
+by 6 or 7 ft. Viollet-le-Duc says that the mattresses were filled
+with pea-shucks or straw&mdash;neither wool nor horsehair is
+mentioned&mdash;but feathers also were used. At this time great
+personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property
+about with them, including beds and bed-hangings, and for this
+reason the bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks
+to be covered up; but about the beginning of the 16th century
+bedsteads were made lighter and more decorative, since the
+lords remained in the same place for longer periods. In the
+museum at Nancy is a fine bedstead of this period which belonged
+to Antoine de Lorraine. It has a carved head and foot as well
+as the uprights which support the tester. Another is in the
+Musée Cluny ascribed to Pierre de Gondi, very architectural in
+design, with a bracketed cornice, and turned and carved posts;
+at the head figures of warriors watch the sleeper. Louis XIV.
+had an enormous number of sumptuous beds, as many as 413
+being described in the inventories of his palaces. Some of them
+had embroideries enriched with pearls, and figures on a silver
+or golden ground. The carving was the work of Proux or
+Caffieri, and the gilding by La Baronnière. The great bed at
+Versailles had crimson velvet curtains on which &ldquo;The Triumph
+of Venus&rdquo; was embroidered. So much gold was used that
+the velvet scarcely showed. Under the influence of Madame
+de Maintenon &ldquo;The Sacrifice of Abraham,&rdquo; which is now on
+the tester, replaced &ldquo;The Triumph of Venus.&rdquo; In the 17th
+century, which has been called &ldquo;the century of magnificent
+beds,&rdquo; the style <i>à la duchesse</i>, with tester and curtains
+only at the head, replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though
+they lasted much longer in England. In the 18th century
+feather pillows were first used as coverings in Germany, which
+in the fashions of the bed and the curious etiquette connected
+with the bedchamber followed France for the most part. The
+beds were <i>à la duchesse</i>, but in France itself there was great
+variety both of name and shape&mdash;the <i>lit à alcove, lit d&rsquo;ange</i>,
+which had no columns, but a suspended tester with curtains
+drawn back, <i>lit à l&rsquo;Anglaise</i>, which looked like a high sofa by
+day, <i>lit en baldaquin</i>, with the tester fixed against the wall,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span>
+<i>lit à couronne</i> with a tester shaped like a crown, a style which
+appeared under Louis XVI., and was fashionable under the
+Restoration and Louis Philippe, and <i>lit à l&rsquo;impériale</i>, which had
+a curved tester, are a few of their varieties. The <i>lit en baldaquin</i>
+of Napoleon I. is still at Fontainebleau, and the Garde Meuble
+contains several richly carved beds of a more modern date.
+The custom of the &ldquo;bed of justice&rdquo; upon which the king of
+France reclined when he was present in parliament, the princes
+being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials
+kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the
+throne. Louis XI. is credited with its first use, and the custom
+lasted till the end of the monarchy. From the habit of using
+this bed to hear petitions, &amp;c., came the usage of the <i>grand lit</i>,
+which was provided wherever the king stayed, called also <i>lit de
+parement</i> or <i>lit de parade</i>, rather later. Upon this bed the dead
+king lay in state. The beds of the king and queen were saluted
+by the courtiers as if they were altars, and none approached them
+even when there was no railing to prevent it. These railings
+were apparently placed for other than ceremonial reasons
+originally, and in the accounts of several castles in the 15th
+century mention is made of a railing to keep dogs from the bed.
+In the <i>chambre de parade</i>, where the ceremonial bed was placed,
+certain persons, such as ambassadors or great lords, whom it
+was desired to honour, were received in a more intimate fashion
+than the crowd of courtiers. The <i>petit lever</i> was held in the
+bedroom itself, the <i>grand lever</i> in the <i>chambre de parade</i>.
+At Versailles women received their friends in their beds, both before
+and after childbirth, during periods of mourning, and even
+directly after marriage&mdash;in fact in any circumstances which
+were thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During
+the 17th century this curious custom became general, perhaps to
+avoid the tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used
+in high society in France till the end of the <i>ancien régime</i>. The
+earliest of which mention has been found belonged to Charles
+the Bold (see <i>Memoirs</i> of Philippe de Comines). They had
+curtains over a light framework, and were in their way as fine
+as the stationary beds. Iron beds appear in the 18th century;
+the advertisements recommend them as free from the insects
+which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads, but one is mentioned
+in the inventory of the furniture of the castle of Nerac in 1569,
+&ldquo;un lit de fer et de cuivre, avec quatre petites colonnes de laiton,
+ensemble quatre satyres de laiton, quatre petits vases de laiton
+pour mettre sur les colonnes; dedans le dit lit il y a la figure
+d&rsquo;Olopherne ensemble de Judith, qui sont d&rsquo;albâtre.&rdquo; In
+Scotland, Brittany and Holland the closed bed with sliding or
+folding shutters has persisted till our own day, and in
+England&mdash;where beds were commonly quite simple in form&mdash;the
+four-poster, with tester and curtains all round, was the usual
+citizen&rsquo;s bed till the middle of the 19th century. Many fine
+examples exist of 17th-century carved oak bedsteads, some of
+which have found their way into museums. The later forms, in which
+mahogany was usually the wood employed, are much less architectural
+in design. Some exceedingly elegant mahogany bedsteads
+were designed by Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton,
+and there are signs that English taste is returning to the wooden
+bedstead in a lighter and less monumental form.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BED,<a name="ar252" id="ar252"></a></span> in geology, a term for certain kinds of rock usually
+found to be arranged in more or less distinct layers; these are
+the beds of rock or strata. Normally, the bedding of rocks is
+horizontal or very nearly so; when the upper and lower surfaces
+of a bed are parallel, the bedding is said to be regular; if it is
+thickest at one point and thins away thence in every direction,
+the bedding is lenticular. Beds may be thick (50 ft. or more)
+or so thin as to be like sheets of paper, <i>e.g.</i> paper shales, such
+thin beds being often termed layers or laminae; intermediate
+regular varieties may be called flags, flagstones or tilestones.
+In fine-grained rocks the bedding is usually thinner and more
+regular than in coarser rocks, such as sandstones and grits.
+Bedding is confined to rocks which have been formed under
+water or by the agency of wind; these are the &ldquo;stratified&rdquo;
+rocks.</p>
+
+<p>The deposition of rock material by moving water is not as
+a rule uniform, slight changes in the velocity produce an
+immediate change in the size of the particles deposited upon a
+given area; thus a coarse sand layer may be succeeded by a finer
+sand or a mud, or two sandy layers may be separated by a thin
+layer of muddy shale. Bedding is most often induced by a change
+in the nature of the contiguous strata; thus a sandstone is
+followed by a shale or vice versa&mdash;changes which may be due
+to the varying volume or velocity of a current. Or the nature
+of the deposit may be influenced by chemical actions, whereby
+we get beds of rock-salt or gypsum between beds of marl. Or
+again, organic activities may influence the deposit, beds of coal
+may succeed layers of shale, iron-stone may lie between limestones
+or clays, a layer of large fossils or of flints may determine
+a bedding plane in massive limestones. Flaky minerals like
+mica frequently assist in the formation of bedding planes;
+and the pressure of superincumbent strata upon earlier formed
+deposits has no doubt often produced a tendency in the particles
+to arrange themselves normal to the direction of pressure,
+thus causing the rock to split more readily along the same
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>Where rapidly-moving currents of water (or air) are transporting
+or depositing sand, &amp;c., the bedding is generally not
+horizontal, but inclined more or less steeply; this brings about
+the formation of what is variously called &ldquo;cross-bedding,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;diagonal bedding&rdquo;, &ldquo;current bedding&rdquo; or improperly &ldquo;false-bedding.&rdquo;
+Igneous materials, when deposited through the
+agency of water or air, exhibit bedding, but no true stratification
+is seen in igneous rocks that have solidified after cooling,
+although in granites and similar rocks the process of weathering
+frequently produces an appearance resembling this structure.
+Miners not infrequently describe a bed of rock as a &ldquo;vein,&rdquo; if
+it is one that has some economic value, <i>e.g.</i> a &ldquo;vein of coal
+or ironstone.&rdquo;</p>
+<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDARESI, YEDAIAH<a name="ar253" id="ar253"></a></span> (1270-1340), Jewish poet, physician
+and philosopher of Provence. His most successful work was
+an ethical treatise, <i>Behinath &lsquo;Olam</i> (Examination of the World),
+a didactic poem in thirty-seven short sections. The work is
+still very popular. It was translated into English by Tobias
+Goodman.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÉDARIEUX,<a name="ar254" id="ar254"></a></span> a town of southern France, in the department
+of Hérault, on the Orb, 27 m. N.N.W. of Béziers by rail.
+Pop. (1906) 5594. The town has a 16th-century church, a board of
+trade arbitration, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a communal
+college and a school of drawing. Bédarieux was at one
+time a notable manufacturing centre. Its cloth-weaving industry,
+carried on under a special royal privilege from the end of the 17th
+century to the Revolution, employed in 1789 as many as 5000
+workmen, while some thousand more were occupied in wool
+and cotton spinning, &amp;c. In spite of the introduction of modern
+machinery from England, the industries of the place declined,
+mainly owing to the loss of the trade with the Levant; but of
+late years they have somewhat revived, owing partly to the
+opening up of coal mines in the neighbourhood. Besides cloth
+factories and wool-spinning mills, there are now numerous
+tanneries and leather-dressing works. There is some trade in
+timber, wool and agricultural produce.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDDGELERT<a name="ar255" id="ar255"></a></span> (&ldquo;Gelert&rsquo;s grave&rdquo;), a village in Carnarvonshire,
+North Wales, at the foot of Snowdon. The tradition of
+Gelert, Llewelyn&rsquo;s hound, being buried there is old in Wales;
+and common to it and India is the legend of a dog (or ichneumon)
+saving a child from a beast of prey (or reptile), and being killed
+by the child&rsquo;s father under the delusion that the animal had
+slain the infant. The English poet, W.R. Spencer, has versified
+the tale of Llewelyn, king of Wales, leaving Gelert and the baby
+prince at home, returning to find Gelert stained with the blood
+of a wolf, and killing the hound because he thought his child was
+slain. Sir W. Jones, the Welsh philologist and linguist, gives
+the Indian equivalent (Lord Teignmouth&rsquo;s <i>Life of Jones</i>,
+ed. Rev. S.C. Wilkes, editor&rsquo;s supplement). A Brahmin, leaving
+home, left his daughter in charge of an ichneumon, which he had
+long cherished. A black snake came up and was killed by the
+ichneumon, mistakenly killed, in its turn, by the Brahmin on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span>
+his coming back. Another version is the medieval romance in
+<i>The Seven Wise Masters of Rome</i>. In the edition printed by
+Wynkyn de Worde it is told by &ldquo;the first master&rdquo;&mdash;a knight
+had one son, a greyhound and a falcon; the knight went to
+a tourney, a snake attacked the son, the falcon roused the hound,
+which killed the serpent, lay down by the cradle, and was killed
+by the knight, who discovered his error, like Llewelyn, and
+similarly repented (Villon Society, British Museum reprint, by
+Gomme and Wheatley).</p>
+
+<p>On the west of Beddgelert is Moel Hebog (Bare-hill of the
+falcon), a hiding-place of Owen Glendower. Here, in 1784, was
+found a brass Roman shield. Near is the famous Aberglaslyn
+Pass, dividing Carnarvon and Merioneth. In the centre is
+Cadair Rhys Goch o&rsquo;r Eryri, a rock named as the chair of Rhys
+Goch, a bard contemporary with Glendower (died traditionally,
+1429). Not far hence passed the Roman road from Uriconium
+to Segontium (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnarvon</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDDOES, THOMAS<a name="ar256" id="ar256"></a></span> (1760-1808), English physician and
+scientific writer, was born at Shiffnall in Shropshire on the 13th
+of April 1760. After being educated at Bridgnorth grammar
+school and at Pembroke College, Oxford, he studied medicine in
+London under John Sheldon (1752-1808). In 1784 he published
+a translation of L. Spallanzani&rsquo;s <i>Dissertations on Natural History</i>,
+and in 1785 produced a translation, with original notes, of
+T.O. Bergman&rsquo;s <i>Essays on Elective Attractions</i>. He took his
+degree of doctor of medicine at Oxford in 1786, and, after visiting
+Paris, where he became acquainted with Lavoisier, was appointed
+reader in chemistry at Oxford University in 1788. His lectures
+attracted large and appreciative audiences; but his sympathy
+with the French Revolution exciting a clamour against him, he
+resigned his readership in 1792. In the following year he published
+<i>Observations on the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence</i>, and
+the <i>History of Isaac Jenkins</i>, a story which powerfully exhibits
+the evils of drunkenness, and of which 40,000 copies are reported
+to have been sold. About the same time he began to work at
+his project for the establishment of a &ldquo;Pneumatic Institution&rdquo;
+for treating disease by the inhalation of different gases. In this
+he was assisted by Richard Lovell Edgeworth, whose daughter,
+Anna, became his wife in 1794. In 1798 the institution was
+established at Clifton, its first superintendent being Humphry
+Davy, who investigated the properties of nitrous oxide in its
+laboratory. The original aim of the institution was gradually
+abandoned; it became an ordinary sick-hospital, and was
+relinquished by its projector in the year before his death, which
+occurred on the 24th of December 1808. Beddoes was a man of
+great powers and wide acquirements, which he directed to noble
+and philanthropic purposes. He strove to effect social good by
+popularizing medical knowledge, a work for which his vivid
+imagination and glowing eloquence eminently fitted him.
+Besides the writings mentioned above, he was the author of
+<i>Political Pamphlets</i> (1795-1797), a popular <i>Essay
+on Consumption</i> (1799), which won the admiration of Kant,
+an <i>Essay on Fever</i> (1807), and <i>Hygeia, or Essays Moral
+and Medical</i> (1807). He also edited John Brown&rsquo;s <i>Elements
+of Medicine</i> (1795), and <i>Contributions to Physical and Medical
+Knowledge, principally from the West of England</i> (1799).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A life of Beddoes by Dr John E. Stock was published in 1810.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL<a name="ar257" id="ar257"></a></span> (1803-1849), English dramatist
+and poet, son of the physician, Thomas Beddoes, was born at
+Clifton on the 20th of July 1803. His mother was a sister of
+Maria Edgeworth, the novelist. He was sent to Bath grammar
+school and then to the Charterhouse. At school he wrote a good
+deal of verse and a novel in imitation of Fielding. In 1820 he
+was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in his first year
+published <i>The Improvisatore</i>, afterwards carefully suppressed,
+and in 1822 <i>The Bride&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>, which showed him as the
+disciple of the later Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists. The
+play found a small circle of admirers, and procured for Beddoes
+the friendship of Bryan Waller Procter (Barry Cornwall).
+Beddoes retired to Southampton to read for his degree, and
+there Procter introduced him to a young lawyer, Thomas Forbes
+Kelsall, with whom he became very intimate, and who became
+his biographer and editor. At this time he composed the dramatic
+fragments of <i>The Second Brother</i> and <i>Torrismond</i>.
+Unfortunately he lacked the power of constructing a plot, and
+seemed to suffer from a constitutional inability to finish
+anything. Beddoes was one of the first outside the limited circle
+of Shelley&rsquo;s own friends to recognize Shelley&rsquo;s genius, and he
+was certainly one of the earliest imitators of his lyrical method.
+In the summer of 1824 he was summoned to Florence by the
+illness of his mother, but she died before he arrived. He remained
+some time in Italy, and met Mrs Shelley and Walter Savage
+Landor before he returned to England. In 1825 he took his
+degree at Oxford, and in that year he began what he calls
+(<i>Letters</i>, p. 68) &ldquo;a very Gothic styled tragedy&rdquo; with &ldquo;a jewel
+of a name.&rdquo; This work was completed in 1829 as the fantastic
+and incoherent drama, <i>Death&rsquo;s Jest Book or The Fool&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>;
+but he continued to revise it until his death, and it was only
+published posthumously. On leaving Oxford he decided to
+study anatomy and physiology, not, however, without some hope
+that his studies might, by increasing his knowledge of the human
+mechanism, further his efforts as a dramatist. In the autumn
+of 1825 he entered on his studies at Göttingen, where he remained
+for four years. In 1829 he removed to Würzburg, and in 1832
+obtained his doctorate in medicine, but his intimate association
+with democratic and republican leaders in Germany and Switzerland
+forced him to leave Bavaria without receiving his diploma.
+He settled in Zürich, where he practised for some time as a
+physician, and was even elected to be professor of comparative
+anatomy at the university, but the authorities refused to ratify
+his appointment because of his revolutionary views. He frequently
+contributed political poems and articles to German and
+Swiss papers, but none of his German work has been identified.
+The years at Zürich seem to have been the happiest of his life,
+but in 1839 the anti-liberal riots in the town rendered it unsafe
+for him, and early in the next year he had to escape secretly.
+From this time he had no settled home, though he stored his
+books at Baden in Aargau. His long residence in Germany was
+only broken by visits to England in 1828 to take his master of
+arts degree, in 1835, in 1842 and for some months in 1846. He
+had adopted German thought and manners to such an extent
+that he hardly felt at home in England; and his study of the
+German language, which he had begun in 1825, had almost
+weaned him from his mother-tongue; he was, as he says in a
+letter, &ldquo;a non-conductor of friendship&rdquo;; and it is not surprising
+that his old friends found him much changed and eccentric. In
+1847 he returned to Frankfort, where he lived with a baker
+called Degen, to whom he became much attached, and whom
+he persuaded to become an actor. He took Degen with him to
+Zürich, where he chartered the theatre for one night to give his
+friend a chance of playing Hotspur. The two separated at
+Basel, and in a fit of dejection (May 1848) Beddoes tried to bleed
+himself to death. He was taken to the hospital, and wrote to
+his friends in England that he had had a fall from horseback.
+His leg was amputated, and he was in a fair way to recovery
+when, on the first day he was allowed to leave the hospital, he
+took curare, from the effects of which he died on the 26th of
+January 1849. His MSS. he left in the charge of his friend Kelsall.</p>
+
+<p>In one of his letters to Kelsall Beddoes wrote:&mdash;&ldquo;I am
+convinced the man who is to awaken the drama must be a bold,
+trampling fellow&mdash;no creeper into worm-holes&mdash;no reviser
+even&mdash;however good. These reanimations are vampire cold. Such
+ghosts as Marloe, Webster, &amp;c., are better dramatists, better
+poets, I dare say, than any contemporaries of ours&mdash;but they
+are ghosts&mdash;the worm is in their pages&rdquo; (<i>Letters</i>, p. 50). In
+spite of this wise judgment, Beddoes was himself a &ldquo;creeper into
+worm-holes,&rdquo; a close imitator of Marston and of Cyril Tourneur,
+especially in their familiar handling of the phenomena of death,
+and in the remoteness from ordinary life of the passions
+portrayed. In his blank verse he caught to a certain degree the
+manner of his Jacobean models, and his verse abounds in beautiful
+imagery, but his <i>Death&rsquo;s Jest Book</i> is only finished in the
+sense of having five acts completed; it remains a bizarre
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span>
+production which appeals to few minds, and to them rather for
+the occasional excellence of the poetry than as an entire composition.
+His lyrics show the influence of Shelley as well as the
+study of 17th-century models, but they are by no means mere
+imitations, and some of them, like the &ldquo;Dirge for Wolfram&rdquo;
+(&ldquo;If thou wilt ease thy heart&rdquo;), and &ldquo;Dream Pedlary&rdquo; (&ldquo;If
+there were dreams to sell&rdquo;), are among the most exquisite of
+19th-century lyrics.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Kelsall published Beddoes&rsquo; great work, <i>Death&rsquo;s Jest Book: or, The
+Fool&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>, in 1850. The drama is based on the story that a
+certain Duke Boleslaus of Münsterberg was stabbed by his court-fool,
+the &ldquo;Isbrand&rdquo; of the play (see C.F. Floegel, <i>Geschichte der
+Hofnarren</i>, Leipzig, 1789, pp. 297 et seq.). He followed this in 1851
+with <i>Poems of the late Thomas Lovell Beddoes</i>, to which a memoir was
+prefixed. The two volumes were printed together (1851) with the
+title of <i>Poems, Posthumous and Collected</i>. All these volumes are
+very rare. Kelsall bequeathed the Beddoes MSS. to Robert Browning,
+with a note stating the real history of Beddoes&rsquo; illness and death,
+which was kept back out of consideration for his relatives. Browning
+is reported to have said that if he were ever Professor of Poetry his
+first lecture would be on Beddoes, &ldquo;a forgotten Oxford poet.&rdquo; Mr
+Edmund Gosse obtained permission to use the documents from
+Browning, and edited a fuller selection of the <i>Poetical Works</i> (2 vols.,
+1890) for the &ldquo;Temple Library,&rdquo; supplying a full account of his life.
+He also edited the <i>Letters of Thomas Lovell Beddoes</i> (1894), containing
+a selection from his correspondence, which is full of gaiety and
+contains much amusing literary criticism. See also the edition of
+Beddoes by Ramsay Colles in the &ldquo;Muses&rsquo; Library&rdquo; (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDE,<a name="ar258" id="ar258"></a></span> <span class="sc">Beda</span>, or <span class="sc">Bæda</span> (672 or 673-735), English historian
+and theologian. Of Bæda, commonly called &ldquo;the Venerable
+Bede,&rdquo; almost all that we know is contained in the short autobiographical
+notice which he has appended to his <i>Ecclesiastical
+History</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;Thus much concerning the ecclesiastical history of
+Britain, and especially of the race of the English, I, Baeda, a
+servant of Christ and priest of the monastery of the blessed
+apostles St Peter and St Paul, which is at Wearmouth and at
+Jarrow, have with the Lord&rsquo;s help composed, so far as I could
+gather it, either from ancient documents, or from the tradition
+of the elders, or from my own knowledge. I was born in the
+territory of the said monastery, and at the age of seven I was,
+by the care of my relations, given to the reverend Abbot Benedict
+(Biscop), and afterwards to Ceolfrid, to be educated. From
+that time I have spent the whole of my life within that monastery
+devoting all my pains to the study of the scriptures; and amid
+the observance of monastic discipline, and the daily charge of
+singing in the church, it has ever been my delight to learn or
+teach or write. In my nineteenth year I was admitted to the
+diaconate, in my thirtieth to the priesthood, both by the hands
+of the most reverend Bishop John (of Hexham), and at the
+bidding of Abbot Ceolfrid. From the time of my admission to
+the priesthood to my (present) fifty-ninth year, I have endeavoured,
+for my own use and that of my brethren, to make
+brief notes upon the Holy Scripture, either out of the works of
+the venerable fathers, or in conformity with their meaning and
+interpretation.&rdquo; Then follows a list of his works, so far as, at
+that date, they had been composed. As the <i>Ecclesiastical
+History</i> was written in 731, we obtain the following dates for
+the principal events in Bede&rsquo;s uneventful life:&mdash;birth, 672-673;
+entrance into the monastery, 679-680; ordination as deacon,
+691-692; as priest, 702-703.</p>
+
+<p>The monastery of Wearmouth was founded by Benedict
+Biscop in 674, and that of Jarrow in 681-682. Though some 5 or 6
+m. apart, they were intended to form a single monastery under
+a single abbot, and so Bede speaks of them in the passage given
+above. It is with Jarrow that Bede is chiefly associated, though
+no doubt from the close connexion of the two localities he would
+often be at Wearmouth. The preface to the prose life of Cuthbert
+proves that he had stayed at Lindisfarne prior to 721, while the
+Epistle to Egbert shows that he had visited him at York in 733.
+The tradition that he went to Rome in obedience to a summons
+from Pope Sergius is contradicted by his own words above, and
+by his total silence as to any such visit. In the passage cited
+above, &ldquo;monastic discipline, the daily charge of singing in the
+church, learning, teaching, writing,&rdquo; in other words devotion
+and study make up the even tenor of Bede&rsquo;s tranquil life. Anecdotes
+have been preserved which illustrate his piety both in
+early and in later years; of his studies the best monument is to
+be found in his writings. As a little boy he would take his place
+among the pupils of the monastic school, though he would soon
+pass to the ranks of the teachers, and the fact that he was
+ordained deacon at nineteen, below the canonical age, shows that
+he was regarded as remarkable both for learning and goodness.</p>
+
+<p>For the rest, it is in his works that we must chiefly seek to
+know him. They fall into three main classes: (1) scientific;
+(2) historical; (3) theological. The first class comprises works
+on grammar, one on natural phenomena, and two on chronology
+and the calendar. These last were inspired largely by the
+Paschal Question, which was the subject of such bitter controversy
+between the Roman and Celtic Churches in the 7th century.
+They form a natural transition to the second class. In this the
+chief place is held by the <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English
+Nation</i>. By this Bede has justly earned the title of the Father
+of English History. By this almost exclusively he is known to
+others than professed students. It is indeed one of the most
+valuable and one of the most beautiful of historical works.
+Bede has the artist&rsquo;s instinct of proportion, the artist&rsquo;s sense
+for the picturesque and the pathetic. His style too, modelled
+largely, in the present writer&rsquo;s opinion, on that of Gregory in the
+<i>Dialogues</i>, is limpid and unaffected. And though it would be
+wrong to call Bede a critical historian in the modern sense of the
+words, he shows a very unusual conscientiousness in collecting
+his information from the best available sources, and in distinguishing
+between what he believed to be fact, and what he
+regarded only as rumour or tradition. Other historical works
+of Bede are the <i>History of the Abbots</i> (of Wearmouth and Jarrow),
+and the lives of Cuthbert in verse and prose. The <i>History of the
+Abbots</i> and the prose life of Cuthbert were based on earlier works
+which still survive. In the case of the latter it cannot honestly
+be said that Bede has improved on his original. In the <i>History
+of the Abbots</i> he was much nearer to the facts, and could make
+additions out of his own personal knowledge. The Epistle to
+Egbert, though not historical in form, may be mentioned here,
+because of the valuable information which it contains as to
+the state of the Northumbrian Church, on which the disorders
+and revolutions of the Northumbrian kingdom had told with
+disastrous effect. It is probably the latest of Bede&rsquo;s extant
+works, as it was written in November 734, only six months
+before his death. The third or theological class of writings
+consists mainly of commentaries, or of works which, if not
+commentaries in name, are so in fact. They are based largely
+on the works of the four great Latin Fathers, SS. Augustine,
+Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory; though Bede&rsquo;s reading is very
+far from being limited to these. His method is largely allegorical.
+For the text of scripture he uses both the Latin versions, the
+Itala and the Vulgate, often comparing them together. But he
+certainly knew Greek, and possibly some Hebrew. Indeed it
+may be said that his works, scientific, historical and theological,
+practically sum up all the learning of western Europe in his time,
+which he thus made available for his countrymen. And not for
+them only; for in the school of York, founded by his pupil
+Archbishop Ecgberht, was trained Alcuin (Ealhwine) the initiator
+under Charles the Great of the Frankish schools, which did so
+much for learning on the continent. And though Bede makes
+no pretensions to originality, least of all in his theological works,
+freely taking what he needed, and (what is very rare in medieval
+writers) acknowledging what he took, &ldquo;out of the works of the
+venerable Fathers,&rdquo; still everything he wrote is informed and
+impressed with his own special character and temper. His
+earnest yet sober piety, his humility, his gentleness, appear in
+almost every line. &ldquo;In history and in science, as well as in
+theology, he is before all things the Christian thinker and
+student.&rdquo; (Plummer&rsquo;s <i>Bede</i>, i. 2.) Yet it should not be forgotten
+that Bede could hardly have done what he did without the noble
+library of books collected by Benedict Biscop.</p>
+
+<p>Several quaint and beautiful legends have been handed down
+as to the origin of the epithet of &ldquo;venerable&rdquo; generally attached
+to his name. Probably it is a mere survival of a title commonly
+given to priests in his day. It has given rise to a false idea that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span>
+he lived to a great age; some medieval authorities making him
+ninety when he died. But he was not born before 672 (see above);
+and though the date of his death has been disputed, the traditional
+year, 735, is most probably correct. This would make
+him at most sixty-three. Of his death a most touching and
+beautiful account has been preserved in a contemporary letter.
+His last hours were spent, like the rest of his life, in devotion and
+teaching, his latest work being to dictate, amid ever-increasing
+bodily weakness, a translation into the vernacular of the Gospel
+of St John, a work which unhappily has not survived. It was a
+fitting close to such a life as his.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The above sketch is largely based on the present
+writer&rsquo;s essay on Bede&rsquo;s Life and Works, prefixed to his edition of Bede&rsquo;s
+<i>Historia Ecclesiastica, &amp;c.</i> (2 vols., Clarendon Press, 1896). <i>Beda der
+Ehrwurdige und seine Zeit</i>, by Dr Karl Werner (Vienna, 1875), is
+excellent. Gehle, <i>Disputatio ... de Bedae vita et Scriptis</i> (Leiden,
+1838), is still useful. Dr William Bright&rsquo;s <i>Chapters of Early English
+Church History</i> (3rd ed., Clarendon Press, 1897) is indispensable.
+See also Ker, <i>Dark Ages</i>, pp. 141 ff. Of the collected works of Bede
+the most convenient edition is that by Dr Giles in twelve volumes
+(8vo., 1843-1844), which includes translations of the <i>Historical Works</i>.
+The Continental folio editions (Basel, 1563; Cologne, 1612 and 1688)
+contain many works which cannot by any possibility be Bede&rsquo;s.
+The edition of Migne, <i>Patralogia Latina</i> (1862 ff.) is based on a
+comparison of the Cologne edition with Giles and Smith (see below), and
+is open to the same criticism. On the chronology and genuineness of
+the works commonly ascribed to Bede, see Plummer&rsquo;s ed., i., cxlv-clix.</p>
+
+<p>On the MSS. early editions and translations of the <i>Historia
+Ecclesiastica</i>, see Plummer, <i>u.s.</i>, i., lxxx-cxxxii. The edition of
+Whelock (Cambridge, fol. 1643-1644) is noteworthy as the first
+English edition of the Latin text, and as the <i>editio princeps</i> of the
+Anglo-Saxon version ascribed to King Alfred (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alfred the
+Great</a></span>). Smith&rsquo;s edition (Cambridge, fol. 1722) contained not only
+these, but also the other historical works of Bede, with notes and
+appendices. It is a monument of learning and scholarship. The
+most recent edition is that with notes and introduction by the
+present writer, u.s. It includes also the <i>History of the Abbots</i>, and
+the Epistle to Egbert. Of books iii. and iv. only, there is a learned
+edition by Professors Mayor and Lumby of Cambridge (3rd ed., 1881).
+A cheap and handy edition of the text alone is that by A. Holder
+(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882, &amp;c.). The best-known modern English
+translation is that by the Rev. L. Gidley (1870). Of the minor
+historical works a good edition was edited by Rev. J. Stevenson for
+the Eng. Hist. Soc. in 1841; and a translation by the same hand
+was included in <i>Church Historians of England</i>, vol. i., part ii. (1853).
+See also Plummer&rsquo;s edition, pp. cxxxii-cxlii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Pl.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDE, CUTHBERT,<a name="ar259" id="ar259"></a></span> the pen-name of Edward Bradley (1827-1889),
+English author, who was born at Kidderminster on the
+25th of March 1827. He entered University College, Durham,
+in 1845, and later studied at Oxford, where he made the acquaintance
+of J.G. Wood, the naturalist. He took holy orders, and
+eventually became rector of Stretton in Rutlandshire. Here he
+gained a reputation as a humorist and numbered among his friends
+Cruikshank, Frank Smedley, Mark Lemon and Albert Smith.
+He wrote for various magazines and, in the pages of the <i>Illustrated
+London News</i>, introduced the double acrostic. He is chiefly
+known as the author of <i>The Adventures of Mr Verdant Green, an
+Oxford Freshman</i> (1853), which he also illustrated and of which
+a third part appeared in 1856. Several well-known Oxford
+characters of the time are depicted in its pages, such as Dr
+Plumptre the vice-chancellor, Dr Bliss the registrar, and the
+waiter at the Mitre. The book abounds in innocent fun. In
+1883 he was given the living of Lenton, or Lavington, Lincolnshire,
+where he died on the 12th of December 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDELL, WILLIAM<a name="ar260" id="ar260"></a></span> (1571-1642), Anglican divine, was born
+at Black Notley in Essex, in 1571. He was educated at Cambridge,
+became fellow of Emmanuel in 1593, and took orders.
+In 1607 he was appointed chaplain to Sir H. Wotton, then
+English ambassador at Venice, where he remained for four years,
+acquiring a great reputation as a scholar and theologian. He
+translated the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> into Italian, and was on
+terms of closest friendship with the reformer, Sarpi (Fra Paolo).
+In 1616 he was appointed to the rectory of Horningsheath (near
+to Bury St Edmunds, where he had previously laboured), which he
+held for twelve years. In 1627 he became provost of Trinity
+College, Dublin, and, in 1629, bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh.
+He set himself to reform the abuses of his diocese, encouraged the
+use of the Irish language, and personally undertook the duties
+generally discharged by the bishop&rsquo;s lay chancellor. In 1633
+he resigned his see. In 1641, when the Protestants were being
+massacred, Bedell&rsquo;s house was not only left untouched, but became
+the place of refuge for many fugitives. In the end, however,
+the rebels insisted upon the dismissal of all who had taken
+shelter in his house, and on the bishop&rsquo;s refusal he was seized
+and imprisoned with some others in the ruined castle of
+Loughboughter. Here he was detained for several weeks, and when
+released, rapidly sank from the effects of exposure, and died
+on the 7th of February 1642.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life was written by Bishop Gilbert Burnet in 1685, and also by
+his elder son (ed. T.W. Jones, for the Camden Society, 1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDESMAN,<a name="ar261" id="ar261"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Beadsman</span> (Med. Eng. <i>bede</i>, prayer, from
+O. Eng. <i>biddan</i>, to pray; literally &ldquo;a man of prayer&rdquo;), generally
+a pensioner or almsman whose duty it was to pray for his
+benefactor. In Scotland there were public almsmen supported by
+the king and expected in return to pray for his welfare and that
+of the state. These men wore long blue gowns with a pewter
+badge on the right arm, and were nicknamed Blue Gowns.
+Their number corresponded to the king&rsquo;s years, an extra one being
+added each royal birthday. They were privileged to ask alms
+throughout Scotland. On the king&rsquo;s birthday each bedesman
+received a new blue gown, a loaf, a bottle of ale, and a leathern
+purse containing a penny for every year of the king&rsquo;s life. On
+the pewter badge which they wore were their name and the
+words &ldquo;pass and repass,&rdquo; which authorized them to ask alms.
+In 1833 the appointment of bedesmen was stopped. In 1863
+the last payment was paid to a bedesman. In consequence of
+its use in this general sense of pensioner, &ldquo;bedesman&rdquo; was long
+used in English as equivalent to &ldquo;servant.&rdquo; The word had a
+special sense as the name for those almsmen attached to cathedral
+and other churches, whose duty it was to pray for the souls of
+deceased benefactors. A relic of pre-Reformation times, these
+old men still figure in the accounts of English cathedrals.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF<a name="ar262" id="ar262"></a></span>. The present English
+title of duke of Bedford comes from a line of earls and dukes
+in the Russell family. In January 1550 John, Baron Russell,
+was created earl of Bedford, and in May 1694 his descendant,
+William, the 5th earl, became duke of Bedford. The Russell
+line is dealt with in the later part of this article. The title of
+duke of Bedford had, however, been previously held, notably
+by the third son of Henry IV.; and the earlier creations may first
+be considered here.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Plantagenet</span>, duke of Bedford (1389-1435), third son
+of Henry IV., king of England, was born on the 20th of June
+1389. He received various dignities after his father became
+king in 1399, and gained his early experiences in warfare when
+he undertook the office of warden of the east marches of Scotland
+in 1404; he was fairly successful in this command, which he
+held until September 1414. In the previous May his brother, the
+new king Henry V., had created him duke of Bedford, and after
+resigning the wardenship he began to take a leading part in the
+royal councils. He acted as lieutenant of the kingdom during
+Henry&rsquo;s expedition to France in 1415, and in August 1416 commanded
+the ships which defeated the French fleet at the mouth
+of the Seine, and was instrumental in relieving Harfleur. Again
+appointed lieutenant in July 1417, he marched against the
+Scots, who abandoned the siege of Berwick at his approach; and
+on his return to London he brought Sir John Oldcastle to trial
+and was present at his execution. He appears to have governed
+the country with considerable success until December 1419,
+when he resigned his office as lieutenant and joined the king
+in France. Returning to England, he undertook the lieutenancy
+for the third time in June 1421, and in the following May
+conducted the queen to join Henry in Normandy. He then took
+his brother&rsquo;s place and led the English troops to the relief of
+Cosne, but on hearing of the king&rsquo;s serious illness he left the army
+and hurried to his side. Henry&rsquo;s last wish was that Bedford
+should be guardian of the kingdom and of the young king, and
+that Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, should act as regent
+in France. But when Philip declined to undertake this office,
+it too was assumed by Bedford, who, after the death of the French
+king Charles VI. in October 1422, presided at a session of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span>
+parlement of Paris, and compelled all present to take an oath
+of fidelity to King Henry VI. Meanwhile the English parliament
+had decided that Bedford should be &ldquo;protector and defender&rdquo; of
+the kingdom, and that in his absence the office should devolve
+upon his brother Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. Confining
+himself to the conduct of affairs in France the protector took
+up Henry V.&rsquo;s work of conquest, captured Meulan and other
+places, and sought to strengthen his position by an alliance
+with Philip of Burgundy. This task was rendered more difficult
+as Gloucester had just married Jacqueline, countess of Holland
+and Hainaut, a union which gave the English duke a claim
+on lands which Philip hoped to secure for himself. Bedford,
+however, having allayed Philip&rsquo;s irritation, formed an alliance
+with him and with John VI., duke of Brittany, at Amiens in
+April 1423, and himself arranged to marry Anne, a sister of the
+Burgundian duke. This marriage was celebrated at Troyes
+in the following June, and the war against Charles, the dauphin
+of France, was prosecuted with vigour and success. Bedford
+sought to restore prosperity to the districts under his rule by
+reforming the debased coinage, granting privileges to merchants
+and manufacturers, and removing various abuses. He then
+granted some counties to Philip to check the growing hostility
+between him and Gloucester, and on the 17th of August 1424
+gained a great victory over a combined army of French and Scots
+at Verneuil. But in spite of the efforts of the protector the good
+understanding between England and Burgundy was partially
+destroyed when Gloucester invaded Hainaut in October 1424.
+The ambition of his brother gave Bedford trouble in another
+direction also; for on his return from Hainaut Gloucester
+quarrelled with the chancellor, Henry Beaufort, bishop of
+Winchester, and the council implored Bedford to come to England
+to settle this dispute. He reached London in January 1426, and
+after concluding a bond of alliance with Gloucester effected
+a reconciliation between the duke and the chancellor; and
+knighted the young king, Henry VI. Bedford then promised
+to act in accordance with the will of the council, and in harmony
+with the decision of this body raised a body of troops and
+returned to France in March 1427. Having ordered Gloucester to
+desist from a further attack on Hainaut, he threatened Brittany
+and compelled Duke John to return to the English alliance;
+and the success of his troops continued until the siege of Orleans,
+to which he consented with reluctance, was undertaken in October
+1428. Having assured himself that Philip was prepared to
+desert him, Bedford sent orders to his army to raise the siege
+in April 1429. He then acted with great energy and judgment in
+attempting to stem the tide of disasters which followed this
+failure, strengthened his hold upon Paris, and sent to England
+for reinforcements; but before any engagement took place
+he visited Rouen, where he sought to bind the Normans closer
+to England, and after his return to Paris resigned the French
+regency to Philip of Burgundy in accordance with the wish of
+the Parisians. Retaining the government of Normandy Bedford
+established himself at Rouen and directed the movements of
+the English forces with some success. He did not interfere to
+save the life of Joan of Arc. He was joined by Henry VI. in
+April 1430, when the regency was temporarily suspended, and
+he secured Henry&rsquo;s coronation at Paris in December 1431. In
+November 1432 his wife Anne died, and in April 1433 he was
+married at Therouanne to Jacqueline, daughter of Pierre I.,
+count of St Pol. But notwithstanding Bedford&rsquo;s vigour the
+English lost ground steadily; and the death of Anne and
+this marriage destroyed the friendly relations between England
+and Burgundy. Negotiations for peace had no result, and when
+the duke returned to England in June 1433 he told parliament
+that he had come home to defend himself against the charge
+that the losses in France were caused by his neglect, and
+demanded that his detractors should make their accusations public.
+The chancellor replied that no such charges were known to the
+king or the council, and the duke was thanked for his great
+services. His next act was to secure an inquiry into the national
+finances; and when asked by the parliament to stay in England
+he declared that his services were at the king&rsquo;s disposal. As
+chief councillor he offered to take a smaller salary than had been
+previously paid to Gloucester, and undertook this office in
+December 1433, when his demands with regard to a continual
+council were conceded. Bedford, who was anxious to prosecute
+the war in France, left England again in 1434, but early in
+1435 was obliged to consent to the attendance of English r
+epresentatives at a congress held to arrange terms of peace at Arras.
+Unable to consent to the French terms the English envoys left
+Arras in September, and Philip of Burgundy made a separate
+treaty with France. Bedford only lived to see the ruin of the
+cause for which he struggled so loyally. He died at Rouen
+on the 14th of September 1435, and was buried in the cathedral
+of that city. He left a natural son, Richard, but no legitimate
+issue. Bedford was a man of considerable administrative ability,
+brave and humane in war, wise and unselfish in peace. He was
+not responsible for the misfortunes of the English in France,
+and his courage in the face of failure was as admirable as his
+continued endeavour to make the people under his rule contented
+and prosperous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief contemporary authorities for Bedford&rsquo;s life are: <i>Vita et
+gesta Henrici Quinti</i>, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); E. de
+Monstrelet, <i>Chronique</i>, edited by L.D. d&rsquo;Arcq. (Paris, 1857-1862);
+William of Worcester, <i>Annales rerum Anglicarum</i>, edited by J.
+Stevenson (London, 1864). See also <i>Proceedings and Ordinances of
+the Privy Council of England</i>, edited by J.R. Dasent (London, 1890-1899);
+W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895);
+P.A. Barante, <i>Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne</i> (Paris, 1824).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1470 <span class="sc">George Nevill</span> (<i>c.</i> 1457-1483), son of John, earl of
+Northumberland, was created duke of Bedford; but after his
+father&rsquo;s attainder and death at the battle of Barnet in 1471
+he was degraded from the peerage.</p>
+
+<p>The next duke of Bedford was <span class="sc">Jasper Tudor</span> (<i>c.</i> 1430-1495),
+half-brother of King Henry VI. and uncle of Henry VII. He
+was made earl of Pembroke in 1453. Having survived the
+vicissitudes of the Wars of the Roses he was restored to his
+earldom and created duke of Bedford in 1485. The duke, who
+was lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1486 to 1494, died without
+legitimate issue on the 21st of December 1495.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Russell</span>, 1st earl of Bedford (<i>c.</i> 1486-1555), was a son
+of James Russell (d. 1509). Having travelled widely, he attained
+some position at the court of Henry VII., and was subsequently
+in great favour with Henry VIII. In 1513 he took part in the
+war with France, and, having been knighted about the same
+time, was afterwards employed on several diplomatic errands.
+He was with Henry at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520,
+and, returning to military service when the French war was
+renewed, lost his right eye at the siege of Morlaix in 1522. He
+was soon made knight marshal of the royal household, and in
+1523 went secretly to France, where he negotiated a treaty
+between Henry and Charles, duke of Bourbon, who was anxious
+to betray the French king Francis I. After a short visit to
+England Russell was sent with money to Bourbon, joining the
+constable at the siege of Marseilles. In 1524 he visited Pope
+Clement VII. at Rome, and, having eluded the French, who
+endeavoured to capture him, was present at the battle of Pavia
+in February 1525, returning to England about the close of the
+year. In January 1527 he was sent as ambassador to Clement,
+who employed him to treat on his behalf with Charles de Lannoy,
+the general of Charles V. The next few years of Russell&rsquo;s life
+were mainly spent in England. He was member of parliament
+for Buckingham in the parliament of 1529, and although an
+opponent of the party of Anne Boleyn, retained the favour of
+Henry VIII. He took an active part in suppressing the
+Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, and was one of the commissioners
+appointed to try the Lincolnshire prisoners. Honours now
+crowded upon him. His appointment as comptroller of the
+king&rsquo;s household in 1537 was followed by that of a privy councillor
+in 1538; then he was made lord high admiral, high steward
+of the duchy of Cornwall and a knight of the garter. In March
+1539 he was created Baron Russell of Chenies, and in 1542
+became high steward of the university of Oxford, and keeper of
+the privy seal. In 1539, when Charles V. and Francis I. were
+threatening to invade England, he was sent into the west, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span>
+crossed to France when Henry attacked Francis in 1544. He
+was in command of an army in the west of England in 1545, and
+when Henry died in January 1547 was one of the executors of
+his will. Under Edward VI. Russell was lord high steward and
+keeper of the privy seal, and the defeat which he inflicted on
+the rebels at Clyst St Mary near Exeter in August 1549, was
+largely instrumental in suppressing the rising in Devonshire.
+In January 1550 he was created earl of Bedford, and was one of
+the commissioners appointed to make peace with France in
+this year. He opposed the proposal to seat Lady Jane Grey on
+the throne; supported Queen Mary, who reappointed him lord
+privy seal; and assisted to prevent Sir Thomas Wyat&rsquo;s rising
+from spreading to Devonshire. In 1554 he went to Spain to
+conclude the marriage treaty between Mary and Philip II., and
+soon after his return died in London on the 14th of March 1555.
+By extensive acquisitions of land Bedford was the founder of
+the wealth and greatness of the house of Russell. Through his
+wife, Anne (d. 1550), daughter of Sir Guy Sapcote, whom he
+married in 1526, he obtained Chenies, and in 1539 was granted
+the forest of Exmoor, and also Tavistock, and a number of
+manors in Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, which had formerly
+belonged to the abbey of Tavistock. In 1549 he received
+Thorney, the abbey of Woburn, and extensive lands in the
+eastern counties; and in 1552 Covent Garden and seven acres of
+land in London, formerly the property of the protector Somerset.
+He left an only son, Francis, who succeeded him in the title.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i> (London, 1862-1901);
+<i>State Papers during the Reign of Henry VIII.</i> (London, 1831-1852);
+<i>Calendar of State Papers, Edward VI. and Mary</i> (London, 1861);
+J.H. Wiffen, <i>Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell</i> (London,
+1833); J.A. Froude, <i>History of England, passim</i> (London,
+1881 fol.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Francis Russell</span>, 2nd earl of Bedford (<i>c.</i> 1527-1585), was
+educated at King&rsquo;s Hall, Cambridge. He accompanied his
+father to the French war in 1544, and from 1547 to 1552 was
+member of parliament for Buckinghamshire, being probably the
+first heir to a peerage to sit in the House of Commons. He
+assisted to quell the rising in Devonshire in 1549, and after his
+father had been created earl of Bedford in January 1550, was
+known as Lord Russell, taking his seat in the House of Lords
+under this title in 1552. Russell was in sympathy with the
+reformers, whose opinions he shared, and was in communication
+with Sir Thomas Wyat; and in consequence of his religious
+attitude was imprisoned during the earlier part of Mary&rsquo;s reign.
+Being released he went into exile; visited Italy; came into
+touch with foreign reformers; and fought at the battle of St
+Quentin in 1557. Afterwards he seems to have enjoyed some
+measure of the royal favour, and was made lord-lieutenant of
+the counties of Devon, Cornwall and Dorset early in 1558.
+When Elizabeth ascended the throne in November 1558 the earl
+of Bedford, as Russell had been since 1555, became an active
+figure in public life. He was made a privy councillor, and was
+sent on diplomatic errands to Charles IX. of France and Mary
+queen of Scots. From February 1564 to October 1567 he was
+governor of Berwick and warden of the east marches of Scotland,
+in which capacity he conducted various negotiations between
+Elizabeth and Mary. He appears to have been an efficient
+warden, but was irritated by the vacillating and tortuous
+conduct of the English queen. When the northern insurrection
+broke out in 1569, Bedford was sent into Wales, and he sat in
+judgment upon the duke of Norfolk in 1572. In 1576 he was
+president of the council of Wales, and in 1581 was one of the
+commissioners deputed to arrange a marriage between Elizabeth
+and Francis, duke of Anjou. Bedford, who was made a knight
+of the garter in 1564, was lord warden of the Stannaries from
+1553 to 1580. He appears to have been a generous and popular
+man, and died in London on the 28th of July 1585. He was
+buried at Chenies. His first wife was Margaret (d. 1562),
+daughter of Sir John St John, by whom he had four sons and
+three daughters. His three eldest sons predeceased their father.
+His second wife was Bridget (d. 1601), daughter of John, Lord
+Hussey. He was succeeded as 3rd earl by his grandson, <span class="sc">Edward</span>
+(1572-1627), only son of Francis, Lord Russell (<i>c.</i> 1550-1585).
+The 3rd earl left no children when he died on the 3rd of May
+1627, and was succeeded by his cousin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Francis Russell</span>, 4th earl of Bedford (1593-1641), was the
+only son of William, Lord Russell of Thornhaugh, to which
+barony he succeeded in August 1613. For a short time previously
+he had been member of parliament for the borough of
+Lyme Regis; in 1623 he was made lord-lieutenant of Devonshire;
+and in May 1627 became earl of Bedford by the death of his
+cousin, Edward, the 3rd earl. When the quarrel broke out
+between Charles I. and the parliament, Bedford supported the
+demands of the House of Commons as embodied in the Petition
+of Right, and in 1629 was arrested for his share in the circulation
+of Sir Robert Dudley&rsquo;s pamphlet, &ldquo;Proposition for His Majesty&rsquo;s
+service,&rdquo; but was quickly released. The Short parliament meeting
+in April 1640 found the earl as one of the king&rsquo;s leading
+opponents. He was greatly trusted by John Pym and Oliver
+St John, and is mentioned by Clarendon as among the &ldquo;great
+contrivers and designers&rdquo; in the House of Lords. In July 1640
+he was among the peers who wrote to the Scottish leaders
+refusing to invite a Scottish army into England, but promising
+to stand by the Scots in all legal and honourable ways; and his
+signature was afterwards forged by Thomas, Viscount Savile,
+in order to encourage the Scots to invade England. In the following
+September he was among those peers who urged Charles to
+call a parliament, to make peace with the Scots, and to dismiss
+his obnoxious ministers; and was one of the English commissioners
+appointed to conclude the treaty of Ripon. When the
+Long parliament met in November 1640, Bedford was generally
+regarded as the leader of the parliamentarians. In February
+1641 he was made a privy councillor, and during the course of
+some negotiations was promised the office of lord high treasurer.
+He was essentially a moderate man, and seemed anxious to
+settle the question of the royal revenue in a satisfactory manner.
+He did not wish to alter the government of the Church, was on
+good terms with Archbishop Laud, and, although convinced of
+Stafford&rsquo;s guilt, was anxious to save his life. In the midst of
+the parliamentary struggle Bedford died of smallpox on the
+9th of May 1641. Clarendon described him as &ldquo;a wise man,
+and of too great and plentiful a fortune to wish the subversion
+of the government,&rdquo; and again referring to his death said that
+&ldquo;many who knew him well thought his death not unseasonable
+as well to his fame as his fortune, and that it rescued him as well
+from some possible guilt as from those visible misfortunes which
+men of all conditions have since undergone.&rdquo; Bedford was the
+head of those who undertook to drain the great level of the fens,
+called after him the &ldquo;Bedford level.&rdquo; He spent a large sum of
+money over this work and received 43,000 acres of land, but
+owing to various jealousies and difficulties the king took the
+work into his own hands in 1638, making a further grant of land
+to the earl. Bedford married Catherine (d. 1657), daughter of
+Giles, 3rd Lord Chandos, by whom he had four sons and four
+daughters. His eldest son, <span class="sc">William</span> (1613-1700), succeeded
+him as 5th earl, fought first on the side of the parliament and
+then on that of the king during the Civil War, and in 1694 was
+created marquess of Tavistock and duke of Bedford.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Clarendon, <i>History of the Rebellion, passim</i> (Oxford, 1888); J.H.
+Wiffen, <i>Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell</i> (London, 1833); J.L.
+Sanford, <i>Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion</i> (London, 1858).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first duke, who married Anne (d. 1684), daughter of
+Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, was succeeded in the title by his
+grandson Wriothesley (1680-1711), who was a son of Lord
+William Russell (<i>q.v.</i>) by his marriage with Rachel, daughter of
+Thomas Wriothesley, 4th earl of Southampton, and who became
+second duke in 1700. Eleven years later the second duke was succeeded
+by his eldest son Wriothesley (1708-1732), who died without
+issue in October 1732, when the title passed to his brother John.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Russell</span>, 4th duke of Bedford (1710-1771), second
+son of Wriothesley Russell, 2nd duke of Bedford, by his wife,
+Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of John Howland of Streatham,
+Surrey, was born on the 30th of September 1710. Known as Lord
+John Russell, he married in October 1731 Lady Diana Spencer,
+daughter of Charles, 3rd earl of Sunderland; became duke of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span>
+Bedford on his brother&rsquo;s death a year later; and having lost his
+first wife in 1735, married in April 1737 Lady Gertrude Leveson-Gower
+(d. 1794), daughter of John, Earl Gower. In the House of
+Lords he joined the party hostile to Sir Robert Walpole, took a
+fairly prominent part in public business, and earned the dislike
+of George II. When Carteret, now Earl Granville, resigned office
+in November 1744, Bedford became first lord of the admiralty
+in the administration of Henry Pelham, and was made a privy
+councillor. He was very successful at the admiralty, but was
+not equally fortunate after he became secretary of state for the
+southern department in February 1748. Pelham accused him of
+idleness; he was constantly at variance with the duke of Newcastle,
+and resigned office in June 1751. Instigated by his friends
+he was active in opposition to the government, and after Newcastle&rsquo;s
+resignation in November 1756, became lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland in the ministry of William Pitt and the duke of Devonshire,
+retaining this office after Newcastle, in alliance with Pitt,
+returned to power in June 1757. In Ireland he favoured a
+relaxation of the penal laws against Roman Catholics, but did
+not keep his promises to observe neutrality between the rival
+parties, and to abstain from securing pensions for his friends.
+His own courtly manners and generosity, and his wife&rsquo;s good
+qualities, however, seem to have gained for him some popularity,
+although Horace Walpole says he disgusted everybody. In
+March 1761 he resigned this office. Having allied himself with
+the earl of Bute and the party anxious to bring the Seven Years&rsquo;
+War to a close, Bedford was noticed as the strongest opponent of
+Pitt, and became lord privy seal under Bute after Pitt resigned
+in October 1761. The cabinet of Bute was divided over the
+policy to be pursued with regard to the war, but pacific counsels
+prevailed, and in September 1762 Bedford went to France to
+treat for peace. He was considerably annoyed because some of
+the peace negotiations were conducted through other channels,
+but he signed the peace of Paris in February 1763. Resigning
+his office as lord privy seal soon afterwards, various causes of
+estrangement arose between Bute and Bedford, and the subsequent
+relations of the two men were somewhat virulent. The
+duke refused to take office under George Grenville on Bute&rsquo;s
+resignation in April 1763, and sought to induce Pitt to return to
+power. A report, however, that Pitt would only take office on
+condition that Bedford was excluded, incensed him and, smarting
+under this rebuff, he joined the cabinet of Grenville as lord
+president of the council in September 1763. His haughty manner,
+his somewhat insulting language, and his attitude with regard
+to the regency bill in 1765 offended George III., who sought
+in vain to supplant him, and after this failure was obliged to
+make humiliating concessions to the ministry. In July 1765,
+however, he was able to dispense with the services of Bedford
+and his colleagues, and the duke became the leader of a political
+party, distinguished for rapacity, and known as the &ldquo;Bedford
+party,&rdquo; or the &ldquo;Bloomsbury gang.&rdquo; During his term of office
+he had opposed a bill to place high import duties on Italian
+silks. He was consequently assaulted and his London residence
+attacked by a mob. He took some part in subsequent political
+intrigues, and although he did not return to office, his friends,
+with his consent, joined the ministry of the duke of Grafton in
+December 1767. This proceeding led &ldquo;Junius&rdquo; to write his
+&ldquo;letter to the duke of Bedford,&rdquo; one of especial violence. Bedford
+was hostile to John Wilkes, and narrowly escaped from a
+mob favourable to the agitator at Honiton in July 1769. His
+health had been declining for some years, and in 1770 he became
+partially paralysed. He died at Woburn on the 15th of January
+1771, and was buried in the family burying place at Chenies.
+His three sons all predeceased him, and he was succeeded in
+the title by his grandson, Francis. The duke held many public
+offices: lord-lieutenant of Bedfordshire and Devonshire, and
+chancellor of Dublin University among others, and was a knight
+of the garter. Bedford was a proud and conceited man, but
+possessed both ability and common-sense. The important part
+which he took in public life, however, was due rather to his
+wealth and position than to his personal taste or ambition. He
+was neither above nor below the standard of political morality
+of the time, and was influenced by his duchess, who was very
+ambitious, and by followers who were singularly unscrupulous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Correspondence of John, 4th Duke of Bedford</i>, edited by Lord
+John Russell (London, 1842-1846); J.H. Wiffen, <i>Historical Memoirs
+of the House of Russell</i> (London, 1833); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of
+England</i>, vol. iii. (London, 1892); Horace Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the
+Reign of George II.</i> (London, 1847), and <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George
+III.</i>, edited by G.F.R. Barker (London, 1894.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Francis Russell</span>, 5th duke of Bedford (1765-1802), eldest
+son of Francis Russell, marquess of Tavistock (d. 1767), by his
+wife, Elizabeth (d. 1768), daughter of William Keppel, 2nd earl
+of Albemarle, was baptized on the 23rd of July 1765. In January
+1771 he succeeded his grandfather as duke of Bedford, and was
+educated at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge,
+afterwards spending nearly two years in foreign travel. Regarding
+Charles James Fox as his political leader, he joined the
+Whigs in the House of Lords, and became a member of the circle
+of the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. Having overcome
+some nervousness and educational defects, he began to speak
+in the House, and soon became one of the leading debaters in
+that assembly. He opposed most of the measures brought forward
+by the ministry of William Pitt, and objected to the grant
+of a pension to Edmund Burke, an action which drew down upon
+him a scathing attack from Burke&rsquo;s pen. Bedford was greatly
+interested in agriculture. He established a model farm at
+Woburn, and made experiments with regard to the breeding
+of sheep. He was a member of the original board of agriculture,
+and was the first president of the Smithfield club. He died at
+Woburn on the 2nd of March 1802, and was buried in the family
+burying-place at Chenies. The duke was never married, and
+was succeeded in the title by his brother, John.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lord Holland, <i>Memoirs of the Whig Party</i> (London, 1854);
+J.H. Wiffen, <i>Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell</i> (London,
+1833): E. Burke, <i>Letter to a Noble Lord</i> (Edinburgh, 1837); and Earl
+Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i> (London, 1861-1862).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Russell</span>, 6th duke of Bedford (1766-1839), was succeeded
+as seventh duke by his eldest son, Francis (1788-1861), who had
+an only son, William (1809-1872), who became duke on his
+father&rsquo;s death in 1861. When the eighth duke died in 1872, he
+was succeeded by his cousin, Francis Charles Hastings (1819-1891),
+who was member of parliament for Bedfordshire from
+1847 until he succeeded to the title. The ninth duke was the
+eldest son of Major-General Lord George William Russell (1790-1846),
+who was a son of the sixth duke. He married Elizabeth,
+daughter of George John, 5th Earl de la Warr, and both his sons,
+George William Francis Sackville (1852-1893), and Herbrand
+Arthur (b. 1858), succeeded in turn to the title.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDFORD,<a name="ar263" id="ar263"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the
+county town of Bedfordshire, England, 50 m. north-north-west of
+London by the Midland railway; served also by a branch of the
+London &amp; North-Western. Pop. (1901) 35,144. It lies in the
+fertile valley of the Ouse, on both banks, but mainly on the north,
+on which stands the mound which marks the site of the ancient
+castle. The church of St Paul is Decorated and Perpendicular,
+but its central tower and spire are modern; it contains the tomb
+of Sir William Harper or Harpur (<i>c.</i> 1496-1573), lord mayor of
+London, a notable benefactor of his native town of Bedford.
+St Peter&rsquo;s church has in its central tower masonry probably of
+pre-Conquest date; that of St Mary&rsquo;s is in part Norman, and
+that of St John&rsquo;s Decorated; but the bodies of these churches
+are largely restored. There are some remains of a Franciscan
+friary of the 14th century. The Congregational chapel called
+Bunyan&rsquo;s or the &ldquo;Old Meeting&rdquo; stands on the site of the building
+in which John Bunyan preached from 1656 onward. His chair
+is preserved here, and a tablet records his life in the town, where
+he underwent a long but in part nominal imprisonment. He
+was born at Elstow, 1½ m. from Bedford, where, while playing
+on the green, he believed himself to have received the divine
+summons to renounce sin. In the panels of a fine pair of bronze
+doors in the chapel are scenes illustrative of Bunyan&rsquo;s <i>Pilgrim&rsquo;s
+Progress</i>. Bedford is noted for its grammar school, founded by
+Edward VI. in 1552, and endowed by Sir William Harper. The
+existing buildings date from 1891, and have been increased since
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span>
+that date, and the school is one of the important public schools of
+England. Harper&rsquo;s endowment includes land in London, and
+is now of great value, and the Harper Trust supports in addition
+modern and elementary schools for boys and girls, a girls&rsquo; high
+school, and almshouses. The grammar school annually awards
+both entrance exhibitions and two exhibitions to a university or
+other higher educational institution. The old grammar school
+buildings are used as a town hall; and among other modern
+buildings may be mentioned the shire hall and county hospital.
+There are statues of John Bunyan (1874) and John Howard
+(1894) the philanthropist (1726-1790), who founded the
+Congregational chapel which bears his name, and resided at
+Cardington in the vicinity. There are two parks. Bedford has a
+large trade as a market town for agricultural produce, and
+extensive engineering works and manufactures of agricultural
+implements. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
+The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and
+18 councillors. Area, 2223 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Bedford (Bedcanforda, Bedanforda, Bedeford) is first
+mentioned in 571, when Cuthwulf defeated the Britons here. It
+subsequently became a Danish borough, which in 914 was
+captured by Edward the Elder. In Domesday, as the county town,
+it was entered apart from the rest of the shire, and was assessed
+at half a hundred for the host and for ship service. The
+prescriptive borough received its first charter from Henry II., who
+gave the town to the burgesses to hold at a fee-farm rent of £40
+in lieu of all service. The privileges included a gild-merchant,
+all tolls, and liberties and laws in common with the citizens of
+Oxford. This charter was confirmed by successive sovereigns
+down to Charles II. During the 15th century, owing to the rise
+of other market towns, Bedford became less prosperous, and the
+fee-farm rent was finally reduced to £20 by charter of Henry VII.
+Henry VIII. granted a November fair to St Leonard&rsquo;s hospital,
+which was still held in the 19th century at St Leonard&rsquo;s farm,
+the site of the hospital. Mary granted two fairs, one in Lent
+and one on the Feast of the Conception, and also a weekly market.
+A 17th century pamphlet on river navigation in Bedfordshire
+mentions the trade which Bedford carried on in coal, brought by
+the Ouse from Lynn and Yarmouth. The town was also one of
+the earliest centres of the lace trade, to the success of which
+French refugees in the 17th and 18th centuries largely contributed.</p>
+
+<p>Bedford was represented in the parliament of 1295, and after
+that date two members were returned regularly, until by the
+Redistribution of Seats Act in 1885 Bedford lost one of its
+members. The unlimited power of creating freemen, an inherent
+right of the borough, led to great abuse, noticeably in 1769
+when 500 freemen<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> were created to support the political interest
+of Sir Robert Barnard, afterwards recorder of the borough.</p>
+
+<p>Bedford castle, of which mention is first heard during Stephen&rsquo;s
+reign (1136), was destroyed by order of Henry III. in 1224. The
+mound marking its site is famous as a bowling-green.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Called &ldquo;guinea-pigs.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDFORD,<a name="ar264" id="ar264"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county,
+Indiana, U.S.A., in the south-central part of the state, about
+60 m. north-west of Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 3351;
+(1910) 8716. It is served by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Southwestern,
+the Chicago, Indianapolis &amp; Louisville, the Southern Indiana,
+and (for freight from the Wallner quarries about 5 m. distant)
+the Bedford &amp; Wallner railways. It is the shipping point of the
+Bedford Indiana (oolitic) limestone, which is found in the vicinity
+and is one of the most valuable and best known building stones
+in the United States&mdash;of this stone were built the capitols of
+Indiana, Georgia, Mississippi and Kentucky; the state historical
+library at Madison, Wisconsin; the art building at St Louis,
+Missouri; and many other important public buildings. The
+city has large cement works, foundries and machine shops
+(stone-working machinery being manufactured), and the repair
+shops of the Southern Indiana railway. Bedford was settled in
+1826 and received a city charter in 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDFORD,<a name="ar265" id="ar265"></a></span> a borough and the county-seat of Bedford county,
+Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Raystown branch of the Juniata
+river, about 35 m. south by west of Altoona. Pop. (1890) 2242;
+(1910) 2235. Bedford is served by the Bedford branch of the
+Pennsylvania railway. It lies in a beautiful valley. In the
+borough are some interesting old houses, erected in the latter
+part of the 18th century, an art gallery and a soldiers&rsquo; monument.
+There are deposits of hematite and limestone near the borough,
+and less than 2 m. south of it are the widely-known Bedford
+Mineral Springs&mdash;a magnesia spring, a limestone spring, a sulphur
+spring, and a &ldquo;sweet-water&rdquo; spring&mdash;which attract many
+visitors during the summer season. There are also chalybeate
+and other less important springs about the same distance east of
+the borough, and a white sulphur spring 10 m. south-west of it.
+Bedford has a large wholesale grocery trade, manufactures flour,
+dressed lumber, kegs and handles, and is situated in a fine
+fruit-growing district, especially known for its apples and plums.
+The borough owns and operates the water works. A temporary
+settlement was made on or near the site of the present borough
+about 1750 by an Indian trader named Ray, and for a few years
+the place was known as Raystown; the present name was
+adopted not later than 1759. In July 1758 Fort Bedford, for
+many years an important military post on the frontier, was
+constructed, and here, later in the year, General John Forbes
+brought together his troops preparatory to advancing against
+Fort Duquesne. The town of Bedford was laid out in 1769, and
+in 1771 it was made the county-seat of Bedford county which
+was organized in that year. The borough was incorporated in
+1795, and received a new charter in 1817. Washington came here
+in 1794 to review the army sent to quell the Whisky Insurrection,
+and the Espy house, which he then occupied, is still standing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDFORDSHIRE<a name="ar266" id="ar266"></a></span> [abbreviated Beds], a south midland county
+of England, bounded N.E. by Huntingdonshire, E. by Cambridgeshire,
+S.E. by Hertfordshire, W. by Buckinghamshire and N.W.
+by Northamptonshire. It is the fourth smallest English county,
+having an area of 466.4 sq. m. It lies principally in the middle
+part of the basin of the river Ouse, which, entering in the north-west,
+traverses the rich and beautiful Vale of Bedford with a
+serpentine course past the county town of Bedford to the north-eastern
+corner near St Neots. North of it the land is undulating,
+but low; to the south, a well-wooded spur of the Chiltern Hills
+separates the Vale of Bedford from the flat open tributary valley
+of the Ivel. A small part of the main line of the Chilterns is
+included in the south of the county, the hills rising sharply from
+the lowland to bare heights exceeding 600 ft. above Dunstable.
+In this neighbourhood the county includes the headwaters of the
+Lea, and thus a small portion of it falls within the Thames basin.
+In the north a few streams are tributary to the Nene.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;The general trend of the outcrops of the various formations
+is from south-west to north-east; the dip is south-easterly.
+In the northern portion of the county, the Middle Oolites are the
+most important, and of these, the Oxford Clay predominates over
+most of the low ground upon which Bedford is situated. At Ampthill
+a development of clay, the Ampthill clay, represents the Corallian
+limestones of neighbouring counties. The Cornbrash is represented
+by no more than about 2 ft. of limestone; but the Kellaways Rock
+is well exposed near Bedford; the sandy parts of this rock are
+frequently cemented to form hard masses called &ldquo;doggers.&rdquo; The
+Great Ouse, from the point where it enters the county on the west,
+has carved through the Middle Oolites and exposed the Great Oolite
+as far as Bedford; their alternating limestones and clays may be
+seen in the quarries not far from the town. From Woburn through
+Ampthill to Potton a more elevated tract is formed by the Lower
+Greensand. These rocks are sandy throughout. At Leighton
+Buzzard they are dug on a large scale for various purposes. Beds of
+fuller&rsquo;s earth occur in this formation at Woburn. At Potton,
+phosphatized nodules may be obtained, and here a hard bed, the
+&ldquo;Carstone,&rdquo; lies at the top of the formation. Above the Lower Greensand
+comes the Gault Clay, which lies in the broad vale south-east of the
+former and north-west of the Chalk hills. The Chalk rises up above
+the Gault and forms the high ground of Dunshill Moors and the
+Chiltern Hills. At the base of the Chalk is the Chalk Marl, above
+this is the Totternhoe Stone, which, on account of its great hardness,
+usually stands out as a well-marked feature. The Lower Chalk,
+which comes next in the upward succession, is capped in a similar
+manner by the hard Chalk Rock, as at Royston and elsewhere. The
+upper Chalk-with-Flints occurs near the south-eastern boundary.
+Patches of glacial boulder clay and gravel lie upon the older rocks
+over most of the area. Many interesting mammalian fossils, rhinoceros,
+mammoth, &amp;c., with palaeolithic implements, have been found
+in the valley gravels of the river Ouse and its tributaries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;Agriculture is important, nearly nine-tenths of
+the total area being under cultivation. The chief crop is wheat,
+for which the soil in the Vale of Bedford is specially suited;
+while on the sandy loam of the Ivel valley, in the neighbourhood
+of Biggleswade, market-gardening is extensively carried on,
+the produce going principally to London, whither a considerable
+quantity of butter and other dairy-produce is also sent. The
+manufacture of agricultural machinery and implements employs
+a large number of hands at Bedford and Luton. Luton, however,
+is specially noted for the manufacture of straw hats. Straw-plaiting
+was once extensively carried on in this neighbourhood
+by women and girls in their cottage homes, but has now
+almost entirely disappeared owing to the importation of Chinese
+and Japanese plaited straw. Another local industry in the
+county is the manufacture of pillow-lace. Many of the lace
+designs are French, as a number of French refugees settled
+in and near Cranfield. Mechlin and Maltese patterns are also
+copied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications</i> are provided in the east by the Great Northern
+main line, passing Biggleswade, and in the centre by that of the
+Midland railway, serving Ampthill and Bedford. The Bletchley
+and Cambridge branch of the London &amp; North-Western railway
+crosses these main lines at Bedford and Sandy respectively.
+The main line of the same company serves Leighton Buzzard
+in the south-west, and there is a branch thence to Dunstable,
+which, with Luton, is also served by a branch of the Great
+Northern line. A branch of the Midland railway south from
+Bedford connects with the Great Northern line at Hitchin, and
+formerly afforded the Midland access to London over Great
+Northern metals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient
+county is 298,494 acres, with a population in 1891 of 161,704
+and in 1901 of 171,240. The area of the administrative county
+is 302,947 acres. The municipal boroughs are Bedford (pop.
+35,144), Dunstable (5157) and Luton (36,404). The other urban
+districts are&mdash;Ampthill (2177), Biggleswade (5120), Kempston,
+connected with Bedford to the south-west (4729), and Leighton
+Buzzard (6331). Potton (2033), Shefford (874), and Woburn
+(1129) are lesser towns, and local centres of the agricultural
+trade. The county is the midland circuit, and assizes are held at
+Bedford. It has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided
+into eight petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bedford,
+Dunstable and Luton have separate commissions of the peace,
+and Bedford has a separate court of quarter-sessions. There are
+133 civil parishes. Bedfordshire forms an archdeaconry in the
+diocese of Ely, with 125 ecclesiastical parishes and parts of 6
+others. The county has two parliamentary divisions, Northern
+(or Biggleswade), and Southern (or Luton), each returning one
+member; and Bedford is a parliamentary borough, returning
+one member. The principal institution, apart from those in
+the towns, is the great Three Counties asylum (for Bedfordshire,
+Hertfordshire and Huntingdonshire), in the south-east of the
+county near Arlesey.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Although the Saxon invaders were naturally
+attracted to Bedfordshire by its abundant water supply and
+facilities for agriculture, the remains of their settlements are
+few and scattered. They occur, with one exception, south of the
+Ouse, the most important being a cemetery at Kempston, where
+two systems&mdash;cremation and earth-burial&mdash;are found side by
+side. Early reference to Bedfordshire political history is scanty.
+In 571 Cuthwulf inflicted a severe defeat on the Britons at Bedford
+and took four towns. During the Heptarchy what is now the
+shire formed part of Mercia; by the treaty of Wedmore, however,
+it became Danish territory, but was recovered by King
+Edward (919-921). The first actual mention of the county
+comes in 1016 when King Canute laid waste to the whole shire.
+There was no organized resistance to the conqueror within
+Bedfordshire, though the Domesday survey reveals an almost
+complete substitution of Norman for English holders. In the
+civil war of Stephen&rsquo;s reign the county suffered severely; the
+great Roll of the Exchequer of 1165 proves the shire receipts
+had depreciated in value to two-thirds of the assessment for the
+Danegeld. Again the county was thrown into the barons&rsquo; war
+when Bedford Castle, seized from the Beauchamps by Falkes de
+Breaute, one of the royal partisans, was the scene of three sieges
+before it was demolished by the king&rsquo;s orders in 1224. The
+peasants&rsquo; revolt (1377-1381) was marked by less violence here
+than in neighbouring counties; the Annals of Dunstable make
+brief mention of a rising in that town and the demand for and
+granting of a charter. In 1638 ship-money was levied on Bedfordshire,
+and in the Civil War that followed, the county was one
+of the foremost in opposing the king. Clarendon observes that
+here Charles had no visible party or fixed quarter.</p>
+
+<p>Bedfordshire is divided into nine hundreds, Barford, Biggleswade,
+Clifton, Flitt, Manshead, Redbornestoke, Stodden, Willey
+and Wiscamtree, and the liberty, half hundred or borough of
+Bedford. From the Domesday survey it appears that in the 11th
+century there were three additional half hundreds, viz. Stanburge,
+Buchelai and Weneslai, which had by the 14th century become
+parts of the hundreds of Manshead, Willey and Biggleswade
+respectively. Until 1574 one sheriff did duty for Bedfordshire
+and Buckinghamshire, the shire court of the former being held
+at Bedford. The jurisdiction of the hundred courts, excepting
+Flitt, remained in the king&rsquo;s possession. Flitt was parcel of the
+manor of Luton, and formed part of the marriage portion of
+Eleanor, sister of Henry III. and wife of William Marshall. The
+burgesses of Bedford and the prior of Dunstable claimed
+jurisdictional freedom in those two boroughs. The <i>Hundred Rolls</i>
+and the <i>Placita de quo warranto</i> show that important jurisdiction
+had accrued to the great over-lordships, such as those of
+Beauchamp, Wahull and Caynho, and to several religious
+houses, the prior of St John of Jerusalem claiming rights in
+more than fifty places in the county.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to parliamentary representation, the first original
+writ which has been discovered was issued in 1290 when two
+members were returned for the county. In 1295 in addition
+to the county members, writs are found for two members
+to represent Bedford borough. Subsequently until modern
+times two county and two borough members were returned
+regularly.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to its favourable situation Bedfordshire has always
+been a prominent agricultural rather than manufacturing
+county. From the 13th to the 15th century sheep farming
+flourished, Bedfordshire wool being in request and plentiful.
+Surviving records show that in assessments of wool to the king,
+Bedfordshire always provided its full quota. Tradition says
+that the straw-plait industry owes its introduction to James I.,
+who transferred to Luton the colony of Lorraine plaiters whom
+Mary queen of Scots had settled in Scotland. Similarly the lace
+industry is associated with Catherine of Aragon, who, when
+trade was dull, burnt her lace and ordered new to be made.
+As late as the 19th century the lace makers kept &ldquo;Cattern&rsquo;s
+Day&rdquo; as the holiday of their craft. The Flemings, expelled
+by Alva&rsquo;s persecutions (1569), brought the manufacture of
+Flemish lace to Cranfield, whence it spread to surrounding
+districts. The revocation of the edict of Nantes, and consequent
+French immigration, gave further impetus to the industry.
+Defoe writing in 1724-1727 mentions the recent improvements
+in the Bedfordshire bone-lace manufacture. In 1794 further
+French refugees joined the Bedfordshire lace makers.</p>
+
+<p>Woburn Abbey, belonging to the Russells since 1547, is the
+seat of the duke of Bedford, the greatest landowner in the
+county. The Burgoynes of Sutton, whose baronetcy dates from
+1641, have been in Bedfordshire since the 15th century, whilst
+the Osborn family have owned Chicksands Priory since its
+purchase by Peter Osborn in 1576. Sir Phillip Monoux Payne
+represents the ancient Monoux family of Wootton. Other
+county families are the Crawleys of Stockwood near Luton,
+the Brandreths of Houghton Regis, and the Orlebars of
+Hinwick.</p>
+
+<p>With the division of the Mercian diocese in 679 Bedfordshire
+fell naturally to the new see of Dorchester. It formed part of
+Lincoln diocese from 1075 until 1837, when it was finally transferred
+to Ely. In 1291 Bedfordshire was an archdeaconry
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span>
+including six rural deaneries, which remained practically unaltered
+until 1880, when they were increased to eleven with a new
+schedule of parishes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;The monastic remains in Bedfordshire include
+the fine fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory at
+Dunstable, serving as the parish church; the church (also
+imperfect) of Elstow near Bedford, which belonged to a
+Benedictine nunnery founded by Judith, niece of William the
+Conqueror; and portions of the Gilbertine Chicksands Priory
+and of a Cistercian foundation at Old Warden. In the parish
+churches, many of which are of great interest, the predominant
+styles are Decorated and Perpendicular. Work of pre-Conquest
+date, however, is found in the massive tower of Clapham church,
+near Bedford on the north, and in a door of Stevington church.
+Fine Norman and Early English work is seen at Dunstable and
+Elstow, and the later style is illustrated by the large cruciform
+churches at Leighton Buzzard and at Felmersham on the Ouse
+above Bedford. Among the Perpendicular additions to the
+church last named may be noted a very beautiful oaken rood-screen.
+To illustrate Decorated and Perpendicular the churches
+of Clifton and of Marston Moretaine, with its massive detached
+campanile, may be mentioned; and Cople church is a good
+specimen of fine Perpendicular work. The church of Cockayne
+Hatley, near Potton, is fitted with rich Flemish carved wood,
+mostly from the abbey of Alne near Charleroi, and dating from
+1689, but brought here by a former rector early in the 19th
+century. In medieval domestic architecture the county is not
+rich. The mansion of Woburn Abbey dates from the middle of
+the 18th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>Victoria County History</i> (London, 1904, &amp;c.);
+Fishe, <i>Collections, Historical, Genealogical and Topographical, for
+Bedfordshire</i> (London, 1812-1816, and also 1812-1836); J.D. Parrv,
+<i>Select Illustrations of Bedfordshire</i> (London, 1827); <i>Bedfordshire
+Domesday Book</i> (Bedford, 1881); <i>Visitation of Bedford, 1566, 1582,
+and 1634</i>, in <i>Harleian Society&rsquo;s Publications</i>, vol. xiv. (London, 1884);
+<i>Genealogica Bedfordiensis</i>, 1538, 1800 (London, 1890); and <i>Illustrated
+Bedfordshire</i> (Nottingham, 1895). See also <i>Bedfordshire Notes and
+Queries</i>, ed. F.A. Blades, and <i>Transactions of the Bedfordshire Natural
+History and Field Club.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,18535 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 3, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4
+       "Basso-relievo" to "Bedfordshire"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2010 [EBook #34405]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 3 SLICE 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BATHS: "Separate baths used to be of wood, painted; they
+      are now most frequently of metal, painted or lined with porcelain
+      enamel." 'porcelain' amended from 'procelain'.
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME III, SLICE IV
+
+        Basso-relievo to Bedfordshire
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BASSO-RELIEVO                 BAY ISLANDS
+  BASS ROCK, THE                BAYLE, PIERRE
+  BASSUS, AUFIDIUS              BAYLO
+  BASSUS, CAESIUS               BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES
+  BASSUS, CASSIANUS             BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER
+  BASSUS, SALEIUS               BAYONET
+  BASSVILLE, JEAN HUGON DE      BAYONNE (town of France)
+  BASTAR                        BAYONNE (New Jersey, U.S.A.)
+  BASTARD                       BAYOU
+  BASTARNAE                     BAYREUTH
+  BASTI                         BAZA
+  BASTIA                        BAZAAR
+  BASTIAN, ADOLF                BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANCOIS
+  BASTIAT, FREDERIC             BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM
+  BASTIDE, JULES                BAZARD, AMAND
+  BASTIDE                       BAZAS
+  BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES         BAZIGARS
+  BASTILLE                      BAZIN, RENE
+  BASTINADO                     BAZIRE, CLAUDE
+  BASTION                       BDELLIUM
+  BASTWICK, JOHN                BEACH
+  BASUTOLAND                    BEACHY HEAD
+  BAT                           BEACON
+  BATAC                         BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI
+  BATALA                        BEACONSFIELD (town of Tasmania)
+  BATALHA                       BEACONSFIELD (town of South Africa)
+  BATANGAS                      BEACONSFIELD (town of England)
+  BATARNAY, IMBERT DE           BEAD
+  BATAVIA (residency of Java)   BEADLE
+  BATAVIA (city of Java)        BEAK
+  BATAVIA (New York, U.S.A.)    BEAKER
+  BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM   BEALE, DOROTHEA
+  BATEMENT LIGHTS               BEAM
+  BATES, HARRY                  BEAN
+  BATES, HENRY WALTER           BEAN-FEAST
+  BATES, JOHN                   BEAR
+  BATES, JOSHUA                 BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING
+  BATES, WILLIAM                BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK
+  BATESON, THOMAS               BEARD
+  BATH, THOMAS THYNNE           BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT
+  BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY        BEARDSTOWN
+  BATH (county of England)      BEARER
+  BATH (Maine, U.S.A.)          BEARINGS
+  BATH-CHAIR                    BEAR-LEADER
+  BATHGATE                      BEARN
+  BATHOLITE                     BEAS
+  BATHONIAN SERIES              BEAT
+  BATHORY, SIGISMUND            BEATIFICATION
+  BATHOS                        BEATON, DAVID
+  BATHS                         BEATRICE
+  BATHURST, EARLS               BEATTIE, JAMES
+  BATHURST                      BEATUS
+  BATHVILLITE                   BEAUCAIRE
+  BATHYBIUS                     BEAUCE
+  BATHYCLES                     BEAUCHAMP
+  BATLEY                        BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE
+  BATON                         BEAUFORT
+  BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO       BEAUFORT, FRANCOIS DE VENDOME
+  BATON ROUGE                   BEAUFORT, HENRY
+  BATRACHIA                     BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE
+  BATRACHOMYOMACHIA             BEAUFORT SCALE
+  BATTA                         BEAUFORT WEST
+  BATTAGLIA                     BEAUGENCY
+  BATTAKHIN                     BEAUHARNAIS
+  BATTALION                     BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE
+  BATTAMBANG                    BEAUJEU
+  BATTANNI                      BEAULIEU
+  BATTAS                        BEAULY
+  BATTEL                        BEAUMANOIR
+  BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM           BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE REMI
+  BATTEN                        BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE
+  BATTENBERG                    BEAUMARIS
+  BATTER                        BEAUMONT (English family)
+  BATTERING RAM                 BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE
+  BATTERSEA                     BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN
+  BATTERY                       BEAUMONT and FLETCHER
+  BATTEUX, CHARLES              BEAUMONT (Texas, U.S.A.)
+  BATTHYANY, LOUIS              BEAUNE
+  BATTICALOA                    BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE
+  BATTISHILL, JONATHAN          BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT
+  BATTLE (town of England)      BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE
+  BATTLE (military engagement)  BEAUVAIS
+  BATTLE ABBEY ROLL             BEAUVILLIER
+  BATTLE CREEK                  BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE
+  BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK    BEAUX, CECILIA
+  BATTLEMENT                    BEAVER (animal)
+  BATTUE                        BEAVER (part of the helmet)
+  BATTUS                        BEAVER DAM
+  BATU                          BEAVER FALLS
+  BATUM                         BEAWAR
+  BATWA                         BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST
+  BATYPHONE                     BECCAFICO
+  BAUAN                         BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE
+  BAUBLE                        BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
+  BAUCHI                        BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE
+  BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE    BECCLES
+  BAUDIER, MICHEL               BECERRA, GASPAR
+  BAUDRILLART, HENRI LEON       BECHE-DE-MER
+  BAUDRY, OF BOURGUEIL          BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM
+  BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME     BECHUANA
+  BAUER, BRUNO                  BECHUANALAND
+  BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON        BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL
+  BAUFFREMONT                   BECK, DAVID
+  BAUHIN, GASPARD               BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND
+  BAULK                         BECKENHAM
+  BAUMBACH, RUDOLF              BECKER, HEINRICH
+  BAUME, ANTOINE                BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF
+  BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER         BECKET, THOMAS
+  BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL           BECKFORD, WILLIAM
+  BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG    BECKINGTON, THOMAS
+  BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN     BECKMANN, JOHANN
+  BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE   BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL
+  BAUTZEN                       BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY
+  BAUXITE                       BECKX, PIERRE JEAN
+  BAVAI                         BECQUE, HENRY FRANCOIS
+  BAVARIA                       BECQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO
+  BAVENO                        BECQUEREL
+  BAWBEE                        BED (furniture)
+  BAXTER, ANDREW                BED (layer of rock)
+  BAXTER, RICHARD               BEDARESI, YEDAIAH
+  BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY         BEDARIEUX
+  BAXTER, WILLIAM               BEDDGELERT
+  BAY                           BEDDOES, THOMAS
+  BAYAMO                        BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL
+  BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL        BEDE
+  BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS        BEDE, CUTHBERT
+  BAYAZID                       BEDELL, WILLIAM
+  BAYBAY                        BEDESMAN
+  BAY CITY                      BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF
+  BAYEUX                        BEDFORD (town of England)
+  BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE          BEDFORD (Indiana, U.S.A.)
+  BAYEZID I                     BEDFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
+  BAYEZID II                    BEDFORDSHIRE
+
+
+
+
+BASSO-RELIEVO (Ital. for "low relief"), the term applied to sculpture in
+which the design projects but slightly from the plane of the background.
+The relief may not project at all from the original surface of the
+material, as in the sunken reliefs of the Egyptians, and may be nearly
+flat, as in the Panathenaic procession of the Parthenon. In the early
+19th century the term _basso-relievo_, or "low relief," came to be
+employed loosely for all forms of relief, the term _mezzo-relievo_
+having already dropped out of general use owing to the difficulty of
+accurate application.
+
+
+
+
+BASS ROCK, THE, a small island in the Firth of Forth, about 2 m. from
+Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, Scotland. It is circular in shape, measuring
+a mile in circumference, and is 350 ft. high. On three sides the cliffs
+are precipitous, but they shelve towards the S.W., where landing is
+effected. The Bass Rock is an intrusive mass of phonolitic trachyte or
+orthophyre. No nepheline has been detected in the rock, but analcite is
+present in small quantity together with abundant orthoclase and green
+soda-augite. It bears a close resemblance to the eruptive masses of
+North Berwick Law and Traprain Law, but is non-porphyritic. It is
+regarded by Sir A. Geikie as a plug filling an old volcanic vent, from
+which lava emanated during the Calciferous Sandstone period. It used to
+be grazed by sheep, of which the mutton was thought to be unusually
+good, but its principal denizens are sea-birds, chiefly solan geese,
+which haunt the rock in vast numbers. A lighthouse with a six-flash
+lantern of 39,000 candle power was opened in 1002. For a considerable
+distance E. and W. there runs through the rock a tunnel, about 15 ft.
+high, accessible at low water. St Baldred, whose name has been given to
+several of the cliffs on the shore of the mainland, occupied a hermitage
+on the Bass, where he died in 756. In the 14th century the island became
+the property of the Lauders, called afterwards Lauders of the Bass, from
+whom it was purchased in 1671 by government, and a castle with dungeons
+was erected on it, in which many Covenanters were imprisoned. Among them
+were Alexander Peden (1626-1686), for four years, and John Blackadder
+(1615-1686), who died there after five years' detention. At the
+Revolution four young Jacobites captured the Rock, and having been
+reinforced by a few others, held it for King James from June 1691 to
+April 1694, only surrendering when threatened by starvation. Thus the
+island was the last place in Great Britain to submit to William III.
+Dismantled of its fortifications in 1701, the Bass passed into the
+ownership of Sir Hew Dalrymple, to whose family it belongs. It is let on
+annual rental for the feathers, eggs, oil and young of the sea-birds and
+for the fees of visitors, who reach it usually from Canty Bay and North
+Berwick.
+
+
+
+
+BASSUS, AUFIDIUS, a Roman historian, who lived in the reign of Tiberius.
+His work, which probably began with the civil wars or the death of
+Caesar, was continued by the elder Pliny, who, as he himself tells us,
+carried it down at least as far as the end of Nero's reign. The _Bellum
+Germanicum_ of Bassus, which is commended, may have been either a
+separate work or a section of his general history. The elder Seneca
+speaks highly of him as an historian, but the fragments preserved in
+that writer's _Suasoriae_ (vi. 23) relating to the death of Cicero, are
+characterized by an affected style.
+
+  Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, praefatio, 20; Tacitus, _Dialogus de Oratoribus_,
+  23; Quintilian, _Instit_, x. 1. 103.
+
+
+
+
+BASSUS, CAESIUS, a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign of Nero. He
+was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated his sixth satire to
+him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on Persius, vi. 1). He is said to
+have lost his life in the eruption of Vesuvius (79). He had a great
+reputation as a poet; Quintilian (_Instit_, x. 1. 96) goes so far as to
+say that, with the exception of Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth
+reading. He is also identified with the author of a treatise _De
+Metris_, of which considerable fragments, probably of an abbreviated
+edition, are extant (ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally
+in verse, and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used
+as an instruction book. A worthless and scanty account of some of the
+metres of Horace (in Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi. 305), bearing the
+title _Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris_ is not by him, but chiefly borrowed
+by its unknown author from the treatise mentioned above.
+
+
+
+
+BASSUS, CASSIANUS, called SCHOLASTICUS (lawyer), one of the _geoponici_
+or writers on agricultural subjects. He lived at the end of the 6th or
+the beginning of the 7th century A.D. He compiled from earlier writers a
+collection of agricultural literature (_Geoponica_) which was afterwards
+revised by an unknown editor and published about the year 950, in the
+reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, to whom the work itself has been
+ascribed. It contains a full list of the authorities drawn upon, and the
+subjects treated include agriculture, birds, bees, horses, cattle,
+sheep, dogs, fishes and the like.
+
+  COMPLETE EDITIONS.--Needham (1704), Niclas (1781), Beckh (1895); see
+  also Gemoll in _Berliner Studien_, i. (1884); Oder in _Rheinisches
+  Museum_, xlv. (1890), xlviii. (1893), and De Raynal in _Annuaire de
+  l'Assoc. pour l'Encouragement des Etudes Grecques_, viii. (1874).
+
+
+
+
+BASSUS, SALEIUS, Roman epic poet, a contemporary of Valerius Flaccus, in
+the reign of Vespasian. Quintilian credits him with a vigorous and
+poetical genius (_Instit_, x. 1. 90) and Julius Secundus, one of the
+speakers in Tacitus _Dialogus de Oratoribus_ (5; see also 9) styles him
+a perfect poet and most illustrious bard. He was apparently overtaken by
+poverty, but was generously treated by Vespasian, who made him a present
+of 500,000 sesterces. Nothing from his works has been preserved; the
+_Laus Pisonis_, which has been attributed to him, is probably by Titus
+Calpurnius Siculus (J. Held, _De Saleio Basso_. 1834).
+
+
+
+
+BASSVILLE, or BASSEVILLE, NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE (d. 1793), French
+journalist and diplomatist, was born at Abbeville on the 7th of February
+1753. He was trained for the priesthood, taught theology in a provincial
+seminary and then went to Paris. Here in 1784 he published _Elements de
+mythologie_ and some poems, which brought him into notice. On the
+recommendation of the prince of Conde he became tutor to two young
+Americans travelling in Europe. With them he visited Berlin, made the
+acquaintance there of Mirabeau, and became a member of the Berlin
+Academy Royal. At the outbreak of the Revolution he turned to
+journalism, becoming editor of the _Mercure international_. Then,
+through the Girondist minister Lebrun-Tondu, he entered the diplomatic
+service, went in May, 1792, as secretary of legation to Naples and was
+shortly afterwards sent, without official status, to Rome. Here his
+conduct was anything but diplomatic. He at once announced himself as the
+protector of the extreme Jacobins in Rome, demanded the expulsion of the
+French _emigres_ who had taken refuge there, including the "demoiselles
+Capet," and ordered the _fleur-de-lys_ on the escutcheon of the French
+embassy to be replaced by a picture of Liberty painted by a French art
+student. He talked at large of the "purple geese of the Capitol" and met
+the remonstrances of Cardinal Zelada, the papal secretary of state, with
+insults. This enraged the Roman populace; a riot broke out on the 13th
+of January 1793, and Bassville, who was driving with his family to the
+Corso, was dragged from his carriage and so roughly handled that he
+died. The affair was magnified in the Convention into a deliberate
+murder of the "representative of the Republic" by the pope's orders. In
+1797 by an article of the treaty of Tolentino the papal government
+agreed to pay compensation to Bassville's family. Among his writings we
+may also mention _Memoires historiques, critiques el politiques sur la
+Revolution de France_ (Paris 1790; English trans. London, 1790).
+
+  See F. Masson, _Les Diplomates de la Revolution_ (Paris, 1882);
+  Silvagni, _La Carte e la Societa romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX._
+  (Florence, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+BASTAR, a feudatory state of British India, in the Chattisgarh division
+of the Central Provinces; area, 13,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
+306,501, showing a decrease of 1% compared with an apparent increase of
+58% in the preceding decade. Estimated revenue L22,000; tribute L1100.
+The eastern part of Bastar is a flat elevated plateau, from 1800 to 2000
+ft. above the level of the sea, the centre and N.W. portions are very
+mountainous, and the southern parts consist of hills and plains. On the
+plateau there are but few hills; the streams run slowly and the country
+is a mixture of plain and undulating ground covered by dense _sal_
+forests. Principal mountains of the district: (1) a lofty range which
+separates it from the Sironcha district; (2) a range of equal height
+called the Bela Dila lying in the centre of the district; (3) a range
+running N. and S. near Narayanpur; (4) Tangri Dongri range, running E.
+and W.; (5) Tulsi Dongri, bordering on the Sabari river and the Jaipur
+state. There is also a small range running from the river Indravati to
+the Godavari. The Indravati, the Sabari and the Tal or Talper, are the
+chief rivers of the district; all of them affluents of the Godavari. The
+soil throughout the greater portion of Bastar consists of light clay,
+with an admixture of sand, suited for raising rice and wet crops. In
+the jungles the Marias, who are among the aboriginal tribes of Gond
+origin, raise kosra (_Panicum italicum_) and other inferior grains.
+Aboriginal races generally follow the migratory system of tillage,
+clearing the jungle on selected patches, and after taking crops for two
+or three years abandoning them for new ground. They do not use the
+plough; nor do they possess buffaloes, bullocks or cows; their only
+agricultural implement is a long-handled iron hoe. They are a timid,
+quiet, docile race, and although addicted to drinking not quarrelsome.
+They inhabit the densest jungles and are very shy, avoiding contact with
+strangers, and flying to the hills on the least alarm; but they bear a
+good character for honesty and truthfulness. They are very scantily
+dressed, wear a variety of trinkets, with a knife, hatchet, spear, bow
+and arrows, the only weapons they use. Their hair is generally shaved,
+excepting a topknot; and when not shaved it gets into a matted, tangled
+mass, gathered into a knot behind or on the crown. The Marias and the
+Jhurias are supposed to be a subdivision of the true Gond family. All
+the aboriginal tribes of Bastar worship the deities of the Hindu
+pantheon along with their own national goddess Danteswari.
+
+Bastar is divided into two portions--that held by the Raja or chief
+himself, and that possessed by feudatory chiefs under him. The climate
+is unhealthy--fever, smallpox, dysentery and rheumatism being the
+prevailing diseases. Jagdalpur, Bijapur, Madder and Bhupalpatnam are the
+only places of any note in the dependency, the first (on the Indravati
+river) being the residence of the raja and the chief people of the
+state. The principal products are rice, oil-seeds, lac, tussur silk,
+horns, hides, wax and a little iron. Teak timber is floated down the
+rivers to the Madras coast. A good road has brought Jagdalpur into
+connexion with the railway at Raipur.
+
+
+
+
+BASTARD (O. Fr. _bastard_, mod. _batard = fils de bast_, "pack-saddle
+child," from _bast_, saddle), a person born out of legal wedlock.
+Amongst the Romans, bastards were classified as _nothi_, children born
+in concubinage, and _spurii_, those not so born. Both classes had a
+right of succession to their mother, and the _nothi_, were entitled to
+support from their father, but had no rights of inheritance from him.
+Both, however, had in other respects most of the rights of citizenship.
+The Germanic law was based upon an entirely different principle. It
+recognized as legitimate only those whose parents were of the same
+social rank. All others were regarded as bastards, and took the status
+of the parent of inferior rank. The aim of all the Germanic codes was to
+preserve purity of race, not to improve morals, for incestuous unions
+are not censured. The influence of the Germanic law lasted throughout
+the early feudal period, and bastards were debarred rights of
+inheritance. In the 13th century the influence of Roman law tended again
+to modify this severity. An exception was probably made in the case of
+those whose fathers were of royal blood, in which case it even seems
+that no stigma was attached to the accident of their birth, nor did they
+suffer from the usual disabilities as to inheritance which attended
+those of illegitimate birth (Gregory of Tours, v. 25). Among the Franks
+we find Theodoric I., a natural son of Clovis, sharing the kingdom with
+the legitimate sons; Zwentibold, natural son of Arnulf, was created king
+of Lorraine by his father in 895; and even William the Conqueror
+actually assumed the appellation of bastard.
+
+In English law a bastard still retains certain disabilities. His rights
+are only such as he can acquire; for civilly he can inherit nothing,
+being looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes called _filius
+nullius_, sometimes _filius populi_. This, however, does not hold as to
+moral purposes, e.g. he cannot marry his mother or bastard sister. Yet
+he may gain a surname by reputation though he has none by inheritance,
+and may even be made legitimate and capable of inheriting by the
+transcendent power of an act of parliament.
+
+For poor-law purposes, all legitimate children take the settlement of
+their father, but a bastard takes the settlement of its mother. The
+mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to its custody in preference
+to the father, and consequently the responsibility of its support falls
+primarily on her. But the English law has always recognized the
+principle that to a certain extent the father must share in that
+responsibility. This, however, was imposed not with the idea of
+furnishing the woman with a civil remedy, nor to have a penal effect
+against the man, but solely to prevent the cost of maintenance of the
+bastard child from falling upon the parish. Indeed, the legislation upon
+the subject, which dates back to 1576, was until 1845 an intimate part
+of the poor law. The act of 1576, the basis of English bastardy law,
+empowered justices to take order for the punishment of the mother and
+reputed father of every bastard child left to the care of the parish,
+and to charge the mother and reputed father with the payment of a weekly
+sum or other needful sustenance. Other acts were passed in 1609 and
+1733, enabling the mother of any child chargeable or likely to become
+chargeable to the parish to secure the apprehension, and even the
+imprisonment, of the father until he should indemnify the parish,
+provisions which were made somewhat more stringent by acts passed in
+1809 and 1810. In 1832 a commission was appointed to inquire into the
+operation of the poor laws, and the commissioners in their report gave
+great attention to the subject of bastardy. They reviewed the various
+acts from 1576 downwards and gave examples of their operation. The
+conclusion to which the commissioners came was that the laws "which
+respect bastardy appear to be pre-eminently unwise," and that they gave
+rise to many abuses. For example, the weekly payment recovered by the
+parish was usually transferred to the mother; even in many cases
+guaranteed. The commissioners recommended that the mother alone should
+be responsible for the maintenance of the child. "This," they said, "is
+now the position of a widow, and there can be no reason for giving to
+vice privileges which we deny to misfortune." Acting on the
+recommendation of the commissioners the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834
+endeavoured to discourage the principle of making the putative father
+contribute by introducing a somewhat cumbersome method of procedure. The
+trend of public opinion proved against the discouragement of
+affiliation, and an act of 1839 transferred jurisdiction in affiliation
+cases from quarter-sessions to petty-sessions. A commission of inquiry
+on the working of the bastardy acts in 1844 recommended "that
+affiliation should be facilitated," and, accordingly, by the Bastardy
+Act of 1845 effect was given to this recommendation by giving the mother
+an independent civil remedy against the putative father and dissociating
+the parish altogether from the proceedings. Subsequently, legislation
+gave the parish the right of attaching, and in some cases suing for,
+money due from the putative father for the maintenance of the child. The
+existing law is set out under AFFILIATION.
+
+The incapacities attaching to a bastard consist principally in this,
+that he cannot be heir to any one; for being _nullius filius_, he is
+therefore of kin to nobody, and has no ancestor from whom an inheritable
+blood can be derived. Therefore, if there be no other claimant upon an
+inheritance than such illegitimate child, it escheats to the lord. And
+as bastards cannot be heirs themselves, so neither can they have any
+heirs but those of their own bodies; for as all collateral kindred
+consists in being derived from the same common ancestor, and as a
+bastard has no legal ancestor, he can have no collateral kindred, and
+consequently no legal heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent
+from himself. And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised
+therefor without issue and intestate, the land escheats to the lord of
+the fee. Originally a bastard was deemed incapable of holy orders, and
+disqualified by the fact of his birth from holding any dignity in the
+church; but this doctrine is now obsolete, and in all other respects
+there is no distinction between a bastard and another man. By the law of
+Scotland a bastard is not only excluded from his father's succession,
+because the law knows no father who is not marked out by marriage; and
+from all heritable succession, whether by the father or mother, because
+he cannot be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest in terms of the
+brief; but also from the movable succession of his mother, because he is
+not her lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all succession
+deferred by the law. But a bastard, although he cannot succeed _jure
+sanguinis_, may succeed by destination, where he is specially called to
+the succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as in England, a
+bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his own body; and hence,
+failing his lawful issue, the king succeeds to him as last heir.
+Formerly bastards in Scotland without issue of their own could not make
+a will, but this disability was removed by a statute of 1835. If
+bastards or other persons without kindred die intestate without wife or
+child, their effects go to the king as _ultimus haeres_; but a grant is
+usually made of them by letters patent, and the grantee becomes entitled
+to the administration.
+
+According to the common law, which is the law of England, a bastard
+cannot be divested of his state of illegitimacy, unless by the supreme
+power of an act of parliament. But in those countries which have
+followed the Roman or civil law, a bastard's status may be provisional,
+and he can be made legitimate by the subsequent marriage of his parents.
+(See LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION; and, for statistics, ILLEGITIMACY.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Bacquet, _Traite de la batardise_ (1608); Du Cange,
+  _Gloss. Lat._, infra "Bastardus"; L.G. Koenigswater, _Histoire de
+  l'organisation de la famille en France_ (1851), and _Essai sur les
+  enfants nes hors mariage_ (1842); E.D. Glasson, _Histoire des droits
+  et des institutions de l'Angleterre_ (6 vols., 1882-1883), _Histoire
+  du droit et des institutions de la France_ (1887); Pollock and
+  Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898); Stephen's _Commentaries_;
+  Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_ (3 vols.,
+  1898).
+
+
+
+
+BASTARNAE, the easternmost people of the Germanic race, the first to
+come into contact with the ancient world and the Slavs. Originally
+settled in Galicia and the Bukovina, they appeared on the lower Danube
+about 200 B.C., and were used by Philip V. of Macedon against his
+Thracian neighbours. Defeated by these the Bastarnae returned north,
+leaving some of their number (hence called Peucini) settled on Peuce, an
+island in the Danube. Their main body occupied the country between the
+eastern Carpathians and the Danube. As allies of Perseus and of
+Mithradates the Great, and lastly on their own account, they had hostile
+relations with the Romans who in the time of Augustus defeated them, and
+made a peace, which was disturbed by a series of incursions. In these
+the Bastarnae after a time gave place to the Goths, with whom they seem
+to have amalgamated, and we last hear of them as transferred by the
+emperor Probus to the right bank of the Danube. Polybius and the authors
+who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; Strabo, having learned of
+the Romans to distinguish Celts and Germans, first allows a German
+element; Tacitus expressly declares their German origin but says that
+the race was degraded by intermarriage with Sarmatians. The descriptions
+of their bodily appearance, tribal divisions, manner of life and methods
+of warfare are such as are applied to either race. No doubt they were an
+outpost of the Germans, and so had absorbed into themselves strong
+Getic, Celtic and Sarmatian elements.     (E. H. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BASTI, a town and district of British India, in the Gorakhpur division
+of the United Provinces. The town, a collection of villages, is on the
+river Kuana, 40 m. from Gorakhpur by railway. The population in 1901 was
+14,761. It has no municipality. The district has an area of 2792 sq. m.
+It stretches out in one vast marshy plain, draining towards the
+south-east, and traversed by the Rapti, Kuana, Banganga, Masdih, Jamwar,
+Ami and Katneihia rivers. The tract lying between these streams consists
+of a rich alluvial deposit, more or less subject to inundations, but
+producing good crops of rice, wheat and barley. In 1901 the population
+was 1,846,153, showing an increase of 3% in the decade. A railway from
+Gorakhpur to Gonda runs through the district, and the river Gogra is
+navigable. A large transit trade is conducted with Nepal. The export
+trade of the district itself is chiefly in rice, sugar and other
+agricultural produce.
+
+
+
+
+BASTIA, a town and seaport on the eastern coast of the island of
+Corsica, 98 m. N.N.E. of Ajaccio by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,509. Bastia,
+the chief commercial town in Corsica, consists of the densely-populated
+quarter of the old port with its labyrinth of steep and narrow streets,
+and of a more modern quarter to the north, which has grown up round the
+new port. La Traverse, a fine boulevard, intersects the town from north
+to south. Rising from the sea-shore like an amphitheatre, Bastia
+presents an imposing appearance, which is enhanced by the loftiness of
+its houses; it has, however, little of architectural interest to offer.
+Its churches, of which the largest is San Giovanni Battista, are florid
+in decoration, as are the law-court, the theatre and the hotel-de-ville.
+The citadel, which dominates the old port, has a keep of the 14th
+century. As capital of an arrondissement, Bastia is the seat of a
+tribunal of first instance and a sub-prefect, while it is also the seat
+of the military governor of Corsica, of a court of appeal for the whole
+island, of a court of assizes, and of a tribunal and a chamber of
+commerce, and has a lycee, a branch of the Bank of France, and a library
+with between 30,000 and 40,000 volumes. The town has active commerce,
+especially with Italy. The new port has 1100 ft. of quayage, served by a
+railway, and with a depth alongside of 25 ft. The total number of
+vessels entered in 1907 was 721 with a tonnage of 337,551, of which
+203,950 were French. The chief exports are chestnut extract for tanning,
+cedrates, citrons, oranges, early vegetables, fish, copper ore and
+antimony ore. Imports include coal, grain, flour and wine. Industry
+consists chiefly in fishing (sardines, &c., and coral), the manufacture
+of tobacco, oil-distilling, tanning, and the preparation of preserved
+citrons and of macaroni and similar provisions.
+
+Bastia dates from the building of the Genoese fortress or "bastille" by
+Lionello Lomellino in 1383. Under the Genoese it was long the principal
+stronghold in the north of the island, and the residence of the
+governor; and in 1553 it was the first town attacked by the French. On
+the division of the island in 1797 into the two departments of Golo and
+Liamone, Bastia remained the capital of the former; but when the two
+were again united Ajaccio obtained the superiority. The city was taken
+by the English in 1745 and again in 1794.
+
+
+
+
+BASTIAN, ADOLF (1826-   ), German ethnologist, was born at Bremen on the
+26th of June 1826. He was educated as a physician, but from his early
+years devoted himself to travel. Proceeding to Australia in 1851 as
+surgeon on a vessel, he had visited almost every part of the world
+before his return in 1859. In 1861 he made an expedition to the Far East
+which lasted five years. Upon his return he commenced the publication of
+his great work on _The Peoples of Eastern Asia_, an immense storehouse
+of facts owing little to arrangement or style. He settled in Berlin,
+where he was made professor of ethnology at the university and keeper of
+the ethnological museum. He succeeded R. Virchow as president of the
+Berlin Anthropological Society, and to him was largely due the formation
+in 1878 of the German Africa Society of Berlin, which did much to
+encourage German colonization in Africa. Later he undertook further
+scientific travels in Africa, South America and India. The results of
+these explorations were made public in a long series of separate
+publications comprising several on Buddhism, and on the psychological
+problems presented by native superstitions. Bastian also edited the
+_Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_ from 1869, in conjunction with Virchow and
+Robert von Hartmann. On his seventieth birthday, 1896 (during which year
+he started on an expedition to Malaysia), he was presented with a volume
+of essays composed by the most distinguished ethnologists in celebration
+of the event and dedicated to him. Among his more important works may be
+mentioned:--_Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1860); _Die Volker
+des ostlichen Asien_ (Jena, 1866-1871); _Ethnologische Forschungen_
+(Leipzig, 1871-1873); _Die Kulturlander des alten Amerika_ (Berlin,
+1878); _Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologie_ (Berlin, 1881);
+_Indonesien_ (Leipzig, 1884); _Der Fetisch an der Kuste Guineas_
+(Berlin, 1885); _Die mikronesischen Kolonien_ (1899-1900); _Die
+wechselnden Phasen im geschichtlichen Sehkreis und ihre Ruckwirkung auf
+die Volkerkunde_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+BASTIAT, FREDERIC (1801-1850), French economist, was the son of a
+merchant of Bayonne, and was born in that town on the 29th of June 1801.
+Educated at the colleges of Saint-Sever and of Soreze, he entered in
+1818 the counting-house of his uncle at Bayonne. The practical routine
+of mercantile life being distasteful to him, in 1825 he retired to a
+property at Mugron, of which he became the owner on the death of his
+grandfather. Here Bastiat occupied himself with farming, his leisure
+being devoted to study and meditation. He welcomed with enthusiasm the
+Revolution of 1830. In 1831 he became a _juge de paix_ of his canton,
+and in 1832 a member of the _conseil general_ of the Landes. In 1834 he
+published his first pamphlet, and between 1841 and 1844 three others,
+all on questions of taxation affecting local interests. During this
+period an accidental circumstance led him to become a subscriber to an
+English newspaper, the _Globe and Traveller_, through which he was made
+acquainted with the nature and progress of the crusade of the
+Anti-Corn-Law League against protection. After studying the movement for
+two years, he resolved to inaugurate a similar movement in France. To
+prepare the way, he contributed in 1844 to the _Journal des Economistes_
+an article "Sur l'influence des tarifs anglais et francais," which
+attracted great attention, and was followed by others, including the
+first series of his brilliant _Sophismes Economiques_.
+
+In 1845 Bastiat came to Paris in order to superintend the publication of
+his _Cobden et la Ligue, ou l'agitation anglaise pour la liberte des
+echanges_, and was very cordially received by the economists of the
+capital. From Paris he went to London and Manchester, and made the
+personal acquaintance of Cobden, Bright and other leaders of the league.
+When he returned to France he found that his writings had been exerting
+a powerful influence; and in 1846 he assisted in organizing at Bordeaux
+the first French Free-Trade Association (Association pour la Liberte des
+Echanges). The rapid spread of the movement soon required him to abandon
+Mugron for Paris.
+
+During the eighteen months which followed this change his labours were
+prodigious. He acted as secretary of the central committee of the
+association, organized and corresponded with branch societies, waited on
+ministers, procured subscriptions, edited a weekly paper, the
+_Libre-Echange_, contributed to the _Journal des Economistes_ and to
+three other periodicals, addressed meetings in Paris and the provinces,
+and delivered a course of lectures on the principles of political
+economy to students of the schools of law and of medicine. The cause to
+which he thus devoted himself at the expense of his health and life
+appeared for a time as if it would be successful; but the forces in its
+favour were much weaker and those opposed to it were much stronger in
+France than in England, and this became more apparent as the struggle
+proceeded, until it was brought to an abrupt end by the Revolution of
+February 1848. This event made the socialistic and communistic
+principles, which had been gathering and spreading during the previous
+thirty years, temporarily supreme. (See NATIONAL WORKSHOPS.) In this
+grave crisis Bastiat nobly performed his duty. Although exhausted by the
+far too heavy labours in which he had been engaged, although robbed of
+his voice by the malady which was preying upon him, so that he could do
+but little to defend the truth from the tribune of the Constituent
+Assembly, he could still suggest wise counsels in the committee of
+finance of which he was vice-president, and he could still use his pen
+with a vigour and dexterity which made him capable of combating
+single-handed many opponents.
+
+He wrote in rapid succession a series of brilliant and effective
+pamphlets and essays, showing how socialism was connected with
+protection, and exposing the delusions on which it rested. Thus within
+the space of two years there appeared _Propriete et Loi, Justice et
+Fraternite, Propriete et Spoliation, L'Etat, Baccalaureat et Socialisme,
+Protectionisme et Communisme, Capital et Rente, Maudit Argent,
+Spoliation et Loi, Gratuite du Credit_, and _Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on
+ne voit pas_. While thus occupied he was meditating the composition of a
+great constructive work, meant to renovate economical science by basing
+it on the principle that "interests, left to themselves, tend to
+harmonious combinations, and to the progressive preponderance of the
+general good." The first volume of this work _Les Harmonies economiques_
+was published in the beginning of 1850. In the autumn of that year, when
+working on the second volume, the increase of his malady compelled him
+to go to Italy. After lingering at Pisa and Florence he reached Rome,
+but only to die there on the 24th of December 1850 in the fiftieth year
+of his age.
+
+The life-work of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated, requires to
+be considered in three aspects. (1) He was the advocate of free-trade,
+the opponent of protection. The general principles of free-trade had, of
+course, been clearly stated and solidly established before he was born,
+but he did more than merely restate them. He showed, as no one before
+him had done, how they were practically applicable to French
+agriculture, trade and commerce; and in the _Sophismes Economiques_ we
+have the completest and most effective, the wisest and the wittiest
+exposure of protectionism in its principles, reasonings and consequences
+which exists in any language. (2) He was the opponent of socialism. In
+this respect also he had no equal among the economists of France. He
+alone fought socialism hand to hand, body to body, as it were, not
+caricaturing it, not denouncing it, not criticizing under its name some
+merely abstract theory, but taking it as actually presented by its most
+popular representatives, considering patiently their proposals and
+arguments, and proving conclusively that they proceeded on false
+principles, reasoned badly and sought to realize generous aims by
+foolish and harmful means. Nowhere will reason find a richer armoury of
+weapons available against socialism than in the pamphlets published by
+Bastiat between 1848 and 1850. (3) He attempted to expound in an
+original and independent manner political economy as a science. In
+combating, first, the Protectionists, and, afterwards, the Socialists,
+there gradually rose on his mind a conception which seemed to him to
+shed a flood of light over the whole of economical doctrine, and,
+indeed, over the whole theory of society, viz. the harmony of the
+essential tendencies of human nature. The radical error, he became
+always more convinced, both of protectionism and socialism, was the
+assumption that human interests, if left to themselves would inevitably
+prove antagonistic and anti-social, capital robbing labour, manufactures
+ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the native, the consumer the
+producer, &c.; and the chief weakness of the various schools of
+political economy, he believed, he had discovered in their imperfect
+apprehension of the truth that human interests, when left to themselves,
+when not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered with, tend to harmonious
+combination, to the general good.
+
+  His _OEuvres completes_ are in 7 vols. The first contains an
+  interesting _Memoir_ by M. Paillottet.
+
+
+
+
+BASTIDE, JULES (1800-1879), French publicist, was born at Paris on the
+22nd of November 1800. He studied law for a time, and afterwards engaged
+in business as a timber merchant. In 1821 he became a member of the
+French Carbonari, and took a prominent part in the Revolution of 1830.
+After the "July Days" he received an artillery command in the national
+guard. For his share in the _emeute_ in Paris (5th of June 1832) on the
+occasion of the funeral of General Maximilien Lamarque, Bastide was
+sentenced to death but escaped to London. On his return to Paris in 1834
+he was acquitted, and occupied himself with journalism, contributing to
+the _National_, a republican journal of which he became editor in 1836.
+In 1847 he founded the _Revue nationale_ with the collaboration of P.J.
+Buchez (q.v.), with whose ideas he had become infected. After the
+Revolution of February 1848 Bastide's intimate knowledge of foreign
+affairs gained for him a secretarial post in the provisional government,
+and, after the creation of the executive commission, he was made
+minister of foreign affairs. At the close of 1848 he threw up his
+portfolio, and, after the _coup d'etat_ of December 1851, retired into
+private life. He died on the 2nd of March 1879. His writings comprise
+_De l'education publique en France_ (1847); _Histoire de l'assemblee
+legislative_ (1847); _La Republique francaise et l'Italie en 1848_
+(1858); _Histoire des guerres religieuses en France_ (1859).
+
+
+
+
+BASTIDE (Provencal _bastida_, building), a word applied to the fortified
+towns founded in south-western France in the middle ages, and
+corresponding to the _villes neuves_ of northern France. They were
+established by the abbeys, the nobles and the crown, frequently by two
+of these authorities in co-operation, and were intended to serve as
+defensive posts and centres of population for sparsely-inhabited
+districts. In addition, they formed a source of revenue and power for
+their founders, who on their part conceded liberal charters to the new
+towns. They were built on a rectangular plan, with a large central
+square and straight thoroughfares running at right angles or parallel to
+one another, this uniformity of construction being well exemplified in
+the existing _bastide_ of Monpazier (Dordogne) founded by the English in
+1284. Mont-de-Marsan, the oldest of the bastides, was founded in 1141,
+and the movement for founding them lasted during the 12th, 13th and 14th
+centuries, attaining its height between 1250 and 1350.
+
+  See E. Menault, _Les Villes Neuves, leur origine et leur influence
+  dans le mouvement communal_ (Paris, 1868); Curie-Seimbres, _Essai sur
+  les villes fondees dans le sud-ouest de la France sous le nom de
+  bastides_ (Toulouse, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES (1848-1884), French painter, was born in the
+village of Damvillers, Meuse, France, on the 1st of November 1848 and
+spent his childhood there. He first studied at Verdun, and prompted by a
+love of art went in 1867 to Paris, where he was admitted to the Ecole
+des Beaux-arts, working under Cabanel. After exhibiting in the Salons of
+1870 and 1872 works which attracted no attention, in 1874 he made his
+mark with his "Song of Spring," a study of rural life, representing a
+peasant girl sitting on a knoll looking down on a village. His "Portrait
+of my Grandfather," exhibited in the same year, was not less remarkable
+for its artless simplicity and received a third-class medal. This
+success was confirmed in 1875 by the "First Communion," a picture of a
+little girl minutely worked up as to colour, and a "Portrait of M.
+Hayem." In 1875 he took the second Prix de Rome with his "Angels
+appearing to the Shepherds," exhibited again in 1878. His next endeavour
+to win the Grand Prix de Rome in 1876 with "Priam at the Feet of
+Achilles" was again unsuccessful (it is in the Lille gallery), and the
+painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon of 1877 he
+sent a full-length "Portrait of Lady L." and "My Parents"; and in 1878 a
+"Portrait of M. Theuriet" and "The Hayfield." The last picture, now in
+the Luxembourg, is regarded as a typical work from its stamp of
+realistic truth. Thenceforth Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as
+the leader of a school, and his "Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt"
+(1879), painted in a light key, won him the cross of the Legion of
+Honour. In 1880 he exhibited a small portrait of M. Andrieux and "Joan
+of Arc listening to the Voices"; and in the same year, at the Royal
+Academy, the little portrait of the "Prince of Wales." In 1881 he
+painted "The Beggar" and the "Portrait of Albert Wolf"; in 1882 "Le Pere
+Jacques"; in 1883 "Love in a Village," in which we find some trace of
+Courbet's influence. His last dated work is "The Forge" (1884). The
+artist, long ailing, had tried in vain to re-establish his health in
+Algiers. He died in Paris on the 10th of December 1884, when planning a
+new series of rural subjects. Among his more important works may also be
+mentioned the portrait of "Mme J. Drouet" (1883); "Gambetta on his
+death-bed," and some landscapes; "The Vintage" (1880), and "The Thames
+at London" (1882). "The Little Chimney-Sweep" was never finished. An
+exhibition of his collected works was opened in March and April 1885.
+
+  See A. Theuriet, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885--English edition, 1892); L. de
+  Fourcaud, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885).     (H. Fr.)
+
+
+
+
+BASTILLE (from Fr. _bastir_, now _batir_, to build), originally any
+fortified building forming part of a system of defence or attack; the
+name was especially applied to several of the principal points in the
+ancient fortifications of Paris. In the reign of King John, or even
+earlier, the gate of Saint Antoine was flanked by two towers; and about
+1369 Hugues Aubriot, at the command of Charles V., changed it into a
+regular bastille or fort by the addition of six others of massive
+structure, the whole united by thick walls and surrounded by a ditch 25
+ft. wide. Various extensions and alterations were afterwards effected;
+but the building remained substantially what it was made by the vigorous
+provost, a strong and gloomy structure, with eight stern towers. As the
+ancient fortifications of the city were superseded, the use of the word
+bastille as a general designation gradually died out, and it became
+restricted to the castle of Saint Antoine, the political importance of
+which made it practically, long before it was actually, the only
+bastille of Paris. The building had originally a military purpose, and
+it appears as a fortress on several occasions in French history. When
+Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, his opponents in the
+city took refuge in the Bastille, which they were prepared to defend
+with vigour, but the want of provisions obliged them to capitulate. In
+1588 the duke of Guise took possession of the Bastille, gave the command
+of it to Bussy-Leclerc, and soon afterwards shut up the whole parlement
+within its walls, for having refused their adherence to the League. When
+Henry IV. became master of Paris he committed the command of the
+Bastille to Sully, and there he deposited his treasures, which at the
+time of his death amounted to the sum of 15,870,000 livres. On the 11th
+of January 1649 the Bastille was invested by the forces of the Fronde,
+and after a short cannonade capitulated on the 13th of that month. The
+garrison consisted of only twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a
+peace with the court on the 11th of March; but it was stipulated by
+treaty that they should retain possession of the Bastille, which in fact
+was not restored to the king till the 21st of October 1651.
+
+At a very early period, however, the Bastille was employed for the
+custody of state prisoners, and it was ultimately much more of a prison
+than a fortress. According to the usual account, which one is tempted to
+ascribe to the popular love of poetical justice, the first who was
+incarcerated within its walls was the builder himself, Hugues Aubriot.
+Be this as it may, the duke of Nemours spent thirteen years there in one
+of those iron cages which Louis XI. called his _fillettes_; and Jacques
+d'Armagnac, Poyet and Chabot were successively prisoners. It was not
+till the reign of Louis XIII. that it became recognized as a regular
+place of confinement; but from that time till its destruction it was
+frequently filled to embarrassment with men and women of every age and
+condition. Prisoners were detained without trial on _lettres de cachet_
+for different reasons, to avoid a scandal, either public or private, or
+to satisfy personal animosities. But the most frequent and most
+notorious use of the Bastille was to imprison those writers who attacked
+the government or persons in power. It was this which made it so hated
+as an emblem of despotism, and caused its capture and demolition in the
+Revolution.
+
+Of the treatment of prisoners in the Bastille very various accounts have
+been given even by those who speak from personal experience, for the
+simple reason that it varied greatly in different cases. The prisoners
+were divided into two main classes, those who were detained on grounds
+of precaution or by way of admonitory correction, and those who lay
+under presumption or proof of guilt. The former were subject to no
+investigation or judgment, and the length of their imprisonment depended
+on the will of the king; the latter were brought to trial in the
+ordinary courts or before special tribunals, such as that of the
+Arsenal--though even in their case the interval between their arrest and
+their trial was determined solely by the royal decree, and it was quite
+possible for a man to grow old in the prison without having the
+opportunity of having his fate decided. Until guilt was established, the
+prisoner was registered in the king's name, and--except in the case of
+state-prisoners of importance, who were kept with greater strictness and
+often in absolute isolation--he enjoyed a certain degree of comfort and
+freedom. Visitors were admitted under restrictions; games were allowed;
+and, for a long time at least, exercise was permitted in open parts of
+the interior. Food was both abundant and good, at least for the better
+class of prisoners; and instances were not unknown of people living
+below their allowance and, by arrangement with the governor, saving the
+surplus. When the criminality of the prisoner was established, his name
+was transferred to the register of the "commission," and he became
+exposed to numerous hardships and even barbarities, which however
+belonged not so much to the special organization of the Bastille as to
+the general system of criminal justice then in force.
+
+Among the more distinguished personages who were confined in this
+fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV. and XVI., were the famous
+_Man of the Iron Mask_ (see IRON MASK), Foucquet, the marshal Richelieu,
+Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville, Voltaire, Latude, Le Prevot de
+Beaumont, Labourdonnais, Lally, Cardinal de Rohan, Linguet and La
+Chalotais. While no detestation is too great for that system of "royal
+pantheism" which led to the unjust and often protracted imprisonment of
+even men of great ability and stainless character, it is unnecessary to
+give implicit credence to all the tales of horror which found currency
+during the excitement of the Revolution, and which historical evidence,
+as well as _a priori_ considerations, tends to strip of their more
+dreadful features, and even in many cases to refute altogether. Much
+light of an unexpected kind has in modern times been shed on the history
+of the Bastille from the pages of its own records. These documents had
+been flung out into the courts of the building by the revolutionary
+captors, and after suffering grievous diminution and damage were finally
+stored up and forgotten in the vaults of the library of the (so-called)
+Arsenal. Here they were discovered in 1840 by Francois Ravaisson, who
+devoted himself to their arrangement, elucidation and publication.
+
+At the breaking out of the Revolution the Bastille was attacked by the
+Parisians; and, after a vigorous resistance, it was taken and razed to
+the ground on the 14th of July 1789. At the time of its capture only
+seven prisoners were found in it. A very striking account of the siege
+will be found in Carlyle's _French Revolution_, vol. i. The site of the
+building is now marked by a lofty column of bronze, dedicated to the
+memory of the patriots of July 1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded
+figure of the genius of liberty.
+
+  See the _Memoirs_ of Linguet (1783), and Latude (ed. by Thierry, tome
+  iii. 18mo, 1791-1793); also Francois Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la
+  Bastille_ (16 vols. 8vo, 1866-1886); Delort, _Histoire de la detention
+  des philosophes a la Bastille_ (3 vols., 1829); F. Bournon, _La
+  Bastille_ (1893); Fr. Funck-Brentano, _Les Lettres de cachet a Paris,
+  etude suivie d'une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille_ (1904); G.
+  Lecocq, _La Prise de la Bastille_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+BASTINADO (Span. _baston_, Fr. _baton_, a stick, cudgel), the European
+name for a form of punishment common in the east, especially in Turkey,
+Persia and China. It consists in blows with a light stick or lath of
+bamboo upon the soles of the feet or on the buttocks. The terror of the
+punishment lies not in the severity of the blows, which are on the
+contrary scarcely more than tapping, but in its long continuation. A
+skilful bastinadoist can kill his victim after hours of torture.
+
+
+
+
+BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. _bastire_, to build), a work
+forming part of a line of fortifications. The general trace of a bastion
+is similar to an irregular pentagon formed by a triangle and a narrow
+rectangle, the base of the triangle coinciding with the long side of the
+rectangle. The two sides of the triangle form the "faces" of the
+bastion, which join at the "salient" angle, the short sides of the
+rectangle form the "flanks." Bastions were arranged so that the fire
+from the flanks of each protected not only the front of the curtain but
+also the faces of the adjacent bastions. A "tower bastion" is a
+case-mated tower built in bastion form; a "demi-bastion" is a work
+formed by half a bastion (bisected through the salient angle) and by a
+parapet along the line of bisection; a "flat bastion" is a bastion built
+on a curtain and having a very obtuse salient angle.
+
+
+
+
+BASTWICK, JOHN (1593-1654), English physician and religious zealot, was
+born at Writtle, in Essex, in 1593, and after a brief education at
+Cambridge, wandered on the continent and graduated in medicine at Padua.
+On his return he settled in Colchester. His celebrity rests on his
+strong opposition to the Roman Catholic ceremonial. About 1633 he
+printed in Holland two Latin treatises, entitled _Elenchus Religionis
+Papisticae_, and _Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Latialium_; and as
+Laud and other English prelates thought themselves aimed at, he was
+fined L1000 in the court of high commission, excommunicated and
+prohibited from practising physic, while his books were ordered to be
+burnt and the author himself consigned to prison. Instead of recanting,
+however, he wrote _Apologeticus ad Praesules Anglicanos_, and another
+book called _The Litany_, in which he exclaimed vehemently against the
+proceedings of the court, and charged the bishops with being the enemies
+of God and "the tail of the beast." William Prynne and Henry Burton
+coming under the lash of the star-chamber court at the same time, they
+were all censured as turbulent and seditious persons, and condemned to
+pay a fine of L5000 each, to be set in the pillory, to lose their ears,
+and to undergo imprisonment for life in remote parts of the kingdom,
+Bastwick being sent to Scilly. The parliament in 1640 reversed these
+proceedings, and ordered Bastwick a reparation of L5000 out of the
+estates of the commissioners and lords who had sentenced him. He joined
+the parliamentary army, but in later years showed bitter opposition to
+the Independents. He died in the latter part of 1654.
+
+
+
+
+BASUTOLAND (officially "The Territory of Basutoland"), an inland state
+and British crown colony of S.E. Africa, situated between 28 deg. 35'
+and 30 deg. 30' S. and 27 deg. and 29 deg. 25' E. It has an area of
+10,293 sq. m., being somewhat smaller than Belgium, and is bounded S.,
+S.E., and N.E. by the Drakensberg, N. and N.W. by the Caledon river,
+S.W. by a range of low hills extending from the Caledon above Wepener to
+the Orange river, and south of the Orange by the Telle or Tees river to
+its source in the Drakensberg. Its greatest length S.W. to N.E. is 145
+m.; its greatest breadth N. to S. 120 m. On every side it is surrounded
+by British colonies, north by the Orange River Colony, south-west and
+south by Cape Colony, and east by Natal.
+
+Basutoland, or Lesuto (Lesotho) as the natives call it, forms the
+south-eastern edge of the interior tableland of South Africa, and has a
+rugged and broken surface with a mean elevation of 6000 ft. The
+Drakensberg (q.v.) forming the buttress of the plateau seaward, attain
+their highest elevation on the Basuto-Natal border. The frontier line
+follows the crest of the mountains, three peaks some 10,000 or more ft.
+high--Giant's Castle, Champagne Castle or Cathkin Peak and Mont aux
+Sources--towering high above the general level. Mount Hamilton, which
+lies north of the waterparting, is over 9000 ft. high. From Mont aux
+Sources, table-shaped, and called by the Basutos _Potong_ (Antelope), a
+second range of mountains, the Maluti, runs S.W. through the entire
+length of Basutoland. The crest of the Maluti is in few places lower
+than 7000 ft. whilst Machacha, the culminating point, is about 10,500
+ft. From the tableland north of the Maluti several isolated hills rise,
+the most noted being the almost inaccessible Thaba Bosigo--the rallying
+place of the Basuto in many of their wars. Shut off from the adjacent
+Indian Ocean by its mountain barrier, the drainage of the country is
+westward to the distant Atlantic. As its name implies, the chief rivers
+rise in Mont aux Sources. From the inner sides of that mountain descend
+the Caledon and the Senku, whilst from its seaward face the Tugela flows
+through Natal to the Indian Ocean. The Caledon runs north of the Maluti,
+the Senku south of that range. From the slopes of the Maluti descend
+many streams, the largest being the Kornet Spruit, which joins the Senku
+and other torrents from the Drakensberg to form the upper Orange
+(q.v.). The Caledon also, sweeping southward, unites with the Orange
+beyond the frontiers of Basutoland. Ordinarily shallow, the rivers after
+heavy rain fill with great rapidity, sweeping away everything in their
+path. In the richer soil they cut deep channels; the denudation thus
+caused threatens to diminish seriously the area of arable and pasture
+land. The river beds contain dangerous quicksands.
+
+The aspect of the country is everywhere grand, and often beautiful,
+fully justifying the title, "The Switzerland of South Africa," often
+applied to it. Viewed from a distance the mountains appear as dark
+perpendicular barriers, quite impenetrable; but narrow paths lead round
+the precipitous face of the hills, and when the inner side is gained a
+wonderful panorama opens out. In every direction can be seen luxuriant
+valleys through which rivers thread their silvery way, wild chasms,
+magnificent waterfalls--that of Maletsunyane has an unbroken leap of
+over 600 ft.--and, above all, hill crest after hill crest in seeming
+endless succession. In winter the effect is heightened by the snow which
+caps all the higher peaks.
+
+_Geology._--Basutoland is entirely occupied by the upper division
+(Stormberg series) of the Karroo formation. The highest strata (Volcanic
+group) form the rugged elevated spurs of the Drakensberg mountains which
+extend along the eastern territorial boundary. It has been suggested
+that these spurs represent the sites of vents or fissures of eruption.
+The upper part of the Maluti range consists of flows of melaphyres and
+diabases belonging to the volcanic beds. Among these lavas is the "pipe"
+amygdaloid of which many blocks have been transported great distances
+down the Vaal river. The amygdales are three or four inches long and
+about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Heulandite, with thomsonite,
+stilbite, scolecite, calcite and chalcedony, occur as infilling
+minerals.
+
+_Climate._--The climate is excellent, invigorating alike for Europeans
+and natives. The mean annual temperature is about 60 deg. F. The four
+seasons are distinctly marked, a rarity in South Africa, where the
+transition from summer to winter is generally very rapid. The heat of
+summer (December-March, which is the rainy season) is tempered by cool
+breezes; winter (May-September, inclusive) is dry, cold and bracing, and
+frost prevails for prolonged periods. The average annual rainfall is
+about 30 in. The general health conditions are good. Malaria is almost
+unknown and chest complaints are rare. Epidemics of smallpox and typhoid
+occur; and leprosy, imported from the Orange River and Cape Colonies,
+has taken firm hold on the Basuto, of whom about 91 per 1000 are
+sufferers from this disease.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--A few kloofs are wooded, but of forest land there is
+none. Along the upper courses of the rivers are willows and wild olive
+trees; round the chief settlements the eucalyptus and the pine have been
+planted. Heaths, generally somewhat rare in South Africa outside the
+Cape peninsula, are abundant in Basutoland. The Alpine flora is very
+beautiful. There are few wild animals; but the eland, hartebeest and
+smaller antelopes are found, as well as the leopard and the jackal.
+Mountain hares, partridges and quails afford good sport; baboons and
+great hawks live in the mountains. The few fish include the barbel.
+Swarms of locusts occasionally visit the country; the locusts are eaten
+by the Basuto.
+
+_Population and Towns._--Considering the extensive area of uninhabitable
+mountain land it contains, the Territory supports a large population.
+The inhabitants increased from 128,206 in 1875 to 348,848 in 1904. The
+females outnumber the males by about 20,000, which is, however, about
+the number of adult males away from the country at any given period. The
+majority live in the district between the Maluti mountains and the
+Caledon river. The great bulk of the people are Basuto, but there are
+some thousands of Barolong and other Kaffirs. The Basuto proper are a
+branch of the Bechuana family of Bantu-Negroids. The white inhabitants
+in 1904 numbered 895, and there were 222 coloured persons other than
+natives. The seat of government is Maseru, on the left bank of the
+Caledon, with a population of about 1000 including some 100 Europeans.
+Mafeteng, in the N.W. near the Cape frontier, is a thriving agricultural
+centre, as is Butha Buthe in the N.E. Morija, some 16 m. S.E. of Maseru,
+is the oldest mission station in the Territory, having been founded by
+the Paris Society about 1833. Three miles from Morija is Matsieng, the
+kraal of the paramount chief Lerothodi (who died in August 1905). There
+are numerous mission stations throughout Basutoland, to several of which
+Biblical names have been given, such as Shiloh, Hermon, Cana, Bethesda,
+Berea.
+
+_Agriculture and Trade._--Basutoland is one of the greatest
+grain-growing countries of South Africa. The richest tract of land is
+that between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon river. In summer the
+country appears as one waving field of wheat, millet and mealies; whilst
+on the mountain slopes and on their flat tops are large flocks of sheep,
+cattle and goats, and troops of ponies. The Basuto ponies, said to be
+descended from Shetland ponies which, imported to the Cape in 1840,
+strayed into the mountains, are short-legged, strong-bodied,
+sure-footed, and noted for their hardiness. Improvements in the breed
+have been effected by the introduction of Arab stallions. Nearly every
+Basuto is an agriculturist; there are no manufactories, and the
+minerals, in accordance with the desire of the people, are not worked.
+The land is wholly in the possession of the natives, who hold it on the
+communal system. Whites and Indians are allowed to establish trading
+stations on obtaining special permits from the government, and the
+Indians absorb much of the retail trade. The chief exports are wheat,
+mealies, Kaffir corn, wool, mohair, horses and cattle. The great bulk of
+the imports are textiles. The value of the trade depends on regular
+rains, so that in seasons of drought the exports seriously diminish. The
+average annual value of trade for the five years ending the 30th of June
+1905 was:--Exports L215,668, imports L203,026. Trade is almost entirely
+with Orange River Colony and Cape Colony. The Territory is a member of
+the South African Customs Union. Some 60,000 Basuto (annual average)
+find employment outside the Territory, more than half of whom seek farm
+and domestic service. A small proportion go to the Johannesburg gold
+mines, and others obtain employment on the railways.
+
+Communication over the greater part of the Territory is by road; none of
+the rivers is navigable. A state-owned railway, 16-1/2 m. long, starting
+from Maseru crosses the Caledon river and joins the line connecting
+Bloemfontein and Ladysmith. This railway follows, N.E. of Maseru, the
+right bank of the Caledon, and affords a ready means of transport for
+the cereals raised on the left or Basuto side of the river. Highroads,
+maintained by the government, traverse every part of the country, and
+bridges have been built across the Caledon. The usual mode of conveyance
+is by ox-waggon or light cart. Several passes through the Drakensberg
+into Griqualand East and Natal exist, but are little used. There is a
+complete postal and telegraphic service and a telephone line connects
+all government stations.
+
+_Government and Finance._--Basutoland is a crown colony, of which the
+high commissioner for South Africa is governor. In him resides the
+legislative power, exercised by proclamation. The Territory is
+administered, under the direction of the governor, by a resident
+commissioner, who is also the chief judicial officer. He is aided by a
+government secretary and by assistant commissioners. Under the British
+officials the country is governed by hereditary native chiefs, over whom
+is a paramount chief. The chiefs have jurisdiction in cases affecting
+natives, but there is a right of appeal to the courts of the
+commissioners, who try all cases in which any of the parties are
+European. A national council (_pitso_), representative of all the native
+tribes, meets annually for the free discussion of public affairs. For
+administrative purposes the Territory is divided into the seven
+districts of Maseru, Leribe, Mohales Hoek, Berea, Mafeteng, Quthing and
+Qacha's Nek, each of which is subdivided into wards presided over by
+Basuto chiefs.
+
+Revenue is obtained from a hut tax of L1 per hut; the sale of licences
+to trade; customs and post office receipts. Seven-eighths of the revenue
+comes from the hut tax and customs. The average annual revenue for the
+five years 1901-1905 was L96,880; the average annual expenditure
+L69,559. Basutoland has no public debt.
+
+_Education and Social Condition._--Education is given in schools founded
+by missionary societies, of which the chief is the Societe des Missions
+Evangeliques de Paris. A large proportion of the people can read and
+write Sesuto (as the Basuto language is called) and English, and speak
+Dutch, whilst a considerable number also receive higher education. Many
+Basuto at the public examinations take higher honours than competitors
+of European descent. There are over 200 schools, with an average
+attendance exceeding 10,000. Nine-tenths of the scholars are in the
+schools of the French Protestant Mission, which are conducted by
+English, or English-speaking, missionaries. A government grant is made
+towards the cost of upkeep. A government industrial school (opened in
+1906) is maintained at Maseru, and the Paris Society has an industrial
+school at Leloaleng. The social condition of the people is higher than
+that of the majority of South African natives. Many Basuto profess
+Christianity and have adopted European clothing. Serious crime is rare
+among them and "deliberate murder is almost unknown." [1] They are, like
+mountaineers generally, of a sturdy, independent spirit, and are given
+to the free expression of their views, generally stated with good sense
+and moderation. These views found a new medium of publicity in 1904 when
+an independent native newspaper was started, called _Naledi ea Lesotha_
+(Star of Basutoland). The publication of this paper was followed in 1906
+by the adoption of a uniform system of Sesuto orthography. A book on
+national customs, the first work in the vernacular by a South African
+native, was published in 1893. The brandy-drinking habit, which, when
+the imperial government assumed control of the administration in 1884,
+threatened the existence of the nation, has been very largely checked. A
+strong beer, brewed from Kaffir corn, is a favourite drink.
+
+
+  Moshesh forms the Basuto nation.
+
+_History._--Until the beginning of the 19th century Basutoland appears
+to have been uninhabited save by wandering Bushmen, whose rude rock
+pictures are to be found in several parts of the Drakensberg. About 1800
+the country was occupied by various tribes of Bechuana, such as Batau,
+Basuto, Baputi, who then possessed the greater part of what is now
+Orange River Colony. They appear to have recognized the paramount
+authority of a family descended from a chief named Monaheng. By the wars
+of the Zulu chiefs Chaka, Matiwana and Mosilikatze, these tribes were
+largely broken up and their power destroyed. One tribe, living in the
+Maluti mountains, was reduced to cannibalism. From their chief Machacha
+mountain takes its name. At this period a young man named Moshesh (born
+about 1790), who was of the family of Monaheng and already noted as
+hunter and warrior, gathered round him the remnants of several broken
+clans, out of which he welded the existing Basuto nation. He established
+himself in 1824 on the rock-fortress of Thaba Bosigo, where, in 1831, he
+successfully defended himself against Mosilikatze; and thereafter became
+second only to that chief among the natives north of the Orange River.
+In 1833 Moshesh invited the missionaries of the Societe des Missions
+Evangeliques of Paris to settle in his country, and from that day until
+his death proved their firm friend. A few years later, in 1836-1837,
+large parties of emigrant Boers settled north of the Orange, and before
+long disputes arose between them and Moshesh, who claimed a great part
+of the land on which the white farmers had settled. The Basuto acquired
+an unenviable notoriety as a race of bold cattle lifters and raiders,
+and the emigrant Boers found them extremely troublesome neighbours. At
+the same time, if the Basuto were eager for cattle, the Boers were eager
+for land; and their encroachments on the territories of the Basuto led
+to a proclamation in 1842 from Sir George Napier, the then governor of
+Cape Colony, forbidding further encroachments on Basutoland. In 1843 a
+treaty was signed with Moshesh on the lines of that already arranged
+with Waterboer, the Griqua chief (see GRIQUALAND), creating Basutoland a
+native state under British protection.
+
+
+  Annexation to Great Britain.
+
+To the quarrels between Basuto and Boers were added interminable
+disputes between the Basuto and other Bechuana tribes, which continued
+unabated after the proclamation of British sovereignty over the Orange
+river regions by Sir Harry Smith in 1848. In 1849, however, Moshesh was
+unwillingly induced by Sir Harry to surrender his claims to part of the
+territory recognized as his by the Napier treaty. The British continued
+to intervene in the inter-tribal disputes, and in 1851 Major H.D. Warden
+led against the Basuto a commando composed of British soldiers, farmers
+and a native contingent. This commando was defeated at Viervoet, near
+Thaba Nchu, by the Basuto, who thereafter raided and plundered the
+natives opposed to them and the farmers who had helped the British.
+Attempts were made to come to terms with Moshesh and the justice of many
+of his complaints was admitted. The efforts at accommodation failed, and
+in 1852 General Sir George Cathcart, who had succeeded Sir Harry Smith
+as governor of Cape Colony, decided to take strong measures with the
+tribe, and proceeded with three small divisions of troops against
+Moshesh. The expedition was by no means a success, but Moshesh, with
+that peculiar statecraft for which he was famous, saw that he could not
+hope permanently to hold out against the British troops, and followed up
+his successful skirmishes with General Cathcart by writing him a letter,
+in which he said: "As the object for which you have come is to have a
+compensation for Boers, I beg you will be satisfied with what you have
+taken. You have shown your power, you have chastised; I will try all I
+can to keep my people in order in the future." General Cathcart accepted
+the offer of Moshesh and peace was proclaimed, the Basuto power being
+unbroken. Fourteen months later (February 1854) Great Britain renounced
+sovereignty over the farmers settled beyond the Orange, and Moshesh
+found himself face to face with the newly constituted Free State.
+Boundary disputes at once arose but were settled (1858) by the mediation
+of Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony. In 1865 a fresh feud
+occurred between the Orange Free State Boers and the Basuto. The latter
+applied to Sir Philip Wodehouse at the Cape for protection, but he
+declined to interfere. The Boers proved more successful than they had
+been in the past, and occupied several of the Basuto strongholds. They
+also annexed a certain fertile portion of Basuto territory, and finally
+terminated the strife by a treaty at Thaba Bosigo, by which Moshesh gave
+up the tract of territory taken by the Boers and professed himself a
+subject of the Free State. Seeing that the struggle against the Boers
+was hopeless, no fewer than 2000 Basuto warriors having been killed,
+Moshesh again appealed for protection to the British authorities,
+saying: "Let me and my people rest and live under the large folds of the
+flag of England before I am no more." In response to this request, the
+British authorities decided to take over Basutoland, and a proclamation
+of annexation was issued on the 12th of March 1868. At the same time the
+Boer commandoes were requested to leave the country. The Free State
+strongly resented the British annexation of Basutoland, but much
+negotiation the treaty of Aliwal North was concluded (1869) between the
+Free State and the high commissioner. This treaty defined the boundary
+between the Free State and Basutoland, whereby the fertile strip of
+country west of the Caledon river, known as the Conquered Territory, was
+finally transferred to the Free State, and the remainder of Basutoland
+was recognized as a portion of the British dominions.
+
+Moshesh, who for nearly fifty years had led his people so skilfully and
+well, died in 1870. He was one of the rare instances among the Kaffirs
+of a leader endowed with intellectual gifts which placed him on a level
+with Europeans, and his life-work has left a permanent mark on South
+African history. In diplomacy he proved fully the equal of all--white or
+black--with whom he had to deal, while he ruled with a rare combination
+of vigour and moderation over the nation which he had created.
+
+
+  The "gun" war.
+
+In 1871 Basutoland was annexed to Cape Colony, the area at that time
+being given as 10,300 sq. m. The turbulent Basuto warriors did not
+remain quiet for any length of time, and in 1879 Moirosi, a chief
+residing in the southern portion of Basutoland, openly repudiated
+colonial rule. An expedition was despatched from Cape Colony and severe
+fighting followed. Moirosi's stronghold was captured and the chief
+himself was killed. Immediately after the war, strife occurred among the
+Basuto themselves over the question of the partition of Moirosi's
+territory, which had been decided on as one of the results of the war.
+In 1880 the Cape government felt sufficiently strong to extend to
+Basutoland the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878. This act provided
+for the disarmament of natives, and had already been put in force
+successfully among some of the Kaffir tribes on the Cape eastern
+frontier. Its execution in Basutoland, however, proved an extremely
+difficult task, and was never entirely accomplished. Desultory warfare
+was carried on between the colonial troops and the Basuto until 1881,
+when the intervention of the high commissioner, Sir Hercules Robinson
+(afterward Lord Rosmead), was asked for. Peace in Basutoland was not
+announced until the end of 1882. In the following year a form of
+self-government was established, but was once more followed by internal
+strife among the petty chieftains.
+
+
+  A crown colony.
+
+The subjection of Basutoland to the control of the Cape government had
+by this time proved unsatisfactory, both to the Basuto and to Cape
+Colony. The Cape government therefore offered no opposition to the
+appeal made by the Basuto themselves to the imperial government to take
+them over, and, moreover, Cape Colony undertook to pay towards the cost
+of administration an annual contribution of L18,000. Consequently, in
+1884, Basutoland ceased to be a portion of the Cape Colony and became a
+British crown colony. Native laws and customs were interfered with as
+little as possible and the authority of the chiefs--all members of the
+Moshesh family--was maintained. Moshesh had been succeeded as paramount
+chief by his son, Letsie, and he in turn was succeeded in 1891 by
+Lerothodi (c. 1837-1905). These chieftains acted in concert with the
+British representative in the country, to whom was given the title of
+resident commissioner. The first commissioner was Sir Marshall Clarke,
+to whose tact and ability the country owed much. The period of warfare
+over, the Basuto turned their attention more and more to agricultural
+pursuits and also showed themselves very receptive of missionary
+influence. Trade increased, and in 1891 Basutoland was admitted to the
+customs union, which already existed between Orange Free State, Cape
+Colony and British Bechuanaland. When Lord (then Sir Alfred) Milner
+visited Basutoland in 1898, on his way to Bloemfontein, he was received
+by 15,000 mounted Basuto. The chiefs also attended a large meeting at
+Maseru, and gave expression to their gratitude for the beneficent
+character of Queen Victoria's rule and protection. On the outbreak of
+the Boer War in 1899, these same chiefs, at a great meeting held in the
+presence of the resident commissioner, gave a further protestation of
+their loyalty to Her Majesty. They remained passive throughout the War
+and the neutrality of the country was respected by both armies. One
+chief alone sought to take advantage of the situation by disloyal
+action, and his offence was met by a year's imprisonment. The conversion
+of Basutoland into a crown colony contributed alike to the prosperity of
+the Basuto, the security of the property of neighbouring colonists and a
+peaceful condition among the natives of South Africa generally. In
+pursuance of the policy of encouraging the self-governing powers of the
+Basuto, a national council was instituted and held its first sitting in
+July 1903. In August 1905 the paramount chief Lerothodi died. In early
+life he had distinguished himself in the wars with the Boers, and in
+1880 he took an active part in the revolt against the Cape government.
+Since 1884 he had been a loyal supporter of the imperial authorities,
+being unwavering in his adherence in critical times. Fearless and
+masterful he also possessed high diplomatic gifts, and though on
+occasion arbitrary and passionate he was neither revengeful nor cruel.
+On the 19th of September following Lerothodi's death, the national
+council, with the concurrence of the imperial government, elected his
+son Letsie as paramount chief. The completion in October 1905 of a
+railway putting Maseru in connexion with the South African railway
+system proved a great boon to the community. During the rebellion of the
+natives in Natal and Zululand in 1906 the Basuto remained perfectly
+quiet.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_The Basutos_ (2 vols., London, 1909), a standard
+  history, and "Basutoland and the Basutos" in _Jnl. Ryl. Col. Inst._
+  1901, both by Sir G. Lagden, resident-commissioner, 1893-1901; E.
+  Jacottet, "Moeurs, coutumes et superstitions des Ba-Souts," in _Bull.
+  Soc. neuchateloise Geog._, vol. ix. pp. 107-151, 1897; G.M. Theal,
+  _Basutoland Records_ (Cape Town, 1883); E. Casalis, _Les Bassutos_
+  (Paris, 1859), a description of exploration, manners and customs, the
+  result of twenty-three years' residence in the country; Minnie Martin,
+  _Basutoland: its Legends and Customs_ (London, 1903); Mrs F.A. Barkly,
+  _Among Boers and Basutos_ (new ed., London, 1897), a record, chiefly,
+  of the Gun War of 1880-1882; C.W. Mackintosh, _Coillard of the
+  Zambesi_ (London, 1907). For geology consult E. Cohen,
+  "Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Sud-Afrika," _Neues Jahrb.
+  f. Min._, 1874, and _N. Jahrb. Beil._, Bd. v., 1887; D. Draper, "Notes
+  on the Geology of South-eastern Africa," _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._,
+  vol. 1., 1894; Hatch-Corstorphine. _The Geology of South Africa_
+  (London, 1905). For current information see the annual report on
+  Basutoland (Colonial Office, London). Many books dealing with South
+  Africa generally have chapters relating to Basutoland, e.g. A.P.
+  Hillier, _South African Studies_ (London, 1900); James Bryce,
+  _Impressions of South Africa_ (3rd ed., London, 1899). Consult also
+  Theal's _History of South Africa_ (1908-9 ed.).
+       (F. R. C.; A. P. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Report by resident-commissioner H.C. Sloley, for 1902-1903.
+
+
+
+
+BAT,[1] a name for any member of the zoological order Chiroptera (q.v.).
+Bats are insectivorous animals modified for flight, with slight powers
+of progression on the ground; the patagium or "flying-membrane" of some
+squirrels and of _Galeopithecus_ (q.v.) probably indicates the way in
+which the modification was effected. They are distributed throughout the
+world, but are most abundant in the tropics and the warmer parts of the
+temperate zones; within these limits the largest forms occur. There is
+great variation in size; the Malay "flying-fox" (_Pteropus edulis_)
+measures about a foot in the head and body, and has a wing-spread of 5
+ft.; while in the smaller forms the head and body may be only about 2
+in., and the wing-spread no more than a foot. The coloration is
+generally sombre, but to this there are exceptions; the fruit-bats are
+brownish yellow or russet on the under surface; two South American
+species are white; Blainville's chin-leafed bat is bright orange; and
+the Indian painted bat (_Cerivoula picta_) with its deep orange dress,
+spotted with black on the wing-membranes, has reminded observers of a
+large butterfly. In habits bats are social, nocturnal and crepuscular;
+the insect-eating species feed on the wing, in winter in the temperate
+regions they migrate to a warmer climate, or hibernate, as do the
+British bats. The sense-organs are highly developed; the wing-membranes
+are exceedingly sensitive; the nose-leaf is also an organ of perception,
+and the external ear is specially modified to receive sound-waves. Most
+bats are insect-eaters, but the tropical "flying foxes" or fox-bats of
+the Old World live on fruit; some are blood-suckers, and two feed on
+small fish. Twelve species are British, among which are the pipistrelle
+(_Pipistrellus pygmaeus_, or _P. pipistrellus_), the long-eared bat
+(_Plecotus auritus_), the noctule (_Pipistrellus [Pterygistes]
+noctulus_) the greater and lesser horseshoe bats (_Rhinolophus
+ferrum-equinum_ and _R. hipposiderus_), &c. (See FLYING-FOX and
+VAMPIRE.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] M. E. _bakke_, the change to "bat" having apparently been
+    influenced by Lat. _batta_, _blatta_, moth. The word is thus distinct
+    from the other common term "bat," the implement for striking, which
+    is probably connected with Fr. _battre_, though a Celtic or simply
+    onomatopoetic origin has been suggested.
+
+
+
+
+BATAC, a town of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine
+Islands, 10 m. S. of Laoag, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,524;
+subsequently, in October 1903, the town of Banna (pop. 4015) was
+annexed. Cacao, tobacco, cotton, rice and indigo are grown in the
+neighbouring country, and the town has a considerable trade in these and
+other commodities; it also manufactures sugar, fans and woven fabrics.
+Batac was founded in 1587. It is the birthplace and home of Archbishop
+Gregorio Aglipay (b. 1860), the founder of an important sect of Filipino
+Independent Catholics.
+
+
+
+
+BATALA, a town of British India, in the Gurdaspur district of the
+Punjab, with a station on a branch of the North-Western railway, 24 m.
+from Amritsar. Pop. (1901) 27,365. It is an important centre of trade,
+with manufactures of cotton and silk goods, shawls, brass-ware, soap and
+leather. There are two mission schools.
+
+
+
+
+BATALHA (i.e. battle), a town of Portugal, in the district of Leiria,
+formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 8 m. S. of Leiria.
+Pop. (1900) 3858. Batalha, which occupies the site of the medieval
+Canoeira, is chiefly interesting for its great Dominican monastery of
+Santa Maria da Victoria ("St Mary of the Victory"), also known as
+Batalha. Both town and monastery owe their names to the battle fought on
+the plain between Canoeira and Aljubarrota, 9 m. S. W., in which John I.
+of Portugal defeated John I. of Castile in 1385 and secured the
+independence of his kingdom. The monastery is built of golden-brown
+limestone, resembling marble, and richly sculptured. In size and beauty
+it excels all the other buildings of Portugal in which Gothic and
+Moorish architecture are combined. Its ground-plan may be roughly
+described as a parallelogram, measuring about 500 ft. from north to
+south, and 445 from east to west; with the circular annexe of the royal
+mausoleum on the east, and the Founder's chapel at the south-western
+corner. In the centre is the royal cloister, which is flanked by the
+refectory, now a museum, on the west; and by the chapter-house, on the
+east. Two smaller cloisters, named respectively after Alphonso V. and
+John III., form the northern division of the parallelogram; its southern
+division is the Gothic church. The Founder's chapel contains the tomb of
+John I. (d. 1433) and Philippa of Lancaster (d. 1416), his queen, with
+the tomb of Prince Henry the Navigator (d. 1460). Like the royal
+mausoleum, where several later monarchs are buried, it is remarkable
+for the intricacy and exquisite finish of its carved stonework. The
+monastery was probably founded in 1388. Plans and masons were procured
+from England by Queen Philippa, and the work was entrusted to A.
+Domingues, a native architect, and Huetor Houguet, an Irishman. Only the
+royal cloister, church and Founder's chapel were included in the
+original design; and all three show signs of English influence. Various
+additions were made up to 1551, beginning with the royal mausoleum and
+ending with the cloister of John III. Considerable damage was inflicted
+by the earthquake of 1755; and in 1810 the monastery was sacked by the
+French. It was secularized in 1834 and declared a national monument in
+1840. Thenceforward it was gradually restored.
+
+
+
+
+BATANGAS, a town, port of entry, and the capital of the province of
+Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the Batangas river, about 1 m.
+from its mouth on the E. coast of the Gulf of Batangas, and about 65 m.
+S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 33,131. The United States government has
+established a military post here, and the town has numerous fine public
+buildings and private residences. It is the most important port of a
+province noted for the fertility of its soil and the industry of its
+inhabitants. Its exports, which are large, include rice, coffee of
+excellent quality, cacao, sugar, Indian corn, horses and cattle. The
+horses of Batangas are unusually strong and active. Cotton is produced,
+and is woven into fabrics by the women. The language is Tagalog.
+
+
+
+
+BATARNAY, IMBERT DE (? 1438-1523), French statesman, was born of an old
+but obscure family in Dauphine, about the year 1438. In consequence of a
+chance circumstance he entered into relations with the dauphin Louis, at
+that time (1455) in arms against the king his father; he attached
+himself to the prince, and followed him on his retreat into Burgundy.
+From the beginning of his reign Louis XI. loaded Batarnay with favours:
+he married him to a rich heiress, Georgette de Montchenu, lady of Le
+Bouchage; besides making him captain of Mont Saint Michel and giving him
+valuable estates, with, later, the titles of counsellor and chamberlain
+to the king. In 1469 Batarnay was sent to keep watch upon the duke of
+Guienne's intrigues, which began to appear dangerous. As
+lieutenant-general in Roussillon in 1475 he protected the countryside
+against the wrath of the king, who wished to repress with cruel severity
+a rebellion of the inhabitants. He was present at the interview between
+Louis XI. and Edward IV. of England at Picquigny, and was afterwards
+employed on negotiations with the duke of Burgundy. In accordance with
+the recommendations of his father, Charles VIII. kept the lord of Le
+Bouchage in his confidential service. During the differences that arose
+in 1485 between the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and the dukes of Orleans,
+Brittany and Alencon, Imbert de Batarnay kept the inhabitants of Orleans
+faithful to the king. He proved his skill in the negotiations concerning
+the marquisate of Saluzzo and the town of Genoa. During the Naples
+expedition he was in charge of the dauphin, Charles Orland, who died in
+1495. He treated with Maximilian of Austria to prevent him from entering
+Picardy during the war with Naples, and then proceeded to Castile to
+claim promised support. Under Louis XII. he took part in the expedition
+against the Genoese republic in 1507. Francis I. employed him to
+negotiate the proposed marriage of Charles of Austria with Renee of
+France, daughter of Louis XII., and appointed him governor to the
+dauphin Francis in 1518. He died on the 12th of May 1523.
+
+  See also B. de Mandrot's _Ymbert de Batarnay_ (Paris, 1886).
+       (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BATAVIA, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded
+E., S. and W. by the residencies of Krawana, Preanger and Bantam, and N.
+by the Java Sea. It also comprises a number of small islands in the Java
+Sea, including the Thousand Islands group, with a total area of 24 sq.
+m. The population in 1898 was 1,313,383, including 12,434 Europeans,
+82,510 Chinese, 3426 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The natives
+belong to a Sundanese group, but in the north contain a large admixture
+of Malays. The northern half of the province is flat, and even marshy
+along the coast, and consists of a broad band of alluvium formed by the
+series of parallel rivers descending from the south. The southern half
+on the other hand is covered by a mountain range whose chief peaks are
+situated along the southern border, namely Halimun mountain, the
+volcanoes Salak, Pangerango and Gede, and the Megamendung. The soil is
+fertile, and whereas rice is mainly grown on the lowlands the highlands
+are especially suitable for the cultivation of coffee, tea, tobacco,
+cinchona and vanilla. Extensive cocoanut plantations are also found in
+the plains, and market-gardening is practised in the neighbourhood of
+the towns. Sugar was formerly cultivated. The government of the
+residency of Batavia differs from that of the other residencies in
+having no native regencies, the lands being privately owned. The
+divisions of the residency are Batavia, town and surroundings,
+Tangerang, Meester Cornelis and Buitenzorg, the first being directly
+governed by a resident and the remainder by assistant residents. As
+early as the second half of the 17th century the Dutch East India
+Company began the practice of selling portions of the land to private
+persons, and of granting other portions as the reward of good services.
+A large strip of hill-country, almost corresponding to the present
+southern or Buitenzorg division of the residency, was appropriated by
+the governor-general in 1745 and attached to that office. In 1808,
+however, Marshal Daendels disposed of this property to various
+purchasers, including the Dutch government, and thus the whole of the
+residency gradually passed into private hands. Hence the administration
+of the residency is largely confined to police duties. The principal
+towns are Batavia (q.v.), which is the capital of the residency, as well
+as the seat of government of the whole Dutch East Indies, Meester
+Cornelis, Tangerang, Bekasi and Buitenzorg (q.v.). Tangerang and Bekasi
+are important centres of trade. The Buitenzorg hill-country is much
+visited on account of its beauty, and cool and healthy climate. Gadok is
+a health resort 6 m. south-east of Buitenzorg.
+
+
+
+
+BATAVIA, a city and seaport on the north coast of the island of Java,
+and the capital of all the Dutch settlements in the East. The population
+in 1880 was 96,957; in 1898, 115,567; including 9423 Europeans, 26,433
+Chinese, 2828 Arabs and 132 other Asiatic foreigners. It is situated on
+both sides of the river Jacatra or Jilivong, in a swampy plain at the
+head of a capacious bay. The streets are for the most part straight and
+regular, and many of them have a breadth of from 100 to 200 ft. In
+several cases there is a canal in the centre lined with stone, and
+protected by low parapets or banks, while almost every street and square
+is fringed with trees. The old town has greatly changed from its
+condition in the 18th century. It was then surrounded by strong
+fortifications, and contained a number of important buildings, such as
+the town-house (built in 1652 and restored in 1706), the exchange, the
+infirmary and orphan asylum, and the European churches. But the ramparts
+were long ago demolished; only natives, Malays, Arabs and Chinese live
+here, and the great European houses have either fallen into decay or
+been converted into magazines and warehouses. The European inhabitants
+live principally in the new town, which was gradually formed by the
+integration of Weltevreden (_Well-content_), Molenvliet (_Mill-stream_),
+Rijswijk (_Rice-town_), Noordwijk (_North-town_), Koningsplein (_King's
+square_), and other suburban villages or stations. The situation of this
+modern part is higher and healthier. The imitation of Dutch arrangements
+has been avoided, and the natural advantages of the situation and
+climate have been turned to account. The houses, generally of a single
+storey or two at most, are frequently separated from each other by rows
+of trees. Batavia contains numerous buildings connected with the civil
+and military organisation of the government. The governor-general's
+palace and the government buildings are the most important of these; in
+the district of Weltevreden are also the barracks, and the artillery
+school, as well as the military and civil hospital, and not far off is
+the Frederik-Hendrik citadel built in 1837. Farther inland, at Meester
+Cornelis, are barracks and a school for under-officers. The
+Koningsplein is a large open square surrounded by mansions of the
+wealthier classes. Noordwijk is principally inhabited by lesser
+merchants and subordinate officials. There is an orphan asylum in the
+district of Parapatna. Batavia has various educational and scientific
+institutions of note. In 1851 the government founded a medical school
+for Javanese, and in 1860 the "Gymnasium William III." in which a
+comprehensive education is bestowed. A society of arts and sciences
+(which possesses an excellent museum) was established in 1778, a royal
+physical society in 1850, and a society for the promotion of industry
+and agriculture in 1853. In addition to the _Transactions_ of these
+societies--many of which contain valuable contributions to their
+respective departments in their relation to the East Indies--a
+considerable number of publications are issued in Batavia. Among
+miscellaneous buildings of importance may be mentioned the public hall
+known as the _Harmonie_, the theatre, club-house and several fine
+hotels.
+
+The population of Batavia is varied, the Dutch residents being a
+comparatively small class, and greatly intermixed with Portuguese and
+Malays. Here are found members of the different Indian nations,
+originally slaves; Arabs, who are principally engaged in navigation, but
+also trade in gold and precious stones; Javanese, who are cultivators;
+and Malays, chiefly boatmen and sailors, and adherents of Mahommedanism.
+The Chinese are both numerous and industrious. They were long greatly
+oppressed by the Dutch government, and in 1740 they were massacred to
+the number of 12,000.
+
+Batavia Bay is rendered secure by a number of islands at its mouth, but
+grows very shallow towards the shore. The construction of the new
+harbour at Tanjong Priok, to the east of the old one, was therefore of
+the first importance. The works, begun in 1877 and completed in 1886,
+connect the town with Tanjong ("cape") Priok by a canal, and include an
+outer port formed by two breakwaters, 6072 ft. long, with a width at
+entrance of 408 ft. and a depth of 27 ft. throughout. The inner port has
+3282 ft. of quayage; its length is 3609 ft., breadth 573 ft. and depth
+24 ft. There is also a coal dock, and the port has railway and roadway
+connexion with Batavia. The river Jilivong is navigable 2 m. inland for
+vessels of 30 or 40 tons, but the entrance is narrow, and requires
+continual attention to keep it open.
+
+The exports from Batavia to the other islands of the archipelago, and to
+the ports in the Malay Peninsula, are rice, sago, coffee, sugar, salt,
+oil, tobacco, teak timber and planks, Java cloths, brass wares, &c., and
+European, Indian and Chinese goods. The produce of the Eastern Islands
+is also collected at its ports for re-exportation to India, China and
+Europe--namely, gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benzoin and other drugs;
+edible bird-nests, trepang, rattans, beeswax, tortoise-shell, and dyeing
+woods from Borneo and Sumatra; tin from Banka; spices from the Moluccas;
+fine cloths from Celebes and Bali; and pepper from Sumatra. From Bengal
+are imported opium, drugs and cloths; from China, teas, raw silk, silk
+piece-goods, coarse China wares, paper, and innumerable smaller articles
+for the Chinese settlers. The tonnage of vessels clearing from Batavia
+to countries beyond the archipelago had increased from 879,000 tons in
+1887 to nearly 1,500,000 tons by the end of the century. The old and new
+towns are connected by steam tramways. The Batavia-Buitenzorg railway
+passes the new town, thus connecting it with the main railway which
+crosses the island from west to east.
+
+Almost the only manufactures of any importance are the distillation of
+arrack, which is principally carried on by Chinese, the burning of lime
+and bricks, and the making of pottery. The principal establishment for
+monetary transactions is the Java Bank, established in 1828 with a
+capital of L500,000.
+
+Batavia owes its origin to the Dutch governor-general Pieter Both, who
+in 1610 established a factory at Jacatra (which had been built on the
+ruins of the old Javanese town of Sunda Calappa), and to his successor,
+Jan Pieters Coen, who in 1619 founded in its stead the present city,
+which soon acquired a flourishing trade and increased in importance. In
+1699 Batavia was visited by a terrible earthquake, and the streams were
+choked by the mud from the volcano of Gunong Salak; they overflowed the
+surrounding country and made it a swamp, by which the climate was so
+affected that the city became notorious for its unhealthiness, and was
+in great danger of being altogether abandoned. In the twenty-two years
+from 1730 to 1752, 1,100,000 deaths are said to have been recorded.
+General Daendels, who was governor from 1808 to 1811, caused the
+ramparts of the town to be demolished, and began to form the nucleus of
+a new city at Weltevreden. By 1816 nearly all the Europeans had left the
+old town. In 1811 a British armament was sent against the Dutch
+settlements in Java, which had been incorporated by France, and to this
+force Batavia surrendered on the 8th of August. It was restored,
+however, to the Dutch by the treaty of 1814.
+
+
+
+
+BATAVIA, a village and the county-seat of Genesee county, New York,
+U.S.A., about 36 m. N.E. of Buffalo, on the Tonawanda Creek. Pop. (1890)
+7221; (1900) 9180, of whom 1527 were foreign-born; (1910), 11,613.
+Batavia is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Erie, and
+the Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of the New York State School
+for the Blind, and of St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic), and has a
+historical museum, housed in the Old Holland Land Office (1804),
+containing a large collection of relics of the early days of New York,
+and a memorial library erected in 1889 in memory of a son by Mary E.
+Richmond, the widow of Dean Richmond; the building contained in 1908
+more than 14,000 volumes. The public schools are excellent; in them in
+1898 Superintendent John Kennedy (b. 1846) introduced the method of
+individual instruction now known as the "Batavia scheme," under which in
+rooms of more than fifty pupils there is, besides the class teacher, an
+"individual" teacher who helps backward children in their studies. Among
+Batavia's manufactures are harvesters, ploughs, threshers and other
+agricultural implements, firearms, rubber tires, shoes, shell goods,
+paper-boxes and inside woodwork. In 1905 the city's factory products
+were valued at $3,589,406, an increase of 39.5% over their value in
+1900. Batavia was laid out in 1801 by Joseph Ellicott (1760-1826), the
+engineer who had been engaged in surveying the land known as the
+"Holland Purchase," of which Batavia was a part. The village was
+incorporated in 1823. Here lived William Morgan, whose supposed murder
+(1826) by members of the Masonic order led to the organization of the
+Anti-Masonic party. Batavia was the home during his last years of Dean
+Richmond (1804-1866), a capitalist, a successful shipper and wholesaler
+of farm produce, vice-president (1853-1864) and president (1864-1866) of
+the New York Central railway, and a prominent leader of the Democratic
+party in New York state.
+
+  See O. Turner, _History of the Holland Purchase_ (Buffalo, 1850).
+
+
+
+
+BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM (1812-1875), American actor and manager, was
+born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 6th of December 1812. He was
+intended for an engineer, but in 1832 became an actor, playing with
+Ellen Tree (afterwards Mrs Charles Kean) in juvenile leads. In 1855 he
+was manager of the St Louis theatre for a few years and in 1859 moved to
+New York. In 1866 he was manager for his daughter Kate, and in 1871
+returned to London, where he took the Lyceum theatre. Here he engaged
+Henry Irving, presenting him first in _The Bells_, with great success.
+He died on the 22nd of March 1875.
+
+His wife, SIDNEY FRANCES (1823-1881), daughter of Joseph Cowell, an
+English actor who had settled in America, was also an actress and the
+author of several popular plays, in one of which, _Self_ (1857), she and
+her husband made a great success. After her husband's death Mrs Bateman
+continued to manage the Lyceum till 1875. She later took the Sadler's
+Wells theatre, which she managed until her death on the 13th of January
+1881. She was the first to bring to England an entire American company
+with an American play, Joaquin Miller's _The Danites_.
+
+Mr and Mrs Bateman had eight children, three of the four daughters being
+educated for the stage. The two oldest, Kate Josephine (b. 1842), and
+Ellen (b. 1845), known as the "Bateman children," began their theatrical
+career at an early age. In 1862 Kate played in New York as Juliet and
+Lady Macbeth, and in 1863 had a great success in London as Leah in
+Augustin Daly's adaptation of Mosenthal's _Deborah_. In 1866 she married
+George Crowe, but returned to the stage in 1868, playing later as Lady
+Macbeth with Henry Irving, and in 1875 in the title-part of Tennyson's
+_Queen Mary_. When her mother opened the Sadler's Wells theatre in 1879
+Miss Bateman appeared as Helen Macgregor in _Rob Roy_, and in 1881 as
+Margaret Field in Henry Arthur Jones' _His Wife_. Her daughter, Sidney
+Crowe (b. 1871), also became an actress. Virginia Bateman (b. 1854), a
+younger sister of Kate, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, went on the stage as a
+child, and first appeared in London in the title-part of her mother's
+play, _Fanchette_, in 1871. She created a number of important parts
+during several seasons at the Lyceum and elsewhere. She married Edward
+Compton the actor. Another sister was Isabel (b. 1854), well known on
+the London stage.
+
+
+
+
+BATEMENT LIGHTS, in architecture the lights in the upper part of a
+perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of those below.
+
+
+
+
+BATES, HARRY (1850-1899), British sculptor, was born at Stevenage,
+Herts, on the 26th of April 1850. He began his career as a carver's
+assistant, and before beginning the regular study of plastic art he
+passed through a long apprenticeship in architectural decoration. In
+1879 he came to London and entered the Lambeth School of Art, studying
+under Jules Dalou and Rodin, and winning a silver medal in the national
+competition at South Kensington. In 1881 he was admitted to the Royal
+Academy schools, where in 1883 he won the gold medal and the travelling
+scholarship of L200 with his relief of "Socrates teaching the People in
+the Agora," which showed grace of line and harmony of composition. He
+then went to Paris and studied under Rodin. A head and three small
+bronze panels (the "Odyssey,") executed by Bates in Paris, were
+exhibited at the Royal Academy, and selected for purchase by the
+Chantrey trustees; but the selection had to be cancelled because they
+had not been modelled in England. His "Aeneas" (1885), "Homer" (1886),
+three "Psyche" panels and "Rhodope" (1887) all showed marked advance in
+form and dignity; and in 1892, after the exhibition of his vigorously
+designed "Hounds in Leash," Bates was elected A.R.A. This and his
+"Pandora," in marble and ivory, which was bought in the same year for
+the Chantrey Bequest, are now in the Tate Gallery. The portrait-busts of
+Harry Bates are good pieces of realism--strong, yet delicate in
+technique, and excellent in character. His statues have a
+picturesqueness in which the refinement of the sculptor is always felt.
+Among the chief of these are the fanciful "Maharaja of Mysore," somewhat
+overladen with ornament, and the colossal equestrian statue of Lord
+Roberts (1896) upon its important pedestal, girdled with a frieze of
+figures, now set up in Calcutta, and a statue of Queen Victoria for
+Dundee. But perhaps his masterpiece, showing the sculptor's delicate
+fancy and skill in composition, was an allegorical presentment of "Love
+and Life"--a winged male figure in bronze, with a female figure in ivory
+being crowned by the male. Bates died in London on the 30th of January
+1899, his premature death robbing English plastic art of its most
+promising representative at the time. (See SCULPTURE.)
+
+
+
+
+BATES, HENRY WALTER (1825-1892), English naturalist and explorer, was
+born at Leicester on the 8th of February 1825. His father, a
+manufacturing hosier, intended him for business, and for a time the son
+yielded to his wishes, escaping as often as he could into the
+neighbouring country to gratify his love of botany and entomology. In
+1844 he met a congenial spirit in Alfred Russel Wallace, and the result
+was discussion and execution of a plan to explore some then little-known
+region of the globe. The banks of the Amazons was the district chosen,
+and in April 1848 the two friends sailed in a trader for Para. They had
+little or no money, but hoped to meet their expenses by the sale of
+duplicate specimens. After two years Bates and Wallace agreed to collect
+independently, Wallace taking the Rio Negro and the upper waters of the
+Orinoco, while Bates continued his route up the great river for 1400 m.
+He remained in the country eleven years, during which time he collected
+no fewer than 8000 species of insects new to science. His long residence
+in the tropics, with the privations which it entailed, undermined his
+health. Nor had the exile from home the compensation of freeing him from
+financial cares, which hung heavy on him till he had the good fortune to
+be appointed in 1864 assistant-secretary of the Royal Geographical
+Society, a post which, to the inestimable gain of the society, and the
+advantage of a succession of explorers, to whom he was alike Nestor and
+Mentor, he retained till his death on the 16th of February 1892. Bates
+is best known as the auther of one of the most delightful books of
+travel in the English language, _The Naturalist on the Amazons_ (1863),
+the writing of which, as the correspondence between the two has shown,
+was due to Charles Darwin's persistent urgency. "Bates," wrote Darwin to
+Sir Charles Lyell, "is second only to Humboldt in describing a tropical
+forest." But his most memorable contribution to biological science, and
+more especially to that branch of it which deals with the agencies of
+modification of organisms, was his paper on the "Insect Fauna of the
+Amazon Valley," read before the Linnaean Society in 1861. He therein, as
+Darwin testified, clearly stated and solved the problem of "mimicry," or
+the superficial resemblances between totally different species and the
+likeness between an animal and its surroundings, whereby it evades its
+foes or conceals itself from its prey. Bates's other contributions to
+the literature of science and travel were sparse and fugitive, but he
+edited for several years a periodical of _Illustrated Travels_. A man of
+varied tastes, he devoted the larger part of his leisure to entomology,
+notably to the classification of coleoptera. Of these he left an
+extensive and unique collection, which, fortunately for science, was
+purchased intact by Rene Oberthur of Rennes.
+
+
+
+
+BATES, JOHN. A famous case in English constitutional history, tried
+before the court of exchequer in November 1606, arose out of the refusal
+of a merchant of the Levant Company, John Bates, to pay an extra duty of
+5s. per cwt. on imported currants levied by the sole authority of the
+crown in addition to the 2s. 6d. granted by the Statute of Tonnage and
+Poundage, on the ground that such an imposition was illegal without the
+sanction of parliament. The unanimous decision of the four barons of the
+exchequer in favour of the crown threatened to establish a precedent
+which, in view of the rapidly increasing foreign trade, would have made
+the king independent of parliament. The judgments of Chief Baron Fleming
+and Baron Clark are preserved. The first declares that "the king's power
+is double, ordinary and absolute, and they have several laws and ends.
+That of the ordinary is for the profit of particular subjects, for the
+execution of civil justice ... in the ordinary courts, and by the
+civilians is nominated _jus privatum_, and with us common law; and these
+laws cannot be changed without parliament.... The absolute power of the
+king is not that which is converted or executed to private uses to the
+benefit of particular persons, but is only that which is applied to the
+general benefit of the people and is _salus populi_; and this power is
+not guided by the rules which direct only at the common law, and is most
+properly named policy or government; and as the constitution of this
+body varieth with the time, so varieth this absolute law, according to
+the wisdom of the king, for the common good; and these being general
+rules, and true as they are, all things done within these rules are
+lawful. The matter in question is material matter of state, and ought to
+be ruled by the rules of policy, and if it be so, the king hath done
+well to execute his extraordinary power. All customs (i.e. duties levied
+at the ports), be they old or new, are no other but the effects and
+issues of trades and commerce with foreign nations; but all commerce and
+affairs with foreigners, all wars and peace, all acceptance and
+admitting for foreign current coin, all parties and treaties whatsoever
+are made by the absolute power of the king; and he who hath power of
+causes hath power also of effects." Baron Clark, in his judgment,
+concurred, declaring that the seaports were the king's ports, and that,
+since foreign merchants were admitted to them only by leave of the
+crown, the crown possessed also the right of fixing the conditions under
+which they should be admitted, including the imposition of a money
+payment. Incidentally, Baron Clark, in reply to the argument that the
+king's right to levy impositions was limited by the statute of
+1370-1371, advanced a principle still more dangerous to constitutional
+liberty. "The statute of the 45 Edward III. cap. 4," he said, "which
+hath been so much urged, that no new imposition shall be imposed upon
+wool-fells, wool or leather, but only the custom and subsidy granted to
+the king--this extends only to the king himself and shall not bind his
+successors, for it is a principal part of the crown of England, which
+the king cannot diminish."
+
+  See _State Trials_ (ed. 1779), xi. pp. 30-32; excerpts in G.W.
+  Prothero, _Statutes and Constitutional Documents_ (Clarendon Press,
+  1894); G.B. Adams and H. Morse Stephens, _Select Documents of Eng.
+  Const. Hist._ (New York, 1901); cf. T.P. Taswell-Langmead, _Eng.
+  Const. Hist._ (London, 1905), p. 393.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+BATES, JOSHUA (1788-1864), American financier, was born in Weymouth,
+Massachusetts, on the 10th of October 1788, of an old Massachusetts
+family prominent in colonial affairs. After several winters' schooling
+in his native town, he entered the counting-house of William Gray & Son
+in Boston. In 1809 he began business on his own account, but failed
+during the War of 1812 and again became associated with the Grays, then
+the largest shipowners in America, by whom a few years later he was sent
+to London in charge of their European business. There he came into
+relations with the Barings, and in 1826 formed a partnership with John,
+a son of Sir Thomas Baring. Two years later both partners were admitted
+to the firm of Baring Brothers & Company, of which Bates eventually
+became senior partner, occupying in consequence an influential position
+in the British financial world. In 1853-1854 he acted with rare
+impartiality and justice as umpire of the international commission
+appointed to settle claims growing out of the War of 1812. In 1852-1855
+he contributed $100,000 in books and in cash for a public library in
+Boston, the money to be invested and the annual income to be applied to
+the purchase of books. Upon his death the "upper hall," or main
+reference-room (opened in 1861) in the building erected in 1858 by the
+order of the library trustees, was named Bates Hall; and upon the
+opening of the new building in 1895 this name was transferred to its
+principal reading-room, one of the finest library halls in the world.
+During the Civil War Bates's sympathies were strongly with the Union,
+and besides aiding the United States government fiscal agents in various
+ways, he used his influence to prevent the raising of loans for the
+Confederacy. He died in London on the 24th of September 1864.
+
+  See _Memorial of Joshua Bates_ (Boston, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+BATES, WILLIAM (1625-1699), English nonconformist divine, was born in
+London in November 1625. He was admitted to Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
+and removed thence to King's College in 1644. Of Presbyterian belief, he
+held the rich living of St Dunstan's-in-the-West, London. He was one of
+the commissioners at the conference in the Savoy, for reviewing the
+public liturgy, and was concerned in drawing up the exceptions to the
+Book of Common Prayer. Notwithstanding this he was appointed chaplain to
+Charles II., and was offered the deanery of Lichfield and Coventry, but
+he came out in 1662 as one of the 2000 ejected ministers. Bates was of
+an amiable character, and enjoyed the friendship of the lord-keeper
+Bridgeman, the lord-chancellor Finch, the earl of Nottingham and
+Archbishop Tillotson. With other moderate churchmen he made several
+efforts towards a comprehensive settlement, but the bishops were
+uncompromising. He addressed William and Mary on their accession in
+behalf of the dissenters. After some years of pastoral service at
+Hackney he died there on the 14th of July 1699. Bates published _Select
+Lives of Illustrious and Pious Persons_ in Latin; and after his death
+all his works, except this, were printed in 1 vol. fol.; again in 1723;
+and in 4 vols. 8vo in 1815. They treat of practical theology and include
+_Considerations on the Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul_
+(1676), _Four Last Things_ (1691), _Spiritual Perfection_ (1699).
+
+
+
+
+BATESON (BATSON or BETSON), THOMAS, an English writer of madrigals in
+the early 17th century. He is said to have been organist of Chester
+cathedral in 1599, and is believed to have been the first musical
+graduate of Trinity College, Dublin. He is known to have written church
+music, but his fame rests on his madrigals, which give him an important
+place among Elizabethan composers. He published a set of madrigals in
+1604 and a second set in 1618, and both collections have been reprinted
+in recent years. He died in 1630.
+
+
+
+
+BATH, THOMAS THYNNE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1734-1796), English politician,
+was the elder son of Thomas Thynne, 2nd Viscount Weymouth (1710-1751),
+and the great-grandnephew of Thomas Thynne (c. 1640-1714), the friend of
+Bishop Ken, who was created Baron Thynne and Viscount Weymouth in 1682.
+His mother was Louisa (d. 1736), daughter of John Carteret, 1st Earl
+Granville, and a descendant of the family of Granville who held the
+earldom of Bath from 1661 to 1711. The Thynnes are descended from Sir
+John Thynne, the builder of Longleat, the splendid seat of the family in
+Wiltshire. Sir John, owed his wealth and position to the favour of his
+master, the protector Somerset; he was comptroller of the household of
+the princess Elizabeth, and was a person of some importance after the
+princess became queen. He died in April 1580. Another famous member of
+this family was Thomas Thynne (1648-1682), called on account of his
+wealth "Tom of Ten Thousand." He is celebrated by Dryden as Issachar in
+_Absalom and Achitophel_, and was murdered in London by some Swedes in
+February 1682.
+
+Born on the 13th of September 1734, Thomas Thynne succeeded, his father
+as 3rd Viscount Weymouth in January 1751, and was lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland for a short time during 1765, although he never visited that
+country. Having, however, become prominent in English politics he was
+appointed secretary of state for the northern department in January
+1768; he acted with great promptitude during the unrest caused by John
+Wilkes and the Middlesex election of 1768. He was then attacked and
+libelled by Wilkes, who was consequently expelled from the House of
+Commons. Before the close of 1768 he was transferred, from the northern
+to the southern department, but he resigned in December 1770 in the
+midst of the dispute with Spain over the possession of the Falkland
+Islands. In November 1775 Weymouth returned to his former office of
+secretary for the southern department, undertaking in addition the
+duties attached to the northern department for a few months in 1779, but
+he resigned both positions in the autumn of this year. In 1789 he was
+created marquess of Bath, and he died on the 19th of November 1796.
+Weymouth was a man of considerable ability especially as a speaker, but
+according to more modern standards his habits were very coarse,
+resembling those of his friend and frequent companion, Charles James
+Fox. Horace Walpole refers frequently to his idleness and his
+drunkenness, and in early life at least "his great fortune he had
+damaged by such profuse play, that his house was often full of
+bailiffs." He married Elizabeth (d. 1825), daughter of William Bentinck,
+2nd duke of Portland, by whom he had three sons and ten daughters. His
+eldest son Thomas (1765-1837) succeeded to his titles, while the two
+younger ones, George (1770-1838) and John (1772-1849), succeeded in turn
+to the barony of Carteret of Hawnes, which came to them from their
+uncle, Henry Frederick Thynne (1735-1826). Weymouth's great-grandson,
+John Alexander, 4th marquess of Bath (1831-1896), the author of
+_Observations on Bulgarian affairs_ (1880), was succeeded as 5th
+marquess by his son Thomas Henry (b. 1862).
+
+  See B. Botfield, _Stemmata Botevilliana_ (1858).
+
+
+
+
+BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY, 1ST EARL OF (1684-1764), generally known by the
+surname of PULTENEY, English politician, descended from an ancient
+family of Leicestershire, was the son of William Pulteney by his first
+wife, Mary Floyd, and was born in April 1684. The boy was sent to
+Westminster school, and from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford,
+matriculating the 31st of October 1700. At these institutions he
+acquired his deep classical knowledge. On leaving Oxford he made the
+usual tour on the continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by
+Henry Guy (secretary of the treasury, 1679-1688, and June 1691 to
+February 1695) for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at his death on
+the 23rd of February 1710 inherited an estate of L500 a year and
+L40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him without a break until 1734.
+Throughout the reign of Queen Anne William Pulteney played a prominent
+part in the struggles of the Whigs, and on the prosecution of
+Sacheverell he exerted himself with great zeal against that violent
+divine. When the victorious Tories sent his friend Robert Walpole to the
+Tower in 1712, Pulteney championed his cause in the House of Commons and
+with the leading Whigs Visited him in his prison-chamber. He held the
+post of secretary of war from 1714 to 1717 in the first ministry of
+George I., and when the committee of secrecy on the Utrecht treaty was
+formed in April 1715 the list included the flame of William Pulteney.
+Two years later (6th of July 1716), he became one of the privy council.
+When Townshend was dismissed, in April 1717, from his post of
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Walpole resigned his places, they were
+followed in their retirement by Pulteney. The crash of the South Sea
+Company restored Walpole to the highest position, but all that he
+offered to Pulteney was a peerage. The offer was rejected, but in May
+1723 Pulteney stooped to accept the lucrative but insignificant post of
+cofferer of the household. In this obscure position he was content for
+some time to await the future; but when he found himself neglected he
+opposed the proposition of Walpole to discharge the debts of the civil
+list, and in April 1725 was dismissed from his sinecure. From the day of
+his dismissal to that of his ultimate triumph Pulteney remained in
+opposition, and, although Sir Robert Walpole attempted in 1730 to
+conciliate him by the offer of Townshend's place and of a peerage, all
+his overtures were spurned. Pulteney's resentment was not confined to
+his speeches in parliament. With Bolingbroke he set on foot in December
+1726 the well-known periodical called the _Craftsman_, and in its pages
+the minister was incessantly denounced for many years. Lord Hervey
+published an attack on the _Craftsman_, and Pulteney, either openly or
+behind the person of Amhurst, its editor, replied to the attack. Whether
+the question at issue was the civil list, the excise, the income of the
+prince of Wales, or the state of domestic affairs Pulteney was ready
+with a pamphlet, and the minister or one of his friends came out with a
+reply. For his "Proper reply to a late scurrilous libel" (_Craftsman_,
+1731), an answer to "Sedition and defamation displayed," he was
+challenged to a duel by Lord Hervey; for another, "An answer to one part
+of an infamous libel entitled remarks on the _Craftsman's_ indication of
+his two honourable patrons," he was in July 1731 struck off the roll of
+privy councillors and dismissed from the commission of the peace in
+several counties. In print Pulteney was inferior to Bolingbroke alone
+among the antagonists of Walpole, but in parliament, from which St John
+was excluded, he excelled all his comrades. When the sinking fund was
+appropriated in 1733 his voice was the foremost in denunciation; when
+the excise scheme in the same year was stirring popular feeling to its
+lowest depths the passion of the multitude broke out in his oratory.
+Through Walpole's prudent withdrawal of the latter measure the fall, of
+his ministry was averted. Bolingbroke withdrew to France on the
+suggestion, it is said, of Pulteney, and the opposition was weakened by
+the dissensions of the leaders.
+
+From the general election of 1734 until his elevation to the peerage
+Pulteney sat for Middlesex. For some years after this election the
+minister's assailants made little progress in their attack, but in 1738
+the troubles with Spain supplied them with the opportunity which they
+desired. Walpole long argued for peace, but he was feebly supported in
+his own cabinet, and the frenzy of the people for War knew no bounds. In
+an evil moment for his own reputation he consented to remain in office
+and to gratify popular passion with a war against Spain. His downfall
+was not long deferred. War was declared in 1739; a new parliament was
+summoned in the summer of 1741, and over the divisions on the election
+petitions the ministry of Walpole fell to pieces. The task of forming
+the new administration was after some delay entrusted to Pulteney, who
+weakly offered the post of first lord of the treasury to that harmless
+politician the earl of Wilmington, and contented himself with a seat in
+the cabinet and a peerage thinking that by this action he would preserve
+his reputation for consistency in disdaining office and yet retain his
+supremacy in the ministry. At this act popular feeling broke out into
+open indignation, and from the moment of his elevation to the Upper
+House Pulteney's influence dwindled to nothing. Horace Walpole asserts
+that when Pulteney wished to recall his desire for a peerage it was
+forced upon him through the ex-minister's advice by the king, and
+another chronicler of the times records that when victor and vanquished
+met in the House of Lords, the one as Lord Orford, the other as the earl
+of Bath, the remark was made by the exulting Orford: "Here we are, my
+lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England." On the 14th of
+July 1742 Pulteney was created Baron Pulteney of Hedon, Co. York,
+Viscount Pulteney of Wrington, Co. Somerset, and earl of Bath. On the
+20th of February he had been restored to his rank in the privy council.
+At Wilmington's death in 1743 he made application to the king for the
+post of first lord of the treasury, only to find that it had been
+conferred on Henry Pelham. For two days, 10th-12th February 1746, he was
+at the head of a ministry, but in "48 hours, three quarters, seven
+minutes, and eleven seconds" it collapsed. An occasional pamphlet and an
+infrequent speech were afterwards the sole fruits of Lord Bath's
+talents. His praises whilst in retirement have been sung by two bishops,
+Zachary Pearce and Thomas Newton. He died on the 7th of July 1764, and
+was buried on the 17th of July in his own vault in Islip chapel,
+Westminster Abbey. He married on the 27th of December 1714 Anna Maria,
+daughter and co-heiress of John Gumley of Isleworth, commissary-general
+to the army who was often satirized by the wits of the day (_Notes and
+Queries_, 3rd S. ii. 402-403, iii. 490). She died on the 14th of
+September 1758, and their only son William died unmarried at Madrid on
+the 12th of February 1763. Pulteney's vast fortune came in 1767 to
+William Johnstone of Dumfries (third son of Sir James Johnstone), who
+had married Frances, daughter and co-heiress of his cousin, Daniel
+Pulteney, a bitter antagonist of Walpole in parliament, and had taken
+the name of Pulteney.
+
+Pulteney's eloquence was keen and incisive, sparkling with vivacity and
+with allusions drawn from the literature of his own country and of Rome.
+Of business he was never fond, and the loss in 1734 of his trusted
+friend John Merrill, who had supplied the qualities which he lacked, was
+feelingly lamented by him in a letter to Swift. His chief weakness was a
+passion for money. Lord Bath has left no trace of the possession of
+practical statesmanship.
+
+
+
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Wm. Coxe's _Memoirs_ of Sir Robert Walpole (1816), and
+  of Henry Pelham (1829); John Morley's _Walpole_ (1889); Walter
+  Sichel's _Bolingbroke_ (1901-1902); A. Ballantyne's _Carteret_ (1887);
+  _Eng. Hist. Rev._ iv. 749-753, and the general political memoirs of
+  the time.     (W. P. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BATH, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and health
+resort of Somersetshire, England, on the Great Western, Midland, and
+Somerset & Dorset railways, 107-1/2 m. W. by S. of London. Pop. (1901)
+49,839. Its terraces and crescents, built mostly of grey freestone,
+cover the slopes and heights of the abrupt hills which rise like an
+amphitheatre above the winding valley of the river Avon. The climate is
+pleasant, and the city, standing amidst fine scenery, itself possesses a
+number of beautiful walks and gardens. Jointly with Wells, it is an
+episcopal see of the Church of England. The abbey church of St Peter and
+St Paul occupies the site of earlier Saxon and Norman churches, founded
+in connexion with a 7th-century convent, which was transferred for a
+time to a body of secular canons, and from about 970 until the
+Dissolution, to Benedictine monks. The present cruciform building dates
+from the 15th century, being a singularly pure and ornate example of
+late Perpendicular work. From the number of its windows, it has been
+called "The Lantern of the West," and especially noteworthy is the great
+west window, with seven lights, and flanking turrets on which are carved
+figures of the angels ascending and descending on Jacob's Ladder. Within
+are the tombs of James Quin, the actor, with an epitaph by Garrick;
+Richard Nash; Thomas Malthus the economist; William Broome the poet, and
+many others. Some of the monuments are the work of Bacon, Flaxman and
+Chantrey. Slight traces of the previous Norman building remain. There
+are many other churches and chapels in Bath, the oldest being that of St
+Thomas of Canterbury, and one of the most interesting St Swithin's,
+which contains the tombs of Christopher Anstey and Madame d'Arblay.
+Among educational institutions may be mentioned the free grammar school,
+founded by Edward VI., the Wesleyan College, originally established at
+Bristol by John Wesley, and the Roman Catholic College. The hospital of
+St John was founded in the 12th century. The public buildings include a
+guild hall, assembly rooms, Jubilee hall, art gallery and library,
+museum, literary and scientific institute, and theatres. In the populous
+suburb of Twerton (pop. 11,098), there are lias quarries, and bricks and
+woollen cloths are manufactured. The parliamentary borough returns two
+members. The city is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
+councillors. Area, 3382 acres.
+
+The mineral springs supply several distinct establishments. The
+temperature varies in the different springs from 117 deg. to 120 deg. F,
+and the specific gravity of the hot baths is 1.002. The principal
+substances in solution are calcium and sodium sulphates, and sodium and
+magnesium chlorides. Traces of radium have been revealed, and the gases
+contain argon and helium. The waters are very beneficial in cases of
+rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, sciatica, diseases of the liver, and
+cutaneous and scrofulous affections. The highest archaeological
+interest, moreover, attaches to the baths in view of the magnificent
+Roman remains testifying to the early recognition of the value of the
+waters. It may here be noted that two distinct legends ascribe the
+foundation of Bath to a British king Bladud. According to Geoffrey of
+Monmouth this monarch gave its healing power to the water by his spells.
+According to a later version, he was banished as a leper, and made the
+discovery leading to his cure, and to the origin of Bath, whilst
+wandering as a swineherd in 863 B.C. This, at least, is the date
+inscribed on a statue of Bladud placed in the Pump Room in 1699. There
+is, however, no real evidence of a British settlement. By the Romans
+Bath was named _Aquae Sulis_, the name indicating the dedication to a
+British goddess Sul or Sulis, whom the Romans considered the counterpart
+of Minerva. There were a temple of the goddess and a few houses for
+priests, officials and visitors, besides the large baths, and the place
+was apparently walled; but it did not contain a large resident
+population. Many relics have been disinterred, such as altars,
+inscriptions, fragments of stone carvings and figures, Samian ware, and
+others. The chief buildings were apparently grouped near the later abbey
+churchyard, and included, besides two temples, a magnificent bath,
+discovered when the duke of Kingston pulled down the old priory in 1755
+to form the Kingston Baths. Successive excavations have rendered
+accessible a remarkable series of remains, including several baths, a
+_sudarium_, and conduits. The main bath still receives its water (now
+for the purpose of cooling) through the original conduit. The
+fragmentary colonnade surrounding this magnificent relic still supports
+the street and buildings beneath which it lies, the Roman foundations
+having been left untouched. The remains of the bath and of the temple
+are among the most striking Roman antiquities in western Europe.
+
+Bath (variously known as Achemann, Hat Bathun, Bathonea, Batha) was a
+place of note in Saxon times, King Edgar being crowned there in 973. It
+was a royal borough governed by a reeve, with a burg mote in 907.
+Richard I. granted the first charter in 1189, which allowed the same
+privileges as Winchester to the members of the merchant gild. This was
+confirmed by Henry III. in 1236, 1247 and 1256, by charters giving the
+burgesses of Bath the right to elect coroners, with freedom from arrest
+for the debts of others, and from the interference of sheriffs or kings'
+bailiffs. Charters were granted by succeeding kings in 1312, 1322, 1341,
+1382, 1399, 1414, 1432, 1447, 1466 and 1545. The existence of a
+corporation being assumed in the earliest royal charter, and a common
+seal having been used since 1249, there was no formal incorporation of
+Bath until the charter of 1590, 1794 and 1835. Parliamentary
+representation began in 1297. Various fairs were granted to Bath, to be
+held on the 29th of August, the 9th of August, the 30th of June to the
+8th of July (called Cherry Fair), the 1st of February to the 6th of
+February, in 1275, 1305, 1325 and 1545 respectively. Fairs are now held
+on the 4th of February and on the Monday after the 9th of December.
+These fairs were flourishing centres of the cloth trade in the middle
+ages, but this industry has long departed. Bath "beaver," however, was
+known throughout England, and Chaucer makes his "Wife of Bath" excel the
+cloth-weavers "of Ypres and of Gaunt." The golden age of Bath began in
+the 18th century, and is linked with the work of the two architects Wood
+(both named John), of Ralph Allen, their patron, and of Richard Nash,
+master of the ceremonies. Previously the baths had been ill-kept, the
+lodging poor, the streets beset by footpads. All this was changed by the
+architectural scheme, including Queen Square, the Royal Crescent and the
+North and South Parades, which was chiefly designed by the elder Wood,
+and chiefly executed by his son. Instead of the booth which did duty as
+a gaming club and chocolate house, Nash provided the assembly rooms
+which figure largely in the pages of Fielding, Smollett, Burney, Dickens
+and their contemporaries. Anstey published his _New Bath Guide_ to
+ridicule the laws of taste which "Beau" Nash dictated; but two royal
+visits, in 1734 and 1738, established Bath as a centre of English
+fashion. The weekly markets granted on Wednesday and Saturday in 1305
+are still held.
+
+  See R. Warner, _History and Antiquities of Bath_ (1801); C.E. Davis,
+  _Ancient Landmarks of Bath; The Mineral Baths of Bath_ (1883);
+  _Excavations of Roman Baths_ (1895), and _The Saxon Cross_ (1898); Sir
+  G. Jackson, _Archives of Bath_ (2 vols., 1873); R.E.M. Peach, _Rambles
+  about Bath_ (1875), _Bath Old and New_ (1888), _Collections of Books
+  belonging to the City_ (1893), &c.; H. Scarth, _Aquae Solis, or
+  Notices of Roman Bath_ (1864); A. Barbeau, _Life and Letters at Bath
+  in the 18th Century_ (from the French _Une Ville d'eaux anglaise au
+  XVIII^e siecle_) (London, 1904); A.H. King, _Charter of Bath
+  Corporation_.
+
+
+
+
+BATH, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Sagadahoc county,
+Maine, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river, 12 m. from its
+mouth and 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 8723; (1900) 10,477, of
+whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 9396. It is served by the
+Maine Central railway, by steamboat lines to Boston, and by inter-urban
+electric railway. The city covers an area of about 9 sq. m., and extends
+along the W. bank of the river for about 5 m.; the business district is
+only a few feet above sea-level, but most of the residences are on
+higher ground. The streets are well shaded, chiefly with elms. At Bath
+are the state military and naval orphan asylum, two homes for the aged,
+and a soldiers' monument. Bath has a good harbour and its principal
+industry is the building of ships, both of wood and of iron and steel,
+several vessels of the United States navy have been built here. In 1905
+three-fourths of the city's wage-earners were employed in this industry.
+Bath also manufactures lumber, iron and brass goods, and has a
+considerable trade in ice, coal, lumber and iron and steel. First
+settled about 1660, Bath was a part of Georgetown until 1781, when it
+was incorporated as a separate town; in 1789 it was made a port of
+entry, and in 1847 was chartered as a city.
+
+
+
+
+BATH-CHAIR, a vehicle with a folding hood, which can be used open or
+closed, and a glass front, mounted on three or four wheels and drawn or
+pushed by hand. If required to be drawn by a donkey or small pony it is
+then mounted on four wheels, with the usual turning arrangement. James
+Heath, of Bath, who flourished rather before the middle of the 18th
+century, was the inventor.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+BATHGATE, a municipal and police burgh of Linlithgowshire, Scotland, 19
+m. W. by S. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 7549.
+The district is rich in limestone, coal, ironstone, shale and fireclay,
+all of which are worked. Silver also was once mined. The manufactures
+include paraffin, paper, glass, chemicals, flour and whisky, and
+freestone is quarried. The burgh is a considerable centre for
+agricultural produce. Bathgate became a burgh of barony in 1824 and a
+police burgh in 1865. Although it was not until the development of its
+mineral wealth that it attained to commercial importance, it is a place
+of some antiquity, and formed the dowry of Marjory, Robert Bruce's
+daughter, who married Walter, the hereditary steward of Scotland, in
+1315.
+
+
+
+
+BATHOLITE (from Gr. [Greek: bothus], deep, and [Greek: lithus], a
+stone), in geology, a term given to certain intrusive rock masses.
+Especially in districts which are composed principally of rocks
+belonging to the older geological systems extensive areas of granite
+frequently occur. By their relations to the strata around them, it is
+clear that these granites have been forced into their present positions
+in a liquid state, and under great pressure. The bedding planes of
+stratified rocks are wedged apart and tongues of granite have been
+injected into them, while cracks have been opened up and filled with
+intrusions in the shape of igneous veins. Great masses of the strata
+which the granite has invaded are often floated off, and are found lying
+in the heart of the granite much altered by the heat to which they have
+been exposed, and traversed by the igneous rock in ramifying threads.
+Such granite intrusions are generally known as bosses from their rounded
+surfaces, and the frequency with which they form flattish dome-shaped
+hills, rising above the older rocks surrounding them. At one time many
+geologists held that in certain situations the granite had arisen from
+the complete fusion and transformation of the stratified rocks over a
+limited area of intense metamorphism. The chemical no less than the
+structural relations of the two sets of rocks, however, preclude the
+acceptance of this hypothesis. Obviously the granite is an intruder
+which has welled up from below, and has cooled gradually, and solidified
+in its present situation.
+
+Regarding the mechanism of this process there are two theories which
+hold the field, each having a large number of supporters. One school
+considers that they are mostly "batholites" or conical masses rising
+from great depths and eating up the strata which lie above and around
+them. The frequency of inclusions of the surrounding rocks, their
+rounded shapes indicating that they have been partly dissolved by the
+igneous magma, the intense alteration which they have undergone pointing
+to a state approaching actual fusion, the extensive changes induced in
+the rocks which adjoin the granite, the abundance of veins, and the
+unusual modifications of the granite which occur where it comes in
+contact with the adjacent strata, are adduced as evidence that there has
+been absorption and digestion of the country rock by the intrusive mass.
+These views are in favour especially in France; and instances are cited
+in which as the margins of the granite are approached diorites and other
+rocks make their appearance, which are ascribed to the effect which
+admixture with dissolved sedimentary material has had on the composition
+of the granite magma; at the same time the schists have been permeated
+with felspar from the igneous rocks, and are said to have been
+felspathized.
+
+The opponents of this theory hold these granitic masses to be
+"laccolites" (Gr. [Greek: lakkos], a cistern), or great cake-shaped
+injections of molten rock, which have been pressed from below into
+planes of weakness in the upper portions of the earth's crust, taking
+the lines of least resistance, and owing their shape to the varying
+flexibility of the strata they penetrated. The modifications of the
+granite are ascribed to magmatic segregation (chemical and physical
+processes which occasioned diffusion of certain components towards the
+cooling surfaces). Absorption of country rock is held to be unimportant
+in amount, and insufficient to account for the great spaces in the
+schists which are occupied by the granite. Those who support this theory
+leave the question of the ultimate source of the granite unanswered, but
+consider that it is of deep-seated origin, and the bosses which now
+appear at the surface are only comparatively superficial manifestations.
+
+The bulk of the evidence is in favour of the laccolitic theory; in fact
+it has been clearly demonstrated in many important cases. Still it is
+equally clear that many granites are not merely passive injections, but
+have assimilated much foreign rock. Possibly much depends on the
+chemical composition of the respective masses, and on the depths and
+temperatures at which the intrusion took place. Increase of pressure and
+of temperature, which we know to take place at great depths, would
+stimulate resorption of sedimentary material, and by retarding cooling
+would allow time for dissolved foreign substances to diffuse widely
+through the magma.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+BATHONIAN SERIES, in geology. The typical Bathonian is the Great Oolite
+series of England, and the name was derived from the "Bath Oolite," so
+extensively mined and quarried in the vicinity of that city, where the
+principal strata were first studied by W. Smith. The term was first used
+by J. d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1843 (_Precis Geol_.) as a synonym for
+"Dogger"; but it was limited in 1849 by A. d'Orbigny (_Pal. Franc. Jur_.
+i. p. 607). In 1864 Mayer-Eymar (_Tabl. Synchron_.) used the word
+"Bathien" = Bajocian + Bathonian (sen. str.). According to English
+practice, the Bathonian includes the following formations in descending
+order: Cornbrash, Forest Marble with Bradford Clay, Great or Bath
+Oolite, Stonesfield Slate and Fullers' Earth. (The Fullers' Earth is
+sometimes regarded as constituting a separate stage, the "Fullonian.")
+The "Bathonien" of some French geologists differs from the English
+Bathonian in that it includes at the base the zone of the ammonite
+_Parkinsonia Parkinsoni_, which in England is placed at the summit of
+the Inferior Oolite. The Bathonian is the equivalent of the upper part
+of the "Dogger" (Middle Jurassic) of Germany, or to the base of the
+Upper Brown Jura (substage "E" of Quenstedt).
+
+Rocks of Bathonian age are well developed in Europe: in the N.W. and
+S.W. oolite limestones are characteristically associated with
+coral-bearing, crinoidal and other varieties, and with certain beds of
+clay. In the N. and N.E., Russia, &c., clays, sandstones and ferruginous
+oolites prevail, some of the last being exploited for iron. They occur
+also in the extreme north of America and in the Arctic regions,
+Greenland, Franz Josef Land, &c.; in Africa, Algeria, German East
+Africa, Madagascar and near the Cape (Enon Beds); in India, Rajputana
+and Gulf of Cutch, and in South America.
+
+The well-known Caen stone of Normandy and "Hauptrogenstein" of Swabia,
+as well as the "Eisenkalk" of N.W. Germany, and "Klaus-Schichten" of the
+Austrian Alps, are of Bathonian age.
+
+  For a general account, see A. de Lapparent, _Traite de geologie_ (5th
+  ed., 1906), vol. ii.; see also the article JURASSIC.     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BATHORY, SIGISMUND (ZSIGMOND), (1572-1613), prince of Transylvania, was
+the son of Christopher, prince of Transylvania, and Elizabeth Bocskay,
+and nephew of the great Stephen Bathory. He was elected prince in his
+father's lifetime, but being quite young at his father's death (1581),
+the government was entrusted to a regency. In 1588 he attained his
+majority, and, following the advice of his favourite councillor Alfonso
+Carillo, departed from the traditional policy of Transylvania in its
+best days (when friendly relations with the Porte were maintained as a
+matter of course, in order to counterpoise the ever hostile influence of
+the house of Habsburg), and joined the league of Christian princes
+against the Turk. The obvious danger of such a course caused no small
+anxiety in the principality, and the diet of Torda even went so far as
+to demand a fresh coronation oath from Sigismund, and, on his refusal to
+render it, threatened him with deposition. Ultimately Bathory got the
+better of his opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands
+(1595). Nevertheless, if anybody could have successfully carried out an
+anti-Turkish policy, it was certainly Bathory. He had inherited the
+military genius of his uncle, and his victories astonished contemporary
+Europe. In 1595 he subdued Walachia and annihilated the army of Sinan
+Pasha at Giurgevo (October 28th). The turning-point of his career was
+his separation from his wife, the archduchess Christina of Austria, in
+1599, an event followed by his own abdication the same year, in order
+that he might take orders. It was on this occasion that he offered the
+throne of Transylvania to the emperor Rudolph II., in exchange for the
+duchy of Oppeln. In 1600, however, at the head of an army of Poles and
+Cossacks, he attempted to recover his throne, but was routed by Michael,
+voivode of Moldavia, at Suceava. In February 1601 the diet of
+Klausenburg reinstated him, but again he was driven out by Michael,
+never to return. He died at Prague in 1613. Bathory's indisputable
+genius must have been warped by a strain of madness. His
+incalculableness, his savage cruelty (like most of the princes of his
+house he was a fanatical Catholic and persecutor) and his perpetual
+restlessness point plainly enough to a disordered mind.
+
+  See Ignaz Acsady, _History of the Hungarian State_ (Hung.) vol. ii.,
+  (Budapest, 1904).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BATHOS (Gr. [Greek: bathos]), properly depth, the bottom or lowest part
+of anything. The current usage for an anticlimax, a descent "from the
+sublime to the ridiculous," from the elevated to the commonplace in
+literature or speech, is due to Pope's satire on _Bathos_
+(_Miscellanies_, 1727-1728), "the art of sinking in poetry." The title
+was a travesty of Longinus's essay, _On the Sublime_, [Greek: Peri
+hupsous].
+
+
+
+
+BATHS. In the ordinary acceptation of the word a bath is the immersion
+of the body in a medium different from the ordinary one of atmospheric
+air, which medium is usually common water in some form. In another sense
+it includes the different media that may be used, and the various
+arrangements by which they are applied.
+
+_Ancient Baths._--Bathing, as serving both for cleanliness and for
+pleasure, has been almost instinctively practised by nearly every
+people. The most ancient records mention bathing in the rivers Nile and
+Ganges. From an early period the Jews bathed in running water, used both
+hot and cold baths, and employed oils and ointments. So also did the
+Greeks; their earliest and commonest form of bathing was swimming in
+rivers, and bathing in them was practised by both sexes. Warm baths
+were, according to Homer, used after fatigue or exercise. The Athenians
+appear for a long time to have had only private baths, but afterwards
+they had public ones: the latter seem to have originated among the
+Lacedaemonians, who invented the hot-air bath, at least the form of it
+called after them the _laconicum_. Although the baths of the Greeks were
+not so luxurious as those of some other nations, yet effeminate people
+were accused among them of using warm baths in excess; and the bath
+servants appear to have been rogues and thieves, as in later and larger
+establishments. The Persians must have had handsomely equipped baths,
+for Alexander the Great admired the luxury of the bath of Darius.
+
+But the baths of the Greeks, and probably of all Eastern nations, were
+on a small scale as compared with those which eventually sprang up among
+the Romans. In early times the Romans used after exercise to throw
+themselves into the Tiber. Next, when ample supplies of water were
+brought into the city, large _piscinae_, or cold swimming baths, were
+constructed, the earliest of which appear to have been the _piscina
+publica_ (312 B.C.), near the Circus Maximus, supplied by the Appian
+aqueduct, the _lavacrum_ of Agrippina, and a bath at the end of the
+Clivus Capitolinus. Next, small public as well as private baths were
+built; and with the empire more luxurious forms of bathing were
+introduced, and warm became far more popular than cold baths.
+
+Public baths (_balneae_) were first built in Rome after Clodius brought
+in the supply of water from Praeneste, After that date baths began to be
+common both in Rome and in other Italian cities; and private baths,
+which gradually came into use, were attached to the villas of the
+wealthy citizens. Maecenas was one of the first who built public baths
+at his own expense. After his time each emperor, as he wished to
+ingratiate himself with the people, lavished the revenues of the state
+in the construction of enormous buildings, which not only contained
+suites of bathing apartments, but included gymnasia, and sometimes even
+theatres and libraries. Such enormous establishments went by the name of
+_thermae_. The principal thermae were those of Agrippa 21 B.C., of Nero
+65 A.D., of Titus 81, of Domitian 95, of Commodus 185, of Caracalla 217,
+and still later those of Diocletian 302, and of Constantine. The
+technical skill displayed by the Romans in rendering their walls and the
+sides of reservoirs impervious to moisture, in conveying and heating
+water, and in constructing flues for the conveyance of hot air through
+the walls, was of the highest order.
+
+The Roman baths contained swimming baths, warm baths, baths of hot air,
+and vapour baths. The chief rooms (which in the largest baths appear to
+have been mostly distinct, whereas in smaller baths one chamber was made
+to do duty for more than a single purpose) were the following:--(1) The
+_apodyterium_ or _spoliatorium_, where the bathers undressed; (2) the
+_alipterium_ or _unctuarium_, where oils and ointments were kept
+(although the bathers often brought their own pomades), and where the
+_aliptae_, anointed the bathers; (3) the _frigidarium_, or cool room,
+_cella frigida_, in which usually was the cold bath, the _piscina_ or
+_baptisterium_; (4) the _tepidarium_, a room moderately heated, in which
+the bathers rested for a time, but which was not meant for bathing; (5)
+the _calidarium_ or heating room, over the _hypocaustum_ or furnace;
+this in its commonest arrangement had at one end a warm bath, the
+_alveus_ or _calida lavatio_; at the other end in a sort of alcove was
+(6) the _sudatorium_ or _laconicum_, which usually had a _labrum_ or
+large vessel containing water, with which bathers sprinkled themselves
+to help in rubbing off the perspiration. In the largest baths the
+laconicum was probably a separate chamber, a circular domical room with
+recesses in the sides, and a large opening in the top; but there is no
+well-preserved specimen, unless that at Pisa may be so regarded. In the
+drawing of baths from the thermae of Titus (fig. 1), the laconicum is
+represented as a small cupola rising in a corner of the calidarium. It
+is known that the temperature of the laconicum was regulated by drawing
+up or down a metallic plate or _clypeus_. Some think that this clypeus
+was directly over the flames of the hypocaustum, and that when it was
+withdrawn, the flames must have sprung into the laconicum. Others, and
+apparently they have Vitruvius on their side, think that the clypeus was
+drawn up or down only from the aperture in the roof, and that it
+regulated the temperature simply by giving more or less free exit to the
+hot air. If the laconicum was only one end of the calidarium, it is
+difficult to see how that end of the room was kept so much hotter than
+the rest of it; on the other hand, to have had flames actually issuing
+from the laconicum must have caused smoke and soot, and have been very
+unpleasant. The most usual order in which the rooms were employed seems
+to have been the following, but there does not appear to have been any
+absolute uniformity of practice then, any more than in modern Egyptian
+and Turkish baths. Celsus recommends the bather first to sweat a little
+in the tepidarium with his clothes on, to be anointed there, and then to
+pass into the calidarium; after he has sweated freely there he is not to
+descend into the solium or cold bath, but to have plenty of water poured
+over him from his head,--first warm, then tepid, and then cold
+water--the water being poured longer over his head than on the rest of
+the body; next to be scraped with the strigil, and lastly to be rubbed
+and anointed.
+
+The warmest of the heated rooms, i.e. the calidarium and laconicum, were
+heated directly from the hypocaustum, over which they were built or
+suspended (_suspensura_); while from the hypocaustum tubes of brass, or
+lead, or pottery carried the hot air or vapour to the walls of the other
+rooms. The walls were usually hollow, so that the hot air could readily
+circulate.
+
+The water was heated ingeniously. Close to the furnace, about 4 in. off,
+was placed the calidarium, the copper (_ahenum_) for boiling water, near
+which, with the same interval between them, was the copper for warm
+water, the _tepidarium_, and at the distance of 2 ft. from this was the
+receptacle for cold water, or the _frigidarium_, often a plastered
+reservoir. A constant communication was kept up between these vessels,
+so that as fast as hot water was drawn off from the calidarium a supply
+was obtained from the tepidarium, which, being already heated, but
+slightly reduced the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium,
+again, was supplied from the frigidarium, and that from an aqueduct. In
+this way the heat which was not taken up by the first boiler passed on
+to the second, and instead of being wasted, helped to heat the second--a
+principle which has only lately been introduced into modern furnaces. In
+the case of the large thermae the water of an aqueduct was brought to
+the _castellum_ or top of the building and was allowed to descend into
+chambers over the hypocaustum, where it was heated and transmitted in
+pipes to the central buildings. Remains of this arrangement are to be
+seen in the baths of Caracalla. The general plan of such buildings may
+be more clearly understood by the accompanying illustrations. In the
+well-known drawing (fig. 1) found in the baths of Titus, the name of
+each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small dome inscribed
+laconicum directly over the furnace, and having the clypeus over it,
+will be observed in the corner of the chamber named concamerata sudatio.
+The vessels for water are inscribed, according to their temperature,
+with the same names as some of the chambers, frigidarium, tepidarium and
+calidarium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--Roman baths.]
+
+The baths of Pompeii (as shown in fig. 2) were a double set, and were
+surrounded with tabernae or shops, which are marked by a lighter shade.
+There were streets on four sides; and the reservoir supplying water was
+across the street in the building on the left hand of the cut. There
+were three public entrances--21a, 21b, 21c--to the men's baths and one
+to the women's. The furnaces (9) heated water, which was conveyed on one
+side to the larger baths of the men, on the other to the women's.
+Entering from the street at 21c there was a latrina on the left hand
+(22). From this entrance it was usual to proceed to a court (20)
+surrounded by pillars, where servants were in attendance. There is some
+doubt as to the purpose to which the room (19) was devoted. Leaving the
+hall a passage conducted to the apodyterium or dressing-room (17), at
+one end of it is the frigidarium, baptisterium or cold plunge bath (18).
+Entering out of the apodyterium is the tepidarium or warming-room (15),
+which most probably was also used as the alipterium or anointing-room.
+From it bathers passed into the hot room or calidarium (12), which had
+at one end the alveus or calida lavatio (13), at the other end the
+labrum (14). This end of the calidarium served as the laconicum. The
+arrangements of the women's baths were similar, but on a smaller scale.
+The calidarium (5) had the labrum (7) at one end, and the alveus (6) was
+in one side of the room. The general arrangements of a calidarium are
+well illustrated by the accompanying section (fig. 3) of a bath
+discovered at Tusculum. The disposition of the parts is the same as at
+Pompeii. We here have the calidarium supported on the pillars of the
+fornax, the suspensura. The alveus (3) is at one end, and the labrum (4)
+at the other. (1) and (2) are the vessels for water over the fornax; and
+the passages in the roof and walls for the escape of heated air will be
+observed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ground plan of the baths of Pompeii.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of bath discovered at Tusculum, showing
+the calidarium (hot room).]
+
+A clear idea of the relative position of the different rooms, and some
+slight indication of their ornamentation, will be obtained from fig. 4.
+The flues under the calidarium and the labrum (1) may be observed, as
+also the opening in the roof above. (2), (3) and (4) mark the vessels
+for water which are placed between the men's baths on the left and the
+women's on the right.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of baths of Pompeii.]
+
+The arrangements of the _thermae_ were mainly those of the balneae on a
+larger scale. Some idea of their size may be gathered from such facts as
+these, that in the baths of Diocletian one room has been transmuted into
+a church of most imposing proportions, and that the outside walls of
+the baths of Caracalla extend about a quarter of a mile on each of the
+four sides. A visit to the remains of the baths of Titus, of Diocletian,
+or of Caracalla impresses the mind strongly with a sense of the vast
+scale on which they were erected, and Ammianus's designation of them as
+provinces appears scarcely exaggerated. It is said that the baths of
+Caracalla contained 1600, and those of Diocletian 3200 marble seats for
+the use of the bathers. In the largest of the thermae there was a
+stadium for the games of the young men, with raised seats for the
+spectators. There were open colonnades and seats for philosophers and
+literary men to sit and discourse or read their productions aloud or for
+others to discuss the latest news. Near the porticoes, in the interior
+open space, rows of trees were planted. There was a _sphaeristerium_ or
+place for playing ball, which was often over the apodyterium; but it
+must be confessed that the purposes of many portions of these large
+edifices have not been made out in as satisfactory a way as those of
+smaller baths. A more definite idea of the thermae can be best got by an
+examination of the accompanying plan of the baths of Caracalla (fig. 5).
+A good deal of the plan is conjectural, the restorations being marked by
+lighter shading.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Ground plan of the baths of Caracalla.]
+
+  At the bottom of the plan is shown a long colonnade, which faces the
+  street, behind which was a series of chambers, supposed to have been
+  separate bathing-rooms. Entering by the opening in its centre, the
+  visitor passes what was probably an inner colonnade round the main
+  building. Passing in by either of the gates (2, 2), he reaches the
+  large chamber (3), which has been variously called the natatio or
+  large swimming-bath, or the tepidarium. The great central room (4) in
+  all probability was the calidarium, with two labra (6, 6) on opposite
+  sides, and with four alvei, one in each corner, represented by small
+  circular dots. (9) has been regarded by some as the laconicuim,
+  although it appears very large for that purpose. The rooms (15, 15)
+  have been variously described as baptisteria and as laconica. Most
+  authors are agreed in thinking that the large rooms (13) and (16) were
+  the sphaeristeria or places for playing ball.
+
+  Returning to the outside, (1) and (18) and the corresponding places on
+  the other side are supposed to have been the exedrae for philosophers,
+  and places corresponding to the Greek xysti. (20) and (19) have been
+  considered to be servants' rooms. (22) was the stadium, with raised
+  seats for the spectators. The space between this and the large central
+  hall (9) was planted with trees, and at (21) the aqueduct brought
+  water into the castellum or reservoir, which was on an upper storey.
+  There were upper storeys in most portions of the building, and in
+  these probably were the libraries and small theatres.
+
+The piscinae were often of immense size--that of Diocletian being 200
+ft. long--and were adorned with beautiful marbles. The halls were
+crowded with magnificent columns and were ornamented with the finest
+pieces of statuary. The walls, it has been said, were covered with
+exquisite mosaics that imitated the art of the painter in their elegance
+of design and variety of colour. The Egyptian syenite was encrusted with
+the precious green marbles of Numidia. The rooms contained the works of
+Phidias and Praxiteles. A perpetual stream of water was poured into
+capacious basins through the wide mouths of lions of bright and polished
+silver, water issued from silver, and was received on silver. "To such a
+pitch of luxury have we reached," says Seneca, "that we are dissatisfied
+if we do not tread on gems in our baths."
+
+The richer Romans used every variety of oils and pomades (_smegmata_);
+they scarcely had true soaps. The poorer class had to be content with
+the flour of lentils, an article used at this day for the same purpose
+by Orientals. The most important bath utensil was the strigillus, a
+curved instrument made of metal, with which the skin was scraped and all
+sordes removed.
+
+The bath servants assisted in anointing, in using the strigillus and in
+various other menial offices. The poorer classes had to use their
+strigils themselves. The various processes of the aliptae seem to have
+been carried on very systematically.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.[1] Ring on which are suspended some of the
+articles in use in the Alipterium]
+
+The hot baths appear to have been open from 1 P.M. till dark. It was
+only one of the later emperors that had them lighted up at night. When
+the hot baths were ready (for, doubtless, the plunge baths were
+available at an earlier hour), a bell or _aes_ was rung for the
+information of the people. Among the Greeks and Romans the eighth hour,
+or 1 o'clock, before their dinner, was the commonest hour for bathing.
+The bath was supposed to promote appetite, and some voluptuaries had one
+or more baths after dinner, to enable them to begin eating again; but
+such excesses, as Juvenal tells us, occasionally proved fatal. Some of
+the most effeminate of the emperors are said to have bathed seven or
+eight times in the course of the day. In early times there was delicacy
+of feeling about the sexes bathing together--even a father could not
+bathe with his sons; but latterly, under most of the emperors, men and
+women often used the same baths. There frequently were separate baths
+for the women, as we see at Pompeii or at Badenweiler; but although
+respectable matrons would not go to public baths, promiscuous bathing
+was common during the Empire.
+
+The public baths and thermae were under the more immediate
+superintendence of the aediles. The charge made at a public bath was
+only a quadrans or quarter of an as, about half a farthing. Yet cheap
+though this was, the emperors used to ingratiate themselves with the
+populace, by making the baths at times gratuitous.
+
+Wherever the Romans settled, they built public baths; and wherever they
+found hot springs or natural stufae, they made use of them, thus saving
+the expense of heating, as at the _myrteta_ of Baiae or the _Aquae
+Sulis_ of Bath. In the cities there appear to have been private baths
+for hire, as well as the public baths; and every rich citizen had a set
+of baths attached to his villa, the fullest account of which is given in
+the _Letters_ of Pliny, or in Ausonius's _Account of a Villa on the
+Moselle_, or in Statius's _De Balneo Etrusco_. Although the Romans never
+wholly gave up cold bathing, and that practice was revived under
+Augustus by Antonius Musa, and again under Nero by Charmis (at which
+later time bathing in the open sea became common), yet they chiefly
+practised warm bathing (_calida lavatio_). This is the most luxurious
+kind of bathing, and when indulged in to excess is enervating. The women
+were particularly fond of these baths, and were accused, at all events
+in some provincial cities, of drunkenness in them.
+
+The unbounded license of the public baths, and their connexion with
+modes of amusement that were condemned, led to their being to a
+considerable extent proscribed by the early Christians. The early
+Fathers wrote that bathing might be practised for the sake of
+cleanliness or of health, but not of pleasure; and Gregory the Great saw
+no objection to baths being used on Sunday. About the 5th century many
+of the large thermae in Rome fell into decay. The cutting off of the
+aqueducts by the Huns, and the gradual decrease of the population,
+contributed to this. Still it is doubtful whether bathing was ever
+disused to the extent that is usually represented. It was certainly kept
+up in the East in full vigour at Alexandria and at Brusa. Hot bathing,
+and especially hot air and vapour baths, were adopted by the
+Mahommedans; and the Arabs brought them with them into Spain. The Turks,
+at a later time, carried them high up the Danube, and the Mahommedans
+spread or, it may be more correct to say, revived their use in Persia
+and in Hindustan. The Crusaders also contributed to the spread of baths
+in Europe, and hot vapour baths were specially recommended for the
+leprosy so prevalent in those days. After the commencement of the 13th
+century there were few large cities in Europe without hot vapour baths.
+We have full accounts of their regulations--how the Jews were only
+allowed to visit them once a week, and how there were separate baths for
+lepers. In England they were called hothouses. Erasmus, at the date of
+the Reformation, spoke of them as common in France, Germany and Belgium;
+he gives a lively account of the mixture of all classes of people to be
+found in them, and would imply that they were a common adjunct to inns.
+They seem after a time to have become less common, though Montaigne
+mentions them as being still in Rome in his day. In England the next
+revival of baths was at the close of the 17th century, under the Eastern
+name of _Hummums_ or the Italian name of Bagnios. These were avowedly on
+the principle of the Turkish baths described below. But there were
+several considerable epochs in the history of baths, one in the
+commencement of the 18th century, when Floyer and others recalled
+attention to cold bathing, of which the virtues had long been
+overlooked. In the middle of the century also, Russell and others
+revived sea-bathing in England, and were followed by others on the
+continent, until the value of sea-bathing became fully appreciated.
+Later in the same century the experiments of James Currie on the action
+of complete or of partial baths on the system in disease attracted
+attention; and though forgotten for a while, they bore abundant fruit in
+more recent times.
+
+_Modern Baths._--It is uncertain how far the Turkish and Egyptian and
+even the Russian baths are to be regarded merely as successors of the
+Roman baths, because the principle of vapour baths has been known to
+many nations in a very early period of civilization. Thus the Mexicans
+and Indians were found using small vapour baths. The ancient inhabitants
+of Ireland and of Scotland had some notion of their use, and the large
+vapour baths of Japan, now so extensively employed, are probably of
+independent origin.
+
+The following accounts of Turkish and Russian baths illustrate the
+practices of the ancient Roman and also of modern Turkish baths. In
+Lane's _On the Modern Egyptians_ we read: "The building consists of
+several apartments, all of which are paved with marble, chiefly white.
+The inner apartments are covered with domes, which have a number of
+small glazed apertures for the admission of light. The bather, on
+entering, if he has a watch or purse, gives them in charge to the keeper
+of the bath. The servant of the bath takes off his shoes and supplies
+him with a pair of wooden clogs. The first apartment has generally three
+or four _leewans_ (raised parts of the floor used as couches) cased with
+marble, and a fountain of cold water, which rises from an octagonal
+basement in the centre. One of the leewans, which is meant for the
+higher classes, is furnished with cushions or mats. In warm weather
+bathers usually undress in this room; in winter they undress in an inner
+room, called the _beytowwal_ or first chamber, between which and the
+last apartment there is a passage often with two or three latrines off
+it. This is the first of the heated chambers. It generally has two
+raised seats. The bather receives a napkin in which to put his clothes
+and another to put round his waist--this reaches to the knees; a third,
+if he requires it, is brought him to wind round his head, leaving the
+top of it bare; a fourth to put over his chest; and a fifth to cover his
+back. When the bather has undressed, the attendant opens to him the door
+of the inner and principal apartment. This in general has four leewans,
+which gives it the form of a cross, and in the centre a fountain of hot
+water rises from a small shallow basin. The centre room, with the
+adjoining ones, forms almost a square. The beytowwal already mentioned
+is one of them. Two small chambers which adjoin each other, one
+containing a tank of hot water, the other containing a trough, over
+which are two taps, one of hot and one of cold water, occupy the two
+other angles; while the fourth angle of the square is occupied by the
+chamber which contains the fire, over which is the boiler. The bather
+having entered this apartment soon perspires profusely from the humid
+heat which is produced by the hot water of tanks and fountains, and by
+the steam of the boiler. The bather sits on one of the marble seats, or
+lies on the leewan or near one of the tanks, and the operator then
+commences his work. The operator first cracks aloud every joint in the
+body. He makes the vertebrae of the back and even of the neck crack. The
+limbs are twisted with apparent violence, but so skilfully, that no harm
+is ever done. The operator next kneads the patient's flesh. After this
+he rubs the soles of the feet with a kind of rasp of baked clay. There
+are two kinds of rasps, one porous and rough, one of fine smooth clay.
+Those used by ladies are usually encased in thin embossed silver. The
+next operation is rubbing the bather's flesh with a small coarse woollen
+bag, after which the bather dips himself in one of the tanks. He is next
+taken to one of the chambers in the corner, and the operator lathers the
+bather with fibres of the palm tree, soap and water. The soap is then
+washed off with water, when the bather having finished washing, and
+enveloped himself in dry towels, returns to the beytowwal and reclines.
+Here he generally remains an hour to an hour and a half, sipping coffee
+and smoking, while an attendant rubs the soles of the feet and kneads
+the body and limbs. The bather then dresses and goes out."
+
+The following description of a Russian bath is from Kohl's _Russia_
+(1842): "The passage from the door is divided into two behind the
+check-taker's post, one for the male, one for the female guests. We
+first enter an open space, in which a set of men are sitting in a state
+of nudity on benches, those who have already bathed dressing, while
+those who are going to undergo the process take off their clothes. Round
+this space or apartment are the doors leading to the vapour-rooms. The
+bather is ushered into them, and finds himself in a room full of vapour,
+which is surrounded by a wooden platform rising in steps to near the
+roof of the room. The bather is made to lie down on one of the lower
+benches, and gradually to ascend to the higher and hotter ones. The
+first sensation on entering the room amounts almost to a feeling of
+suffocation. After you have been subjected for some time to a
+temperature which may rise to 145 deg. the transpiration reaches its
+full activity, and the sensation is very pleasant. The bath attendants
+come and flog you with birchen twigs, cover you with the lather of soap,
+afterwards rub it off, and then hold you over a jet of ice-cold water.
+The shock is great, but is followed by a pleasant feeling of great
+comfort and of alleviation of any rheumatic pains you may have had. In
+regular establishments you go after this and lie down on a bed for a
+time before issuing forth. But the Russians often dress in the open air,
+and instead of using the jet of cold water, go and roll themselves at
+once in the snow."
+
+Turkish baths have, with various modifications, become popular in
+Europe. The Russian baths were introduced into German towns about 1825.
+They had a certain limited amount of popularity, but did not take firm
+root. Another class practically owes its origin to Dr Barter and David
+Urquhart. It professed to be founded on the Turkish bath, but in reality
+it was much more of a hot air bath, i.e. more devoid of vapour than
+either Roman or Turkish baths ever were, for it is doubtful whether in
+any case the air of the laconicum was free from vapour. These baths,
+with their various modifications, have become extremely popular in Great
+Britain, in Germany and in northern Europe, but have, curiously enough,
+never been used extensively in France, notwithstanding the familiarity
+of the French with Turkish baths in Algiers.
+
+In England hot air baths are now employed very extensively. They are
+often associated with Turkish and electric baths.
+
+Bathing among the ancients was practised in various forms. It was
+sometimes a simple bath in cold or in tepid water; but at least, in the
+case of the higher orders, it usually included a hot air or vapour bath,
+and was followed by affusion of cold or warm water, and generally by a
+plunge into the piscina. In like manner the order varies in which the
+different processes are gone through in Turkish baths in modern Europe.
+Thus in the baths in Vienna, the process begins by immersion in a large
+basin of warm water. Sudation is repeatedly interrupted by cold douches
+at the will of the bathers, and after the bath they are satisfied with a
+short stay in the cooling-room, where they have only a simple sheet
+rolled round them. In Copenhagen and in Stockholm the Oriental baths
+have been considerably modified by their association with hydropathic
+practices.
+
+This leads us to notice the introduction of the curiously misnamed
+system known as hydropathy (q.v.). Although cold baths were in vogue
+for a time in Rome, warm baths were always more popular. Floyer, as we
+have seen, did something to revive their use in England; but it was
+nearly a century and a half afterwards that a Silesian peasant,
+Priessnitz, introduced, with wonderful success, a variety of operations
+with cold water, the most important of which was the packing the patient
+in a wet sheet, a process which after a time is followed by profuse
+sudation. Large establishments for carrying out this mode of bathing and
+its modifications were erected in many places on the continent and in
+Great Britain, and enjoyed at one time a large share of popularity. The
+name "hydropathic" is still retained for these establishments, though
+hydropathy so-called is no longer practised within them to any extent.
+
+But the greatest and most important development of ordinary baths in
+modern times was in England, though it has extended gradually to some
+parts of the continent. The English had long used affusion and
+swimming-baths freely in India. Cold and hot baths and shower baths have
+been introduced into private houses to an extent never known before;
+and, since 1842, public swimming-baths, besides separate baths, have
+been supplied to the public at very moderate rates, in some cases
+associated with wash-houses for the poorer classes. Their number has
+increased rapidly in London and in the principal continental cities.
+Floating-baths in rivers, always known in some German towns, have become
+common wherever there are flowing streams. The better supply of most
+European cities with water has aided in this movement. Ample enclosed
+swimming-baths have been erected at many seaside places. When required,
+the water, if not heated in a boiler, is raised to a sufficient
+temperature by the aid of hot water pipes or of steam. Separate baths
+used to be of wood, painted; they are now most frequently of metal,
+painted or lined with porcelain enamel. The swimming-baths are lined
+with cement, tiles or marble and porcelain slabs; and a good deal of
+ornamentation and painting of the walls and ceiling of the apartments,
+in imitation of the ancients, has been attempted.
+
+We have thus traced in outline the history of baths through successive
+ages. The medium of the baths spoken of thus far has been water, vapour
+or dry hot air. But baths of more complex nature, and of the greatest
+variety, have been in use from the earliest ages. The best known media
+are the various mineral waters and sea-water. Of baths of _mineral_
+substances, those of sand are the oldest and best known; the practice of
+_arenation_ or of burying the body in the sand of the sea-shore, or in
+heated sand near some hot spring, is very ancient, as also that of
+applying heated sand to various parts of the body. Baths of _peat_ earth
+are of comparatively recent origin. The peat earth is carefully prepared
+and pulverized, and then worked up with water into a pasty consistence,
+of which the temperature can be regulated before the patient immerses
+himself in it.
+
+There are various terms that may be termed _chemical_, in which chlorine
+or hydrochloric acid is added to the water of the bath, or where fumes
+of sulphur are made to rise and envelop the body.
+
+Of _vegetable_ baths the number is very large. Lees of wine, in a state
+of fermentation, have been employed. An immense variety of aromatic
+herbs have been used to impregnate water with. At one time fuci or
+sea-weed were added to baths, under the idea of conveying into the
+system the iodine which they contain; but by far the most popular of all
+vegetable baths are those made with an extract got by distilling certain
+varieties of pine leaves.
+
+The strangeness of the baths of _animal_ substances, that have been at
+various times in use, is such that their employment seems scarcely
+credible. That baths of milk or of whey might be not unpopular is not
+surprising, but baths of blood, in some cases even of human blood, have
+been used; and baths of horse dung were for many ages in high favour,
+and were even succeeded for a short time by baths of guano.
+
+_Electrical_ baths are now largely used, a current being passed through
+the water; and electrical _massage_, by the d'Arsonval or other system,
+is colloquially termed a "bath."
+
+Baths also of _compressed air_, in which the patient is subjected to the
+pressure of two or three atmospheres, were formerly employed in some
+places.
+
+A _sun_ bath (_insolatio_ or _heliosis_), exposing the body to the sun,
+the head being covered, was a favourite practice among the Greeks and
+Romans.
+
+Some special devices require a few words of explanation.
+
+_Douches_ were used by the ancients, and have always been an important
+mode of applying water to a circumscribed portion of the body. They are,
+in fact, spouts of water, varying in size and temperature, applied by a
+hose-pipe with more or less force for a longer or shorter time against
+particular parts. A douche exercises a certain amount of friction, and a
+continued impulse on the spot to which it is applied, which stimulate
+the skin and the parts beneath it, quickening the capillary circulation.
+The effects of the douche are so powerful that it cannot be applied for
+more than a few minutes continuously. The alternation of hot and cold
+douches, which for some unknown reason has got the name of _Ecossaise_,
+is a very potent type of bath from the strong action and reaction which
+it produces. The _shower_ bath may be regarded as a union of an immense
+number of fine douches projected on the head and shoulders. It produces
+a strong effect on the nervous system. An ingenious contrivance for
+giving circular _spray_ baths, by which water is propelled laterally in
+fine streams against every portion of the surface of the body, is now
+common.
+
+To all these modes of acting on the cutaneous surface and circulation
+must be added dry rubbing, as practised by the patient with the flesh
+glove, but much more thoroughly by the bath attendants, if properly
+instructed (see also MASSAGE).
+
+_Action of Baths on the Human System._--The primary operation of baths
+is the action of heat and cold on the cutaneous surfaces through the
+medium of water.
+
+The first purpose of baths is simply that of abstersion and cleanliness,
+to remove any foreign impurity from the surface, and to prevent the
+pores from being clogged by their own secretions or by desquamations of
+cuticle. It need scarcely be said that such objects are greatly promoted
+by the action of the alkali of soaps and by friction; that the use of
+warm water, owing to its immediate stimulation of the skin, promotes the
+separation of sordes, and that the vapour of water is still more
+efficient than water itself.
+
+It has been supposed that water acts on the system by being absorbed
+through the skin, but, under ordinary circumstances, no water is
+absorbed, or, if any, so minute a quantity as not to be worth
+considering. No dissolved substances, under the ordinary circumstances
+of a bath, are actually absorbed into the system; although when a
+portion of skin has been entirely cleared of its sebaceous secretion, it
+is possible that a strong solution of salts may be partially absorbed.
+In the case of medicated baths we therefore only look (in addition to
+the action of heat and cold, or more properly to the abstraction or
+communication and retention of heat) to any stimulant action on the skin
+that the ingredients of the bath may possess.
+
+The powerful influence of water on the capillaries of the skin, and the
+mode and extent of that operation, depend primarily on the temperature
+of the fluid. The human system bears changes of temperature of the air
+much better than changes of the temperature of water. While the
+temperature of the air at 75 deg. may be too warm for the feelings of
+many people, a continued bath at that temperature is felt to be cold and
+depressing. Again, a bath of 98 deg. to 102 deg. acts far more
+excitingly than air of the same temperature, both because, being a
+better conductor, water brings more heat to the body and because it
+suppresses the perspiration which is greatly augmented by air of that
+temperature. Further, a temperature a few degrees below blood heat is
+that of indifferent baths, which can be borne longest without natural
+disturbance of the system.
+
+_Cold baths_ act by refrigeration, and their effects vary according to
+the degree of temperature. The effects of a cold bath, the temperature
+not being below 50 deg., are these:--there is a diminution of the
+temperature of the skin and of the subjacent tissues; there is a certain
+feeling of shock diffused over the whole surface, and if the cold is
+intense it induces a slight feeling of numbness in the skin. It becomes
+pale and its capillaries contract. The further action of a cold bath
+reaches the central nervous system, the heart and the lungs, as
+manifested by the tremor of the limbs it produces, along with a certain
+degree of oppression of the chest and a gasping for air, while the pulse
+becomes small and sinks. After a time reaction takes place, and brings
+redness to the skin and an increase of temperature.
+
+The colder the water is, and the more powerful and depressing its
+effects, the quicker and more active is the reaction. Very cold baths,
+anything below 50 deg., cannot be borne long. Lowering of the
+temperature of the skin may be borne down to 9 deg., but a further
+reduction may prove fatal. The diminution of temperature is much more
+rapid when the water is in motion, or when the bather moves about;
+because, if the water is still, the layer of it in immediate contact
+with the body is warmed to a certain degree.
+
+A great deal depends on the form of the cold bath; thus one may
+have--(1) Its depressing operation,--with a loss of heat, retardation of
+the circulation, and feeling of weariness, when the same water remains
+in contact with the skin, and there is continuous withdrawal of heat
+without fresh stimulation. This occurs with full or sitz baths, with
+partial or complete wrapping up the body in a wet sheet which remains
+unchanged, and with frictions practised without removing the wet sheets.
+(2) Its exciting operation,--with quickening of the action of the heart
+and lungs, and feeling of glow and of nervous excitement and of
+increased muscular power. These sensations are produced when the layer
+of water next the body and heated by it is removed, and fresh cold water
+causes fresh stimulus. These effects are produced by full baths with the
+water in motion used only for a short time, by frictions when the wet
+sheet is removed from the body, by douches, shower baths, bathing in
+rivers, &c. The depressing operation comes on much earlier in very cold
+water than in warmer; and in the same way the exciting operation comes
+on faster with the colder than with the warmer water. The short duration
+of the bath makes both its depressing and its exciting action less; its
+longer duration increases them; and if the baths be continued too long,
+the protracted abstraction of animal heat may prove very depressing.
+
+_Tepid baths_, 85 deg. to 95 deg.--The effects of a bath of this
+temperature are confined to the peripheral extremities of the nerves,
+and are so slight that they do not reach the central system. There is no
+reaction, and the body temperature remains unchanged. Baths of this kind
+can be borne for hours with impunity.
+
+_Warm baths_ from 96 deg. to 104 deg.--In these the action of the heat
+on the peripheral surface is propagated to the central system, and
+causes reaction, which manifests itself in moderately increased flow of
+the blood to the surface, and in an increased frequency of pulse.
+
+With a _hot bath_ from 102 deg. up to 110 deg. the central nervous and
+circulating systems are more affected. The frequency of the pulse
+increases rapidly, the respiration becomes quickened, and is interrupted
+by deep inspirations. The skin is congested, and there is profuse
+perspiration.
+
+_Very hot baths._--Everything above 110 deg. feels very hot; anything
+above 120 deg. almost scalding. Baths of from 119 deg. to 126 deg. have
+caused a rise of 2 deg. to 4-1/2 deg. in the temperature of the blood.
+Such a bath can be borne for only a few minutes. It causes great
+rapidity of the pulse, extreme lowering of the blood-pressure, excessive
+congestion of the skin, and violent perspiration.
+
+In the use of hot baths a certain amount of vapour reaches the parts of
+the body not covered by the water, and is also inhaled.
+
+_Vapour_ baths produce profuse perspiration and act in cleansing the
+skin, as powerful hot water baths do. Vapour, owing to its smaller
+specific heat, does not act so fast as water on the body. A vapour bath
+can be borne for a much longer time when the vapour is not inhaled.
+Vapour baths can be borne hotter than water baths, but cannot be
+continued too long, as vapour, being a bad conductor, prevents radiation
+of heat from the body. A higher heat than 122 deg. is not borne
+comfortably. The vapour bath though falling considerably short of the
+temperature of the hot air bath, raises the temperature much more.
+
+_Hot air_ baths differ from vapour baths in not impeding the respiration
+as the latter do, by depositing moisture in the bronchial tubes. The
+lungs, instead of having to heat the inspired air, are subjected to a
+temperature above their own. Hot air baths, say of 135 deg., produce
+more profuse perspiration than vapour baths. If very hot, they raise the
+temperature of the body by several degrees. Vapour baths, hot air baths,
+and hot water baths agree in producing violent perspiration. As
+perspiration eliminates water and effete matter from the system, it is
+obvious that its regulation must have an important effect on the
+economy.
+
+In comparing the general effects of cold and hot baths, it may be said
+that while the former tend to check perspiration, the latter favour it.
+
+The warm bath causes swelling and congestion of the capillaries of the
+surface in the first instance; when the stimulus of heat is withdrawn
+their contraction ensues. A cold bath, again, first causes a contraction
+of the capillaries of the surface, which is followed by their expansion
+when reaction sets in. A warm bath elevates the temperature of the body,
+both by bringing a supply of heat to it and by preventing the radiation
+of heat from it. It can be borne longer than a cold bath. It draws blood
+to the surface, while a cold bath favours internal congestions.
+
+But baths often produce injurious effects when used injudiciously. Long
+continued warm baths are soporific, and have, owing to this action,
+often caused death by drowning. The effects of very hot baths are
+swimming in the head, vomiting, fainting, congestion of the brain, and,
+in some instances, apoplexy.
+
+The symptoms seem to point to paralysis of the action of the heart. It
+is therefore very evident how cautious those should be, in the use of
+hot baths, who have weak hearts or any obstruction to the circulation.
+Fat men, and those in whom the heart or blood-vessels are unsound,
+should avoid them. Protracted indulgence in warm baths is relaxing, and
+has been esteemed a sign of effeminacy in all ages. Sleepiness, though
+it will not follow the first immersion in a cold bath, is one of the
+effects of protracted cold baths; depression of the temperature of the
+surface becomes dangerous. The risk in cold baths is congestion of the
+internal organs, as often indicated by the lips getting blue. Extremely
+cold baths are always dangerous.
+
+For the medical use of baths see BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS.
+
+_Public Baths._--It was not till 1846 that it was deemed advisable in
+England, for the "health, comfort, and welfare" of the inhabitants of
+towns and populous districts, to encourage the establishment therein of
+baths by the local authority acting through commissioners. A series of
+statutes, known collectively as "The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to
+1896," followed. By the Public Health Act 1875, the urban authority was
+declared to be the authority having power to adopt and proceed under
+the previous acts, and in 1878 provision was for the first time
+expressly made for the establishment of swimming baths, which might be
+used during the winter as gymnasia, and by an amending act of 1899, for
+music or dancing, provided a licence is obtained. By the Local
+Government Act 1894, it was provided that the parish meeting should be
+the authority having exclusive power of adopting the Baths and
+Wash-houses Acts in rural districts, which should, if adopted, be
+carried into effect by the parish council. Up to 1865 it seems as if
+only twenty-five boroughs had cared to provide bathing accommodation for
+their inhabitants. There is no complete information as to the number of
+authorities who have adopted the acts since 1865, but a return of
+reproductive undertakings presented to the House of Commons in 1899
+shows that no local authorities outside the metropolis applied for power
+to raise loans to provide baths, of whom 48 applied before 1875 and 62
+after 1875. In the year 1907 the loans sanctioned for the purpose
+amounted to L53,026. The revenues of parish councils are so limited that
+it has not been possible for them to take much advantage of the acts. In
+the metropolis, by the Local Government Act of 1894, the power of
+working the act was given to vestries, and by the act of 1899 this power
+was transferred to the borough councils. There are 35 parishes in London
+in which the acts have been adopted, all of which except 11 have taken
+action since 1875. These establishments, according to the return made in
+1908, provided 3502 private baths and 104 swimming baths. The maximum
+charge for a second-class cold bath is 1d., for a hot bath 2d. In
+1904-1905 the number of bathers was 6,342,158, of whom 3,064,998 were
+bathers in private baths and 3,277,160 bathers in swimming baths. In
+1896-1897 the gross total had been only 2,000,000. In cases where the
+proportion between the sexes has been worked out, it is found that only
+18% of the users of private baths, and 10% of the users of swimming
+baths, are females. In 1898 the School Board was authorized to pay the
+fees for children using the baths if instruction in swimming were
+provided, and in 1907-1908 the privilege was used by 1,556,542 children.
+The cost of this public provision in London--water being supplied by
+measure--is over L80,000 a year. No account can be given of the numbers
+using the ponds and lakes in the parks and open spaces, but it is
+computed that on a hot Sunday 25,000 people bathe in Victoria Park,
+London, some of the bathers starting as early as four o'clock in the
+morning. These returns show how great is the increase of the habit of
+bathing, but they also show how even now the habit is limited to a
+comparatively small part of the population. People require to be tempted
+to the use of water, at any rate at the beginning. There are still
+authorities in London responsible for 800,000 persons who have provided
+no baths, and those who have made provision have not always done so in a
+sufficiently liberal and tempting way. The comparison between English
+great towns and those of the continent is not in favour of the former.
+
+  For the literature of baths in earlier periods we may refer to the
+  _Architecture_ of Vitruvius, and to Lucian's _Hippias_; see art.
+  "Bader" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_ (1896), by A. Mau;
+  "Balneum" in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. des antiquites_ J. Marquardt
+  _Das Privalleben der Romer_ (1886), pp. 269-297; Backer's _Gallus_,
+  and the article "Balneae" by Rich, in Dr Smith's _Dictionary of Greek
+  and Roman Antiquities_ (rev. ed. 1890); also the bibliography to
+  HYDROPATHY.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The figure represents four strigils, in which the hollow for
+    collecting the oil or perspiration from the body may be observed.
+    There is also a small ampulla or vessel containing oil, meant to keep
+    the strigils smooth, and a small flat patera or drinking vessel out
+    of which it was customary to drink after the bathing was finished.
+
+
+
+
+BATHURST, EARLS. ALLEN BATHURST, 1st Earl Bathurst (1684-1775), was the
+eldest son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst (d. 1704), by his wife, Frances (d.
+1727), daughter of Sir Allen Apsley of Apsley, Sussex, and belonged to a
+family which is said to have settled in Sussex before the Norman
+Conquest. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and became member
+of parliament for Cirencester in May 1705, retaining his seat until
+December 1711, when he was created Baron Bathurst of Battlesden,
+Bedfordshire. As a zealous Tory he defended Atterbury, bishop of
+Rochester, and in the House of Lords was an opponent of Sir Robert
+Walpole. After Walpole left office in 1742 he was made a privy
+councillor, and in August 1772 was created Earl Bathurst, having
+previously received a pension of L2000 a year chargeable upon the Irish
+revenues. He died on the 16th of September 1775, and was buried in
+Cirencester church. In July 1704 Bathurst married his cousin, Catherine
+(d. 1768), daughter of Sir Peter Apsley, by whom he had four sons and
+five daughters. The earl associated with the poets and scholars of the
+time. Pope, Swift, Prior, Sterne, and Congreve were among his friends.
+He is described in Sterne's _Letters to Eliza_; was the subject of a
+graceful reference on the part of Burke speaking in the House of
+Commons; and the letters which passed between him and Pope are published
+in Pope's _Works_, vol. viii. (London, 1872).
+
+HENRY, 2nd Earl Bathurst (1714-1794), was the eldest surviving son of
+the 1st earl. Educated at Balliol College, Oxford, he was called to the
+bar, and became a K.C. in 1745. In April 1735 he had been elected member
+of parliament for Cirencester, and was rewarded for his opposition to
+the government by being made solicitor-general and then attorney-general
+to Frederick, prince of Wales. Resigning his seat in parliament in April
+1754 he was made a judge of the court of common pleas in the following
+month, and became lord high chancellor in January 1771, when he was
+raised to the peerage as Baron Apsley. Having become Earl Bathurst by
+his father's death in September 1775, he resigned his office somewhat
+unwillingly in July 1778 to enable Thurlow to join the cabinet of Lord
+North. In November 1779 he was appointed lord president of the council,
+and left office with North in March 1782. He died at Oakley Grove near
+Cirencester on the 6th of August 1794. Bathurst was twice married, and
+left two sons and four daughters. He was a weak lord chancellor, but
+appears to have been just and fair in his distribution of patronage.
+
+HENRY, 3rd Earl Bathurst (1762-1834), the elder son of the second earl,
+was born on the 22nd of May 1762. In April 1789 he married Georgiana (d.
+1841), daughter of Lord George Henry Lennox, and was member of
+parliament for Cirencester from 1783 until he succeeded to the earldom
+in August 1794. Owing mainly to his friendship with William Pitt, he was
+a lord of the admiralty from 1783 to 1789; a lord of the treasury from
+1789 to 1791; and commissioner of the board of control from 1793 to
+1802. Returning to office with Pitt in May 1804 he became master of the
+mint, and was president of the Board of Trade and master of the mint
+during the ministries of the duke of Portland and Spencer Perceval, only
+vacating these posts in June 1812 to become secretary for war and the
+colonies under the earl of Liverpool. For two months during the year
+1809 he was in charge of the foreign office. He was secretary for war
+and the colonies until Liverpool resigned in April 1827; and deserves
+some credit for improving the conduct of the Peninsular War, while it
+was his duty to defend the government concerning its treatment of
+Napoleon Bonaparte. Bathurst's official position caused his name to be
+mentioned frequently during the agitation for the abolition of slavery,
+and with regard to this traffic he seems to have been animated by a
+humane spirit. He was lord president of the council in the government of
+the duke of Wellington from 1828 to 1830, and favoured the removal of
+the disabilities of Roman Catholics, but was a sturdy opponent of the
+reform bill of 1832. The earl, who had four sons and two daughters, died
+on the 27th of July 1834. Bathurst was made a knight of the Garter in
+1817, and held several lucrative sinecures.
+
+His eldest son, HENRY GEORGE, 4th Earl Bathurst (1790-1866), was member
+of parliament for Cirencester from 1812 to 1834. He died unmarried on
+the 25th of May 1866, and was succeeded in the title by his brother,
+WILLIAM LENNOX, 5th Earl Bathurst (1791-1878), member of parliament for
+Weobley from 1812 to 1816, and clerk of the privy council from 1827 to
+1860, who died unmarried on the 24th of February 1878.
+
+ALLEN ALEXANDER. 6th Earl Bathurst (1832-1892), was the son of Thomas
+Seymour Bathurst, and grandson of the 3rd earl. He was member of
+parliament for Cirencester from 1857 until he became Earl Bathurst in
+February 1878, and died on the 2nd of August 1892, when his eldest son,
+SEYMOUR HENRY (b. 1864), became 7th Earl Bathurst.
+
+
+
+
+BATHURST, a city of Bathurst county, New South Wales, Australia, 144 m.
+by rail W.N.W. of Sydney on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9223.
+It is situated on the south bank of the Macquarie river, at an elevation
+of 2153 ft., in a fertile undulating plain on the west side of the Blue
+Mountains. Bathurst has broad streets,, crossing one another at right
+angles, with a handsome park in the centre of the town, while many of
+the public buildings, specially the town hall, government buildings, and
+Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, are noteworthy. Bathurst is the
+centre of the chief wheat-growing district of New South Wales, while
+gold, copper and silver are extensively mined in its vicinity. There are
+railway works, coach factories, tanneries, breweries, flour-mills and
+manufactures of boots and shoes and other commodities. The town was
+founded in 1815 by Governor Macquarie, taking its name from the 3rd Earl
+Bathurst, then secretary of state for the colonies, and it has been a
+municipality since 1862.
+
+
+
+
+BATHVILLITE, a naturally occurring organic substance. It is an
+amorphous, opaque, and very friable material of fawn-brown colour,
+filling cavities in the torbanite or Boghead coal of Bathville,
+Scotland. It has a specific gravity of 1.01, and is insoluble in
+benzene.
+
+
+
+
+BATHYBIUS ([Greek: bathis], deep, and [Greek: bios], life), a slimy
+substance at one time supposed to exist in great masses in the depths of
+the ocean and to consist of undifferentiated protoplasm. Regarding it as
+an organism which represented the simplest form of life, Huxley about
+1868 named it _Bathybius Haeckelii_. But investigations carried out in
+connexion with the "Challenger" expedition indicated that it was an
+artificial product, composed of a flocculent precipitate of gypsum
+thrown down from sea-water by alcohol, and the hypothesis of its organic
+character was abandoned by most biologists, Huxley included.
+
+
+
+
+BATHYCLES, an Ionian sculptor of Magnesia, was commissioned by the
+Spartans to make a marble throne for the statue of Apollo at Amyclae,
+about 550 B.C. Pausanias (iii. 18) gives us a detailed description of
+this monument, which is of the greatest value to us, showing the
+character of Ionic art at the time. It was adorned with scenes from
+mythology in relief and supporting figures in the round.
+
+  For a reconstruction, see Furtwangler, _Meisterwerke der griech
+  Plastik_, p. 706.
+
+
+
+
+BATLEY, a municipal borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+within the parliamentary borough of Dewsbury, 8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on
+the Great Northern, London & North Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire
+railways. Pop. (1900) 30,321. Area 2039 acres. The church of All Saints
+is mainly Perpendicular, and contains some fine woodwork, mostly of the
+17th century, and some good memorial tombs. The market square contains
+an excellent group of modern buildings, including the town hall, public
+library, post office and others. The town is a centre of the heavy
+woollen trade, and has extensive manufactures of army cloths, pilot
+cloths, druggets, flushings, &c. The working up of old material as
+"shoddy" is largely carried on. There are also iron foundries,
+manufactures of machinery, and stone quarries. The town lies on the
+south-west Yorkshire coalfield, and there are a number of collieries in
+the district. The borough is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and
+eighteen councillors.
+
+
+
+
+BATON (Fr. _baton_, _baston_, from Late Lat. _basto_, a stick or staff),
+the truncheon carried by a field marshal as a sign of authority, by a
+police constable, &c.; in music, the stick with which the conductor of
+an orchestra beats time; in heraldry, the fourth part of a bend,
+frequently broken off short at the ends so as to be shaped like a rod;
+in English coats of arms, only as a mark of illegitimacy, the "baton
+sinister."
+
+
+
+
+BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO (1708-1787), Italian painter, was born at Lucca.
+He was regarded in Italy as a great painter in the 18th century, and
+unquestionably did much to rescue the art from the intense mannerism
+into which it had fallen during the preceding century. His paintings,
+however, are not of the highest order of merit, though they are
+generally graceful, well designed, and harmoniously coloured. His best
+production is thought to be his group of "Peace and War." Batoni painted
+an unusual number of pictures, and was also celebrated for his
+portraits.
+
+
+
+
+BATON ROUGE, the capital of Louisiana, U.S.A., and of East Baton Rouge
+parish, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 70 m. N.W. of New
+Orleans. Pop. (1890) 10,478; (1900) 11,269, of whom 6596 were of negro
+descent; (1910 census) 14,897. It is served by the Yazoo & Mississippi
+Valley railway and by the Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company; and
+the Texas & Pacific enters Port Alien, just across the river. The city
+lies on the river bluff, secure against the highest floods. Old houses
+in the Spanish style give quaintness to its appearance. The state
+capitol was built in 1880-1882, replacing another burned in 1862. At
+Baton Rouge is the State University and Agricultural and Mechanical
+College (1860), of which the Audubon Sugar School, "for the highest
+scientific training in the growing of sugar cane and in the technology
+of sugar manufacture," is an important and distinctive feature. The
+university grew out of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning and
+Military Academy, founded in 1855 near Alexandria and opened in 1860
+under the charge of W.T. Sherman. In 1869 the institution was removed to
+Baton Rouge, and in 1877 it was united with the Agricultural and
+Mechanical College, established in 1873 and in 1874 opened at New
+Orleans. The campus of the university is the former barracks of the
+Baton Rouge garrison, occupied by the college since 1886 and transferred
+to it by the Federal government in 1902. The enrolment of the university
+in 1907-1908 was 636. Other important institutions at Baton Rouge are a
+State Agricultural Experiment Station, asylums and schools for the deaf
+and dumb, for the blind, and for orphans, and the state penitentiary.
+The surrounding bluff and alluvial country is very rich. Sugar and
+cotton plantations and sub-tropic fruit orchards occupy the front-lands
+on the river. The manufactures include lumber and cotton seed products,
+and sugar. The value of the city's factory products increased from
+$717,368 in 1900 to $1,383,061 in 1905 or 92.8%. The city is governed
+under a charter granted by the legislature in 1898. This charter is
+peculiar in that it gives to the city council the power to elect various
+administrative boards--of police, finance, &c.--from which the
+legislative council of most cities is separated.
+
+Baton Rouge was one of the earliest French settlements in the state. As
+a part of West Florida, it passed into the hands of the British in 1763,
+and in 1779 was captured by Bernardo Galvez, the Spanish governor of
+Louisiana. The town was incorporated in 1817. In 1849 it was made the
+state capital, remaining so until 1862, when Shreveport became the
+Confederate state capital. In 1864 the Unionists made New Orleans the
+seat of government. The Secession Ordinance of Louisiana was passed on
+the 26th of January 1861 by a convention that met at Baton Rouge. On the
+and of May 1862 the city was captured by the forces of the United States
+under Col. Benjamin H. Grierson (b. 1826), who had led raiders thither
+from Tennessee; on the 12th of May it was formally occupied by troops
+from New Orleans, and was successfully defended by Brig.-Gen. Thomas
+Williams (1815-1862) against an attack by Confederate forces under
+General John C. Breckinridge on the 5th of August 1862; Gen. Williams,
+however, was killed during the attack. Baton Rouge was soon abandoned
+for a month, was then reoccupied, and was held throughout the rest of
+the war. It became the state capital again in 1882, in accordance with
+the state constitution of 1879. For several years after 1840 Zachary
+Taylor made his home on a plantation near Baton Rouge.
+
+
+
+
+BATRACHIA. The arguments adduced by T.H. Huxley, in his article on this
+subject in the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, for
+applying the name Amphibia to those lung-breathing, pentadactyle
+vertebrates which had been first severed from the Linnaean Amphibia by
+Alexandre Brongniart, under the name of _Batrachia_, have not met with
+universal acceptance. Although much used in text-books and anatomical
+works in Great Britain and in Germany, the former name has been
+discarded in favour of the latter by the principal authors on
+systematic herpetology, such as W. Peters, A. Gunther and E.D. Cope, and
+their lead is followed in the present article. Bearing in mind that
+Linnaeus, in his use of the name Amphibia, was not alluding to the
+gill-breathing and air-breathing periods through which most frogs and
+newts pass in the course of their existence, but only wished to convey
+the fact that many of the constituents of the group resort to both land
+and water (e.g. crocodiles), it seems hard to admit that the term may be
+thus diverted from its original signification, especially when such a
+change results in discarding the name expressly proposed by Brongniart
+to denote the association which has ever since been universally adopted
+either as an order, a sub-class or a class. Many authors who have
+devoted special attention to questions of nomenclature therefore think
+_Reptilia_ and _Batrachia_ the correct names of the two great classes
+into which the Linnaean _Amphibia_ have been divided, and consider that
+the latter term should be reserved for the use of those who, like that
+great authority, the late Professor Peters, down to the time of his
+death in 1883, would persist in regarding reptiles and batrachians as
+mere sub-classes (1). However extraordinary it may appear, especially to
+those who bring the living forms only into focus, that opposition should
+still be made to Huxley's primary division of the vertebrates other than
+mammals into _Sauropsida_ (birds and reptiles) and _Ichthyopsida_
+(batrachians and fishes), it is certain that recent discoveries in
+palaeontology have reduced the gap between batrachians and reptiles to
+such a minimum as to cause the greatest embarrassment in the attempt to
+draw a satisfactory line of separation between the two; on the other
+hand the hiatus between fishes and batrachians remains as wide as it was
+at the time Huxley's article Amphibia (_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th
+ed.) was written.
+
+The chief character which distinguishes the Batrachians from the
+reptiles, leaving aside the metamorphoses, lies in the arrangement of
+the bones of the palate, where a large parasphenoid extends forwards as
+far or nearly as far as the vomers and widely separates the pterygoids.
+The bones which bear the two occipital condyles have given rise to much
+discussion, and the definition given by Huxley in the previous
+edition--"two occipital condyles, the basi-occipital region of the skull
+either very incompletely or not at all ossified"--requires revision.
+Some authors have held that the bone on which the occipital condyles
+have been found most developed in some labyrinthodonts (2) represents a
+large basi-occipital bearing two knobs for the articulation with the
+first vertebra, whilst the skull of the batrachians of the present day
+has lost the basi-occipital, and the condyles are furnished by the
+exoccipitals. On the other hand, some reptiles have the occipital
+condyle divided into two and produced either by the basi-occipital or by
+the exoccipitals. But the recent find of a well preserved skull of a
+labyrinthodont (_Capitosaurus stantonensis_) from the Trias of
+Staffordshire has enabled A.S. Woodward (3) to show that, in that form
+at any rate, the condyles are really exoccipital, although they are
+separated by a narrow basi-occipital. It is therefore very probable that
+the authors quoted in (2) were mistaken in their identification of the
+elements at the base of the foramen magnum. The fact remains, however,
+that some if not all of the stegocephalous batrachians have an ossified
+basi-occipital.
+
+As a result of his researches on the anomodont reptiles and the
+Stegocephalia (4), as the extinct order that includes the well known
+labyrinthodonts is now called, we have had the proposal by H.G. Seeley
+(5) to place the latter with the reptiles instead of with the
+batrachians, and H. Gadow, in his most recent classification (6), places
+some of them among the reptiles, others being left with the batrachians;
+whilst H. Credner, basing his views on the discovery by him of various
+annectent forms between the Stegocephalia and the Rhynchocephalian
+reptiles, has proposed a class, _Eotetrapoda_, to include these forms,
+ancestors of the batrachians proper on the one hand, of the reptiles
+proper on the other. Yet, that the Stegocephalia, notwithstanding their
+great affinity to the reptiles, ought to be included in the batrachians
+as commonly understood, seems sufficiently obvious from the mere fact of
+their passing through a branchiate condition, i.e. undergoing
+metamorphosis (7). The outcome of our present knowledge points to the
+Stegocephalia, probably themselves derived from the Crossopterygian
+fishes (8), having yielded on the one hand the true batrachians
+(retrogressive series), with which they are to a certain extent
+connected through the _Caudata_ and the _Apoda_, on the other hand the
+reptiles (progressive series), through the Rhynchocephalians and the
+Anomodonts, the latter being believed, on very suggestive evidence, to
+lead to the mammals (9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Upper view of _Archegosaurus Decheni_.
+
+  (Outlines after Gredner.)
+
+  pm, Praemaxilla.      st, Supratemporal.
+  n, Nasal.             sq, Squamosal.
+  m, Maxilla.           pto, Postorbital.
+  l, Lachrymal.         qj, Quadrato-jugal.
+  pf, Praefrontal.      o, Occipital.
+  f, Frontal.           pt, Post-temporal.
+  j, Jugal.             q, Quadrate.
+  ptf, Postfrontal.
+  p, Parietal.]
+
+The division of the class Amphibia or Batrachia into four orders, as
+carried out by Huxley, is maintained, with, however, a change of names:
+_Stegocephalia_, for the assemblage of minor groups that cluster round
+the _Labyrinthodonta_ of R. Owen, which name is restricted to the forms
+for which it was originally intended; _Peromela_, _Urodela_, _Anura_,
+are changed to _Apoda_, _Caudata_, _Ecaudata_, for the reason that
+(unless obviously misleading, which is not the case in the present
+instance) the first proposed name should supersede all others for higher
+groups as well as for genera and species, and the latter set have the
+benefit of the law of priority. In the first subdivision of the
+batrachians into two families by C. Dumeril in 1806 (_Zool. Anal_. pp.
+90-94) these are termed "Anoures" and "Urodeles" in French, _Ecaudati_
+and _Caudati_ in Latin. When Dumeril's pupil, M. Oppel, in 1811 (_Ordn.
+Rept_. p. 72), added the Caecilians, he named the three groups _Apoda_,
+_Ecaudata_ and _Caudata_. The Latin form being the only one entitled to
+recognition in zoological nomenclature, it follows that the
+last-mentioned names should be adopted for the three orders into which
+recent batrachians are divided.
+
+  I. STEGOCEPHALIA (10).--Tailed, lacertiform or serpentiform
+  batrachians, with the temporal region of the skull roofed over by
+  postorbital, squamosal, and supratemporal plates similar to the same
+  bones in Crossopterygian fishes, and likewise with paired dermal bones
+  (occipitals and post-temporals) behind the parietals and
+  supratemporals. A parietal foramen; scales or bony scutes frequently
+  present, especially on the ventral region, which is further protected
+  by three large bony plates--interclavicle and clavicles, the latter in
+  addition to cleithra.
+
+  Extinct, ranging from the Upper Devonian to the Trias. Our knowledge
+  of Devonian forms is still extremely meagre, the only certain proof of
+  the existence of pentadactyle vertebrates at that period resting on
+  the footprints discovered in Pennsylvania and described by O.C. Marsh
+  (11) as _Tinopus antiquus_. Sundry remains from Belgium, as to the
+  identification of which doubts are still entertained, have been
+  regarded by M. Lohest (12) as evidence of these batrachians in the
+  Devonian. Over 200 species are now distinguished, from the
+  Carboniferous of Europe and North America, the Permian of Spitsbergen,
+  Europe, North America and South Africa, and the Trias of Europe,
+  America, South Africa, India and Australia. The forms of batrachians
+  with which we are acquainted show the vertebral column to have been
+  evolved in the course of time from a notochordal condition with
+  segmented centra similar to that of early bony ganoid fishes (e.g.
+  _Caturus_, _Eurycormus_), to biconcave centra, and finally to the
+  socket-and-ball condition that prevails at the present day. However,
+  owing to the evolution of the vertebral column in various directions,
+  and to the inconstant state of things in certain annectent groups, it
+  is not possible, it seems, to apply the vertebral characters to
+  taxonomy with that rigidity which E.D. Cope and some other recent
+  authors have attempted to enforce. This is particularly evident in
+  the case of the Stegocephalians; and recent batrachians, tailed and
+  tailless, show the mode of articulation of the vertebrae, whether
+  amphicoelous, opisthocoelous or procoelous, to be of but secondary
+  systematic importance in dealing with these lowly vertebrates. The
+  following division of the Stegocephalians into five sub-orders is
+  therefore open to serious criticism; but it seems on the whole the
+  most natural to adopt in the light of our present knowledge.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 2.--A, Dorsal vertebrae. B, Caudal vertebra of
+  _Archegosaurus_. na, Neural arch; ch, chorda; pl, pleurocentrum; ic,
+  intercentrum.
+
+  (Outline after Jaekel.)]
+
+  A. Rhachitomi, (figs. 1, 2), in which the spinal cord rests on the
+  notochord, which persists uninterrupted and is surrounded by three
+  bony elements in addition to the neural arch: a so-called
+  pleurocentrum on each side, which appears to represent the centrum
+  proper of reptiles and mammals, and an intercentrum or hypocentrum
+  below, which may extend to the neural arch, and probably answers to
+  the hypapophysis, as it is produced into chevrons in the caudal
+  region. Mostly large forms, of Carboniferous and Permian age, with a
+  more or less complex infolding of the walls of the teeth. Families:
+  ARCHEGOSAURIDAE, ERYOPIDAE, TRIMERORHACHIDAE, DISSORHOPHIDAE. The last
+  is remarkable for an extraordinary endo- and exo-skeletal carapace,
+  _Dissorhophus_ being described by Cope (13) as a "batrachian
+  armadillo."
+
+  B. Embolomeri, with the centra and intercentra equally developed
+  disks, of which there are thus two to each neural arch; these disks
+  perforated in the middle for the passage of the notochord. This type
+  may be directly derived from the preceding, with which it appears to
+  be connected by the genus _Diplospondylus_. Fam.: CRICOTIDAE, Permian.
+
+  C. Labyrinthodonta, with simple biconcave vertebral disks, very
+  slightly pierced by a remnant of the notochord and supporting the
+  loosely articulated neural arch. This condition is derived from that
+  of the _Rhachitomi_, as shown by the structure of the vertebral column
+  in young specimens. Mostly large forms from the Trias (a few Permian),
+  with true labyrinthic dentition. Families: LABYRINTHODONTIDAE,
+  ANTHRACOSAURIDAE, DENDRERPETIDAE, NYRANIIDAE.
+
+  D. Microsauria, nearest the reptiles, with persistent notochord
+  completely surrounded by constricted cylinders on which the neural
+  arch rests. Teeth hollow, with simple or only slightly folded walls.
+  Mostly of small size and abundant in the Carboniferous and Lower
+  Permian. Families: UROCORDYLIDAE, LIMNERPETIDAE, HYLONOMIDAE (fig. 3),
+  MICROBRACHIDAE, DOLICHOSOMATIDAE, the latter serpentiform, apodal.
+
+  E. Branchiosauria, nearest to the true batrachians; with persistent
+  non-constricted notochord, surrounded by barrel-shaped, bony cylinders
+  formed by the neural arch above and a pair of intercentra below, both
+  these elements taking an equal share in the formation of a transverse
+  process on each side for the support of the rib. This plan of
+  structure, apparently evolved out of the rhachitomous type by
+  suppression of the pleurocentra and the downward extension of the
+  neural arch, leads to that characteristic of frogs in which, as
+  development shows, the vertebra is formed wholly or for the greater
+  part by the neural arch (14). Small forms from the Upper Carboniferous
+  and Permian formations. A single family: BRANCHIOSAURIDAE.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--A, Dorsal vertebra of _Hylonomus_ (side view
+  and front view). B, Dorsal vertebra of _Branchiosaurus_ (side view and
+  front view). n, Neural canal; ch, chorda.
+
+  (After Credner.)]
+
+  II. APODA (15).--No limbs. Tail vestigial or absent. Frontal bones
+  distinct from parietals; palatines fused with maxillaries. Male with
+  an intromittent copulatory organ. Degraded, worm-like batrachians of
+  still obscure affinities, inhabiting tropical Africa, south-eastern
+  Asia and tropical America. Thirty-three species are known. No fossils
+  have yet been discovered. It has been attempted of late to do away
+  with this order altogether and to make the Caecilians merely a family
+  of the Urodeles. This view has originated out of the very remarkable
+  superficial resemblance between the _Ichthyophis_-larva and the
+  _Amphiuma_. Cope (16) regarded the Apoda as the extremes of a line of
+  degeneration from the Salamanders, with _Amphiuma_ as one of the
+  annectent forms. In the opinion of P. and F. Sarasin (17), whose great
+  work on the development of _Ichthyophis_ is one of the most important
+  recent contributions to our knowledge of the batrachians, _Amphiuma_
+  is a sort of neotenic Caecilian, a larval form become sexually mature
+  while retaining the branchial respiration. If the absence of limbs and
+  the reduction of the tail were the only characteristic of the group,
+  there would be, of course, no objection to unite the Caecilians with
+  the Urodeles; but, to say nothing of the scales, present in many
+  genera of Apodals and absent in all Caudates, which have been shown by
+  H. Credner to be identical in structure with those of Stegocephalians,
+  the Caecilian skull presents features which are not shared by any of
+  the tailed batrachians. G.M. Winslow (18), who has made a study of the
+  chondrocranium of _Ichthyophis_, concludes that its condition could
+  not have been derived from a Urodele form, but points to some more
+  primitive ancestor. That this ancestor was nearly related to, if not
+  one of, the Stegocephalians, future discovery will in all probability
+  show.
+
+  III. CAUDATA (19).--Tailed batrachians, with the frontals distinct
+  from the parietals and the palatines from the maxillary. Some of the
+  forms breathe by gills throughout their existence, and were formerly
+  regarded as establishing a passage from the fishes to the
+  air-breathing batrachians. They are now considered as arrested larvae
+  descended from the latter. One of the most startling discoveries of
+  the decade 1890-1900 was the fact that a number of forms are devoid of
+  both gills and lungs, and breathe merely by the skin and the buccal
+  mucose membrane (20). Three blind cave-forms are known: one
+  terrestrial--_Typhlotriton_, from North America, and two
+  perennibranchiate--_Proteus_ in Europe and _Typhlomolge_ in North
+  America.
+
+  This order contains about 150 species, referred to five families:
+  HYLAEOBATRACHIDAE, SALAMANDRIDAE, AMPHIUMIDAE, PROTEIDAE, SIRENIDAE.
+
+  Fossil remains are few in the Upper Eocene and Miocene of Europe and
+  the Upper Cretaceous of North America. The oldest Urodele known is
+  _Hylaeobatrachus_ Dollo (21) from the Lower Wealden of Belgium. At
+  present this order is confined to the northern hemisphere, with the
+  exception of two _Spelerpes_ from the Andes of Ecuador and Peru, and a
+  _Plethodon_ from Argentina.
+
+  IV. ECAUDATA (22).--Frogs and toads. Four limbs and no tail. Radius
+  confluent with ulna, and tibia with fibula; tarsus (astragalus and
+  calcaneum) elongate, forming an additional segment in the hind limb.
+  Caudal vertebrae fused into a urostyle or coccyx. Frontal bones
+  confluent with parietals.
+
+  This order embraces about 1300 species, of which some 40 are fossil,
+  divided into two sub-orders and sixteen families:--
+
+  A. Aglossa,--Eustachian tubes united into a single ostium pharyngeum;
+  no tongue. DACTYLETHRIDAE, PIPIDAE.
+
+  B. Phaneroglossa,--Eustachian tubes separated; tongue present.
+  DISCOGLOSSIDAE, PELOBATIDAE, HEMIPHRACTIDAE, AMPHIGNATHODONTIDAE,
+  HYLIDAE, BUFONIDAE, DENDROPHRYNISCIDAE, CYSTIGNATHIDAE, DYSCOPHIDAE,
+  GENYOPHRYNIDAE, ENGYSTOMATIDAE, CERATOBATRACHIDAE, RANIDAE,
+  DENDROBATIDAE.
+
+  The Phaneroglossa are divided into two groups; _Arcifera_ and
+  _Firmisternia_, representing two stages of evolution. The family
+  characters are mainly derived from the dilatation or non-dilatation of
+  the sacral diapophyses, and the presence of teeth in one or both jaws,
+  or their absence. The _Discoglossidae_ are noteworthy for the presence
+  of short ribs to some of the vertebrae, and in some other points also
+  they approach the tailed batrachians; they may be safely regarded as,
+  on the whole, the most generalized of known Ecaudata. Distinct ribs
+  are present at an early age in the Aglossa, as discovered by W.G.
+  Ridewood (23). The recent addition of a third genus of Aglossa,
+  _Hymenochirus_ (24) from tropical Africa, combining characters of
+  _Pipa_ and _Xenopus_, has removed every doubt as to the real affinity
+  which connects these genera. _Hymenochirus_ is further remarkable for
+  the presence of only six distinct pieces in the vertebral column,
+  which is thus the most abbreviated among all the vertebrata.
+
+  Frogs and toads occur wherever insect food is procurable, and their
+  distribution is a world-wide one, with the exception of many islands.
+  Thus New Caledonia, which has a rich and quite special lizard-fauna,
+  has no batrachians of its own, although the Australian _Hyla aurea_
+  has been introduced with success. New Zealand possesses only one
+  species (_Liopelma hochstetteri_), which appears to be rare and
+  restricted to the North Island. The forest regions of southern Asia,
+  Africa and South America are particularly rich in species.
+
+  According to our present knowledge, the Ecaudata can be traced about
+  as far back in time as the Caudata. An unmistakable batrachian of this
+  order, referred by its describer to _Palaeobatrachus_, a determination
+  which is only provisional, has been discovered in the Kimmeridgian of
+  the Sierra del Montsech, Catalonia (25), in a therefore somewhat older
+  formation than the Wealden Caudata _Hylaeobatrachus_.
+
+  Apart from a few unsatisfactory remains from the Eocene of Wyoming,
+  fossil tailless batrachians are otherwise only known from the
+  Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene of Europe and India. These forms
+  differ very little from those that live at the present day in the same
+  part of the world, and some of the genera (_Discoglossus, Bufo,
+  Oxyglossus, Rana_) are even identical. _Palaeobatrachus_ (26), of
+  which a number of species represented by skeletons of the perfect form
+  and of the tadpole have been described from Miocene beds in Germany,
+  Bohemia and France, seems to be referable to the _Pelobatidae_; this
+  genus has been considered as possibly one of the Aglossa, but the
+  absence of ribs in the larvae speaks against such an association.
+
+  Numerous additions have been made to our knowledge of the development
+  and nursing habits, which are extremely varied, some forms dispensing
+  with or hurrying through the metamorphoses and hopping out of the egg
+  in the perfect condition (27).
+
+  _Skeleton._--In the earliest forms of this order, the Stegocephalia,
+  we meet with considerable variety in the constitution of the
+  vertebrae, and these modifications have been used for their
+  classification. All agree, however, in having each vertebra formed of
+  at least two pieces, the suture between which persists throughout
+  life. In this they differ from the three orders which have living
+  representatives. Even the inferior arches or chevrons of the tail of
+  salamanders are continuously ossified with the centra. As a matter of
+  fact, these vertebrae have no centra proper, that part which should
+  correspond with the centrum being formed, as a study of the
+  development has shown (H. Gadow, 14), by the meeting and subsequent
+  complete co-ossification of the two chief dorsal and ventral pairs of
+  elements (tail-vertebrae of Caudata), or entirely by the pair of
+  dorsal elements. In the Ecaudata, the vertebrae of the trunk are
+  formed on two different plans. In some the notochord remains for a
+  long time exposed along the ventral surface, and, owing to the absence
+  of cartilaginous formation around it, disappears without ever becoming
+  invested otherwise than by a thin elastic membrane; it can be easily
+  stripped off below the vertebrae in larval specimens on the point of
+  metamorphosing. This has been termed the _epichordal_ type. In others,
+  which represent the _perichordal_ type, the greater share of the
+  formation of the whole vertebra falls to the (paired) dorsal
+  cartilage, but there is in addition a narrow ventral or hypochordal
+  cartilage which fuses with the dorsal or becomes connected with it by
+  calcified tissue; the notochord is thus completely surrounded by a
+  thick sheath in tadpoles with imperfectly developed limbs. This mode
+  of formation of both the arch and the greater part or whole of the
+  so-called centrum from the same cartilage explains why there is never
+  a neuro-central suture in these batrachians.
+
+  During segmentation of the dorsal cartilages mentioned above, which
+  send out the transverse processes of diapophyses, there appears
+  between each two centra an intervertebral cartilage, out of which the
+  articulating condyle of the centrum is formed, and becomes attached
+  either to the vertebra anterior (precoelous type) or posterior
+  (opisthocoelous type) to it, if not remaining as an independent,
+  intervertebral, ossified sphere, as we sometimes find in specimens of
+  _Pelobatidae_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The first two vertebrae of _Necturus_. Vt^1,
+  Atlas; Vt^2, second vertebrae; a, intercondyloid process of the atlas;
+  b, the articular surfaces for the occipital condyles. The ribs of the
+  second vertebra are not represented. A, Dorsal; B, ventral; C, lateral
+  view. ]
+
+  In the Caudata and Apoda, cartilage often persists between the
+  vertebrae; this cartilage may become imperfectly separated into a
+  cup-and-ball portion, the cup belonging to the posterior end of the
+  vertebra. In such cases the distinction between amphicoelous and
+  opisthocoelous vertebrae rests merely on a question of ossification,
+  and has occasionally given rise to misunderstandings in the use of
+  these terms.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Necturus_. Posterior (A) and ventral (B)
+  views of the sacral vertebrae (S.V.); S.R.^1, S.R.^2, sacral ribs; Il,
+  ilium; Is, ischium.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.-Vertebral column of _Hymenochtrus_ (ventral
+  view).]
+
+  Amphicoelous (bi-concave) vertebrae are found in the Apoda and in some
+  of the Caudata; opisthocoelous (convexo-concave) vertebrae in the
+  higher Caudata and in the lower Ecaudata; whilst the great majority of
+  the Ecaudata have procoelous (concavo-convex) vertebrae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Chondrocranium of _Rana esculenta_--ventral
+  aspect.
+
+    rp,     The rhinal process.
+    pnl,    The praenasal processes.
+    an,     The alinasal processes, shown by the removal of part of the
+              floor of the left nasal chamber.
+    AO.,    The antorbital process.
+    pd,     The pedicle of the suspensorium continued into cv, the
+              ventral crus of the suspensorium.
+    cd,     Its dorsal crus.
+    tt,     The tegmen tympani.
+    SE,     The sphen-ethmoid.
+    EO.,    The exoccipitals.
+    Qu.J.,  The quadratojugal.
+    II. V. VI. Foramina by which the optic, trigeminal and abortio dura,
+                 and abducens nerves leave the skull.]
+
+  All living batrachians, and some of the Stegocephalia, have transverse
+  processes on the vertebrae that succeed the atlas (fig. 4), some of
+  which, in the Caudata, are divided into a dorsal and a ventral
+  portion. Ribs are present in the lower Ecaudata (_Discoglossidae_ and
+  larval Aglossa), but they are never connected with a sternum. It is in
+  fact doubtful whether the so-called sternum of batrachians, in most
+  cases a mere plate of cartilage, has been correctly identified as
+  such. When limbs are present, one vertebra, rarely two (fig. 5) or
+  three, are distinguished as sacral, giving attachment to the ilia. In
+  the Ecaudata, the form of the transverse processes of the sacral
+  vertebra varies very considerably, and has afforded important
+  characters to the systematist. In accordance with the saltatorial
+  habits of the members of this order, the vertebrae, which number from
+  40 to 60 in the Caudata, to upwards of 200 in the Apoda, have become
+  reduced to 10 as the normal number, viz., eight praecaudal, one sacral
+  and an elongate coccyx or urostyle, formed by coalescence of at least
+  two vertebrae. In some genera this coccyx is fused with the ninth
+  vertebra, and contributes to the sacrum, whilst in a few others the
+  number of segments is still further reduced by the co-ossification of
+  one or two vertebrae preceding that corresponding to the normal sacral
+  and by the fusion of the two first vertebrae, the extreme of reduction
+  being found in the genus _Hymenochirus_, the vertebral column of which
+  is figured here (fig 6.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--The skull of _Ichthyophis glutinosus_ A,
+  Dorsal; B, ventral; C, lateral view. The letters have the same
+  signification as below.]
+
+  As stated above in the definition of the order, the Stegocephalia have
+  retained most of the cranial bones which are to be found in the
+  Crossopterygian fishes, and it is worthy of note that the bones termed
+  post-temporals may give attachment to a further bone so prolonged
+  backwards as to suggest the probability of the skull being connected
+  with the shoulder-girdle, as in most teleostome fishes. This
+  supposition is supported by a specimen from the Lower Permian of
+  Autun, determined as _Actinodon frossardi_, acquired in 1902 by the
+  British Museum, which shows a bone, similar to the so-called "epiotic
+  cornu" of the microsaurians, _Ceraterpeton_ and _Scincosaurus_, to
+  have the relations of the supra-cleithrum of fishes, thus confirming a
+  suggestion made by C.W. Andrews (28). As in fishes also, the sensory
+  canal system must have been highly developed on the skulls of many
+  labyrinthodonts, and the impressions left by these canals have been
+  utilized by morphologists for homologizing the various elements of the
+  cranial roof with those of Crossopterygians. The pineal foramen, in
+  the parietal bones, is as constantly present as it is absent in the
+  other orders. Although not strictly forming part of the skull,
+  allusion should be made here to the ring of sclerotic plates which has
+  been found in many of the Stegocephalia, and which is only found
+  elsewhere in a few Crossopterygian fishes as well as in many reptiles
+  and birds.
+
+  In the orders which are still represented at the present day, the
+  bones of the skull are reduced in number and the "primordial skull,"
+  or chondrocranium (fig. 7), remains to a greater or less extent
+  unossified, even in the adult. Huxley's figures of the skull of a
+  caccilian (_Ichthyophis glutinosus_), fig. 8, of a perennibranchiate
+  urodele (_Necturus maculosus = Menobranchus lateralis_), fig. 9, and
+  of a frog (_Rana esculenta_), fig. 10, are here given for comparison.
+
+  The skull, in the _Apoda_, is remarkably solid and compact, and it
+  possesses a postorbital or postfrontal bone (marked 1 in the figure)
+  which does not exist in any of the other living batrachians. The
+  squamosal bone is large and either in contact with the frontals and
+  parietals or separated from them by a vacuity; the orbit is sometimes
+  roofed over by bone. The presence, in some genera, of a second row of
+  mandibular teeth seems to indicate the former existence of a splenial
+  element, such as exists in _Siren_ among the Caudata and apparently in
+  the labyrinthodonts.
+
+  In the Caudata, the frontals remain likewise distinct from the
+  parietals, whilst in the Ecaudata the two elements are fused into one,
+  and in a few forms (Aglossa, some _Pelobalidae_) the paired condition
+  of these bones has disappeared in the adult. Prefrontal bones are
+  present in the _Salamandridae_ and _Amphiumidae_, but absent (or fused
+  with the nasals) in the other Caudata and in the Ecaudata. In most of
+  the former the palatines fuse with the vomers, whilst they remain
+  distinct, unless entirely lost, in the latter. The vomer is single, or
+  absent, in the Aglossa. In the lower jaw of most of the Ecaudata the
+  symphysial cartilages ossify separately from the dentary bones,
+  forming the so-called mento-meckelian bones; but these symphysial
+  bones, so distinct in the frog, are less so in the _Hylidae_ and
+  _Bufonidae_, almost indistinguishable in the _Pelobatidae_ and
+  _Discoglossidae_, whilst in the Aglossa they do not exist any more
+  than in the other orders of batrachians.
+
+  No batrachian is known to possess an ossified azygous supra-occipital.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lateral, dorsal and ventral views of the
+  cranium of _Necturus maculosus_. In the dorsal view, the bones are
+  removed from the left half of the skull, in the ventral view, the
+  parasphenoid, palato-pterygoid, and vomers are given in outline. The
+  letters have, for the most part, the same signification as before.
+
+    VII.p, Posterior division of the seventh nerve.
+    VII. Chorda tympani
+    V^1, V^2, V^3, First, second and third divisions of the trigeminal.
+    s.s.l, Stapedio-suspensorial ligament.
+    h.s.l, Hyo-suspensorial ligament.
+    m.h.l, Mandibulo-hyoid ligament.
+    a, Ascending process of the suspensorium.
+    p, Pterygo-palatine process.
+    q, Quadrate process.
+    o, Otic process.
+    Na, Posterior nares.
+    Mck, Meckel's cartilage.
+    Gl (fig. 10), The position of the glottis.
+    Bb^1, Bb^2, Basilbranchials.]
+
+  Although there are four branchial arches in all the larval forms of
+  the three orders, and throughout life in the _Sirenidae_, the
+  perennibranchiate _Proteidae_ have only three (see fig. 11). In the
+  adult Apoda these arches and the hyoid fuse into three transverse,
+  curved or angular bones (see fig. 13), the two posterior disconnected
+  from the hyoid. In the Ecaudata, as shown by F. Gaupp (29) and by W.G.
+  Ridewood (30), the whole hyobranchial apparatus forms a cartilaginous
+  continuum, and during metamorphosis the branchialia disappear without
+  a trace. The hyoid of the adult frog (fig. 12) consists of a plate of
+  cartilage with two slender cornua, three processes on each side, and
+  two long bony rods behind, termed the thyro-hyals, which embrace the
+  larynx. In the Aglossa, which are remarkable for the large size and
+  complexity of the larynx, the thyro-hyal bones are incorporated into
+  the laryngeal apparatus, whilst the recently discovered _Hymenochirus_
+  is further remarkable for the large size and ossification of the
+  hyoidean cornua (ceratohyals), a feature which, though not uncommon
+  among the salamanders, is unique among the Ecaudata (31).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10--Dorsal, ventral, lateral, and posterior views
+  of the skull of _Rana esculenta_. The letters have the same
+  signification throughout.
+
+    Pmx, Premaxilla.
+    Mx, Maxilla.
+    Vo, Vomer.
+    Na, Nasal.
+    S.e, Sphen-ethmoid.
+    Fr, Frontal.
+    Pa, Parietal.
+    E.O, Exoccipital.
+    Ep, Epiotic process.
+    Pr.O, Pro-otic.
+    t.t, Tegmentympani.
+    Sq, Squamosal.
+    Q.J, Quadrato-jugal.
+    Pt1, Pterygoid, anterior process.
+    Pt2, Internal process.
+    Pt3, Posterior or external process.
+    Ca, Columella auris.
+    St, Stapes.
+    Hy, Hyoidean cornu.
+    P.S, Parasphenoid.
+    An, Angulate.
+    D, Dentale.
+    V, Foramen of exit of the trigeminal.
+    H, Of the optic.
+    X, Of the pneumogastric and glosso-pharyngeal nerves.
+    V1. Foramen by which the orbito-nasal or first division of the fifth
+          passes to the nasal cavity.]
+
+  The pectoral girdle of the Stegocephalia is, of course, only known
+  from the ossified elements, the identification of which has given rise
+  to some diversity of opinion. But C. Gegenbaur's (32) interpretation
+  may be regarded as final. He has shown that, as in the Crossopterygian
+  and Chondrostean ganoid fishes, there are two clavicular elements on
+  each side; the lower corresponds to the clavicle of reptiles and
+  higher vertebrates, whilst the upper corresponds to the clavicle of
+  teleostean fishes, and has been named by him "cleithrum." As stated
+  above, there is strong evidence in favour of the view that some forms
+  at least possessed in addition a "supracleithrum," corresponding to
+  the supra-clavicle of bony fishes. The element often termed "coracoid"
+  in these fossils would be the scapula. The clavicles rest on a large
+  discoidal, rhomboidal, or T-shaped median bone, which clearly
+  corresponds to the interclavicle of reptiles.
+
+  The pectoral girdle of the living types of batrachians is
+  distinguishable into a scapular, a coracoidal, and a praecoracoidal
+  region. In most of the Caudata the scapular region alone ossifies, but
+  in the Ecaudata the coracoid is bony and a clavicle is frequently
+  developed over the praecoracoid cartilage. In these batrachians the
+  pectoral arch falls into two distinct types--the _arciferous_, in
+  which the precoracoid (+clavicle) and coracoid are widely separated
+  from each other distally and connected by an arched cartilage (the
+  epicoracoid), the right usually overlapping the left; and the
+  _firmisternal_, in which both precoracoid and coracoid nearly abut on
+  the median line, and are only narrowly separated by the more or less
+  fused epicoracoids. The former type is exemplified by the toads and
+  the lower Ecaudata, whilst the latter is characteristic of the true
+  frogs (_Ranidae_), although when quite young these batrachians present
+  a condition similar to that which persists throughout life in their
+  lower relatives. A cartilage in the median line in front of the
+  precoracoids, sometimes supported by a bony style, is the so-called
+  Omosternum; a large one behind the cora-coids, also sometimes provided
+  with a bony style, has been called the sternum. But these names will
+  probably have to be changed when the homologies of these parts are
+  better understood.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Hyoid and branchial apparatus of _Necturus
+  maculosus_.
+
+    Hh, Hypo-hyal.
+    Ch, Cerato-hyal.
+    Bb^1, First basibranchial.
+    Bb^2, Ossified second basibranchial.
+    Ep.b^1, Ep.b^2, Ep.b^3, First, second and third epibranchials.
+    Gl, Glottis.]
+
+  The pelvic arch of some of the Stegocephalia contained a well ossified
+  pubic element, whilst in all other batrachians only the ilium, or the
+  ilium and the ischium are ossified. In the Ecaudata the ilium is
+  greatly elongated and the pubis and ischium are flattened, discoidal,
+  and closely applied to their fellows by their inner surfaces; the
+  pelvic girdle looks like a pair of tongs.
+
+  The long bones of the limbs consist of an axis of cartilage; the
+  extremities of the cartilages frequently undergo calcification and are
+  thus converted into epiphyses. In the Ecaudata the radius and ulna
+  coalesce into one bone. The carpus, which remains cartilaginous in
+  many of the Stegocephalia and Caudata, contains six to eight elements
+  when the manus is fully developed, whilst the number is reduced in
+  those forms which have only two or three digits. Except in some of the
+  Stegocephalia, there are only four functional digits in the manus, but
+  the Ecaudata have a more or less distinct rudiment of pollex; in the
+  Caudata it seems to be the outer digit which has been suppressed, as
+  atavistic reappearance of a fifth digit takes place on the outer side
+  of the manus, as it does on the pes in those forms in which the toes
+  are reduced to four. The usual number of phalanges is 2, 2, 3, 2 in
+  the Stegocephalia and Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 3 in the Ecaudata. In the foot
+  the digits usually number five, and the phalanges 2, 2, 3, 3, 2 in the
+  Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3 in the Stegocephalia and Ecaudata. There are
+  occasionally intercalary ossifications between the two distal
+  phalanges (33). There are usually nine tarsal elements in the Caudata;
+  this number is reduced in the Ecaudata, in which the two bones of the
+  proximal row (sometimes coalesced) are much elongated and form an
+  additional segment to the greatly lengthened hind-limb, a sort of
+  _crus secundarium_. In the Ecaudata also, the tibia and fibula
+  coalesce into one bone, and two or three small bones on the inner side
+  of the tarsus form what has been regarded as a rudimentary digit or
+  "prehallux."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Ventral view of the hyoid of _Rana
+  esculenta_. a, Anterior; b, lateral; c, posterior processes; d,
+  thyro-hyals.]
+
+  _Integument._--In all recent batrachians, the skin is naked, or if
+  small scales are present, as in many of the Apoda, they are concealed
+  in the skin. The extinct Stegocephalia, on the other hand, were mostly
+  protected, on the ventral surface at least, by an armour of
+  overlapping round, oval, or rhomboidal scales, often very similar to
+  those of Crossopterygian or ganoid fishes, and likewise disposed in
+  transverse oblique lines converging forwards on the middle line of the
+  belly. Sometimes these scales assumed the importance of scutes and
+  formed a carapace, as in the "batrachian armadillo" discovered by E.D.
+  Cope. A few frogs have the skin of the back studded with stellate bony
+  deposits (_Phyllomedusa, Nototrema_), whilst two genera are remarkable
+  for possessing a bony dorsal shield, free from the vertebrae
+  (_Ceratorphrys_) or ankylosed to them (_Brachycephalus_). None of the
+  Stegocephalia appears to have been provided with claws, but some
+  living batrachians (_Onychodactylus, Xenopus, Hymenochirus_) have the
+  tips of some or all of the digits protected by a claw-like horny
+  sheath.
+
+  The integument of tailed and tailless batrachians is remarkable for
+  the great abundance of follicular glands, of which there may be two
+  kinds, each having a special secretion, which is always more or less
+  acrid and irritating, and affords a means of defence against the
+  attacks of many carnivorous animals. A great deal has been published
+  on the poisonous secretion of batrachians (34), which is utilized by
+  the Indians of South America for poisoning their arrows. Some of the
+  poison-secreting glands attain a greater complication of structure and
+  are remarkable for their large size, such as the so-called "parotoid"
+  glands on the back of the head in toads and salamanders.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Ventral view of the head and trunk of
+  _Ichthyophis glutinosus_.
+
+    Mn, Mandible.
+    Hy, Hyoid.
+    Br^1 Br^2, Br^3, Branchial arches.
+    Gl, Glottis.
+    Tr, Trachea.
+    Ivc, Inferior vena cava.
+    V, Ventricle.
+    Au, Auricles.
+    Rsvc, Lsvc, right and left superior cavae.
+    Ta, Truncus arteriosus.
+    Ao, Left aortic arch.
+    P.A. Right pulmonary artery. The pericardium (lightly shaded)
+           extends as far as the bifurcation of the synangium.]
+
+  In all larval forms, in the Caudata, and in a few of the Ecaudata
+  (_Xenopus_, for instance), the epidermis becomes modified in relation
+  with the termination of sensory nerves, and gives rise to organs of
+  the same nature as those of the lateral line of fishes. In addition to
+  diffuse pigment (mostly in the epidermis), the skin contains granular
+  pigment stored up in cells, the chromatophores, restricted to the
+  cutis, which are highly mobile and send out branches which, by
+  contraction and expansion, may rapidly alter the coloration, most
+  batrachians being in this respect quite comparable to the famous
+  chameleons. Besides white (guanine) cells, the pigment includes black,
+  brown, yellow and red. The green and blue, so frequent in frogs and
+  newts, are merely subjective colours, due to interference. On the
+  mechanism of the change of colour, cf. W. Biedermann (35).
+
+  One of the interesting recent discoveries is that of the "hairy" frog
+  (_Trichobatrachus_), in which the sides of the body and limbs are
+  covered with long villosities, the function of which is still unknown
+  (36).
+
+  The nuptial horny asperities with which the males of many batrachians
+  are provided, for the purpose of clinging to the females, will be
+  noticed below, under the heading _Pairing and Oviposition_.
+
+  _Dentition._--In the Microsauria and Branchiosauria among the
+  Stegocephalia, as in the other orders, the hollow, conical or slightly
+  curved teeth exhibit simple or only slightly folded walls. But in the
+  Labyrinthodonta, grooves are more or less marked along the teeth and
+  give rise to folds of the wall which, extending inwards and ramifying,
+  produce the complicated structure, exhibited by transverse sections,
+  whence these batrachians derive their name; a somewhat similar
+  complexity of structure is known in some holoptychian (dendrodont)
+  Crossopterygian fishes. In the remarkable salamander _Autodax_, the
+  teeth in the jaws are compressed, sharp-edged, lancet shaped. The
+  teeth are not implanted in sockets, but become ankylosed with the
+  bones that bear them, and are replaced by others developed at their
+  bases. Teeth are present in the jaws of all known Stegocephalia and
+  Apoda and of nearly all Caudata, _Siren_ alone presenting plates of
+  horn upon the gingival surfaces of the premaxillae and of the dentary
+  elements of the mandible. But they are nearly always absent in the
+  lower jaw of the Ecaudata (exceptions in _Hemiphractus,
+  Amphignathodon, Amphodus, Ceratobatrachus_, the male of
+  _Dimorphognathus_), many of which (toads, for instance) are entirely
+  edentulous.
+
+  There is great variety in the distribution of the teeth on the palate.
+  They may occur simultaneously on the vomers, the palatines, the
+  pterygoids and the parasphenoid in some of the Stegocephalia
+  (_Dawsonia, Seeleya, Acanthostoma_), on the vomers, palatines and
+  parasphenoid in many salamandrids (_Plethodontinae_ and
+  _Desmognathinae_), on the vomers, pterygoids and parasphenoid (some
+  _Pelobates_), on the vomers and parasphenoid (_Triprion, Amphodus_),
+  whilst in the majority or other batrachians they are confined to the
+  vomers and palatines or to the vomers alone (37).
+
+  As regards the alimentary organs, it will suffice to state, in this
+  very brief sketch, that all batrachians being carnivorous in their
+  perfect condition, the intestine is never very long and its
+  convolutions are few and simple. But the larvae of the Ecaudata are
+  mainly herbivorous and the digestive tract is accordingly extremely
+  elongate and coiled up like the spring of a watch. The gullet is
+  short, except in the Apoda. The tongue is rudimentary in the
+  perennibranchiatea Caudata, well developed, and often protrusile, in
+  the _Salamandridae_ and most of the Ecaudata, totally absent in the
+  Aglossa.
+
+  The organs of circulation cannot be dealt with here; the most
+  important addition made to our knowledge in recent years being found
+  in the contributions of F. Hochstetter (38) and of G.B. Howes (39),
+  dealing with the azygous (posterior) cardinal veins in salamanders and
+  some of the Ecaudata. The heart is situated quite forward, in the
+  gular or pectoral region, even in those tailed batrachians which have
+  a serpentiform body, whilst in the Apoda (fig. 13) it is moved back to
+  a distance which is comparable to that it occupies in most of the
+  snakes.
+
+  _The Respiratory Organs._--The larynx, which is rudimentary in most of
+  the Caudata and in the Apoda, is highly developed in the Ecaudata, and
+  becomes the instrument of the powerful voice with which many of the
+  frogs and toads are provided. The lungs are long simple tubes in some
+  of the perennibranchiate Caudata; they generally shorten or become
+  cellular in the salamandrids, and attain their highest development in
+  the Ecaudata, especially in such forms as the burrowing _Pelobates_.
+  Although the lungs are present in such forms as preserve the gills
+  throughout life, it is highly remarkable that quite a number of
+  abranchiate salamanders, belonging mostly to the subfamilies
+  _Desmognathinae_ and _Plethodontinae_, are devoid of lungs and breathe
+  entirely by the skin and by the bucco-pharyngeal mucose membrane (20).
+  Some of the _Salamandrinae_ show the intermediate conditions which
+  have led to the suppression of the trachea and lungs. In the Apoda, as
+  in many serpentiform reptiles, one of the lungs, either the right or
+  the left, is much less developed than the other, often very short.
+
+  _Urino-genital Organs._--The genital glands, ovaries and testes, are
+  attached to the dorsal wall of the body-cavity, in the immediate
+  vicinity of the kidneys, with which the male glands are intimately
+  connected. The oviducts are long, usually more or less convoluted
+  tubes which open posteriorly into the cloaca, while their anterior
+  aperture is situated far forward, sometimes close to the root of the
+  lung; their walls secrete a gelatinous substance which invests the ova
+  as they descend. In most male batrachians the testes are drained by
+  transverse canals which open into a longitudinal duct, which also
+  receives the canals of the kidneys, so that this common duct conveys
+  both sperma and urine. In some of the discogloesid frogs, however, the
+  seminal duct is quite independent of the kidney, which has its own
+  canal, or true ureter. Many of the Ecaudata have remnants of oviducts,
+  or Mullerian ducts, most developed in _Bufo_, which genus is also
+  remarkable as possessing a problematic organ, Bidder's organ, situated
+  between the testis and the adipose or fat-bodies that surmount it.
+  This has been regarded by some anatomists as a rudimentary ovary.
+  Female salamandrids are provided with a _receptaculum seminis_.
+  Copulatory organs are absent, except in the Apoda, in which a portion
+  of the cloaca can be everted and acts as a penis. The urinary bladder
+  is always large.
+
+  The spermatozoa have received a great share of attention, on the part
+  not only of anatomists and physiologists, but even of systematic
+  workers (40). This is due to the great amount of difference in
+  structure and size between these elements in the various genera, and
+  also to the fact that otherwise closely allied species may differ very
+  considerably in this respect. The failure to obtain hybrids between
+  certain species of _Rana_ has been attributed principally to these
+  differences. The spermatozoa of _Discoglossus_ are remarkable for
+  their great size, measuring three millimetres in length.
+
+  _Pairing and Oviposition_--Batrachians may be divided into four
+  categories under this head:--(1) no amplexation; (2) amplexation
+  without internal fecundation; (3) amplexation with internal
+  fecundation; (4) copulation proper. The first category embraces many
+  aquatic newts, the second nearly all the Ecaudata, the third the rest
+  of the Caudata, and the fourth the Apoda.
+
+  In the typical newts (_Molge_) of Europe, the males are adorned during
+  the breeding season with bright colours and crests or other ornamental
+  dermal appendages, and, resorting to the water, they engage in a
+  lengthy courtship accompanied by lively evolutions around the females,
+  near which they deposit their spermatozoa in bundles on a gelatinous
+  mass, the spermatophore, probably secreted by the cloacal gland. This
+  arrangement facilitates the internal fecundation of the female without
+  copulation, the female absorbs the spermatozoa by squeezing them out
+  of the spermatophore between the cloacal lips. Other newts, and many
+  salamanders, whether terrestrial or aquatic, pair, the male embracing
+  the female about the fore limbs or in the pelvic region, and the males
+  of such forms are invariably devoid of ornamental secondary sexual
+  characters; but in spite of this amplexation the same mode of
+  fecundation by means of a spermatophore is resorted to, although it
+  may happen that the contents of the spermatophore are absorbed direct
+  from the cloaca of the male. The spermatozoa thus reach the eggs in
+  the oviducts, where they may develop entirely, some of the salamanders
+  being viviparous.
+
+  In all the tailless batrachians (with the exception of a single known
+  viviparous toad), the male clings to the female round the breast, at
+  the arm-pits, or round the waist, and awaits, often for hours or days,
+  the deposition of the ova, which are immediately fecundated by several
+  seminal emissions.
+
+  The fourth category is represented by the Apoda or Caecilians in
+  which, as we have stated above, the male is provided with an
+  intromittent organ. Some of these batrachians are viviparous.
+
+  In those species in which the embrace is of long duration the limbs
+  of the male, usually the fore limbs (pleurodele newt, Ecaudata),
+  rarely the hind limbs (a few American and European newts), according
+  to the mode of amplexation, acquire a greater development, and are
+  often armed with temporary horny excrescences which drop off after the
+  pairing season. These asperities usually form brush-like patches on
+  the inner side of one or more of the digits, but may extend over the
+  inner surface of the limbs and on the breast and chin; the use of them
+  on these parts is sufficiently obvious, but they are sometimes also
+  present, without apparent function, on various parts of the foot, as
+  in _Discoglossus, Bombinator_, and _Pelodytes_. In some species of the
+  South American frogs of the genus _Leptodactylus_ the breast and hands
+  are armed with very large spines, which inflict deep wounds on the
+  female held in embrace.
+
+  In most of the Caudata, the eggs are deposited singly in the axils of
+  water plants or on leaves which the female folds over the egg with her
+  hind limbs. The eggs are also deposited singly in some of the lower
+  Ecaudata. In many of the Ecaudata, and in a few of the Caudata and
+  Apoda, the eggs are laid in strings or bands which are twined round
+  aquatic plants or carried by the parent; whilst in other Ecaudata they
+  form large masses which either float on the surface of the water or
+  sink to the bottom.
+
+  A few batrachians retain the ova within the oviducts until the young
+  have undergone part or the whole of the metamorphosis. Viviparous
+  parturition is known among the Caudata (_Salamandra, Spelerpes
+  fuscus_), and the Apoda (_Dermophis thomensis, Typhlonectes
+  compressicauda_); also in a little toad (_Pseudophryne vivipara_)
+  recently discovered in German East Africa (41).
+
+  _Development and Metamorphosis._--In a great number of batrachians,
+  including most of the European species, the egg is small and the
+  food-yolk is in insufficient quantity to form an external appendage of
+  the embryo. But in a few European and North American species, and in a
+  great many inhabitants of the tropics, the egg is large and a
+  considerable portion of it persists for a long time as a yolk-sac.
+  Although the segmentation is always complete, it is very irregular in
+  these types, some of which make a distinct approach to the meroblastic
+  egg.
+
+  With the exception of a number of forms in which the whole development
+  takes place within the egg or in the body of the mother, batrachians
+  undergo metamorphoses, the young passing through a free-swimming,
+  gill-breathing period of considerable duration, during which their
+  appearance, structure, and often their _regime_, are essentially
+  different from those of the mature form. Even the fossil Stegocephalia
+  underwent metamorphosis, as we know from various larval remains first
+  described as _Branchiosaurus_. They are less marked or more gradual in
+  the Apoda and Caudata than in Ecaudata, in which the stage known as
+  tadpole is very unlike the frog or toad into which it rather suddenly
+  passes (see TADPOLE). In the Caudata, external gills (three on each
+  side) persist until the close of the metamorphosis, whilst in the
+  Apoda and Ecaudata they exist only during the earlier periods, being
+  afterwards replaced by internal gills.
+
+  Many cases are known in which the young batrachian enters the world in
+  the perfect condition, as in the black salamander of the Alps
+  (_Salamandra atra_), the cave salamander (_Spelerpes fuscus_), the
+  caecinan _Typhlonectes_, and a number of frogs, such as _Pipa,
+  Rhinoderma, Hylodes_, some _Nototrema, Rana opisthodon_, &c. A fairly
+  complete bibliographical index to these cases and the most remarkable
+  instances of parental care in tailless batrachians will be found in
+  the interesting articles by Lilian V. Sampson (42), and by G. Brandes
+  and W. Schoenichen (43). It will suffice to indicate here in a
+  synoptic form, as was done by the present writer many years ago, when
+  our knowledge of these wonders of batrachian life was far less
+  advanced than it is now, the principal modes of protection which are
+  resorted to:--
+
+  1. Protection by means of nests or nurseries.
+
+    A. In enclosures in the water.--_Hylafaber_.
+    B. In nests in holes near the water.--_Rhacophorus, Leptodactylus_.
+    C. In nests overhanging the water.--_Rhacophorus, Chiromantis,
+         Phyllpmedusa_.
+    D. On trees or in moss away from the water.--_Rana opisthodon,
+         Hylodes, Hylelia platycephala_.
+    E. In a gelatinous bag in the water.--_Phrynixalus, Salamandrella_.
+
+  2. Direct nursing by the parents.
+
+    A. Tadpoles transported from one place to another.--_Dendrebates,
+         Phyllobates, Sooglossus_.
+    B. Eggs protected by the parents who coil themselves round or "sit"
+         on them.--_Mantophryne, Desmognathus, Autodax, Plethodon,
+         Cryptobranchus, Amphiuma, Ichthyophis, Hypogeophis, Siphonops_.
+    C. Eggs carried by the parents.
+        (a) Round the legs, by the male.--_Alytes_.
+        (b) On the back, by the female.
+            (1) Exposed.--_Hyla goeldii, H. evansii, Ceratohyla_.
+            (2) In cell-like pouches.--_Pipa_.
+            (3) In a common pouch.--_Nototrema, Amphignathodon_.
+        (c) On the belly.
+            (1) Exposed, by the female.--_Rhacophorus reticulatus_.
+            (2) In a pouch (the produced vocal sac), by the
+                male.--_Rhinoderma_.
+        (d) In the mouth, by the female.--_Hylambates brevirostris_.
+
+  _Geographical Distribution._--If a division of the world according to
+  its batrachian faunae were to be attempted, it would differ very
+  considerably from that which would answer for the principal groups of
+  reptiles, the lizards especially. We should have four great
+  realms:--(1) Europe and Northern and Temperate Asia, Africa north of
+  the Sahara (palaearctic region) and North and Central America
+  (nearctic region); (2) Africa and South-Eastern Asia (Ethiopian and
+  Indian region); (3) South America (neotropical region); and (4)
+  Australia (Australian region). The first would be characterized by the
+  Caudata, which are almost confined to it (although a few species
+  penetrate into the Indian and neotropical regions), the
+  _Discoglossidae_, mostly Europaeo-Asiatic, but one genus in
+  California, and the numerous _Pelobatidae_; the second by the presence
+  of Apoda, the prevalence of firmisternal Ecaudata and the absence of
+  _Hylidae_; the third by the presence of Apoda, the prevalence of
+  arciferous Ecaudata and the scarcity of _Ranidae_, the fourth by the
+  prevalence of arciferous Ecaudata and the absence of _Ranidae_, as
+  well as by the absence of either Caudata or Apoda. Madagascar might
+  almost stand as a fifth division of the world, characterized by the
+  total absence of Caudata, Apoda, and arciferous Ecaudata. But the
+  close relation of its very rich frog-fauna to that of the Ethiopian
+  and Indian regions speaks against attaching too great importance to
+  these negative features. It may be noted here that no two parts of the
+  world differ so considerably in their Ecaudata as do Madagascar and
+  Australia, the former having only Firmisternia, the latter only
+  Arcifera. Although there is much similarity between the Apoda of
+  Africa and of South America, one genus being even common to both parts
+  of the world, the frogs are extremely different, apart from the
+  numerous representatives of the widely distributed genus _Bufo_. It
+  may be said that, on the whole, the distribution of the batrachians
+  agrees to some extent with that of fresh-water fishes, except for the
+  much less marked affinity between South America and Africa, although
+  even among the former we have the striking example of the distribution
+  of the very natural group of the aglossal batrachians, represented by
+  _Pipa_ in South America and by _Xenopus_ and _Hymenochirus_ in Africa.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(1) On the use of the names _Batrachia_ and _Amphibia_,
+  cf. E.D. Cope, _Geol. Mag._ (3) ii., 1885, p. 575; G. Baur, _Science_
+  (2), vi., 1897, pp. 170, 372; B.G. Wilder, t.c. p. 295; T Gill, t.c.
+  p. 446; O.P. Hay, t.c. p. 773; T. Gill, _Science_ (2), xx., 1900, p.
+  730; L. Steineger, op. cit. xx., 1904, p. 924. (2) E. Fraas, "Die
+  Labyrinthodonten der schwabischen Trias," _Palaeontogr._ xxxvi., 1889,
+  p. 1. (3) _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1904, ii. p. 170. (4) E.D. Cope,
+  "Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia of North America," _Proc. Ac.
+  Philad._, 1868, p. 208. (5) "Researches on the Structure, Organization
+  and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia, vii" _Phil. Trans._
+  clxxxiii. (B), 1892, p. 311. (6) _Cambridge Natural History_, viii.
+  (1901). (7) "Die Urvierfussler (Eotetrapoda) des sachsischen
+  Rotliegenden," _Allgem. verstandl. naturh. Abh._, Berlin, 1891, No.
+  15; "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte von Branchiosaurus amblystomus,"
+  _Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges._, 1886, p. 576. (8) C. Emery, "Uber die
+  Beziehungen des Chiropterygium zum Ichthyopterygium," _Zool. Anz._ x.,
+  1887, p. 185; E.D. Cope, "On the Phylogeny of the Vertebrata," _Proc.
+  Amer. Philos. Soc._ xxx., 1892, p. 280; H.B. Pollard, "On the Anatomy
+  and Phylogenetic Position of _Polypterus_," _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ v.,
+  1892, p. 414; G. Baur, "The Stegocephali: a Phylogenetic Study,"
+  _Anat. Anz._ xi., 1896, p. 657; L. Dollo, "Sur le phylogenie des
+  dipneustes," _Mem. soc. belge geol._ ix., 1895, p. 79; T. Gill, "On
+  the Derivation of the Pectoral Member in Terrestrial Vertebrates,"
+  _Rep. Brit. Ass._, 1897, p. 697. (9) E.D. Cope, "The Origin of the
+  Mammalia," _Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc._ xxii., 1884, p. 43; cf.
+  Discussion on Origin of Mammals, _Proc. Intern. Congr. Zool._,
+  Cambridge, 1898; also H. Gadow, "The Origin of the _Mammalia_," _Z. f.
+  Morphol._ iv., 1902, p. 345; and R. Broom, _Rep. Brit. Ass._, 1905, p.
+  437. (10) A. Fritsch, _Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksleine der
+  Permformation Bohmens_, vols. i. and ii (Prague, 1879-1885, 4to); H.
+  Credner, "Die Stegocephalen aus dem Rotliegenden des Plauenschen
+  Grundes bei Dresden," _Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges._, 1881-1894; J.W.
+  Dawson, "On the Results of Recent Explorations of Erect Trees
+  containing Animal Remains in the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia,"
+  _Phil. Trans._ clxxiii., 1882, p. 621; H.B. Geinitz and J.V.
+  Deichmuller, "Die Saurier der unteren Dyas von Sachsen,"
+  _Palaeontogr._ xxix., 1882, p. 1; A. Gaudry, _Les Enchainements du
+  monde animal dans les temps geologiques, fossiles primaires_ (Paris,
+  1883, 8vo), p. 251; E.D. Cope, "The Batrachia of the Permian Period of
+  North America," _Amer. Nat._ xviii., 1884, p. 26; E. Fraas, "Die
+  Labyrinthodonten der schwabischen Trias," _Palaeontogr._ xxxvi., 1889,
+  p. 1; L.v. Ammon, _Die permischen Amphibien der Rheinpfalz_ (Munich,
+  1889-1891, 4to); R. Lydekker, _Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and
+  Amphibia in the British Museum_, part iv. (London, 1890, 8vo); E.
+  Fraas, _Die schwabischen Trias-Saurier nach dem Material der k.
+  Naturalien-Sammlung in Stuttgart zusammengestellt_ (Stuttgart, 1896,
+  4to); O. Jaekel, "Die Organization von _Archegosaurus_," _Zeitschr.
+  deutsch. geol. Ges_. xlviii., 1896, p. 505; F. Broili, "Ein Beitrag
+  zur Kenntnis von _Eryops megacephalus_," _Palaeontogr_. xlvi., 1899,
+  p. 61. (11) "Amphibian Footprints from the Devonian," _Amer. Journ.
+  Sci_. ii., 1896, p. 374. (12) "Decouverte du plus ancien amphibien
+  connu ... dans le famennien superieur de Modave," _Bull. soc. beige
+  geol_. xv., 1888, p. cxx, (13) "A Batrachian Armadillo," _Amer. Nat_.
+  xxix., 1895, p. 998. (14) C. Gegenbaur, _Untersuchungen zur
+  vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelsaule bei Amphibien und Reptilien_
+  (Leipzig, 1862, 4to); H. Gadow, "On the Evolution of the Vertebral
+  Column of Amphibia and Amniota," _Phil. Trans_. clxxxvii. (B), 1896,
+  p. 1. (15) R. Wiedersheim, _Die Anatomie der Gymnophionen_ (Jena,
+  1879, 4to); W. Peters, "Uber die Einteilung der Caecilien," _Mon.
+  Berl. Ac_., 1879, p. 924; G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue of Batrachia
+  Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the
+  British Museum_ (London, 1882, 8vo), and "A Synopsis of the Genera and
+  Species of Apodal Batrachians," _P. Z. S_., 1895, p. 401. (16) "On the
+  Structure and Affinities of the _Amphiumidae_" _Proc. Amer. Philos.
+  Soc._ xxiii., 1886, p. 442. (17) _Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher
+  Forschungen auf Ceylon_, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890, 4to), (18) "The
+  Chondrocranium of the Ichthyopsida," _Stud. Biol. Lab. Tufts Coll_.
+  No. 5, 1898, p. 147. (19) G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue, &c._, 1882. (20)
+  H.H. Wilder, "Lungenlose Salamandriden," _Anat. Anz_. ix., 1894, p.
+  216; L. Camerano, "Ricerche anatomofisiologiche intorno ai
+  Salamandridi normalmente apneumoni," _Atti Acc. Torin_. xxix., 1894,
+  p. 705, and xxxi., 1896, p. 512; H.H. Wilder, "Lungless Salamanders,"
+  _Anat. Anz_. xii., 1896, p. 182; E. Loennberg, "Notes on Tailed
+  Batrachians without Lungs," _Zool. Anz_. xix., 1896, p. 33. (21) "Note
+  sur le batracien de Bernissart," _Bull. mus. belg_. iii., 1884, p. 85.
+  (22) G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue of Batrachia Salientia s. Ecaudata in
+  the Collection of the British Museum_ (London, 1882, 8vo). (23) "On
+  the Development of the Vertebral Column in _Pipa_ and _Xenopus_,"
+  _Anat. Anz_. xiii., 1898, p. 359. (24) G.A. Boulenger, "On
+  _Hymenochirus_, a New Type of Aglossal Batrachians," _Ann. and Mag. N.
+  H._ (7), iv., 1899, p. 122. (25) L.M. Vidal, _Mem. Ac. Barcelona_ (3),
+  iv., 1902, No. 18, pl. iv. (26) W. Wolterstorff, "Uber fossile
+  Frosche, insbesondere Palaeobatrachus," _Jahresb. Nat. Ver. Magdeb_.,
+  1885 and 1886. (27) W. Peters, "Uber die Entwickelung eines
+  Batrachiers. _Hylodes martinicensis_, ohne Metamorphose," _Mon. Berl.
+  Ac_., 1876, p. 709; A. Kappler, "Die Tierwelt im hollandischen
+  Guiana," _Das Ausland_, 1885, p. 358; G.A. Boulenger, "Reptiles and
+  Batrachians of the Solomon Islands," _Trans. Zool. Soc_. xii., 1886,
+  p. 51; H. v. Ihering, "On the Oviposition of _Phyllomedusa
+  iheringii_," _Ann. and Mag. N.H._ (5), xvii., 1886, p. 461; H.H.
+  Smith, "On Oviposition and Nursing in the Batrachian genus
+  _Dendrobates_," _Amer. Nat_. xxi., 1887, p. 307; G.B. Howes, "Notes on
+  the Gular Brood-pouch of _Rhinoderma darwini_," _P.Z.S_., 1888, p.
+  231; W.J. Holland, "Arboreal Tadpoles," _Amer. Nat_. xxiii., 1889, p.
+  383; E.A. Goeldi, "Contribution to the Knowledge of the Breeding
+  Habits of some Tree-frogs of the Serra dos Orgaos, Rio de Janeiro,
+  Brazil," _P.Z.S_., 1895. p. 89; G.A. Boulenger, "On the Nursing Habits
+  of two South American Frogs," _P.Z.S_., 1895, p. 209; A. Brauer, "Ein
+  neuer Fall von Brutpflege bei Froschen," _Zool. Jahrb. Syst_. xi.,
+  1898, p. 89; S. Ikeda, "Notes on the Breeding Habit and Development of
+  _Rhacophorus schlegelii_," _Annot. Zool. Japan_, i., 1898, p. 113; G.
+  Brandes, "Larven zweier Nototrema-Arten," _Verh. deutsch. zool. Ges_.,
+  1899, p. 288; L. v. Mehely, "Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Engystomatiden
+  von Neu-Guinea," _Termes. Fuzetek, Budapest_, xxiv., 1901, p. 216;
+  G.A. Boulenger, "_Ceratohyla bubalus_ carrying eggs on its back,"
+  _P.Z.S_., 1903, ii. p. 115; _Idem_. "Description of a new Tree-frog of
+  the genus _Hyla_, from British Guiana, carrying eggs on the back,"
+  _op. cit_., 1904, ii. p. 106; H.S. Ferguson, "Travancore Batrachians,"
+  _J. Bombay N.H. Soc_. xv., 1904, p. 499. (28) _Geol. Mag_. iv., ii.,
+  1895, p. 83. (29) "Das Hyobranchial-Skelett der Anura," _Morph. Arb_.
+  iii., 1894, p. 399. (30) "On the Structure and Development of the
+  Hyobranchial Skeleton of the Parsley Frog," _P.Z.S_., 1897, p. 577.
+  (31) W.G. Ridewood, "On the Hyobrachial Skeleton and Larynx of
+  _Hymenochirus_," _J. Linn. Soc_. xxviii., 1899, p. 454. (32) _Morphol.
+  Jahrb_. xxiii., 1895, p. 1. (33) G.B. Howes and A.M. Davies, _P.Z.S_.,
+  1888, p. 495. (34) G.A. Boulenger, "The Poisonous Secretion of
+  Batrachians," _Nat. Science_, i., 1892, p. 185; F. Gidon, _Venins
+  multiples et toxicite humorale chez les batraciens_ (Paris, 1897,
+  8vo). (35) _Arch. Ges. Physiol_. li., 1892, p. 455. (36) G.A.
+  Boulenger, _P.Z.S_., 1900, p. 433, and 1901, ii. p. 709; H. Gadow,
+  _Anat. Anz_. xviii., 1900, p. 588. (37) G.A. Boulenger, "On the
+  Presence of Pterygoid Teeth in a Tailless Batrachian, with remarks on
+  the Localization of Teeth on the Palate," _P.Z.S_., 1890, p. 664. (38)
+  _Morphol. Jahrb_. xiii., 1887, p. 119. (39) _P.Z.S_., 1888, p. 122.
+  (40) G.A. Boulenger, _Tailless Batrachians of Europe_ (1897), p. 75.
+  (41) G. Tornier, "Pseudophryne vivipara, ein lebendig gebarender
+  Frosch," _Sitzb. Ak. Ber_. xxxix., 1905, p. 855. (42) "Unusual Modes
+  of Breeding and Development among _Anura_," _Amer. Nat_. xxxiv., 1900,
+  p. 405. (43) "Brutpflege der schwanzlosen Batrachier," _Abh. Nat.
+  Ges_. Halle, xxii., 1901, p. 395.     (G. A. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BATRACHOMYOMACHIA (Gr. [Greek: Batrachos], "frog," [Greek: mus],
+"mouse," and [Greek: machae], "battle"), the "Battle of Frogs and Mice,"
+a comic epic or parody on the _Iliad_, definitely attributed to Homer by
+the Romans, but according to Plutarch (_De Herodoti Malignitate_, 43)
+the work of Pigres of Halicarnassus, the brother (or son) of Artemisia,
+queen of Caria and ally of Xerxes. Some modern scholars, however, assign
+it to an anonymous poet of the time of Alexander the Great.
+
+  Edition by A. Ludwich (1896).
+
+
+
+
+BATTA, an Anglo-Indian military term, probably derived from the Canarese
+_bhatta_ (rice in the husk), meaning a special allowance made to
+officers, soldiers, or other public servants in the field.
+
+
+
+
+BATTAGLIA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Padua, 11 m.
+S.S.W. by rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4456. It lies at the edge of the
+volcanic Euganean Hills, and is noted for its warm saline springs and
+natural vapour grotto. A fine palace was erected in the Palladian style
+in the 17th century by Marchese Benedetto Selvatico-Estense, then owner
+of the springs.
+
+
+
+
+BATTAKHIN, African "Arabs" of Semitic stock. They occupy the banks of
+the Blue Nile near Khartum, and it was against them that General Gordon
+fought most of his battles near the town. Their sheikh, El Obeid, routed
+Gordon's troops on the 4th of September 1884, a defeat which led to the
+close investment of Khartum. In the 18th century James Bruce described
+them as "a thieving, pilfering lot."
+
+
+
+
+BATTALION, a unit of military organization consisting of four or more
+companies of infantry. The term is used in nearly every army, and is
+derived through Fr. from It. _battaglione_, Med. Lat. _battalia_ (see
+BATTLE). "Battalion" in the 16th and 17th centuries implied a unit of
+infantry forming part of the line of battle, but at first meant an
+unusually large _battalia_ or a single large body of men formed of
+several _battalias_. In the British regular service the infantry
+battalion is commanded by a lieut.-colonel, who is assisted by an
+adjutant, and consists at war strength of about 1000 bayonets in eight
+companies. Engineers, train, certain kinds of artillery, and more rarely
+cavalry are also organized in battalions in some countries.
+
+
+
+
+BATTAMBANG, or BATTAMBONG (locally _Phralabong_), the chief town of the
+north-western division of Cambodia, formerly capital of Monton Kmer,
+i.e. "The Cambodian Division," one of the eastern provinces of Siam, now
+included in the French protectorate of Cambodia. It is situated in 103
+deg. 6' E., 13 deg. 6' N., in the midst of a fertile plain and on the
+river Sang Ke, which flows eastwards and falls into the Tonle or Tale
+Sap, the great lake of Cambodia. The town is a collection of bamboo
+houses of no importance, but there is a walled enceinte of some
+historical interest. Trade is small and is carried on by Chinese
+settlers, chiefly overland with Bangkok, but to a small extent also by
+water with Saigon. The population is about 5000, two-thirds Cambodian
+and the remainder Chinese and Siamese. The language is Cambodian.
+
+Battambang was taken by the Siamese when they overran the kingdom of
+Cambodia towards the end of the 18th century, and was recognized by the
+French as belonging to Siam when the frontier of Cambodia was adjusted
+by treaty in 1867-1872. In another treaty in 1893, Siam bound herself to
+maintain no armed forces there other than police, but this arrangement
+was annulled by the treaty of 1904, by which Battambang was definitely
+admitted to lie within the French sphere of influence. Under a further
+treaty in March 1907 (see SIAM), the district of Battambang was finally
+ceded to the French.
+
+
+
+
+BATTANNI, or BHITANI, a small tribe on the Waziri border of the
+North-West Frontier Province of India. The Battannis hold the hills on
+the borders of Tank and Bannu in the Dera Ismail Khan district, from the
+Gabar mountain on the north to the Gomal valley on the south. They are
+only 3000 fighting men strong, and are generally regarded as the jackals
+of the Waziris. Their chief importance arises from the fact that no
+raids can be carried into British districts by the Mahsud Waziris
+without passing through Battanni territory. A small British expedition
+against the Battannis was led by Lt.-Col. Rynd in 1880. Under the
+excitement caused by the preaching of a fanatical mullah the Mahsud
+Waziris had attacked the town of Gomal. The Battannis failed to supply
+information as to their movements, and gave them a passage through
+their lands. The British troops accordingly stormed the Hinis Tangi
+defile in face of opposition, and burned the village of Jandola.
+
+
+
+
+BATTAS (Dutch _Battaks_), the inhabitants of the formerly independent
+Batta country, in the central highlands of Sumatra, now for the most
+part subjugated to the Dutch government. The still independent area
+extends from 98 deg.-99 deg. 35' E., and 2 deg.-3 deg. 25' S. North-east
+of Toba Lake dwell the Timor Battas, and west of it the Pakpak, but on
+its north (in the mountains which border on the east coast residency)
+the Karo Battas form a special group, which, by its dialects and
+ethnological character, appears to be allied to the Gajus and Allas
+occupying the interior of Achin. The origin of the Battas is doubtful.
+It is not known whether they were settled in Sumatra before the Hindu
+period. Their language contains words of Sanskrit origin and others
+referable to Javanese, Malay and Tagal influence. Their domain has been
+doubtless much curtailed, and their absorption into the Achin and Malay
+population seems to have been long going on. The Battas are undoubtedly
+of Malayan stock, and by most authorities are affiliated to that
+Indonesian pre-Malayan race which peopled the Indian Archipelago,
+expelling the aboriginal negritos, and in turn themselves submitting to
+the civilized Malays. In many points the Battas are physically quite
+different from the Malay type. The average height of the men is 5 ft. 4
+in.; of the women 4 ft. 8 in. In general build they are rather thickset,
+with broad shoulders and fairly muscular limbs. The colour of the skin
+ranges from dark brown to a yellowish tint, the darkness apparently
+quite independent of climatic influences or distinction of race. The
+skull is rather oval than round. In marked contrast to the Malay type
+are the large, black, long-shaped eyes, beneath heavy, black or dark
+brown eyebrows. The cheek-bones are somewhat prominent, but less so than
+among the Malays. The Battas are dirty in their dress and dwellings and
+eat any kind of food, though they live chiefly on rice. They are
+remarkable as a people who in many ways are cultured and possess a
+written language of their own, and yet are cannibals. The more civilized
+of them around Lake Toba are good agriculturists and stock-breeders, and
+understand iron-smelting. They weave and dye cotton, make jewellery and
+krisses which are often of exquisite workmanship, bake pottery, and
+build picturesque chalet-like houses of two storeys. They have an
+organized government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a
+written civil and penal code. There is even an antiquated postal system,
+the letter-boxes being the hollow tree trunks at crossroads. Yet in
+spite of this comparative culture the Battas have long been notorious
+for the most revolting forms of cannibalism. (See _Memoirs of the Life,
+&c., of Sir T.S. Raffles_, 1830.)
+
+The Battas are the only lettered people of the Indian Archipelago who
+are not Mahommedans. Their religion is mainly confined to a belief in
+evil spirits; but they recognize three gods, a Creator, a Preserver and
+a Destroyer, a trinity suggestive of Hindu influence.
+
+Up to the publication of Dr H.N. van der Tuuk's essay, _Over schrift en
+uitspraak der Tobasche taal_ (1855), our knowledge of the Batta language
+was confined to lists of words more or less complete, chiefly to be
+found in W. Marsden's _Miscellaneous Works_, in F.W. Junghuhn's
+_Battalander_, and in the _Tijdschrift van het Bataviaasch Genootschap,
+_vol. iii. (1855). By his exhaustive works (_Bataksch Leesboek_, in 4
+vols., 1861-1862; _Bataksch-nederduitsch Woordenboek_, 1861; _Tobasche
+Spraakkunst_, 1864-1867) van der Tuuk made the Batta language the most
+accessible of the various tongues spoken in Sumatra. According to him,
+it is nearest akin to the old Javanese and Tagal, but A. Schreiber (_Die
+Battas in ihrem Verhaltnis zu den Malaien von Sumatra_, 1874)
+endeavoured to prove its closer affinity with the Malay proper. Like
+most languages spoken by less civilized tribes, Batta is poor in general
+terms, but abounds in terms for special objects. The number of dialects
+is three, viz. the Toba, the Mandailing and the Dairi dialects; the
+first and second have again two subdivisions each. The Battas further
+possess six peculiar or recondite modes of speech, such as the _hata
+andung_, or language of the wakes, and the _hata poda_ or the
+soothsayer's language. A fair acquaintance with reading and writing is
+very general among them. Their alphabet is said, with the Rejang and
+Lampong alphabets, to be of Indian origin. The language is written on
+bark or bamboo staves from bottom to top, the lines being arranged from
+left to right. The literature consists chiefly in books on witchcraft,
+in stories, riddles, incantations, &c., and is mostly in prose,
+occasionally varied by verse.[1]
+
+  See also "Reisen nach dem Toba See," _Petermanns Mitteil_. (1883);
+  Modigliani, _Fra i Batacchi indipendenti_ (Rome, 1892); Neumann, "Het
+  Pane- en Bilastroomgebied," _Tydschr. Aardr. Gen._, 1885-1887; Van
+  Dijk in the same periodical (1890-1895); Wing Easton in the _Jaarboek
+  voor het Mynwezen_, 1894; Niemann in the _Encyclopaedia van
+  Nederlandsch-Indie_, under the heading _Bataks_, with very detailed
+  bibliography; Baron J. v. Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen
+  Sumatras_ (Wurzburg, 1893); H. Breitenstein, _21 Jahre in Indien,
+  Java, Sumatra_ (Leipzig, 1899-1900); G.P. Rouffaer, _Die Batik-Kunst
+  in niederlandisch-Indien und ihre Geschichte_ (Haarlem, 1899).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Mr C.A. van Ophuijsen has published (in _Bijd. tot Land-, Taalen
+    Volken-Kunde_, 1886) an interesting collection of Battak poetry. He
+    describes a curious leaf language used by Battak lovers, in which the
+    name of some leaf or plant is substituted for the word with which it
+    has greatest phonetic similarity.
+
+
+
+
+BATTEL, or BATTELS (of uncertain origin, possibly connected with
+"battle," a northern English word meaning to feed, or "batten"), a word
+used at Oxford University for the food ordered by members of the college
+as distinct from the usual "commons"; and hence college accounts for
+board and provisions supplied from kitchen and buttery, and, generally,
+the whole of a man's college accounts. "Batteler," now a resident in a
+college, was originally a rank of students between commoners and
+servitors who, as the name implies, were not supplied with "commons,"
+but only such provisions as they ordered for themselves.
+
+
+
+
+BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM (_floruit_ 1626-1667), British sailor, son of Andrew
+Batten, master in the royal navy, first appears as taking out letters of
+marque in 1626, and in 1638 he obtained the post of surveyor to the
+navy, probably by purchase. In March 1642 he was appointed
+second-in-command under the earl of Warwick, the parliamentary admiral
+who took the fleet out of the king's hands. It was Vice-Admiral Batten's
+squadron which bombarded Scarborough when Henrietta Maria landed there.
+He was accused (it appears unjustly) by the Royalists of directing his
+fire particularly on the house occupied by the queen, and up to the end
+of the First Civil War showed himself a steady partisan of the
+parliament. To the end of the First Civil War, Batten continued to
+patrol the English seas, and his action in 1647 in bringing into
+Portsmouth a number of Swedish ships of war and merchantmen, which had
+refused the customary salute to the flag, was approved by parliament.
+When the Second Civil War began he was distrusted by the Independents
+and removed from his command, though he confessed his continued
+willingness to serve the state. When part of the fleet revolted against
+the parliament, and joined the prince of Wales in Holland, May 1648,
+Batten went with them. He was knighted by the prince, but being
+suspected by the Royalists, was put ashore mutinously in Holland and
+returned to England. He lived in retirement during the Commonwealth
+period. At the Restoration Sir William Batten became once more surveyor
+of the navy. In this office he was in constant intercourse with Pepys,
+whose diary frequently mentions him; but the insinuations of Pepys
+against him must not be taken too seriously, as there is no evidence to
+show that Batten in making a profit from his office fell below the
+standards of the time. In 1661 he became M.P. for Rochester, and in 1663
+he was made master of the Trinity House. He died in 1667.
+
+  There is no separate life of Batten, but many notices of him will be
+  found in Penn's _Life of Sir W. Penn_, and in Pepys' _Diary_.
+
+
+
+
+BATTEN, (1) A term (a form of "baton") used in joinery (q.v.) for a
+board not more than 4 to 7 in. broad or 3 in. thick, used for various
+purposes, such as for strengthening or holding together laths and other
+wood-work; and specially, on board ship, a strip of wood nailed to a
+mast to prevent rubbing, or fixing down a tarpaulin over a hatchway, in
+rough weather, to keep out water. (2) A verb (the root is found in words
+of several Teutonic languages meaning profit or improvement, and also in
+the English "better" and "boot") meaning to improve in condition,
+especially in the case of animals by feeding; so, to feed gluttonously;
+the word is used figuratively of prospering at the expense of another.
+
+
+
+
+BATTENBERG, the name of a family of German counts which died out about
+1314, whose seat was the castle of Kellerburg, near Battenberg, a small
+place now in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. The title was
+revived in 1851, when Alexander (1823-1888), a younger son of Louis II.,
+grand-duke of Hesse, contracted a morganatic marriage with a Polish
+lady, Countess Julia Theresa von Haucke (1825-1895), who was then
+created countess of Battenberg. Raised to the rank of a princess in
+1858, the countess and her children were allowed to style themselves
+princes and princesses of Battenberg, with the addition of _Durchlaucht_
+or Serene Highness. The eldest son of this union, Louis Alexander (b.
+1854), married in 1884 Victoria, daughter of Louis IV., grand-duke of
+Hesse, and became an admiral in the British navy. The second son,
+Alexander Joseph (q.v.), was prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886. The
+third son, Henry Maurice, was born in 1858, and married on the 23rd of
+July 1885 Beatrice, youngest daughter of Victoria, queen of England. He
+died at sea on the 20th of January 1896 when returning from active
+service with the British troops during the Ashanti War, and left three
+sons and a daughter, Victoria Eugenie, who was married in 1906 to
+Alphonso XIII., king of Spain. The fourth son, Francis Joseph, born in
+1861, married in 1897 Anna, daughter of Nicholas I., prince of
+Montenegro, and is the author of _Die volkswirtschaftliche Entwickelung
+Bulgariens von 1879 bis zur Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1891). The only
+daughter of the princess of Battenberg, Marie Caroline, born in 1852,
+was married in 1871 to Gustavus Ernest, prince and count of
+Erbach-Schonberg.
+
+
+
+
+BATTER, an architectural term of unknown origin, used of the face of a
+wall which is slightly inclined to the perpendicular. It is most
+commonly employed in retaining walls, the lower courses of which are
+laid at right angles to the batter, so as to resist the thrust of the
+earth inside. For aesthetic reasons it is often adopted in the lowest or
+basement porticos of a great building. From a historical point of view
+it is the most ancient system employed, as throughout Egypt and Chaldaea
+all the temples built in unburnt brick were perforce obliged to be
+thicker at the bottom, and this gave rise to the batter or raking side
+which was afterwards in Egypt copied in stone. For defensive purposes
+the walls of the lower portions of a fortress were built with a batter
+as in the case of the tower of David and some of the walls built by
+Herod at Jerusalem. The Crusaders also largely adopted the principle,
+which was followed in some of the castles of the middle ages throughout
+Europe.
+
+
+
+
+BATTERING RAM (Lat. _aries_, ram), a military engine used before the
+invention of cannon, for beating down the walls of besieged fortresses.
+It consisted of a long heavy beam of timber, armed at the extremity with
+iron fashioned something like the head of a ram. In its simplest form
+the beam was carried in the hands of the soldiers, who assailed the
+walls with it by main force. The improved ram was composed of a longer
+beam, in some cases extending to 120 ft., shod with iron at one end, and
+suspended, either by the middle or from two points, from another beam
+laid across two posts. This is the kind described by Josephus as having
+been used at the siege of Jerusalem (_B.J._ iii. 7. 19). The ram was
+shielded from the missiles of the besieged by a penthouse (_vinea_) or
+other overhead protection. It was often mounted on wheels, which greatly
+facilitated its operations. A hundred soldiers at a time, and sometimes
+even a greater number, were employed to work it, and the parties were
+relieved in constant succession. No wall could resist the continued
+application of the ram, and the greatest efforts were always made to
+destroy it by various means, such as dropping heavy stones on the head
+of the ram and on the roof of the penthouse; another method being to
+seize the ram head with grapnels and then haul it up to a vertical
+position by suitable windlasses on the wall of the fortress. Sometimes
+the besieged ran countermines under the ram penthouse; this if
+successful would cause the whole engine to fall into the excavation. In
+medieval warfare the low penthouse, called _cat_, was generally employed
+with some form of ram.
+
+
+
+
+BATTERSEA, a south-western metropolitan borough of London, England,
+bounded N. by the Thames, N.E. by Lambeth, and S.E., S., and W. by
+Wandsworth. Pop. (1901) 168,907. The principal thoroughfares are
+Wandsworth Road and Battersea Park and York Roads from east to west,
+connected north and south with the Victoria or Chelsea, Albert and
+Battersea bridges over the Thames. The two first of these three are
+handsome suspension bridges; the third, an iron structure, replaced a
+wooden bridge of many arches which was closed in 1881, after standing a
+little over a century. Battersea is a district mainly consisting of
+artisans' houses, and there are several large factories by the river.
+The parish church of St Mary, Church Road (1776), preserves from an
+earlier building stained glass and monuments, including one to Henry St
+John, Viscount Bolingbroke (d. 1751), and his second wife, who had a
+mansion close by. Of this a portion remains on the riverside, containing
+a room associated with Pope, who is said to have worked here upon the
+"Essay on Man." Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common (220 acres) lie
+partly within the borough, but the principal public recreation ground is
+Battersea Park, bordering the Thames between Albert and Victoria
+Bridges, beautifully laid out, containing a lake and subtropical garden,
+and having an area of nearly 200 acres. It was constructed with
+difficulty by embanking the river and raising the level of the formerly
+marshy ground, and was opened in 1858. Among institutions are the
+Battersea Polytechnic, the Royal Masonic Institution for girls, founded
+in 1788, and Church of England and Wesleyan Training Colleges. Battersea
+is in the parliamentary borough of Battersea and Clapham, including the
+whole of the Battersea division and part of the Clapham division. The
+borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors.
+Area, 2160.3 acres.
+
+An early form of the name is _Patricsey_ or Peter's Island; the manor at
+the time of the Domesday survey, and until the suppression of the
+monasteries, belonging to the abbey of St Peter, Westminster. It next
+passed to the crown, and subsequently to the family of St John and to
+the earls Spencer. York Road recalls the existence of a palace of the
+archbishops of York, occasionally occupied by them between the reigns of
+Edward IV. and Mary. Battersea Fields, bordering the river, were
+formerly a favourite resort, so that the park also perpetuates a memory.
+The art of enamelling was introduced, c. 1750, at works in Battersea,
+examples from which are highly valued.
+
+
+
+
+BATTERY (Fr. _batterie_, from _battre_, to beat), the action of beating,
+especially in law the unlawful wounding of another (see ASSAULT). The
+term is applied to the apparatus used in battering, hence its use in
+military organization for the unit of mobile artillery of all kinds.
+This consists of from four to eight guns with their _personnel_, wagons
+and train. In the British service the term is applied to field, horse,
+field-howitzer, heavy and mountain artillery units. "Battery" is also
+used to imply a mass of guns in action, especially in connexion with the
+military history of the 18th and early 19th centuries. In siegecraft, a
+battery is simply an emplacement for guns, howitzers or mortars,
+constructed for the purposes of the siege, and protected as a rule by a
+parapet. In fortification the term is applied similarly to permanent or
+semi-permanent emplacements for the artillery of the defence. In all
+these senses the presence of artillery is implied in the use of the word
+(see ARTILLERY, and FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). The word is also used
+for the "pitcher" and "catcher" in baseball; for a collection of
+utensils, primarily of hammered copper or brass, especially in the
+French term _batterie de cuisine_; and for the instruments of percussion
+in an orchestra.
+
+_Electric Battery_--This term was applied by the old electricians to a
+collection of Leyden jars, but is now used of a device for generating
+electricity by chemical action, or more exactly, of a number of such
+devices joined up together. There are two main classes of electric
+battery. In _primary_ batteries, composed of a number of galvanic or
+voltaic "cells," "couples" or "elements," on the completion of the
+interactions between the substances on which the production of
+electricity depends, the activity of the cells comes to an end, and can
+only be restored with the aid of a fresh supply of those substances; in
+_secondary_ batteries, also called storage batteries or accumulators
+(q.v.), the substances after the exhaustion of the cells can be brought
+back to a condition in which they will again yield an electric current,
+by means of an electric current passed through them in the reverse
+direction. The first primary battery was constructed about 1799 by
+Alessandro Volta. In one form, the "voltaic pile," he placed a series of
+pairs of copper and zinc disks one above the other, separating each pair
+from the one above it by a piece of cloth moistened with a solution of
+common salt. In another form, the "couronne de tasses," he took a number
+of vessels or cells containing brine or dilute acid, and placed in each
+a zinc plate and a copper plate; these plates were not allowed to touch
+each other within the vessels, but each zinc plate was connected to the
+copper plate of the adjoining vessel. In both these arrangements an
+electric current passes through a wire which is connected to the
+terminal plates at the two ends of the series. The direction of this
+current is from copper to zinc; within each cell itself it is from zinc
+to copper. The plate to which the current flows within the cell is the
+_negative plate_, and that from which it flows the _positive plate_; but
+the point on the negative plate at which the current enters the external
+wire is the _positive pole_, and the point on the positive plate at
+which it leaves the external circuit the _negative pole_. During the
+time that the external connexion is maintained between the two poles and
+the current passes in the wire, the zinc or positive plates are
+gradually dissolved, and hydrogen gas is liberated at the surface of the
+copper or negative plates; but when the external connexion is broken
+this action ceases. If the materials used in the cells were perfectly
+pure, probably the cessation would be complete. In practice, however,
+only impure commercial zinc is available, and with this corrosion
+continues to some extent, even though the external circuit is not
+closed, thus entailing waste of material. This "local action" is
+explained as due to the fact that the impurities in the zinc plate form
+miniature voltaic couples with the zinc itself, thus causing its
+corrosion by voltaic action; and an early improvement in the voltaic
+cell was the discovery, applied by W. Sturgeon in 1830, that the evil
+was greatly reduced if the surface of the zinc plates was amalgamated,
+by being rubbed with mercury under dilute sulphuric acid. Another
+disadvantage of the simple cell composed of copper and zinc in dilute
+acid is that the current it yields rapidly falls off. The hydrogen
+formed by the operation of the cell does not all escape, but some
+adheres as a film to the negative plate, and the result is the
+establishment of a counter or reverse electromotive force which opposes
+the main current flowing from the zinc plate and diminishes its force.
+This phenomenon is known as "polarization," and various remedies have
+been tried for the evils it introduces in the practical use of primary
+batteries. Alfred Smee in 1839 modified the simple copper-zinc couple
+excited by dilute sulphuric acid by substituting for the copper thin
+leaves of platinum or platinized silver, whereby the elimination of the
+hydrogen is facilitated; and attempts have also been made to keep the
+plates free from the gas by mechanical agitation. The plan usually
+adopted, however, is either to prevent the formation of the film, or to
+introduce into the cell some "depolarizer" which will destroy it as it
+is formed by oxidizing the hydrogen to water (see also ELECTROLYSIS).
+
+The former method is exemplified in the cell invented by J.F. Daniell in
+1836. Here the zinc stands in dilute sulphuric acid (or in a solution of
+zinc sulphate), and the copper in a saturated solution of copper
+sulphate, the two liquids being separated by a porous partition. The
+hydrogen formed by the action of the cell replaces copper in the copper
+sulphate, and the displaced copper, instead of the hydrogen, being
+deposited on the copper plate polarization is avoided. The electromotive
+force is about one volt. This cell has been constructed in a variety of
+forms to suit different purposes. In a portable form, designed by Lord
+Kelvin in 1858, the copper plate, soldered to a gutta-percha covered
+wire, is placed at the bottom of a glass vessel and covered with
+crystals of copper sulphate; over these wet sawdust is sprinkled, and
+then mere sawdust, moistened with solution of zinc sulphate, upon which
+is placed the zinc plate. The Minotto cell is similar, except that sand
+is substituted for sawdust. In these batteries the sawdust or sand takes
+the place of the porous diaphragm. In another class of batteries the
+diaphragm is dispensed with altogether, and the action of gravity alone
+is relied upon to retard the interdiffusion of the liquids. The cell of
+J.H. Meidinger, invented in 1859, may be taken as a type of this class.
+The zinc is formed into a ring which fits the upper part of a glass
+beaker filled with zinc sulphate solution. At the bottom of the beaker
+is placed a smaller beaker, in which stands a ring of copper with an
+insulated connecting wire. The mouth of the beaker is closed by a lid
+with a hole in the centre, through which passes the long tapering neck
+of a glass balloon filled with crystals of copper sulphate; the narrow
+end of this neck dips into the smaller beaker, the copper sulphate
+slowly runs out, and being specifically heavier than the zinc sulphate
+it collects at the bottom about the copper ring. In Lord Kelvin's
+tray-cell a large wooden tray is lined with lead, and is covered at the
+bottom with copper by electrotyping. The zinc plate is enveloped in a
+piece of parchment paper bent into a tray shape, the whole resting on
+little pieces of wood placed on the bottom of the leaden tray. Copper
+sulphate is fed in at the edge of the tray and zinc sulphate is poured
+upon the parchment. A battery is formed by arranging the trays in a
+stack one above the other.
+
+Various combinations have been devised in which the hydrogen is got rid
+of more or less completely by oxidation. Sir W.R. Grove in 1839 employed
+nitric acid as the oxidizing agent, his cell consisting of a zinc
+positive plate in dilute sulphuric acid, separated by a porous diaphragm
+of unglazed earthenware from a platinum negative immersed in
+concentrated nitric acid. Its electromotive force is nearly two volts,
+but it has the objection of giving off disagreeable nitrous fumes. R.W.
+von Bunsen modified Grove's cell by replacing the platinum with the much
+cheaper material, gas carbon. Chromic acid is much used as a
+depolarizer, and cells in which it is employed are about as powerful as,
+and more convenient than, either of the preceding. In its two-fluid form
+the chromic acid cell consists of a porous pot containing amalgamated
+zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, and a carbon plate surrounded with
+sulphuric acid and a solution of potassium or sodium bichromate or of
+chromic acid. But it is commonly used in a one-fluid form, the porous
+pot being dispensed with, and both zinc and carbon immersed in the
+chromic acid solution. Since the zinc is dissolved even when the circuit
+is not closed, arrangements are frequently provided by which either the
+zinc plate alone or both plates can be lifted out of the solution when
+the cell is not in use. In preparing the solution the sodium salt is
+preferable to the potassium, and chromic acid to either. In the cell
+devised by Georges Leclanche in 1868 a solid depolarizer is employed, in
+the shape of manganese dioxide packed with fragments of carbon into a
+porous pot round a carbon plate. A zinc rod constitutes the positive
+plate, and the exciting fluid is a solution of sal-ammoniac. Sometimes
+no porous pot is employed, and the manganese dioxide and granulated
+carbon are agglomerated into a solid block round the carbon plate. The
+electromotive force is about one and a half volt. The cell is widely
+used for such purposes as ringing electric bells, where current is
+required intermittently, and for such service it will remain effective
+for months or years, only needing water to be added to the outer jar
+occasionally to replace loss by evaporation. On a closed circuit the
+current rapidly falls off, because the manganese dioxide is unable to
+oxidize all the hydrogen formed, but the cell quickly recovers after
+polarization. The so-called "dry cells," which came into considerable
+use towards the end of the 19th century, are essentially Leclanche cells
+in which the solution is present, not as a liquid, but as a paste formed
+with some absorbent material or gelatinized. Black oxide of copper is
+another solid depolarizer, employed in the Lalande cell. In the
+Edison-Lalande form the copper oxide is suspended in a light copper
+frame. The exciting solution consists of one part of caustic soda
+dissolved in three parts by weight of water, and to prevent it from
+being acted on by the carbonic acid of the air it is covered with a
+layer of petroleum oil. Sodium zincate, which is soluble, is formed by
+the action of the cell, and the hydrogen produced is oxidized by oxygen
+from the copper oxide. The electromotive force may be about one volt
+initially, but in practice only about three-quarters of a volt can be
+relied on.
+
+Primary cells form a convenient means of obtaining electricity for
+laboratory experiments, and for such light services as working
+telegraphs, bells, &c.; but as a source of the heavy currents required
+for electric lighting and traction they are far too expensive in
+operation, apart from other considerations, to compete with
+dynamoelectric machinery driven by steam or water power. Certain forms,
+known as "standard cells," are also used in electrical measurements as
+standards of electromotive force (see POTENTIOMETER).
+
+  See W.R. Cooper, _Primary Batteries_ (London, 1901); Park Benjamin,
+  _The Voltaic Cell_ (New York, 1893); W.E. Ayrton, _Practical
+  Electricity_ (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BATTEUX, CHARLES (1713-1780), French philosopher and writer on
+aesthetics, was born near Vouziers (Ardennes), and studied theology at
+Reims. In 1739 he came to Paris, and after teaching in the colleges of
+Lisieux and Navarre, was appointed to the chair of Greek and Roman
+philosophy in the College de France. In 1746 he published his treatise
+_Les Beaux-Arts reduits a un meme principe_, an attempt to find a unity
+among the various theories of beauty and taste, and his views were
+widely accepted. The reputation thus gained, confirmed by his
+translation of Horace (1750), led to his becoming a member of the
+Academie des Inscriptions (1754) and of the French Academy (1761). His
+_Cours de belles lettres_ (1765) was afterwards included with some minor
+writings in the large treatise, _Principes de la lilterature_ (1774).
+The rules for composition there laid down are, perhaps, somewhat
+pedantic. His philosophical writings were _La Morale d'Epicure tiree de
+ses propres ecrits_ (1758), and the _Histoire des causes premieres_
+(1769). In consequence of the freedom with which in this work he
+attacked the abuse of authority in philosophy, he lost his professorial
+chair. His last and most extensive work was a _Cours d'etudes a l'usage
+des eleves de l'ecole militaire_ (45 vols.). In the _Beaux-Arts_,
+Batteux developed a theory which is derived from Locke through
+Voltaire's sceptical sensualism. He held that Art consists in the
+faithful imitation of the beautiful in nature. Applying this principle
+to the art of poetry, and analysing, line by line and even word by word,
+the works of great poets, he deduced the law that the beauty of poetry
+consists in the accuracy, beauty and harmony of individual expression.
+This narrow and pedantic theory had at least the merit of insisting on
+propriety of expression. His _Histoire des causes premieres_ was among
+the first attempts at a history of philosophy, and in his work on
+Epicurus, following on Gassendi, he defended Epicureanism against the
+general attacks made against it.
+
+  See Dacier et Dupuy, "Eloges," in _Memoires de l'Academie des
+  Inscriptions_.
+
+
+
+
+BATTHYANY, LOUIS (LAJOS), COUNT (1806-1849), Hungarian statesman, was
+born at Pressburg in 1806. He supplied the defects of an indifferent
+education while serving in garrison in Italy as a lieutenant of hussars,
+and thenceforward adopted all the new ideas, economical and political.
+According to Szechenyi, he learnt much from a German tutor of the
+radical school, but it was not till after his marriage with the
+noble-minded and highly-gifted countess Antonia Zichy that he began
+working earnestly for the national cause. When Szechenyi drew nearer to
+the court in 1839-1840, Batthyany became the leader of the opposition in
+the Upper House, where his social rank and resolute character won for
+him great influence. Despite his "sardanapalian inclinations," he
+associated himself unreservedly with the extremists, and spent large
+sums for the development of trade and industry. In 1847 he fiercely
+opposed the government, procured the election of Kossuth as the
+representative of Pest, took part in the Great Deputation of the 15th of
+March, and on the 31st of March 1848 became the first constitutional
+prime-minister of Hungary. His position became extremely difficult when
+Jellachich and the Croats took up arms. Convinced that the rigid
+maintenance of the constitution was the sole panacea, he did his utmost,
+in his frequent journeys to Innsbruck, to persuade the court to condemn
+Jellachich and establish a strong national government at Pest.
+Unfortunately, however, he was persuaded to consent to the despatch of
+Magyar troops to quell the Italian rising, before the Croat difficulty
+had been adjusted, and thenceforth, despite his perfect loyalty, and his
+admirable services as Honved minister in organizing the national forces,
+his authority in Hungary declined before the rising star of Kossuth.
+When Jellachich invaded Hungary, Batthyany resigned with the intention
+of forming a new ministry excluding Kossuth, but this had now become
+impossible. Then Batthyany attempted to mediate between the two extreme
+parties, and subsequently raised a regiment from among his peasantry and
+led them against the Croats. On the 11th of October he was incapacitated
+for active service by a fall from his horse which broke his arm. On his
+recovery he returned to Pest, laboured hard to bring about peace, and
+was a member of the deputation from the Hungarian diet to Prince
+Windischgratz, whom the Austrian commander refused to receive. A few
+days later (8th of January 1849) he was arrested at Pest. As a magnate
+he was only indictable by the grand justiciary, as a minister he was
+responsible to the diet alone. At Laibach, whither he was taken, he
+asked that Deak might be his advocate, but this being refused he wrote
+his own defence. Sentence of hanging was finally pronounced upon him at
+Olmtitz for violating the Pragmatic Sanction, overthrowing the
+constitution, and aiding and abetting the rebellion. To escape this fate
+he Stabbed himself with a small concealed dagger, and bled to death in
+the night of the 5th of October 1849.
+
+  See Bertalan Szemere, _Batthyany, Kossuth, Gorgei_ (Ger.), (Hamburg,
+  1853).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BATTICALOA, the provincial capital of the eastern province of Ceylon, on
+the E. coast, 69 m. S.S.E. of Trincomalee, situated on an island in lat.
+7 deg. 44' N. and long. 81 deg. 52' E. It is of importance for its haven
+and the adjacent salt lagoons. The population of the town in 1901 was
+9969; of the district (2872 sq. m.) 143,161. The old Dutch fort dates
+from 1682. Batticaloa is the seat of a government agent and district
+judge; criminal sessions of the supreme court are also held. Rice and
+cocoanuts are the two staples of the district, and steamers trading
+round the island call regularly at the port. The lagoon is famous for
+its "singing fish," supposed to be shell-fish which give forth musical
+notes. The district has a remnant of Veddahs or wild men of the wood.
+The average annual rainfall is 55-1/2 in.; the average temperature 80.4
+deg. F.
+
+
+
+
+BATTISHILL, JONATHAN (1738-1801), one of the best 18th century English
+composers of church music. Until 1764 he wrote chiefly for the theatre
+(incidental songs, pantomime music, and an opera in collaboration with
+Michael Arne, the son of Thomas Arne), but his later compositions are
+chiefly glees, part-songs and church music. In 1763 he had married a
+singer at Covent Garden theatre where he was harpsichordist. She retired
+from her profession when she married; and her death in 1777 so crushed
+him that he composed no more.
+
+
+
+
+BATTLE, a market-town in the Rye parliamentary division of Sussex,
+England, 54-1/2 m. S.E. by S. from London by the South Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2996. It is pleasantly situated
+in an undulating well-wooded district, 7 m. from the sea at Hastings.
+Its name is derived from the conflict in 1066, which insured to William
+the Norman the crown of England (see also BATTLE ABBEY ROLL). Before the
+battle, in which King Harold fell, William vowed to build an abbey on
+the spot if he should prove victorious, and in 1094 the consecration
+took place with great pomp. The gatehouse, forming a picturesque
+termination to the main street of the town, is Decorated; and there also
+remain parts of the foundations of the Norman church, of the
+Perpendicular cloisters, and of the Early English refectory. A mansion
+occupies part of the site, and incorporates some of the ancient
+building. The church of St Mary is of various dates, the earliest
+portions being transitional Norman.
+
+  See _Chronicles of Battle Abbey_. 1066-1176, translated, &c., by M.A.
+  Lower (London, 1851).
+
+
+
+
+BATTLE, a general engagement between the armed forces, naval or
+military, of enemies. The word is derived from the Fr. _bataille_, and
+this, like the Ital. _battaglia_, and Span. _batalla_, comes from the
+popular Lat. _battalia_ for _battualia_. Cassiodorus Senator (480-?575)
+says: _Battualia quae vulgo Batalia dicuntur ... exercitationes militum
+vel gladiatorum significant_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.
+_Batalia_). The verb _battuere_, cognate with "beat," is a rare word,
+found in Pliny, used of beating in a mortar or of meat before cooking.
+Suetonius (_Caligula_, 54-32) uses it of fencing, _battuebat pugnatoriis
+armis_, i.e. not with blunted weapons or foils. _Battalia_ or _batalia_
+was used for the array of troops for battle, and hence was applied to
+the body of troops so arranged, or to a division of an army, whence the
+use of the word "battalion" (q.v.).
+
+A "pitched battle," loosely used as meaning almost a decisive
+engagement, is strictly, as the words imply, one that is fought on
+ground previously selected ("pitched" meaning arranged in a fixed order)
+and in accordance with the intentions of the commanders of both sides;
+the French equivalent is _bataille arrangee_, opposed to _bataille
+manoeuvree_, which is prearranged but may come off on any ground. With
+"battle," in its usual meaning of a general engagement of hostile
+forces, are contrasted "skirmish,"[1] a fight between small bodies
+("skirmishing" technically means fighting by troops in extended or
+irregular order), and "action," a more or less similar engagement
+between large bodies of troops. (See also TACTICS and STRATEGY.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This is the same word as "scrimmage," and is derived from the
+    Anglo-French _eskrimir_, modern _escrimer_, properly to fight behind
+    cover, now to fence. The origin of this is the Old High German
+    _scirman_, to fight behind a shield, _scirm_. Modern German _Schirm_.
+
+
+
+
+BATTLE ABBEY ROLL. This is popularly supposed to have been a list of
+William the Conqueror's companions preserved at Battle Abbey, on the
+site of his great victory over Harold. It is known to us only from 16th
+century versions of it published by Leland, Holinshed and Duchesne, all
+more or less imperfect and corrupt. Holinshed's is much the fullest, but
+of its 629 names several are duplicates. The versions of Leland and
+Duchesne, though much shorter, each contain many names found in neither
+of the other lists. It was so obvious that several of the names had no
+right to figure on the roll, that Camden, as did Dugdale after him, held
+them to have been interpolated at various times by the monks, "not
+without their own advantage." Modern writers have gone further, Sir
+Egerton Brydges denouncing the roll as "a disgusting forgery," and E.A.
+Freeman dismissing it as "a transparent fiction." An attempt to
+vindicate the roll was made by the last duchess of Cleveland, whose
+_Battle Abbey Roll_ (3 vols., 1889) is the best guide to its contents.
+
+It is probable that the character of the roll has been quite
+misunderstood. It is not a list of individuals, but only of family
+surnames, and it seems to have been intended to show which families had
+"come over with the Conqueror," and to have been compiled about the 14th
+century. The compiler appears to have been influenced by the French
+sound of names, and to have included many families of later settlement,
+such as that of Grandson, which did not come to England from Savoy till
+two centuries after the Conquest. The roll itself appears to be unheard
+of before and after the 16th century, but other lists were current at
+least as early as the 15th century, as the duchess of Cleveland has
+shown. In 1866 a list of the Conqueror's followers, compiled from
+Domesday and other authentic records, was set up in Dives church by M.
+Leopold Delisle, and is printed in the duchess' work. Its contents are
+naturally sufficient to show that the Battle Roll is worthless.
+
+  See Leland, _Collectanea_; Holinshed, _Chronicles of England_;
+  Duchesne, _Historia Norm. Scriptores_; Brydges, _Censura Literaria_;
+  Thierry, _Conquete de l'Angleterre_, vol. ii. (1829); Burke, _The Roll
+  of Battle Abbey_ (annotated, 1848); Planche, _The Conqueror and His
+  Companions_ (1874); duchess of Cleveland, _The Battle Abbey Roll_
+  (1889); Round, "The Companions of the Conqueror" (_Monthly Review_,
+  1901, iii. pp. 91-111).     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BATTLE CREEK, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A., at the
+confluence of the Kalamazoo river with Battle Creek, about 48 m. S. of
+Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 13,197; (1900) 18,563, of whom 1844 were
+foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,267. It is served by the Michigan
+Central and the Grand Trunk railways, and by interurban electric lines.
+Here are the hospital and laboratories of the American Medical
+Missionary College (of Chicago) and the Battle Creek Sanitarium,
+established in 1866, which was a pioneer in dietetic reform, and did
+much to make Battle Creek important in the manufacture of health foods,
+and in the publication of diet-reform literature. Among the principal
+buildings, besides the hospital and the sanitarium, are several fine
+churches, the central high school, the Post tavern and the Post theatre.
+The city is a trading centre for the rich agricultural and fruit-growing
+district by which it is surrounded, has good water-power, and is an
+important manufacturing centre, its chief manufactured products being
+cereal health foods, for which it has a wide reputation, and the
+manufacture of which grew out of the dietetic experiments made in the
+laboratories of the sanitarium; and threshing machines and other
+agricultural implements, paper cartons and boxes, flour, boilers,
+engines and pumps. Extensive locomotive and car shops of the Grand Trunk
+railway are here. In 1904 the total factory product of Battle Creek was
+valued at $12,298,244, an increase of 95% over that for 1900; and of the
+total in 1904 $5,191,655 was the value of food preparations, which was
+8.5% of the value of food preparations manufactured in the United
+States, Battle Creek thus ranking first among American cities in this
+industry. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality,
+the water being obtained from Lake Goguac, a summer pleasure resort
+about 2 m. from the city. Battle Creek, said to have been named from
+hostilities here between some surveyors and Indians, was settled in
+1831, incorporated as a village in 1850, and chartered as a city in
+1859, the charter of that year being revised in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK, a game played by two persons with small
+rackets, called battledores, made of parchment or rows of gut stretched
+across wooden frames, and shuttlecocks, made of a base of some light
+material, like cork, with trimmed feathers fixed round the top. The
+object of the players is to bat the shuttlecock from one to the other as
+many times as possible without allowing it to fall to the ground. There
+are Greek drawings extant representing a game almost identical with
+battledore and shuttlecock, and it has been popular in China, Japan,
+India and Siam for at least 2000 years. In Europe it has been played by
+children for centuries. A further development is Badminton.
+
+
+
+
+BATTLEMENT (probably from a lost Fr. form _bastillement_, cf. mod. Fr.
+_bastille_, from Med. Lat. _bastilia_, towers, which is derived from
+Ital. _bastire_, to build, cf. Fr. _batir_; the English word was,
+however, early connected with "battle"), a term given to a parapet of a
+wall, in which portions have been cut out at intervals to allow the
+discharge of arrows or other missiles; these cut-out portions are known
+as "crenels"; the solid widths between the "crenels" are called
+"merlons." The earliest example in the palace at Medinet-Abu at Thebes
+in Egypt is of the inverted form, and is said to have been derived from
+Syrian fortresses. Through Assyria they formed the termination of all
+the walls surrounding the towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud and
+elsewhere. Traces of them have been found at Mycenae, and they are
+suggested on Greek vases. In the battlements of Pompeii, additional
+protection was given by small internal buttresses or spur walls against
+which the defender might place himself so as to be protected completely
+on one side. In the battlements of the middle ages the crenel was about
+one-third of the width of the merlon, and the latter was in addition
+pierced with a small slit. The same is also found in Italian
+battlements, where the merlon is of much greater height and is capped in
+a peculiar fashion. The battlements of the Mahommedans had a more
+decorative and varied character, and were retained from the 13th century
+onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to
+their walls. They may be regarded therefore in the same light as the
+cresting found in the Spanish renaissance. The same retention of the
+battlement as a purely decorative feature is found throughout the
+Decorated and Perpendicular periods, and not only occurs on parapets
+but on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and on
+screens. A further decorative treatment was given in the elaborate
+panelling of the merlons and that portion of the parapet walls rising
+above the cornice, by the introduction of quatrefoils and other
+conventional forms filled with foliage and shields.
+
+
+
+
+BATTUE (from Fr. _battre_, to beat), the beating of game from cover
+under the sportsmen's fire; by analogy the word is used to describe any
+slaughter of defenceless crowds.
+
+
+
+
+BATTUS, the legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene in Libya
+(about 630 B.C.). The Greeks who accompanied him were, like himself,
+natives of Thera, and descended partly from the race of the Minyae.
+Various accounts are given both of the founding of Cyrene and of the
+origin of the founder's name. According to the Cyrenaeans (Herod, iv.
+150-156), Battus, having an impediment in his speech, consulted the
+oracle at Delphi, and was told to found a colony in Libya; according to
+the Theraeans, Battus was entrusted with this mission by their aged king
+Grinus. In another version, there was civil war in Thera; Battus, leader
+of one party, was banished, and, on applying to the oracle, was
+recommended to take out a colony to "the continent" (Schol. Pindar,
+_Pyth._ iv. 10). In any case the foundation is attributed to the direct
+instructions of Apollo. The name was connected by some with [Greek:
+battarizo], ("stammer"), but Herodotus (iv. 155) says that it was the
+Libyan word for "king," that Battus was not called by the name until
+after his arrival at Libya, and that the oracle addressed him as
+"Battus" by anticipation. This, however, would imply on the part of the
+oracle a knowledge of Libya, which was not shared by the rest of Greece
+(Herod. _l.c._), and it is noteworthy that the name occurs in Arcadian
+and Messenian legends. Herodotus does not know his real name, but Pindar
+(_Pyth._ v. 116), no doubt rightly, calls the founder of the colony
+Aristoteles, while Justin (xiii. 7) gives his name as Aristaeus who was
+worshipped at Cyrene. Four kings named Battus, alternating with four
+named Arcesilaus, ruled in Cyrene (q.v.) till the fall of the dynasty
+about 450 B.C.
+
+  See R.W. Macan's _Herodotus IV.-VI._ (1895), vol. i. pp. 104 seq. and
+  notes.
+
+
+
+
+BATU, or ROCK ISLANDS (Dutch _Batoe_), a group of three greater and
+forty-eight lesser islands in the Dutch East Indies, W. of Sumatra,
+between 0 deg. 10' N. to 0 deg. 45' S. and 97 deg. 50'-98 deg. 35' E.,
+belonging to the Ayerbangi district of the lowlands of Padang (Sumatra).
+They are separated by the strait of Sibirut from the Mentawi group. The
+three chief islands, from N. to S., are Pini or Mintao, Masa, and Bala.
+The total land area of the group is 445 sq. m. The islands are generally
+low, and covered with forest, in which the cocoanut palm is conspicuous.
+There is trade in cocoanuts, oil, and other forest produce. The natives,
+about 3000 in number, are of Malayan or pre-Malayan stock, akin to those
+of the island of Nias to the north-west. Only about twenty of the
+smaller islands are inhabited.
+
+
+
+
+BATUM, a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of and 90
+m. by rail S.W. of the city of Kutais, on the S.E. shore of the Black
+Sea, in 41 deg. 39' N. and 41 deg. 38' E. Pop. (1875) 2000; (1900)
+28,512, very mixed. The bay is being filled up by the sand carried into
+it by several small rivers. The town is protected by strong forts, and
+the anchorage has been greatly improved by artificial works. Batum
+possesses a cathedral, finished in 1903, and the Alexander Park, with
+sub-tropical vegetation. The climate is very warm, lemon and orange
+trees, magnolias and palms growing in the open air; but it is at the
+same time extremely wet and changeable. The annual rainfall (90 in.) is
+higher than anywhere in Caucasia, but it is very unequally distributed
+(23 in. in August and September, sometimes 16 in. in a couple of days),
+and the place is still most unhealthy. The town is connected by rail
+with the main Transcaucasian railway to Tiflis, and is the chief port
+for the export of naphtha and paraffin oil, carried hither in great part
+through pipes laid down from Baku, but partly also in tank railway-cars;
+other exports are wheat, manganese, wool, silkworm-cocoons, liquorice,
+maize and timber (total value of exports nearly 5-1/2 millions sterling
+annually). The imports, chiefly tin plates and machinery, amount to less
+than half that total. Known as Bathys in antiquity, as Vati in the
+middle ages, and as Bathumi since the beginning of the 17th century,
+Batum belonged to the Turks, who strongly fortified it, down to 1878,
+when it was transferred to Russia. In the winter of 1905-1906 Batum was
+in the hands of the revolutionists, and a "reign of terror" lasted for
+several weeks.
+
+
+
+
+BATWA, a tribe of African pygmies living in the mountainous country
+around Wissmann Falls in the Kasai district of the Belgian Congo. They
+were discovered in 1880 by Paul Pogge and Hermann von Wissmann, and have
+been identified with Sir H.M. Stanley's Vouatouas. They are typical of
+the negrito family south of the Congo. They are well made, with limbs
+perfectly proportioned, and are seldom more than 4 ft. high. Their
+complexion is a yellow-brown, much lighter than their Bantu-Negroid
+neighbours. They have short woolly hair and no beard. They are feared
+rather than despised by the Baluba and Bakuba tribes, among whom they
+live. They are nomads, cultivating nothing, and keeping no animals but a
+small type of hunting-dog. Their weapon is a tiny bow, the arrows for
+which are usually poisoned. They build themselves temporary huts of a
+bee-hive shape. As hunters they are famous, bounding through the jungle
+growth "like grasshoppers" and fearlessly attacking elephants and
+buffalo with their tiny weapons. Their only occupation apart from
+hunting is the preparation of palm-wine which they barter for grain with
+the Baluba. They are monogamous and display much family affection. See
+further PYGMY; AKKA; WOCHUA; BAMBUTE.
+
+  See A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_ (Eng. ed., 1895); Sir H.H.
+  Johnston, _Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); Hermann von Wissmann, _My
+  Second Journey through Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+BATYPHONE (Ger. and Fr. _Batyphon_), a contrabass clarinet which was the
+outcome of F.W. Wieprecht's endeavour to obtain a contrabass for the
+reed instruments. The batyphone was made to a scale twice the size of
+the clarinet in C, the divisions of the chromatic scale being arranged
+according to acoustic principles. For convenience in stopping holes too
+far apart to be covered by the fingers, crank or swivel keys were used.
+The instrument was constructed of maple-wood, had a clarinet mouthpiece
+of suitable size connected by means of a cylindrical brass crook with
+the upper part of the tube, and a brass bell. The pitch was two octaves
+below the clarinet in C, the compass being the same, and thus
+corresponding to the modern bass tuba. The tone was pleasant and full,
+but not powerful enough for the contrabass register in a military band.
+The batyphone had besides one serious disadvantage: it could be played
+with facility only in its nearly related keys, G and F major. The
+batyphone was invented and patented in 1839 by F.W. Wieprecht, director
+general of all the Prussian military bands, and E. Skorra, the court
+instrument manufacturer of Berlin. In practice the instrument was found
+to be of little use, and was superseded by the bass tuba. A similar
+attempt was made in 1843 by Adolphe Sax, and met with a similar fate.
+
+A batyphone bearing the name of its inventors formed part of the Snoeck
+collection which was acquired for Berlin's collection of ancient musical
+instruments at the Technische Hochschule fur Musik. The description of
+the batyphone given above is mainly derived from a MS. treatise on
+instrumentation by Wieprecht, in 1909 in the possession of Herr Otto
+Lessmann (Berlin), and reproduced by Capt. C.R. Day, in _Descriptive
+Catalogue of the Musical Instruments of the Royal Military Exhibition,
+London, 1890_ (London, 1891), p. 124.     (K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BAUAN (or BAUN), a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine
+Islands, at the head of Batangas Bay, about 54 m. S. of Manila. Pop.
+(1903) 39,094. A railway to connect the town with Manila was under
+construction in 1908. Bauan has a fine church and is known as a market
+for "sinamay" or hemp cloth, the hemp and cotton being imported and dyed
+and woven by the women in their homes. Palm-fibre mats and hats, fans,
+bamboo baskets and cotton fish-nets are woven here. There is excellent
+fishing in the bay. Hogs and horses are raised for the Manila market.
+The surrounding country is fertile and grows cacao, indigo, oranges,
+sugar-cane, corn and rice. The language is Tagalog.
+
+
+
+
+BAUBLE (probably a blend of two different words, an old French _baubel_,
+a child's plaything, and an old English _babyll_, something swinging to
+and fro), a word applied to a stick with a weight attached, used in
+weighing, to a child's toy, and especially to the mock symbol of office
+carried by a court jester, a baton terminating in a figure of Folly with
+cap and bells, and sometimes having a bladder fastened to the other end;
+hence a term for any triviality or childish folly.
+
+
+
+
+BAUCHI, a province in the highlands of the British protectorate of
+Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between 11 deg. 15' and 9 deg.
+15' N. and 11 deg. 15' and 8 deg. 30' E. Bauchi is bounded N. by the
+provinces of Kano, Katagum and Bornu; E. by Bornu, S. by Yola and Muri,
+and W. by the provinces of Zaria and Nassarawa. The province has an area
+of about 21,000 sq. m. The altitude rises from 1000 ft. above the sea in
+its north-eastern corner to 4000 ft. and 6000 ft. in the south-west. The
+province is traversed diagonally from N.E. to S.W. by a belt of mountain
+ranges alternating with fertile plateaus. Towards the south the country
+is very rugged and a series of extinct volcanic craters occur.
+
+Amongst the more important plateaus are the Assab or Kibyen country,
+having a general level of upwards of 4000 ft., and the Sura country,
+also reaching to elevations of from 3000 to 5000 ft. Both these
+extensive plateaus are situated in the south-west portion of the
+province. Their soil is fertile, they possess an abundance of pure
+water, the air is keen and bracing, and the climate is described as
+resembling in many respects that of the Transvaal. They form the
+principal watershed not only of the province of Bauchi, but of the
+protectorate of Northern Nigeria. The Gongola, flowing east and south to
+the Benue, rises in the Sura district, and from the Kibyen plateau
+streams flow north to Lake Chad, west to the Kaduna, and south to the
+Benue. The soil is generally fertile between the hills, and in the
+volcanic districts the slopes are cultivated half-way up the extinct
+craters. The climate in the western parts is temperate and healthy. In
+the winter months of November and December the thermometer frequently
+falls to freezing-point, and in the hottest months the maximum on the
+Kibyen plateau has been found to be rarely over 85 deg.
+
+The population of Bauchi is estimated at about 1,000,000 and is of a
+very various description. The upper classes are Fula, and there are some
+Hausa and Kanuri (Bornuese), but the bulk of the people are pagan tribes
+in a very low state of civilization. Sixty-four tribes sufficiently
+differentiated from each other to speak different languages have been
+reported upon. Hausa is the _lingua franca_ of the whole. The pagan
+population has been classified for practical purposes as Hill pagans and
+Plains pagans, Mounted pagans and Foot pagans. The Foot pagans of the
+plains were brought under the Fula yoke in the beginning of the 19th
+century and have never cast it off. The Hill pagans were partly
+conquered, but many remained independent or have since succeeded in
+asserting their freedom. The Mounted pagans are confined to the healthy
+plateaus of the south-west corner of the province. They are independent
+and there is considerable variety in the characteristics of the
+different tribes. The better types are hardy, orderly and agriculturally
+industrious. They are intelligent and have shown themselves peaceful and
+friendly to Europeans. Others are, on the contrary, disposed to be
+turbulent and warlike. Amongst the different tribes many are cannibals.
+They all go practically naked. They are essentially horsemen, and have a
+cruel habit of gashing the backs of their ponies that they may get a
+good seat in the blood. They are armed with bows and arrows, but depend
+almost entirely in battle on the charges of their mounted spearmen.
+
+The native name "Bauchi," which is of great antiquity, Signifies the
+"Land of Slaves," and from the earliest times the uplands which now form
+the principal portion of the province been the hunting ground of the
+slave raider, while the hill fastnesses have offered defensible refuge
+to the population. So entirely was slavery a habit of the people, that
+as late as 1905, after the slave-trade had been abolished for three
+years, it was found that, in consequence of a famine which rendered food
+difficult to obtain, a whole tribe (the Tangali) were selling themselves
+as slaves to their neighbours. Children are readily sold by their
+parents at a price varying from the equivalent of one shilling to one
+and sixpence.
+
+The province of Bauchi was conquered by the Fula at the beginning of the
+19th century, and furnished them with a valuable slave preserve. But the
+more civilized portion had already, under enlightened native rulers,
+attained to a certain degree of prosperity and order. Mahommedanism was
+partly adopted by the upper classes in the 18th century, if not earlier,
+and the son of a Mahommedan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted
+the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula. The name
+of this remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba (Jacob). His father's
+name was Daouad (David), and his grandfather was Abdullah, all names
+which indicate Arab or Mahommedan influence. The town of Bauchi and
+capital of the province was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the
+emirate remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year, in
+consequence of determined slave-raiding and the defiant misrule of the
+emir, a British expedition was sent against the capital, which submitted
+without fighting. The emir was deposed, and the country was brought
+under British control. A new emir was appointed, but he died within a
+few months. The slave-trade was immediately abolished, and the
+slave-market which was held at Bauchi, as in all Fula centres, was
+closed. The Kano-Sokoto campaign in 1903 rendered necessary a temporary
+withdrawal of the British resident from Bauchi, and comparatively little
+progress was made until the following year. In 1904 the province was
+organized for administration on the same system as the rest of Northern
+Nigeria, and the reigning emir took the oath of allegiance to the
+British crown. The province has been subdivided into thirteen
+administrative districts, which again have been grouped into their
+principal divisions, with their respective British headquarters at
+Bauchi, Kanan and Bukuru. The Fula portion of this province, held like
+the other Hausa states under a feudal system of large landowners or
+fief-holders, has been organized and assessed for taxation on the system
+accepted by the emirs throughout the protectorate, and the populations
+are working harmoniously under British rule. Roads and telegraphs are in
+process of construction, and the province is being gradually opened to
+trade. Valuable indications of tin have been found to the north of the
+Kibyen plateau, and have attracted the attention of the Niger Company.
+
+Bauchi is a province of special importance from the European point of
+view because, with free communication from the Benue assured, it is
+probable that on the Kibyen and Sura plateaus, which are the healthiest
+known in the protectorate, a sanatorium and station for a large civil
+population might be established under conditions in which Europeans
+could live free from the evil effects of a West African climate.
+
+The emirate of Gombe, which is included in the first division of the
+Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the emirs of Bauchi.
+It forms a rich and important district, and its chiefs held themselves
+in a somewhat sullen attitude of hostility to the British. It was at
+Burmi in this district that the last stand was made by the religious
+following of the defeated sultan of Sokoto, and here the sultan was
+finally overthrown and killed in July 1903. Gombe has now frankly
+accepted British rule.     (F. L. L.)
+
+
+
+
+BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE (1821-1867), French poet, was born in Paris
+on the 9th of April 1821. His father, who was a civil servant in good
+position and an amateur artist, died in 1827, and in the following year
+his mother married a lieutenant-colonel named Aupick, who was afterwards
+ambassador of France at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons
+and at the College Louis-le Grand in Paris. On taking his degree in 1839
+he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next two
+years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his guardians, in
+1841, to send him on a voyage to India. When he returned to Paris, after
+less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his
+extravagance threatened to exhaust his small patrimony, and his family
+obtained a decree to place his property in trust. His _salons_ of 1845
+and 1846 attracted immediate attention by the boldness with which he
+propounded many views then novel, but since generally accepted. He took
+part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years interested
+himself in republican politics but his permanent convictions were
+aristocratic and Catholic. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker,
+and it was not until 1857 that he produced his first and famous volume
+of poems, _Fleurs du mal_. Some of these had already appeared in the
+_Revue des deux mondes_ when they were published by Baudelaire's friend
+Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at
+Alencon. The consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by
+a limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse
+selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word for
+unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo, writing to the
+poet, said, "Vous dotez le ciel de l'art d'un rayon macabre, vous creez
+un frisson nouveau." Baudelaire, the publisher, and the printer were
+successfully prosecuted for offending against public morals. The
+obnoxious pieces were suppressed, but printed later as _Les Epaves_
+(Brussels, 1866). Another edition of the _Fleurs du mal_, without these
+poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1861.
+
+Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found some of
+his favourite reading in the English "Satanic" romances, such as Lewis's
+_Monk_. In 1846-1847 he became acquainted with the works of Edgar Allan
+Poe, in which he discovered romances and poems which had, he said, long
+existed in his own brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till
+1865 he was largely occupied with his version of Poe's works, producing
+masterpieces of the art of translation in _Histoires extraordinaires_
+(1852), _Nouvelles Histoires extraordinaires_ (1857), _Adventures
+d'Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka_, and _Histoires grotesques et serieuses_
+(1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his _Oeuvres completes_
+(vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial difficulties grew upon him.
+He was involved in the failure of Poulet Malassis in 1861, and in 1864
+he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the vain hope of disposing of his
+copyrights. He had for many years a _liaison_ with a coloured woman,
+whom he helped to the end of his life in spite of her gross conduct. He
+had recourse to opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess.
+Paralysis followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in
+_maisons de sante_ in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on the 31st
+of August 1867.
+
+His other works include:--_Petits Poemes en prose_; a series of art
+criticisms published in the _Pays, Exposition universelle_; studies on
+Gustave Flaubert (in _L'artiste_, 18th of October 1857); on Theophile
+Gautier (_Revue contemporaine_, September 1858); valuable notices
+contributed to Eugene Crepet's _Poetes francais_; _Les Paradis
+artificiels opium et haschisch_ (1860); _Richard Wagner et Tannhauser a
+Paris_ (1861); _Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac_
+(1880), originally an article entitled "Comment on paye ses dettes quand
+on a du genie," in which his criticism is turned against his friends H.
+de Balzac, Theophile Gautier, and Gerard de Nerval.
+
+
+
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An edition of his _Lettres_ (1841-1866) was issued by
+  the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His _Oeuvres completes_ were
+  edited (1868-1870) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a preface by
+  Theophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vindication of his
+  character from the attacks made upon it in his _Charles Baudelaire, sa
+  vie, son oeuvre_ (1869). He left some material of more private
+  interest in a MS. entitled _Baudelaire_. See _Charles Baudelaire,
+  souvenirs, correspondance, bibliographie_ (1872), by Charles Cousin
+  and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; _Charles Baudelaire, oeuvres posthumes et
+  correspondances inedites_ (1887), containing a journal entitled _Mon
+  coeur mis a nu_, and a biographical study by Eugene Crepet; also _Le
+  Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire_ (1896), a collection of pieces
+  unpublished or prohibited during the author's lifetime, edited by S.
+  Mallarme and others, with a study of the text of the _Fleurs du mal_
+  by Prince A. Ourousof; Feli Gautier, _Charles Baudelaire_ (Brussels,
+  1904), with facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la
+  Fitzeliere and C. Decaux, _Charles Baudelaire_ (1868) in the series of
+  _Essais de bibliographie contemporaine_; essays by Paul Bourget,
+  _Essais de psychologie conlemporaine_ (1883), and Maurice Spronck,
+  _Les Artistes litteraires_ (1889). Among English translations from
+  Baudelaire are _Poems in Prose_, by A. Symons (1905), and a selection
+  for the _Canterbury Poets_ (1904), by F.P. Sturm.
+
+
+
+
+BAUDIER, MICHEL (c. 1589-1645), French historian, was born in Languedoc.
+During the reign of Louis XIII. he was historiographer to the Court of
+France. He contributed to French history by writing _Histoire de la
+guerre de Flandre 1559-1609_ (Paris, 1615); _Histoire de
+l'administration du cardinal d'Amboise, grand ministre d'etat en France_
+(Paris, 1634), a defence of the cardinal; and _Histoire de
+l'administration de l'abbe Suger_ (Paris, 1645). Taking an especial
+interest in the Turks he wrote _Inventaire general de l'histoire des
+Turcs_ (Paris, 1619); _Histoire generale de la religion des Turcs avec
+la vie de leur prophete Mahomet_ (Paris, 1626); and _Histoire generale
+du serail et de la cour du grand Turc_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. by
+E. Grimeston, London, 1635). Having heard the narrative of a Jesuit who
+had returned from China, Baudier wrote _Histoire de la cour du roi de
+Chine_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. in vol. viii. of the _Collection of
+Voyages and Travels_ of A. and J. Churchill, London, 1707-1747). He also
+wrote _Vie du cardinal Ximenes_ (Paris, 1635), which was again published
+with a notice of the author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious
+romance entitled _Histoire de l'incomparable administration de Romieu,
+grand ministre d'etat de Raymond Berenger, comte de Provence_ (Paris,
+1635).
+
+  See J. Lelong, _Bibliotheque historique de la France_ (Paris,
+  1768-1778); L. Moreri, _Le Grand Dictionnaire historique_ (Amsterdam,
+  1740).
+
+
+
+
+BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LEON (1821-1892), French economist, was born
+in Paris on the 28th of November 1821. His father, Jacques Joseph
+(1774-1832), was a distinguished writer on forestry, and was for many
+years in the service of the French government, eventually becoming the
+head of that branch of the department of agriculture which had charge of
+the state forests. Henri was educated at the College Bourbon, where he
+had a distinguished career, and in 1852 he was appointed assistant
+lecturer in political economy to M. Chevalier at the College de France.
+In 1866, on the creation of a new chair of economic history, Baudrillart
+was appointed to fill it. His first work was an _Eloge de Turgot_
+(1846), which at once won him notice among the economists. In 1853 he
+published an erudite work on _Jean Bodin et son temps_; then in 1857 a
+_Manuel d'economie politique_; in 1860, _Des rapports de la morale et de
+l'economie politique_; in 1865, _La Liberte du travail_; and from 1878
+to 1880, _L'Histoire du luxe ... depuis l'antiquite jusqu'a nos
+jours_, in four volumes. At the instance of the Academie des Sciences
+Morales et Politiques he investigated the condition of the farming
+classes of France, and published the results in four volumes (1885, _et
+seq_.). From 1855 to 1864 he directed the _Journal des economistes_, and
+contributed many articles to the _Journal des debats_ and to the _Revue
+des deux mondes_. His writings are distinguished by their style, as well
+as by their profound erudition. In 1863 he was elected member of the
+Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques; in 1870 he was appointed
+inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1881 he succeeded J.
+Garnier as professor of political economy at the Ecole des Ponts et
+Chaussees. Baudrillart was made an officer of the Legion of Honour in
+1889. He died in Paris on the 24th of January 1892.
+
+
+
+
+BAUDRY, or BALDERICH, OF BOURGUEIL (1046 or 1047-1130), archbishop of
+Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-sur-Loire, where he passed
+his early days. Educated at Meung and at Angers, he entered the
+Benedictine abbey of Bourgueil, and in 1079 became abbot of this place,
+but his time was devoted to literary pursuits rather than to his
+official duties. Having failed to secure the bishopric of Orleans in
+1097, he became archbishop of Dol in 1107, and went to Rome for his
+pallium in 1108. The bishopric of Dol had been raised to the rank of an
+archbishopric during the 10th century by Nomenoe, king of Brittany, but
+this step had been objected to by the archbishops of Tours. Consequently
+the position of the see was somewhat ambiguous, and Baudry is referred
+to both as archbishop and as bishop of Dol. He appears to have striven
+earnestly to do something for the education of the ignorant inhabitants
+of Brittany but his efforts were not very successful, and he soon
+abandoned the task. In 1116 he attended the Lateran council, and in 1119
+the council of Reims, after which he paid a visit of two years' duration
+to England. Returning to France he neglected the affairs of his diocese,
+and passed his time mainly at St Samson-sur-Risle in Normandy. He died
+on the 5th or 7th of January 1130.
+
+Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent quality. The
+most important of these, from the historical point of view, have been
+published in the _Historiae Francorum Scriptores_, tome iv., edited by
+A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry's prose works are more important.
+The best known of these is his _Historiae Hierosolymitance_, a history
+of the first crusade from 1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books,
+the material for which was mainly drawn from the anonymous _Gesta
+Francorum_, but some valuable information has been added by Baudry. It
+was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by Ordericus
+Vitalis for his _Historiae ecclesiasticae_; by William, archbishop of
+Tyre, for his _Belli sacri historia_; and by Vincent of Beauvais for his
+_Speculum historiale_. The best edition is that by C. Thurot, which
+appears in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_, tome iv. (Paris,
+1841-1887), Other works probably by Baudry are _Epistola ad Fiscannenses
+monachos_, a description of the monastery of Fecamp; _Vita Roberti de
+Arbrissello; Vita S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio
+capitis Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relatio de scuto et
+gladio_, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and _Vita S. Samsonis
+Dolensis episcopi_. Other writings which on very doubtful authority have
+been attributed to Baudry are _Acta S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De
+visitatione infirmorum; Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S.
+Maclovii, Alectensis episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium_;
+and _Confirmatio bonorum monasterii S. Florentii_. Many of these are
+published by J.P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tomes 160, 162 and
+166 (Paris 1844).
+
+  See _Histoire litteraire de la France_, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869);
+  H. von Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); A.
+  Thurot, "Etudes critiques sur les historiens de la premiere croisade;
+  Baudri de Bourgueil" in the _Revue historique_ (Paris, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME (1828-1886), French painter, was born at La
+Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendee). He studied under Drolling, a sound but
+second-rate artist, and carried off the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his
+picture of "Zenobia found on the banks of the Araxes." His talent from
+the first revealed itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and
+grace, but somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence
+in Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with the
+mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works he exhibited
+in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for the Luxembourg: "The
+Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin" and "The Child." His "Leda," "St John the
+Baptist," and a "Portrait of Beule," exhibited at the same time, took a
+first prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry commonly
+selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most noteworthy
+being "The Pearl and the Wave." Once only did he attempt an historical
+picture, "Charlotte Corday after the murder of Marat" (1861), and
+returned by preference to the former class of subjects or to painting
+portraits of illustrious men of his day--Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond
+About. The works that crowned Baudry's reputation were his mural
+decorations, which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for
+colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de Cassation,
+at the chateau of Chantilly, and some private residences--the hotel
+Fould and hotel Paiva--but, above all, in the decorations of the _foyer_
+of the Paris opera house. These, more than thirty paintings in all, and
+among them compositions figurative of dancing and music, occupied the
+painter, for ten years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of
+the Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of his
+colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating with his
+brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to him in Paris
+(1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-Yonne (1897) is by Gerome.
+
+  See H. Delaborde, _Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry_
+  (1886); Ch. Ephrussi, _Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1887).
+       (H. Fr.)
+
+
+
+
+BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882), German theologian and historian, was born on
+the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a porcelain factory,
+at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied at Berlin, where he attached
+himself to the "Right" of the Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In
+1834 he began to teach in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in
+1839 was transferred to Bonn. In 1838 he published his _Kritische
+Darstellung der Religion des Alten Testaments_ (2 vols.), which shows
+that at that date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon
+afterwards his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the
+Fourth Gospel, _Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes_
+(1840), and the other on the Synoptics, _Kritik der evangelischen
+Geschichte der Synoptiker_ (1841), as well as in his _Herr Hengstenberg,
+kritische Briefe uber den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des Evangeliums_,
+he announced his complete rejection of his earlier orthodoxy. In 1842
+the government revoked his license and he retired for the rest of his
+life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Henceforward he took a deep interest in
+modern history and politics, as well as in theology, and published
+_Geschichte der Politik, Kultur und Aufklarung des 18ten Jahrhunderts_
+(4 vols. 1843-1845), Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution (3 vols.
+1847), and _Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer
+Imperialismus_ (1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the
+gospels and a history of their origin, _Kritik der Evangelien und
+Geschichte ihres Ursprungs_ (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the
+Apostles, _Apostelgeschichte_ (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline
+epistles, _Kritik der paulinischen Briefe_ (1850-1852). He died at
+Rixdorf on the 13th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament
+was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his _Life of Jesus_
+had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious products of
+the mythic instinct in the early Christian communities. Bauer ridiculed
+Strauss's notion that a community could produce a connected narrative.
+His own contention, embodying a theory of C.G. Wilke (_Der
+Urevangelist_, 1838), was that the original narrative was the Gospel of
+Mark; that this was composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after
+this the other narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however,
+"regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the creator
+of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction and Christianity
+the invention of a single original evangelist" (Pfleiderer). On the same
+principle the four principal Pauline epistles were regarded as forgeries
+of the 2nd century. He argued further for the preponderance of the
+Graeco-Roman element, as opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian
+writings. The writer of Mark's gospel was "an Italian, at home both in
+Rome and Alexandria"; that of Matthew's gospel "a Roman, nourished by
+the spirit of Seneca"; the Pauline epistles were written in the West in
+antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on. Christianity is
+essentially "Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish garb." This line of
+criticism has found few supporters, mostly in the Netherlands. It
+certainly had its value in emphasizing the importance of studying the
+influence of environment in the formation of the Christian Scriptures.
+Bauer was a man of restless, impetuous activity and independent, if
+ill-balanced, judgment, one who, as he himself perceived, was more in
+place as a free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came
+in the end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not
+afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the Jewish
+question (_Die Judenfrage_, 1843).
+
+  His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the
+  _Jewish Encyclopedia_. See generally Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_;
+  and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, _Development of Theology_, p. 226; Carl
+  Schwarz, _Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_, pp. 142 ff.; and F.
+  Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology in the 19th Century_
+  (1889), pp. 374-378.
+
+
+
+
+BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON (1802-1890), Austrian dramatist, was born at
+Vienna on the 13th of January 1802. Having studied jurisprudence at the
+university of Vienna, he entered the government service in a legal
+capacity, and after holding various minor offices was transferred in
+1843 to a responsible post on the Lottery Commission. He had already
+embarked upon politics, and severely criticized the government in a
+pamphlet, _Pia Desideria eines osterreichischen Schriftstellers_ (1842);
+and in 1845 he made a journey to England, after which his political
+opinions became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he
+quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely to
+letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the 9th of August 1890,
+and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies and farces,
+Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German playwrights of the century;
+his plots are clever, the situations witty and natural and the diction
+elegant. His earliest essays, the comedies _Leichtsinn aus Liebe_
+(1831); _Das Liebes-Protokoll_ (1831) and _Die ewige Liebe_ (1834);
+_Burgerlich und Romantisch_, (1835) enjoyed great popularity. Later he
+turned his attention to so-called _Salonstucke_ (drawing-room pieces),
+notably _Aus der Gesellschaft_ (1866); _Moderne Jugend_ (1869), and _Der
+Landfrieden_ (1869), in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy
+sallies the social conditions of the capital in which he lived.
+
+  A complete edition of Bauernfeld's works, _Gesammelte Schriften_,
+  appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Dramatischer Nachlass_, ed.
+  by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols.,
+  1905). See A. Stern, _Bauernfeld, Ein Dichterportrat_ (1890), R. von
+  Gottschall, "E. von Bauernfeld" (in _Unsere Zeit_, 1890), and E.
+  Horner, _Bauernfeld_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+BAUFFREMONT, a French family which derives its name from a village in
+the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In consequence of an alliance
+with the house of Vergy the Bauffremonts established themselves in
+Burgundy and Franche-Comte. In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of
+Charny, married Marie, a legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke
+of Burgundy. Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson
+Henri, all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588
+and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre Emmanuel
+Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, was
+created a peer of France in 1817, and duke in 1818. After having served
+in the army of the princes he returned to France under the Empire, and
+had been made a count by Napoleon.     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BAUHIN, GASPARD (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anatomist, was the son
+of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-1582), who had to leave his
+native country on becoming a convert to Protestantism. He was born at
+Basel on the 17th of January 1560, and devoting himself to medicine, he
+pursued his studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated
+schools in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to the
+degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and anatomy. In
+1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship in that university, and
+in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and botany. He was afterwards made city
+physician, professor of the practice of medicine, rector of the
+university, and dean of his faculty. He died at Basel on the 5th of
+December 1624. He published several works relative to botany, of which
+the most valuable was his _Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in
+Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo
+scripserunt opera_ (1596). Another great work which he planned was a
+_Theatrum Botanicum_, meant to be comprised in twelve parts folio, of
+which he finished three; only one, however, was published (1658). He
+also gave a copious catalogue of the plants growing in the environs of
+Basel, and edited the works of P.A. Mattioli (1500-1577) with
+considerable additions. He likewise wrote on anatomy, his principal work
+on this subject being _Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum_
+(1592).
+
+His son, JEAN GASPARD BAUHIN (1606-1685), was professor of botany at
+Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, JEAN BAUHIN (1541-1613),
+after studying botany at Tubingen under Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and
+travelling with Conrad Gesner, began to practise medicine at Basel,
+where he was elected professor of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he
+was invited to become physician to the duke of Wurttemberg at
+Montbeliard, where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted
+himself chiefly to botany. His great work, _Historia plantarum nova et
+absolutissima_, a compilation of all that was then known about botany,
+was not complete at his death, but was published at Yverdon in
+1650-1651, the _Prodromus_ having appeared at the same place in 1619. He
+also wrote a book _De aquis medicatis_ (1605).
+
+
+
+
+BAULK, or BALK (a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning a ridge,
+partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughed between furrows or
+ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip of land used as a boundary
+in the "open-field" system of agriculture. From the meaning of something
+left untouched comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse
+stopping short of an obstacle, of the "baulk-line" in billiards, or of
+the deceptive motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original
+meaning, i.e. "beam," comes the use of the word for the cross or
+tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one or one
+and a half foot square section (see JOINERY).
+
+
+
+
+BAUMBACH, RUDOLF (1840-1905), German poet, was born at Kranichfeld on
+the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September 1840, the son of a local
+medical practitioner, and received his early schooling at the gymnasium
+of Meiningen, to which place his father had removed. After studying
+natural science in various universities, he engaged in private tuition,
+both independently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz,
+Brunn, Gorz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular
+taste with an Alpine legend, _Zlatorog_ (1877), and songs of a
+journeyman apprentice, _Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_ (1878), both of
+which have run into many editions. Their success decided him to embark
+upon a literary career. In 1885 he returned to Meiningen, where he
+received the title of _Hofrat_, and was appointed ducal librarian. His
+death occurred on the 14th of September 1905.
+
+Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and wrote, in
+imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel, many excellent
+drinking songs, among which _Die Lindenwirtin_ has endeared him to the
+German student world. But his real strength lay in narrative verse,
+especially when he had the opportunity of describing the scenery and
+life of his native Thuringia. Special mention may be made of _Frau
+Holde_ (1881), _Spielmannslieder_ (1882), _Von der Landstrasse_ (1882),
+_Thuringer Lieder_ (1891), and his prose, _Sommermarchen_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+BAUME, ANTOINE (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at Senlis on the
+26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to the chemist Claude Joseph
+Geoffroy, and in 1752 was admitted a member of the Ecole de Pharmacie,
+where in the same year he was appointed professor of chemistry. The
+money he made in a business he carried on in Paris for dealing in
+chemical products enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote
+himself to applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was
+obliged to return to a commercial career. He devised many improvements
+in technical processes, e.g. for bleaching silk, dyeing, gilding,
+purifying saltpetre, &c., but he is best known as the inventor of the
+hydrometer associated with his name (often in this connexion improperly
+spelt Beaume). Of the numerous books and papers he wrote the most
+important is his _Elemens de pharmacie theorique et pratique_ (9
+editions, 1762-1818). He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in
+1772, and an associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the
+15th of October 1804.
+
+
+
+
+BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB (1714-1762), German philosopher, born at
+Berlin. He studied at Halle, and became professor of philosophy at Halle
+and at Frankfort on the Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple
+of Leibnitz and Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been
+the first to establish the _Theory of the Beautiful_ as an independent
+science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics (q.v.) from
+the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out a definite object
+for its researches. The very name (_Aesthetics_), which Baumgarten was
+the first to use, indicates the imperfect and partial nature of his
+analysis, pointing as it does to an element so variable as _feeling_ or
+_sensation_ as the ultimate ground of judgment in questions pertaining
+to beauty. It is important to notice that Baumgarten's first work
+preceded those of Burke, Diderot, and P. Andre, and that Kant had a
+great admiration for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the
+following: _Dispulationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus_ (1735);
+_Aesthetics; Metaphysica_ (1739; 7th ed. 1779); _Ethica philosophica_
+(1751, 2nd ed. 1763); _Initia philosophiae practicae primae_ (1760).
+After his death, his pupils published a _Philosophia Generalis_ (1770)
+and a _Jus Naturae_ (1765), which he had left in manuscript.
+
+  See Meyer, _Baumgarten's Leben_ (1763); Abbt, _Baumgarten's Leben und
+  Charakler_ (1765); H.G. Meyer, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (1874); J.
+  Schmidt, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (Halle, 1875); and article
+  AESTHETICS.
+
+His brother, SIEGMUND JACOB BAUMGARTEN (1706-1757), was professor of
+theology at Halle, and applied the methods of Wolff to theology. His
+chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.), is sometimes called, the
+father of German rationalism. Baumgarten, though he did not renounce the
+Pietistic doctrine, began the process which Semler completed. His works
+include _Evangelische Glaubenslehre_ (1759); _Auszug der
+Kirchengeschichte_ (1743-1762); _Primae lineae breviarii anliquitatum
+Christianarum_ (1747); _Geschichte der Religionsparteien_ (1760);
+_Nachricht van merkwurdigen Buchern_ (1752-1757); _Nachrichten van einer
+hallischen Bibliothek_ (1748-1751).
+
+  See life by Semler (Halle, 1758).
+
+
+
+
+BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL (1812-1889), German Protestant theologian, was born
+at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of March 1812. He studied
+at Kiel University (1832), and became professor ordinarius of theology
+at Rostock (1850). A liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854
+through a work, _Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus
+der Gegenwart_, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament and
+assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every kind. At a
+pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended evangelical freedom as
+regards the legal sanctity of Sunday. This, with other attempts to
+liberalize religion, brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical
+authorities of Mecklenburg, and in 1858 he was deprived of his
+professorship. He then travelled throughout Germany, demanding justice,
+telling the story of his life (_Christliche Selbstgesprache_, 1861), and
+lecturing on the life of Jesus (_Die Geschichte Jesu. Fur das
+Verstandniss der Gegenwart_, 1859). In 1865 he helped to found the
+_Deutsche Protestantenverein_, but withdrew from it in 1877. On several
+occasions (1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of
+the progressive party. He died on the 21st of July 1889. Other works:
+_Apostelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche van Jerusalem bis
+Rom_ (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and _Doktor Martin Luther, ein Volksbuch_
+(1883).
+
+  H.H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see also C.
+  Schwartz, _Neueste Theologie_ (1869); Lichtenberger, _Hist. Germ.
+  Theol._, 1889; Calwer-Zeller, _Kirchen-Lexikon_.
+
+
+
+
+BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO (1788-1842), German Protestant
+divine, was born at Merseburg. In 1805 he entered the university of
+Leipzig and studied theology and philology. After acting as
+_Privatdocent_ at Leipzig, he was, in 1812, appointed professor
+extraordinarius of theology at Jena, where he remained to the end of his
+life, rising gradually to the head of the theological faculty. He died
+on the 31st of May 1842. With the exception of Church history, he
+lectured on all branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially
+on New Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the
+history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate scholarship
+and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his lectures and treatises,
+especially those on the development of church doctrine. His published
+works are many, the most important being:--_Lehrbuch der christtichen
+Sittenlehre_ (1826); _Grundzuge der biblischen Theologie_ (1828);
+_Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_ (1832); _Compendium der
+Dogmengeschichte_ (1840). The last, perhaps his best work, was left
+unfinished, but was completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.
+
+
+
+
+BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN (1792-1860), leader of the Tubingen school of
+theology, was born at Schmiden, near Canstatt, on the 21st of June 1792.
+After receiving an early training in the theological seminary at
+Blaubeuren, he went in 1809 to the university of Tubingen. Here he
+studied for a time under Ernst Bengel, grandson of the eminent New
+Testament critic, Johann Albrecht Bengel, and at this early stage in his
+career he seems to have been under the influence of the old Tubingen
+school. But at the same time the philosophers Immanuel Fichte and
+Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide and deep impression. In 1817
+Baur returned to the theological seminary at Blaubeuren as professor.
+This move marked a turning-point in his life, for he was now able to set
+to work upon those investigations on which his reputation rests. He had
+already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser's _Biblische Theologie_
+for Bengel's _Archiv fur Theologie_ (ii. 656); its tone was moderate and
+conservative. When, a few years after his appointment at Blaubeuren, he
+published his first important, work, _Symbolik und Mythologie oder die
+Naturreligion des Altertums_ (1824-1825), it became evident that he had
+made a deeper study of philosophy, and had come under the influence of
+Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher. The
+learning of the work was fully recognized, and in 1826 the author was
+called to Tubingen as professor of theology. It is with Tubingen that
+his greatest literary achievements are associated. His earlier
+publications here treated of mythology and the history of dogma. _Das
+manichaische Religionssystem_ appeared in 1831, _Apollonius von Tyana_
+in 1832, _Die christliche Gnosis_ in 1835, and _Uber das Christliche im
+Platonismus oder Socrates und Christus_ in 1837. As Otto Pfleiderer
+(_Development of Theology_, p. 285) observes, "the choice not less than
+the treatment of these subjects is indicative of the large breadth of
+view and the insight of the historian into the comparative history of
+religion." Meantime Baur had exchanged one master in philosophy for
+another, Schleiermacher for Hegel. In doing so, he had adopted
+completely the Hegelian philosophy of history. "Without philosophy," he
+has said, "history is always for me dead and dumb." The change of view
+is illustrated clearly in the essay, published in the _Tubinger
+Zeitschrift_ for 1831, on the Christ-party in the Corinthian Church,
+_Die Chrislusparlei in der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz des
+paulinischen und petrinischen in der alsten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus
+in Rom_, the trend of which is suggested by the title. Baur contends
+that St Paul was opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party which
+wished to set up its own form of Christian religion instead of his
+universal Christianity. He finds traces of a keen conflict of parties in
+the post-apostolic age. The theory is further developed in a later work
+(1835, the year in which David Strauss' _Leben Jesu_ was published),
+_Uber die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe_. In this Baur attempts to prove
+that the false teachers mentioned in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus
+are the Gnostics, particularly the Marcionites, of the second century,
+and consequently that the Epistles were produced in the middle of this
+century in opposition to Gnosticism. He next proceeded to investigate
+the Pauline Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles in the same manner,
+publishing his results in 1845 under the title _Paulus, der Apostel Jesu
+Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre_. In this
+he contends that only the Epistles to the Galatians, Corinthians and
+Romans are genuinely Pauline, and that the Paul of Acts is a different
+person from the Paul of these genuine Epistles, the author being a
+Paulinist who, with an eye to the different parties in the Church, is at
+pains to represent Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as
+far as possible as a Petrinist. Thus it becomes clear that Baur is
+prepared to apply his theory to the whole of the New Testament; in the
+words of H.S. Nash, "he carried a sweeping hypothesis into the
+examination of the New Testament." Those writings alone he considers
+genuine in which the conflict between Jewish-Christians and
+Gentile-Christians is clearly marked. In his _Kritische Untersuchungen
+uber die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss zu einander, ihren
+Charakter und Ursprung_ (1847) he turns his attention to the Gospels,
+and here again finds that the authors were conscious of the conflict of
+parties; the Gospels reveal a mediating or conciliatory tendency
+(_Tendenz_) on the part of the writers or redactors. The Gospels, in
+fact, are adaptations or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the
+Gospel of the Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites.
+The Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original
+Gospel (_Urevangelium_); the Pauline Luke is later and arose
+independently; Mark represents a still later development; the account in
+John is idealistic: it "does not possess historical truth, and cannot
+and does not really lay claim to it." Baur's whole theory indeed starts
+with the supposition that Christianity was gradually developed out of
+Judaism. Before it could become a universal religion, it had to struggle
+with Jewish limitations and to overcome them. The early Christians were
+Jewish-Christians, to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other
+hand, represented a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus
+there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter, James and
+John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle continued down to
+the middle of the 2nd century. In short, the conflict between Petrinism
+and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz puts it, the key to the literature of
+the 1st and 2nd century.
+
+But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical critic. As
+early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work, _Gegensatz des
+Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der
+beiden Lehrbegriffe_, a strong defence of Protestantism on the lines of
+Schleiermacher's _Glaubenslehre_, and a vigorous reply to J. Mohler's
+_Symbolik_ (1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma,
+_Die christliche Lehre van der Versohnung in ihrer geschichtlichen
+Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (1838), _Die christliche Lehre von
+der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer geschichtlichen
+Entwicklung_ (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the _Lehrbuch der christlichen
+Dogmengeschichte_ (1847). The value of these works is impaired somewhat
+by Baur's habit of making the history of dogma conform to the formulae of
+Hegel's philosophy, a procedure "which only served to obscure the truth
+and profundity of his conception of history as a true development of the
+human mind" (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon came to attach more
+importance to personality, and to distinguish more carefully between
+religion and philosophy. The change is marked in his _Epochen der
+kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung_ (1852), _Das Christenthum und die
+christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte_ (1853), and _Die
+christliche Kirche von Anfang des vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten
+Jahrhunderts_ (1859), works preparatory to his _Kirchengeschichte_, in
+which the change of view is specially pronounced. The _Kirchengeschichte_
+was published in five volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur
+himself, partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard
+Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him.
+Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as "a
+classic for all time." "Taken as a whole, it is the first thorough and
+satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity and the Church
+on _strictly historical_ lines, i.e. as a natural development of the
+religious spirit of our race under the combined operation of various
+human causes" (_Development of Theology_, p. 288). Baur's lectures on the
+history of dogma, _Ausfuhrlichere Vorlesungen uber die christliche
+Dogmengeschichte_, were published later by his son (1865-1868).
+
+Baur's views were revolutionary and often extreme; but, whatever may be
+thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic he rendered a great
+service to theological science. "One thing is certain: New Testament
+study, since his time, has had a different colour" (H.S. Nash). He has
+had a number of disciples or followers, who have in many cases modified
+his positions.
+
+  A full account of F.C. Baur's labours, and a complete list of his
+  writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_, in which his work is divided into three periods:
+  (1) "Philosophy of Religion," (2) "Biblical criticism," (3) "Church
+  History." See also H.S. Nash, _The History of the Higher Criticism of
+  the New Testament_ (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, _The Development
+  of Theology in Germany since Kant_ (trans., 1890); Carl Schwarz, _Zur
+  Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_ (Leipzig, 1869); R.W. Mackay, _The
+  Tubingen School and its Antecedents_ (1863); A.S. Farrar, _A Critical
+  History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion_
+  (Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on "The Tubingen
+  Historical School," in _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862.
+       (M. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE (1796-1867), French philosopher and
+theologian, was born at Paris. At the Ecole Normale he came under the
+influence of Cousin. In 1816 he adopted the profession of higher
+teaching, and was soon after called to the chair of philosophy in the
+university of Strassburg. He held this position for many years, and gave
+a parallel course of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in
+the same city. The reaction against speculative philosophy, which
+carried away De Maistre and Lamennais, influenced him also. In 1828 he
+took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For several years
+he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty and at the college
+of Juilly, but in 1840 he set out for Paris as vicar of the diocese. At
+Paris he obtained considerable reputation as an orator, and in 1853 was
+made professor of moral theology at the theological faculty. This post
+he held till his death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason
+and faith, and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise
+unattainable, which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods.
+Theology and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science. Yet Bautain
+was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he exalted faith above
+reason. He pointed out, following chiefly the Kantian criticism, that
+reason can never yield knowledge of things in themselves. But there
+exists in addition to reason another faculty which may be called
+intelligence, through which we are put in connexion with spiritual and
+invisible truth. This intelligence does not of itself yield a body of
+truth; it merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are
+made productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts. This
+fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the departments of
+psychology and morals. The details of this theology are highly
+imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a spirit of the world
+and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth to a physical and
+psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the animal and vegetable
+spirits. His theories may well be compared with the arbitrary mysticism
+of van Helmont and the Gnostics. The most important of his works
+are:--_Philosophie du Christianisme_ (1835); _Psychologic experimentale_
+(1839), new edition entitled _Esprit humain et ses facultes_ (1859);
+_Philosophie morale_ (1840); _Religion et liberte_ (1848); _La Morale de
+l'evangile comparee aux divers systemes de morale_ (Strassburg, 1827;
+Paris, 1855); _De l'education publique en France au XIX^e siecle_
+(Paris, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BAUTZEN (Wendish _Budissin_, "town"), a town of Germany, in the kingdom
+of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515;
+(1905) 29,412. It occupies an eminence on the right bank of the Spree,
+680 ft. above the level of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the
+Dresden-Gorlitz-Breslau main line of railway, and at the junction of
+lines from Schandau and Konigswartha. The town is surrounded by walls,
+and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned into
+promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the left bank of
+the river. Among its churches the most remarkable is the cathedral of St
+Peter, dating from the 15th century, with a tower 300 ft. in height. It
+is used by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, an iron screen
+separating the parts assigned to each. There are five other churches, a
+handsome town hall, an orphan-asylum, several hospitals, a mechanics'
+institute, a famous grammar school (gymnasium), a normal and several
+other schools, and two public libraries. The general trade and
+manufactures are considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth),
+linen and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It has
+also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar
+factories, &c.
+
+Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler, conquered
+Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under Otto I., his
+successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth and importance, for
+a good share of which it was indebted to the pilgrimages which were made
+to the "arm of St Peter," preserved in one of the churches. It suffered
+greatly during the Hussite war, and still more during the Thirty Years'
+War, in the course of which it was besieged and captured by the elector
+of Brandenburg, John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wallenstein
+(1633), and, in the following year was burned by its commander before
+being surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in
+1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity.
+
+
+  Battle of Bautzen, 1813.
+
+The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 20th and 21st
+of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of Russians and
+Prussians (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The position chosen by the allies
+as that in which to receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from
+Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right. Bautzen
+itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing (Russians), the
+main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near Jenkwitz. On the
+heights of Burk, 2-1/2 m. N.E. of Bautzen, was Kleist's Prussian corps,
+with Yorck's in support. On Kleist's right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of
+Burk) lay Blucher's corps, and on Blucher's right, formed at an angle to
+him, and refused towards Gleina (7 m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the
+Russians of Barclay de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought
+abounded in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as
+battlegrounds of the Seven Years' War. The whole line was covered by the
+river Spree, which served as an immediate defence for the left and
+centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to attack the right;
+moreover the interval between the river and the position on this side
+was covered with a network of ponds and watercourses. Napoleon's right
+and centre approached (on a broad front owing to the want of cavalry)
+from Dresden by Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was
+separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at Luckau, was
+ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and Klix to strike the allies'
+right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon, after a prolonged reconnaissance,
+advanced the main army against Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy's
+right to be dealt with by Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the
+extreme left of the allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to
+move his artillery and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot's
+(XII.) corps, the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly
+country to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald's (XI.) corps was to
+assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the Spree and
+attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three corps were directed
+by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand's (IV.) corps was held back to
+connect with Ney, who had then reached Weissig with the head of his
+column. The Guard and other general reserves were in rear of Macdonald
+and Marmont. Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont
+easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the other
+bank of the river by about 4 P.M. A heavy and indecisive combat took
+place in the evening between Oudinot and the Russian left, directed by
+the tsar in person, in which Oudinot's men made a little progress
+towards Jenkwitz. Marmont's battle was more serious. The Prussians were
+not experienced troops, but were full of ardour and hatred of the
+French. Kleist made a most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and
+Bertrand's corps was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but
+part of Blucher's corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not
+taken till 7 P.M. The French attack was much impeded by the ground and
+by want of room to deploy between the river and the enemy. But
+Napoleon's object in thus forcing the fighting in the centre was
+achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the French attack,
+gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and right to sustain the
+shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were in possession of the French,
+and the allied line now stretched from Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz,
+Blucher and Barclay maintaining their original positions at Pliskowitz
+and Gleina. The night of the 20th-21st was spent by both armies on the
+battlefield. Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost
+fought out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive
+point was to be Barclay's position. Soon after daybreak fighting was
+renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep until the
+time appointed for Ney's attack. To a heavy counter-stroke against
+Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal from the ground won on the
+20th, the emperor paid no more heed than to order Macdonald to support
+the XII corps. For in this second position of the allies, which was far
+more formidable than the original line, the decisive result could be
+brought about only by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the
+corps of Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total
+force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had been
+sharply engaged on the 19th, but had spent the 20th in calculated
+inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened; Ney and Lauriston
+moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and Victor operated by a wide
+turning movement against Barclay's right rear. The advance was carried
+out with precision; the Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was now
+closing upon the rear of Blucher's corps at the village of Preititz.
+Napoleon at once ordered Soult's four corps to renew their attacks in
+order to prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the
+critical moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at 11 A.M.
+and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite of an hour
+enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was checked
+until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could come upon the
+scene. At 1 P.M., when Ney resumed his advance, it was too late to cut
+off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now made his final stroke. The
+Imperial Guard and all other troops in the centre, 80,000 strong and
+covered by a great mass of artillery, moved forward to the attack; and
+shortly the allied centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent
+to oppose Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Blucher, now
+almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make head
+against Soult, and Ney's four corps then carried all before them.
+Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney's appearance,
+to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered a general retreat
+eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and bravery directing the
+rearguard. Thus the allies drew off unharmed, leaving no trophies in the
+hands of Napoleon, whose success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a
+variety of reasons, and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a _coup
+manque_ strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side
+163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses
+respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded.
+
+
+
+
+BAUXITE, a substance which has been considered to be a mineral species,
+having the composition Al2O(OH)4 (corresponding with alumina 73.9, water
+26.1%), and thus to be distinct from the crystallized aluminium
+hydroxides, diaspore (AlO(OH)) and gibbsite (= hydrargillite, Al(OH)3).
+It was first described by P. Berthier in 1821 as "alumine hydratee de
+Beaux," and was named beauxite by P.A. Dufrenoy in 1847 and bauxite by
+E.H. Sainte-Claire Deville in 1861; this name being derived from the
+original locality, the village of Les Baux (or Beaux), near Arles, dep.
+Bouches-du-Rhone in the south of France, where the material has been for
+many years extensively mined as an ore of aluminium. It is never found
+in a crystallized state, but always as earthy, clay-like or
+concretionary masses, often with a pisolitic structure. In colour it
+varies from white through yellow and brown to red, depending on the
+amount and the degree of hydration of the iron present. The specific
+gravity also varies with the amount of iron; that of the variety known
+as wocheinite (from near Lake Wochein, near Radmannsdorf, in northern
+Carniola) is given as 2.55. The numerous chemical analyses, which have
+mostly been made for technical purposes, show that material known as
+bauxite varies very widely in composition, the maximum and minimum
+percentages of each constituent being as follows: alumina (Al2O3)
+33.2-76.9; water (H2O) 8.6-31.4; iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.1-48.8; silica
+(SiO2) 0.3-37.8; titanic acid (TiO2) up to 4. The material is thus
+usually very impure, being mixed with clay, quartz-sand and hydroxides
+of iron in variable amounts, the presence of which may be seen by a
+microscopical examination. Analyses of purer material often approximate
+to diaspore or gibbsite in composition, and minute crystalline scales of
+these minerals have been detected under the microscope.
+
+Bauxite can therefore scarcely be regarded as a simple mineral, but
+rather as a mixture of gibbsite and diaspore with various impurities; it
+is in fact strikingly like laterite, both in chemical composition and in
+microscopical structure. Laterite is admittedly a decomposition-product
+of igneous or other crystalline rocks, and the same is no doubt also
+true of bauxite. The deposits in Co. Antrim occur with pisolitic iron
+ore inter-bedded with the Tertiary basalts, and similar deposits are met
+with in connexion with the basaltic rocks of the Westerwald in Germany.
+On the other hand, the more extensive deposits in the south of France
+(departments Bouches-du-Rhone, Ariege, Herault, Var) and the southern
+United States (Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas) are often associated with
+limestones; in this case the origin of the bauxite has been ascribed to
+the chemical action of solutions of aluminium sulphate on the
+limestones.
+
+Bauxite is of value chiefly as a source of metallic aluminium (q.v.);
+the material is first purified by chemical processes, after which the
+aluminium hydroxide is reduced in the electric furnace. Bauxite is also
+largely used in the manufacture of alum and other aluminium salts used
+in dyeing. Its refractory qualities render it available for the
+manufacture of fire-bricks and crucibles.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BAVAI, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 15 m. E.S.E.
+of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1622. The town carries on the
+manufacture of iron goods and of fertilizers. Under the name of
+_Bagacum_ or _Bavacum_ it was the capital of the Nervii and, under the
+Romans, an important centre of roads, the meeting-place of which was
+marked by a milestone, destroyed in the 17th century and replaced in the
+19th century by a column. Bavai was destroyed during the barbarian
+invasions and never recovered its old importance. It suffered much
+during the wars of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.
+
+
+
+
+BAVARIA (Ger. _Bayern_), a kingdom of southern Germany, next to Prussia
+the largest state of the German empire in area and population. It
+consists of two distinct and unequal portions. Bavaria proper, and the
+Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from 25 to 40 m. W. apart and are
+separated by the grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse.
+
+_Physical Features._--Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by the Alps,
+on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a long range of mountains known as the
+Bohmerwald, on the N. by the Fichtelgebirge and the Frankenwald, which
+separate it from the kingdom of Saxony, the principality of Reuss, the
+duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Meiningen and the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Cassel. The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.;
+but the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain an
+elevation of 9000 or 10,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded by
+Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. The country mainly belongs to
+the basins of the Danube and the Main; by far the greater portion being
+drained by the former river, which, entering from Swabia as a navigable
+stream, traverses the entire breadth of the kingdom, with a winding
+course of 200 m., and receives in its passage the Iller, the Lech, the
+Isar and the Inn from the south, and the Naab, the Altmuhl and the
+Wornitz from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian
+territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river flowing
+from Upper Austria. The Isar does not become navigable till it has
+passed Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar size. The Main
+traverses the northern regions, or Upper and Lower Franconia, with a
+very winding course and greatly facilitates the trade of the provinces.
+The district watered by the southern tributaries of the Danube consists
+for the most part of an extensive plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390
+ft. In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous lakes and
+in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy ground. The
+smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is bounded on the E. by the
+Rhine, which divides it from the grand-duchy of Baden, on the S. by
+Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a lofty range of hills, the
+Haardtgebirge, which separate it from Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine
+province.
+
+The climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the character of the
+region, being cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the plains
+adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the temperature is in
+the winter months considerably colder than that of England, and a good
+deal hotter during summer and autumn.
+
+_Area and Population._--Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion, contains
+an area of 26,998 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western, 2288 sq. m.,
+making the whole extent of the kingdom about 29,286 sq. m. The total
+population, according to the census of 1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a
+quarter of the inhabitants live in towns, of which Munich and Nuremberg
+have populations exceeding 100,000, Augsburg, Wurzburg, Furth and
+Ludwigshafen between 50,000 and 100,000, while twenty-six other towns
+number from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants.
+
+Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various ancient tribes;
+Germanized Slavs in the north-east, Swabians and Franks in the centre,
+Franks towards the west, and, in the Palatinate, Walloons. Politically,
+the country is divided into eight provinces, as follows:--
+
+
+  +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+
+  |                  |            |Pop. of Province| Area in |
+  |    Provinces.    |  Capital.  |    in 1905.    |  sq. m. |
+  +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+
+  | Upper Bavaria    | Munich     |   1,410,763    |  6,456  |
+  | Lower Bavaria    | Landshut   |     706,345    |  4,152  |
+  | Upper Palatinate | Regensburg |     573,476    |  3,728  |
+  | Upper Franconia  | Bayreuth   |     637,239    |  2,702  |
+  | Middle Franconia | Ansbach    |     868,072    |  2,925  |
+  | Lower Franconia  | Wurzburg   |     680,769    |  3,243  |
+  | Swabia           | Augsburg   |     750,880    |  3,792  |
+  | The Palatinate   | Spires     |     885,280    |  2,288  |
+  |                  |            +----------------+---------+
+  |                  |   Total    |   6,512,824    | 29,286  |
+  +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+
+
+_Religion._--The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are Roman
+Catholics. The Protestant-Evangelical Church claims about 29%, while
+Jews, and a very small number of other sects, account for the remainder.
+
+The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate
+are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in the Rhine Palatinate, Upper
+Franconia, and especially Middle Franconia, the preponderance is on the
+side of the Protestants. The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is
+altogether free. The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Roman
+Catholics, and the sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or Protestant.
+Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads are the two archbishops of
+Munich-Freising and Bamberg, and the six bishops of Eichstatt, Spires,
+Wurzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg and Passau, of whom the first three are
+suffragans of Bamberg. The "Old Catholic" party, under the bishop of
+Bonn, has failed, despite its early successes, to take deep root in the
+country. Among the Protestants the highest authority is the general
+consistory of Munich. The numbers of the different religions in 1900
+were as follows:--Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants, 1,749,206;
+Jews, 54,928.
+
+_Education._--Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has recently done
+much in this connexion. The state has two Roman Catholic universities,
+Munich and Wurzburg, and a Lutheran, Erlangen; in Munich there are a
+polytechnic, an academy of sciences and an academy of art.
+
+_Agriculture._--Of the total surface of Bavaria about one-half is under
+cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth mostly pasture.
+The level country, including both Lower Bavaria (extending northwards to
+the Danube) and the western and middle parts of Franconia, is productive
+of rye, oats, wheat, barley and millet, and also of hemp, flax, madder
+and fruit and vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the
+Lake of Constance, on the banks of the Main, in the lower part of its
+course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively grown
+in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Germany) round Nuremberg and
+in the Palatinate, which also largely produces the sugar-beet. Potatoes
+are cultivated in all the provinces, but especially in the Palatinate
+and in the Spessart district, which lies in the north-west within a
+curve of the Main. The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria,
+where pasture-land predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and the
+dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in large numbers.
+
+The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of Bavaria.
+This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly and mountainous
+country, the thinness of the population and the necessity of keeping a
+given extent of ground under wood for the supply of fuel. More than a
+third of the forests are public property and furnish a considerable
+addition to the revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces
+of Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine. The
+forests are well stocked with game, deer, chamois (in the Alps), wild
+boars, capercailzie, grouse, pheasants, &c. being plentiful. The greater
+proportion of the land throughout the kingdom is in the hands of peasant
+proprietors, the extent of the separate holdings differing very much in
+different districts. The largest peasant property may be about 170
+acres, and the smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50.
+
+_Minerals._--The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria are coal, iron ore,
+graphite and salt. The coal mines lie principally in the districts of
+Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the Rhine Palatinate. Salt is
+obtained on a large scale partly from brine springs and partly from
+mines, the principal centres being Halle, Berchtesgaden, Traunstein and
+Rosenheim. The government monopoly which had long existed was abolished
+in 1867 and free trade was established in salt between the members of
+the customs-union. Of quicksilver there are several mines, chiefly in
+the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of copper, manganese
+and cobalt are obtained. There are numerous quarries of excellent
+marble, alabaster, gypsum and building stone; and the porcelain-clay is
+among the finest in Europe. To these may be added emery, steatite,
+barytes, felspar and ochre, in considerable quantities; excellent
+lithographic stone is obtained at Solenhofen; and gold and silver are
+still worked, but to an insignificant extent.
+
+_Manufactures and Trade._--A great stimulus was given to manufacturing
+industry in Bavaria by the law of 1868, which abolished the last remains
+of the old restrictions of the gilds, and gave the whole country the
+liberty which had been enjoyed by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief
+centres of industry are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Furth, Erlangen,
+Aschaffenburg, Regensburg, Wurzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and Hof
+in Bavaria proper, and in the Palatinate Spires and the Rhine port of
+Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware industry are Munich,
+Nuremberg, Augsburg and Furth; the two first especially for locomotives
+and automobiles, the last for tinfoil and metal toys. Aschaffenburg
+manufactures fancy goods, Augsburg and Hof produce excellent cloth, and
+Munich has a great reputation for scientific instruments. In Franconia
+are numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is largely
+carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. A considerable
+quantity of glass is made, particularly in the Bohmerwald. Brewing forms
+an important industry, the best-known breweries being those of Munich,
+Nuremberg, Erlangen and Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are
+leather, tobacco, porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nuremberg),
+plate-glass, sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets. The
+commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist chiefly of
+corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods, glass, fancy
+wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat of the hop-trade is
+Nuremberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports comprise sugar, tobacco,
+cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron.
+
+_Communications._--Trade is served by an excellent railway system and
+there are steamboat services on the navigable rivers, to the east by way
+of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by Ludwigshafen. The high roads
+of Bavaria, many of which are military roads laid out at the beginning
+of the 19th century, extend in all over about 10,000 m. There were 4377
+m. of railways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the
+hands of the state, and about 440 m. belonged to the private system of
+the Palatinate. The principal canal is the Ludwigskanal, which connects
+the Rhine with the Danube, extending from Bamberg on the Regnitz to
+Dietfurt on the Altmuhl. There is an extensive network of telegraph and
+telephone lines. All belong to the government post office, which forms
+an administrative system independent of the imperial German post office.
+
+_Constitution and Administration._--By the treaty of Versailles (23rd
+November 1870) and the imperial constitution of the 16th of April 1871,
+Bavaria was incorporated with the German empire, reserving, however,
+certain separate privileges (_Sonderrechte_) in respect of the
+administration of the army, the railways and the posts, the excise
+duties on beer, the rights of domicile and the insurance of real estate.
+The king is the supreme chief of the army, and matters requiring
+adjudication in the adjutant-general's court are referred to a special
+Bavarian court attached to the supreme imperial military tribunal in
+Berlin. Bavaria is represented in the Bundesrat by six votes and sends
+forty-eight deputies to the imperial diet. The Bavarian constitution is
+mainly founded on the constitutional act of the 26th of May 1818,
+modified by subsequent acts--that of the 9th of March 1828 as affecting
+the upper house, and those of the 4th of June 1848 and of the 21st of
+March 1881 as affecting the lower--and is a limited monarchy, with a
+legislative body of two houses. The crown is hereditary in the house of
+Wittelsbach, according to the rights of primogeniture, females being
+excluded from succession so long as male agnates of equal birth exist.
+The title of the sovereign is king of Bavaria, that of his presumptive
+heir is crown-prince of Bavaria, and during the minority or incapacity
+of the sovereign a regency is declared, which is vested in the nearest
+male agnate capable of ascending the throne. Such a regency began on the
+10th of June 1886, at first for King Louis II., and after the 14th of
+the same month for King Otto I., in the person of the prince regent
+Luitpold. The executive power resides in the king and the responsibility
+for the government of the kingdom in his ministers. The royal family is
+Roman Catholic, and the seat of government is Munich, the capital.
+
+The upper house of the Bavarian parliament (_Kammer der Reichsrate_) is
+composed of (1) the princes of the blood royal (being of full age), (2)
+the ministers of the crown, (3) the archbishops of Munich, Freising and
+Bamberg, (4) the heads of such noble families as were formerly
+"immediate" so long as they retain their ancient possessions in Bavaria,
+(5) of a Roman Catholic bishop appointed by the king for life, and of
+the president for the time being of the Protestant consistory, (6) of
+hereditary counsellors (_Reichsrate_) appointed by the king, and (7) of
+other counsellors appointed by the king for life. The lower house
+(_Kammer der Abgeordneten_) or chamber of representatives, consists,
+since 1881, of 159 deputies, in proportion of one--reckoned on the
+census of 1875--to every 31,500 inhabitants. A general election takes
+place every six years, and, under the electoral law of 1906, is direct.
+Qualifications for the general body of electors are full age of
+twenty-five years, Bavarian citizenship of one year at least, and
+discharge of all rates and taxes. Parliament must be assembled every
+three years, but as the budget is taken every two years, it is regularly
+called together within that period. No laws affecting the liberty or
+property of the subject can be passed without the sanction of
+parliament.
+
+_Revenue._--The following is a fairly typical statement of the budget
+estimates (1902-1903), in marks (= 1 shilling sterling):--
+
+
+    Receipts.
+                                     Mks.
+  Direct taxes                    38,199,000
+  Customs and indirect taxes      50,900,990
+  State railways                 184,551,000
+  Posts and telegraphs            41,665,100
+  Forests and agricultural dues   37,395,000
+  Imperial assignments            62,571,605
+                                ------------
+                                 415,282,695
+                                 ===========
+                               = L20,764,135
+
+    Disbursements.
+                                     Mks.
+  Civil list                       5,402,475
+  State debt                      51,323,200
+  Ministry of the Royal house
+    and of Foreign dept.             688,398
+  Ministry of Justice             20,615,299
+  Ministry of interior            30,055,338
+  Public worship and education    34,667,673
+  Minister of finance              6,696,780
+  Constribution to imperial
+    exchequer                     72,647,090
+                                ------------
+                                 222,296,253
+                                 ===========
+                               = L11,114,813
+
+
+The public debt amounts to about L95,000,000, of which over 75% was
+incurred for railways.
+
+_Army._--The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the army of the
+German empire, with a separate administration, but in time of war is
+under the supreme command of the German emperor. The regulations
+applicable to other sections of the whole imperial army are, however,
+observed. It consists, on a peace footing, of three army corps, 1st, 2nd
+and 3rd Royal Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of
+which are in Munich, Nuremberg and Wurzburg respectively. The Bavarian
+army comprises sixty-seven battalions of infantry, two battalions of
+rifles, ten regiments of cavalry (two heavy, two Ulan and six
+Chevauxlegers), a squadron of mounted infantry (_Jager-zu-pferde_),
+twelve field- and two foot-artillery regiments, three battalions of
+engineers, three of army service, and a balloon section; in all 60,000
+men with 10,000 horses. In time of war the total force is trebled.
+     (P. A. A.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called Bavaria
+were a people, probably of Celtic extraction, who were subdued by the
+Romans just before the opening of the Christian era, when colonies were
+founded among them and their land was included in the province of
+Raetia. During the 5th century it was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer
+and, after being almost denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes
+who, pushing along the valley of the Danube, settled there between A.D.
+488 and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the race and
+origin of these people, who were certainly a new and composite social
+aggregate. Most likely they were descendants of the Marcomanni, Quadi
+and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or Swabian race, with possibly a small
+intermixture of Gothic or Celtic elements. They were called _Baioarii,
+Baiowarii, Bawarii_ or _Baiuwarii_, words derived most probably from
+_Baja_ or _Baya_, corruptions of _Bojer_, and given to them because they
+came from _Bojerland_ or _Bohemia_. Another but less probable
+explanation derives the name from a combination of the old high German
+word _uuara_, meaning league, and _bai_, a Gothic word for both. The
+Bavarians are first mentioned in a Frankish document of 520, and twenty
+years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east of the Swabians. Their
+country bore some traces of Roman influence, and its main boundaries
+were the Enns, the Danube, the Lech and the Alps; but its complete
+settlement was a work of time.
+
+
+  Frankish influence.
+
+The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks, probably
+without a serious struggle; and were ruled from 555 to 788 by dukes of
+the Agilolfing family, who were possibly of Frankish descent. For a
+century and a half a succession of dukes resisted the inroads of the
+Slavs on their eastern frontier, and by the time of Duke Theodo I., who
+died in 717, were completely independent of the feeble Frankish kings.
+When Charles Martel became the virtual ruler of the Frankish realm he
+brought the Bavarians into strict dependence, and deposed two dukes
+successively for contumacy. Pippin the Short was equally successful in
+maintaining his authority, and several marriages took place between the
+family to which he belonged and the Agilolfings, who were united in a
+similar manner with the kings of the Lombards. The ease with which
+various risings were suppressed by the Franks gives colour to the
+supposition that they were rather the outcome of family quarrels than
+the revolt of an oppressed people. Between the years 739 and 748 the
+Bavarian law was committed to writing and supplementary clauses were
+afterwards added, all of which bear evident traces of Frankish
+influence. Thus, while the dukedom belongs to the Agilolfing family, the
+duke must be chosen by the people and his election confirmed by the
+Frankish king, to whom he owes fealty. He has a fivefold wergild,
+summons the nobles and clergy for purposes of deliberation, calls out
+the host, administers justice and regulates finance. There are five
+noble families, possibly representing a former division of the people,
+after whom come the freeborn, and then the freedmen. The country is
+divided into _gaus_ or counties, under their counts, who are assisted by
+judges responsible for declaring the law.
+
+
+  Christianity.
+
+Christianity had lingered in Bavaria from Roman times; but a new era set
+in when Rupert, bishop of Worms, came to the country at the invitation
+of Duke Theodo I. in 696. He founded several monasteries, and a similar
+work was also performed by St Emmeran, bishop of Poitiers; with the
+result that before long the bulk of the people professed Christianity
+and relations were established between Bavaria and Rome. The 8th century
+witnessed indeed a heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival
+in Bavaria about 734 of St. Boniface, who organized the Bavarian church
+and founded or restored bishoprics at Salzburg, Freising, Regensburg and
+Passau.
+
+
+  Frankish conquest.
+
+Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749, recognized the
+supremacy of the Frankish king Pippin the Short in 757, but soon
+afterwards refused to furnish a contribution to the war in Aquitaine.
+Moreover, during the early years of the reign of Charlemagne, Tassilo
+gave decisions in ecclesiastical and civil causes in his own name,
+refused to appear in the assemblies of the Franks, and in general acted
+as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the Alpine passes,
+as an ally of the Avars, and as son-in-law of the Lombard king
+Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Frankish kingdom that
+Charlemagne determined to crush him. The details of this contest are
+obscure. Tassilo appears to have done homage in 781, and again in 787,
+probably owing to the presence of Frankish armies. But further trouble
+soon arose, and in 788 the duke was summoned to Ingelheim, where on a
+charge of treachery he was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned
+by the king; and he then entered a monastery and formally renounced his
+duchy at Frankfort in 794. The country was ruled by Gerold, a
+brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till his death in a battle with the Avars
+in 799, when its administration was entrusted to Frankish counts and
+assimilated with that of the rest of the Carolingian empire, while its
+condition was improved by the measures taken by Charlemagne for the
+intellectual progress and material welfare of his realm. The Bavarians
+offered no resistance to the change which thus abolished their dukedom;
+and their incorporation with the Frankish dominions, due mainly to the
+unifying influence of the church, was already so complete that
+Charlemagne did not find it necessary to issue more than two
+capitularies dealing especially with Bavarian affairs.
+
+
+  Union with Carolingian Empire.
+
+  Part of the German Kingdom.
+
+  The duchy passes to the Welfs.
+
+The history of Bavaria for the ensuing century is bound up with that of
+the Carolingian empire. Given at the partition of 817 to the king of the
+East Franks, Louis the German, it formed part of the larger territories
+which were confirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of Verdun, Louis made
+Regensburg the centre of his government, and was active in improving the
+condition of Bavaria, and providing for its security by numerous
+campaigns against the Slavs. When he divided his possessions in 865 it
+passed to his eldest son, Carloman, who had already undertaken its
+government, and after his death in 880 it formed part of the extensive
+territories of the emperor Charles the Fat. Its defence was left by this
+incompetent emperor to Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, and it
+was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that Arnulf was able to
+take the field against Charles in 887, and to secure his own election as
+German king in the following year. Bavaria, which was the centre of the
+East Frankish kingdom, passed in 899 to Louis the Child, during whose
+reign it was constantly ravaged by the Hungarians. The resistance to
+these inroads became gradually feebler, and it is said that on the 5th
+of July 907 almost the whole of the Bavarian race perished in battle
+with these formidable enemies. For the defence of Bavaria the mark of
+Carinthia had been erected on the south-eastern frontier, and during the
+reign of Louis the Child this was ruled by Liutpold, count of Scheyern,
+who possessed large domains in Bavaria. He was among those who fell in
+the great fight of 907; but his son Arnulf, surnamed the Bad, rallied
+the remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was chosen duke
+of the Bavarians in 911, when Bavaria and Carinthia were united under
+his rule. Refusing to acknowledge the supremacy of the German king
+Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully attacked by the latter, and in 920 was
+recognized as duke by Conrad's successor, Henry I., the Fowler, who
+admitted his right to appoint the bishops, to coin money and to issue
+laws. A similar conflict took place between Arnulf's son and successor
+Eberhard and Otto the Great; but Eberhard was less successful than his
+father, for in 938 he was driven from Bavaria, which was given by Otto
+with reduced privileges to the late duke's uncle, Bertold; and a count
+palatine in the person of Eberhard's brother Arnulf was appointed to
+watch the royal interests. When Bertold died in 947 Otto conferred the
+duchy upon his own brother Henry, who had married Judith, a daughter of
+Duke Arnulf. Henry was disliked by the Bavarians and his short reign was
+spent mainly in disputes with his people. The ravages of the Hungarians
+ceased after their defeat on the Lechfeld in 955, and the area of the
+duchy was temporarily increased by the addition of certain adjacent
+districts in Italy. In 955 Henry was succeeded by his young son Henry,
+surnamed the Quarrelsome, who in 974 was implicated in a conspiracy
+against King Otto II. The reason for this rising was that the king had
+granted the duchy of Swabia to Henry's enemy, Otto, a grandson of the
+emperor Otto the Great, and had given the new Bavarian East Mark,
+afterwards known as Austria, to Leopold I., count of Babenberg. The
+revolt was, however, soon suppressed; but Henry, who on his escape from
+prison renewed his plots, was formally deposed in 976 when Bavaria was
+given to Otto, duke of Swabia. At the same time Carinthia was made into
+a separate duchy, the office of count palatine was restored, and the
+church was made dependent on the king instead of on the duke. Restored
+in 985, Henry proved himself a capable ruler by establishing internal
+order, issuing important laws and taking measures to reform the
+monasteries. His son and successor, who was chosen German king as Henry
+II. in 1002, gave Bavaria to his brother-in-law Henry of Luxemburg;
+after whose death in 1026 it passed successively to Henry, afterwards
+the emperor Henry III., and to another member of the family of
+Luxemburg, as Duke Henry VII. In 1061 the empress Agnes, mother of and
+regent for the German king Henry IV., entrusted the duchy to Otto of
+Nordheim, who was deposed by the king in 1070, when the duchy was
+granted to Count Welf, a member of an influential Bavarian family. In
+consequence of his support of Pope Greegory VII. in his quarrel with
+Henry, Welf lost but subsequently regained Bavaria; and was followed
+successively by his sons, Welf II. in 1101, and Henry IX. in 1120, both
+of whom exercised considerable influence among the German princes. Henry
+was succeeded in 1126 by his son Henry X., called the Proud, who
+obtained the duchy of Saxony in 1137. Alarmed at this prince's power,
+King Conrad III. refused to allow two duchies to remain in the same
+hands; and, having declared Henry deposed, he bestowed Bavaria upon
+Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. When Leopold died in 1141, the king
+retained the duchy himself; but it continued to be the scene of
+considerable disorder, and in 1143 he entrusted it to Henry II.,
+surnamed Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria. The struggle for its
+possession continued until 1156, when King Frederick I. in his desire to
+restore peace to Germany persuaded Henry to give up Bavaria to Henry the
+Lion, a son of Duke Henry the Proud.
+
+
+  Then to the Wittelsbachs.
+
+  Area of Bavaria.
+
+A new era of government set in when, in consequence of Henry being
+placed under the imperial ban in 1180, the duchy was given by Frederick
+I. to Otto, a member of the old Bavarian family of Wittelsbach (q.v.),
+and a descendant of the counts of Scheyern. During the years following
+the destruction of the Carolingian empire the borders of Bavaria were
+continually changing, and for a lengthened period after 955 this process
+was one of expansion. To the west the Lech still divided Bavaria from
+Swabia, but on three other sides the opportunities for extension had
+been taken advantage of, and the duchy embraced an area of considerable
+dimensions north of the Danube. During the later years of the rule of
+the Welfs, however, a contrary tendency had operated, and the extent of
+Bavaria had been reduced. The immense energies of Duke Henry the Lion
+had been devoted to his northern rather than his southern duchy, and
+when the dispute over the Bavarian succession was settled in 1156 the
+district between the Enns and the Inn had been transferred to Austria.
+The increasing importance of the mark of Styria, erected into a duchy in
+1180, and the county of Tirol, had diminished both the actual and the
+relative strength of Bavaria, which was now deprived on almost all sides
+of opportunities for expansion. The neighbouring duchy of Carinthia, the
+great temporal possessions of the archbishop of Salzburg, as well as a
+general tendency to independence on the part of both clerical and lay
+nobles, were additional forces of similar influence.
+
+
+  Rule of the Wittelsbachs.
+
+  Division of the duchy.
+
+  Upper Bavaria.
+
+When Otto of Wittelsbach was invested with Bavaria at Altenburg in
+September 1180 the duchy was bounded by the Bohmerwald, the Inn, the
+Alps and the Lech; and the power of the duke was practically confined to
+his extensive private domains around Wittelsbach, Kelheim and Straubing.
+Otto only enjoyed his new dignity for three years, and was succeeded in
+1183 by his son Louis I., who took a leading part in German affairs
+during the earlier years of the reign of the emperor Frederick II., and
+was assassinated at Kelheim in September 1231. His son Otto II., called
+the Illustrious, was the next duke, and his loyalty to the Hohenstaufen
+caused him to be placed under the papal ban, and Bavaria to be laid
+under an interdict. Like his father, Otto increased the area of his
+lands by purchases; and he had considerably strengthened his hold upon
+the duchy before he died in November 1253. The efforts of the dukes to
+increase their power and to give unity to the duchy had met with a fair
+measure of success; but they were soon vitiated by partitions among
+different members of the family which for 250 years made the history of
+Bavaria little more than a jejune chronicle of territorial divisions
+bringing war and weakness in their train. The first of these divisions
+was made in 1255 between Louis II. and Henry I., the sons of Duke Otto
+II., who for two years after their father's death had ruled Bavaria
+jointly; and by it Louis obtained the western part of the duchy,
+afterwards called Upper Bavaria, and Henry secured eastern or Lower
+Bavaria. In the course of a long reign Louis, who was called the Stern,
+became the most powerful prince in southern Germany. He was the uncle
+and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, and when this prince was put
+to death in Italy in 1268, Louis and his brother Henry inherited the
+domains of the Hohenstaufen in Swabia and elsewhere. He supported
+Rudolph, count of Habsburg, in his efforts to secure the German throne
+in 1273, married the new king's daughter Mechtild, and aided him in
+campaigns in Bohemia and elsewhere. For some years after Louis' death in
+1294 his sons Rudolph I. and Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV.,
+ruled their duchy in common; but as their relations were never
+harmonious a division of Upper Bavaria was made in 1310, by which
+Rudolph received the land east of the Isar together with the town of
+Munich, and Louis the district between the Isar and the Lech. It was not
+long, however, before this arrangement led to war between the brothers,
+the outcome of which was that in 1317, three years after he had been
+chosen German king, Louis compelled Rudolph to abdicate, and for twelve
+years ruled alone over the whole of Upper Bavaria. But in 1329 a series
+of events induced him to conclude the treaty of Pavia with Rudolph's
+sons, Rudolph and Rupert, to whom he transferred the Palatinate of the
+Rhine, which had been in the possession of the Wittelsbach family since
+1214, and also a portion of Upper Bavaria north of the Danube, which was
+afterwards called the Upper Palatinate. At the same time it was decided
+that the electoral vote should be exercised by the two lines
+alternately, and that in the event of either branch of the family
+becoming extinct the surviving branch should inherit its possessions.
+
+
+  Lower Bavaria.
+
+  Reunion of the duchy.
+
+Henry I. of Lower Bavaria spent most of his time in quarrels with his
+brother, with Ottakar II. of Bohemia and with various ecclesiastics.
+When he died in February 1200 Lower Bavaria was ruled by his three sons,
+Otto III., Louis III. and Stephen I. Louis died childless in 1296;
+Stephen left two sons at his death in 1310, namely, Henry II. and Otto
+IV., and Otto, who was king of Hungary from 1305 to 1308, died in 1312,
+leaving a son, Henry III. Lower Bavaria was governed by these three
+princes until 1333, when Henry III. died, followed in 1334 by his cousin
+Otto; and as both died without sons the whole of Lower Bavaria then
+passed to Henry II. Dying in 1339, Henry left an only son, John I., who
+died childless in the following year, when the emperor Louis IV., by
+securing Lower Bavaria for himself, united the whole of the duchy under
+his sway. The consolidation of Bavaria under Louis lasted for seven
+years, during which the emperor was able to improve the condition of the
+country. When he died in 1347 he left six sons to share his possessions,
+who agreed upon a division of Bavaria in 1349. Its history, however, was
+complicated by its connexion with Brandenburg, Holland and Tirol, all of
+which had also been left by the emperor to his sons. All the six
+brothers exercised some authority in Bavaria; but three alone left
+issue, and of these the eldest, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, died in
+1361; and two years later was followed to the grave by his only son
+Meinhard, who was childless. The two remaining brothers, Stephen II. and
+Albert I., ruled over Bavaria-Landshut and Bavaria-Straubing
+respectively, and when Stephen died in 1375 his portion of Bavaria was
+governed jointly by his three sons. In 1392, when all the lines except
+those of Stephen and Albert had died out, an important partition took
+place, by which the greater part of the duchy was divided among
+Stephen's three sons, Stephen III., Frederick and John II., who founded
+respectively the lines of Ingolstadt, Landshut and Munich. Albert's
+duchy of Bavaria-Straubing passed on his death in 1404 to his son
+William II., and in 1417 to his younger son John, who resigned the
+bishopric of Liege to take up his new position. When John died in 1425
+this family became extinct, and after a contest between various
+claimants Bavaria-Straubing was divided between the three remaining
+branches of the family.
+
+
+  Internal condition 1392.
+
+  Intestine troubles.
+
+The main result of the threefold division of 1392 was a succession of
+civil wars which led to the temporary eclipse of Bavaria as a force in
+German politics. Neighbouring states encroached upon its borders, and
+the nobles ignored the authority of the dukes, who, deprived of the
+electoral vote, were mainly occupied for fifty years with intestine
+strife. This condition of affairs, however, was not wholly harmful. The
+government of the country and the control of the finances passed mainly
+into the hands of an assembly called the _Landtag_ or _Landschaft_,
+which had been organized in 1392. The towns, assuming a certain
+independence, became strong and wealthy as trade increased, and the
+citizens of Munich and Regensburg were often formidable antagonists to
+the dukes. Thus a period of disorder saw the growth of representative
+institutions and the establishment of a strong civic spirit. Stephen
+III., duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, was distinguished rather as a soldier
+than as a statesman; and his rule was marked by struggles with various
+towns, and with his brother, John of Bavaria-Munich. Dying in 1413 he
+was followed by his son, Louis, called the Bearded, a restless and
+quarrelsome prince, who before his accession had played an important
+part in the affairs of France, where his sister Isabella was the queen
+of King Charles VI. About 1417 he became involved in a violent quarrel
+with his cousin, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, fell under both the papal
+and the imperial ban, and in 1439 was attacked by his son Louis the
+Lame. This prince, who had married a daughter of Frederick I. of
+Hohenzollern, margrave of Brandenburg, was incensed at the favour shown
+by his father to an illegitimate son. Aided by Albert Achilles,
+afterwards margrave of Brandenburg, he took the elder Louis prisoner and
+compelled him to abdicate in 1443. When Louis the Lame died in 1445 his
+father came into the power of his implacable enemy, Henry of
+Bavaria-Landshut, and died in prison in 1447. The duchy of
+Bavaria-Ingolstadt passed to Henry, who had succeeded his father
+Frederick as duke of Bavaria-Landshut in 1393, and whose long reign was
+almost entirely occupied with family feuds. He died in July 1450, and
+was followed by his son, Louis IX. (called the Rich), and about this
+time Bavaria began to recover some of its former importance. Louis IX.
+expelled the Jews from his duchy, did something for the security of
+traders, and improved both the administration of justice and the
+condition of the finances. In 1472 he founded the university of
+Ingolstadt, attempted to reform the monasteries, and was successful in a
+struggle with Albert Achilles of Brandenburg. On his death in January
+1479 he was succeeded by his son George, also called the Rich; and when
+George, a faithful adherent of the German king Maximilian I., died
+without sons in December 1503, a war broke out for the possession of his
+duchy.
+
+
+  War over the succession to Bavaria-Landshut.
+
+  Reigns of Albert the Wise and William IV.
+
+Bavaria-Munich passed on the death of John II. in 1397 to his sons
+Ernest and William III., but they only obtained possession of their
+lands after a struggle with Stephen of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Both brothers
+were then engaged in warfare with the other branches of the family and
+with the citizens of Munich. William, a loyal servant of the emperor
+Sigismund, died in 1435, leaving an only son, Adolf, who died five years
+later; and Ernest, distinguished for his bodily strength, died in 1438.
+In 1440 the whole of Bavaria-Munich came to Ernest's son Albert, who had
+been estranged from his father owing to his union with the unfortunate
+Agnes Bernauer (q.v.). Albert, whose attempts to reform the monasteries
+earned for him the surname of Pious, was almost elected king of Bohemia
+in 1440. He died in 1460, leaving five sons, the two elder of whom, John
+IV. and Sigismund, reigned in common until the death of John in 1463.
+The third brother, Albert, who had been educated for the church, joined
+his brother in 1465, and when Sigismund abdicated two years later became
+sole ruler in spite of the claims of his two younger brothers. Albert,
+who was called the Wise, added the district of Abensberg to his
+possessions, and in 1504 became involved in the war which broke out for
+the possession of Bavaria-Landshut on the death of George the Rich.
+Albert's rival was George's son-in-law, Rupert, formerly bishop of
+Freising, and son of Philip, count palatine of the Rhine; and the
+emperor Maximilian I., interested as archduke of Austria and count of
+Tirol, interfered in the dispute. Rupert died in 1504, and the following
+year an arrangement was made at the diet of Cologne by which the emperor
+and Philip's grandson, Otto Henry, obtained certain outlying districts,
+while Albert by securing the bulk of George's possessions united Bavaria
+under his rule. In 1506 Albert decreed that the duchy should pass
+undivided according to the rules of primogeniture, and endeavoured in
+other ways also to consolidate Bavaria. He was partially successful in
+improving the condition of the country; and in 1500 Bavaria formed one
+of the six circles into which Germany was divided for the maintenance of
+peace. He died in March 1508, and was succeeded by his son, William IV.,
+whose mother, Kunigunde, was a daughter of the emperor Frederick III. In
+spite of the decree of 1506 William was compelled in 1516, after a
+violent quarrel, to grant a share in the government to his brother
+Louis, an arrangement which lasted until the death of Louis in 1545.
+
+
+  Roman Catholicism in Bavaria.
+
+  Reign of Maximillian I. and the Thirty Years' War.
+
+William followed the traditional Wittelsbach policy, opposition to the
+Habsburgs, until in 1534 he made a treaty at Linz with Ferdinand, king
+of Hungary and Bohemia. This was strengthened in 1546, when the emperor
+Charles V. obtained the help of the duke during the war of the league of
+Schmalkalden by promising him in certain eventualities the succession to
+the Bohemian throne, and the electoral dignity enjoyed by the count
+palatine of the Rhine. William also did much at a critical period to
+secure Bavaria for Catholicism. The reformed doctrines had made
+considerable progress in the duchy when the duke from the pope extensive
+rights over the bishoprics and monasteries, and took measures to repress
+the reformers, many of whom were banished; while the Jesuits, whom he
+invited into the duchy in 1541, made the university of Ingolstadt their
+headquarters for Germany. William, whose death occurred in March 1550,
+was succeeded by his son Albert IV., who had married a daughter of
+Ferdinand of Habsburg, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I. Early in his
+reign Albert made some concessions to the reformers, who were still
+strong in Bavaria; but about 1563 he changed his attitude, favoured the
+decrees of the council of Trent, and pressed forward the work of the
+Counter-Reformation. As education passed by degrees into the hands of
+the Jesuits the progress of Protestantism was effectually arrested in
+Bavaria. Albert IV. was a great patron of art. His court at Munich was
+the resort of artists of all kinds, and the city was enriched with
+splendid buildings; while artistic works were collected from Italy and
+elsewhere. The expenses of a magnificent court led the duke to quarrel
+with the _Landschaft_, to oppress his subjects, and to leave a great
+burden of debt when he died in October 1579. The succeeding duke was
+Albert's son, William V. (called the Pious), who was educated by the
+Jesuits and was keenly attached to their tenets. He secured the
+archbishopric of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this
+dignity remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years.
+In 1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian I., and retired
+into a monastery, where he died in 1626. Maximilian found the duchy
+encumbered with debt and filled with disorder, but ten years of his
+vigorous rule effected a remarkable change. The finances and the
+judicial system were reorganized, a class of civil servants and a
+national militia founded, and several small districts were brought under
+the duke's authority. The result was a unity and order in the duchy
+which enabled Maximilian to play an important part in the Thirty Years'
+War; during the earlier years of which he was so successful as to
+acquire the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity which had been
+enjoyed since 1356 by the elder branch of the Wittelsbach family. In
+spite of subsequent reverses these gains were retained by Maximilian at
+the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the later years of this war
+Bavaria, especially the northern part, suffered severely. In 1632 it was
+invaded by the Swedes, and, when Maximilian violated the treaty of Ulm
+in 1647, was ravaged by the French and the Swedes. After repairing this
+damage to some extent, the elector died at Ingolstadt in September 1651,
+leaving his duchy much stronger than he had found it. The recovery of
+the Upper Palatinate made Bavaria compact; the acquisition of the
+electoral vote made it influential; and the duchy was able to play a
+part in European politics which intestine strife had rendered impossible
+for the past four hundred years.     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+  Beginning of modern period.
+
+  Re-union of the Palatinate.
+
+Whatever lustre the international position won by Maximilian I. might
+add to the ducal house, on Bavaria itself its effect during the next two
+centuries was more dubious. Maximillian's son, Ferdinand Maria
+(1651-1679), who was a minor when he succeeded, did much indeed to
+repair the wounds caused by the Thirty Years' War, encouraging
+agriculture and industries, and building or restoring numerous churches
+and monasteries. In 1669, moreover, he again called a meeting of the
+diet, which had been suspended since 1612. His good work, however, was
+largely undone by his son Maximilian II. Emmanuel (1679-1726), whose
+far-reaching ambition set him warring against the Turks and, on the side
+of France, in the great struggle of the Spanish succession. He shared in
+the defeat at Hochstadt on the 13th of August 1704; his dominions were
+temporarily partitioned between Austria and the elector palatine, and
+only restored to him, harried and exhausted, at the peace of Baden in
+1714. Untaught by Maximilian Emmanuel's experience, his son, Charles
+Albert (1726-1745), devoted all his energies to increasing the European
+prestige and power of his house. The death of the emperor Charles VI.
+was his opportunity; he disputed the validity of the Pragmatic Sanction
+which secured the Habsburg succession to Maria Theresa, allied himself
+with France, conquered Upper Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia at
+Prague and, in 1742, emperor at Frankfort. The price he had to pay,
+however, was the occupation of Bavaria itself by Austrian troops; and,
+though the invasion of Bohemia in 1744 by Frederick II. of Prussia
+enabled him to return to Munich, at his death on the 20th of January
+1745 it was left to his successor to make what terms he could for the
+recovery of his dominions. Maximilian III. Joseph (1745-1777), by the
+peace of Fussen signed on the 22nd of April 1745, obtained the
+restitution of his dominions in return for a formal acknowledgment of
+the Pragmatic Sanction. He was a man of enlightenment, did much to
+encourage agriculture, industries and the exploitation of the mineral
+wealth of the country, founded the Academy of Sciences at Munich, and
+abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. At his death, without
+issue, on the 30th of December 1777, the Bavarian line of the
+Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed to Charles
+Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of four and a half
+centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Julich and Berg had
+been added, was thus reunited with Bavaria. So great an accession of
+strength to a neighbouring state, whose ambition she had so recently had
+just reason to fear, was intolerable to Austria, which laid claim to a
+number of lordships--forming one-third of the whole Bavarian
+inheritance--as lapsed fiefs of the Bohemian, Austrian, and imperial
+crowns. These were at once occupied by Austrian troops, with the secret
+consent of Charles Theodore himself, who was without legitimate heirs,
+and wished to obtain from the emperor the elevation of his natural
+children to the status of princes of the Empire. The protests of the
+next heir, Charles, duke of Zweibrucken (Deux-Ponts), supported by the
+king of Prussia, led to the war of Bavarian succession. By the peace of
+Teschen (May 13th, 1779) the Inn quarter was ceded to Austria, and the
+succession secured to Charles of Zweibrucken. For Bavaria itself Charles
+Theodore did less than nothing. He felt himself a foreigner among
+foreigners, and his favourite scheme, the subject of endless intrigues
+with the Austrian cabinet and the immediate cause of Frederick II.'s
+League of Princes (_Furstenbund_) of 1785, was to exchange Bavaria for
+the Austrian Netherlands and the title of king of Burgundy. For the
+rest, the enlightened internal policy of his predecessor was abandoned.
+The funds of the suppressed order of Jesus, which Maximilian Joseph had
+destined for the reform of the educational system of the country, were
+used to endow a province of the knights of St John of Jerusalem, for the
+purpose of combating the enemies of the faith. The government was
+inspired by the narrowest clericalism, which culminated in the attempt
+to withdraw the Bavarian bishops from the jurisdiction of the great
+German metropolitans and place them directly under that of the pope. On
+the eve of the Revolution the intellectual and social condition of
+Bavaria remained that of the middle ages.
+
+
+  The revolutionary wars.
+
+In 1792 the revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in 1795 the
+French, under Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced to Munich--where
+they were received with joy by the long-suppressed Liberals--and laid
+siege to Ingolstadt. Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent
+or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony, leaving a regency, the
+members of which signed a convention with Moreau, by which he granted an
+armistice in return for a heavy contribution (September 7th, 1796).
+Immediately afterwards he was forced to retire.
+
+Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in an evil case.
+Before the death of Charles Theodore (February 16th, 1799) the Austrians
+had again occupied the country, preparatory to renewing the war with
+France. Maximilian IV. Joseph (of Zweibrucken), the new elector,
+succeeded to a difficult inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and
+those of his all-powerful minister, Max Josef von Montgelas (q.v.),
+were, if anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the
+Bavarian finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered
+and disorganized, placed him helpless in the hands of Austria; on the
+2nd of December 1800 the Bavarian arms were involved in the Austrian
+defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more occupied Munich. By the
+treaty of Luneville (February 9th, 1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and
+the duchies of Zweibrucken and Julich.
+
+
+  French influence.
+
+In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of the
+Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of Bavaria lay
+in a frank alliance with the French republic; he succeeded in overcoming
+the reluctance of Maximilian Joseph; and, on the 24th of August, a
+separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at Paris.
+By the third article of this the First Consul undertook to see that the
+compensation promised under the 7th article of the treaty of Luneville
+for the territory ceded on the left bank of the Rhine, should be carried
+out at the expense of the Empire in the manner most agreeable to Bavaria
+(de Martens, _Recueil_, vol. vii. p. 365). In 1803, accordingly, in the
+territorial rearrangements consequent on Napoleon's suppression of the
+ecclesiastical states, and of many free cities of the Empire, Bavaria
+received the bishoprics of Wurzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg and Freisingen,
+part of that of Passau, the territories of twelve abbeys, and seventeen
+cities and villages, the whole forming a compact territory which more
+than compensated for the loss of her outlying provinces on the Rhine.[1]
+Montgelas' ambition was now to raise Bavaria to the rank of a first-rate
+power, and he pursued this object during the Napoleonic epoch with
+consummate skill, allowing fully for the preponderance of France--so
+long as it lasted--but never permitting Bavaria to sink, like so many of
+the states of the confederation of the Rhine, into a mere French
+dependency. In the war of 1805, in accordance with a treaty of alliance
+signed at Wurzburg on the 23rd of September, Bavarian troops, for the
+first time since Charles VII., fought side by side with the French, and
+by the treaty of Pressburg, signed on the 26th of December, the
+principality of Eichstadt, the margraviate of Burgau, the lordship of
+Vorarlberg, the countships of Hohenems and Konigsegg-Rothenfels, the
+lordships of Argen and Tetnang, and the city of Lindau with its
+territory were to be added to Bavaria. On the other hand Wurzburg,
+obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria to the elector of Salzburg
+in exchange for Tirol. By the 1st article of the treaty the emperor
+acknowledged the assumption by the elector of the title of king, as
+Maximilian I.[2] The price which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for
+this accession of dignity was the marriage of his daughter Augusta with
+Eugene Beauharnais.
+
+For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French alliance had
+noteworthy consequences. Maximilian himself was an "enlightened" prince
+of the 18th-century type, whose tolerant principles had already
+grievously offended his clerical subjects; Montgelas was a firm believer
+in drastic reform "from above," and, in 1803, had discussed with the
+rump of the old estates the question of reforms. But the revolutionary
+changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on the 1st of May 1808
+were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean sweep was made of
+the medieval polity surviving in the somnolent local diets and
+corporations. In place of the old system of privileges and exemptions
+were set equality before the law, universal liability to taxation,
+abolition of serfdom, security of person and property, liberty of
+conscience and of the press. A representative assembly was created on
+paper, based on a narrow franchise and with very limited powers, but was
+never summoned.
+
+
+  Treaty of Ried.
+
+In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on the side of
+France, and by the treaty signed at Paris on the 28th of February 1810
+ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some small districts to Wurttemberg,
+receiving as compensation parts of Salzburg, the quarters of the Inn and
+Hausruck and the principalities of Bayreuth and Regensburg. So far the
+policy of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful; but the star of
+Napoleon had now reached its zenith, and already the astute opportunist
+had noted the signs of the coming change. The events of 1812 followed;
+in 1813 Bavaria was summoned to join the alliance against Napoleon, the
+demand being passionately backed by the crown prince Louis and by
+Marshal Wrede; on the 8th of October was signed the treaty of Ried, by
+which Bavaria threw in her lot with the Allies. Montgelas announced to
+the French ambassador that he had been compelled temporarily to bow
+before the storm, adding "Bavaria has need of France." (For Bavaria's
+share in the war see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.)
+
+
+  Relations with Austria.
+
+Immediately after the first peace of Paris (1814), Bavaria ceded to
+Austria Tirol and Vorarlberg; by the congress of Vienna it was decided
+that she was to add to these the greater part of Salzburg and the
+quarters of the Inn and Hausruck, receiving as compensation, besides
+Wurzburg and Aschaffenburg, the Palatinate on the left bank of the Rhine
+and certain districts of Hesse and of the former abbacy of Fulda. But
+with the collapse of France the old fear and jealousy of Austria had
+revived in full force, and Bavaria only agreed to these cessions (treaty
+of Munich, April 16th, 1816) on Austria promising that, in the event of
+the powers ignoring her claim to the Baden succession in favour of that
+of the line of the counts of Hochberg, she should receive also the
+Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine. The question was thus left
+open, the tension between the two powers remained extreme, and war was
+only averted by the authority of the Grand Alliance. At the congress of
+Aix (1818) the question of the Baden succession was settled in favour of
+the Hochberg line, without the compensation stipulated for in the treaty
+of Munich; and by the treaty of Frankfort, signed on behalf of the four
+great powers on the 20th of July 1819, the territorial questions at
+issue between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the protests
+of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement made at Vienna. A
+small strip of territory was added, to connect Bavaria with the
+Palatinate, and Bavarian troops were to garrison the federal fortress of
+Mainz.
+
+
+  Constitution of 1818.
+
+  Lola Montez.
+
+Meanwhile, on the 1st of February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed;
+and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform. This
+implied no breach with the European policy of the fallen minister. In
+the new German confederation Bavaria had assumed the role of defender of
+the smaller states against the ambitions of Austria and Prussia, and
+Montgelas had dreamed of a Bavarian hegemony in South Germany similar to
+that of Prussia in the north. It was to obtain popular support for this
+policy and for the Bavarian claims on Baden that the crown prince
+pressed for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to
+concede it being the cause of his dismissal. On the 26th of May 1818 the
+constitution was proclaimed. The parliament was to consist of two
+houses; the first comprising the great hereditary landowners, government
+officials and nominees of the crown; the second, elected on a very
+narrow franchise, representatives of the small land-owners, the towns
+and the peasants. By additional articles the equality of religions was
+guaranteed and the rights of Protestants safeguarded, concessions which
+were denounced at Rome as a breach of the Concordat, which had been
+signed immediately before. The result of the constitutional experiment
+hardly justified the royal expectations; the parliament was hardly
+opened (February 5th, 1819) before the doctrinaire radicalism of some of
+its members, culminating in the demand that the army should swear
+allegiance to the constitution, so alarmed the king, that he appealed to
+Austria and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures
+they might recommend. Prussia, however, refused to approve of any _coup
+d'etat_; the parliament, chastened by the consciousness that its life
+depended on the goodwill of the king, moderated its tone; and Maximilian
+ruled till his death as a model constitutional monarch. On the 13th of
+October 1825, he was succeeded by his son, Louis I., an enlightened
+patron of the arts and sciences, who transferred the university of
+Landshut to Munich, which, by his magnificent taste in building, he
+transformed into one of the most beautiful cities of the continent. The
+earlier years of his reign were marked by a liberal spirit and the
+reform, especially, of the financial administration; but the revolutions
+of 1831 frightened him into reaction, which was accentuated by the
+opposition of the parliament to his expenditure on building and works of
+art. In 1837 the Ultramontanes came into power with Karl von Abel
+(1788-1859) as prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand;
+one by one the liberal provisions of the constitution were modified or
+annulled; the Protestants were harried and oppressed; and a rigorous
+censorship forbade any free discussion of internal politics. The
+collapse of this regime was due, not to popular agitation, but to the
+resentment of Louis at the clerical opposition to the influence of his
+mistress, Lola Montez. On the 17th of February 1847, Abel was dismissed,
+for publishing his memorandum against the proposal to naturalize Lola,
+who was an Irishwoman; and the Protestant Georg Ludwig von Maurer
+(q.v.) took his place. The new ministry granted the certificate of
+naturalization; but riots, in which ultramontane professors of the
+university took part, were the result. The professors were deprived, the
+parliament dissolved, and, on the 27th of November, the ministry
+dismissed. Lola Montez, created Countess Landsfeld, was supreme in the
+state; and the new minister, Prince Ludwig von Oettingen-Wallerstein
+(1791-1870), in spite of his efforts to enlist Liberal sympathy by
+appeals to pan-German patriotism, was powerless to form a stable
+government. His cabinet was known as the "Lolaministerium"; in February
+1848, stimulated by the news from Paris, riots broke out against the
+countess; on the 11th of March the king dismissed Oettingen, and on the
+20th, realizing the force of public opinion against him, abdicated in
+favour of his son, Maximilian II.
+
+
+  Anti-Prussian policy.
+
+Before his abdication Louis had issued, on the 6th of March, a
+proclamation promising the zealous co-operation of the Bavarian
+government in the work of German freedom and unity. To the spirit of
+this Maximilian was faithful, accepting the authority of the central
+government at Frankfort, and (19th of December) sanctioning the official
+promulgation of the laws passed by the German parliament. But Prussia
+was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In refusing to agree to the offer
+of the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., Maximilian had the
+support of his parliament. In withholding his assent to the new German
+constitution, by which Austria was excluded from the Confederation, he
+ran indeed counter to the sentiment of his people; but by this time the
+back of the revolution was broken, and in the events which led to the
+humiliation of Prussia at Olmutz in 1851, and the restoration of the old
+diet of the Confederation, Bavaria was safe in casting in her lot with
+Austria (see GERMANY: _History_). The guiding spirit in this
+anti-Prussian policy, which characterized Bavarian statesmanship up to
+the war of 1866, was Ludwig Karl Heinrich von der Pfordten (1811-1880),
+who became minister for foreign affairs on the 19th of April 1849. His
+idea for the ultimate solution of the question of the balance of power
+in Germany was the so-called _Trias_, i.e. a league of the Rhenish
+states as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and Prussia. In
+internal affairs his ministry was characterized by a reactionary policy
+less severe than elsewhere in Germany, which led none the less from 1854
+onward to a struggle with the parliament, which ended in the dismissal
+of Pfordten's ministry on the 27th of March 1859. He was succeeded by
+Karl Freiherr von Schrenk auf Notzing (1806-1884), an official of
+Liberal tendencies who had been Bavarian representative in the diet of
+the Confederation. Important reforms were now introduced, including the
+separation of the judicial and executive powers and the drawing up of a
+new criminal code. In foreign affairs Schrenk, like his predecessor,
+aimed at safeguarding the independence of Bavaria, and supported the
+idea of superseding the actual constitution of the Confederation by a
+supreme directory, in which Bavaria, as leader of the purely German
+states, would hold the balance between Prussia and Austria. Bavaria
+accordingly opposed the Prussian proposals for the reorganization of the
+Confederation, and one of the last acts of King Maximilian was to take a
+conspicuous part in the assembly of princes summoned to Frankfort in
+1863 by the emperor Francis Joseph (see GERMANY).
+
+Maximilian was succeeded on the 10th of March 1864 by his son Louis II.,
+a youth of eighteen. The government was at first carried on by Schrenk
+and Pfordten in concert. Schrenk soon retired, when the Bavarian
+government found it necessary, in order to maintain its position in the
+Prussian _Zollverein_, to become a party to the Prussian commercial
+treaty with France, signed in 1862. In the complicated Schleswig-Holstein
+question (q.v.) Bavaria, under Pfordten's guidance, consistently opposed
+Prussia, and headed the lesser states in their support of Frederick of
+Augustenburg against the policy of the two great German powers. Finally,
+in the war of 1866, in spite of Bismarck's efforts to secure her
+neutrality, Bavaria sided actively with Austria.
+
+
+  Union with German Empire.
+
+The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation of Bismarck
+paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria's relation to Prussia
+and the German question. The South German Confederation, contemplated by
+the 6th article of the treaty of Prague, never came into being; and,
+though Prussia, in order not prematurely to excite the alarm of France,
+opposed the suggestion that the southern states should join the North
+German Confederation, the bonds of Bavaria, as of the other southern
+states, with the north, were strengthened by an offensive and defensive
+alliance with Prussia, as the result of Napoleon's demand for
+"compensation" in the Palatinate. This was signed at Berlin on the 22nd
+of August 1866, on the same day as the signature of the formal treaty of
+peace between the two countries. The separatist ambitions of Bavaria
+were thus formally given up; she had no longer "need of France"; and in
+the war of 1870-71, the Bavarian army marched, under the command of the
+Prussian crown prince, against the common enemy of Germany. It was on
+the proposal of King Louis II. that the imperial crown was offered to
+King William.
+
+This was preceded, on the 23rd of November 1870, by the signature of a
+treaty between Bavaria and the North German Confederation. By this
+instrument, though Bavaria became an integral part of the new German
+empire, she reserved a larger measure of sovereign independence than any
+of the other constituent states. Thus she retained a separate diplomatic
+service, military administration, and postal, telegraph and railway
+systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian chambers on the 21st of
+January 1871, though not without considerable opposition on the part of
+the so-called "patriot" party. Their hostility was increased by the
+_Kulturkampf_, due to the promulgation in 1870 of the dogma of papal
+infallibility. Munich University, where Dollinger (q.v.) was professor,
+became the centre of the opposition to the new dogma, and the "old
+Catholics" (q.v.) were protected by the king and the government. The
+federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on the 6th
+of September 1871 and was extended to the Redemptorists in 1873. On the
+31st of March 1871, moreover, the bonds with the rest of the empire had
+been drawn closer by the acceptance of a number of laws of the North
+German Confederation, of which the most important was the new criminal
+code, which was finally put into force in Bavaria in 1879. The
+opposition of the "patriot" party, however, reinforced by the strong
+Catholic sentiment of the country, continued powerful, and it was only
+the steady support given by the king to successive Liberal ministries
+that prevented its finding disastrous expression in the parliament,
+where it remained in a greater or less majority till 1887, and has
+since, as the "centre," continued to form the most compact party in an
+assembly made up of "groups."
+
+Meanwhile the royal dreamer, whose passion for building palaces was
+becoming a serious drain on the treasury, had been declared insane, and,
+on the 7th of June 1886, the heir-presumptive, Prince Luitpold, was
+proclaimed regent. Six days later, on the 13th of June, Louis committed
+suicide. His brother, Otto I., being also insane, the regency was
+confirmed to Prince Luitpold.
+
+Since 1871 Bavaria has shared to the full in the marvellous development
+of Germany; but her "particularism," founded on traditional racial and
+religious antagonism to the Prussians, was by no means dead, though it
+exhibited itself in no more dangerous form than the prohibition,
+reissued in 1900, to display any but the Bavarian flag on public
+buildings on the emperor's birthday; a provision which has been since so
+far modified as to allow the Bavarian and imperial flags to be hung side
+by side.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Monumenta Boica_ (44 vols., Munich, 1763-1900); G.T.
+  Rudhart, _Aelteste Geschichte Bayerns_ (Hamburg, 1841); A. Quitzmann,
+  _Abstammung, Ursitz, und alteste Geschichte der Bairwaren_ (Munich,
+  1857), and _Die alteste Geschichte der Baiern bis 911_ (Brunswick,
+  1873); S. Riezler, _Geschichte Bayerns_ (Gotha, 1878-1899); Ad.
+  Brecher, _Darstellung der geschichtlichen Entwickelung des bayrischen
+  Staatsgebiets_, map (Berlin, 1890); E. Rosenthal, _Geschichte des
+  Gerichtswesens und der Verwaltungsorganisation Bayerns_ (Wurzburg,
+  1889); A. Buchner, _Geschichte von Baiern_ (Munich, 1820-1853);
+  _Forschungen zur Geschichte Bayerns_, edited by K. von
+  Reinhardstottner (Berlin, 1897 fol.). Much valuable detail will be
+  found in the lives of Bavarian princes and statesmen in the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (Leipzig, 1875-1906 in progr.)
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _Reces de la deputation de l'empire ... du 25 fevr, 1803_,
+    &c., S II. vol. vii. p. 453 of G.F. de Martens, _Recueil des
+    Traites_, &c. (Gottingue, 1831).
+
+  [2] Text in de Martens' _Recueil_, viii. p. 388.
+
+
+
+
+BAVENO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Novara, on the
+west shore of Lago Maggiore, 13 m. N.N.W. of Arona by rail. Pop. (1901)
+2502. It is much frequented as a resort in spring, summer and autumn,
+and has many beautiful villas. To the north-west are the famous red
+granite quarries, which have supplied the columns for the cathedral of
+Milan, the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, the Galleria
+Vittorio Emanuele at Milan, and other important buildings.
+
+
+
+
+BAWBEE (of very doubtful origin, the most plausible conjecture being
+that the word is a corruption from the name of the mint master
+Sillebawby, by whom they were first issued, c. 1541), the Scottish name
+for a halfpenny or other small coin, and hence used of money generally.
+A writer in 1573, quoted in Tytler's _History of Scotland_, speaks of "a
+coin called a bawbee, ... which is in value English one penny and a
+quarter." The word was sometimes written "babie," and has therefore been
+identified merely with a "baby coin," but this etymology is less
+probable.
+
+
+
+
+BAXTER, ANDREW (1686-1750), Scottish metaphysician, was born in Aberdeen
+and educated at King's College. He maintained himself by acting as tutor
+to noblemen's sons. From 1741 to 1747 he lived with Lord Blantyre and Mr
+Hay of Drummelzier at Utrecht, and made excursions in Flanders, France
+and Germany. Returning to Scotland, he lived at Whittingehame, near
+Edinburgh, till his death in 1750. At Spa he had met John Wilkes, then
+twenty years of age, and formed a lasting friendship with him. His chief
+work, _An Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul_ (editions 1733,
+1737 and 1745; with appendix added in 1750 in answer to an attack in
+Maclaurin's Account of Sir I. Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, and
+dedication to John Wilkes), examines the properties of matter. The one
+essential property of matter is its inactivity, _vis inertiae_ (accepted
+later by Monboddo). All movement in matter is, therefore, caused by some
+immaterial force, namely, God. But the movements of the body are not
+analogous to the movements of matter; they are caused by a special
+immaterial force, the soul. The soul, as being immaterial, is immortal,
+and its consciousness does not depend upon its connexion with the body.
+The argument is supported by an analysis of the phenomena of dreams,
+which are ascribed to direct spiritual influences. Lastly Baxter
+attempted to prove that matter is finite. His work is an attack on
+Toland's _Letters to Serena_ (1704), which argued that motion is
+essential to matter, and on Locke and Berkeley. His criticism of
+Berkeley (in the second volume) is, however, based on the common
+misinterpretation of his theory (see BERKELEY). Sir Leslie Stephen
+speaks of him as a curious example of "the effects of an exploded
+metaphysics on a feeble though ingenious intellect."
+
+Beside the _Inquiry_, Baxter wrote _Matho sive Cosmotheoria Puerilis_
+(an exposition in Latin of the elements of astronomy written for his
+pupils--editions in English 1740, 1745 and 1765, with one dialogue
+re-written); _Evidence of Reason in Proof of the Immortality of the
+Soul_ (published posthumously from MSS. by Dr Duncan in 1779).
+
+  See life in _Biographia Britannica_; McCosh's _Scottish Philosophy_,
+  pp. 42-49.
+
+
+
+
+BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691), English puritan divine, called by Dean
+Stanley "the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen," was born at Rowton,
+in Shropshire, at the house of his maternal grandfather, in November
+(probably the 12th) 1615. His ancestors had been gentlefolk, but his
+father had reduced himself to hard straits by loose living. About the
+time of Richard's birth, however, he changed decisively for the better.
+The boy's early education was poor, being mainly in the hands of the
+illiterate and dissolute clergy and readers who held the neighbouring
+livings at that time. He was better served by John Owen, master of the
+free school at Wroxeter, where he studied from about 1629 to 1632, and
+made fair progress in Latin. On Owen's advice he did not proceed to
+Oxford (a step which he afterwards regretted), but went to Ludlow Castle
+to read with Richard Wickstead, the council's chaplain there. Wickstead
+neglected his pupil entirely, but Baxter's eager mind found abundant
+nourishment in the great library at the castle. He was persuaded--against
+his will--to turn his attention to a court life, and he went to London
+under the patronage of Sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels, to follow
+that course; but he very soon returned home with a fixed
+resolve--confirmed by the death of his mother--to study divinity. After
+three months' schoolmastering for Owen at Wroxeter he read theology, and
+especially the schoolmen, with Francis Garbet, the local clergyman. About
+this time (1634) he met Joseph Symonds and Walter Cradock, two famous
+Nonconformists, whose piety and fervour influenced him considerably. In
+1638 he was nominated to the mastership of the free grammar school,
+Dudley, in which place he commenced his ministry, having been ordained
+and licensed by John Thornborough, bishop of Worcester. His success as a
+preacher was, at this early period, not very great; but he was soon
+transferred to Bridgnorth (Shropshire), where, as assistant to a Mr
+Madstard, he established a reputation for the vigorous discharge of the
+duties of his office.
+
+He remained at Bridgnorth nearly two years, during which time he took a
+special interest in the controversy relating to Nonconformity and the
+Church of England. He soon, on some points, especially matters of
+discipline, became alienated from the Church; and after the requirement
+of what is called "the _et cetera_ oath," he rejected episcopacy in its
+English form. He could not, however, be called more than a moderate
+Nonconformist; and such he continued to be throughout his life. Though
+commonly denominated a Presbyterian, he had no exclusive attachment to
+Presbyterianism, and often manifested a willingness to accept a modified
+Episcopalianism. All forms of church government were regarded by him as
+subservient to the true purposes of religion.
+
+One of the first measures of the Long Parliament was to effect the
+reformation of the clergy; and, with this view, a committee was
+appointed to receive complaints against them. Among the complainants
+were the inhabitants of Kidderminster, a town which had become famous
+for its ignorance and depravity. This state of matters was so clearly
+proved that an arrangement was agreed to on the part of the vicar
+(Dance), by which he allowed L60 a year, out of his income L200, to a
+preacher who should be chosen by certain trustees. Baxter was invited to
+deliver a sermon before the people, and was unanimously elected as the
+minister of the place. This happened in April 1641, when he was
+twenty-six years of age.
+
+His ministry continued, with very considerable interruptions, for about
+nineteen years; and during that time he accomplished a work of
+reformation in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood which is as notable
+as anything of the kind upon record. Civilized behaviour succeeded to
+brutality of manners; and, whereas the professors of religion had been
+but small exceptions to the mass, the unreligious people became the
+exceptions in their turn. He formed the ministers in the country around
+him into an association for the better fulfilment of the duties of their
+calling, uniting them together irrespective of their differences as
+Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Independents. The spirit in which he
+acted may be judged of from _The Reformed Pastor_, a book published in
+relation to the general ministerial efforts he promoted. It drives home
+the sense of clerical responsibility with extraordinary power. The
+result of his action is that, to this day his memory is cherished as
+that of the true apostle of the district where he laboured.
+
+The interruptions to which his Kidderminster life was subjected arose
+from the condition of things occasioned by the civil war. Baxter blamed
+both parties, but Worcestershire was a cavalier county, and a man in his
+position was, while the war continued, exposed to annoyance and danger
+in a place like Kidderminster. He therefore removed to Gloucester, and
+afterwards (1643-1645) settled in Coventry, where he preached regularly
+both to the garrison and the citizens. After the battle of Naseby he
+took the situation of chaplain to Colonel Whalley's regiment, and
+continued to hold it till February 1647. During these stormy years he
+wrote his _Aphorisms of Justification_, which on its appearance in 1649
+excited great controversy.
+
+Baxter's connexion with the Parliamentary army was a very characteristic
+one. He joined it that he might, if possible, counteract the growth of
+the sectaries in that field, and maintain the cause of constitutional
+government in opposition to the republican tendencies of the time. He
+regretted that he had not previously accepted an offer of Cromwell to
+become chaplain to the Ironsides, being confident in his power of
+persuasion under the most difficult circumstances. His success in
+converting the soldiery to his views does not seem to have been very
+great, but he preserved his own consistency and fidelity in a remarkable
+degree. By public disputation and private conference, as well as by
+preaching, he enforced his doctrines, both ecclesiastical and political,
+and shrank no more from urging what he conceived to be the truth upon
+the most powerful officers than he did from instructing the meanest
+followers of the camp. Cromwell disliked his loquacity and shunned his
+society; but Baxter having to preach before him after he had assumed the
+Protectorship, chose for his subject the old topic of the divisions and
+distractions of the church, and in subsequent interviews not only
+opposed him about liberty of conscience, but spoke in favour of the
+monarchy he had subverted. There is a striking proof of Baxter's insight
+into character in his account of what happened under these
+circumstances. Of Cromwell he says, "I saw that what he learned must be
+from himself." It is worthy of notice that this intercourse with
+Cromwell occurred when Baxter was summoned to London to assist in
+settling "the fundamentals of religion," and made the memorable
+declaration, in answer to the objection that what he had proposed as
+fundamental "might be subscribed by a Papist or Socinian,"--"So much the
+better, and so much the fitter it is to be the matter of concord." In
+1647 he was staying at the home of Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, and there,
+in much physical weakness, wrote a great part of his famous work, _The
+Saints' Everlasting Rest_ (1650). On his recovery he returned to his
+charge at Kidderminster, where he also became a prominent political
+leader, his sensitive conscience leading him into conflict with almost
+every one of the contending parties in state and church. His conduct
+now, as at all times, did "credit to his conscientiousness rather than
+to his wisdom."
+
+After the Restoration in 1660 Baxter, who had helped to bring about that
+event, settled in London. He preached there till the Act of Uniformity
+took effect in 1662, and was employed in seeking for such terms of
+comprehension as would have permitted the moderate dissenters with whom
+he acted to have remained in the Church of England. In this hope he was
+sadly disappointed. There was at that time on the part of the rulers of
+the church no wish for such comprehension, and their object in the
+negotiations that took place was to excuse the breach of faith which
+their rejection of all reasonable methods of concession involved. The
+chief good that resulted from the Savoy conference was the production of
+Baxter's _Reformed Liturgy_, a work of remarkable excellence, though it
+was cast aside without consideration. The same kind of reputation which
+Baxter had obtained in the country he secured in the larger and more
+important circle of the metropolis. The power of his preaching was
+universally felt, and his capacity for business placed him at the head
+of his party. He had been made a king's chaplain, and was offered the
+bishopric of Hereford, but he could not accept the offer without
+virtually assenting to things as they were. This he could not do, and
+after his refusal he was not allowed, even before the passing of the Act
+of Uniformity, to be a curate in Kidderminster, though he was willing to
+serve that office gratuitously. Bishop Morley even prohibited him from
+preaching in the diocese of Worcester. Baxter, however, found much
+consolation in his marriage on the 24th of September 1662 with Margaret
+Charlton, a woman like-minded with himself. She died in 1681.
+
+From the ejectment of 1662 to the indulgence of 1687, Baxter's life was
+constantly disturbed by persecution of one kind or another. He retired
+to Acton in Middlesex, for the purpose of quiet study, and was dragged
+thence to prison for keeping a conventicle. The _mittimus_ was
+pronounced illegal and irregular, and Baxter procured a _habeas corpus_
+in the court of common pleas. He was taken up for preaching in London
+after the licences granted in 1672 were recalled by the king. The
+meetinghouse which he had built for himself in Oxendon Street was closed
+against him after he had preached there but once. He was, in 1680,
+seized in his house, and conveyed away at the risk of his life; and
+though he was released that he might die at home, his books and goods
+were distrained. He was, in 1684, carried three times to the sessions
+house, being scarcely able to stand, and without any apparent cause was
+made to enter into a bond for L400 in security for his good behaviour.
+
+But his worst encounter was with the chief justice, Sir George Jeffreys,
+in May 1685. He had been committed to the king's bench prison on the
+ridiculous charge of libelling the Church in his _Paraphrase on the New
+Testament_, and was tried before Jeffreys on this accusation. The trial
+is well known as among the most brutal perversions of justice which have
+occurred in England, though it must be remembered that no authoritative
+report of the trial exists. If the partisan account on which tradition
+is based is to be accepted, it would appear that Jeffreys himself acted
+like an infuriated madman. (See JEFFREYS, SIR GEORGE.) Baxter was
+sentenced to pay 500 marks, to lie in prison till the money was paid,
+and to be bound to his good behaviour for seven years. It was even
+asserted at the time that Jeffreys proposed he should be whipped at the
+cart's tail through London. The old man, for he was now seventy,
+remained in prison for eighteen months, when the government, vainly
+hoping to win his influence to their side, remitted the fine and
+released him.
+
+During the long time of oppression and injury which followed the
+ejectment, Baxter was sadly afflicted in body. His whole life was indeed
+one continued illness, but in this part of it his pain and languor had
+greatly increased. Yet this was the period of his greatest activity as a
+writer. He was a most voluminous author, his separate works, it is said,
+amounting to 168. They are as learned as they are elaborate, and as
+varied in their subjects as they are faithfully composed. Such treatises
+as the _Christian Directory_, the _Methodus Theologiae Christianae_, and
+the _Catholic Theology_, might each have occupied the principal part of
+the life of an ordinary man. His _Breviate of the Life of Mrs Margaret
+Baxter_ records the virtues of his wife, and reveals on the part of
+Baxter a tenderness of nature which might otherwise have been unknown.
+His editors have contented themselves with re-publishing his "Practical
+Works," and his ethical, philosophical, historical and political
+writings still await a competent editor.
+
+The remainder of Baxter's life, from 1687 onwards, was passed in peace
+and honour. He continued to preach and to publish almost to the end. He
+was surrounded by attached friends, and reverenced by the religious
+world. His saintly behaviour, his great talents, and his wide influence,
+added to his extended age, raised him to a position of unequalled
+reputation. He helped to bring about the downfall of James II. and
+complied with the Toleration Act under William and Mary. He died in
+London on the 8th of December 1691, and his funeral was attended by
+churchmen as well as dissenters. A similar tribute of general esteem was
+paid to him nearly two centuries later, when a statue was erected to his
+memory at Kidderminster in July 1875.
+
+Baxter was possessed by an unconquerable belief in the power of
+persuasive argument. He thought every one was amenable to
+reason--bishops and levellers included. And yet he was as far as
+possible from being a quarrelsome man. He was at once a man of fixed
+belief and large appreciation, so that his dogmatism and his liberality
+sometimes came into collision. His popularity as a preacher was
+deservedly pre-eminent; but no more diligent student ever shut himself
+up with his books. He was singularly fitted for intellectual debate, but
+his devotional tendency was equally strong with his logical aptitude.
+Some of his writings, from their metaphysical subtilty, will always
+puzzle the learned; but he could write to the level of the common heart
+without loss of dignity or pointedness. His _Reasons for the Christian
+Religion_ is still, for its evidential purpose, better than most works
+of its kind. His _Poor Man's Family Book_ is a manual that continues to
+be worthy of its title. His _Saints' Everlasting Rest_ will always
+command the grateful admiration of pious readers. It is also charged
+with a robust and manly eloquence and a rare and unsought felicity of
+language that make it a masterpiece of style. Perhaps no thinker has
+exerted so great an influence upon nonconformity as Baxter has done, and
+that not in one direction only, but in every form of development,
+doctrinal, ecclesiastical and practical. He is the type of a distinct
+class of the Christian ministry--that class which aspires after
+scholarly training, prefers a broad to a sectarian theology, and adheres
+to rational methods of religious investigation and appeal. The rational
+element in him was very strong. He had a settled hatred of fanaticism.
+Even Quakerism he could scarcely endure. Religion was with him all and
+in all--that by which all besides was measured, and to whose interests
+all else was subordinated. Isaac Barrow said that "his practical
+writings were never minded, and his controversial ones seldom confuted,"
+and John Wilkins, bishop of Chester, asserted that "if he had lived in
+the primitive time he had been one of the fathers of the church."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Our most valuable source is Baxter's autobiography,
+  called _Reliquiae Baxterianae or Mr Richard Baxter's Narrative of the
+  most memorable Passages of his Life and Times_ (published by Matthew
+  Sylvester in 1696). Edmund Calamy abridged this work (1702). The
+  abridgment forms the first volume of the account of the ejected
+  ministers, but whoever refers to it should also acquaint himself with
+  the reply to the accusations which had been brought against Baxter,
+  and which will be found in the second volume of Calamy's Continuation.
+  William Orme's _Life and Times of Richard Baxter_ appeared in 2 vols.
+  in 1830; it also forms the first volume of "Practical Works" (1830,
+  reprinted 1868). Sir James Stephen's interesting paper on Baxter,
+  contributed originally to the _Edinburgh Review_, is reprinted in the
+  second volume of his _Essays_. More recent estimates of Baxter are
+  those given by John Tulloch in his _English Puritanism and its
+  Leaders_, and by Dean Stanley in his address at the inauguration of
+  the statue to Baxter at Kidderminster (see _Macmillan's Magazine_,
+  xxxii. 385).
+
+  There is a good portrait of Baxter in the Williams library, Gordon
+  Square, London.
+
+
+
+
+BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY (1827-1875), English economist and statistician,
+was born at Doncaster in 1827. He was educated privately and at Trinity
+College, Cambridge. He studied law and entered his father's firm of
+Baxter & Co., solicitors, with which he was connected till his death.
+Though studiously attentive to business, he was enabled, as a member of
+the Statistical and other learned societies, to accomplish much useful
+economic work. His principal economic writings were _The Budget and the
+Income Tax_ (1860), _Railway Extension and its Results_ (1866), _The
+National Income_ (1868), _The Taxation of the United Kingdom_ (1869),
+_National Debts of the World_ (1871), _Local Government and Taxation_
+(1874), and his purely political writings included _The Volunteer
+Movement_ (1860), _The Redistribution of Seats and the Counties_ (1866),
+_History of English Parties and Conservatism_ (1870), and _The Political
+Progress of the Working Classes_ (1871).
+
+
+
+
+BAXTER, WILLIAM (1650-1723), British antiquarian, critic and grammarian,
+nephew of Richard Baxter, the divine, was born at Llanllugan,
+Montgomeryshire. When he went to Harrow school, at the age of eighteen,
+he was unable to read, and could speak no language except Welsh. His
+progress must have been remarkable, since he published his Latin grammar
+about ten years afterwards. During the greater part of his life Baxter
+was a schoolmaster, and was finally headmaster of the Mercers' school,
+where he remained till shortly before his death on the 31st of May 1723.
+He was an accomplished linguist, and his learning was undoubtedly very
+great. His published works are: _De Analogia_ (1679), an advanced Latin
+grammar; _Anacreontis Teii Carmina_, including two odes of Sappho (1695;
+reprinted in 1710, "with improvements," which he was accused of having
+borrowed from the edition of Joshua Barnes); _Horace_ (1701 and
+subsequent editions, regarded as remarkable for its abuse of Bentley);
+_Glossarium Antiquitatum Britannicarum_ (1719); and _Glossarium
+Antiquitatum Romanarum_ (1826). The last two works were published by the
+Rev. Moses Williams, the second (which goes no farther than the letter
+A) under the title of _Reliquiae Baxterianae_, including an
+autobiographical fragment. Baxter also contributed to a joint
+translation of Plutarch's _Moralia_, and left notes on Juvenal and
+Persius.
+
+
+
+
+BAY, a homonymous term of which the principal branches are as follows,
+(1) The name of the sweet laurel (_Laurus nobilis_) or bay tree (see
+LAUREL); this word is derived through the O. Fr. _baie_, from Lat.
+_baca_, berry, the bay bearing a heavy crop of dark purple berries. The
+leaves of the bay were woven in garlands to crown poets, and hence the
+word is often used figuratively in the sense of fame and reward. (2) A
+wide opening or indentation in a coast line. This may be of the same
+origin as "bay," in the architectural sense, or from a Latin word which
+is seen in the place name Baiae. (3) The name of a colour, of a reddish
+brown, principally used of the colour in horses; there are various
+shades, light bay, bright bay, &c. This word is derived from the Latin
+_badius_, which is given by Varro (in _Nonnius_, pp. 80-82) as one of
+the colours of horses. The word is also seen in baize (q.v.). (4) The
+deep bark of dogs. This word is also seen in the expression "at bay,"
+properly of a hunted animal who at the last turns on the "baying" hounds
+and defends itself. The origin of the word is the O. Fr. _bayer,
+abayer_, Lat. _badare_, properly to gape, open wide the mouth. (5) An
+architectural term (Fr. _travee_, Ital. _compartimento_, Ger.
+_Abteilung_) for any division or compartment of an arcade, roof, &c.
+Each space from pillar to pillar in a cathedral, church or other
+building is called a "bay" or "severy." This word is also to be referred
+to _bayer_, to gape.
+
+A "bay-window" or "bow-window" is a window projecting outwards and
+forming a recess in the apartment. Bay-windows may be rectangular,
+polygonal or semicircular in plan, in the last case being better known
+as bow-windows. The bay-window would seem to have been introduced in the
+15th century, but the earliest examples of importance are those which
+were built during the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), when it was
+largely employed in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and in the
+feudal castles of the period. Examples are found in the palace at
+Eltham, Cowdray Castle in Sussex, Thornbury Castle in Gloucestershire,
+and in the George Inn at Glastonbury; one of the finest of a later date
+is that of the Banqueting Hall at Hampton Court, some 50 ft. high. In
+the great entrance halls of ancient mansions the floor of the last bay
+of the hall was generally raised two or three steps, and this portion
+was reserved for the lord of the manor and his guests, and was known as
+the dais. The usual position of the bay-window is at one end of this
+dais, and occasionally but rarely at both ends. The sills of the windows
+are at a lower level than those in the hall, and, raised on one or two
+steps, are seats in the recess. The recess of the bay-window was
+generally covered with a ribbed vault of elaborate design, and the
+window itself subdivided by mullions and transoms. In some of the larger
+windows such as those at Cowdray and Hampton Court there are no fewer
+than five transoms, and this sub-division gave great scale to the
+design. The same feature when employed in an upper storey and supported
+by corbels or brackets is known as an oriel window. (See also DAIS and
+HALL.)
+
+
+
+
+BAYAMO, an old inland city on the N. slope of the Sierra Maestra in
+Santiago province, Cuba. Pop. (1907) 4102. It lies on a plain by the
+Bayamo river, in a fertile country, but isolated from sea and from
+railway. Its older parts are extraordinarily irregular. The streets are
+of all widths, and of all degrees of crookedness, and run in all
+directions. Bayamo was the third of the seven cities founded by Diego
+Velazquez, and was established in 1513. During much of the 16th century
+it was one of the most important agricultural and commercial settlements
+of the island. Its inland situation gave it relative security against
+the pirates who then infested West Indian seas, and the misfortunes of
+Santiago were the fortunes of Bayamo. Down the river Cauto, then open to
+the sea for vessels of 200 tons, and through Manzanillo, Bayamo drove a
+thriving contraband trade that made it at the opening of the 17th
+century the leading town of Cuba. A tremendous flood, in 1616, choking
+the Cauto with trees and wrecked vessels, cut it off from direct access
+to the sea; but through Manzanillo it continued a great clandestine
+traffic with Curacao, Jamaica, and other foreign islands all through the
+17th and 18th centuries. Bayamo was then surrounded by fine plantations.
+It was a rich and turbulent city. In the war of 1868-78 it was an
+insurgent stronghold; near it was fought one of the most desperate
+conflicts of the war, and it was nearly destroyed by the opposing
+parties. Bayamo was the birthplace and the home of Carlos Manuel de
+Cespedes (1819-1874), first president of the "first" Cuban republic,
+and was also the birthplace and home of Tomas Estrada Palma
+(1835-1908), first president of the present Cuban republic.
+
+
+
+
+BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL, SEIGNEUR DE (1473-1524), French soldier, the
+descendant of a noble family, nearly every head of which for two
+centuries past had fallen in battle, was born at the chateau Bayard,
+Dauphine (near Pontcharra, Isere), about 1473. He served as a page to
+Charles I., duke of Savoy, until Charles VIII. of France, attracted by
+his graceful bearing, placed him among the royal followers under the
+seigneur (count) de Ligny (1487). As a youth he was distinguished for
+comeliness, affability of manner, and skill in the tilt-yard. In 1494 he
+accompanied Charles VIII. into Italy, and was knighted after the battle
+of Fornova (1495), where he had captured a standard. Shortly afterwards,
+entering Milan alone in ardent pursuit of the enemy, he was taken
+prisoner, but was set free without a ransom by Lodovico Sforza. In 1502
+he was wounded at the assault of Canossa. Bayard was the hero of a
+celebrated combat of thirteen French knights against an equal number of
+Germans, and his restless energy and valour were conspicuous throughout
+the Italian wars of this period. On one occasion it is said that,
+single-handed, he made good the defence of the bridge of the Garigliano
+against about 200 Spaniards, an exploit that brought him such renown
+that Pope Julius II. sought to entice him into the papal service, but
+unsuccessfully. In 1508 he distinguished himself again at the siege of
+Genoa by Louis XII., and early in 1509 the king made him captain of a
+company of horse and foot. At the siege of Padua he won further
+distinction, not only by his valour, but also by his consummate skill.
+He continued to serve in the Italian wars up to the siege of Brescia in
+1512. Here his intrepidity in first mounting the rampart cost him a
+severe wound, which obliged his soldiers to carry him into a
+neighbouring house, the residence of a nobleman, whose wife and
+daughters he protected from threatened insult. Before his wound was
+healed, he hurried to join Gaston de Foix, under whom he served in the
+terrible battle of Ravenna (1512). In 1513, when Henry VIII. of England
+routed the French at the battle of the Spurs (Guinegate, where Bayard's
+father had received a lifelong injury in a battle of 1479), Bayard in
+trying to rally his countrymen found his escape cut off. Unwilling to
+surrender, he rode suddenly up to an English officer who was resting
+unarmed, and summoned him to yield; the knight complying, Bayard in turn
+gave himself up to his prisoner. He was taken into the English camp, but
+his gallantry impressed Henry as it had impressed Lodovico, and the king
+released him without ransom, merely exacting his parole not to serve for
+six weeks. On the accession of Francis I. in 1515 Bayard was made
+lieutenant-general of Dauphine; and after the victory of Marignan, to
+which his valour largely contributed, he had the honour of conferring
+knighthood on his youthful sovereign. When war again broke out between
+Francis I. and Charles V., Bayard, with 1000 men, held Mezieres, which
+had been declared untenable, against an army of 35,000, and after six
+weeks compelled the imperial generals to raise the siege. This stubborn
+resistance saved central France from invasion, as the king had not then
+sufficient forces to withstand the imperialists. All France rang with
+the achievement, and Francis gained time to collect the royal army which
+drove out the invaders (1521). The parlement thanked Bayard as the
+saviour of his country; the king made him a knight of the order of St
+Michael, and commander in his own name of 100 _gens d'armes_, an honour
+till then reserved for princes of the blood. After allaying a revolt at
+Genoa, and striving with the greatest assiduity to check a pestilence in
+Dauphine, Bayard was sent, in 1523, into Italy with Admiral Bonnivet,
+who, being defeated at Robecco and wounded in a combat during his
+retreat, implored Bayard to assume the command and save the army. He
+repulsed the foremost pursuers, but in guarding the rear at the passage
+of the Sesia was mortally wounded by an arquebus ball (April 30th,
+1524). He died in the midst of the enemy, attended by Pescara, the
+Spanish commander, and by his old comrade the constable de Bourbon. His
+body was restored to his friends and interred at Grenoble. Chivalry,
+free of fantastic extravagance, is perfectly mirrored in the character
+of Bayard. As a soldier he was one of the most skilful commanders of the
+age. He was particularly noted for the exactitude and completeness of
+his information of the enemy's movements; this he obtained both by
+careful reconnaissance and by a well-arranged system of espionage. In
+the midst of mercenary armies Bayard remained absolutely disinterested,
+and to his contemporaries and his successors he was, with his romantic
+heroism, piety and magnanimity, the fearless and faultless knight, _le
+chevalier sans peur et sans reproche_. His gaiety and kindness won him,
+even more frequently, another name bestowed by his contemporaries, _le
+bon chevalier_.
+
+  Contemporary lives of Bayard are the following:--"_Le loyal
+  serviteur_" (? Jacques de Maille); _La tres joyeuse, plaisante, et
+  recreative histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du
+  bon chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de
+  Bayart_ (original edition printed at Paris, 1527; the modern editions
+  are very numerous, those of M.J. Roman and of L. Larchey appeared in
+  1878 and 1882); Symphorien Champier, _Les Gestes, ensemble la vie du
+  preulx chevalier Bayard_ (Lyons, 1525); Aymar du Rivail, _Histoire des
+  Allobroges_ (edition of de Terrebasse, 1844); see _Bayard_ in
+  _Repertoire des sources historiques_, by Ulysse Chevalier, and in
+  particular A. de Terrebasse, _Hist. de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de
+  Bayart_ (1st ed., Paris, 1828; 5th ed., Vienna, 1870).
+
+
+
+
+BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1828-1898), American diplomatist, was born in
+Wilmington, Delaware, on the 29th of October 1828. His great-grandfather,
+Richard Bassett (1745-1815), governor of Delaware; his grandfather, James
+Asheton Bayard (1767-1815), a prominent Federalist, and one of the United
+States commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent with Great
+Britain after the War of 1812; his uncle, Richard Henry Bayard
+(1796-1868); and his father, James Asheton Bayard (1799-1880), a
+well-known constitutional lawyer, all represented Delaware in the United
+States Senate. Intending to go into business, he did not receive a
+college education; but in 1848 he began the study of law in the office of
+his father, and was admitted to the bar in 1851. Except from 1855 to
+1857, when he was a partner of William Shippen in Philadelphia, he
+practised chiefly in Wilmington. He was a United States senator from
+Delaware from 1869 to 1885, and in 1881 was (October 10th to 13th)
+president _pro tempore_ of the Senate. His abilities made him a leader of
+the Democrats in the Senate, and his views on financial and legal
+questions gave him a high reputation for statesmanship. He was a member
+of the electoral commission of 1877. In the Democratic national
+conventions of 1872, 1876, 1880 and 1884 he received votes for nomination
+as the party candidate for the presidency. He was secretary of state,
+1885-1889, during the first administration of President Cleveland, and
+pursued a conservative policy in foreign affairs, the most important
+matter with which he was called upon to deal being the Bering Sea
+controversy. As ambassador to Great Britain, 1893-1897, his tall
+dignified person, unfailing courtesy, and polished, if somewhat
+deliberate, eloquence made him a man of mark in all the best circles. He
+was considered indeed by many Americans to have become too partial to
+English ways; and, for the expression of some criticisms regarded as
+unfavourable to his own countrymen, the House of Representatives went so
+far as to pass, on the 7th of November 1895, a vote of censure on him.
+The value of Mr Bayard's diplomacy was, however, fully recognized in the
+United Kingdom, where he worthily upheld the traditions of a famous line
+of American ministers. He was the first representative of the United
+States in Great Britain to hold the diplomatic rank of an ambassador. He
+died in Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 28th of September 1898.
+
+  See Edward Spencer, _Public Life and Services of T.F. Bayard_ (New
+  York, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BAYAZID, or BAJAZET, a border fortress of Asiatic Turkey, chief town of
+a sanjak of the Erzerum vilayet, situated close to the frontiers of
+Russia and Persia, and looking across a marshy plain to the great cone
+of Ararat, at a general altitude of 6000 ft. It occupies a site of great
+antiquity, as the cuneiform inscriptions on the neighbouring rocks
+testify; it stands on the site of the old Armenian town of Pakovan. It
+is picturesquely situated in an amphitheatre of sharp, rocky hills. The
+great trade route from Trebizond by Erzerum into N.W. Persia crosses the
+frontier at Kizil Dize a few miles to the south and does not enter the
+town. A knoll above the town is occupied by the half-ruined fort or
+palace of former governors, built for Mahmud Pasha by a Persian
+architect and considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Turkey.
+It contains two churches and a monastery, the Kasa Kilissa, famous for
+its antiquity and architectural grandeur. The cuneiform inscriptions are
+on the rock pinnacles above the town, with some rock chambers,
+indicating a town or fortress of the Vannic period. The population has
+lately decreased and now numbers about 4000. A Russian consul resides
+here and the town is a military station. It was captured during the
+Russian campaigns of 1828 and 1854, also in 1878, but was then
+recaptured by the Turks, who subjected the Russian garrison to a long
+siege; the place was ultimately relieved, but a massacre of Christians
+then took place in the streets. Bayazid was restored to Turkey by the
+treaty of Berlin.
+
+
+
+
+BAYBAY, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine
+Islands, on the W. coast. Pop. (1903) 22,990. The town proper is
+situated at the mouth of the Pagbanganan river, 45 m. S.S.W. of
+Tacloban, the provincial capital. A superior grade of hemp is exported.
+Other products are rice, corn, copra, cacao, sugar, cattle and horses.
+The Cebu dialect of the Visayan language is spoken.
+
+
+
+
+BAY CITY, a city and the county seat of Bay county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
+the Saginaw river, about 2 m. from its entrance into Saginaw Bay and
+about 108 m. N.N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 27,839; (1900) 27,628, of
+whom 8483 were foreign-born, including 2413 English-Canadians, 1743
+Germans, 1822 Poles--the city has a Polish weekly newspaper--and 1075
+French-Canadians; (1910, census) 45,166. Bay City is served by the
+Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, the Grand Trunk and the Detroit &
+Mackinac railways, and by lake steamers. The city extends for several
+miles along both sides of the river, and is in a good farming district,
+with which it is connected by stone roads. Among the public buildings
+are the Federal building, the city hall and the public library. The city
+has lumber and fishing interests (perch, whitefish, sturgeon, pickerel,
+bass, &c. being caught in Saginaw Bay), large machine shops and
+foundries (value of products in 1905, $1,743,155, or 31% of the total of
+the city's factory products), and various manufactures, including ships
+(wooden and steel), wooden ware, wood-pipe, veneer, railroad machinery,
+cement, alkali and chicory. A salt basin underlies the city, and, next
+to the lumber industry, the salt industry was the first to be developed,
+but its importance has dwindled, the product value in 1905 being $20,098
+out of $5,620,866 for all factory products. Near the city are valuable
+coal mines, and there is one within the city limits. At Essexville (pop.
+in 1910, 1477), N.E., at Banks, N.W., and at Salzbury, S.W. of Bay City,
+are beet-sugar factories--sugar beets are extensively grown in the
+vicinity. Alcohol is made from the refuse molasses obtained from these
+beet-sugar factories. The municipality owns and operates the water-works
+and electric-lighting plant. The settlements of Lower Saginaw and
+Portsmouth were made in 1837, and were later united to form Bay City,
+which was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered as a city in
+1865. In 1905 West Bay City (pop. 1900, 13,119) and Bay City were
+consolidated.
+
+
+
+
+BAYEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Calvados, 18 m. N.W. of Caen on the Western railway.
+Pop. (1906) 6930. Bayeux is situated on the Aure, 5 m. from the English
+Channel. Its majestic cathedral was built in the 13th century on the
+site of a Romanesque church, to which the lateral arcades of the nave
+and the two western towers with their high stone spires belonged. A
+third and still loftier tower, the upper part of which, in the florid
+Gothic style, is modern, surmounts the crossing. The chancel, surrounded
+with radiating chapels, is a fine example of early Gothic. Underneath it
+there is a crypt of the 11th century restored in the 15th century. The
+oak stalls in the choir are fine examples of late 16th-century carving.
+The former bishop's palace, parts of which are of great age though the
+main building is of the 18th century, serves as law-court and hotel de
+ville. Bayeux possesses many quaint, timbered houses and stone mansions
+in its quiet streets. The museum contains the celebrated Bayeux tapestry
+(see below). The town is the seat of a bishop and of a sub-prefect; it
+has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, an ecclesiastical
+seminary, a communal college and a chamber of arts and manufactures.
+Dyeing, leather-dressing, lace-making and the manufacture of porcelain
+for household and laboratory purposes are carried on.
+
+Till the 4th century Bayeux bore the name of _Augustodurum_, but
+afterwards, when it became the capital of the two tribes of the
+Baiocasses and Viducasses, took the name of Civitas Baiocassium. Its
+bishopric dates from the latter half of the 4th century. Before the
+Norman invasion it was governed by counts. Taken in 890 by the
+Scandinavian chief, Rollo, it was soon after peopled by the Normans and
+became a residence of the dukes of Normandy, one of whom, Richard I.,
+built about 960 a castle which survived till the 18th century. During
+the quarrels between the sons of William the Conqueror it was pillaged
+and sacked by Henry I. in 1106, and in later times it underwent siege
+and capture on several occasions during the Hundred Years' War and the
+religious wars of the 16th century. Till 1790 it was the capital of the
+Bessin, a district of lower Normandy.
+
+
+
+
+BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE. This venerable relic consists of a band of linen,
+231 ft. long and 20 in. wide, now light brown with age, on which have
+been worked with a needle, in worsteds of eight colours, scenes
+representing the conquest of England by the Normans. Of these scenes
+there are seventy-two, beginning with Harold's visit to Bosham on his
+way to Normandy, and ending with the flight of the English from the
+battle of Hastings, though the actual end of the strip has perished.
+Along the top and the bottom run decorative borders with figures of
+animals, scenes from fables of Aesop and of Phaedrus, from husbandry and
+the chase, and occasionally from the story of the Conquest itself (see
+EMBROIDERY; Plate I. fig. 7). Formerly known as the _Toile de St Jean_,
+it was used on certain feast days to decorate the nave of Bayeux
+cathedral. Narrowly escaping the perils of the Revolution, it was
+exhibited in Paris, by Napoleon's desire, in 1803-1804, and has since
+been in civil custody at Bayeux, where it is now exhibited under glass.
+In the Franco-German War (1871) it was hastily taken down and concealed.
+
+"The noblest monument in the world relating to our old English history,"
+as William Stukeley described it in 1746, it has been repeatedly
+described, discussed and reproduced, both in France and in England since
+1730. The best coloured reproduction is that by C.A. Stothard in 1818,
+published in the sixth volume of _Vetusta Monumenta_; but in 1871-1872
+the "tapestry" was photographed for the English education authorities by
+E. Dossetter.
+
+Local tradition assigned the work to the Conqueror's wife. F. Pluquet,
+in his _Essai historique sur la ville de Bayeux_ (Caen, 1829), was the
+first to reject this belief, and to connect it with the Conqueror's
+half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and this view, which is now
+accepted, is confirmed by the fact that three of the bishop's followers
+mentioned in Domesday Book are among the very few named figures on the
+tapestry. That Odo had it executed for his cathedral seems tolerably
+certain, but whether it was worked by English fingers or not has been
+disputed, though some of the words upon it have been held to favour that
+view. Freeman emphatically pronounced it to be "a contemporary work,"
+and historically "a primary authority ... in fact the highest authority
+on the Norman side." As some of its evidence is unique, the question of
+its authority is important, and Freeman's conclusions have been
+practically confirmed by recent discussion. In 1902 M. Marignan
+questioned, on archaeological grounds, the date assigned to the
+tapestry, as the Abbe de la Rue had questioned it ninety years before;
+but his arguments were refuted by Gaston Paris and M. Lanore, and the
+authority of the tapestry was vindicated. The famous relic appears to be
+the solitary survivor of a class, for Abbot Baudri described in Latin
+verse a similar work executed for Adela, daughter of the Conqueror, and
+in earlier days the widow of Brihtnoth had wrought a similar record of
+her husband's exploits and death at the hard-fought battle of Maldon
+(991).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  1. SIEGE OF DINANT. Note the wooden castle on a mound, and the knight
+  handing over the keys on his lance tip.
+
+  2. THE FUNERAL OF EDWARD THE CONFESSOR AT WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+
+  3. CORONATION OF HAROLD.
+
+  4. APPEARANCE OF HALLEY'S COMET.
+
+  5. THE NORMANS CARRY THEIR ARMS TO THE SHIPS. (_By permission of G,
+  Bell & Sons._)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  6. THE NORMANS CROSS TO PEVENSEY.
+
+  7. BUILDING OF HASTINGS CASTLE.
+
+  8. HAROLD'S ADVANCE ANNOUNCED TO WILLIAM. THE BURNING OF HASTINGS.
+
+  9. THE NORMAN CAVALRY ATTACKS THE ENGLISH SHIELD WALL.
+
+  10. WILLIAM RAISES HIS HELMET TO RALLY HIS MEN.
+
+  11. ODO, BISHOP OF BAYEUX, WIELDING HIS MACE.
+
+  (_By permission of G. Bell & Sons._)]
+
+  See E.A. Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vol. iii. (ed. 1875), with
+  summary of the discussion to date; _Archaeologia_, vols. xvii.--xix.;
+  Dawson Turner, _Tour in Normandy_ (1820); C.A. Stothard's
+  illustrations in _Vetusta Monumenta_, vol. vi.; _Gentleman's
+  Magazine_, 1837; Bolton Corney, _Researches and Conjectures on the
+  Bayeux Tapestry_ (1836-1838); A. de Caumont, "Un mot sur ... la
+  tapisserie de Bayeux," in _Bulletin monumental de Vinstilut des
+  provinces_, vol. viii. (1841); J. Laffetay, _Notice historique et
+  descriptive sur la tapisserie_ ... (1874); J. Comte, _Tapisserie de
+  Bayeux_; F.R. Fowke, _The Bayeux Tapestry_ (ed. 1898); Marignan,
+  _Tapisserie de Bayeux_ (1902); G. Pans, "Tapisserie de Bayeux," in
+  _Romania_, vol. xxxi.; Lanore, "La Tapisserie de Bayeux," in
+  _Bibliotheque de l'ecole des chartes_, vol. lxiv. (1903); and J.H.
+  Round, "The Bayeux Tapestry," in _Monthly Review_, xvii. (1904).
+       (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BAYEZID I. (1347-1403), Ottoman sultan, surnamed YILDERIM or
+"LIGHTNING," from the great rapidity of his movements, succeeded his
+father Murad I. on the latter's assassination on the field of Kossovo,
+1389, and signalized his accession by ordering at once the execution of
+his brother Yakub, who had distinguished himself in the battle. His arms
+were successful both in Europe and Asia, and he was the first Ottoman
+sovereign to be styled "sultan," which title he induced the titular
+Abbasid caliph to confer on him. After routing the chivalry of
+Christendom at the battle of Nikopoli in 1396, he pursued his victorious
+career in Greece, and Constantinople would doubtless have fallen before
+his attack, had not the emperor Manuel Palaeologus bought him off by
+timely concessions which reduced him practically to the position of
+Bayezid's vassal. But his conquests met with a sudden and overpowering
+check at the hands of Timur (Tamerlane). Utterly defeated at Angora by
+the Mongol invader, Bayezid became his prisoner, and died in captivity
+some months later, in March 1403.
+
+Bayezid first married Devlet Shah Khatun, daughter of the prince of
+Kermian, who brought him in dowry Kutaiah and its dependencies. Two
+years before his accession he also married a daughter of the emperor
+John Palaeologus.
+
+
+
+
+BAYEZID II. (1447-1512), sultan of Turkey, was the son of Mahommed II.,
+whom he succeeded in 1481, but only after gaining over the janissaries
+by a large donative, which henceforth became for centuries the
+invariable prerogative of that undisciplined body on the accession of a
+new sultan. Before he could establish himself on the throne a long
+struggle ensued with his brother Prince Jem. Being routed, Jem fled for
+refuge to the knights of St John at Rhodes, who, in spite of a
+safe-conduct granted to him, accepted a pension from Bayezid as the
+price for keeping him a close prisoner. (See AUBUSSON, PIERRE D'.)
+
+So long as Jem lived he was a perpetual menace to the sultan's peace,
+and there was considerable rivalry among the sovereigns of Europe for
+the possession of so valuable an instrument for bringing pressure to
+bear upon the Porte for the purpose of extracting money or concessions.
+By common consent the prince was ultimately entrusted to Pope Innocent
+VIII., who used him not only to extract an annual tribute out of the
+sultan, but to prevent the execution of Bayezid's ambitious designs in
+the Mediterranean. His successor, Alexander VI., used him for a more
+questionable purpose, namely, not only to extract the arrears of the
+pension due for Jem's safe-keeping, but, by enlarging on Charles V.'s
+intention of setting him up as sultan, to persuade Bayezid to aid him
+against the emperor. There appears, however, to be no truth in the
+report that Bayezid succeeded in bribing the pope to have Jem poisoned.
+The prince, who had lived on excellent terms with Alexander, died at
+Naples in February 1495, possibly as the result of excesses in which he
+had been deliberately encouraged by the pope.
+
+Whether as a result of his fear of the rivalry of Jem, or of his
+personal character, Bayezid showed little of the aggressive spirit of
+his warlike predecessors; and Machiavelli said that another such sultan
+would cause Turkey to cease being a menace to Europe. He abandoned the
+attack on Rhodes at the first check, made concessions, for the sake of
+peace, to Venice and reduced the tribute due fiom Ragusa. His wars were
+of the nature of raids, on the Dalmatian coast and into Croatia,
+Hungary, Moldavia and Poland. The threat of the growing power in the
+Aegean of Venice, which had acquired Cyprus in 1489, at last roused him
+to a more serious effort; and in 1499 the war broke out with the
+republic, which ended in 1502 by the annexation to Turkey of Lepanto and
+Modon, Coron and Navarino in the Morea. Bayezid himself conducted the
+siege of Modon in 1500.
+
+The comparative inactivity of Bayezid in the direction of Europe was
+partly due to preoccupation elsewhere. In the south he was threatened by
+the dangerous rivalry of Kait Bey, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, who had
+extended his power northwards as far as Tarsus and Adana. In 1488 he
+gained a great victory over the Ottomans, and in 1491 a peace was made
+which was not again broken till after Bayezid's death. On the side of
+Persia too, where the decisive battle of Shurur (1502) had raised to
+power Ismail, the first of the modern line of shahs, danger threatened
+the sultan, and the latter years of his reign were troubled by the
+spread, under the influence of the new Persian power, of the Shi'ite
+doctrine in Kurdistan and Asia Minor. The forces destined to maintain
+his authority in Asia had been entrusted by Bayezid to his three sons,
+Ahmed, Corcud and Selim; and the sultan's declining years were
+embittered by their revolts and rivalry. Soon after the great earthquake
+of 1509, which laid Constantinople in ruins, Selim, the ungovernable
+pasha of Trebizond, whose vigorous rule in Asia had given Europe an
+earnest of his future career as sultan, appeared before Adrianople,
+where Bayezid had sought refuge. The sultan had designated Ahmed as his
+successor, but Selim, though temporarily defeated, succeeded in winning
+over the janissaries. On the 25th of April 1512 Bayezid was forced to
+abdicate in his favour, and died a few days later.
+
+  See J.B. Bury in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. i. chap. iii.
+  and bibliography p. 700.
+
+
+
+
+BAY ISLANDS (ISLAS DE LA BAHIA), a small archipelago in the Caribbean
+Sea, off the coast of Honduras, of which country it forms an
+administrative district. Pop. (1905) about 3000, including 500 Indians.
+The archipelago consists of Roatan or Ruatan, Guanaja or Bonacca,
+Utilla, Barbareta, Helena, Morat, the Puercos or Hog Islands, and many
+_cays_ or islets. The Bay Islands have a good soil, a fine climate and
+an advantageous position. Roatan, the largest, is about 30 m. long by 9
+m. broad, with mountains rising to the height of 900 ft., covered with
+valuable woods and abounding with deer and wild hogs. Its chief towns
+are Coxen Hole and Puerto Real. Its trade is chiefly with New Orleans in
+plantains, cocoa-nuts, pineapples and other fruit. Guanaja is 9 m. long
+by 5 m. broad; it lies 15 m. E.N.E. of Roatan. Wild hogs abound in its
+thickly-wooded limestone hills. The other islands are comparatively
+small, and may, in some cases, be regarded as detached parts of Roatan,
+with which they are connected by reefs. Guanaja was discovered in 1502
+by Columbus, but the islands were not colonized until the 17th century,
+when they were occupied by British logwood cutters from Belize, and
+pearlers from the Mosquito Coast. Forts were built on Roatan in 1742,
+but abandoned in 1749. In 1852 the islands were annexed by Great
+Britain. In 1859 they were ceded to Honduras.
+
+
+
+
+BAYLE, PIERRE (1647-1706), French philosopher and man of letters, was
+born on the 18th of November 1647, at le Carla-le-Comte, near Pamiers
+(Ariege). Educated by his father, a Calvinist minister, and at an
+academy at Puylaurens, he afterwards entered a Jesuit college at
+Toulouse, and became a Roman Catholic a month later (1669). After
+seventeen months he resumed his former religion, and, to avoid
+persecution, fled to Geneva, where he became acquainted with
+Cartesianism. For some years he acted under the name of Bele as tutor in
+various Parisian families, but in 1675 he was appointed to the chair
+of philosophy at the Protestant university of Sedan. In 1681 the
+university at Sedan was suppressed, but almost immediately afterwards
+Bayle was appointed professor of philosophy and history at Rotterdam.
+Here in 1682 he published his famous _Pensees diverses sur la comete de
+1680_ and his critique of Maimbourg's work on the history of Calvinism.
+The great reputation achieved by this critique stirred the envy of
+Bayle's colleague, P. Jurieu, who had written a book on the same
+subject. In 1684 Bayle began the publication of his _Nouvelles de la
+republique des lettres_, a kind of journal of literary criticism. In
+1690 appeared a work entitled _Avis important aux refugies_, which
+Jurieu attributed to Bayle, whom he attacked with animosity. After a
+long quarrel Bayle was deprived of his chair in 1693. He was not
+depressed by this misfortune, especially as he was at the time closely
+engaged in the preparation of the _Historical and Critical Dictionary_
+(_Dictionnaire historique et critique_). The remaining years of Bayle's
+life were devoted to miscellaneous writings, arising in many instances
+out of criticisms made upon his _Dictionary_. He died in exile at
+Rotterdam on the 28th of December 1706. In 1906 a statue in his honour
+was erected at Pamiers, "la reparation d'un long oubli." Bayle's
+erudition, despite the low estimate placed upon it by Leclerc, seems to
+have been very considerable. As a constructive thinker, he did little.
+As a critic he was second to none in his own time, and even yet one can
+admire the delicacy and the skill with which he handles his subject. The
+_Nouvelles de la republique des lettres_ (see Louis P. Betz, _P. Bayle
+und die Nouvelles de la republique des lettres_, Zurich, 1896) was the
+first thorough-going attempt to popularize literature, and it was
+eminently successful. The _Dictionary_, however, is Bayle's masterpiece.
+
+  EDITIONS.--_Historical and Critical Dictionary_ (1695-1697; 1702,
+  enlarged; best that of P. des Maizeaux, 4 vols., 1740); _Les Oeuvres
+  de Bayle_ (3 vols., The Hague); see des Maizeaux, _Vie de Bayle_; L.A.
+  Feuerbach, _Pierre Bayle_ (1838); Damiron, _La Philosophie en France
+  au XVII^e siecle_ (1858-1864); Sainte-Beuve, "Du genie critique et de
+  Bayle" (_Revue des deux mondes_, 1st Dec. 1835); A. Deschamps, _La
+  Genese du scepticisme erudit chez Bayle_ (Liege, 1878); J. Denis,
+  _Bayle et Jurieu_ (Paris, 1886); F. Brunetiere, _La Critique
+  litteraire au XVIII^e siecle_ (vol. i., 1890), and _La Critique de
+  Bayle_ (1893); Emile Gigas, _Choix de la correspondance inedite de
+  Pierre Bayle_ (Paris, 1890, reviewed in _Revue critique_, 22nd Dec.
+  1890); de Bude, _Lettres inedites adressees a J.A. Turretini_ (Paris,
+  1887); J.F. Stephen, _Horae Sabbaticae_ (London, 1892, 3rd ser. pp.
+  174-192); A. Cazes, _P. Bayle, sa vie, ses idees_, &c. (1905).
+
+
+
+
+BAYLO (Lat. _bajulus_ or _baillivus_; cf. Ital. _balio_, Fr. _bailli_,
+Eng. _bailiff_), in diplomacy, the title borne by the Venetian
+representative at Constantinople. His functions were originally in the
+nature of those of a consul-general, but from the 16th century onwards
+he had also the rank and functions of a diplomatic agent of the first
+class. "Under the name of bayle," says A. de Wicquefort, "he performs
+also the functions of consul and judge; not only between members of his
+own nation, but also between all the other merchants who trade in the
+Levant under the flag of St Mark." (See DIPLOMACY.)
+
+
+
+
+BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES (1797-1839), English songwriter and dramatist, was
+born at Bath on the 13th of October 1797. He was educated at Winchester
+and at St Mary Hall, Oxford, with a view to entering the church. While
+on a visit to Dublin, however, he discovered his ability to write
+ballads, and on his return to England in 1824 he quickly gained a wide
+reputation with "I'd be a butterfly," following this up with "We
+met--'twas in a crowd," "She wore a wreath of roses," "Oh, no, we never
+mention her," and other light and graceful songs for which his name is
+still remembered. He set some of his songs to music himself; a
+well-known example is "Gaily the troubadour." Bayly also wrote two
+novels, _The Aylmers_ and _A Legend of Killarney_, and numerous plays.
+His most successful dramatic piece was _Perfection_, which was produced
+by Madame Vestris and received high praise from Lord Chesterfield. Bayly
+had married in 1826 an Irish heiress, but her estates were mismanaged
+and the anxiety caused by financial difficulties undermined his health.
+He died on the 22nd of April 1839.
+
+  His _Collected Works_ (1844) contain a memoir by his wife.
+
+
+
+
+BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER (1823-1887), English editor and man of letters,
+the son of a Baptist minister, was born at Wellington, Somerset, on the
+24th of March 1823. He studied at Edinburgh University, where he was a
+pupil of Sir William Hamilton, whose assistant he became and of whose
+views on logic he became the authorized exponent. This teaching was
+embodied in his _Essay on the New Analytic of Logical Forms_, published
+in 1850, the same year in which he took his London University degree.
+This was followed in the next year by a translation of Arnauld's _Port
+Royal Logic_. In 1850 he had become editor of the _Edinburgh Guardian_,
+but after four years' work his health gave way. He spent two years in
+Somerset and then went to London, becoming, in 1858, assistant editor of
+the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed professor of logic
+metaphysics and English literature at the university of St Andrews, and
+in 1873 the editorship of the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_ was entrusted to him. He conducted it singly until 1881,
+when the decline of his health rendered it necessary to provide him with
+a coadjutor in the person of Prof. W. Robertson Smith. Baynes, however,
+continued to be engaged upon the work until his death on the 31st May
+1887, shortly before its completion. His article on Shakespeare
+(_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th ed.) was republished in 1894, along
+with other essays on Shakespearian topics and a memoir by Prof. Lewis
+Campbell.
+
+
+
+
+BAYONET, a short thrusting weapon, fixed to the muzzle or fore-end of a
+rifle or musket and carried by troops armed with the latter weapons. The
+origin of the word is disputed, but there is some authority for the
+supposition that the name is derived from the town of Bayonne, where the
+short dagger called _bayonnette_ was first made towards the end of the
+15th century. The elder Puysegur, a native of Bayonne, says (in his
+_Memoirs_, published posthumously in Paris, 1747) that when he was
+commanding the troops at Ypres in 1647 his musketeers used bayonets
+consisting of a steel dagger fixed in a wooden haft, which fitted into
+the muzzle of the musket--in fact plug-bayonets. Courts-martial were
+held on some English soldiers at Tangier in 1663-1664 for using their
+daggers on their comrades. As bayonets were at first called daggers, and
+as there were few or no pikemen in Tangier until 1675, the probable
+conclusion is that the troops in Tangier used plug-bayonets. In 1671
+plug-bayonets were issued to the French regiment of fusiliers then
+raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment raised
+in 1672 and disbanded in 1674, and to the Royal Fusiliers when raised in
+1685. The danger incurred by the use of this bayonet (which put a stop
+to all fire) was felt so early that the younger Puysegur saw a
+ring-bayonet in 1678 which could be fixed without stopping the fire. The
+English defeat at Killiecrankie in 1689 was due (among other things) to
+the use of the plug-bayonet; and shortly afterwards the defeated leader,
+General Mackay, introduced a ring-bayonet of his own invention. A trial
+with badly-fitting socket or zigzag bayonets was made after the battle
+of Fleurus, 1690, in the presence of Louis XIV., who refused to adopt
+them. Shortly after the peace of Ryswick (1697) the English and Germans
+abolished the pike and introduced these bayonets, and plates of them are
+given in Surirey de St Remy's _Memoires d'Artillerie_, published in
+Paris in that year; but owing to a military cabal they were not issued
+to the French infantry until 1703. Henceforward the bayonet became, with
+the musket or other firearm, the typical weapon of infantry. This
+bayonet remained in the British service until 1805, when Sir John Moore
+introduced a bayonet fastened to the musket by a spring clip. The
+triangular bayonet (so called from the cross-section of its blade) was
+used in the British army until the introduction of the magazine rifle,
+when it was replaced by the sword-bayonet or dagger-bayonet.
+Sword-bayonets--weapons which could be used as sword or dagger apart
+from the rifle--had long been in use by special troops such as engineers
+and rifles, and many ingenious attempts have been made to produce a
+bayonet fitted for several uses. A long curved sword-bayonet with a
+saw-edged back was formerly used by the Royal Engineers, but all troops
+are now supplied with the plain sword-bayonet. The bayonet is usually
+hung in a scabbard on the belt of the soldier and only fixed during the
+final stages of a battle; the reason for this is that the "jump" of the
+rifle due to the shock of explosion is materially altered by the extra
+weight at the muzzle, which thus deranges the sighting. In the short
+Lee-Enfield rifle of 1903, the bayonet, not being directly attached to
+the barrel, does not influence accuracy, but with the long rifles, when
+the bayonet is fixed, the sight must be raised by two or three
+graduations to ensure correct elevation. In the Russian army troops
+almost invariably carry the bayonet (triangular) fixed; the model (1891)
+of Italian carbine has an inseparable bayonet; the United States rifle
+(the new short model of 1903) has a knife bayonet, the model of 1905,
+which is 20.5875 in. long, with the lower edge of the blade sharpened
+along its entire length and the upper edge sharpened 5 in. from the
+point; this bayonet is carried in a wooden and leather scabbard attached
+to the cartridge belt. The British bayonet (pattern 1903) has a blade 1
+ft. in length. The length of the rifle and bayonet together, considered
+as an _arme blanche_, varies considerably, that of the French Lebel
+pattern of 1886 being 6 ft., as against the 4 ft. 8-3/4 in. of the
+British short Lee-Enfield of 1903. The German rifles (1898) have a
+length with bayonet of 5 ft. 9-3/4 in.; the Russian (1894) 5 ft. 9 in.;
+and the Japanese 5 ft. 5-1/2 in. In 1908 a new British bayonet was
+approved, 5 in. longer than its predecessor of 1903, the shape of the
+point being modified to obtain the thrusting effect of a spear or lance
+head.
+
+
+
+
+BAYONNE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Basses-Pyrenees, 66 m. W.N.W. of Pau on the Southern
+railway. Pop. (1906) 21,779. Bayonne, a first-class fortified place, is
+situated at the confluence of the Adour and its left-hand tributary, the
+Nive, about 3 m. from the sea. The two rivers divide the town into three
+nearly equal parts, communicating with each other by bridges. Grand
+Bayonne lies on the left bank of the Nive; the two squares which lie
+close together at the mouth of that river constitute the most animated
+quarter of the town. Petit Bayonne lies between the right bank of the
+Nive and the Adour; Saint Esprit, dominated by a citadel which is one of
+the finest works of Vauban, occupies the right bank of the Adour. The
+last is inhabited partly by a colony of Jews dating at least from the
+early 16th century. To the north-west of the town are the Allees
+Marines, fine promenades which border the Adour for a mile and a
+quarter, and the Allees Paulmy, skirting the fortifications. The
+cathedral of Ste Marie in Grand Bayonne is an imposing Gothic structure
+of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. It consists of a choir with
+deambulatory and apsidal chapels (the oldest part of the church), a
+transept, nave and aisles. The towers at the west end were only
+completed during the general restoration which took place in the latter
+half of the 19th century. A fine cloister of the 13th century adjoins
+the south side of the church. Ste Marie contains glass windows of the
+15th and 16th centuries and other rich decoration. The Vieux-Chateau,
+also in Grand Bayonne, dates from the 12th and 15th centuries and is
+built upon a portion of the old Roman fortifications; it is used for
+military purposes. The Chateau Neuf (15th and 16th centuries) serves as
+barracks and prison. Bayonne is the seat of a bishopric and of a
+sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
+chamber of commerce, a lycee, a school of music, a library, an art
+museum with a large collection of the works of the painter Leon Bonnat,
+and a branch of the Bank of France. There are consulates of the chief
+nations of Europe, of the United States of America and of several
+Central and South American republics. The town also possesses an
+important military arsenal and military hospital. The commerce of
+Bayonne is much more important than its industries, which include the
+manufacture of leather and of chocolate. The port consists of an outer
+harbour, the so-called "rade" (roadstead) and the port proper, and
+occupies the course of the Adour from its mouth, which is obstructed by
+a shifting bar, to the Pont St Esprit, and the course of the Nive as far
+as the Pont Mayou. Above these two bridges the rivers are accessible
+only to river navigation. Vessels drawing from 16 to 22 ft. can make the
+port in normal weather. In the five years 1901-1905 the average value of
+the imports was L502,000, of the exports L572,000; for the five years
+1896-1900 the average value of imports was L637,000, of exports
+L634,000. Exports include timber, mine-props, turpentine, resinous
+material from the Pyrenees and Landes and zinc ore; leading imports are
+the coal and Spanish minerals which supply the large metallurgical works
+of Le Boucau at the mouth of the river, the raw material necessary for
+the chemical works of the same town, wine, and the cereals destined for
+the flour mills of Pau, Peyrehorade and Orthez. During the early years
+of the 20th century the shipping of the port increased considerably in
+tonnage. In 1900 there entered 741 vessels, tonnage 277,959; and cleared
+743, tonnage 276,992. In 1907 there entered 661 vessels, tonnage,
+336,773; cleared 650, tonnage 335,849.
+
+In the 3rd century Bayonne (_Lapurdum_) was a Roman military post and
+the principal port of Novempopulana. In the middle ages it belonged to
+the dukes of Aquitaine and then to the kings of England, one of whom,
+John, granted it full communal rights in 1216. In 1451 it offered a
+strenuous opposition to the French, by whom it was eventually occupied.
+By this time its maritime commerce had suffered disaster owing to the
+silting up of its port and the deflection of the Adour. New
+fortifications were constructed under Louis XII. and Francis I., and in
+1523 the town was able to hold out against a Spanish army. In 1565 it
+was the scene of an interview between Charles IX. and Catherine de'
+Medici on the one hand and Elizabeth, queen of Spain, and the duke of
+Alva on the other. It is thought that on this occasion the plans were
+formed for the massacres of St Bartholomew, a crime in which Bayonne
+took no part, in 1572. In 1808 Napoleon met Charles IV., king of Spain,
+and his son Ferdinand at the Chateau de Marrac, near the town, and
+induced them to renounce their rights to the crown of Spain, which fell
+to Napoleon's brother Joseph. In 1814, after a severe siege, Bayonne was
+occupied by the English (see PENINSULAR WAR).
+
+  See J. Balasque and E. Dulaurens, _Etudes historiques sur la ville de
+  Bayonne_ (3 vols., Bayonne, 1862-1875); E. Ducere, _Bayonne historique
+  et pittoresque_ (Bayonne, 1893), _Histoire topographigue et
+  anecdotique des rues de Bayonne_ (Bayonne, 1894); H. Leon, _Histoire
+  des juifs de Bayonne_ (Paris, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+BAYONNE, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., occupying the
+peninsula (about 5-1/2 m. long and about 3/4 m. wide) between New York
+harbour and Newark Bay, and immediately adjoining the south boundary of
+Jersey City, from which it is partly separated by the Morris Canal. It
+is separated from Staten Island only by the narrow strip of water known
+as the Kill van Kull, and it has a total water frontage of about 10 m.
+Pop. (1890) 19,033; (1900) 32,722, of whom 10,786 were foreign-born
+(3168 Irish, 1868 Russian, 1656 German); (1910) 55,545. Land area about
+4 sq. m. Bayonne is served by the Central of New Jersey and by the
+Lehigh Valley railways (the latter for freight only), and by electric
+railway lines to Newark and Jersey City. The principal public buildings
+are the city hall, the public library, the post-office and the city
+hospital. Besides having a considerable share in the commerce of the
+port of New York, Bayonne is an important manufacturing centre; among
+its manufactures are refined petroleum, refined copper and nickel (not
+from the ore), refined borax, foundry and machine-shop products, tubular
+boilers, electric launches and electric motors, chemicals (including
+ammonia and sulphuric and nitric acids), iron and brass products, wire
+cables and silk goods. In 1905 the value of its factory product was
+$60,633,761, an increase of 57.1% over that of 1900, Bayonne ranking
+third in 1905 among the manufacturing cities of the state. It is the
+principal petroleum-distributing centre on the Atlantic seaboard, the
+enormous refineries and storehouses of the Standard Oil Company, among
+the largest in the world, being located here; there are connecting pipe
+lines with the Ohio and Pennsylvania oil fields, and with New York,
+Baltimore, Philadelphia and Washington. Much coal is shipped from the
+city. Bayonne, which comprises several former villages (Bayonne, Bergen
+Point, Pamrapo and Centerville), was settled about 1665-1670 by the
+Dutch. Originally a part of Bergen, it was set off as a township in
+1861. It was chartered as a city in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+BAYOU (pronounced bai-yoo, probably a corruption of Fr. _boyau_, gut),
+an "ox-bow" lake left behind by a river that has abandoned its old
+channel in the lower stages of its course. Good examples are found in
+Palmyra Lake, in the Mississippi valley below Vicksburg, and in Osage
+river, Missouri. As a river swings from side to side in a series of
+curves which widen laterally where the current is slow and the country
+more or less level, there is a tendency in flood times for the water to
+impinge more strongly upon the convex bank where the curve leaves the
+main channel. This bank will be eaten away, and the process will be
+repeated until the base of the "isthmus" is cut through, and the
+descending channel meets the returning curve, which is thus left
+stranded and filled with dead water, while the stream runs directly past
+it in the shorter course cut by the flood waters that deepen the new
+channel, and leave an isolated ox-bow lake in the old curve.
+
+
+
+
+BAYREUTH, or BAIREUTH, a town of Bavaria, Germany, district of Upper
+Franconia, 58 m. by rail N.N.E. from Nuremberg. Pop. (1900) 29,384. In
+Richard-Wagner-strasse is Wagner's house, with his grave in the garden.
+Franz Liszt (1811-1886) is buried here, as well as Jean Paul Friedrich
+Richter, who is commemorated by a monument (1841). His house was in
+Friedrichstrasse. Most of the buildings are of comparatively modern
+date, the city having suffered severely from the Hussites in 1430 and
+from a conflagration in 1621. There should be mentioned the palace of
+Duke Alexander of Wurttemberg, the administrative offices, the statue of
+King Maximilian II. (1860) and the collections of the historical society
+Among the ecclesiastical buildings, the _Stadt-Pfarrkirche_, dating from
+1439, and containing the monuments of the margraves of Bayreuth, is the
+most important. Bayreuth is a railway junction and has an active trade,
+chiefly in grain and horses. It manufactures woollen, linen and cotton
+goods, leather, delft and other earthenware, and tobacco, and has also
+several breweries and distilleries. The village of St Georgen is a
+suburb to the north east noted for its marble works; and about 2 m. to
+the east is the Hermitage, a fanciful building, erected in 1715 by the
+margrave George William (d. 1726), with gardens containing terraces,
+statues and fountains. Bayreuth was formerly the capital of a
+principality of the same name, which was annexed in 1791 to the kingdom
+of Prussia. In 1807 it was ceded by Prussia to France, which kept
+possession of it till 1810, when it was transferred to Bavaria.
+
+_The Wagner Theatre._--Among the many advantages which Wagner gained
+from his intimacy with Ludwig II., king of Bavaria, not the least was
+the practical support given to his plan of erecting a theatre for the
+ideal performance of his own music-dramas. The first plan of building a
+new theatre for the purpose in Munich itself was rejected, because
+Wagner rightly felt that the appeal of his advanced works, like the
+Nibelungen trilogy, would be far stronger if the comparatively small
+number of people who wished to hear them were removed from the
+distractions of a large capital; Bayreuth possessed the desired
+seclusion, being on a line of railway that could not be approached from
+any quarter without changing. The municipality furthered Wagner's scheme
+in every way, and in May 1872 the foundation stone of the Festspielhaus
+was laid, the event being commemorated by a notable performance of
+Beethoven's Choral Symphony in the old opera-house. The funds for the
+erection of the theatre were raised in part by the issue of 1000
+certificates of patronage (_Patronatscheine_), but the bulk of the sum
+was raised by founding "Wagner Societies" from St Petersburg to Cairo,
+from London to New York; these societies sprang up with such success
+that the theatre was opened in the summer of 1876 with the first
+complete performance of _Der Ring des Nibelungen_. The theatre, which
+stands on a height a little under a mile from the town, is built from
+the plans of Gustav Semper, the idea of the design being Wagner's own,
+an experiment indeed, but one which succeeded beyond all expectation.
+The seats are arranged on a kind of sloping wedge, in such a manner that
+every one has an almost equally good view of the stage, for there are no
+boxes, and the only galleries are quite at the back, one, the
+_Furstenloge_, being reserved for distinguished guests, the other, above
+it, for the townspeople. Immediately in front of the foremost row of
+seats a hood or sloping screen of wood covers a part of the orchestra,
+and another hood of similar shape starts from the front of the stage at
+a slightly lower level. Thus there is left a space between the two hoods
+through which the sound of the orchestra ascends with wonderfully
+blended effect; the conductor, sitting at the highest point of the
+orchestra, though under the screen, has a complete view of the stage as
+well as of his instrumentalists, and the sound of the orchestra is sent
+most forcibly in the direction of the stage, so that the voices are
+always well supported.
+
+  As an important addition to the work of the theatre, a permanent
+  school has been established at Bayreuth for the sake of training young
+  musicians to take part in the festival performances, which were at
+  first exclusively, and then partially, undertaken by artists from
+  other German and foreign theatres. The special feature upon which most
+  stress has been laid, ever since Wagner's death in 1883, has been not
+  so much the musical as the dramatic significance of the works; it is
+  contended by the inmost circle of Wagnerian adherents that none but
+  they can fully realize the master's intentions or hand down his
+  traditions. What is called the "Bayreuth Idea" is set forth in much
+  detail from this point of view by Houston Stewart Chamberlain, in his
+  _Richard Wagner_ (1897 and 1900).
+
+
+
+
+BAZA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; in the Hoya
+de Baza, a fruitful valley of the Sierra Nevada, not far from the small
+river Gallego, and at the terminus of a railway from Lorca. Pop. (1900)
+12,770. The dome-shaped mountain of Javaleon (4715 ft.) overlooks the
+town from the north-west. The ancient collegiate church of San Maximo
+occupies the traditional site of a cathedral founded by the Visigothic
+king Reccared about 600, and afterwards converted into a mosque. There
+is a brisk local trade in farm produce, and in the linen, hempen goods
+and pottery manufactured in Baza. The town nearly doubled its population
+in the last quarter of the 10th century. Sulphurous springs exist in the
+vicinity.
+
+Baza is the Roman _Basti_, the medieval _Basta_ or _Bastiana_; and
+numerous relics of antiquity, both Roman and medieval, have been found
+in the neighbourhood. Its bishopric was founded in 306. Under Moorish
+rule (c. 713-1489) it was one of the three most important cities in
+the kingdom of Granada, with an extensive trade, and a population
+estimated at 50,000. In 1489, after a stubborn defence lasting seven
+months, it was captured by the Spaniards under Isabella of Castile,
+whose cannon still adorn the _Alameda_ or public promenade. On the 10th
+of August 1810 the French under Marshal Soult defeated a large Spanish
+force close to the town.
+
+
+
+
+BAZAAR (Pers. _bazar_, market), a permanent market or street of shops,
+or a group of short narrow streets of stalls under one roof. The word
+has spread westward into Arabic, Turkish and, in special senses, into
+European languages, and eastward it has invaded India, where it has been
+generally adopted. In southern India and Ceylon bazaar means a single
+shop or stall. The word seems to have early reached South Europe
+(probably through Turkish), for F. Balducci Pegolotti in his mercantile
+handbook (c. 1340) gives "bazarra" as a Genoese word for market-place.
+The Malayan peoples have adopted the word as _pazar_. The meaning of the
+word has been much extended in English, where it is now equivalent to
+any sale, for charitable or mere commercial purposes, of mixed goods and
+fancy work.
+
+
+
+
+BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANCOIS (1811-1888), marshal of France, was born at
+Versailles on the 13th of February 1811. He entered the army as a
+private soldier in 1831, with a view to service in Algeria, and received
+a commission as sub-lieutenant in 1833. By his gallantry in action he
+won the cross of the Legion of Honour, and he was promoted lieutenant in
+1835. He served two campaigns with the Foreign Legion against the
+Carlists in Spain in 1837-38, returning to Africa as captain in 1839.
+During the succeeding decade he saw continual active service in Africa,
+and rose to be a brigadier-general with the charge of the district of
+Tlemcen. In the Crimean War he commanded a brigade, and maintained his
+reputation in the trenches before Sevastopol. On the capture of the
+south side he was appointed governor of the place, and was promoted
+general of division. He also commanded the French forces in the
+expedition to Kinburn. In Lombardy in 1859 he was wounded when in
+command of a division at Melegnano, and took a conspicuous part in the
+battle of Solferino. For his services in the campaign he received the
+grand cross of the Legion of Honour, of which he was already (1855) a
+commander. He commanded with great distinction the first division under
+General (afterwards marshal) Forey in the Mexican expedition in 1862,
+succeeded him in supreme command in 1863, and became marshal and senator
+of France in the following year. He at first pursued the war with great
+vigour and success, entering Mexico in 1863 and driving President Juarez
+to the frontier. The marshal's African experience as a soldier and as an
+administrator stood him in good stead in dealing with the guerrilleros
+of the Juarez party, but he was less successful in his relations with
+Maximilian, with whose court the French headquarters was in constant
+strife. Here, as later in his own country, Bazaine's policy seems to
+have been directed, at least in part, to his own establishment in the
+role of a mayor of the palace. His own army thought that he aspired to
+play the part of a Bernadotte. His marriage to a rich Mexican lady,
+whose family were supporters of Juarez, still further complicated his
+relations with the unfortunate emperor, and when at the close of the
+American Civil War the United States sent a powerful war-trained army to
+the Mexican frontier, the French forces were withdrawn (see MEXICO,
+_History_). Bazaine skilfully conducted the retreat and embarkation at
+Vera Cruz (1867). On his return to Paris he was but coldly received by
+his sovereign; public opinion was, however, in his favour, and he was
+held to have been made a scapegoat for the faults of others.
+
+At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) Marshal Bazaine was
+placed in command of the III. corps of the Army of the Rhine. He took no
+part in the earlier battles, but Napoleon III. soon handed over the
+chief command of the army to him. How far his inaction was the cause of
+the disaster of Spicheren is a matter of dispute. The best that can be
+said of his conduct is that the evil traditions of warfare on a small
+scale and the mania for taking up "strong positions," common to the
+French generals of 1870, were in Bazaine's own case emphasized by his
+personal dislike for the "schoolmaster" Frossard, lately the Prince
+Imperial's tutor and now commander of the army corps posted at
+Spicheren. Frossard himself, the leader of the "strong positions"
+school, could only blame his own theories for the paralysis of the rest
+of the army, which left the corps at Spicheren to fight unsupported.
+Bazaine, indeed, when called upon for help, moved part of his corps
+forward, but only to "take up strong positions," not to strike a blow on
+the battlefield. A few days later he took up the chief command, and his
+tenure of it is the central act in the tragedy of 1870. He found the
+army in retreat, ill-equipped and numerically at a great disadvantage,
+and the generals and staffs discouraged and distrustful of one another.
+There was practically no chance of success. The question was one of
+extricating the army and the government from a disastrous adventure, and
+Bazaine's solution of it was to bring back his army to Metz. For the
+events which led up to the battles before Metz and the investment of
+Bazaine's whole army in the fortress, see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR and METZ,
+_Battles_.
+
+It seems to be clearly established that the charges of treason to which
+later events gave so strong a colour had, as yet, no foundation in fact.
+Nor, indeed, can his unwillingness to leave the Moselle region, while
+there was yet time to slip past the advancing enemy, be considered even
+as proof of special incompetence. The resolution to stay in the
+neighbourhood of Metz was based on the knowledge that if the slow-moving
+French army ventured far out it would infallibly be headed off and
+brought to battle in the open by superior numbers. In "strong positions"
+close to his stronghold, however, Bazaine hoped that he could inflict
+damaging repulses and heavy slaughter on the ardent Germans, and in the
+main the result justified the expectation. The scheme was creditable,
+and even heroic, but the execution throughout all ranks, from the
+marshal to the battalion commanders, fell far short of the idea. The
+minutely cautious methods of movement, which Algerian experience had
+evolved suitable enough for small African desert columns, which were
+liable to surprise rushes and ambushes, reduced the mobility of a large
+army, which had favourable marching conditions, to 5 m. a day as against
+the enemy's rate of 15. When, before he had finally decided to stay in
+Metz, Bazaine attempted half-heartedly to begin a retreat on Verdun, the
+staff work and organization of the movement over the Moselle was so
+ineffective that when the German staff calculated that Bazaine was
+nearing Verdun, the French had in reality barely got their artillery and
+baggage trains through the town of Metz. Even on the battlefield the
+marshal forbade the general staff to appear, and conducted the fighting
+by means of his personal orderly officers. After the cumbrous army had
+passed through Metz it encountered an isolated corps of the enemy, which
+was commanded by the brilliant leader Constantin von Alvensleben, and
+promptly attacked the French. At almost every moment of the day victory
+was in Bazaine's hands. Two corps of the Germans fought all day for bare
+existence. But Bazaine had no confidence in his generals or his troops,
+and contented himself with inflicting severe losses on the most
+aggressive portions of the German army. Two days later, while the French
+actually retreated on Metz--taking seven hours to cover 5 to 6 m.--the
+masses of the Germans gathered in front of him, intercepting his
+communication with the interior of France. This Bazaine expected, and
+feeling certain that the Germans would sooner or later attack him in his
+chosen position, he made no attempt to interfere with their
+concentration. The great battle was fought, and having inflicted severe
+punishment on his assailants, Bazaine fell back within the entrenched
+camp of Metz. But although he made no appeals for help, public opinion,
+alarmed and excited, condemned the only remaining army of France,
+Marshal MacMahon's "Army of Chalons," to rescue Bazaine at all costs.
+The adventure ended at Sedan, and with Sedan the Third Empire collapsed.
+
+Up to this point Bazaine had served his country perhaps as well as
+circumstances allowed, and certainly with enough skill and a sufficient
+measure of success to justify his appointment. His experience, wide as
+it was, had not fitted him for the command of a large army in a delicate
+position. Since his Mexican expedition, moreover, he had himself fallen
+into a state of moral and physical lethargy, which, imperceptible on the
+field of battle, because his reputation for impassive bearing under fire
+was beyond question, was only too obvious in the staff offices, where
+the work of manoeuvring the army and framing plans and orders was
+chiefly done. But, in spite of these defects, it cannot be asserted that
+any one of Bazaine's subordinates would have done better, with the
+possible exception of Ladmirault, and Ladmirault was one of the junior
+corps commanders.
+
+Bazaine, therefore, in the main justified his reputation for ability. He
+was now to justify his reputation for intriguing and underhand
+diplomacy. If in Mexico he aspired to the role of mayor of the palace,
+it was far more so in Metz, where, as commander of the only organized
+army of France, he conceived himself to be the ruler of the country's
+destiny. Accordingly he engaged in a series of diplomatic intrigues,
+some of which to this day have never been properly cleared up.
+Negotiations passed between the outer world and the besieged commander,
+the purport of which remains still to some extent obscure, but it is
+beyond question that he proposed with the permission of the Germans to
+employ his army in "saving France from herself." The scheme, however,
+collapsed, and the army of the Rhine became prisoners of war to the
+number of 140,000. At the moment of the surrender a week's further
+resistance would have enabled the levies of the National Defence
+government to crush the weak forces of the Germans on the Loire and to
+relieve Paris. But the army of Prince Frederick Charles, set free by the
+surrender, hurried up in time to check and to defeat the great effort at
+Orleans (q.v.). The responsibility for this crushing blow was naturally
+enough, and justly enough, placed on Bazaine's shoulders, and although,
+when he returned from captivity, the marshal enjoyed a brief immunity,
+he was in 1873 brought to trial before a military court. He was found
+guilty of negotiating with and capitulating to the enemy before doing
+all that was prescribed by duty and honour, and sentenced to degradation
+and death, but very strongly recommended to mercy. His sentence was
+commuted to twenty years' seclusion, and the humiliating ceremonies
+attending degradation were dispensed with. He was incarcerated in the
+Ile Sainte-Marguerite and treated rather as an exile than as a convict;
+thence he escaped in 1874 to Italy. He finally took up his abode in
+Madrid, where he was treated with marked respect by the government of
+Alfonso XII. He died there on the 23rd of September 1888. He published
+_Episodes de la guerre de 1870_ (Madrid, 1883). He also wrote _L'Armee
+du Rhin_ (Paris, 1872).
+
+  See the bibliography appended to the article FRANCO-GERMAN WAR; also
+  memoir by C. Pelletan in _La Grande Encyclopedie_; for Bazaine's
+  conduct see _Bazaine et l'armee du Rhin_ (1873); J. Valfrey, _Le
+  Marechal et l'armee du Rhin_ (1873); Count A. de la Guerroniere,
+  _L'Homme de Metz_ (1871); Rossel, _Les Derniers Jours de Metz_ (1871).
+  See also the article BOURBAKI for the curious Regnier episode
+  connected with the surrender of Metz.
+
+
+
+
+BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1819-1891), English engineer, was born
+at Enfield on the 28th of March 1819. At the age of seventeen he was
+articled to an engineer, and a few years later he began to practise
+successfully on his own account. His name is best known for the
+engineering works he carried out in London, especially for the
+construction of the main drainage system and the Thames embankment. In
+1848 the control of London drainage, which had hitherto been divided
+among eight distinct municipal bodies, was consolidated under twelve
+commissioners, who were in 1849 superseded by a second commission. Under
+the latter Bazalgette accepted an appointment which he continued to hold
+under the three successive commissions which in the course of a year or
+two followed the second one, and when finally in 1855 these bodies were
+replaced by the Metropolitan Board of Works, he was at once appointed
+its chief engineer. His plans were ready, but the work was delayed by
+official obstruction and formality until 1858. Once begun, however, it
+was vigorously pushed on, and in 1865 the system was formally opened. It
+consisted of 83 m. of large intercepting sewers, draining more than 100
+sq. m. of buildings, and calculated to deal with 420 million gallons a
+day. The cost was L4,600,000. Almost simultaneously Bazalgette was
+engaged on the plans for the Thames embankment. The section between
+Westminster and Vauxhall on the Surrey side was built between 1860 and
+1869, and the length between Westminster and Blackfriars was declared
+open by the prince of Wales in 1870. The Chelsea embankment followed in
+1871-1874, and in 1876 Northumberland Avenue was formed. The total
+outlay on the scheme exceeded L2,000,000. Bazalgette was also
+responsible for various other engineering works in the metropolitan
+area, designing, for example, new bridges at Putney and Battersea, and
+the steam ferry between north and south Woolwich. He also prepared plans
+for a bridge over the river near the Tower and for a tunnel under it at
+Blackwall, but did not live to see either of these projects carried out.
+He died on the 15th of March 1891 at Wimbledon.
+
+
+
+
+BAZARD, AMAND (1791-1832), French socialist, the founder of a secret
+society in France corresponding to the Carbonari of Italy, was born at
+Paris. He took part in the defence of Paris in 1815, and afterwards
+occupied a subordinate situation in the prefecture of the Seine. About
+1820 he united some patriotic friends into a society, called _Amis de la
+verite_. From this was developed a complete system of Carbonarism, the
+peculiar principles of which were introduced from Italy by two of
+Bazard's friends. Bazard himself was at the head of the central body,
+and, while taking a general lead, contributed extensively to the
+Carbonarist journal, _L'Aristarque_. An unsuccessful outbreak at Belfort
+ruined the society, and the leaders were compelled to conceal
+themselves. Bazard, after remaining for some time in obscurity in Paris,
+came to the conclusion that the ends of those who wished well to the
+people would be most easily attained, not through political agitation,
+but by effecting a radical change in their social condition. This train
+of thinking naturally drew him towards the socialist philosophers of the
+school of Saint-Simon, whom he joined. He contributed to their journal,
+_Le Producteur_; and in 1828 began to give public lectures on the
+principles of the school (see SAINT-SIMON). His opposition to the
+emancipation of women brought about a quarrel with Enfantin (q.v.) in
+1831, and Bazard found himself almost deserted by the members of the
+society. He attacked Enfantin violently, and in a warm discussion
+between them he was struck down by apoplexy. After lingering for a few
+months he died on the 29th of July 1832.
+
+
+
+
+BAZAS, a town of south-western France, in the department of Gironde,
+38-1/2 m. S.S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 2505; commune,
+4684. The town, which was the seat of a bishop from at least the
+beginning of the 6th century till 1790, has a Gothic church (formerly
+the cathedral) dating from the 13th to the 16th centuries. There are
+remains of ramparts (15th and 16th centuries) and several old houses of
+the 16th century. The vineyards of the vicinity produce white wine. The
+town is capital of an arrondissement, and carries on tanning, &c., and
+trade in the well-known Bazadais cattle.
+
+Bazas (_Cossio_) was capital of the ancient tribe of the _Vasates_, and
+under the Romans one of the twelve cities of Novempopuluna. In later
+times it was capital of the district of Bazadais. It was the scene of
+much bloodshed during the religious wars of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+BAZIGARS, a nomad gipsy-folk of India, found throughout the peninsula,
+and variously known as Bazigars, Panchpiri, Nats, Bediyas, &c. They live
+a life apart from the surrounding Hindu population, and still preserve a
+certain ethnical identity, scarcely justified by any indications given
+by their physique. They make a living as jugglers, dancers,
+basket-weavers and fortune-tellers; and in true European gipsy fashion
+each clan has its king.
+
+
+
+
+BAZIN, RENE (1853-   ), French novelist and man of letters, was born at
+Angers on the 26th of December 1853. He studied law in Paris, and on his
+return to Angers became professor of law in the Catholic university
+there. He contributed to Parisian journals a series of sketches of
+provincial life and descriptions of travel, but he made his reputation
+by _Une Tache d'encre_ (1888), which received a prize from the Academy.
+Other novels of great charm and delicacy followed: _La Sarcelle bleue_
+(1892); _Madame Corentine_ (1893); _Humble Amour_ (1894); _De toute son
+ame_ (1897); _La Terre qui meurt_ (1899); _Les Oberle_ (1901), an
+Alsatian story which was dramatized and acted in the following year;
+_L'Ame alsacienne_ (1903); _Donatienne_ (1903); _L'Isolee_ (1905); _Le
+Ble qui leve_ (1907); _Memoires d'une vieille fille_ (1908). _La Terre
+qui meurt_, a picture of the decay of peasant farming and a story of La
+Vendee, is an indirect plea for the development of provincial France. A
+volume of _Questions litteraires et sociales_ appeared in 1906. Rene
+Bazin was admitted to the Academy on the 28th of April 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BAZIRE, CLAUDE (1764-1794), French revolutionist, was deputy for the
+Cote d'Or in the Legislative Assembly, and made himself prominent by
+denouncing the court and the "Austrian committee" of the Tuileries. On
+the 20th of June 1792 he spoke in favour of the deposition of the king.
+In the Convention he sat with the Mountain, opposed adjourning the trial
+of Louis XVI., and voted for his death. He joined in the attack upon the
+Girondists, but, as member of the committee of general security, he
+condemned the system of the Terror. He was implicated by Francois Chabot
+in the falsification of a decree relative to the East India Company, and
+though his share seems to have been simply that he did not reveal the
+plot, of which he knew but part, he was accused before the Revolutionary
+Tribunal at the same time as Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and was
+executed on the 5th of April 1794.
+
+
+
+
+BDELLIUM ([Greek: bdellion], used by Pliny and Dioscorides as the name
+of a plant which exuded a fragrant gum), a name applied to several gums
+or gum-resins that simulate and are sometimes found as adulterants of
+true myrrh (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+BEACH, a word of unknown origin; probably an old dialect word meaning
+shingle, hence, by transference, the place covered by shingle. Beach
+sometimes denotes the material thrown up by the waves, sometimes the
+long resulting ridge, but more frequently the area between high and low
+water, or even the area between land and sea covered with material
+thrown up by exceptional storms.
+
+The actual character of beach material depends upon the nature and
+structure of the rocks inshore, the strength and direction of currents,
+and the force of the waves. The southern shore of the Isle of Wight
+furnishes a good example. The island ends westward in the well-known
+"Needles," consisting of chalk with flints. The disintegration of this
+rock by wave action separates the finer chalk, which is carried seawards
+in suspension, from the hard flint, which is piled in rough shingle upon
+the shore. The currents sweep constantly eastward up channel, and the
+rough flint shingle is rolled along by wave action toward the Ventnor
+rampart, and ground finer and finer until it arrives as a very fine
+flinty gravel at Ventnor pier. The sweep of Sandown Bay follows, where
+the cliffs are composed for the most part of greensand, and here the
+beach at low water is sandy and smooth. The eastern end of the island is
+again composed of chalk with flints, and here the beach material as at
+the western end consists of very coarse flint shingle. In this, as in
+similar cases, the material has been dragged seawards from the land by
+constant action of the undertow that accompanies each retreating tide
+and each returning wave. The resulting accumulated ridge is battered by
+every storm, and thrown above ordinary high-water mark in a ridge such
+as the Chesil Bank or the long grass-grown mound that has blocked the
+old channel of the Yar and diverted its waters into Yaverland Bay.
+Sandown furnishes an instructive example of the power of the eastward
+currents carrying high-storm waves. The groins built to preserve the
+foreshore are piled to the top with coarse shingle on the western side,
+while there is a drop of over 8 ft. on to the sands east of the wall,
+many thousands of tons of shingle having been moved bodily by the waves
+and deposited against each groin. The force of the waves has been
+measured on the west coast of Scotland and found to be as much as 3 tons
+per square foot. Against these forces the preservation of the shore from
+the advance of the sea becomes an extremely difficult and often a
+hopeless undertaking, since blocks of rock over 100 tons in weight have
+been moved by the waves. The beach is therefore unstable in its
+position. It advances in front of the encroaching sea, burying former
+beaches under the sand and mud of the now deeper water, or it retreats
+when the sea is withdrawn from the land or the land rises locally,
+leaving the old shingle stranded in a "raised beach," but its formation
+is in all cases due to the form and structure of the shore, the sapping
+action of the waves, the backward drag of the undertow plastering the
+shore with material, which is in turn bombarded by waves and swept by
+currents that cover the finer debris of the undertow with a layer of
+coarse fragments that are re-sorted by the daily action of currents and
+tides.
+
+
+
+
+BEACHY HEAD, a promontory on the coast of Sussex, England, S.W. of
+Eastbourne, about 3 m. from the centre of the town. It consists of a
+perpendicular chalk cliff 532 ft. high, and forms the eastern
+termination of the hill-range known as the South Downs. The old Bell
+Tout lighthouse, 285 ft. above high-water mark, erected in 1831 on the
+second cliff to the westward, in 0 deg. 10' 18" E., 50 deg. 43' 30" N.,
+has been superseded by a new lighthouse built in the sea at the foot of
+the head itself.
+
+_Battle of Beachy Head._--This naval battle, known to the French as
+Bevisier (a corruption of Pevensey), was fought on the 30th of June
+1690. An allied force of 37 British sail of the line, under command of
+the earl of Torrington (Arthur Herbert), and of 22 Dutch under C.
+Evertsen, was at anchor under the headland, while a French fleet of over
+70 sail, commanded by the comte de Tourville, was anchored some miles
+off to the south-west. The French fleet had orders to co-operate with an
+expected Jacobite rising in England. Torrington, to whom the general
+direction of the allied fleet belonged, was much disturbed by the
+enemy's superiority in number, and on the 26th had written to the
+Council of Regency suggesting that he ought to retire to the Gunfleet at
+the mouth of the Thames, and observe the enemy from a distance till he
+could be reinforced. The council, which had the support of Admiral
+Russell, afterwards earl of Orford, considered that a retreat to the
+Gunfleet would have fatal consequences, by which they no doubt meant
+that it would leave the French free to land troops for the support of
+the Jacobites. They therefore ordered Herbert not to lose sight of the
+enemy, but rather to fight if he could secure an advantage of position.
+The admiral, who was on very bad terms with the council, elected to
+treat this as a peremptory order to fight. At daybreak on the 30th he
+got under way and bore down on the enemy. The wind was at north-east and
+gave him the weather-gage. As his fleet was only 57 sail in all he was
+not able to engage the enemy from end to end, but as the French were
+arranged in a line from east to west he could have fallen on the end
+nearest him, and could have guarded himself by telling off a part of his
+ships to watch the remainder. Torrington preferred to bring his fleet
+down in such a way that his van, consisting of the Dutch ships, should
+be opposite the enemy's van, his centre opposite their centre, and his
+rear should engage their rear. The inferiority of the allies in numbers
+made it therefore inevitable that there should be gaps between the
+different divisions. As the fleets actually did come to action, the
+Dutch with a few English ships pressed on the French van, their leading
+ship being abreast of the ninth or tenth Frenchman. Torrington took his
+station opposite the rear of the French centre, leaving a great gap
+between himself and the ships in the van. Being apprehensive that the
+French centre would tack and pass this gap so as to put him between two
+fires, he kept a long way off so as to be free to manoeuvre against them
+if they made the attempt. The English rear division, consisting of the
+English blue squadron under Sir Ralph Delaval, fought a close action
+with the French opposite to them. In the meantime the French ships,
+ahead of the leading Dutchman, succeeded in turning to windward and
+putting part of Evertsen's squadron between two fires. The Dutch ships
+suffered heavily, and one of them which was dismasted drifted among the
+French and was taken. More severe loss would have followed if the better
+average seamanship of the English and Dutch had not stood them in good
+stead. The tide turned from flood to ebb during the action, and the
+surface current which in the Channel sets to the west with the ebb began
+to carry the fleets with it. The Dutch and English dropped anchor. The
+French, who were not equally alert, did not and were carried westward.
+When the tide turned the allies retreated to the Thames, abandoning
+several of the most damaged ships in Pevensey Bay. The pursuit of the
+French was ineffective, for Tourville persisted in keeping his ships in
+line of battle, which forced them to regulate their speed by the slowest
+among them. Torrington was tried for his conduct but acquitted.
+
+  A full account of the battle of Beachy Head, written with ample
+  quotation of documents, and for the purpose of vindicating Herbert,
+  will be found in Admiral Colomb's _Naval Warfare_ (London, 1899).
+       (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BEACON (from the O. Eng. _beacn_, a sign, cf. "beckon," another form of
+the same word), a signal, especially a fire lit on a high hill,
+structure or building for the purpose of sending a message of alarm or
+of important news over long distances. Such was the courier-fire
+([Greek: aggaros pur]) that brought the news of the fall of Troy to
+Argos (Aeschylus, _Agamemnon_), or the chain of signals that told of the
+approach of the Spanish Armada, or which circled the British Isles in
+the jubilee years of 1887 and 1897. The word occurs in many names for
+lofty and conspicuous hills, such as Dunkery Beacon in Somerset, the
+highest point on Exmoor. On many such hills the remains of old beacon
+towers and cressets are still found. The word is used generally of a
+lighthouse, but technically it means either a small unattended light, a
+superstructure on a floating buoy, such as a staff and cage, or staff
+and globe, or an unlighted structure, forming a conspicuous object at
+sea, used in each case to guide or warn sailors. (See LIGHTHOUSE and
+BUOY.)
+
+
+
+
+BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, EARL OF (1804-1881), British statesman,
+second child and eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli (q.v.) and Maria Basevi,
+who were married in 1802, was born at No. 6 John Street, Bedford Row, on
+the 21st of December 1804. Of Isaac D'Israeli's other children, Sarah
+was born in 1802, Naphtali in 1807, Ralph (Raphael) in 1809, and James
+(Jacob) in 1813. None of the family was akin to Benjamin for genius and
+character, except Sarah, to whom he was deeply indebted for a wise,
+unswerving and sympathetic devotion, when, in his earlier days, he
+needed it most. All Isaac D'Israeli's children were born into the Jewish
+communion, in which, however, they were not to grow up. It is a
+reasonable inference from Isaac's character that he was never at ease in
+the ritual of Judaism. His father died in the winter of 1816, and soon
+afterwards Isaac formally withdrew with all his household from the
+Jewish church. His son Benjamin, who had been admitted to it with the
+usual rites eight days after his birth, was baptized at St Andrew's
+church in Holborn on the 31st of July 1817. One of Isaac D'Israeli's
+reasons for quitting the tents of his people was that rabbinical
+Judaism, with its unyielding laws and fettering ceremonies, "cuts off
+the Jews from the great family of mankind." Little did he know, when
+therefore he cut off the D'Israeli family from Judaism, what great
+things he was doing for one small member of it. The future prime
+minister was then short of thirteen years old, and there was yet time to
+provide the utmost freedom which his birth allowed for the faculties and
+ambitions he was born with. Taking the worldly view alone, of course,
+most fortunate for his aspirations in youth was his withdrawal from
+Judaism in childhood. That it was fully sanctioned by his intellect at
+maturity is evident; but the vindication of unbiased choice would not
+have been readily accepted had Disraeli abandoned Judaism of his own
+will at the pushing _Vivian Grey_ period or after. And though a mind
+like Disraeli's might work to satisfaction with Christianity as
+"completed Judaism," it could but dwell on a breach of continuity which
+means so much to Jews and which he was never allowed to forget amongst
+Christians. With all, he was proud of his race as truly, if not as
+vehemently, as his paternal grandmother detested it. Family pride
+contributed to the feeling in his case; for in his more speculative
+moods he could look back upon an ancestry which was of those, perhaps,
+who colonized the shores of the Mediterranean from before the time of
+the Captivity. More definite is the history of descent from an ennobled
+Spanish family which escaped from the Torquemada persecutions to Venice,
+there found a new home, took a new name, and prospered for six
+generations. The Benjamin D'Israeli, Lord Beaconsfield's grandfather,
+who came to England in 1748, was a younger son sent at eighteen to try
+his fortune in London. "A man of ardent character, sanguine, courageous,
+speculative, fortunate, with a temper which no disappointment could
+disturb" (so Lord Beaconsfield described him), he soon made the
+beginnings of a handsome fortune and turned country gentleman. That his
+grandson exaggerated his prosperity is highly probable; but that he
+became a man of wealth and consideration is certain. He married twice.
+His second wife was Sarah Siprout de Gabay, "a beautiful woman of strong
+intellect" and importunate ambitions, who hated the race she belonged to
+because it was despised by others. She felt so keenly the social
+disabilities it brought upon her, and her husband's indifference to
+them, that "she never pardoned him his name." Her literary son Isaac
+suffered equally or even more; for though he had ambitions he had none
+that she could recognize as such. She could ridicule him for the
+aspirations which he had not and for those which he had; on the other
+hand, he never heard from her a tender word "though she lived to be
+eighty." Nor did any other member of her family, according to her
+grandson.
+
+
+  "The Representative."
+
+Isaac D'Israeli was devoted to the reading and writing of books in
+domestic quiet; and his son Benjamin suffered appreciably from his
+father's gentle preoccupations. As a child--unruly and disturbing no
+doubt--he was sent to a school of small account at Blackheath, and was
+there "for years" before he was recalled at the age of twelve on the
+death of his grandfather. Isaac D'Israeli was his father's sole heritor,
+but change of fortune seems to have awakened in him no ambitions for the
+most hopeful of his sons. At fifteen, not before, Benjamin was sent to a
+Unitarian school at Walthamstow--a well-known school, populous enough to
+be a little world of emulation and conflict but otherwise unfit. Not
+there, nor in any similar institution at that illiberal time, perhaps,
+was a Jewish boy likely to make a fortunate entry into "the great family
+of mankind." His name, the foreign look of him, and some pronounced
+incompatibilities not all chargeable to young Disraeli (as afterwards
+the name came to be spelt), soon raised a crop of troubles. His stay at
+Walthamstow was brief, his departure abrupt, and he went to school no
+more. With the run of his father's library, and the benefits of that
+born bookman's guidance, he now set out to educate himself. This he did
+with an industry stiffened by matchless self-confidence and by ambitions
+fully mature before he was eighteen. Yet he yielded to an attempt to
+make a man of business of him. He was barely seventeen when (in November
+1821) he was taken into the office of Messrs Swain, Stevens and Co.,
+solicitors, in Frederick's Place, Old Jewry. Here he remained for three
+years--"most assiduous in his attention to business," said one of the
+partners, "and showing great ability in the transaction of it." It was
+then determined that he should go to the bar; and accordingly he was
+entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1824. But Disraeli had found other studies
+and an alien use for his pen. Though "assiduous in his attention to
+business" in Frederick's Place, he found time to write for the printer.
+Dr Smiles, in his _Memoirs of John Murray_, tells of certain pamphlets
+on the brightening prospects of the Spanish South American colonies,
+then in the first enjoyment of emancipation--pamphlets seemingly written
+for a Mr Powles, head of a great financial firm, whose acquaintance
+Disraeli had made. In the same year, apparently, he wrote a novel--his
+first, and never published. _Aylmer Papillon_ was the title of it, Dr
+Smiles informs us; and he prints a letter from Disraeli to the John
+Murray of that day, which indicates its character pretty clearly. The
+last chapter, its author says, is taken up with "Mr Papillon's
+banishment under the Alien Act, from a ministerial misconception of a
+metaphysical sonnet." About the same time he edited a _History of Paul
+Jones_, originally published in America, the preface of the English
+edition being Disraeli's first appearance as an author. Murray could not
+publish _Aylmer Papillon_, but he had great hopes of its boyish writer
+(Isaac D'Israeli was an old friend of his), "took him into his
+confidence, and related to him his experiences of men and affairs."
+Disraeli had not completed his twenty-first year when (in 1825) Murray
+was possessed by the idea of bringing out a great daily newspaper; and
+if his young friend did not inspire that idea he keenly urged its
+execution, and was entrusted by Murray with the negotiation of all
+manner of preliminaries, including the attempt to bring Lockhart in as
+editor. The title of the paper, _The Representative_, was Disraeli's
+suggestion. He chose reporters, looked to the setting-up of a
+printing-office, busied himself in all ways to Murray's great
+satisfaction, and, as fully appears from Dr Smiles's account of the
+matter, with extraordinary address. But when these arrangements were
+brought to the point of completion, Disraeli dropped out of the scheme
+and had nothing more to do with it. He was to have had a fourth share of
+the proprietorship, bringing in a corresponding amount of capital. His
+friend Mr Powles, whom he had enlisted for the enterprise, was to have
+had a similar share on the same conditions. Neither seems to have paid
+up, and that, perhaps, had to do with the quarrel which parted Benjamin
+Disraeli and John Murray before a sheet of the luckless _Representative_
+was printed. Many years afterwards (1853) Disraeli took an active
+interest in _The Press_, a weekly journal of considerable merit but
+meagre fortunes.
+
+
+  "Vivan Grey."
+
+At the death of the elder Benjamin (1817), his son Isaac had moved from
+the King's Road, Gray's Inn (now Theobald's Road), to No. 6 Bloomsbury
+Square. Here he entertained the many distinguished friends, literary and
+political, who had been drawn to him by his "Curiosities" and other
+ingenious works, and here his son Benjamin also had their acquaintance
+and conversation. In Bloomsbury Square lived the Austens, and to their
+house, a great resort of similar persons, Mrs Austen cordially welcomed
+him. Murray's friendship and associations helped him in like manner, no
+doubt; and thus was opened to Disraeli the younger a world in which he
+was to make a considerable stir. The very much smaller society of that
+day was, of course, more comprehensible to sight and hearing, when once
+you were within its borders, than the society of this. Reverberations of
+the gossip of St James's and Mayfair extended to Bloomsbury in those
+days. Yet Disraeli's range of observation must have been not only brief
+but limited when he sat down at twenty or twenty-one to write _Vivian
+Grey_. It is therefore a probable conjecture that Mrs Austen, a clever
+woman of the world, helped him from her knowledge. His own strongly
+perceptive imagination (the gift in which he was to excel every other
+politician of his time) and the bent of political reading and aspiration
+from boyhood completed his equipment; and so the wonder that so young a
+man in Disraeli's social position should write a book like _Vivian Grey_
+is accounted for. It was published in 1826. The success of this
+insolently clever novel, the immediate introduction of its author to the
+great world, and the daring eccentricities of dress, demeanour, and
+opinion by which he fixed attention on himself there, have always been
+among the most favourite morsels of Disraeli's history. With them it
+began, and successive generations of inquirers into a strange career and
+a character still shrouded and baffling refer to them as settled
+starting-points of investigation. What was the man who, in such a
+society and with political aspirations to serve, could thrive by such
+vagaries as these, or in spite of them? If unaffected, what is to be
+thought of them as keys to character? If affected, what then? Inquiry
+still takes this shape, and when any part of Disraeli's career is
+studied, the laces and essences, the rings over gloves, the jewelled
+satin shirt-fronts, the guitareries and chibouqueries of his early days
+are never remote from memory. The report of them can hardly be doubted;
+and as the last relation was made (to the writer of this article) not
+with intent to ridicule Mr Disraeli's taste but to illustrate his
+conquering abilities, the story is repeated here. One of Disraeli's
+first friends in the world of fashion and genius was Sir Edward Lytton
+Bulwer. "And," said Sir Henry Bulwer ("Pelham's" brother), "we heard so
+much at the time of Edward's amazingly brilliant new friend that we were
+the less inclined to make his acquaintance." At length, however, Sir
+Edward got up a little dinner-party to convince the doubters. It was to
+meet at the early hour of those days at one of the Piccadilly hotels.
+"There was my brother, Alexander Cockburn, myself and (I think) Milnes;
+but for a considerable time no Mr Disraeli. Waiting for Mr Disraeli did
+not enhance the pleasure of meeting him, nor when he did arrive did his
+appearance predispose us in his favour. He wore green velvet trousers, a
+canary-coloured waistcoat, low shoes, silver buckles, lace at his
+wrists, and his hair in ringlets." The description of the coat is
+forgotten. "We sat down. Not one of us was more than five-and-twenty
+years old. We were all--if you will allow me to include myself--on the
+road to distinction, all clever, all ambitious, and all with a perfect
+conceit of ourselves. Yet if on leaving the table we had been severally
+taken aside and asked which was the cleverest of the party, we should
+have been obliged to say 'the man in the green velvet trousers.'" This
+story is a little lamp that throws much light. Here we see at their
+sharpest the social prejudices that Disraeli had to fight against,
+provocation of them carried to its utmost in every way open to him, and
+complete conquest in a company of young men less likely to admit
+superiority in a wit of their own years, probably, than any other that
+could have been brought together at that time.
+
+
+  Travel.
+
+Soon after the publication of _Vivian Grey_, Disraeli, who is said by
+Froude to have been "overtaken by a singular disorder," marked by fits
+of giddiness ("once he fell into a trance, and did not recover for a
+week"), went with the Austens on a long summer tour in France,
+Switzerland and Italy. Returning to a quiet life at Bradenham--an old
+manor-house near High Wycombe, which his father had taken--Disraeli put
+law in abeyance and resumed novel-writing. His weakest book, and two or
+three other productions, brief, but in every literary sense the finest
+of his works, were written in the next two or three years. But for
+_Ixion in Heaven_, _The Infernal Marriage_, and _Popanilla_, Disraeli
+could not be placed among the greater writers of his kind; yet none of
+his imaginative books have been so little read as these. The mysterious
+malady continued, and Disraeli set out with William Meredith, who was to
+have married Sarah Disraeli, for a tour in southern Europe and the
+nearer East. He saw Cadiz, Seville, Granada, Athens, Constantinople,
+Jerusalem, Cairo, Thebes; played the corsair with James Clay on a yacht
+voyage from Malta to Corfu; visited the terrible Reschid, then with a
+Turkish army in the Albanian capital; landed in Cyprus, and left it with
+an expectation in his singularly prescient mind that the island would
+one day be English. These travels must have profited him greatly, and we
+have our share of the advantage; not so much, however, in _The Wondrous
+Tale of Alroy_ or _Tancred_, or the "Revolutionary Epic" which he was
+inspired to write on "the windy plains of Troy," but in the letters he
+sent home to his sister. These letters, written with the utmost freedom
+and fullness to the one whose affection and intellect he trusted more
+than any, are of the greatest value for interpreting the writer.
+Together with other letters also published some time after Disraeli's
+death, they tell more of him than anything that can be found in print
+elsewhere. They show, for example, that his extraordinary exuberances
+were unforced, leaping by natural impulse from an overcharged source.
+They also show that his Oriental fopperies were not so much "purposed
+affectation" as Froude and others have surmised. That they were so in
+great part is confessed again and again in these letters, but confessed
+in such a way as to reveal that they were permitted for his own
+enjoyment of them as much as planned. The "purposed affectation" sprang
+from an unaffected delight in gauds of attire, gauds of fancy and
+expression. It was not only to startle and impress the world that he
+paraded his eccentricities of splendour. His family also had to be
+impressed by them. It was to his sober father that he wrote, at the age
+of twenty-six: "I like a sailor's life much, though it spoils the
+toilette." It is in a letter from Gibraltar to the same hand that we
+read of his two canes--"a morning and an evening cane"--changed as the
+gun fires. And the same correspondent must be told that "Ralph's
+handkerchief which he brought me from Paris is the most successful thing
+I ever wore."
+
+
+  Literary production.
+
+When Disraeli returned to England in 1831, all thought of the law was
+abandoned. The pen of romance was again taken up--the poet's also and
+the politician's. In the next five years he wrote _Contarini Fleming_,
+the _Revolutionary Epick, Alroy, Henrietta Temple, What is He?_ (a
+pamphlet expository of his opinions), the _Runnymede Letters_, a
+_Vindication of the British Constitution_, and other matter of less
+note. The epic, begun in great hope and confidence, was ended in less,
+though its author was to the last unwilling that it should be forgotten.
+The novels revived the success he had with _Vivian Grey_, and restored
+him to his place among the brilliancies and powers of the time. The
+political writing, too, much of it in a garish, extravagant style,
+exercised his deeper ambitions, and stands as witness to the working of
+original thought and foresight. Both qualities are conspicuous in _What
+is He?_ and the _Vindication_, of which it has been truly said that in
+these pages he "struck the keynote to the explanations he afterwards
+consistently offered of all his apparent inconsistencies." Here an
+interpretation of Tory principles as capable of running with the
+democratic idea, and as called upon to do so, is ingeniously attempted.
+The aristocratic principle of government having been destroyed by the
+Reform Bill, and the House of Lords being practically "abrogated" by
+that measure, it became necessary that Toryism should start from the
+democratic basis, from which it had never been alien. The filched
+liberties of the crown and the people should be restored, and the nation
+redeemed from the oligarchies which had stolen from both. When at the
+beginning of all this writing Disraeli entered the political arena as
+candidate for High Wycombe (1832), he was nominated by a Tory and
+seconded by a Radical--in vain; and vain were two subsequent attempts in
+the autumn of 1832 and in 1834. In the first he was recommended to the
+electors by Daniel O'Connell and the Radical Hume. In his last
+candidature at Wycombe he stood on more independent ground, commending
+himself by a series of speeches which fully displayed his quality,
+though the prescience which gemmed them with more than one prophetic
+passage was veiled from his contemporaries. Among Disraeli's great
+acquaintances were many--Lyndhurst at their head--whose expectations of
+his future were confirmed by the Wycombe speeches. He was "thought of"
+for various boroughs, Marylebone among the number, but his democratic
+Toryism seems to have stood in his way in some places and his inborn
+dislike of Radicalism in others. It was an impracticable situation--no
+getting on from it; and so, at Lyndhurst's persuasion, as he afterwards
+acknowledged, he determined to side with the Tories. Accordingly, when
+in the spring of 1835 a vacancy occurred at Taunton, Disraeli contested
+the seat in the Tory interest with Carlton Club support. Here again he
+failed, but with enhanced reputation as a fighting politician and with
+other consequences good for notoriety. It was at Taunton that Disraeli
+fell upon O'Connell, rather ungratefully; whereupon the Liberator was
+roused to retort on his assailant vehemently as "a liar," and humorously
+as a probable descendant of the impenitent thief. And then followed the
+challenge which, when O'Connell declined it, was fastened on his son
+Morgan, and the interruption of the duel by seizure of Mr Disraeli in
+his bed, and his famous appearance in the Marylebone police court. He
+declared himself very well satisfied with this episode, but nothing in
+it can really have pleased him, not even the noise it made.
+
+
+  Enters Parliament.
+
+Here the first period of Disraeli's public life came to an end, a period
+of preliminaries and flourishes, and of what he himself called sowing
+his political wild oats. It was a more mature Disraeli who in the
+general election of 1837 was returned for Maidstone as the colleague of
+his providential friend Mr Wyndham Lewis. Though the fortunes of the
+Tory party were fast reviving under Peel's guidance, the victory was
+denied him on this occasion; but, for once, the return of the Whigs to
+power was no great disappointment for the junior member for Maidstone.
+To gain a footing in the House of Commons was all that his confident
+spirit ever asked, and Froude vouches for it that he succeeded only just
+in time to avert financial ruin. His electioneering ventures, the
+friendly backing of bills, and his own expense in keeping up
+appearances, had loaded him with debt. Yet (mark his worldly wisdom) "he
+had never entangled his friends in his financial dealings. He had gone
+frankly to the professional money-lenders, who made advances to him in a
+speculation on his success": they were to get their money back with
+large interest or lose it altogether. Such conditions were themselves
+incitement enough to a prompt redemption of the promise of parliamentary
+distinction, even without the restless spurring of ambition. And
+Disraeli had another promise to redeem: that which he uttered when he
+told O'Connell that they would meet again at Philippi. Therefore when,
+three weeks after the session began, a debate on Irish election
+petitions gave him opportunity, Disraeli attempted that first House of
+Commons speech which imagination still dwells upon as something wondrous
+strange. That he should not have known better, even by hearsay, than to
+address the House of Commons in fantastic phrase from the mouth of a
+fantastic figure is indeed remarkable, but not that he retained
+self-confidence enough to tell the unwitting crew who laughed him down
+that a time would come when they would hear him. It was one of the least
+memorable of his prophecies. The speech was a humiliating but not an
+oppressive failure. In about a week afterwards he spoke again, which
+shows how little damage he felt, while the good sense, brevity, and
+blameless manner of the speech (on a copyright bill) announced that he
+could learn. And for some time thereafter he affected no importance in
+the House, though not as withdrawing from attention.
+
+
+  Mental characteristics.
+
+Meanwhile, consciously and unconsciously, as is the way with men of
+genius, his mind was working upon problems of government, the magnitude,
+the relations and the natural developments of which he was more sensible
+of than any known politician of his time. "Sensible of," we say, to mark
+the difference between one sort of understanding and another which comes
+of labour and pains alone. Disraeli studied too, no doubt, reading and
+inquiring and applying set thought, but such means were insufficient to
+put into his mind all that he found there. It seems that opinions may be
+formed of inquiry and study alone, which are then constructive; but
+where intuitive perception or the perceptive imagination is a robust
+possession, the fruits of research become assimilative--the food of a
+divining faculty which needs more or less of it according to the power
+of divination. The better judgment in all affairs derives from this
+quality, which has some very covetable advantages for its possessor. His
+judgments may be held with greater confidence, which is an intellectual
+advantage; and, standing in his mind not so much an edifice as a natural
+growth, they cannot be so readily abandoned at the call of ease or
+self-interest. They may be denied assertion or even outraged for a
+purpose, but they cannot be got rid of,--which is a moral advantage.
+Disraeli's mind and its judgments were of this character. Its greatest
+gift was not the romantic imagination which he possessed abundantly and
+employed overmuch, but the perceptive, interpretative, judicial or
+divining imagination, without which there can be no great man of
+affairs. Breadth of view, insight, foresight, are more familiar but less
+adequate descriptions of a faculty which Disraeli had in such force that
+it took command of him from first to last. Although he knew and acted on
+the principle that "a statesman is a practical character," whose
+business is to "serve the country according to its present necessities,"
+he was unable to confine his vision to the nearer consequences of
+whatever policy, or course of action, or group of conditions it rested
+on. Without effort, and even without intention probably, it looked
+beyond first consequences to the farther or the final outcome; and to
+complete the operation, the faculty which detected the remoter
+consequences did not allow them to remain in obscurity, but brought them
+out as actualities no less than the first and perhaps far more important
+than the first. Moreover, it did not allow him to keep silence where the
+remoter consequences were of that character, and ought to be provided
+for betimes. Of course silence was always possible. These renderings to
+foresight might be denied assertion either for the sake of present ease
+(and Disraeli's prescience of much of his country's later troubles only
+made him laughed at) or in deference to hopes of personal advancement.
+But the same divining imagination which showed him these things also
+showed him the near time when it would be too late to speak of them, and
+when not to have spoken would leave him irredeemably in the common herd
+of hand-to-mouth politicians. Therefore he spoke.
+
+
+  "Coningsby," "Sybil."
+
+Remembrance of these characteristics--remembrance, too, that his mind,
+which was neither English nor European, worked in absolute
+detachment--should accompany the traveller through all the turns and
+incidents of Disraeli's long career. They are sometimes puzzling, often
+speculative; yet nearly all that is obscure in them becomes clear, much
+apparent contradiction disappears, when read by these persistent
+unvarying lights. The command which his idiosyncrasies had upon him is
+shown, for example, by reproachful speeches on the treatment of Ireland,
+and by a startling harangue on behalf of the Chartists, at a time when
+such irregularities could but damage him, a new man, where he hoped for
+influence and office. At about the same time his political genius
+directed him to open a resolute critical campaign against the
+Conservatism of the party he proposed to thrive in, and he could but
+obey. This he did in writing _Coningsby_, a novel of the day and for the
+day, but commended to us of a later generation not only by the undimmed
+truth of its character-portraits, but by qualities of insight and
+foresight which we who have seen the proof of them can measure as his
+contemporaries could not. _Sybil_, which was written in the following
+year (1845), is still more remarkable for the faculties celebrated in
+the preceding paragraph. When _Sybil_ was written a long historic day
+was ending in England, a new era beginning; and no eyes saw so clearly
+as Disraeli's the death of the old day, the birth of the new, or what
+and how great their differences would be. In _Coningsby_ the political
+conditions of the country were illustrated and discussed from the
+constitutional point of view, and by light of the theory that for
+generations before the passing of the Reform Bill the authority of the
+crown and the liberties of the people had been absorbed and extinguished
+in an oligarchic system of government, itself become fossilized and
+soulless. In _Sybil_ were exhibited the social relations of rich and
+poor (the "two nations") under this regime, and under changes in which,
+while the peasantry were neglected by a shoddy aristocracy ignorant of
+its duties, factory life and a purblind gospel of political economy
+imbruted the rest of the population. These views were enforced by a
+startling yet strictly accurate representation of the state of things in
+the factory districts at that time. Taken from the life by Disraeli
+himself, accompanied by one or two members of the Young England party of
+which he was the head, it was the first of its kind; and the facts as
+there displayed, and Disraeli's interpretation of them--a marvel of
+perceptive and prophetic criticism--opened eyes, roused consciences, and
+led direct to many reforms.
+
+These two books, the _Vindication_, published in 1835, and his speeches
+up to this time and a little beyond, are quite enough to show what
+Disraeli's Tory democracy meant, how truly national was its aim, and how
+exclusive of partisanship for the "landed interest"; though he did
+believe the stability and prosperity of the agricultural class a
+national interest of the first order, not on economic grounds alone or
+even chiefly. And if Disraeli, possessed by these views, became
+aggressively insubordinate some time before Peel's proclaimed conversion
+to Free Trade, we can account for it on reasonable and even creditable
+grounds. Spite, resentment at being passed over when Peel formed the
+1841 government, is one explanation of these outbreaks, and a letter to
+Peel, lately published, is proof to many minds that Disraeli's denial to
+Peel's face in 1846 that he had ever solicited office was daringly
+mendacious. The letter certainly reads like solicitation in the
+customary half-veiled form. All that can be said in doubt is that since
+the '41 government came into existence on the 6th of September, and the
+letter was written on the 5th, its interpretation as complaint of being
+publicly neglected, as a craving for _some_ mark of recognition, is
+possible. More than possible it is if Disraeli knew on the 5th (as he
+very well might from his friend Lyndhurst, Peel's lord chancellor) that
+the appointments were then complete. The pecuniary need of office, if
+that comes into the question, had been lightened, if not extinguished,
+two years before by his marriage with Mrs Wyndham Lewis. Mrs Lewis--a
+lady fifteen years his senior--brought him a considerable fortune which,
+however, was but for her life. She lived to a great age, and would
+gladly have lived longer, in any of the afflictions that time brings on,
+to continue her mere money-worth to her "Dizzy." Her devotion to him,
+and his devotion to her, is the whole known story of their private life;
+and we may believe that nothing ever gratified him more than offering
+her a coronet from Mr Disraeli.
+
+
+  Politics. 1841-67.
+
+Disraeli made Peel's acquaintance early in his career and showed that he
+was proud of it. In his _Life of Lord George Bentinck_ he writes of Peel
+fairly and even generously. But they were essentially antipathetic
+persons; and it is clear that the great minister and complete Briton
+took no pains to understand the dazzling young Jew of whom Lyndhurst
+thought so much, and wished to have little to do with him. Such men make
+such feelings evident; and there is no reason for thinking that when,
+after 1841, Disraeli charged at Peel in obedience to his principles, he
+gave himself pain. It was not long after it had settled in office that
+Peel's government, the creature of an anxious Conservative reaction,
+began to be suspected of drifting toward Manchester. That it was forced
+in that direction we should say rather, looking back, for it was a time
+of dire distress, especially in the manufacturing districts of the
+north; so that in his second session Peel had to provide some relief by
+revising the corn laws and reducing import dues generally. His measures
+were supported by Disraeli, who understood that Protection must bend to
+the menacing poverty of the time, though unprepared for total abolition
+of the corn tax and strongly of opinion that it was not for Peel to
+abolish it. In the next session (1843) he and his Young England party
+took up a definitely independent role, which became more sharply
+critical to the end. Disraeli's first strong vote of hostility was on a
+coercion bill for perishing and rebellious Ireland. It was repeated with
+greater emphasis in the session of 1844, also in a condition-of-Ireland
+debate; and from that time forth, as if foreseeing Peel's course and its
+effect on the country party, Disraeli kept up the attack. Meanwhile bad
+harvests deepened the country's distress, Ireland was approached by
+famine, the Anti-Corn-Law League became menacingly powerful, and Peel
+showed signs of yielding to free trade. Disraeli's opportunity was soon
+to come now; and in 1845, seeing it on the way, he launched the
+brilliantly destructive series of speeches which, though they could not
+prevent the abolition of the corn-laws, abolished the minister who ended
+them. These speeches appeal more to admiration than to sympathy, even
+where the limitations of Disraeli's protectionist beliefs are understood
+and where his perception of the later consequences of free trade is most
+cordially acknowledged. That he remained satisfied with them himself is
+doubtful, unless for their foresight, their tremendous effect as
+instruments of punishment, and as they swept him to so much distinction.
+Within three years, on the death of Lord George Bentinck, there was none
+to dispute with him the leadership of the Conservative party in the
+House of Commons.
+
+In the parliament of 1841 he was member for Shrewsbury. In 1847 he was
+returned for Buckinghamshire, and never again had occasion to change his
+constituency. Up to this time his old debts still embarrassed him, but
+now his private and political fortunes changed together. Froude reports
+that he "received a large sum from a private hand for his _Life of Lord
+George Bentinck_" (published in 1852), "while a Conservative millionaire
+took upon himself the debts to the usurers; the 3% with which he was
+content being exchanged for the 10% under which Disraeli had been
+staggering." In 1848 his father Isaac D'Israeli died, leaving to his son
+Benjamin nearly the whole of his estate. This went to the purchase of
+Hughenden Manor--not, of course, a great property, but with so much of
+the pleasant and picturesque, of the dignified also, as quite to explain
+what it was to the affectionate fancy of its lord. About this time, too
+(1851), his acquaintance was sought by an old Mrs Brydges Willyams--born
+a Spanish Jewess and then the widow of a long-deceased Cornish
+squire--who in her distant home at Torquay had conceived a restless
+admiration for Benjamin Disraeli. She wrote to him again and again,
+pressing for an appointment to consult on an important matter of
+business: would meet him at the fountain of the Crystal Palace in Hyde
+Park. Her importunity succeeded, and the very small, oddly-dressed,
+strange-mannered old lady whom Disraeli met at the fountain became his
+adoring friend to the end of her life. Gratitude for her devotion
+brought him and his wife in constant intimacy with her. There were many
+visits to Torquay; he gratified her with gossiping letters about the
+great people with whom and the great affairs with which the man who did
+so much honour to her race was connected, that being the inspiration of
+her regard for him. She died in 1863, leaving him all her fortune, which
+was considerable; and, as she wished, was buried at Hughenden, close to
+the grave where Disraeli was to lie.
+
+
+  As leader in the House of Commons.
+
+It is agreed that the first three years of Disraeli's leadership in
+Opposition were skilfully employed in reconstructing the shattered Tory
+party. In doing this he made it sufficiently clear that there could be
+no sudden return to Protectionist principles. At the same time, however,
+he insisted (as he did from first to last) on the enormous importance
+to the country, to the character of its people no less than to its
+material welfare, of agricultural contentment and prosperity; and he
+also obtained a more general recognition of the fact that "the land" had
+borne fiscal burdens under the old regime which were unfair and
+unendurable under the new. So far he did well; and when in 1852 he took
+office as chancellor of the exchequer in Lord Derby's first
+administration, the prospect was a smiling one for a man who, striving
+against difficulties and prejudices almost too formidable for
+imagination in these days, had attained to a place where he could fancy
+them all giving way. That, however, they were not. New difficulties were
+to arise and old prejudices to revive in full force. His first budget
+was a quaint failure, and was thrown out by a coalition of Liberals and
+Peelites which he believed was formed against Mr Disraeli more than
+against the chancellor of the exchequer. It was on this occasion that he
+exclaimed, "England does not love coalitions." After a reign of ten
+months he was again in Opposition, and remained so for seven years. Of
+the Crimean War he had a better judgment than those whose weakness led
+them into it, and he could tell them the whole truth of the affair in
+twenty words: "You are going to war with an opponent who does not want
+to fight, and whom you are unwilling to encounter." Neither were they
+prepared; and the scandals and political disturbances that ensued
+revealed him as a party leader who could act on such occasions with a
+dignity, moderation and sagacity that served his country well,
+maintained the honour of party government and cost his friends nothing.
+The mismanagement of the war broke down the Aberdeen government in 1855,
+and then Disraeli had the mortification of seeing a fortunate chance of
+return to office lost by the timidity and distrust of his chief, Lord
+Derby--the distrust too clearly including the under-valuation of
+Disraeli himself. Lord Derby wanted Lord Palmerston's help, Mr
+Gladstone's, Mr Sidney Herbert's. This arrangement could not be made;
+Lord Derby therefore gave up the attempt to form a ministry and Lord
+Palmerston came in. The next chance was taken in less favouring times.
+The government in which Disraeli was again financial minister lasted for
+less than eighteen months (1858-1859), and then ensued another seven
+years in the cold and yet colder shade of Opposition. Both of these
+seven-year outings were bad, but the second by far the worse.
+Parliamentary reform had become a burning question and an embarrassing
+one for the Tory party. An enormous increase of business, consequent
+upon the use of steam machinery and free-trade openings to commerce,
+filled the land with prosperity, and discredited all statesmanship but
+that which steered by the star over Manchester. Mr Gladstone's budgets,
+made possible by this prosperity, were so many triumphs for Liberalism.
+Foreign questions arose which strongly excited English feeling--the
+arrangements of peace with Russia, Italian struggles for freedom, an
+American quarrel, the "Arrow" affair and the Chinese war, the affair of
+the French colonels and the Conspiracy Bill; and as they arose
+Palmerston gathered into his own sails (except on the last occasion)
+every wind of popular favour. Amid all this the Tory fortunes sank
+rapidly, becoming nearly hopeless when Lord Palmerston, without
+appreciable loss of confidence on his own side, persuaded many Tories in
+and out of parliament that Conservatism would suffer little while he was
+in power. Yet there was great despondency, of course, in the
+Conservative ranks; with despondency discontent; with discontent
+rancour. The prejudice against Disraeli as Jew, the revolt at his
+theatricalisms, the distrust of him as "mystery man," which up to this
+time had never died out even among men who were his nearest colleagues,
+were now more openly indulged. Out of doors he had a "bad press," in
+parliament he had some steady, enthusiastic friends, but more that were
+cold. Sometimes he was seen on the front Opposition bench for hours
+quite alone. Little conspiracies were got up to displace him, and might
+have succeeded but for an unconquerable dread of the weapon that
+destroyed Peel. In this state of things he patiently held his ground,
+working for his party more carefully than it knew, and never seizing
+upon false or discrediting advantages. But it was an extremely bad time
+for Benjamin Disraeli.
+
+
+  Reform Bill of 1867.
+
+  Premier, 1868.
+
+Though Lord Palmerston stumbled over his Foreign Conspiracy Bill in
+1858, his popularity was little damaged, and it was in no hopeful spirit
+that the Tories took office again in that year. They were perilously
+weak in the House of Commons, and affairs abroad, in which they had
+small practice and no prestige, were alarming. Yet the new
+administration did very well till, after resettling the government of
+India, and recovering from a blunder committed by their Indian
+secretary, Lord Ellenborough, they must needs launch a Reform Bill to
+put that dangerous question out of controversial politics. The
+well-intended but fantastic measure brought in for the purpose was
+rejected. The country was appealed to, with good but insufficient
+results; and at the first meeting of the new parliament the Tories were
+turned out on a no-confidence vote moved by Lord Hartington. Foreign
+affairs supplied the motive: failure to preserve the peace of Europe at
+the time of the Italian war of independence. It is said that the foreign
+office had then in print a series of despatches which would have
+answered its accusers had they been presented when the debate began, as
+for some unexplained reason they were not. Lord Palmerston now returned
+to Downing Street, and while he lived Disraeli and his colleagues had to
+satisfy themselves with what was meant for useful criticism, though with
+small hope that it was so for their own service. A Polish insurrection,
+the Schleswig-Holstein question, a commercial treaty with France, the
+Civil War in America, gave Disraeli occasions for speech that was always
+forcible and often wiser than all could see at the time. He never
+doubted that England should be strictly neutral in the American quarrel
+when there was a strong feeling in favour of the South. All the while he
+would have gladly welcomed any just means of taking an animated course,
+for these were dull, dark days for the Conservatives as a parliamentary
+party. Yet, unperceived, Conservatism was advancing. It was much more
+than a joke that Palmerston sheltered Conservative principles under the
+Liberal flag. The warmth of his popularity, to which Radical applause
+contributed nothing in his later days, created an atmosphere entirely
+favourable to the quiet growth of Conservatism. He died in 1865. Earl
+Russell succeeded him as prime minister, Mr Gladstone as leader of the
+House of Commons. The party most pleased with the change was the
+Radical; the party best served was Disraeli's. Another Reform Bill,
+memorable for driving certain good Liberals into a Cave of Aduilam,
+broke up the new government in a few months; Disraeli contributing to
+the result by the delivery of opinions not new to him and of lasting
+worth, though presently to be subordinated to arguments of an inferior
+order and much less characteristic. "At this rate," he said in 1866,
+"you will have a parliament that will entirely lose its command over the
+executive, and it will meet with less consideration and possess less
+influence." Look for declining statesmanship, inferior aptitude, genius
+dying off. "Instead of these you will have a horde of selfish and
+obscure mediocrities, incapable of anything but mischief, and that
+mischief devised and regulated by the raging demagogue of the hour." The
+Reform legislation which promised these results in 1866 was thrown out.
+Lord Derby's third administration was then formed in the summer of the
+same year, and for the third time there was a Tory government on
+sufferance. Its followers were still a minority in the House of Commons;
+an angry Reform agitation was going on; an ingenious resolution founded
+on the demand for an enlarged franchise serviceable to Liberals might
+extinguish the new government almost immediately; and it is pretty
+evident that the Tory leaders took office meaning to seek a cure for
+this desperate weakness by wholesale extension of the suffrage. Their
+excuses and calculations are well known, but when all is said, Lord
+Derby's statement of its character, "a leap in the dark," and of its
+intention, "dishing the Whigs," cannot be bettered. Whether Lord Derby
+or Mr Disraeli originated this resolve has been much discussed, and it
+remains an unsettled question. It is known that Disraeli's private
+secretary, Mr Ralph Earle, quarrelled with him violently at about this
+time; and Sir William Fraser relates that, meeting Mr Earle, that
+gentleman said: "I know what your feelings must be about this Reform
+Bill, and I think it right to tell you that it was not Disraeli's bill,
+but Lord Derby's. I know everything that occurred." Mr Earle gave the
+same assurances to the writer of these lines, and did so with hints and
+half-confidences (quite intelligible, however) as to the persuasions
+that wrought upon his chief. Mr Earle's listener on these occasions
+confesses that he heard with a doubting mind, and that belief in what he
+heard still keeps company with Mahomet's coffin. One thing, however, is
+clear. To suppose Disraeli satisfied with the excuses made for his
+adoption of the "dishing" process is forbidden by the whole tenor of his
+teaching and conduct. He could not have become suddenly blind to the
+fallacy of the expectations derived from such a course; and all his life
+it had been his distinction to look above the transient and trafficking
+expedients of the professional politician. However, the thing was done.
+After various remodellings, and amid much perturbation, secession,
+violent reproach, the Household Suffrage Bill passed in August 1867.
+Another memorable piece of work, the confederation of Canada, had
+already been accomplished. A few days after parliament met in the next
+year Lord Derby's failing health compelled him to resign and Mr Disraeli
+became prime minister. Irish disaffection had long been astir; the
+Fenian menace looked formidable not only in Ireland but in England also.
+The reconstructed government announced its intention of dealing with
+Irish grievances. Mr Gladstone approved, proposing the abolition of the
+Irish Church to begin with. A resolution to that effect was immediately
+carried against the strong opposition of the government. Disraeli
+insisted that the question should be settled in the new parliament which
+the franchise act called for, and he seems to have had little doubt that
+the country would declare against Mr Gladstone's proposal. He was
+mistaken. It was the great question at the polls; and the first
+elections by the new constituencies went violently against the authors
+of their being.
+
+The history of the next five years is Mr Gladstone's. The Irish Church
+abolished, he set to work with passionate good intention on the Irish
+land laws. The while he did so sedition took courage and flourished
+exceedingly, so that to pacify Ireland the constable went hand in hand
+with the legislator. The abolition of the Irish Church was followed by a
+coercion act, and the land act by suspension of _Habeas Corpus_.
+Disraeli, who at first preferred retirement and the writing of
+_Lothair_, came forward from time to time to point the moral and predict
+the end of Mr Gladstone's impulsive courses, which soon began to fret
+the confidence of his friends. Some unpleasant errors of conduct--the
+case of Sir R. Collier (afterwards Lord Monkswell, q.v.), the Ewelme
+rectory case,[1] the significant Odo Russell (Lord Ampthill) episode (to
+help the government out of a scrape the ambassador was accused of
+exceeding his instructions)--told yet more. Above all, many humiliating
+proofs that England was losing her place among the nations came out in
+these days, the discovery being then new and unendurable. To be brief,
+in less than four years the government had well-nigh worn out its own
+patience with its own errors, failures and distractions, and would
+gladly have gone to pieces when it was defeated on an Irish university
+bill. But Disraeli, having good constitutional reasons for declining
+office at the moment, could not allow this. Still gathering
+unpopularity, still offending, alarming, alienating, the government went
+on till 1874, suddenly dissolved parliament, and was signally beaten,
+the Liberal party breaking up. Like most of his political friends,
+Disraeli had no expectation of such a victory--little hope, indeed, of
+any distinct success. Yet when he went to Manchester on a brief
+political outing two years before, he was received with such acclaim as
+he had never known in his life. He was then sixty-eight years old, and
+this was his first full banquet of popularity. The elation and
+confidence drawn from the Manchester meetings were confirmed by every
+circumstance of the 1874 elections. But he was well aware of how much he
+owed to his opponents' errors, seeing at the same time how safely he
+could lay his future course by them. He had always rejected the
+political economy of his time, and it was breaking down. He had always
+refused to accept the economist's dictum without reference to other
+considerations than the turnover of trade; and even Manchester could
+pardon the refusal now. The national spirit, vaporized into a
+cosmopolitan mist, was fast condensing again under mortification and
+insult from abroad uncompensated by any appreciable percentage of cash
+profit. This was a changing England, and one that Disraeli could govern
+on terms of mutual satisfaction; but not if the reviving "spirit of the
+country" ran to extremes of self-assertion. At one of the great
+Manchester meetings he said, "Do not suppose, because I counsel firmness
+and decision at the right moment, that I am of that school of statesmen
+who are favourable to a turbulent and aggressive diplomacy. I have
+resisted it during a large part of my life."
+
+
+  Suez Canal shares.
+
+But for the hubbub occasioned by the Public Worship Regulation Act, the
+first two years of the 1874 administration had no remarkable excitements
+till near the end of them. The Public Worship Act, introduced by the
+archbishop of Canterbury, was meant to restrain ritualism. Disraeli, who
+from first to last held to the Reformed Church as capable of dispensing
+social good as no other organization might, supported the Bill as
+"putting down ritualism"; spoke very vehemently; gave so much offence
+that at one time neither the bill nor the government seemed quite safe.
+For some time afterwards there was so little legislation of the kind
+called "enterprising" that even some friends of the government began to
+think it too tame; but at the end of the second year an announcement was
+made which put that fear to rest. The news that the khedive's Suez Canal
+shares had been bought by the government was received with boundless
+applause. It was a courageous thing to do; but it was not a Disraeli
+conception, nor did it originate in any government department. It was
+suggested from without at a moment when the possibility of ever
+acquiring the shares was passing away. On the morning of the 15th of
+November 1875, Mr Frederick Greenwood, then editor of the _Pall Mall
+Gazette_, went to Lord Derby at the foreign office, informed him that
+the khedive's shares were passing into the hands of a French syndicate,
+and urged arrest of the transaction by purchase for England. (The shares
+being private property their sale could not, of course, be forbidden.)
+Lord Derby thought there must be a mistake. He could not believe that
+bargaining of that kind could go on in Cairo without coming to the
+knowledge of the British consul there. He was answered that nevertheless
+it was going on. The difficulties of purchase by England were then
+arrayed by Lord Derby. They were more than one or two, and of course
+they had a formidable look, but so also had the alternative and the lost
+opportunity. One difficulty had already come into existence, and had to
+be met at once. Lord Derby had either to make direct inquiry of the
+khedive or to let the matter go. If he inquired, and there was no such
+negotiation, his question might be interpreted in a very troublesome
+way; moreover, we should put the idea of selling the shares into the
+khedive's head, which would be unfortunate. "There's my position, and
+now what do you say?" The answer given, Lord Derby drafted a telegram to
+the British consul-general at Cairo, and read it out. It instructed
+Colonel Stanton to go immediately to the khedive and put the question
+point blank. Meanwhile the prime minister would be seen, and Lord
+Derby's visitor might call next day to hear the reply from Cairo. It is
+enough to add here that on receipt of the answer the purchase for
+England was taken up and went to a speedy conclusion.[2]
+
+
+  Eastern question.
+
+As if upon the impulse of this transaction, Disraeli opened the next
+session of parliament with a bill to confer upon the queen the title of
+empress of India--a measure which offended the instincts of many
+Englishmen, and, for the time, revived the prejudices against its
+author. More important was the revival of disturbances in European
+Turkey, which, in their outcome, were to fill the last chapter of
+Disraeli's career. But for this interruption it is likely that he would
+have given much of his attention to Ireland, not because it was an
+attractive employment for his few remaining years, but because he saw
+with alarm the gathering troubles in that country. And his mind was
+strongly drawn in another direction. In a remarkable speech delivered in
+1872, he spoke with great warmth of the slighting of the colonies,
+saying that "no minister in this country will do his duty who neglects
+any opportunity of reconstructing as much as possible our colonial
+empire, and of responding to those distant sympathies which may become
+the source of incalculable strength and happiness to this island."
+However, nothing was done in fulfilment of this duty in the first two
+years from 1874, and early in the third the famous Andrassy note, the
+Berlin memorandum, the Bashi-Bazouk atrocities, and the accumulative
+excitement thereby created in England, reopened the Eastern question
+with a vengeance. The policy which Disraeli's government now took up may
+be truly called the national policy. Springing from the natural
+suggestions of self-defence against the march of a dangerous rivalry, it
+had the sanction of all British statesmanship for generations, backed by
+the consenting instinct of the people. It was quite unsentimental, being
+pro-Turkish or anti-Russian only as it became so in being pro-British.
+The statesmen by whom it was established and continued saw in Russia a
+power which, unless firmly kept within bounds, would dominate Europe;
+more particularly that it would undermine and supersede British
+authority in the East. And without nicely considering the desire of
+Russia to expand to the Mediterranean, the Pacific or in any other
+direction, they thought it one of their first duties to maintain their
+own Eastern empire; or, to put it another way, to contrive that Great
+Britain should be subject to Russian ascendancy (if ever), at the
+remotest period allowed by destiny. Such were the ideas on which
+England's Russian policy was founded. In 1876 this policy revived as a
+matter of course in the cabinet, and as spontaneously, though not upon a
+first provocation, became popular almost to fury. And furiously popular
+it remained. But a strong opposing current of feeling, equally
+passionate, set in against the Turks; war began and lasted long; and as
+the agitation at home and the conflict abroad went on, certain of
+Disraeli's colleagues, who were staunch enough at the beginning,
+gradually weakened. It is certainly true that Disraeli was prepared, in
+all senses of the word, to take strong measures against such an end to
+the war as the San Stefano treaty threatened. Rather than suffer that,
+he would have fought the Russians in alliance with the Turks, and had
+gone much farther in maturing a scheme of attack and defence than was
+known at the time or is commonly known now. That there was a master
+motive for this resolution may be taken for granted; and it is to be
+found in a belief that not to throw back the Russian advance then was to
+lose England's last chance of postponing to a far future the
+predominance of a great rival power in the East. How much or how little
+judgment shows in that calculation, when viewed in the light of later
+days, we do not discuss. What countenance it had from his colleagues
+dropped away. At the end their voices were strong enough to insist upon
+the diplomatic action which at no point falls back on the sword; Lord
+Derby (foreign minister) being among the first to make a stand on that
+resolution, though he was not the first seceder from the government.
+Such diplomacy in such conditions is paralytic. It cannot speak thrice,
+with whatever affectation of boldness, without discovering its true
+character to trained ears; which should be remembered when Disraeli's
+successes at Berlin are measured. It should be remembered that what with
+the known timidity of his colleagues, and what with the strength and
+violence of the Russian party in England, his achievement at Berlin was
+like the reclamation of butter from a dog's mouth; as Prince Bismarck
+understood in acknowledging Disraeli's gifts of statesmanship. It should
+also be remembered, when his Eastern policy in 1876-1878 is denounced as
+malign and a failure, that it was never carried out. Good or bad, ill or
+well calculated, effective existence was denied to it; and a man cannot
+be said to have failed in what he was never permitted to attempt. The
+nondescript course of action which began at the Constantinople
+conference and ended at Berlin was not of his direction until its few
+last days. It only marked at various stages the thwarting and
+suppression of his policy by colleagues who were haunted night and day
+by memories of the Crimean War, and not least, probably, by the fate of
+the statesmen who suffered for its blunders and their own. Disraeli also
+looked back to those blunders, and he was by no means insensible to the
+fate of fallen ministers. But just as he maintained at the time of the
+conflict, and after, that there would have been no Crimean War had not
+the British government convinced the tsar that it was in the hands of
+the peace party, so now he believed that a bold policy would prevent or
+limit war, and at the worst put off grave consequences which otherwise
+would make a rapid advance.
+
+As if aware of much of this, the country was well content with
+Disraeli's successes at Berlin, though sore on some points, he himself
+sharing the soreness. Yet there were great days for him after his
+return. At the Berlin conference he had established a formidable
+reputation; the popularity he enjoyed at home was affectionately
+enthusiastic; no minister had ever stood in more cordial relations with
+his sovereign; and his honours in every kind were his own achievement
+against unending disadvantage. But he was soon to suffer irretrievable
+defeat. A confused and unsatisfactory war in Afghanistan, troubles yet
+more unsatisfactory in South Africa, conspired with two or three years
+of commercial distress to invigorate "the swing of the pendulum" when he
+dissolved parliament in 1880. Dissolution the year before would have
+been wiser, but a certain pride forbade. The elections went heavily
+against him. He took the blow with composure, and sank easily into a
+comparative retirement. Yet he still watched affairs as a great party
+leader should, and from time to time figured vigorously in debate.
+Meanwhile he had another novel to sit down to--the poor though highly
+characteristic _Endymion_; which, to his great surprise and equal
+pleasure, was replaced on his table by a cheque for ten thousand pounds.
+Yet even this satisfaction had its tang of disappointment; for though
+_Endymion_ was not wholly written in his last days, it was in no respect
+the success that _Lothair_ was. This also he could bear. His description
+of his grandfather recurs to us: "A man of ardent character, sanguine,
+courageous and fortunate, with a temper which no disappointment could
+disturb."
+
+
+  Death and influence.
+
+As earl of Beaconsfield (failing health had compelled him to take refuge
+in the House of Lords in 1876) Benjamin Disraeli died in his house in
+Curzon Street on the 19th of April 1881. The likelihood of his death was
+publicly known for some days before the event, and then the greatness of
+his popularity and its warmth were declared for the first time. No such
+demonstration of grief was expected even by those who grieved the most. He
+lies in Hughenden churchyard, in a rail-enclosed grave, with liberty for
+the turf to grow between him and the sky. Within the church is a marble
+tablet, placed there by his queen, with a generous inscription to his
+memory. The anniversary of his death has since been honoured in an
+unprecedented manner, the 19th of April being celebrated as "Primrose
+Day"--the primrose, for reasons impossible accurately to define, being
+popularly supposed to have been Disraeli's favourite flower. Even among
+his friends in youth (Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer, for example), and not
+improbably among the city men who wagered their money in irrecoverable
+loans to him on the chance of his success, there may have been some who
+compassed the thought of Benjamin Disraeli as prime minister and peer; but
+at no time could any fancy have imagined him remembered so enduringly as
+Lord Beaconsfield has been. It is possible that Sarah Disraeli (the Myra
+of _Endymion_), or that "the most severe of critics but a perfect wife,"
+may have had such dreams--hardly that they could have occurred to any mind
+but a devoted woman's. Disraeli's life was a succession of surprises, but
+none was so great as that he should be remembered after death more
+widely, lastingly, respectfully, affectionately, than any other statesman
+in the long reign of Queen Victoria. While he lived he did not seem at all
+cut out for that distinction even as an Imperialist. Significant as was
+the common grief when he died, no such consequence could be inferred from
+it, and certainly not from the elections of 1880. It stands, however, this
+high distinction, and with it the thought that it would have been denied
+to him altogether had the "adventurer" and "mystery man" of the sixties
+died at the age of threescore years and ten. We have said that never till
+1872 did he look upon the full cup of popularity. It might have been said
+that even at that time intrigue to get rid of him had yet to cease in his
+own party; and but a few years before, a man growing old, he was still in
+the lowest deeps of his disappointments and humiliations. How, then, could
+it be imagined that with six years of power from his seventieth year, the
+Jew "adventurer," mysterious and theatrical to the last, should fill a
+greater space in the mind of England twenty years after death than Peel or
+Palmerston after five? Of course it can be explained; and when explained,
+we see that Disraeli's good fortune in this respect is not due entirely to
+his own merits. His last years of power might have been followed by as
+long a period of more acceptable government than his own, to the
+effacement of his own from memory; but that did not happen. What did
+follow was a time of universal turbulence and suspicion, in which the
+pride of the nation was wounded again and again. To say "Majuba" and
+"Gordon" recalls its deepest hurts, but not all of them; and it may be
+that a pained and angry people, looking back, saw in the man whom they
+lately displaced more than they had ever seen before. From that time, at
+any rate, Disraeli has been acknowledged as the regenerator and
+representative of the Imperial idea in England. He has also been accused
+on the same grounds; and if the giver of good wine may be blamed for the
+guest who gets drunk on it, there is justice in the accusation. It is but
+a statement of fact, however, that Disraeli retains his hold upon the
+popular mind on this account mainly. The rekindling of the Imperial idea
+is understood as a timely act of revolt and redemption: of revolt against
+continuous humiliations deeply felt, redemption from the fate of nations
+obviously weak and suspected of timidity. It has been called
+rescue-work--deliverance from the dangers of invited aggression and a
+philosophical neglect of the means of defence. And its first achievement
+for the country (this is again a mere statement of fact) was the
+restoration of a much-damaged self-respect and the creation of a great
+defensive fleet not a day too soon for safety. So much for "the great
+heart of the people." Meanwhile political students find to their
+satisfaction that he never courted popularity, and never practised the art
+of working for "quick returns" of sympathy or applause. As "adventurer,"
+he should have done so; yet he neglected the cultivation of that paying
+art for the wisdom that looks to the long future, and bears its fruit,
+perchance, when no one cares to remember who sowed the seed. So it is that
+to read some of his books and many of his speeches is to draw more respect
+and admiration from their pages than could have been found there
+originally. The student of his life understands that Disraeli's claim to
+remembrance rests not only on the breadth of his views, his deep insight,
+his long foresight, but even more on the courage which allowed him to
+declare opinions supplied from those qualities when there was no visible
+likelihood of their justification by experience, and therefore when their
+natural fate was to be slighted. His judgments had to wait the event
+before they were absolved from ridicule or delivered from neglect. The
+event arrives; he is in his grave; but his reputation loses nothing by
+that. It gains by regret that death was beforehand with him.
+
+
+  Character.
+
+"Adventurer," as applied to Disraeli, was a mere term of abuse.
+"Mystery-man" had much of the same intention, but in a blameless though
+not in a happy sense it was true of him to the end of his days. Even to
+his friends, and to many near him, he remained mysterious to the last.
+It is impossible to doubt that some two or three, four or five
+perchance, were at home in his mind, being freely admitted there; but of
+partial admissions to its inner places there seem to have been few or
+none. Men who were long associated with him in affairs, and had much of
+his stinted companionship, have confessed that with every wish to
+understand his character they never succeeded. Sometimes they fancied
+they had got within the topping walls of the maze, and might hope to
+gain the point whence survey could be made of the whole; but as often
+they found themselves, in a moment, where they stood at last and at
+first--outside. His speeches carry us but a little way beyond the mental
+range; his novels rather baffle than instruct. It is commonly believed
+that Disraeli looked in the glass while describing Sidonia in
+_Coningsby_. We group the following sentences from this description for
+a purpose that will be presently seen:--(1) "He was admired by women,
+idolized by artists, received in all circles with great distinction, and
+appreciated for his intellect by the very few to whom he at all opened
+himself." (2) "For, though affable and generous, it was impossible to
+penetrate him: though unreserved in his manners his frankness was
+limited to the surface. He observed everything, thought ever, but
+avoided serious discussion. If you pressed him for an opinion he took
+refuge in raillery, and threw out some paradox with which it was not
+easy to cope. The secret history of the world was Sidonia's pastime. His
+great pleasure was to contrast the hidden motive with the public pretext
+of transactions." (3) "He might have discovered a spring of happiness in
+susceptibilities of the heart; but this was a sealed fountain for
+Sidonia. In his organization there was a peculiar, perhaps a great
+deficiency; he was a man without affection. It would be hard to say that
+he had no heart, for he was susceptible of deep emotions; but not for
+individuals. Woman was to him a toy, man a machine." These sentences are
+separately grouped here for the sake of suggesting that they will more
+truly illustrate Disraeli's character if taken as follows:--The first as
+representing his most cherished social ambitions--in whatever degree
+achieved. The second group as faithfully and closely descriptive of
+himself; descriptive too of a character purposely cloaked. The third as
+much less simple; in part a mixture of truth with Byronic affectation,
+and for the rest (and more significantly), as intimating the resolute
+exercise of extraordinary powers of control over the promptings and
+passions by which so many capable ambitions have come to grief. So read,
+Sidonia and Benjamin Disraeli are brought into close resemblance by
+Disraeli himself; for what in this description is untrue to the
+suspected fundamentals of his character is true to his known foibles.
+But for a general interpretation of Lord Beaconsfield and his career
+none serves so well as that which Froude insists on most. He was
+thoroughly and unchangeably a Jew. At but one remove by birth from
+southern Europe and the East, he was an Englishman in nothing but his
+devotion to England and his solicitude for her honour and prosperity. It
+was not wholly by volition and design that his mind was strange to
+others and worked in absolute detachment. He had "none of the hereditary
+prepossessions of the native Englishman." No such prepossessions
+disturbed his vision when it was bent upon the rising problems of the
+time, or rested on the machinery of government and the kind of men who
+worked it and their ways of working. The advantages of Sidonia's
+intellect and temperament were largely his, in affairs, but not without
+their drawbacks. His pride in his knowledge of the English character was
+the pride of a student; and we may doubt if it ever occurred to him that
+there would have been less pride but more knowledge had he been an
+Englishman. It is certain that in shrouding his own character he checked
+the communication of others to himself, and so could continue to the end
+of his career the costly mistake of being theatrical in England. There
+was a great deal too (though little to his blame) in Lord Malmesbury's
+observation that he was not only disliked in the House of Commons for
+his mysterious manner, but prejudiced by a pronounced foreign air and
+aspect. Lord Malmesbury does not put it quite as strongly as that, but
+he might have done so with truth. No Englishman could approach Disraeli
+without some immediate consciousness that he was in the presence of a
+foreigner.
+
+Lord Beaconsfield has been praised for his integrity in money matters;
+the praise could have been spared--it does not rise high enough. It is
+also said to his honour that he "never struck at a little man," and that
+was well; but it is explained as readily by pride and calculation as by
+magnanimity. A man of extraordinary coolness and self-control, his
+faults in every kind were faults of excess: it is the mark of them all.
+But whatever offence they gave, whatever mischief they did, was soon
+exhausted, and has long since been pardoned.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The writer's personal knowledge is largely represented
+  in the above article. Among the biographical literature available
+  prior to the authoritative _Life_ the following may be cited:--Lord
+  Beaconsfield's Preface to 1849 edition of Isaac D'Israeli's works;
+  _Correspondence with his Sister_, and _Home Letters_, edited by Ralph
+  Disraeli; Samuel Smiles, _Memoirs and Correspondence of John Murray;
+  Life of the Earl of Beaconsfield_, by F. Hitchman; _Memoir_ by T.E.
+  Kebbel; _Memoir_ by J.A. Froude; _Memoir_ by Harold Gorst; Sir William
+  Fraser's _Disraeli and his Day; The Speeches of Lord Beaconsfield_,
+  edited by T.E. Kebbel. In 1904, however, the large collection of
+  material for Lord Beaconsfield's life, in the hands of his executors
+  Lord Rowton and Lord Rothschild, was acquired by _The Times_, and the
+  task of preparing the biography was assigned to Mr W.F. Monypenny, an
+  assistant editor of _The Times_ (1894-1899), who was best known to the
+  public as editor of the Johannesburg _Star_ during the crisis of
+  1899-1903.     (F. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The crown had in 1871 appointed the Rev. W.W. Harvey (1810-1883),
+    a Cambridge man, to the living of Ewelme, near Oxford, for which
+    members of the Oxford house of convocation were alone eligible.
+    Gladstone was charged with evading this limitation in allowing Harvey
+    to qualify for the appointment by being formally admitted M.A. by
+    incorporation.
+
+  [2] For a detailed, if somewhat controversial, account of this
+    affair, see Lucien Wolf's article in _The Times_ of December 26,
+    1905, and Mr Greenwood's letters on the subject.
+
+
+
+
+BEACONSFIELD, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, on the river Tamar, 28
+m. direct N.W. of Launceston. Pop. (1901) 2658. From its port at Beauty
+Point, 3-1/2 m. distant, with which it is connected by a steam tramway,
+communication is maintained with Georgetown and Launceston. It is the
+centre of the most important gold-field in the island.
+
+
+
+
+BEACONSFIELD, a town of South Africa in Griqualand West, about 3 m. S.W.
+of Kimberley, of which it is practically a suburb, though possessing a
+separate municipality. Pop. (1904) 9378, of whom 2780 were whites.
+Beaconsfield was founded in 1870 near the famous Dutoitspan diamond
+mine. The land on which the town is built belongs to the De Beers
+Company. (See KIMBERLEY.)
+
+
+
+
+BEACONSFIELD, a town in the Wycombe parliamentary division of
+Buckinghamshire, England. 23 m. W. by N. of London, on the main road to
+Oxford, and on the Great Central & Great Western joint railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 1570. It lies in a hilly well-wooded district
+above the valley of the small river Wye, a tributary of the Thames. The
+broad Oxford road forms its picturesque main street. It was formerly a
+posting station of importance, and had a considerable manufacture of
+ribbons. The Perpendicular church of St Mary and All Saints is the
+burial place of Edmund Burke (d. 1797), who lived at Gregories, or as he
+named it Butler's Court, near the town. He would have taken his title
+from Beaconsfield had he survived to enter the peerage. A monument to
+his memory was erected in 1898. Edmund Waller the poet owned the
+property of Hall Barn, and died here in 1687. His tomb is in the
+churchyard. Benjamin Disraeli chose the title of earl of Beaconsfield in
+1876, his wife having in 1868 received the title of Viscountess
+Beaconsfield. The opening of railway communication with London in 1906
+resulted in a considerable accretion of residential population.
+
+
+
+
+BEAD, a small globule or ball used in necklaces, and made of different
+materials, as metal, coral, diamond, amber, ivory, stone, pottery,
+glass, rock-crystal and seeds. The word is derived from the Middle Eng.
+_bede_, from the common Teutonic word for "to pray," cf. German _beten_
+and English _bedesman_, the meaning being transferred from "prayer" to
+the spherical bodies strung on a rosary and used in counting prayers.
+Beads have been made from remote antiquity, and are found in early
+Egyptian tombs; variegated glass beads, found in the ground in certain
+parts of Africa, as Ashantiland, and highly prized by the natives as
+_aggry_-beads, are supposed to be of Egyptian or Phoenician origin.
+Beads of the more expensive materials are strung in necklaces and worn
+as articles of personal adornment, while the cheaper kinds are employed
+for the decoration of women's dress. Glass beads have long been used for
+purposes of barter with savage tribes, and are made in enormous numbers
+and varieties, especially in Venice, where the manufacture has existed
+from at least the 14th century. Glass, either transparent, or of opaque
+coloured enamel (_smalti_), or having complex patterns produced by the
+twisting of threads of coloured glass through a transparent body, is
+drawn out into long tubes, from which the beads are pinched off, and
+finished by being rotated with sand and ashes in heated cylinders.
+
+In architecture, the term "bead" is given to a small cylindrical
+moulding, in classic work often cut into bead and reel.
+
+
+
+
+BEADLE, also BEDEL or BEDELL (from A.S. _bydel_, from _beodan_, to bid),
+originally a subordinate officer of a court or deliberative assembly,
+who summoned persons to appear and answer charges against them (see Du
+Cange, _supra tit. Bedelli_). As such, the beadle goes back to early
+Teutonic times; he was probably attached to the moot as its messenger or
+summoner, being under the direction of the reeve or constable of the
+leet. After the Norman Conquest, the beadle seems to have diminished in
+importance, becoming merely the crier in the manor and forest courts,
+and sometimes executing processes. He was also employed as the messenger
+of the parish, and thus became, to a certain extent, an ecclesiastical
+officer, but in reality acted more as a constable by keeping order in
+the church and churchyard during service. He also attended upon the
+clergy, the churchwardens and the vestry. He was appointed by the
+parishioners in vestry, and his wages were payable out of the church
+rate. From the Poor Law Act of 1601 till the act of 1834 by which
+poor-law administration was transferred to guardians, the beadle in
+England was an officer of much importance in his capacity of agent for
+the overseers. In all medieval universities the bedel was an officer who
+exercised various executive and spectacular functions (H. Rashdall,
+_Hist. of Universities in the Middle Ages_, i. 193). He still survives
+in many universities on the continent of Europe and in those of Oxford
+and Cambridge, but he is now shorn of much of his importance. At Oxford
+there are four bedels, representing the faculties of law, medicine, arts
+and divinity. Their duties are chiefly processional, the junior or
+sub-bedel being the official attendant on the vice-chancellor, before
+whom he bears a silver mace. At Cambridge there are two, termed
+esquire-bedels, who both walk before the vice-chancellor, bearing maces.
+
+
+
+
+BEAK (early forms _beke_ and _becke_, from Fr. _bec_, late Lat.
+_beccus_, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the Celtic _bec_ and _beq_,
+however, are taken from the English), the horny bill of a bird, and so
+used of the horny ends of the mandibles of the octopus, the duck-billed
+platypus and other animals; hence the rostrum (q.v.) or ornamented prow
+of ancient war vessels. The term is also applied, in classic
+architecture, to the pendent fillet on the edge of the corona of a
+cornice, which serves as a drip, and prevents the rain from flowing
+inwards.
+
+The slang use of "beak" for a magistrate or justice of the peace has not
+been satisfactorily explained. The earlier meaning, which lasted down to
+the beginning of the 19th century, was "watchman" or "constable."
+According to _Slang and its Analogues_ (J.S. Farmer and W.E. Henley,
+1890), the first example of its later use is in the name of "the Blind
+Beak," which was given to Henry Fielding's half-brother, Sir John
+Fielding (about 1750). Thomas Harman, in his book on vagrants, _Caveat
+or Warening for commen cursitors, Vulgarely called Vagabones_, 1573,
+explains _harmans beck_ as "counstable," _harman_ being the word for the
+stocks. Attempts have been made to connect "beak" in this connexion with
+the Old English _beag_, a gold torque or collar, worn as a symbol of
+authority, but this could only be plausible on the assumption that
+"magistrate" was the earlier significance of the word.
+
+
+
+
+BEAKER (Scottish _bicker_, Lat. _bicarium_, Ger. _Becher_, a
+drinking-bowl), a large wide-mouthed drinking-cup or laboratory vessel.
+See DRINKING-VESSELS.
+
+
+
+
+BEALE, DOROTHEA (1831-1906), English schoolmistress, was born on the
+21st of March 1831 in London, her father being a physician of good
+family and cultivated tastes. She had already shown a strong
+intellectual bent and considerable force of character when in 1848 she
+was one of the first to attend lectures at the newly opened Queen's
+College for Ladies, London, and from 1849 to 1856 she herself took
+classes there. In 1857 for a few months she became head teacher of the
+Clergy Daughters' school at Casterton, Westmoreland, but narrow
+religious prejudices on the part of the governors led to her retirement.
+In 1858 she was appointed principal of the Ladies College at Cheltenham
+(opened 1854), then in very low water. Her tact and strenuousness,
+backed by able financial management, led to its success being thoroughly
+established by 1864, and as the college increased in numbers new
+buildings were erected from 1873 onwards. Under Miss Beale's headship it
+grew into one of the great girls' schools of the country, and its
+development and example played an important part in the revolution
+effected in regard to the higher education of women. Miss Beale retained
+her post till her death on the 9th of November 1906. Strongly religious
+by nature, broad-minded and keenly interested in all branches of
+culture, she exercised a far-reaching influence on her pupils.
+
+  Her _Life_ was written by Elizabeth Raikes (1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEAM (from the O. Eng. _beam_, cf. Ger. _Baum_, a tree, to which sense
+may be referred the use of "beam" as meaning the rood or crucifix, and
+the survival in certain names of trees, as hornbeam), a solid piece of
+timber, as a beam of a house, of a plough, a loom, or a balance. In the
+last case, from meaning simply the cross-bar of the balance, "beam" has
+come to be used of the whole, as in the expression "the king's beam," or
+"common beam," which refers to the old English standard balance for
+wholesale goods, for several hundred years in the custody of the
+Grocers' Company, London. As a nautical term, "beam" was transferred
+from the main cross-timbers to the side of the ship; thus "on the
+weather-beam" means "to windward," and a ship is said to be "wide in the
+beam" when she is wide horizontally. The phrase "to be on one's
+beam-ends," denoting a position of extreme peril or helplessness, is
+borrowed from the position of a ship which has heeled over so far as to
+stand on the ends of her horizontal beams. The meaning of "beam" for
+shafts or rays of light comes apparently from the use of the word to
+translate the Latin _columna lucis_, a pillar of light.
+
+
+
+
+BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _Bohne_), the seed of certain
+leguminous plants cultivated for food all over the world, and furnished
+chiefly by the genera _Vicia, Phaseolus, Dolichos_ and others. The
+common bean, in all its varieties, as cultivated in Britain and on the
+continents of Europe and America, is the produce of _Vicia Faba_. The
+French bean, kidney bean, or haricot, is the seed of _Phaseolus
+vulgaris_; but in India several other species of this genus of plants
+are raised, and form no small portion of the diet of the inhabitants.
+Besides these there are numerous other pulses cultivated for the food
+both of man and domestic animals, to which the name bean is frequently
+given. The common bean is even more nutritious than wheat; and it
+contains a very high proportion of nitrogenous matter under the form of
+legumin, which amounts on an average to 24%. It is, however, a rather
+coarse food, and difficult of digestion, and is chiefly used to feed
+horses, for which it is admirably adapted. In England French beans are
+chiefly, almost exclusively, used in the green state; the whole pod
+being eaten as a table vegetable or prepared as a pickle. It is
+wholesome and nutritious; and in Holland and Germany the pods are
+preserved in salt by almost every family for winter and spring use. The
+green pods are cut across obliquely, most generally by a machine
+invented for the purpose, and salted in barrels. When wanted for use
+they are steeped in fresh water to remove the salt, and broiled or
+stewed they form an agreeable addition to the diet at a time when no
+other vegetable may be had.
+
+The broad bean--_Vicia Faba_, or _Faba vulgaris_, as it is known by
+those botanists who regard the slight differences which distinguish it
+from the great majority of the species of the vetch genus (_Vicia_) as
+of generic importance--is an annual which has been cultivated fiom
+prehistoric times for its nutritious seeds.
+
+The lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and northern Italy in the bronze age
+cultivated a small-fruited variety, and it was grown in ancient Egypt,
+though, according to Herodotus, regarded by the priests as unclean. The
+ancient Greeks called it [Greek: kuamos], the Latins _faba_, but there
+is no suggestion that the plant is a native of Europe. Alphonse de
+Candolle (_Origin of Cultivated Plants_, p. 320) concludes that the bean
+was introduced into Europe probably by the western Aryans at the time of
+their earliest migrations. He suggests that its wild habitat was twofold
+some thousands of years ago, one of the centres being to the south of
+the Caspian, the other in the north of Africa, and that its area has
+long been in process of diminution and extinction. The nature of the
+plant favours this hypothesis, for its seed has no means of dispersing
+itself, and rodents or other animals can easily make prey of it; the
+struggle for existence which was going against this plant as against
+maize would have gradually isolated it and caused it to disappear, if
+man had not saved it by cultivation. It was introduced into China a
+little before the Christian era, later into Japan and more recently into
+India, though it has been suggested that in parts of the higher
+Himalayas its cultivation has survived from very ancient times. It is a
+plant which will flourish in all ordinary good garden soil. The seeds
+are sown about 4 in. apart, in drills 2-1/2 ft. asunder for the smaller
+and 3 ft. for the larger sorts. The soil should, preferably, be a rather
+heavy loam, deeply worked and well enriched. For an early crop, seeds
+may be sown in November, and protected during winter in the same manner
+as early peas. An early crop may also be obtained by dibbling in the
+seeds in November, sheltering by a frame, and in February transplanting
+them to a warm border. Successional crops are obtained by sowing
+suitable varieties from January to the end of June. All the culture
+necessary is that the earth be drawn up about the stems. The plants are
+usually topped when the pods have set, as this not only removes the
+black aphides which often settle there, but is also found to promote the
+filling of the pods.
+
+The following are some of the best sorts:--for early use, Early Mazagan,
+Long-pod, Marshall's Early Prolific and Seville Long-pod; for late use,
+Carter's Mammoth Long-pod and Broad Windsor.
+
+The horse-bean is a variety--var. _equina_.
+
+_Cultivation of Field-bean._--Several varieties of _Vicia Faba_ (e.g.
+the horse bean, the mazagan, the tick bean, the winter bean) are
+cultivated in the field for the sake both of the grain, which is used as
+food for live-stock, and of the haulm, which serves for either fodder or
+litter. They are best adapted for heavy soils such as clays or clayey
+loams. The time for sowing is from the end of January to the beginning
+of March, or in the case of winter beans from the end of September to
+the middle of November. The bean-crop is usually interposed between two
+crops of wheat or some other cereal. If spring beans are to be sown, the
+land after harvest is dressed with farmyard manure, which is then
+ploughed in. In January the soil is levelled with the harrows, and the
+seed, which should be hard and light brown in colour, is drilled in rows
+from 15 to 24 in. apart at the rate of from 2 to 2-1/2 bushels to the
+acre and then harrowed in. The alternative is to "dibble" the seed in
+the furrow left by the autumn ploughing and cover it in with the
+harrows; or the land may be ridged with the double-breasted plough,
+manure deposited in the furrows and the seed sown broadcast, the ridges
+being then split back so as to cover both manure and seed. After the
+plant shows, horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing between the rows is carried on
+so long as the plant is small enough to suffer no injury therefrom. The
+routine of cultivation for winter beans hardly differs from that
+described except as regards the time of sowing.
+
+Beans are cut when the leaf is fallen and the haulm is almost black
+either with the fagging hook or the reaping machine, though the
+stoutness of the stalks causes a severe strain on the latter implement.
+They are tied and stocked, and are so left for a considerable time
+before stacking. There is less fear of injury to the crop through damp
+than in the case of other cereals. Their value for feeding purposes
+increases in the stack, where they may remain for a year or more before
+threshing. Pea and bean weevils, both striped (_Sitones lineatus_) and
+spotted (_Sitones crinitus_), and the bean aphis (_Aphis rumicis_), are
+noted pests of the crop. Winter beans come to maturity earlier than the
+spring-sown varieties, and are therefore strong enough to resist the
+attacks of the aphis by the end of June, when it begins its ravages.
+Field-beans yield from 25 to 35 bushels to the acre.
+
+_Phascolus vulgaris_, the kidney, French or haricot bean, an annual,
+dwarf and bushy in growth, is widely cultivated in temperate,
+sub-tropical and tropical regions, but is nowhere known as a wild plant.
+It was long supposed to be of Indian origin, an idea which was disproved
+by Alphonse de Candolle, who sums up the facts bearing on its origin as
+follows:--_Phaseolus vulgaris_ has not been long cultivated in India,
+the south-west of Asia and Egypt, and it is not certain that it was
+known in Europe before the discovery of America. At the latter epoch the
+number of varieties in European gardens suddenly increased, and all
+authors began to mention them. The majority of the species of the genus
+exist in South America, and seeds apparently belonging to the species in
+question have been found in Peruvian tombs of an uncertain date,
+intermixed with many species, all American. Hence it is probable that
+the plant is of South American origin.
+
+It is a tender annual, and should be grown in a rich light loamy soil
+and a warm sheltered situation. The soil should be well enriched with
+hot-bed dung. The earliest crop may be sown by the end of March or
+beginning of April. If, however, the temperature of the soil is below 45
+deg., the beans make but little progress. The main crops should be got
+in early in May; and a later sowing may be made early in July. The
+earlier plantings may be sown in small pots, and put in frames or
+houses, until they can be safely planted out-of-doors. A light covering
+of straw or some other simple shelter suffices to protect from late
+frosts. The seeds should be covered 1-1/2 or 2 in. deep, the distance
+between the rows being about 2 ft., or for the dwarfest sorts 18 in.,
+and that between plants from 4 to 6 in. The pods may be used as a green
+vegetable, in which case they should be gathered whilst they are so
+crisp as to be readily snapped in two when bent; but when the dry seeds
+are to be used the pods should be allowed to ripen. As the green pods
+are gathered others will continue to be formed in abundance, but if old
+seed-forming pods are allowed to remain the formation of young ones will
+be greatly checked. There are numerous varieties; among the best are
+Canadian Wonder, Canterbury and Black Negro.
+
+_Phaseolus multiflorus_, scarlet runner, is nearly allied to _P.
+vulgaris_, of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety, but differs
+in its climbing habit. It is naturally perennial and has a thick fleshy
+root, but is grown in Great Britain as a tender annual. Its bright,
+generally scarlet flowers, arranged in long racemes, and the fact that
+it will flourish in any ordinary good garden soil, combine to make it a
+favourite garden plant. It is also of interest as being one of the few
+plants that twine in a direction contrary to the apparent motion of the
+sun. The seeds of the runner beans should be sown in an open plot,--the
+first sowing in May, another at the beginning of June, and a third about
+the middle of June. In the London market-gardens they are sown 8 to 12
+in. apart, in 4 ft. rows if the soil is good. The twining tops are
+pinched or cut off when the plants are from 2 to 2-1/2 ft. high, to save
+the expense of staking. It is better, however, in private gardens to
+have the rows standing separately, and to support the plants by stakes 6
+or 7 ft. high and about a foot apart, the tops of the stakes being
+crossed about one-third down. If the weather is dry when the pods are
+forming abundantly, plenty of tepid water should be supplied to the
+plants. In training the shoots to their supports, they should be twined
+from right to left, contrary to the course of the sun, or they will not
+lay hold. By frequently picking the pods the plants are encouraged to
+form fresh blooms from which pods may be picked until the approach of
+frost.
+
+The ordinary scarlet runner is most commonly grown, but there is a
+white-flowered variety which has also white seeds; this is very prolific
+and of excellent quality. Another variety called Painted Lady, with the
+flowers red and white, is very ornamental, but not so productive.
+Carter's Champion is a large-podded productive variety.
+
+Another species _P. lunatus_, the Lima bean, a tall biennial with a
+scimitar-shaped pod (whence the specific name) 2 to 3 in. long
+containing a few large seeds, is widely cultivated in the warmer parts
+of the world.
+
+The young pods of another leguminous climbing herb, _Dolichos Lablab_,
+as well as the seeds, are widely used in the tropics, as we use the
+kidney bean. The plant is probably a native of tropical Africa, but is
+now generally cultivated in the tropics. The word _Dolichos_ is of Greek
+origin, and was used by Theophrastus for the scarlet runner.
+
+Another species, _D. biflorus_, is the horse gram, the seed of which is
+eaten by the poorer class of natives in India, and is also, as are the
+pods, a food for horses and cattle.
+
+The Soy bean, _Glycine hispida_, was included by Linnaeus in the genus
+_Dolichos_. It is extensively cultivated in China and Japan, chiefly for
+the pleasant-flavoured seed from which is prepared a piquant sauce. It
+is also widely grown in India, where the bean is eaten, while the plant
+forms a valuable fodder; it is cultivated for the latter purpose in the
+United States.
+
+Other references to beans will be found under special headings, such as
+CALABAR BEAN, LOCUST-TREE. There are also several non-leguminous seeds
+to which the popular name bean is attached. Among these may be mentioned
+the sacred Egyptian or Pythagorean bean (_Nelumbium speciosum_), and the
+Ignatius bean (probably _Strychnos multiflora_), a source of strychnine.
+
+The ancient Greeks and Romans made use of beans in gathering the votes
+of the people, and for the election of magistrates. A white bean
+signified absolution, and a black one condemnation. Beans had a
+mysterious use in the _lemuralia_ and _parentalia_, where the master of
+the family, after washing his hands three times, threw black beans over
+his head nine times, reiterating the words "I redeem myself and my
+family by these beans."
+
+
+
+
+BEAN-FEAST, primarily an annual dinner given by an employer to his
+workpeople, and then colloquially any jollification. The phrase is
+variously derived. The most probable theory is that which connects it
+with the custom in France, and afterwards in Germany and England, of a
+feast on Twelfth Night, at which a cake with a bean buried in it was a
+great feature. The bean-king was he who had the good fortune to have the
+slice of cake in which was the bean. This choosing of a king or queen by
+a bean was formerly a common Christmas diversion at the English and
+Scottish courts, and in both English universities. This monarch was
+master of the revels like his congener the lord of misrule. A clue to
+his original functions is possibly found in the old popular belief that
+the weather for the ensuing twelve months was determined by the weather
+of the twelve days from Christmas to Twelfth Night, the weather of each
+particular month being prognosticated from each day. Thus the king of
+the bean of Twelfth Night may have originally reigned for the twelve
+days, his chief duty being the performance of magical ceremonies for
+ensuring good weather during the ensuing twelve months. Probably in him
+and the lord of misrule it is correct to find the lineal descendant of
+the old king of the Saturnalia, the real man who personated Saturn and,
+when the revels ceased, suffered a real death in his assumed character.
+Another but most improbable derivation for bean-feast connects it with
+M.E. _bene_ "prayer," "request," the allusion being to the soliciting of
+alms towards the cost of their Twelfth Night dinner by the workpeople.
+
+  See WAYZGOOSE; MISRULE, LORD OF; also J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et
+  ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; Laisnel de la Salle,
+  _Croyances et legendes du centre de la France_, i. 19-29; Lecoeur,
+  _Esquisses du Bocage normand_, ii. 125; Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen des
+  Eifler Volkes_, i. 6; Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_
+  (Hazlitt's edit. 1905), under "Twelfth Night"; Cortet, _Fetes
+  religieuses_, p. 29 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+BEAR, properly the name of the European brown bear (_Ursus arctus_), but
+extended to include all the members of the _Ursidae_, the typical family
+of Arctoid carnivora, distinguished by their massive bodies, short
+limbs, and almost rudimentary tails. With the single exception of the
+Indian sloth-bear, all the species have forty-two teeth, of which the
+incisors and canines closely resemble those of purely carnivorous
+mammals; while the molars, and especially the one known as the
+"sectorial" or "carnassial," have their surfaces tuberculated so as to
+adapt them for grinding vegetable substances. As might have been
+supposed from their dentition, the bears are omnivorous; but most prefer
+vegetable food, including honey, when a sufficient supply of this can
+be had. The grizzly bear, however, is chiefly carnivorous; while the
+polar bear is almost wholly so.
+
+Bears are five-toed, and provided with formidable claws, which are not
+retractile, and thus better fitted for digging and climbing than for
+tearing. Most climb trees in a slow, lumbering fashion, and, in
+descending, always come hind-quarters first. The grizzly bear is said to
+lose this power of climbing in the adult stage. In northern countries
+bears retire during the winter into caves and the hollows of trees, or
+allow the falling snow to cover them, and there remain dormant till the
+advent of spring, about which time the female usually produces her
+young. These are born naked and blind, and it is commonly five weeks
+before they see, or become covered with hair. Before hibernating the
+adults grow very fat, and it is by the gradual consumption of this
+fat--known in commerce as bear's grease--that such vital action as is
+necessary to the continuance of life is sustained.
+
+The bear family is widely distributed, being found in every quarter of
+the globe except Australia, and in all climates, from the highest
+northern latitudes yet reached by man to the warm regions of India and
+Malaya. In the north-west corner of Africa the single representative of
+the family found on that continent occurs.
+
+The polar or white bear (_Ursus maritimus_), common to the Arctic
+regions of both hemispheres, is distinguished from the other species by
+having the soles of the feet covered with close-set hairs,--in
+adaptation to the wants of the creature, the bear being thereby enabled
+to walk securely on slippery ice. In the whiteness of its fur also, it
+shows such an assimilation in colour to that of surrounding nature as
+must be of considerable service in concealing it from its prey. The food
+of the white bear consists chiefly of seals and fish, in pursuit of
+which it shows great power of swimming and diving, and a considerable
+degree of sagacity; but its food also includes the carcases of whales,
+birds and their eggs, and grass and berries when these can be had. That
+it can sustain life on a purely vegetable diet is proved by instances on
+record of its being fed for years on bread only, in confinement. These
+bears are strong swimmers, Sir Edward Sabine having found one "swimming
+powerfully 40 m. from the nearest shore, and with no ice in sight to
+afford it rest." They are often carried on floating ice to great
+distances, and to more southern latitudes than their own, no fewer than
+twelve Polar bears having been known to reach Iceland in this way during
+one winter. The female always hibernates, but the male may be seen
+abroad at all seasons. In bulk the white bear exceeds most other members
+of the family, measuring nearly 9 ft. in length, and often weighing 1600
+lb.
+
+Land bears have the soles of the feet destitute of hair, and their fur
+more or less shaggy. On these the brown bear (_Ursus arctus_,--[Greek:
+arktos] of Aristotle) is found in one or other of its varieties all over
+the temperate and north temperate regions of the eastern hemisphere,
+from Spain to Japan. The fur is usually brownish, but there are black,
+blackish-grey and yellowish varieties. It is a solitary animal,
+frequenting the wooded parts of the regions it inhabits, and living on a
+mixed diet of fruits, vegetable, honey, fish and the smaller animals. In
+winter it hibernates, concealing itself in some hollow or cavern. It
+does not seek to attack man; but when baited, or in defence of its
+young, shows great courage and strength, rising on its hind legs and
+endeavouring to grasp its antagonist in an embrace. Bear-baiting, till
+within comparatively recent times, was a favourite sport throughout
+Europe, but, along with cock-fighting and badger-baiting, has gradually
+disappeared before a more humane civilization. It was a favourite
+pastime among the Romans, who imported their bears from Britain, a proof
+that the animal was then comparatively abundant in that country; indeed,
+from reference made to it in early Scottish history, the bear does not
+appear to have been extirpated in Britain before the end of the 11th
+century. It is now found in greatest abundance in Norway, Russia and
+Siberia, where hunting the bear is a favourite sport, and where, when
+dead, its remains are highly valued. Among the Kamchadales "the skin of
+the bear," says a traveller, "forms their beds and their coverlets,
+bonnets for their heads, gloves for their hands and collars for their
+dogs. The flesh and fat are their dainties. Of the intestines they make
+masks or covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the
+sun in the spring, and use them as a substitute for glass, by extending
+them over their windows. Even the shoulder-blades are said to be put in
+requisition for cutting grass." In confinement the brown bear is readily
+tamed; and advantage has been taken of the facility with which it can
+sustain itself on the hind feet to teach it to dance to the sound of
+music. It measures 4 ft. in length, and is about 2-1/2 ft. high. Of this
+species Crowther's bear from the Atlas Mountains, the Syrian bear
+(_Ursus arctus pyriacus_) and the snow or isabelline bear (_Ursus arctus
+isabellinus_) of the Himalaya are local races, or at most subspecies.[1]
+American naturalists regard the big brown bears of Alaska as a distinct
+group. They range from Sitka to the extremity of the Alaskan Peninsula,
+over Kodiak Island, and inland. Their distinctive external features are
+their large size, light-brown colour, high shoulders, massive heads of
+great breadth and shaggy coat.
+
+The grizzly bear (_Ursus arctus horribilis_, formerly known as _U.
+ferox_) is regarded by some naturalists as a distinct species and by
+others as a variety of the brown bear, to which it is closely allied. It
+was said to exceed all other American mammals in ferocity of disposition
+and muscular strength. Stories were told of its attacking the bison, and
+it has been reported to carry off the carcase of a wapiti, weighing
+nearly 1000 lb., for a considerable distance to its den, there to devour
+it at leisure. It also eats fruit and vegetables. Its fur is usually of
+a yellowish-brown colour, coarse and grizzled, and of little value
+commercially, while its flesh, unlike that of other bears, is uneatable
+even by the Indians. The grizzly bear is now rare in the United States,
+save in the Yellowstone Park and the Clearwater Mountains of Idaho,
+though more common in British Columbia. Several geographical races are
+recognized. The Tibet bear (_U. pruinosus_) is a light-coloured small
+species.
+
+The American black bear (_Ursus americanus_) occurs throughout the
+wooded parts of the North American continent, whence it is being
+gradually driven to make room for man. It is similar in size to the
+brown bear, but its fur is of a soft even texture, and of a shining
+black colour, to which it owes its commercial value. At the beginning of
+the 19th century black bears were killed in enormous numbers for their
+furs, which at that time were highly valued. In 1803 the skins imported
+into England numbered 25,000, but the imports have since decreased to
+one-half of that number. They are chiefly used for military
+accoutrements. This is a timid animal, feeding almost solely on fruits,
+and lying dormant during winter, at which period it is most frequently
+killed. It is an object of superstitious reverence to the Indians, who
+never kill it without apologizing and deploring the necessity which
+impels them to do so.
+
+The Himalayan black bear (_U. torquatus_) is found in the forest regions
+ranging from the Persian frontier eastward to Assam. The average length
+is about 5 ft.; there is no under-fur, and the coat is smooth, black in
+colour, with the exception of a white horseshoe-mark on the chest. It
+feeds chiefly on fruit and roots, but kills sheep, goats, deer, ponies
+and cattle, and sometimes devours carrion.
+
+The small bruang or Malayan bear (_Ursus malayanus_) is of a jet-black
+colour, with a white semilunar mark on the chest, and attains a length
+of 4-1/2 ft. Its food consists almost solely of vegetables and honey,
+but the latter is its favourite food,--the extreme length and pliability
+of the tongue enabling it to scoop out the honeycombs from the hollows
+of trees. It is found in the Malay Peninsula and Islands, and is readily
+tamed.
+
+Not much larger than the Malay bear is the South American spectacled
+bear of the Andes (_U. ornatus_), distinguished from all the rest by the
+presence of a perforation in the lower end of the humerus, and hence
+sometimes separated as _Tremarctus_. It is black, with tawny rings round
+the eyes, and white cheeks, throat and chest. A second race or species
+exists.
+
+The sloth-bear (_Melursus labiatus_ or _ursinus_) is distinguished by
+the absence of one pair of upper incisors, the small size of the
+cheek-teeth and the very extensile character of the lips. It is also
+known as the aswail and the honey-bear, the last name being also given
+to the Malay bear and the kinkajou. It is about the size of the brown
+bear, is covered with long, black hair, and of extremely uncouth aspect.
+It inhabits the mountainous regions of India, is readily tamed and is
+the bear usually exhibited by the Hindu jugglers. The food consists of
+fruits, honey and white ants.
+
+Fossil remains of extinct bears first occur in strata of the Pliocene
+age. Those of the great cave bear (_Ursus spelaeus_), found abundantly
+in certain caverns of central Europe and Asia, show that it must have
+exceeded in size the polar bear of the present day. Its remains are also
+found in similar situations in Britain associated with those of an
+allied species (_Ursus priscus_).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Lydekker, in _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1897, p. 412.
+
+
+
+
+BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING, sports formerly very popular in England
+but now suppressed on account of their cruelty. They took place in
+arenas built in the form of theatres which were the common resort even
+of cultivated people. In the bear-gardens, which are known to have
+existed since the time of Henry II., the bear was chained to a stake by
+one hind leg or by the neck and worried by dogs. Erasmus, writing (about
+1500) from the house of Sir Thomas More, spoke of "many herds of bears
+maintained in the country for the purpose of baiting." Sunday was the
+favourite day for these sports. Hentzner, writing in 1598, describes the
+bear-garden at Bankside as "another place, built in the form of a
+theatre, which serves for the baiting of Bulls and Bears. They are
+fastened behind, and then worried by great English bull-dogs, but not
+without great risk to the dogs from the horns of the one and the teeth
+of the other, and it sometimes happens they are killed upon the spot;
+fresh ones are immediately supplied in the places of those that are
+wounded or tired." He also describes the whipping of a blinded bear, a
+favourite variation of bear-baiting. For a famous baiting which took
+place before Queen Elizabeth in 1575 thirteen bears were provided. Of it
+Robert Laneham (fl. 1575) wrote, "it was a sport very pleasant to see,
+to see the bear, with his pink eyes, tearing after his enemies'
+approach; the nimbleness and wait of the dog to take his advantage and
+the force and experience of the bear again to avoid his assaults: if he
+were bitten in one place how he would pinch in another to get free; that
+if he were taken once, then by what shift with biting, with clawing,
+with roaring, with tossing and tumbling he would work and wind himself
+from them; and when he was loose to shake his ears twice or thrice with
+the blood and the slaver hanging about his physiognomy." The famous
+"Paris Garden" in Southwark was the chief bear-garden in London. A
+Spanish nobleman of the time, who was taken to see a pony baited that
+had an ape tied to its back, expressed himself to the effect that "to
+see the animal kicking amongst the dogs, with the screaming of the ape,
+beholding the curs hanging from the ears and neck of the pony, is very
+laughable." Butler describes a bear-baiting at length in the first canto
+of his _Hudibras_.
+
+The Puritans endeavoured to put an end to animal-baiting, although
+Macaulay sarcastically suggested that this was "not because it gave pain
+to the bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spectators." The
+efforts of the Puritans seem, however, to have had little effect, for we
+find the sport flourishing at the Restoration; but the conscience of
+cultivated people seems to have been touched, for Evelyn wrote in his
+_Diary_, under the date of June 16th, 1670: "I went with some friends to
+the bear-garden, where was cock-fighting, dog-fighting, bear and bull
+baiting, it being a famous day for all these butcherly sports, or rather
+barbarous cruelties. The bulls did exceedingly well, but the Irish
+wolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall greyhound, a stately creature
+indeed, who beat a cruel mastiff. One of the bulls tossed a dog full
+into a lady's lap, as she sat in one of the boxes at a considerable
+height from the arena. Two poor dogs were killed, and so all ended with
+the ape on horseback, and I most heartily weary of the rude and dirty
+pastime, which I had not seen, I think, in twenty years before." Steele
+also attacked these cruel sports in the _Tatler_. Nevertheless, when the
+tsar Nicholas I. visited England as cesarevich, he was taken to see a
+prize-fight and a bull-baiting. In this latter form of the sport the
+bull's nose was usually blown full of pepper to render him the more
+furious. The bull was often allowed a hole in the ground, into which to
+thrust his nose and lips, his most vulnerable parts. Sometimes the bull
+was tethered, and dogs, trained for the purpose, set upon him one by
+one, a successful attack resulting in the dog fastening his teeth firmly
+in the bull's snout. This was called "pinning the bull." A sport called
+bull-running was popular in several towns of England, particularly at
+Tutbury and Stamford. Its establishment at Tutbury was due to John of
+Gaunt, to whose minstrels, on the occasion of their annual festival on
+August 16th the prior of Tutbury, for his tenure, delivered a bull,
+which had his horns sawn off, his ears and tail cut off, his nostrils
+filled with pepper and his whole body smeared with soap. The minstrels
+gave chase to the bull, which became the property of any minstrel of the
+county of Stafford who succeeded in holding him long enough to cut off a
+lock of his hair. Otherwise he was returned to the prior. At the
+dissolution of the monasteries this tenure devolved upon the dukes of
+Devonshire, who suppressed it in 1788. At Stamford the running took
+place annually on November 13th, the bull being provided by the butchers
+of the town, the townspeople taking part in the chase, which was carried
+on until both people and beast were exhausted, and ended in the killing
+of the bull. Certain rules were strictly observed, such as the
+prohibition of carrying sticks or staves that were shod with iron. The
+Stamford bull-running survived well into the 19th century. Bear-baiting
+and bull-baiting were prohibited by act of parliament in 1835.
+
+
+
+
+BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900), American painter, was born on the
+13th of April 1825 at Painesville, Ohio. He studied abroad, and in 1861
+removed to New York City, where in 1862 he became a member of the
+National Academy of Design. He was a prolific worker and a man of much
+inventiveness and originality, though of modest artistic endowment. His
+humorous treatment of cats, dogs, horses and monkeys, generally with
+some human occupation and expression, usually satirical, gave him a
+great vogue at one time, and his pictures were largely reproduced. His
+brother, James Henry Beard (1814-1893), was also a painter.
+
+
+
+
+BEARD (A.S. _beard_, O.H. and Mod. Ger. _Bart_, Dan. _baard_, Icel.
+_bar_, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slav, _barda_, Russ. _baroda_.
+Cf. Welsh _barf_, Lat. _barba_, though, according to the _New English
+Dictionary_, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful). Modern
+usage applies this word to the hair grown upon a man's chin and cheek.
+When the chin is shaven, what remains upon the cheeks is called
+whiskers. "Moustache" or "moustaches" describes the hair upon the upper
+lip. But the words have in the past had less exact meaning. Beard has
+stood alone for all these things, and whisker has in its time signified
+what we now call moustache, as in the case of Robinson Crusoe's great
+pair of "Turkish whiskers."
+
+The bearded races of mankind have ever held the beard in high honour. It
+is the sign of full manhood; the lad or the eunuch is beardless, and the
+bearded woman is reckoned a witch, a loathsome thing to all ages. Also
+the beard shrinks from the profane hand; a tug at the beard is sudden
+pain and dishonour. The Roman senator sat like a carven thing until the
+wondering Goth touched his long beard; but then he struck, although he
+died for the blow. The future King John gave deadly offence to the
+native chieftains, when visiting Ireland in 1185, by plucking at their
+flowing beards.
+
+David's ambassadors had their beards despitefully shaven by a bold
+heathen. Their own king mercifully covered their shame--"Tarry ye at
+Jericho until your beards be grown"--but war answered the insult. The
+oath on the beard is as old as history, and we have an echo of it in the
+first English political ballad when Sir Simon de Montfort swears "by his
+chin" revenge on Warenne.
+
+Adam, our first father, was by tradition created with a beard: Zeus
+Allfather is bearded, and the old painters and carvers who hardily
+pictured the first person of the Trinity gave Him the long beard of his
+fatherhood. The race-fathers have it and the ancient heroes. Abraham and
+Agamemnon, Woden and King Arthur and Charlemagne, must all be bearded in
+our pictures. With the Mahommedan peoples the beard as worn by an
+unshaven prophet has ever been in high renown, the more so that amongst
+most of the conquering tribes who first acknowledged the unity of God
+and prophethood of Mahomet it grows freely. But before Mahomet's day,
+kings of Persia had plaited their sacred beards with golden thread, and
+the lords of Nineveh had curiously curled and oiled beards such as their
+winged bull wears. Bohadin tells us that Saladin's little son wept for
+terror when he saw the crusaders' envoys "with their clean-shaven
+chins." Selim I. (1512-1521) comes down as a Turkish sultan who broke
+into holy custom and cut off his beard, telling a remonstrating Mufti
+that his vizier should now have nothing to lead him by. But such
+tampering with tradition has its dangers, and the absolute rule of Peter
+the Great is made clear when we know that he taxed Russian beards and
+shaved his own, and yet died in his bed. Alexander the Great did as much
+and more with his well-drilled Macedonians, and was obeyed when he bade
+them shave off the handle by which an enemy could seize them.
+
+With other traditions of their feudal age, the Japanese nation has
+broken with its ancient custom of the razor, and their emperor has beard
+and moustache; a short moustache is common amongst Japanese officers and
+statesmen, and generals and admirals of Nippon follow the imperial
+example. The Nearer East also is abandoning the full beard, even in
+Mahommedan lands. Earlier shahs of the Kajar house have glorious beards
+below their girdles, but Nasiru'd-Din and his successor have shaved
+their chins. In later years the sultan of Turkey has added a beard to
+his moustache; the khedive of Egypt, son of a bearded father, has a
+soldier's moustache only. In Europe the great Russian people is faithful
+to the beard, Peter's law being forgotten. The tsar Alexander III.'s
+beard might have satisfied Ivan the Terrible, whose hands played
+delightedly with the five-foot beard of Queen Elizabeth's agent George
+Killingworth. Indeed the royal houses of Europe are for the most part
+bearded or whiskered. It may be that the race of Olivier le Dain, of the
+man who can be trusted with a sharp razor near a crowned king's throat,
+is extinct. Leopold II., king of the Belgians, however, was in 1909 the
+only sovereign with the full beard unclipped. The Austrian emperor,
+Francis Joseph, retained the moustache and whiskers of the 'sixties, and
+the German emperor, William II., for a short period, commemorated by a
+few very rare photographs, had a beard, although it was never suffered
+to reach the length of that beard which gave his father an air of
+Charlemagne or Barbarossa. In France bearded presidents have followed
+each other, but it may be noted that the waxed moustache and "imperial"
+beard of the Second Empire is now all but abandoned to the Frenchman of
+English comedy. The modern English fashion of shaving clean is rare in
+France save among actors, and during 1907 many Parisian waiters struck
+against the rule which forbade them to grow the moustache.
+
+For the most part the clergy of the Roman obedience shave clean, as have
+done the popes for two centuries and more. But missionary bishops
+cultivate the long beard with some pride, and the orders have varying
+customs, the Dominican shaving and the Franciscan allowing the hair to
+grow. The Roman Catholic clergy of Dalmatia, secular and regular, are
+allowed to wear the moustache without beard or whiskers, as a concession
+to national prejudices.
+
+Amongst English people, always ready to be swayed by fashion, the hair
+of the face has been, age by age, cherished or shaved away, curled or
+clipped into a hundred devices. Before the immigration from Sleswick the
+Briton knew the use of the razor, sometimes shaving his chin, but
+leaving the moustaches long. The old English also wore moustaches and
+forked beards, but, save for aged men, the beard had passed out of
+fashion before the Norman Conquest. Thus, in the Bayeux needlework,
+Edward the king is venerable with a long beard, but Harold and his
+younger fighting men have their chins reaped. "The English," says
+William of Malmesbury, "leave the upper lip unshaven, suffering the hair
+continually to increase," and to Harold's spies the Conqueror's knights,
+who had "the whole face with both lips shaven," were strange and
+priest-like. Matthew Paris had a strange idea that the beard was
+distinctive of Englishmen; he asserts that those who remained in England
+were compelled to shave their beards, while the native nobles who went
+into exile kept their beards and flowing locks "like the Easterns and
+especially the Trojans." He even believed that "William with the beard,"
+who headed a rising in London under Richard I., came of a stock which
+had scorned to shave, out of hatred for the Normans, a statement which
+Thierry developed.
+
+The _Chanson de Roland_ shows us "the pride of France" as "that good
+bearded folk," with their beards hanging over coats of mail, and it
+makes the great emperor swear to Naimes by his beard. It was only about
+the year 1000, according to Rodolf Glaber, that men began in the north
+of France to wear short hair and shave "like actors"; and even in the
+Bayeux tapestry the old Norman shipwrights wear the beard. But so rare
+was hair on the face amongst the Norman invaders that William, the
+forefather of the Percys, was known in his lifetime and remembered after
+his death as William "Asgernuns" or "Oht les gernuns," i.e. "William
+with the moustaches," the epithet revived by one of his descendants
+making our modern name of Algernon. Count Eustace of Boulogne was
+similarly distinguished. Fashion swung about after the Conquest, and, in
+the day of Henry I., Serle the bishop could compare bearded men of the
+Norman-English court with "filthy goats and bristly Saracens." The
+crusades, perhaps, were accountable for the beards which were oddly
+denounced as effeminate in the young courtiers of William Rufus. Not
+only the Greeks but the Latins in the East sometimes adopted the Saracen
+fashion, and the siege of Antioch (1098) was as unfavourable to the use
+of the razor as that of Sevastopol. When the Latins stormed the town by
+night, bearded knights owed their death to the assumption that every
+Christian would be a shaven man. But for more than four centuries
+diversity is allowed, beards, moustaches and shaven faces being found
+side by side, although now and again one fashion or another comes
+uppermost to be followed by those nice in such matters. Henry II. is a
+close-shaven king, and Richard II.'s effigy shows but a little tuft on
+each side of the chin, tufts which are two curled locks on the chin of
+Henry IV. But Henry III. is long-bearded, Edward II. curls his beard in
+three great ringlets, and the third Edward's long forked beard flows
+down his breast in patriarchal style. The mid-13th century, as seen in
+the drawings attributed to Matthew Paris, is an age of many full and
+curled beards, although the region about the lips is sometimes clipped
+or shaved. The beard is common in the 14th century, the forked pattern
+being favoured and the long drooping moustache. Amongst those who ride
+with him to Canterbury, Chaucer, a bearded poet, notes the merchant's
+"forked beard," the white beard of the franklin and the red beard of the
+miller, but the reeve's beard is "shave as ny as ever he can." Henry of
+Monmouth and his son are shaven, and thereafter beards are rare save
+with a few old folk until they come slowly back with the 16th century.
+In Ireland the statute enacted by a parliament at Trim in 1447 recited
+that no manner of man who will be taken for an Englishman should have
+beard above his mouth--the upper lip must be shaven at least every
+fortnight or be of equal growth with the nether lip,--and this statute
+remained unrepealed for nigh upon two hundred years. Henry VIII., always
+a law to himself, brought back the beard to favour, Stowe's annals
+giving 1535 as the year in which he caused his beard "to be knotted and
+no more shaven," his hair being polled at the same time. Many portraits
+give his fashion of wearing a thin moustache, whose ends met a short and
+squarely trimmed beard parted at the chin, a fashion in which he was
+followed by his brother-in-law Charles Brandon. But it is remarkable
+that those about him rarely imitated their most dread sovereign. While
+Cromwell and Howard the Admiral go clean shaven, the Seymour brothers,
+Denny and Russell, have the beard long and flowing. Even the forty
+shilling a year man, says Hooper in 1548, will waste his morning time
+while he sets his beard in order. About this time the clergy began to
+break with the long tradition of smooth faces. A priest in 1531 is
+commanded to abstain from wearing a beard, and Cardinal Pole, coming
+from the court of a bearded pope, appears bearded like a Greek
+patriarch. The law too, the church's kinswoman, begins to forbid, a sign
+of the change, and from 1542 the society of Lincoln's Inn makes rules
+for fining and expelling those who appear bearded at their mess, rules
+which the example of exalted lawyers caused to be withdrawn in 1560.
+
+The age of Elizabeth saw lawyers, soldiers, courtiers and merchants all
+bearded. Her Cecils, Greshams, Raleighs, Drakes, Dudleys and Walsinghams
+have the beard. A shaven chin such as that seen in the portrait of
+Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, is rare, but the beards take a hundred
+fashions, and satirists and Puritan pamphleteers were busy with them and
+with the men who wasted hours in perfuming or starching them, in dusting
+them with orris powder, in curling them with irons and quills. Stubbs
+gives them a place amongst his abuses. "It is a world to consider how
+their mowchatowes must be preserved or laid out from one cheek to
+another and turned up like two horns towards the forehead." Of the
+English variety of beards Harrison has a good word: "beards of which
+some are shaven from the chin like those of Turks, not a few cut short
+like to the beard of Marquess Otto, some made round like a rubbing
+brush, others with a _pique de vant_ (O! fine fashion) or now and then
+suffered to grow long, the barbers being grown to be so cunning in this
+behalf as the tailors. And therefore if a man have a lean and straight
+face, a Marquess Otto's cut will make it broad and large; if it be
+platter-like, a long slender beard will make it seem the narrower; if he
+be weasel-becked, then much hair left on the cheeks will make the owner
+look big like a bowdled hen, and as grim as a goose, if Cornelis of
+Chelmersford say true." Nevertheless he adds that "many old men do wear
+no beards at all." The Elizabethan fashions continued under King James,
+the beard trimmed to a point being common wear; but under King Charles
+there is a certain reaction, and the royal style of shaving the cheeks
+and leaving the moustache whose points sweep upward and the chin beard
+like a downward flame is followed by most of the gentry. With some the
+beard disappears altogether or remains a mere fleck below the lip.
+Archbishop Laud has a cavalier-like chin tuft and upturned moustache,
+but Abbot his predecessor wore the spade beard, the "cathedral beard" of
+Randle Holme, seen in all its dignity on the Chigwell brass of Samuel
+Harsnett, archbishop of York (died 1631), a grim figure with his angry
+moustache and a long and broad beard, cut square at the bottom.
+
+From the Restoration year the razor comes more into use. Young men shave
+clean. The restored king curls a few dark hairs of a moustache over each
+cheek, but his brother James is shaven. With the reign of Queen Anne the
+country enters the beardless age, and beards, moustaches and whiskers
+are no more seen. In the 18th century the moustache indicated a soldier
+from beyond sea. A Jew or a Turk was known by the beard, an appendage
+loathsome as comic. Matthew Robinson, the second Lord Rokeby, was indeed
+wearing a beard in 1798, but he was reckoned a madman therefor, and
+Phillips's _Public Character_ pictures him as "the only peer and perhaps
+the only gentleman of either Great Britain or Ireland who is thus
+distinguished." That George III. in his madness should have been left
+unshaved was a circumstance of his misery that wrung the hearts of all
+loyal folk. But in the very year of 1798, when Lord Rokeby's image was
+engraved for the curious, the Worcestershire militia officers quartered
+near Brighton were copying the Austrian moustache of the foreign troops,
+and we may note that the hair of the face, which disappeared when wigs
+came in, began to reappear as wigs went out. Early in the 19th century
+the bucks began to show a patch of whisker beside the ear, and the
+soldier's moustache became a common sight. Before Waterloo, guardsmen
+were complaining that officers of humbler regiments imitated their
+fashion of the moustache, and by the Waterloo year most young cavalry
+officers were moustached. The Horse Artillery were the next moustached
+corps, the rest of the army, already whiskered, following their example
+in the 'fifties. But for a civilian to grow a moustache was long
+reckoned a piece of unseemly swagger. Clive Newcome, it will be
+remembered, wore one until the taunting question whether he was "going
+in the Guards" shamed him into shaving clean. When in 1840 Mr George
+Frederick Muntz appeared in parliament with a full beard there were
+those who felt that this tall Radical had taken his own strange method
+of insulting English parliamentary institutions. James Ward, R.A. (d.
+1859), painter of animals, was another breaker of the unwritten law,
+defending his beard in a pamphlet of eighteen arguments as a thing
+pleasing at once to the artist and to his Creator. Freedom in these
+matters only came when the troops were home from the Crimea, when
+officers who had grown beards and acquired the taste for tobacco during
+the long months in the trenches showed their beards and their cigars in
+Piccadilly. Then came the Volunteer movement, and every man was a
+soldier, taking a soldier's licence. The dominant fashion was the
+moustache, worn with long and drooping whiskers. But the "Piccadilly
+weepers" of the 'sixties were out of the mode for the younger men when
+the 'eighties began, and by the end of the century whiskers were seen in
+the army only upon a few veteran officers. The fashion of clean shaving
+had made some way, the popularity of the shaven actor having a part in
+this. In 1909 all modes of dealing with the hair of the face might be
+recognized, but the full beard had become somewhat rare in England and
+the full whiskers rarer still. The upper class showed an inclination to
+shave clean, although the army grudgingly recognized a rule which
+ordered the moustache to be worn. Naval men, by regulation, shaved or
+wore both beard and moustache, but their beards were always trimmed.
+Most barristers shaved the lips, although the last judge unable to hear
+an advocate whose voice a moustache interrupted had left the bench.
+Clergymen followed the lay fashions as they did under the first Stuart
+kings, although there was still some prejudice against the moustache as
+an ornament military and inappropriate. A newspaper of 1857, describing
+the appearance of Livingstone the missionary at a Mansion House meeting,
+records that he came wearing a moustache, "braving the prejudices of his
+countrymen and thus evincing a courage only inferior to that exhibited
+by him amongst the savages of Central Africa." Even as late as 1884 the
+_Pall Mall Gazette_ has some surprised comments on the beard of Bishop
+Ryle, newly consecrated to the see of Liverpool.
+
+The footman, whose full-dress livery is the court dress of a hundred
+years ago, must show no more than the rudimentary whisker of the early
+eighteen-hundreds, and butler, coachman and groom come under the same
+rule. The jockey and the hunt whip are shaven likewise, but the courier
+has the whiskers and moustache that once marked him as a foreigner in
+the English milor's service, and the chauffeur, a servant with no
+tradition behind him, is often moustached.
+
+Lastly, we may speak of the practice of the royal house since England
+came out of the beardless century. The regent took the new fashion, and
+sat "in whiskered state," but his brother and successor shaved clean and
+disliked even the hussar's moustache. The prince consort wore the
+moustache as a young man, adding whiskers in later years. King Edward
+VII. wore moustache and trimmed beard, and his heir apparent also
+followed the fashion of many fellow admirals.     (O. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT (1872-1898), English artist in black and
+white, was born at Brighton on the 24th of August 1872. In 1883 his
+family settled in London, and in the following year he appeared in
+public as an "infant musical phenomenon," playing at several concerts
+with his sister. In 1888 he obtained a post in an architect's office,
+and afterwards one in the Guardian Life and Fire Insurance Company
+(1889). In 1891, under the advice of Sir Edward Burne-Jones and Puvis de
+Chavannes, he took up art as a profession. In 1892 he attended the
+classes at the Westminster School of Art, then under Professor Brown;
+and from 1893 until his death, at Mentone, on the 16th of March 1898,
+his work came continually before the public, arousing a storm of
+criticism and much hostile feeling. Beardsley had an unswerving tendency
+towards the fantastic of the gloomier and "unwholesome" sort. His
+treatment of most subjects was revolutionary; he deliberately ignored
+proportion and perspective, and the "freedom from convention" which he
+displayed caused his work to be judged with harshness. In certain phases
+of technique he especially excelled; and his earlier methods of dealing
+with the single line in conjunction with masses of black are in their
+way unsurpassed, except in the art of Japan, the country which probably
+gave his ideas some assistance. He was always an ornamentist, rather
+than an illustrator; and his work must be judged from that point of
+view. His frontispiece to _Volpone_ is held by some to be, from this
+purely technical standpoint, one of the best pen-drawings of the age.
+His posters for the Avenue theatre and for Mr Fisher Unwin were among
+the first of the modern cult of that art.
+
+  The following are the chief works which are illustrated with drawings
+  by Beardsley: the _Bon Mot_ Library, _The Pall Mall Budget_, and _The
+  Studio_ (1893), Sir Thomas Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ (1893-1894),
+  _Salome_ (1894), _The Yellow Book_ (1894-1895), _The Savoy Magazine_
+  (1896), _The Rape of the Lock_ (1896).
+
+  See also J. Pennell, _The Studio_ (1893); Symons, _Aubrey Beardsley_
+  (1898); R. Ross, _Volpone_ (1898); H.C. Marillier, _The Early Work of
+  Aubrey Beardsley_ (1899); Smithers, _Reproductions of Drawings by
+  Aubrey Beardsley_; John Lane, _The Later Works of Aubrey Beardsley_
+  (1901); R. Ross, _Aubrey Beardsley_ (1908).     (E. F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BEARDSTOWN, a city of Cass county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of
+the state, on the E. bank of the Illinois river, about 111 m. N. of St
+Louis, Missouri. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western, and
+the Burlington (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy) railways, and by
+steamboats plying between it and St. Louis. Pop. (1890) 4226; (1900)
+4827 (444 foreign-born); (1910) 6107. The industrial establishments of
+the city include flour, planing and saw mills, the machine shops (of the
+St Louis division) of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway, ice
+factories, pearl button factories and a shoe factory. The fishing
+interests are also important. Beardstown was laid out in 1827 and was
+incorporated as a city in 1896. It was named in honour of Thomas Beard,
+who settled in the vicinity in 1820. During the Black Hawk War (1832) it
+was a base of supplies for the Illinois troops. The old court house in
+which Abraham Lincoln, in 1854, won his famous "Armstrong murder case,"
+is now used for a city hall.
+
+
+
+
+BEARER, strictly "one who carries," a term used in India for a
+palanquin-bearer, and now especially for a body-servant. The term is
+also used in connexion with military ambulances, and "bearer" companies
+formed part of the Royal Army Medical Corps until amalgamated with the
+field-hospitals to form field-ambulances (1905). In banking and commerce
+the word is applied to the holder or presenter of a cheque or draft not
+made payable to a specific person; it has also a technical use, as in
+printing, of anything that supports pressure in machinery, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BEARINGS. In engineering a "bearing" is that particular kind of support
+which, besides carrying the load imposed upon it by the shaft associated
+with it, allows the shaft freedom to revolve. Or, put in another way, a
+bearing forms with the shaft a pair of elements having one degree of
+freedom to turn relatively to one another about their common axis. The
+part of the shaft in the bearing is commonly called the _journal_. The
+component parts of a small bearing, pillow block, plummer block or
+pedestal, as it is variously styled, are illustrated in fig. 1, and
+these parts, put together, are further illustrated in fig. 2 with the
+shaft added. Corresponding parts are similarly lettered in the two
+illustrations. The shaft (S) is encircled by the _brasses_ (B1 and B2)
+made of gun metal, phosphor bronze or other suitable material. The lower
+brass fits into the main casting (A) in the semicircular seat provided
+for it, and is prevented from moving endways by the flanges (F, F) and
+from turning with the shaft by the projections (P, P), which fit into
+corresponding recesses in the casting (A), one of which is shown at p.
+After the shaft has been placed in position, the upper brass (B2) and
+the cap (C) are put on and both are held in place by the bolts (Q1, Q2).
+The brasses are bedded into the main casting (A) and the cap (C)
+respectively at the surfaces D, D, D, D. The complete bearing is held to
+the framework of the machine by bolts (R1, R2) passing through holes (H,
+H) which are slotted to allow endwise adjustment of the whole bearing in
+order to facilitate the alignment of the shaft. Oil or other lubricant
+is introduced through the hole (G), and it passes through the top brass
+to grooves or oilways cut into the surface of the brass for the purpose
+of distributing the oil uniformly to the journal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+Some form of lubricator is usually fitted at G in order to supply oil to
+the bearing continuously. A form of lubricator used for this purpose is
+shown in place, fig. 2, and an enlarged section is shown in fig. 3. It
+will be seen that the lubricator consists essentially of a cup the base
+of which is pierced centrally by a tube which reaches to within a small
+distance of the lid of the cup inside, and projects into the oilway
+leading to the journal outside. The annular space round the tube inside
+is filled with oil which is transferred to the central tube and thence
+to the bearing by the capillary action of a cotton wick thrust down on a
+piece of wire. It is only necessary to withdraw the wick from the
+central tube to stop the supply of oil. The lubricator is fitted through
+a hole in the lid which is usually plugged with a piece of cane or
+closed by more elaborate means. A line of shafting would be supported by
+several bearings of the kind illustrated, themselves supported by
+brackets projecting from or rigidly fixed to the walls of the workshop,
+or on frames resting on the floor, or on hangers attached to the roof
+girders or principals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+In bearings of modern design for supporting a line shaft the general
+arrangement shown in fig. 1 is modified so that the alignments of the
+shaft can be made both vertically or horizontally by means of adjusting
+screws, and the brass is jointed with the supporting main body so that
+it is free to follow the small deflections of the shaft which take place
+when the shaft is working. Another modern improvement is the formation
+of an oil reservoir or well in the base of the bearing itself, and the
+transference of the oil from this well to the shaft by means of one or
+two rings riding loosely on the shaft. The bottom part of the ring dips
+into the oil contained in the well of the bearing and, as the shaft
+rotates, the ring rolls on the shaft and thus carries oil up to the
+shaft continuously, from which it finds its way to the surfaces of the
+shaft and bearing in contact. It should be understood that the upper
+brass is slotted crossways to allow the ring to rest on the shaft. When
+the direction of the load carried by the bearing is constant it is
+unnecessary to provide more than one brass, and the construction is
+modified accordingly. Figs. 4 and 5 show an axle box used for goods
+wagons on the Great Eastern railway, and they also illustrate the method
+of pad lubrication in general use for this kind of bearing. The main
+casting, A, is now uppermost, and is designed so that the upper part
+supports and constrains the spring buckle through which the load W is
+transmitted to the bearing, and the lower part inside is arranged to
+support the brass, B. The brass is jointed freely with the main casting
+by means of a hemispherical hump resting in a corresponding recess in
+the casting. What may be called the cap, C, forms the lower part of the
+axle box, but instead of supporting a second brass it is formed into an
+oil reservoir in which is arranged a pad of cotton wick woven on a tin
+frame. The upper part of the pad is formed into a kind of brush, shaped
+to fit the underside of the journal, whilst the lower part consists of
+streamers of wick resting in the oil. The oil is fed to the brush by the
+capillary action of the streamers. The reservoirs are filled with oil
+through the apertures P and O. The bottom cap is held in position by the
+T-headed bolts Q1 and Q2 (fig. 5). By slackening the nuts and turning
+the T-heads fair with the slots in the cap, the cap comes right away and
+the axle may be examined. A leather ring L is fitted as shown to prevent
+dust from entering the axle box.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+_Footsteps._--A bearing arranged to support the lower end of a vertical
+shaft is called a footstep, sometimes a pivot bearing. A simple form of
+footstep is shown in fig 6. A casting A, designed so that it can be
+conveniently bolted to a foundation block, cross beam, or bracket is
+bored out and fitted with a brass B, which is turned inside to carry the
+end of the shaft S. The whole vertical load on the shaft is carried by
+the footstep, so that it is important to arrange efficient lubricating
+apparatus. Results of experiments made on a footstep, reported in _Proc.
+Inst. Mech. Eng._, 1891, show that if a diametral groove be cut in the
+brass, as indicated at g (fig 6), and if the oil is led to the centre of
+this groove by a channel c communicating with the exterior, the rotation
+of the shaft draws in a plentiful supply of oil which radiates from the
+centre and makes its way vertically between the shaft and the brass and
+finally overflows at the top of the brass. The overflowing oil may be
+led away and may be re-introduced into the footsteps at c. The rotation
+of the shaft thus causes a continuous circulation of oil through the
+footstep. One experiment from the report mentioned above may be quoted.
+A 3-in. shaft, revolving 128 times per minute and supported on a
+manganese bronze bearing lubricated in the way explained above sustained
+increasing loads until, at a load of 300 pounds per square inch of the
+area of the end of the shaft, it seized. The mechanical details of a
+footstep may be varied for purposes of adjustment in a variety of ways
+similarly to the variations of a common bearing already explained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+_Thrust Block Bearing._--In cases where a bearing is required to resist
+a longitudinal movement of the shaft through it, as for example in the
+case of the propeller shaft of a marine engine or a vertical shaft
+supporting a heavy load not carried on a footstep, the shaft is provided
+with one or more collars which are grooved with corresponding recesses
+in the brasses of the bearing. A general sketch of a thrust block for a
+propeller shaft is shown in fig. 7. There are seven collars turned on
+the shaft and into the circumferential grooves between them fit
+corresponding circumferential projections on the brasses, these
+projections being formed in the case illustrated by means of half rings
+which are fitted into grooves turned in the brasses. This method of
+construction allows an individual ring to be replaced or adjusted if it
+should get hot. The total area of the rubbing surfaces should be
+proportioned so that the average load is not more than from 50 to 70 lb.
+per sq. in. Arrangements are usually made for cooling a thrust block
+with water in case of heating. The spindles of drilling machines, boring
+machine spindles, turbine shafts may be cited as examples of vertical
+shafts supported on one collar. Experiments on the friction of a collar
+bearing have been made by the Research Committee of the Institution of
+Mechanical Engineers (_Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng._, 1888).
+
+_Roller and Ball Bearings._--If rollers are placed between two surfaces
+having relative tangential motion the frictional resistance to be
+overcome is the small resistance to rolling. The rollers move along with
+a velocity equal to one half the relative velocity of the surfaces. This
+way of reducing frictional resistance has been applied to all kinds of
+mechanical contrivances, including bearings for shafts, railway axle
+boxes, and axle boxes for tramcars. An example of a roller bearing for a
+line shaft is illustrated in figs. 8 and 9. The main casting, A, and
+cap, C, bolted together, form a spherical seating for the part of the
+bearing E corresponding to the brasses in a bearing of the usual type.
+Between the inside of the casting E and the journal are placed rollers
+held in position relatively to one another by a "squirrel cage" casting,
+the section of the bars of which are clearly shown in the half sectional
+elevation, fig. 9. This squirrel cage ensures that the several axes of
+the rollers keep parallel to the axis of the journal during the rolling
+motion. The rollers are made of hard tool steel, and the surfaces of the
+journal and bearing between which they roll are hardened.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+Two rings of balls may be used instead of a single ring of rollers, and
+the kind of ball bearing thus obtained is in general use principally in
+connexion with bicycles and motor cars (see BICYCLE). In ball bearings
+the load is concentrated at a few points, the points where the balls
+touch the race, and in the roller bearing at a few lines, the lines of
+contact between the rollers and the surfaces of the journal and bearing;
+consequently the load which bearings of this kind carry must not be
+great enough to cause any indentation at the points or lines of contact.
+Both rollers and balls, and the paths on which they roll, therefore, are
+made of hard material; further, balls and rollers must all be exactly
+the same size in an individual bearing in order to distribute the load
+between the points or lines of contact as uniformly as possible. The
+finest workmanship is required therefore to make good roller or good
+ball bearings.
+
+_Bearings for High Speeds and Forced Lubrication._--When the shaft turns
+the metallic surfaces of the brass and the journal are prevented from
+actual contact by a film of oil which is formed and maintained by the
+motion of the shaft and which sustains the pressure between the journal
+and the brass provided the surfaces are accurately formed and the supply
+of oil is unlimited. This film changes what would otherwise be the
+friction between metallic surfaces into a viscous resistance within the
+film itself. When through a limited supply of oil or imperfect
+lubrication this film is imperfect or fails altogether and allows the
+journal to make metallic contact with the brass, the friction increases;
+and it may increase so much that the bearing rapidly becomes hot and may
+ultimately seize, that is to say the rubbing surfaces may become stuck
+together. With the object of reducing the friction at the points of
+metallic contact and of confining the damage of a hot bearing to the
+easily renewable brass, the latter is partially, sometimes wholly, lined
+with a soft fusible metal, technically known as white metal, which melts
+away before actual seizure takes place, and thus saves the journal which
+is more expensive because it is generally formed on a large and
+expensive shaft. However perfectly the film fulfils its function, the
+work required to overcome the viscous resistance of the film during the
+continuous rotation of the shaft appears as heat, and in consequence the
+temperature of the bearing gradually rises until the rate at which heat
+is produced is equal to the rate at which it is radiated from the
+bearing. Hence in order that a journal may revolve with a minimum
+resistance and without undue heating two precautions must be taken: (1)
+means must be taken to ensure that the film of oil is complete and never
+fails; and (2) arrangements must be made for controlling the temperature
+should it rise too high. The various lubricating devices already
+explained supply sufficient oil to form a partial film, since
+experiments have shown that the friction of bearings lubricated in this
+way is akin to solid friction, thus indicating at least partial metallic
+contact. In order to supply enough oil to form and maintain a film with
+certainty the journal should be run in an oil bath, or oil should be
+supplied to the bearing under pressure sufficient to force it in between
+the surfaces against the load. A bearing to which forced lubrication and
+water cooling are applied is illustrated in fig. 10, which represents
+one of the bearings of a Westinghouse turbo-alternator installed at the
+power station of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London at
+Lots Road, Chelsea. Oil flows under pressure from a tank on the top of a
+tower along a supply pipe to the oil inlet O, and after passing through
+the bearing and performing its duty as a film it falls away from each
+end of the journal into the bottom of the main casting, from which a
+pipe, E, conveys the oil back to the base of the tank tower where it is
+cooled and finally pumped back into the tank. There is thus a continuous
+circulation of oil through the bearing. The space C is for cooling
+water; in fact the bearing is water jacketed and the jacket is connected
+to a supply pipe and a drain pipe so that a continuous circulation may
+be maintained if desired. This bearing is 12 in. in diameter and 48 in.
+long, and it carries a load of about 12.8 tons. The rise in temperature
+of the bearing under normal conditions of working without water
+circulating in the jacket is approximately 38 deg. F. The speed of
+rotation is such that the surface velocity is about 50 ft. per second.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+Forced lubrication in connexion with the bearings of high-speed engines
+was introduced in 1890 by Messrs Belliss & Morcom, Ltd., under patents
+taken out in the name of A.C. Pain. It should be understood that
+providing the film of oil in the bearing of an engine can be properly
+maintained a double-acting engine can be driven at a high speed without
+any knocking, and without perceptible wear of the rubbing surfaces. Fig.
+11 shows that the general arrangement of the bearings of a Belliss &
+Morcom engine arranged for forced lubrication. A small force-pump F,
+driven from the eccentric strap X, delivers oil into the pipe P, along
+which it passes to A, the centre of the right-hand main bearing. There
+is a groove turned on the inside of the brass from which a slanting hole
+leads to B. The oil when it arrives at A thus has two paths open to it,
+one to the right and left of the groove through the bearing, the other
+along the slanting hole to B. At B it divides again into two streams,
+one stream going upwards to the eccentric sheave, and a part continuing
+up the pipe Q to the eccentric pin. The second stream from B follows the
+slanting hole in the crank shaft to C, where it is led to the big end
+journal through the pipe R to the crosshead pin, and through the
+slanting hole to D, where it finds its way into the left main bearing.
+The oil forced through each bearing falls away to the right and to the
+left of the journal and drops into the bottom of the engine framing,
+whence it is again fed to the pump through a strainer. The parts of an
+engine lubricated in this way must be entirely enclosed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+_Load on bearings._--The distribution of pressure over the film of
+lubricant separating the rubbing surfaces of a bearing is variable,
+being greatest at a point near but not at the crown of the brass, and
+falling away to zero in all directions towards the boundaries of the
+film. It is usual in practice to ignore this variation of pressure
+through the film, and to indicate the severity with which the bearing is
+loaded by stating the load per square inch of the rubbing surfaces
+projected on to the diametral plane of the journal. Thus the projected
+area of the surfaces of a journal 6 in. in diameter and 8 in. long is 48
+sq. in., and if the total load carried by the bearing is 20,000 pounds,
+the bearing would be said to carry a load of 417 pounds per square inch.
+When a shaft rotates in a bearing continuously in one direction the load
+per square inch with which it is safe to load the bearing in order to
+avoid undue heating is much less than if the motion is intermittent. A
+table of a few values of the bearing loads used in practice is given in
+the article LUBRICANTS.
+
+  _Bearing Friction._--If W is the total load on a bearing, and if [mu]
+  is the coefficient of friction between the rubbing surfaces, the
+  tangential resistance to turning is expressed by the product [mu]W. If
+  v is the relative velocity of the rubbing surfaces, the work done per
+  second against friction is [mu]Wv foot pounds. This quantity of work
+  is converted into heat, and the heat produced per second is therefore
+  [mu]Wv/778 British Thermal Units. The coefficient [mu] is a variable
+  quantity, and bearing in mind that a properly lubricated journal is
+  separated from its supporting brass by a film of lubricant it might be
+  expected that [mu] would have values characteristic of the coefficient
+  of friction between two metallic surfaces, merging into the
+  characteristics properly belonging to fluid friction, according as the
+  oil film varied from an imperfect to a perfect condition, that is,
+  according as the lubrication is partial or complete, completeness
+  being attained by the use of an oil bath or by some method of forced
+  lubrication. This expectation is entirely borne out by experimental
+  researches. Beauchamp Tower ("Report on Friction Experiments," _Proc.
+  Inst. Mech. Eng._, November 1883) found that when oil was supplied to
+  a bearing by means of a pad the coefficient of friction was
+  approximately constant with the value of 1/100, thus following the law
+  of solid friction; but when the journal was lubricated by means of an
+  oil bath the coefficient of friction varied nearly inversely as the
+  load on the bearing, thus making [mu]W = constant. The tangential
+  resistance in this case is characteristic of fluid friction since it
+  is independent of the pressure. Tower's experiments were carried out
+  at a nearly constant temperature. The later experiments of O. Lasche
+  (_Zeitsch. Verein deutsche Ingenieure_, 1902, 46, pp. 1881 et seq.)
+  show how [mu] depends upon the temperature. Lasche's main results with
+  regard to the variation of [mu] are briefly:--[mu]W is a constant
+  quantity, thus confirming Tower's earlier experiments; [mu] is
+  practically independent of the relative velocity of the rubbing
+  surfaces within the limits of 3 to 50 ft. per second; and the product
+  [mu]t is constant, t being the temperature of the bearing. Writing p
+  for the load per unit of projected area of the bearing, Lasche found
+  that the result of the experiments could be expressed by the simple
+  formula p[mu]t = constant = 2, where p = the pressure in kilograms per
+  square centimetre, and t = the temperature in degrees centigrade. If p
+  is changed to pounds per square inch the constant in the expression is
+  approximately 30. The expression is valid between limits of pressure
+  14 to 213 pounds per square inch, limits of temperature 30 deg. to 100
+  deg. C., and between limits of velocity 3 to 50 ft. per second.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+  _Theory of Lubrication._--After the publication of Tower's experiments
+  on journal friction Professor Osborne Reynolds showed (_Phil. Trans._,
+  1886, p. 157) that the facts observed in connexion with a journal
+  lubricated by means of an oil bath could be explained by a theory
+  based upon the general principles of the motion of a viscous fluid. It
+  is first established as an essential part of the theory that the
+  radius of the brass must be slightly greater than the radius of the
+  journal as indicated in fig. 12, where J is the centre of the journal
+  and I the centre of the brass. Given this difference of curvature and
+  a sufficient supply of oil, the rotation of the journal produces and
+  maintains an oil film between the rubbing surfaces, the
+  circumferential extent of which depends upon the rate of the oil
+  supply and the external load. With an unlimited supply of oil, that is
+  with oil-bath lubrication, the film extends continuously to the
+  extremities of the brass, unless such extension would lead to negative
+  pressures and therefore to a discontinuity, in which case the film
+  ends where the pressures in the film become negative. The minimum
+  distance between the journal and the brass occurs at the point H (fig.
+  12), on the off side of the point O where the line of action of the
+  load cuts the surface of the journal. To the right and left of H the
+  thickness of the film gradually increases, this being the condition
+  that the oil-flow to and from the film may be automatically
+  maintained. With an unlimited supply of oil the point H moves farther
+  from O as the load increases until it reaches a maximum distance, and
+  then it moves back again towards O as the load is further increased
+  until a limiting load is reached at which the pressure in the film
+  becomes negative at the boundaries of the film, when the boundaries
+  recede from the edges of the brass as though the supply of oil were
+  limited.
+
+  In the mathematical development of the theory it is first necessary to
+  define the coefficient of viscosity. This is done as follows:--If two
+  parallel surfaces AB, CD are separated by a viscous film, and if
+  whilst CD is fixed AB moves in a tangential direction with velocity U,
+  the surface of the film in contact with CD clings to it and remains at
+  rest, whilst the lower surface of the film clings to and moves with
+  the surface AB. At intermediate points in the film the tangential
+  motion of the fluid will vary uniformly from zero to U, and the
+  tangential resistance will be F = [mu]U/h, where [mu] is the
+  coefficient of viscosity and h is the thickness of the film. With this
+  definition of viscosity and from the general equations representing
+  the stress in a viscous fluid, the following equation is established,
+  giving the relations between p, the pressure at any point in the film,
+  h the thickness of the film at a point x measured round the
+  circumference of the journal in the direction of relative motion, and
+  U the relative tangential velocity of the surfaces,
+
+    d   /   dp\           dh
+    -- ( h^3-- ) = 6[mu]U --       (1)
+    dx  \   dx/           dx
+
+  In this equation all the quantities are independent of the co-ordinate
+  parallel to the axis of the journal, and U is constant. The thickness
+  of the film h is some function of x, and for a journal Professor
+  Reynolds takes the form,
+
+    h = a {1 + c sin([theta] - [phi]0)}
+
+  in which the various quantities have the significance indicated in
+  fig. 12. Reducing and integrating equation (1) with this value of h it
+  becomes
+
+       dp      6R_[mu]U_c {sin([theta] - [phi]0) - sin([phi]1 - [phi]0)}
+    -------- = --------------------------------------------------------- (2)
+    d[theta]              a^2{1 + c sin([theta] - [phi]0)}^3
+
+  [phi]1 being the value of [theta] for which the pressure is a maximum.
+  In order to integrate this the right-hand side is expanded into a
+  trigonometrical series, the values of the coefficients are computed,
+  and the integration is effected term by term. If, as suggested by
+  Professor J. Perry, the value of h is taken to be h = h0 + ax^2, where
+  h0 is the minimum thickness of the film, the equation reduces to the
+  form
+
+      dp       6[mu]U            C
+    - -- = ------------- + -------------    (3)
+      dx   (h0 + ax^2)^2   (h0 + ax^2)^3
+
+  and this can be integrated. The process of reduction from the form (1)
+  to the form (3) with the latter value of h, is shown in full in _The
+  Calculus for Engineers_ by Professor Perry (p. 331), and also the
+  final solution of equation (3), giving the pressure in terms of x.
+
+  Professor Reynolds, applying the results of his investigation to one
+  of Tower's experiments, plotted the pressures through the film both
+  circumferentially and longitudinally, and the agreement with the
+  observed pressure of the experiment was exceedingly close. The whole
+  investigation of Professor Reynolds is a remarkable one, and is in
+  fact the first real explanation of the fact that oil is able to
+  insinuate itself between the journal and the brass of a bearing
+  carrying a heavy load. (See also LUBRICATION.)     (W. E. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAR-LEADER, formerly a man who led bears about the country. In the
+middle ages and Tudor times these animals were chiefly used in the
+brutal sport of bear-baiting and were led from village to village.
+Performing bears were also common, and are even still sometimes seen
+perambulating the country with their keepers, generally Frenchmen or
+Italians. The phrase "bear-leader" has now come colloquially to mean a
+tutor or guardian, who escorts any lad of rank or wealth on his travels.
+
+
+
+
+BEARN, formerly a small frontier province in the south of France, now
+included within the department of Basses-Pyrenees. It was bounded on the
+W. by Soule and Lower Navarre, on the N. by Chalosse, Tursan and
+Astarac, E. by Bigorre and S. by the Pyrenees. Its name can be traced
+back to the town of Beneharnum (Lescar). The _civitas Beneharnensium_
+was included in the _Novempopulania_. It was conquered by the Vascones
+in the 6th century, and in 819 became a viscounty dependent on the dukes
+of Aquitaine--a feudal link which was broken in the 11th century, when
+the viscounts ceased to acknowledge any suzerain. They then reigned over
+the two dioceses of Lescar and Oloron; but their capital was Morlaas,
+where they had a mint which was famous throughout the middle ages. In
+the 13th century Gaston VII., of the Catalonian house of Moncade, made
+Orthez his seat of government. His long reign (1229-1290) was a
+perpetual struggle with the kings of France and England, each anxious to
+assert his suzerainty over Bearn. As Gaston left only daughters, the
+viscounty passed at his death to the family of Foix, from whom it was
+transmitted through the houses of Grailly and Albret to the Bourbons,
+and they, in the person of Henry IV., king of Navarre, made it an
+apanage of the crown of France. It was not formally incorporated in the
+royal domains, however, until 1620. None of these political changes
+weakened the independent spirit of the Bearnais. From the 11th century
+onward, they were governed by their own special customs or _fors_. These
+were drawn up in the language of the country, a Romance dialect (1288
+being the date of the most ancient written code), and are remarkable for
+the manner in which they define the rights of the sovereign, determining
+the reciprocal obligations of the viscount and his subjects or vassals.
+Moreover, from the 12th century Bearn enjoyed a kind of representative
+government, with _cours plenieres_ composed of deputies from the three
+estates. From 1220 onward, the judiciary powers of these assemblies were
+exercised by a _cour majour_ of twelve barons _jurats_ charged with the
+duty of maintaining the integrity of the _fors_. When Gaston-Phoebus
+wished to establish a regular annual hearth-tax (_fouage_) in the
+viscounty, he convoked the deputies of the three estates in assemblies
+called _etats_. These soon acquired extensive political and financial
+powers, which continued in operation till 1789. Although, when Bearn was
+annexed to the domains of the crown, it was granted a _conseil d'etat_
+and a parlement, which sat at Pau, the province also retained its _fors_
+until the Revolution.
+
+  See also Olhagaray, _Histoire de Foix, Bearn et Navarre_ (1609);
+  Pierre de Marca, _Histoire de Bearn_ (1640). This work does not go
+  beyond the end of the 13th century; it contains a large number of
+  documents. Faget de Baure, _Essais historiques sur le Bearn_ (1818);
+  _Les Fors de Bearn_, by Mazure and Hatoulet (1839), completed by J.
+  Brissaud and P. Roge in _Textes additionnels aux anciens Fors de
+  Bearn_ (1905); Leon Cadier, _Les Etats de Bearn depuis leur origine
+  jusqu'au commencement du XVI^e siecle_ (1888).     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+BEAS or BIAS, a river of India. The Beas, which was the Hyphasis of the
+Greeks, is one of the Five Rivers of the Punjab. It issues in the snowy
+mountains of Kulu at an altitude of 13,326 ft. above sea-level, flows
+through the Kangra valley and the plains of the Punjab, and finally
+joins the Sutlej after a course of 290 m. It is crossed by a railway
+bridge near Jullundur.
+
+
+
+
+BEAT (a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages; it is
+connected with the similar Romanic words derived from the Late Lat.
+_battere_), a blow or stroke; from the many applications of the verb "to
+beat" come various meanings of the substantive, in some of which the
+primary sense has become obscure. It is applied to the throbbing of the
+pulse or heart, to the beating of a drum, either for retreat, or charge,
+or to quarters; in music to the alternating sound produced by the
+striking together of two notes not exactly of the same pitch (see
+SOUND), and also to the movement of the baton by which a conductor of an
+orchestra or chorus indicates the time, and to the divisions of a bar.
+As a nautical term, a "beat" is the zigzag course taken by a ship in
+sailing against the wind. The application of the word to a policeman's
+or sentry's round comes either from beating a covert for game and hence
+the term means an exhaustive search of a district, or from the repeated
+strokes of the foot in constantly walking up and down. In this sense the
+word is used in America, particularly in Alabama and Mississippi, of a
+voting precinct.
+
+
+
+
+BEATIFICATION (from the Lat. _beatus_, happy, blessed, and _facere_, to
+make), the act of making blessed; in the Roman Catholic Church, a stage
+in the process of canonization (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+BEATON (or BETHUNE), DAVID, (c. 1494-1546), Scottish cardinal and
+archbishop of St Andrews, was a younger son of John Beaton of Balfour in
+the county of Fife, and is said to have been born in the year 1494. He
+was educated at the universities of St Andrews and Glasgow, and in his
+sixteenth year was sent to Paris, where he studied civil and canon law.
+About this time he was presented to the rectory of Campsie by his uncle
+James Beaton, then archbishop of Glasgow. When James Beaton was
+translated to St Andrews in 1522 he resigned the rich abbacy of Arbroath
+in his nephew's favour, under reservation of one half of the revenues to
+himself during his lifetime. The great ability of Beaton and the
+patronage of his uncle ensured his rapid promotion to high offices in
+the church and kingdom. He was sent by King James V. on various missions
+to France, and in 1528 was appointed keeper of the privy seal. He took a
+leading part in the negotiations connected with the king's marriages,
+first with Madeleine of France, and afterwards with Mary of Guise. At
+the French court he was held in high estimation by King Francis I., and
+was consecrated bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc in December 1537. On the
+20th of December 1538 he was appointed a cardinal priest by Pope Paul
+III., under the title of St Stephen in the Coelian Hill. He was the only
+Scotsman who had been named to that high office by an undisputed right,
+Cardinal Wardlaw, bishop of Glasgow, having received his appointment
+from the anti-pope Clement VII. On the death of Archbishop James Beaton
+in 1539, the cardinal was raised to the primatial see of Scotland.
+
+Beaton was one of King James's most trusted advisers, and it was mainly
+due to his influence that the king drew closer the French alliance and
+refused Henry VIII.'s overtures to follow him in his religious policy.
+On the death of James in December 1542 he attempted to assume office as
+one of the regents for the infant sovereign Mary, founding his
+pretensions on an alleged will of the late king; but his claims were
+disregarded, and the earl of Arran, head of the great house of Hamilton,
+and next heir to the throne, was declared regent by the estates. The
+cardinal was, by order of the regent, committed to the custody of Lord
+Seaton; but his imprisonment was merely nominal, and he was soon again
+at liberty and at the head of the party opposed to the English alliance.
+Arran too was soon won over to his views, dismissed the preachers by
+whom he had been surrounded, and joined the cardinal at Stirling, where
+in September 1543 Beaton crowned the young queen. In the same year he
+was raised to the office of chancellor of Scotland, and was appointed
+protonotary apostolic and legate _a latere_ by the pope. Had Beaton
+confined himself to secular politics, his strenuous opposition to the
+plans of Henry VIII. for the subjugation of Scotland would have earned
+him the lasting gratitude of his countrymen. Unfortunately politics were
+inextricably interwoven with the religious controversies of the time,
+and resistance to English influence involved resistance to the
+activities of the reformers in the church, whose ultimate victory has
+obscured the cardinal's genuine merits as a statesman. During the
+lifetime of his uncle, Beaton had shared in the efforts of the hierarchy
+to suppress the reformed doctrines, and pursued the same line of conduct
+still more systematically after his elevation to the primacy. The
+popular accounts of the persecution for which he was responsible are no
+doubt exaggerated, and it sometimes ceased for considerable periods so
+far as capital punishments were concerned. When the sufferers were of
+humble rank not much notice was taken of them. It was otherwise when a
+more distinguished victim was selected in the person of George Wishart.
+Wishart had returned to Scotland, after an absence of several years,
+about the end of 1544. His sermons produced a great effect, and he was
+protected by several barons of the English faction. These barons, with
+the knowledge and approbation of King Henry, were engaged in a plot to
+assassinate the cardinal, and in this plot Wishart is now proved to have
+been a willing agent. The cardinal, though ignorant of the details of
+the plot, perhaps suspected Wishart's knowledge of it, and in any case
+was not sorry to have an excuse for seizing one of the most eloquent
+supporters of the new opinions. For some time he was unsuccessful; but
+at last, with the aid of the regent, he arrested the preacher, and
+carried him to his castle of St Andrews. On the 28th of February 1546
+Wishart was brought to trial in the cathedral before the cardinal and
+other judges, the regent declining to take any active part, and, being
+found guilty of heresy, was condemned to death and burnt.
+
+The death of Wishart produced a deep effect on the Scottish people, and
+the cardinal became an object of general dislike, which encouraged his
+enemies to proceed with the design they had formed against him.
+Naturally resolute and fearless, he seems to have under-estimated his
+danger, the more so since his power had never seemed more secure. He
+crossed over to Angus, and took part in the wedding of his illegitimate
+daughter with the heir of the earl of Crawford. On his return to St
+Andrews he took up his residence in the castle. The conspirators, the
+chief of whom were Norman Leslie, master of Rothes, and William Kirkaldy
+of Grange, contrived to obtain admission at daybreak of the 29th of May
+1546, and murdered the cardinal under circumstances of horrible mockery
+and atrocity.
+
+The character of Beaton has already been indicated. As a statesman he
+was able, resolute, and in his general policy patriotic. As an
+ecclesiastic he maintained the privileges of the hierarchy and the
+dominant system of belief conscientiously, but always with harshness and
+sometimes with cruelty. His immoralities, like his acts of persecution,
+were exaggerated by his opponents; but his private life was undoubtedly
+a scandal to religion, and has only the excuse that it was not worse
+than that of most of his order at the time. The authorship of the
+writings ascribed to him in several biographical notices rests on no
+better authority than the apocryphal statements of Thomas Dempster.
+
+Beaton's uncle, James Beaton, or Bethune (d. 1539), archbishop of
+Glasgow and St Andrews, was lord treasurer of Scotland before he became
+archbishop of Glasgow in 1509, was chancellor from 1513 to 1526, and was
+appointed archbishop of St Andrews and primate of Scotland in 1522. He
+was one of the regents during the minority of James V., and was chiefly
+responsible for this king's action in allying himself with France and
+not with England. He burned Patrick Hamilton and other heretics, and
+died at St Andrews in September 1539.
+
+This prelate must not be confused with another, James Beaton, or Bethune
+(1517-1603), the last Roman Catholic archbishop of Glasgow. A son of
+John Bethune of Auchmuty and a nephew of Cardinal Beaton, James was a
+trusted adviser of the Scottish regent, Mary of Lorraine, widow of James
+V., and a determined foe of the reformers. In 1552 he was consecrated
+archbishop of Glasgow, but from 1560 until his death in 1603 he lived in
+Paris, acting as ambassador for Scotland at the French court.
+
+  See John Knox, _Hist. of the Reformation in Scotland_, ed. D. Laing
+  (1846-1864); John Spottiswoode, archbishop of St Andrews, _Hist. of
+  the Church of Scotland_ (Spottiswoode Soc., 1847-1851); Art. in _Dict.
+  of Nat. Biog._ and works there quoted; and A. Lang, _Hist. of
+  Scotland_, vols. i. and ii. (1900-1902).
+
+
+
+
+BEATRICE, a city and the county-seat of Gage county, in S.E. Nebraska,
+U.S.A., about 40 m. S. of Lincoln. Pop. (1900) 7875 (852 foreign-born);
+(1910) 9356. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
+Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Union Pacific railways. Beatrice
+is the seat of the state institute for feeble-minded youth, and has a
+Carnegie library. The city is very prettily situated in the valley of
+the Big Blue river, in the midst of a fine agricultural region. Among
+its manufactures are dairy products (there is a large creamery), canned
+goods, flour and grist mill products, gasoline engines, well-machinery,
+barbed wire, tiles, ploughs, windmills, corn-huskers, and hay-balers.
+Beatrice was founded in 1857, becoming the county-seat in the same year.
+It was reached by its first railway and was incorporated as a town in
+1871, was chartered as a city in 1873, and in 1901 became a city of the
+first class.
+
+
+
+
+BEATTIE, JAMES (1735-1803), Scottish poet and writer on philosophy, was
+born at Laurencekirk, Kincardine, Scotland, on the 25th of October 1735.
+His father, a small farmer and shopkeeper, died when he was very young;
+but an elder brother sent him to Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he
+gained a bursary. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster of Fordoun in
+his native county. Here he had as neighbours the eccentric Francis
+Garden (afterwards Lord Gardenstone, judge of the supreme court of
+Scotland), and Lord Monboddo. In 1758 he became an usher in the grammar
+school of Aberdeen, and two years later he was made professor of moral
+philosophy at Marischal College. Here he became closely acquainted with
+Dr Thomas Reid, Dr George Campbell, Dr Alexander Gerard and others, who
+formed a kind of literary or philosophic society known as the "Wise
+Club." They met once a fortnight to discuss speculative questions, David
+Hume's philosophy being an especial object of criticism. In 1761 Beattie
+published a small volume of _Original Poems and Translations_, which
+contained little work of any value. Its author in later days destroyed
+all the copies he found. In 1770 Beattie published his _Essay on the
+Nature and Immutability of Truth in opposition to sophistry and
+scepticism_, the object of which, as explained by its author, was to
+"prove the universality and immutability of moral sentiment" (letter to
+Sir W. Forbes, 17th January 1765). It was in fact a direct attack on
+Hume, and part of its great popularity was due to the fact. Hume is said
+to have justly complained that Beattie "had not used him like a
+gentleman," but made no answer to the book, which has no philosophical
+value. Beattie's portrait, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, hangs at Marischal
+College, Aberdeen. The philosopher is painted with the _Essay on Truth_
+in his hand, while a figure of Truth thrusts down three figures
+representing, according to Sir W. Forbes, sophistry, scepticism and
+infidelity. Reynolds in a letter to Beattie (February 1774) intimates
+that he is well enough pleased that one of the figures is identified
+with Hume, and that he intended Voltaire to be one of the group. Beattie
+visited London in 1773, and was received with the greatest honour by
+George III., who conferred on him a pension of L200 a year. In 1771 and
+1774 he published the first and second parts of _The Minstrel_, a poem
+which met with great and immediate success. The Spenserian stanza in
+which it is written is managed with smoothness and skill, and there are
+many fine descriptions of natural scenery. It is entirely on his poetry
+that Beattie's reputation rests. The best known of his minor poems are
+"The Hermit" and "Retirement."
+
+In 1773 he was offered the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh
+University, but did not accept it. Beattie made many friends, and lost
+none. "We all love Beattie," said Dr Johnson. "Mrs Thrale says, if ever
+she has another husband she will have him." He was in high favour too
+with Mrs Montagu and the other _bas bleus_. Beattie was unfortunate in
+his domestic life. Mary Dunn, whom he married in 1767, became insane,
+and his two sons died just as they were attaining manhood. The elder,
+James Hay Beattie, a young man of great promise, who at the age of
+nineteen had been associated with his father in his professorship, died
+in 1790. In 1794 the father published _Essays and Fragments in Prose and
+Verse by James Hay Beattie_ with a touching memoir. The younger brother
+died in 1796. Beattie never recovered from this second bereavement. His
+mind was seriously affected, and, although he continued to lecture
+occasionally, he neither wrote nor studied. In April 1799 he had a
+stroke of paralysis, and died on the 18th of August 1803.
+
+Beattie's other poetical works include _The Judgment of Paris_ (1765),
+and "Verses on the death of [Charles] Churchill," a bitter attack which
+the poet afterwards suppressed. The best edition is the _Poetical Works_
+(1831, new ed. 1866) in the _Aldine Edition of the British Poets_, with
+an admirable memoir by Alexander Dyce.
+
+  See also _An Account of the Life of James Beattie_ (1804), by A.
+  Bower; and _An Account of the Life and Writings of James Beattie_
+  (1807), by Sir William Forbes; a quantity of new material is to be
+  found in _Beattie and his Friends_ (1904), by the poet's
+  great-grand-niece, Margaret Forbes; and _James Beattie, the Minstrel.
+  Some Unpublished Letters_, edited by A. Mackie (Aberdeen, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEATUS, of Liebana and Valcavado, Spanish priest and monk, theologian
+and geographer, was born about 730, and died in 798. About 776 he
+published his _Commentaria in Apocalypsin_, containing one of the oldest
+Christian world-maps. He took a prominent part in the Adoptionist
+controversy, and wrote against the views of Felix of Urgel, especially
+as upheld by Elipandus of Toledo. As confessor to Queen Adosinda, wife
+of King Silo of Oviedo (774-783), and as the master of Alcuin and
+Etherius of Osma, Beatus exercised wide influence. His original map,
+which was probably intended to illustrate, above all, the distribution
+of the Apostolic missions throughout the world--depicting the head of
+Peter at Rome, of Andrew in Achaia, of Thomas in India, of James in
+Spain, and so forth--has survived in ten more or less modified copies.
+One only of these--the "Osma" of 1203--preserves the Apostolic pictures;
+among the remaining examples, that of "St Sever," now at Paris, and
+dating from about 1030, is the most valuable; that of "Valcavado,"
+recently in the Ashburnham Library, executed in 970, is the earliest;
+that of "Turin," dating from about 1100, is perhaps the most curious.
+Three others--"Valladolid" of about 1035, "Madrid" of 1047, and "London"
+of 1109--are derivatives of the "Valcavado-Ashburnham" of 970; the
+eighth, "Paris II," is connected, though not very intimately, with "St
+Sever," otherwise "Paris I"; the ninth and tenth, "Gerona" and "Paris
+III," belong to the Turin group of Beatus maps. All these works are
+emphatically of "dark-age" character; very seldom do they suggest the
+true forms of countries, seas, rivers or mountains, but they embody some
+useful information as to early medieval conditions and history. St
+Isidore appears to be their principal authority; they also draw,
+directly or indirectly, from Orosius, St Jerome, St Augustine, and
+probably from a lost map of classical antiquity, represented in a
+measure by the Peutinger Table of the 13th century.
+
+  The chief MSS. of the _Commentaria in Apocalypsin_ are (1-3) Paris,
+  National Library, Lat. 8878; Lat. nouv. acq. 1366 and 2290; (4)
+  Ashburnham MSS. xv.; (5) London, B. Mus., Addit. MSS. 11695; (6)
+  Turin, National Library 1, ii. (1); (7) Valladolid, University
+  Library, 229; (8) the MS. in the Episcopal Library at Osma, in Old
+  Castile.
+
+  There is only one complete edition of the text, that by Florez
+  (Madrid, 1770). See also Konrad Miller, _Die Weltkarte des Beatus_,
+  Heft I. of _Mappaemundi: die altesten Weltkarten_ (Stuttgart, 1895);
+  d'Avezac in _Annales de ... geographie_ (June 1870); Beazley, _Dawn of
+  Modern Geography_, i. 387-388 (1897); ii. 549-559; 591-605 (1901).
+       (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUCAIRE, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Gard, 17
+m. E. by S. of Nimes on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 7284.
+Beaucaire is situated on the right bank of the Rhone, opposite Tarascon,
+with which it is connected by two handsome bridges, a suspension-bridge
+of four spans and 1476 ft. in length, and a railway bridge. A triangular
+keep, a chapel, and other remains of a chateau (13th and 14th centuries)
+of the counts of Toulouse stand on the rocky pine-clad hill which rises
+to the north of the town; the chapel, dedicated to St Louis, belongs to
+the latest period of Romanesque architecture, and contains fine
+sculptures. The town derives celebrity from the great July fair, which
+has been held here annually since the 12th century, but has now lost its
+former importance (see FAIR). Beaucaire gives its name to the canal
+which communicates with the sea (near Aigues-Mortes) and connects it
+with the Canal du Midi, forming part of the line of communication
+between the Rhone and the Garonne. The town is an important port on the
+Rhone, and its commerce, the chief articles of which are wine, and
+freestone from quarries in the vicinity, is largely water-borne. Among
+its industries are distilling and the manufacture of furniture, and the
+preparation of vermicelli, sausages and other provisions.
+
+Beaucaire occupies the site of the ancient _Ugernum_, and several
+remains of the Roman city have been discovered, as well as (in 1734) the
+road that led from Nimes. The present name is derived from _Bellum
+Quadrum_, a descriptive appellation applied in the middle ages either to
+the chateau or to the rock on which it stands. In 1125 Beaucaire came
+into the possession of the counts of Toulouse, one of whom, Raymund VI.,
+established the importance of its fairs by the grant of privileges. In
+the Wars of the League it suffered severely, and in 1632 its castle was
+destroyed by Richelieu.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUCE (Lat. _Belsia_), a physical region of north-central France,
+comprising large portions of the departments of Eure-et-Loir and
+Loir-et-Cher, and also extending into those of Loiret and Seine-et-Oise.
+It has an area of over 2800 sq. m., its limits being roughly defined by
+the course of the Essonne on the E., of the Loire on the S., and of the
+Brenne, the Loir and the Eure towards the W., though in the latter
+direction it extends somewhat beyond these boundaries. The Beauce is a
+treeless, arid and monotonous plain of limestone formation; windmills
+and church spires are the only prominent features of the landscape.
+Apart from the rivers on its borders, it is watered by insignificant
+streams, of which the Conie in the west need alone be mentioned. The
+inhabitants live in large villages, and are occupied in agriculture,
+particularly in the cultivation of wheat, for which the Beauce is
+celebrated. Clover and lucerne are the other leading crops, and large
+flocks of sheep are kept in the region. Chartres is its chief commercial
+centre.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUCHAMP, the name of several important English families. The baronial
+house of Beauchamp of Bedford was founded at the Conquest by Hugh de
+Beauchamp, who received a barony in Bedfordshire. His eldest son Simon
+left a daughter, whose husband Hugh (brother of the count of Meulan) was
+created earl of Bedford by Stephen. But the heir-male, Miles de
+Beauchamp, nephew of Simon, held Bedford Castle against the king in
+1137-1138. From his brother Payn descended the barons of Bedford, of
+whom William held Bedford Castle against the royal forces in the
+struggle for the Great Charter, and was afterwards made prisoner at the
+battle of Lincoln, while John, who sided with the barons under Simon de
+Montfort, fell at Evesham. With him the line ended, but a younger branch
+was seated at Eaton Socon, Beds., where the earthworks of their castle
+remain, and held their barony there into the 14th century.
+
+The Beauchamps of Elmley, Worcestershire, the greatest house of the
+name, were founded by the marriage of Walter de Beauchamp with the
+daughter of Urise d'Abetot, a Domesday baron, which brought him the
+shrievalty of Worcestershire, the office of a royal steward, and large
+estates. His descendant William, of Elmley, married Isabel, sister and
+eventually heiress to William Mauduit, earl of Warwick, and their son
+succeeded in 1268 to Warwick Castle and that earldom, which remained
+with his descendants in the male line till 1445. The earls of the
+Beauchamp line played a great part in English history. Guy, the 2nd,
+distinguished himself in the Scottish campaigns of Edward I., who warned
+him at his death against Piers Gaveston. Under Edward II. he was one of
+the foremost foes of Piers, who had styled him "the black cur of Arden,"
+and with whose death he was closely connected. As one of the "lords
+ordainers" he was a recognized leader of the opposition to Edward II. By
+the heiress of the Tonis he left at his death in 1315 a son Earl Thomas,
+who distinguished himself at Crecy and Poitiers, was marshal of the
+English host, and, with his brother John, one of the founders of the
+order of the Garter. In 1369 his son Earl Thomas succeeded; from 1376 to
+1379 he was among the lords striving for reform, and in the latter year
+he was appointed governor to the king. Under Richard II. he joined the
+lords appellant in their opposition to the king and his ministers, and
+was in power with them 1388-1389; treacherously arrested by Richard in
+1397, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London (the Beauchamp Tower
+being called after him), but liberated by Henry IV. on his triumph
+(1399). In 1401 he was succeeded by his son Earl Richard, a brave and
+chivalrous warrior, who defeated Owen Glendower, fought the Percys at
+Shrewsbury, and, after travelling in state through Europe and the Holy
+Land, was employed against the Lollards and afterwards as lay ambassador
+from England to the council of Constance (1414). He held command for a
+time at Calais, and took an active part in the French campaigns of Henry
+V., who created him earl and count of Aumale in Normandy. He had charge
+of the education of Henry VI., and in 1437 was appointed lieutenant of
+France and of Normandy. Dying at Rouen in 1439, he left by Isabel, widow
+of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Worcester, a son, Earl Henry, who was
+created duke of Warwick, 1445, and is alleged, but without authority, to
+have been crowned king of the Isle of Wight by Henry VI. He died, the
+last of his line, in June 1445. On the death of Anne, his only child, in
+1449, his vast inheritance passed to Anne, his sister of the whole
+blood, wife of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury ("the Kingmaker"), who
+thereupon became earl of Warwick.
+
+Of the cadet branches of the house, the oldest was that of Powyke and
+Alcester, which obtained a barony in 1447 and became extinct in 1496;
+from it sprang the Beauchamps, Lords St. Amand from 1448, of whom was
+Richard, bishop of Salisbury, first chancellor of the order of the
+Garter, and who became extinct in 1508, being the last known male heirs
+of the race. Another cadet was Sir John Beauchamp of Holt, minister of
+Richard II., who was created Lord Beauchamp of Kidderminster (the first
+baron created by patent) 1387, but beheaded 1388; the barony became
+extinct with his son in 1400. Roger, Lord Beauchamp of Bletsoe, summoned
+in 1363, is said to have been descended from the Powyke branch; his line
+ended early in the 15th century. Later cadets were John, brother of the
+3rd earl, who carried the standard at Crecy, became captain of Calais,
+and was summoned as a peer in 1350, but died unmarried; and William,
+brother of the 4th earl, who was distinguished in the French wars, and
+succeeding to the lands of the Lords Abergavenny was summoned in that
+barony 1392; his son was created earl of Worcester in 1420, but died
+without male issue in 1422; from his daughter, who married Sir Edward
+Neville, descended the Lords Abergavenny.
+
+The Lords Beauchamp of "Hache" (1299-1361) were so named from their seat
+of Hatch Beauchamp, Somerset, and were of a wholly distinct family.
+Their title, "Beauchamp of Hache," was revived for the Seymours in 1536
+and 1559. The title of "Beauchamp of Powyke" was revived as a barony in
+1806 for Richard Lygon (descended through females from the Beauchamps of
+Powyke), who was created Earl Beauchamp in 1815.
+
+  See Sir W. Dugdale, _Baronage_ (1675-1676) and _Warwickshire_ (2nd
+  ed., 1730); G.E. C[okayne], _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); W.
+  Courthope, _Rows Roll_ (1859); and J.H. Round, _Geoffrey de
+  Mandeville_ (1892).     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE, French historian and man of letters, was born at
+Monaco in 1767, and died in 1832. In 1784 he entered a Sardinian
+regiment of marines, but on the outbreak of war with the French
+Republic, he refused to fight in what he considered an unjust cause, and
+was imprisoned for several months. After being liberated he took up his
+residence in Paris, where he obtained a post in one of the government
+offices. On the fall of Robespierre, Beauchamp was transferred to the
+_bureau_ of the minister of police, and charged with the superintendence
+of the press. This situation opened up to him materials of which he made
+use in his first and most popular historical work, _Histoire de la
+Vendee et des Chouans_, 3 vols., 1806. The book, received with great
+favour by the people, was displeasing to the authorities. The third
+edition was confiscated; its writer was deprived of his post, and in
+1809 was compelled to leave Paris and take up his abode in Reims. In
+1811 he obtained permission to return, and again received a government
+appointment. This he had to resign on the Restoration, but was rewarded
+with a small pension, which was continued to his widow after his death.
+
+Beauchamp wrote extensively for the public journals and for the
+magazines. His biographical and historical works are numerous, and those
+dealing with contemporary events are valuable, owing to the sources at
+his disposal. They must, however, be used with great caution. The
+following are worth mention:--_Vie politique, militaire et privee du
+general Moreau_ (1814); _Catastrophe de Murat, ou Recit de la derniere
+revolution de Naples_ (1815); _Histoire de la guerre d'Espagne et du
+Portugal, 1807-1813_ (2 vols., 1810); _Collection de memoires relatifs
+aux revolutions d'Espagne_ (2 vols., 1824); _Histoire de la revolution
+de Piemont_ (2 vols., 1821, 1823); _Memoires secrets et inedits pour
+servir a l'histoire contemporaine_ (2 vols., 1825). The _Memoires de
+Fouche_ have also been ascribed to him, but it seems certain that he
+only revised and completed a work really composed by Fouche himself.
+
+  See an article by Louis Madelin in _La Revolution francaise_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT, the name of the family descended from the union of John of
+Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, with Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford,
+taken from a castle in Anjou which belonged to John of Gaunt. There were
+four children of this union--John, created earl of Somerset and marquess
+of Dorset; Henry, afterwards bishop of Winchester and cardinal (see
+BEAUFORT, HENRY); Thomas, made duke of Exeter and chancellor; and Joan,
+who married Ralph Neville, first earl of Westmorland, and died in 1440.
+In 1396, some years after the birth of these children, John of Gaunt and
+Catherine were married, and in 1397 the Beauforts were declared
+legitimate by King Richard II. In 1407 this action was confirmed by
+their half-brother, King Henry IV., but on this occasion they were
+expressly excluded from the succession to the English throne.
+
+JOHN BEAUFORT, earl of Somerset (c. 1373-1410), assisted Richard II. in
+1397 when the king attacked the lords appellants, and made himself an
+absolute ruler. For these services he was made marquess of Dorset, but
+after the deposition of Richard in 1399, he was degraded to his former
+rank as earl. In 1401, however, he was declared loyal, and appeared
+later in command of the English fleet. He married Margaret, daughter of
+Thomas Holland, second earl of Kent, and died in March 1410, leaving
+three sons, Henry, John, and Edmund, and two daughters, Jane or Joan,
+who married James I., king of Scotland, and Margaret, who married Thomas
+Courtenay, earl of Devon.
+
+THOMAS BEAUFORT (d. 1426) held various high offices under Henry IV., and
+took a leading part in suppressing the rising in the north in 1405. He
+became chancellor in 1410, but resigned this office in January 1412 and
+took part in the expedition to France in the same year. He was then
+created earl of Dorset, and when Henry V. became king in 1413, he was
+made lieutenant of Aquitaine and took charge of Harfleur when this town
+passed into the possession of the English. In 1416 he became lieutenant
+of Normandy, and was created duke of Exeter; and returning to England he
+compelled the Scots to raise the siege of Roxburgh. Crossing to France
+in 1418 with reinforcements for Henry V., he took an active part in the
+subsequent campaign, was made captain of Rouen, and went to the court of
+France to treat for peace. He was then captured by the French at Bauge,
+but was soon released and returned to England when he heard of the death
+of Henry V. in August 1422. He was one of Henry's executors, and it is
+probable that the king entrusted his young son, King Henry VI., to his
+care. However this may be, Exeter did not take a very prominent part in
+the government, although he was a member of the council of regency.
+Having again shared in the French war, the duke died at Greenwich about
+the end of the year 1426. He was buried at Bury St. Edmunds, where his
+remains were found in good condition 350 years later. He married
+Margaret, daughter of Sir Thomas Neville of Nornby, but left no issue.
+The Beaufort family was continued by HENRY BEAUFORT (1401-1419), the
+eldest son of John Beaufort, earl of Somerset, who was succeeded as earl
+of Somerset by his brother JOHN BEAUFORT (1403-1444). The latter fought
+under Henry V. in the French wars, and having been taken prisoner
+remained in France as a captive until 1437. Soon after his release he
+returned to the war, and after the death of Richard Beauchamp, earl of
+Warwick, in 1439, acted as commander of the English forces, and, with
+his brother Edmund, was successful in recapturing Harfleur. Although
+chagrined when Richard, duke of York, was made regent of France,
+Beaufort led an expedition to France in 1442, and in 1443 was made duke
+of Somerset. He died, probably by his own hand, in May 1444. He married
+Margaret, daughter of Sir John Beauchamp, and left a daughter, MARGARET
+BEAUFORT, afterwards countess of Richmond and Derby, who married, for
+her first husband, Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, by whom she became
+the mother of King Henry VII. In this way the blood of the Beauforts was
+mingled with that of the Tudors, and of all the subsequent occupants of
+the English throne.
+
+The title of earl of Somerset descended on the death of John Beaufort in
+1444 to his brother EDMUND BEAUFORT, duke of Somerset (q.v.), who was
+killed at St Albans in 1455. By his marriage with Eleanor Beauchamp,
+daughter of the fifth earl of Warwick, he left three sons, Henry, Edmund
+and John, and a daughter, Margaret.
+
+HENRY BEAUFORT (1436-1464) became duke of Somerset in 1455, and soon
+began to take part in the struggle against Richard, duke of York, but
+failed to dislodge Richard's ally, Richard Neville, earl of Warwick,
+from Calais. He took part in the victory of the Lancastrians at
+Wakefield in 1460, escaped from the carnage at Towton in 1461, and
+shared the attainder of Henry VI. in the same year. In May 1464 he was
+captured at Hexham and was beheaded immediately after the battle. The
+title of duke of Somerset was assumed by his brother, EDMUND BEAUFORT
+(c. 1438-1471), who fled from the country after the disasters to the
+Lancastrian arms, but returned to England in 1471, in which year he
+fought at Tewkesbury, and in spite of a promise of pardon was beheaded
+after the battle on the 6th of May 1471. His younger brother JOHN
+BEAUFORT had been killed probably at this battle, and so on the
+execution of Edmund the family became extinct.
+
+MARGARET BEAUFORT married Humphrey, earl of Stafford, and was the mother
+of Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham. Henry Beaufort, third duke of
+Somerset (d. 1464), left an illegitimate son, Charles Somerset, who was
+created earl of Worcester by Henry VIII. in 1514. His direct descendant,
+Henry Somerset, fifth earl of Worcester, was a loyal partisan of Charles
+I. and in 1642 was created marquess of Worcester. His grandson, Henry,
+the third marquess, was made duke of Beaufort in 1682, and the present
+duke of Beaufort is his direct descendant.
+
+  See Thomas Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, edited by H.T. Riley
+  (London, 1863-1864); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_,
+  vols. ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895); _The Paston Letters_, edited by
+  James Gairdner (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT, FRANCOIS DE VENDOME, DUC DE (1616-1669), a picturesque figure
+in French history of the 17th century, was the second son of Cesar de
+Vendome, and grandson of Henry IV., by Gabrielle d'Estrees. He began his
+career in the army and served in the first campaigns of the Thirty
+Years' War, but his ambitions and unscrupulous character soon found a
+more congenial field in the intrigues of the court. In 1642 he joined in
+the conspiracy of Cinq Mars against Richelieu, and upon its failure was
+obliged to live in exile in England until Richelieu's death. Returning
+to France, he became the centre of a group, known as the "Importants,"
+in which court ladies predominated, especially the duchess of Chevreuse
+and the duchess of Montbazon. For an instant after the king's death,
+this group seemed likely to prevail, and Beaufort to be the head of the
+new government. But Mazarin gained the office, and Beaufort, accused of
+a plot to murder Mazarin, was imprisoned in Vincennes, in September
+1643. He escaped on the 31st of May 1648, just in time to join the
+Fronde, which began in August 1648. He was then with the parlement and
+the princes, against Mazarin. His personal appearance, his affectation
+of popular manners, his quality of grandson (legitimized), of Henry IV.,
+rendered him a favourite of the Parisians, who acclaimed him everywhere.
+He was known as the _Roi des Halles_ ("king of the markets"), and
+popular subscriptions were opened to pay his debts. He had hopes of
+becoming prime minister. But among the members of the parlement and the
+other leaders of the Fronde, he was regarded as merely a tool. His
+intelligence was but mediocre, and he showed no talent during the war.
+Mazarin, on his return to Paris, exiled him in October 1652; and he was
+only allowed to return in 1654, when the cardinal had no longer any
+reason to fear him. Henceforth Beaufort no longer intrigued. In 1658 he
+was named general superintendent of navigation, or chief of the naval
+army, and faithfully served the king in naval wars from that on. In 1664
+he directed the expedition against the pirates of Algiers. In 1669 he
+led the French troops defending Candia against the Turks, and was killed
+in a night sortie, on the I5th of June 1669. His body was brought back
+to France with great pomp, and official honours rendered it.
+
+  See the memoirs of the time, notably those of La Rochefoucauld, the
+  Cardinal de Retz, and Madame de Motteville. Also D'Avenel, _Richelieu
+  et la monarchic absolue_ (1884); Cheruel, _La France sous le ministere
+  Mazarin_ (1879); and _La France sous la minorite de Louis XIV_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT, HENRY (c. 1377-1447), English cardinal and bishop of
+Winchester, was the second son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, by
+Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford. His parents were not married until
+1396, and in 1397 King Richard II. declared the four children of this
+union to be legitimate. Henry spent some of his youth at Aix
+la-Chapelle, and having entered the church received various
+appointments, and was consecrated bishop of Lincoln in July 1398. When
+his half-brother became king as Henry IV. in 1399, Beaufort began to
+take a prominent place in public life; he was made chancellor in 1403,
+but he resigned this office in 1404, when he was translated from Lincoln
+to Winchester as the successor of William of Wykeham. He exercised
+considerable influence over the prince of Wales, afterwards King Henry
+V., and although he steadily supported the house of Lancaster he opposed
+the party led by Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury. A dispute
+over money left by John Beaufort, marquess of Dorset, caused or widened
+a breach in the royal family which reached a climax in 1411. The details
+are not quite clear, but it seems tolerably certain that the prince and
+the bishop, anxious to retain their power, sought to induce Henry IV. to
+abdicate in favour of his son. Angry at this request, the king dismissed
+his son from the council, and Beaufort appears to have shared his
+disgrace. When Henry V. ascended the throne in 1413 the bishop again
+became chancellor and took a leading part in the government until 1417,
+when he resigned his office, and proceeded to the council which was then
+sitting at Constance. His arrival had an important effect on the
+deliberations of this council, and the compromise which was subsequently
+made between the rival parties was largely his work. Grateful for
+Beaufort's services, the new pope Martin V. offered him a cardinal's hat
+which Henry V. refused to allow him to accept. Returning to England, he
+remained loyal to Henry; and after the king's death in 1422 became a
+member of the council and was the chief opponent of the wild and selfish
+schemes of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. In 1424 he became chancellor
+for the third time, and was mainly responsible for the conduct of
+affairs during Gloucester's expedition to Hainaut. He was disliked by
+the citizens of London; and this ill-feeling was heightened when
+Gloucester, who was a favourite of the Londoners, returned to England
+and was doubtless reproached by Beaufort for the folly of his
+undertaking. A riot took place in London, and at the bishop's entreaty,
+the protector, John, duke of Bedford, came back to England. As this
+dispute was still unsettled when the parliament met at Leicester in
+February 1426, Bedford and the lords undertook to arbitrate. Charged by
+Gloucester with treason against Henry IV. and his successors, Beaufort
+denied the accusations. But although a reconciliation was effected, the
+bishop evidently regarded this as a defeat; and having resigned the
+chancellorship his energies were diverted into another channel.
+
+Anxious to secure his aid for the crusade against the Hussites, Pope
+Martin again offered him a cardinal's hat, which Beaufort accepted. He
+went to France in 1427, and was then appointed papal legate for Germany,
+Hungary and Bohemia; and proceeding eastwards, he made a bold but futile
+effort to rally the crusaders at Tachau. Returning to England to raise
+money for a fresh crusade, he was received with great state in London;
+but his acceptance of the cardinalate had weakened his position and
+Gloucester refused to recognize his legatine commission. Beaufort gave
+way on this question, but an unsuccessful attempt was made in 1429 to
+deprive him of his see. Having raised some troops he set out for
+Bohemia; but owing to the disasters which had just attended the English
+arms in France, he was induced to allow these soldiers to serve in the
+French war; and in February 1431 the death of Martin V. ended his
+commission as legate. Meanwhile an attempt on the part of Gloucester to
+exclude the cardinal from the council had failed, and it was decided
+that his attendance was required except during the discussion of
+questions between the king and the papacy. He accompanied King Henry VI.
+to Normandy in April 1430, and in December 1431 crowned him king of
+France. About this time Gloucester made another attempt to deprive
+Beaufort of his see, and it was argued in the council that as a cardinal
+he could not hold an English bishopric. The general council was not
+inclined to press the case against him; but the privy council, more
+clerical and more hostile, sealed writs of praemunire and attachment
+against him, and some of his jewels were seized. On his return to
+England he attended the parliament in May 1432, and asked to hear the
+charges against him. The king declared him loyal, and a statute was
+passed freeing him from any penalties which he might have incurred under
+the Statute of Provisors or in other ways. He supported Bedford in his
+attempts to restore order to the finances. In August 1435 he attended
+the congress at Arras, but was unable to make peace with France; and
+after Bedford's death his renewed efforts to this end were again opposed
+by Gloucester, who favoured a continuance of the war. On two occasions
+the council advised the king to refuse him permission to leave England,
+but in 1437 he obtained a full pardon for all his offences. In 1439 and
+1440 he went to France on missions of peace, and apparently at his
+instigation the English council decided to release Charles, duke of
+Orleans. This step further irritated Gloucester, who drew up and
+presented to the king a long and serious list of charges against
+Beaufort; but the council defended the policy of the cardinal and
+ignored the personal accusations against him. Beaufort, however,
+gradually retired from public life, and after witnessing the conclusion
+of the treaty of Troyes died at Wolvesey palace, Winchester, on the 10th
+of April 1447. The "black despair" which Shakespeare has cast round his
+dying hours appears to be without historical foundation. He was buried
+in Winchester cathedral, the building of which he finished. He also
+refounded and enlarged the hospital of St Cross near Winchester.
+
+Beaufort was a man of considerable wealth, and on several occasions he
+lent large sums of money to the king. He was the lover of Lady Alice
+Fitzalan, daughter of Richard, earl of Arundel, by whom he had a
+daughter, Joan, who married Sir Edward Stradling of St Donat's in
+Glamorganshire. His interests were secular and he was certainly proud
+and ambitious; but Stubbs has pictured the fairer side of his character
+when he observes that Beaufort "was merciful in his political enmities,
+enlightened in his foreign policy; that he was devotedly faithful, and
+ready to sacrifice his wealth and labour for the king; that from the
+moment of his death everything began to go wrong, and went worse and
+worse until all was lost."
+
+  See _Historiae Croylandensis continuatio_, translated by H.T. Riley
+  (London, 1854); _Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council_,
+  edited by N.H. Nicolas (London, 1834-1837); Aeneas Sylvius
+  Piccolomini, _Historica Bohemica_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1707); W.
+  Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895): M.
+  Creighton, _A History of the Papacy during the Period of the
+  Reformation_ (London, 1897); and L.B. Radford, _Henry Beaufort_
+  (1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE (d. 1795), French historian, of whose life little is
+known. In 1738 he published at Utrecht a _Dissertation sur l'incertitude
+des cinq premiers siecles de l'histoire romaine_, in which he showed
+what untrustworthy guides even the historians of highest repute, such as
+Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were for that period, and pointed
+out by what methods and by the aid of what documents truly scientific
+bases might be given to its history. This was an ingenious plea, bold
+for its time, against traditional history such as Rollin was writing at
+that very moment. A German, Christopher Saxius, endeavoured to refute it
+in a series of articles published in vols. i.-iii. of the _Miscellanea
+Liviensia_. Beaufort replied by some brief and ironical _Remarques_ in
+the appendix to the second edition of his _Dissertation_ (1750).
+Beaufort also wrote an _Histoire de Cesar Germanicus_ (Leyden, 1761),
+and _La Republique romaine, ou plan general de L'ancien gouvernement de
+Rome_ (The Hague, 1766, 2 vols. quarto). Though not a scholar of the
+first rank, Beaufort has at least the merit of having been a pioneer in
+raising the question, afterwards elaborated by Niebuhr, as to the
+credibility of early Roman history.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT SCALE, a series of numbers from 0 to 12 arranged by Admiral Sir
+Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) in 1805, to indicate the strength of the
+wind from a calm, force 0, to a hurricane, force 12, with sailing
+directions such as "5, smacks shorten sails" for coast purposes, and
+"royals, &c., 'full and by'" for the open sea. An exhaustive report was
+made in 1906 by the Meteorological Office on the relation between the
+estimates of wind-force according to Beaufort's scale and the velocities
+recorded by anemometers belonging to the office, from which the
+following table is taken:--
+
+  +---------------+--------------------+------------------+
+  |               |                    | Limits of hourly |
+  |Beaufort scale.| Corresponding wind.|     velocity.    |
+  +---------------+--------------------+------------------+
+  |    Numbers.   |                    |  Miles per hour. |
+  |       0       |    Calm            | Under 2          |
+  |      1-3      |    Light breeze    |       2-12       |
+  |      4-5      |    Moderate wind   |      13-23       |
+  |      6-7      |    Strong wind     |      24-37       |
+  |      8-9      |    Gale            |      38-55       |
+  |     10-11     |    Storm           |      56-75       |
+  |      12       |    Hurricane       |Above 75          |
+  +---------------+--------------------+------------------+
+
+
+
+
+BEAUFORT WEST, in Cape province, South Africa, the capital of a division
+of this name, 339 m. by rail N.E. of Cape Town. Pop.(1904) 5481. The
+largest town in the western part of the Great Karroo, it lies, at an
+elevation of 2792 ft., at the foot of the southern slopes of the
+Nieuwveld mountains. It has several fine public buildings and the
+streets are lined with avenues of pear trees, while an abundant supply
+of water, luxuriant orchards, fields and gardens give it the appearance
+of an oasis in the desert. It is a favourite resort of invalids. The
+town was founded in 1819, and in its early days was largely resorted to
+by Griquas and Bechuana for the sale of ivory, skins and cattle. The
+Beaufort West division has an area of 6374 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of
+10,762, 45% being whites. Sheep-farming is the principal industry.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUGENCY, a town of central France, in the department of Loiret, 16 m.
+S.W. of Orleans on the Orleans railway, between that city and Blois.
+Pop. (1906) 2993. It is situated at the foot of vine-clad hills on the
+right bank of the Loire, to the left bank of which it is united by a
+bridge of twenty-six arches, many of them dating from the 13th century.
+The chief buildings are the chateau, mainly of the 15th century, of
+which the massive donjon of the 11th century known as the Tour de Cesar
+is the oldest portion; and the abbey-church of Notre-Dame, a building in
+the Romanesque style of architecture, frequently restored. Some of the
+buildings of the Benedictine abbey, to which this church belonged,
+remain. The hotel de ville, the facade of which is decorated with
+armorial bearings of Renaissance carving, and the church of St Etienne,
+an unblemished example of Romanesque architecture, are of interest.
+Several old houses, some remains of the medieval ramparts and the Tour
+de l'Horloge, an ancient gateway, are also preserved. The town carries
+on trade in grain, and has flour mills.
+
+The lords of Beaugency attained considerable importance in the 11th,
+12th and 13th centuries; at the end of the 13th century the fief was
+sold to the crown, and afterwards passed to the house of Orleans, then
+to those of Dunois and Longueville and ultimately again to that of
+Orleans. Joan of Arc defeated the English here in 1429. In 1567 the town
+was sacked and burned by the Protestants. On the 8th, 9th and 10th of
+December 1870 the German army, commanded by the grand-duke of
+Mecklenburg, defeated the French army of the Loire, under General
+Chanzy, in the battle of Beaugency (or Villorceau-Josnes), which was
+fought on the left bank of the Loire to the N.W. of Beaugency.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUHARNAIS, the name of a French family, well known from the 15th
+century onward in Orleanais, where its members occupied honourable
+positions. One of them, Jean Jacques de Beauharnais, seigneur de
+Miramion, had for wife Marie Bonneau, who in 1661 founded a female
+charitable order, called after her the Miramiones. Francois de
+Beauharnais, marquis de la Ferte-Beauharnais, was a deputy in the
+states-general of 1789, and a devoted defender of the monarchy. He
+emigrated and served in Conde's army. Later he gave his adherence to
+Napoleon, and became ambassador in Etruria and Spain; he died in 1823.
+His brother Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, married Josephine Tascher
+de la Pagerie (afterwards the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte) and had two
+children by her--Eugene de Beauharnais (q.v.) and Hortense, who married
+Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, and became mother of Napoleon III.
+Claude de Beauharnais, comte des Roches-Baritaud, uncle of the marquis
+and of the vicomte de Beauharnais, served in the navy and became a
+vice-admiral. He married Marie Anne Francoise (called Fanny) Mouchard, a
+woman of letters who had a celebrated salon. His son, also named Claude
+(d. 1819), was created a peer of France in 1814, and was the father of
+Stephanie de Beauharnais, who married the grand-duke of Baden. The house
+of Beauharnais is still represented in Russia by the dukes of
+Leuchtenberg, descendants of Prince Eugene.     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE (1781-1824), step-son of Napoleon I., was born at
+Paris on the 3rd of September 1781. He was the son of the general
+Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais (1760-1794) and Josephine Tascher de
+la Pagerie. The father, who was born in Martinique, and served in the
+American War of Independence, took part in the politics of the French
+Revolution, and in June-August 1793 commanded the army of the Rhine. His
+failure to fulfil the tasks imposed on him (especially that of the
+relief of Mainz) led to his being arrested, and he was guillotined (23rd
+June 1794) not long before the fall of Robespierre. The marriage of his
+widow Josephine to Napoleon Bonaparte in March 1796 was at first
+resented by Eugene and his sister Hortense; but their step-father proved
+to be no less kind than watchful over their interests. In the Italian
+campaigns of 1796-1797 Eugene served as aide-de-camp to Bonaparte, and
+accompanied him to Egypt in the same capacity. There he distinguished
+himself by his activity and bravery, and was wounded during the siege of
+Acre. Bonaparte brought him back to France in the autumn of 1799, and it
+is known that the intervention of Eugene and Hortense helped to bring
+about the reconciliation which then took place between Bonaparte and
+Josephine. The services rendered by Eugene at the time of the _coup
+d'etat_ of Brumaire (1799) and during the Consulate (1799-1804) served
+to establish his fortunes, despite the efforts of some of the Bonapartes
+to destroy the influence of the Beauharnais and bring about the divorce
+of Josephine.
+
+After the proclamation of the Empire, Eugene received the title of
+prince, with a yearly stipend of 200,000 francs, and became general of
+the _chasseurs a cheval_ of the Guard. A year later, when the Italian
+republic became the kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon as king, Eugene
+received the title of viceroy, with large administrative powers. (See
+ITALY.) Not long after the battle of Austerlitz (2nd December 1805)
+Napoleon dignified the elector of Bavaria with the title of king and
+arranged a marriage between Eugene and the princess Augusta Amelia of
+Bavaria. On the whole the government of Eugene gave general satisfaction
+in the kingdom of Italy; it comprised the districts between the Simplon
+Pass and Rimini, and also after the peace of Presburg (December 1805),
+Istria and Dalmatia. In 1808 (on the further partition of the papal
+states) the frontier of the kingdom was extended southwards to the
+borders of the kingdom of Naples, in the part known as the Abruzzi. In
+the campaign of 1809 Eugene commanded the army of Italy, with General
+(afterwards Marshal) Macdonald as his _adlatus_. The battle of Sacile,
+where he fought against the Austrian army of the Archduke John, did not
+yield proofs of military talent on the part of Eugene or of Macdonald;
+but on the retreat of the enemy into Austrian territory (owing to the
+disasters of their main army on the Danube) Eugene's forces pressed them
+vigorously and finally won an important victory at Raab in the heart of
+the Austrian empire. Then, joining the main army under Napoleon, in the
+island of Lobau in the Danube, near Vienna, Eugene and Macdonald
+acquitted themselves most creditably in the great battle of Wagram (6th
+July 1809). In 1810 Eugene received the title of grand-duke of
+Frankfort. Equally meritorious were his services and those of the large
+Italian contingent in the campaign of 1812 in Russia. He and they
+distinguished themselves especially at the battles of Borodino and
+Malojaroslavitz; and on several occasions during the disastrous retreat
+which ensued, Eugene's soldierly constancy and devotion to Napoleon
+shone out conspicuously in 1813-1814, especially by contrast with the
+tergiversations of Murat. On the downfall of the Napoleonic regime
+Eugene retired to Munich, where he continued to reside, with the title
+duke of Leuchtenberg and prince of Eichstadt. He died in 1824, leaving
+two surviving sons and three daughters.
+
+  For further details concerning Eugene see _Memoires et correspondance
+  politique et militaire du Prince Eugene_, edited by Baron A. Ducasse
+  (10 vols., Paris, 1858-1860); F.J.A. Schneidewind, _Prinz Eugen,
+  Herzog van Leuchtenberg in den Feldzugen seiner Zeit_ (Stockholm,
+  1857); A. Purlitzer, _Une Idylle sous Napoleon I^er: le roman du
+  Prince Eugene_ (Paris, 1895); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_
+  (Paris, 1897-1900).     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUJEU. The French province of Beaujolais was formed by the development
+of the ancient seigniory of Beaujeu (department of Rhone, arrondissement
+of Villefranche). The lords of Beaujeu held from the 10th century
+onwards a high rank in feudal society. In 1210 Guichard of Beaujeu was
+sent by Philip Augustus on an embassy to Pope Innocent III.; he was
+present at the French attack on Dover, where he died in 1216. His son
+Humbert took part in the wars against the Albigenses and became
+constable of France. Isabeau, daughter of this Humbert, married Renaud,
+count of Forez; and their second son, Louis, assumed the name and arms
+of Beaujeu. His son Guichard, called the Great, had a very warlike life,
+fighting for the king of France, for the count of Savoy and for his own
+hand. He was taken prisoner by the Dauphinois in 1325, thereby losing
+important estates. Guichard's son, Edward of Beaujeu, marshal of France,
+fought at Crecy, and perished in the battle of Ardres in 1351. His son
+died without issue in 1374, and was succeeded by his cousin, Edward of
+Beaujeu, lord of Perreux, who gave his estates of Beaujolais and Dombes
+to Louis II., duke of Bourbon, in 1400. Pierre de Bourbon was lord of
+Beaujeu in 1474, when he married Anne of France, daughter of Louis XI.,
+and this is why that princess retained the name of lady of Beaujeu.
+Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., got Beaujolais assigned to
+herself despite the claims of the constable de Bourbon. In 1531 the
+province was reunited to the crown; but Francis II. gave it back to the
+Montpensier branch of the Bourbons in 1560, from which house it passed
+to that of Orleans. The title of comte de Beaujolais was borne by a son
+of Philippe "Egalite," duke of Orleans, born in 1779, died in 1808.
+     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BEAULIEU, a village in the French department of Alpes-Maritimes. Pop.
+(1906) 1460. It is about 4 m. by rail E. of Nice (1-1/4 m. from
+Villefranche), and on the main line between Marseilles and Mentone; it
+is also connected with Nice and Mentone by an electric tramway. Of late
+years it has become a much frequented winter resort, and many handsome
+villas (among them that built by the 3rd marquess of Salisbury) have
+been constructed in the neighbourhood. The harbour has been extended and
+adapted for the reception of yachts.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAULY (pronounced _Bewley_; a corruption of _Beaulieu_), a town of
+Inverness-shire, Scotland, on the Beauly, 10 m. W. of Inverness by the
+Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 855. Its chief interest is the beautiful
+remains of the Priory of St John, founded in 1230 by John Bisset of the
+Aird, for Cistercian monks. At the Reformation the buildings (except the
+church, now a ruin) passed into the possession of Lord Lovat. On the
+right bank of the river is the site of Lovat Castle, which once belonged
+to the Bissets, but was presented by James VI. to Hugh Fraser and
+afterwards demolished. To the south-east is the church of Kirkhill
+containing the vault of the Lovats. Three miles south of Beauly is
+Beaufort Castle, the chief seat of the Lovats, a fine modern mansion in
+the Scottish baronial style. It occupies the site of a fortress erected
+in the time of Alexander II., which was besieged in 1303 by Edward I.
+This was replaced by several castles in succession, of which one--Castle
+Dounie--was taken by Cromwell and burned by the duke of Cumberland in
+1746, the conflagration being witnessed from a neighbouring hill by
+Simon, Lord Lovat, before his capture on Loch Morar. The land around
+Beauly is fertile and the town drives a brisk trade in coal, timber,
+lime, grain and fish.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMANOIR, a seigniory in what is now the department of Cotes-du-Nord,
+France, which gave its name to an illustrious family. Jean de
+Beaumanoir, marshal of Brittany for Charles of Blois, and captain of
+Josselin, is remembered for his share in the famous battle of the
+Thirty. This battle, sung by an unknown trouvere and retold with
+variations by Froissart, was an episode in the struggle for the
+succession to the duchy of Brittany between Charles of Blois, supported
+by the king of France, and John of Montfort, supported by the king of
+England. John Bramborough, the English captain of Ploermel, having
+continued his ravages, in spite of a truce, in the district commanded by
+the captain of Josselin, Jean de Beaumanoir sent him a challenge, which
+resulted in a fight between thirty picked champions, knights and
+squires, on either side, which took place on the 25th of March 1351,
+near Ploermel. Beaumanoir commanded thirty Bretons, Bramborough a mixed
+force of twenty Englishmen, six German mercenaries and four Breton
+partisans of Montfort. The battle, fought with swords, daggers and axes,
+was of the most desperate character, in its details very reminiscent of
+the last fight of the Burgundians in the _Nibelungenlied_, especially in
+the celebrated advice of Geoffrey du Bois to his wounded leader, who was
+asking for water: "Drink your blood, Beaumanoir; that will quench your
+thirst!" In the end the victory was decided by Guillaume de Montauban,
+who mounted his horse and overthrew seven of the English champions, the
+rest being forced to surrender. All the combatants on either side were
+either dead or seriously wounded, Bramborough being among the slain. The
+prisoners were well treated and released on payment of a small ransom.
+(See _Le Poeme du combat des Trente_, in the _Pantheon litteraire_;
+Froissart, _Chroniques_, ed. S. Luce, c. iv. pp. 45 and 110 ff., and pp.
+338-340).
+
+JEAN DE BEAUMANOIR (1551-1614), seigneur and afterwards marquis de
+Lavardin, count of Negrepelisse by marriage, served first in the
+Protestant army, but turned Catholic after the massacre of St
+Bartholomew, in which his father had been killed, and then fought
+against Henry of Navarre. When that prince became king of France,
+Lavardin changed over to his side, and was made a marshal of France. He
+was governor of Maine, commanded an army in Burgundy in 1602, was
+ambassador extraordinary to England in 1612, and died in 1614. One of
+his descendants, Henry Charles, marquis de Lavardin (1643-1701), was
+sent as ambassador to Rome in 1689, on the occasion of a difference
+between Louis XIV. and Innocent XI.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE REMI, SIRE DE (c. 1250-1296), French jurist, was
+born in the early part of the 13th century and died in 1296. The few
+facts known regarding his life are to be gathered from legal documents
+in which his name occurs. From these it appears that in 1273 he filled
+the post of _bailli_ at Senlis, and in 1280 held a similar office at
+Clermont. He is also occasionally referred to as presiding at the
+assizes held at various towns. His great work is entitled _Coutumes de
+Beauvoisis_ and first appeared in 1690, a second edition with
+introduction by A.A. Beugnot being published in 1842. It is regarded as
+one of the best works bearing on old French law, and was frequently
+referred to with high admiration by Montesquieu. Beaumanoir also
+obtained fame as a poet, and left over 20,000 verses, the best known of
+his poems being _La Manekine_, _Jehan et Blonde_ and _Salut d'amour_.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE (1732-1799), French dramatist,
+was born in Paris on the 24th of January 1732. His father, a watchmaker
+named Caron, brought him up to the same trade. He was an unusually
+precocious and lively boy, shrewd, sagacious, passionately fond of music
+and imbued with a strong desire for rising in the world. At the age of
+twenty-one he invented a new escapement for watches, which was pirated
+by a rival maker. Young Caron at once published his grievance in the
+_Mercure_, and had the matter referred to the Academy of Sciences, which
+decided in his favour. This affair brought him into notice at court; he
+was appointed, or at least called himself, watchmaker to the king, who
+ordered from him a watch similar to one he had made for Mme de
+Pompadour. His handsome figure and cool assurance enabled him to make
+his way at court. Mme Franquet, the wife of an old court official,
+persuaded her husband to make over his office to young Caron, and, on
+her husband's death, a few months later, married the handsome
+watchmaker. Caron at the same time assumed the name Beaumarchais; and
+four years later, by purchasing the office of secretary to the king
+obtained a patent of nobility.
+
+At court his musical talents brought him under the notice of the king's
+sisters, who engaged him to teach them the harp. This position enabled
+him to confer a slight favour on the great banker Joseph Duverney, who
+testified his gratitude by giving Beaumarchais a share in his
+speculations. The latter turned the opportunity to good account, and
+soon realized a handsome fortune. In 1764 he took a journey to Spain,
+partly with commercial objects in view, but principally on account of
+the Clavijo affair. Jose Clavijo y Fajardo had twice promised to marry
+the sister of Beaumarchais, and had failed to keep his word. The
+adventure had not the tragic ending of Goethe's _Clavigo_, for
+Beaumarchais did not pursue his vengeance beyond words. Beaumarchais
+made his first essay as a writer for the stage with the sentimental
+drama _Eugenie_ (1767), in which he drew largely on the Clavijo
+incident. This was followed after an interval of two years by _Les Deux
+Amis_, but neither play had more than moderate success. His first wife
+had died within a year of the marriage and in 1768 Beaumarchais married
+Mme Leveque. Her death in 1771 was the signal for unfounded rumours of
+poisoning. Duverney died in 1770; but some time before his death a
+duplicate settlement of the affairs between him and Beaumarchais had
+been drawn up, in which the banker acknowledged himself debtor to
+Beaumarchais for 15,000 francs. Duverney's heir, the comte de La Blache,
+denied the validity of the document though without directly stigmatizing
+it as a forgery. The matter was put to trial. Beaumarchais gained his
+cause, but his adversary at once carried the case before the parlement.
+In the meantime the duc de Chaulnes forced Beaumarchais into a quarrel
+over Mdlle Menard, an actress at the Comedie Italienne, which resulted
+in the imprisonment of both parties. This moment was chosen by La Blache
+to demand judgment from the parlement in the matter of the Duverney
+agreement. Beaumarchais was released from prison for three or four days
+to see his judges. He was, however, unable to obtain an interview with
+Goezman, the member of the parlement appointed to report on his case. At
+last, just before the day on which the report was to be given in, he was
+informed privately that, by presenting 200 _louis_ to Mme Goezman and 15
+to her secretary, the desired interview might take place, if the result
+should prove unfavourable the money would be refunded. The money was
+sent and the interview obtained; but the decision was adverse, and 200
+_louis_ were returned, the 15 going as business expenses to the
+secretary. Beaumarchais, who had learned that there was no secretary
+save Mme Goezman herself, insisted on restitution of the 15 _louis_, but
+the lady denied all knowledge of the affair. Her husband, who was
+probably not cognisant of the details of the transaction at first,
+doubtless thought the defeated litigant would be easily put down, and
+at once brought an accusation against him for an attempt to corrupt
+justice. The battle was fought chiefly through the _Memoires_, or
+reports published by the adverse parties, and in it Beaumarchais's
+success was complete. For vivacity of style, fine satire and broad
+humour, his famous _Memoires_ have never been surpassed. Even Voltaire
+was constrained to envy them. Beaumarchais was skilful enough to make
+his particular case of universal application. He was attacking the
+parlement through one of its members, and the parlement was the
+universally detested body formed by the chancellor Maupeou. The
+_Memoires_ were, therefore, hailed with general delight; and the author,
+from being perhaps the most unpopular man in France, became at once the
+idol of the people. The decision went against Beaumarchais. The
+parlement condemned both him and Mme Goezman _au blame_, i.e. to civic
+degradation, while the husband was obliged to abandon his position.
+Beaumarchais was reduced to great straits, but he obtained restitution
+of his rights within two years, and finally triumphed over his adversary
+La Blache.
+
+During the next few years he was engaged in the king's secret service.
+One of his missions was to England to destroy the _Memoires secrets
+d'une femme publique_ in which Charles Theveneau de Morande made an
+attack on Mme Du Barry. Beaumarchais secured this pamphlet, and burnt
+the whole impression in London. Another expedition to England and
+Holland to seize a pamphlet attacking Marie Antoinette led to a series
+of incidents more amazing than the intrigues in Beaumarchais's own
+plays, but his own account must be received with caution. Beaumarchais
+pursued the libeller to Germany and overtook him in a wood near
+Neustadt. After a struggle he had gained possession of the document when
+he was attacked by brigands. Unfortunately the wound alleged to have
+been received in this fight was proved to be self-inflicted. The
+Austrian government regarded Beaumarchais with a suspicion justified by
+the circumstances. He was imprisoned for some time in Vienna, and only
+released on the receipt of explanations from Paris.
+
+His various visits to England led him to take a deep interest in the
+impending struggle between the American colonies and the mother-country.
+His sympathies were entirely with the former; and by his unwearied
+exertions he succeeded in inducing the French government to give ample,
+though private, assistance in money and arms to the Americans. He
+himself, partly on his own account, but chiefly as the agent of the
+French and Spanish governments, carried on an enormous traffic with
+America. Under the name of Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie, he employed a fleet
+of forty vessels to provide help for the insurgents.
+
+During the same period he produced his two famous comedies. The earlier,
+_Le Barbier de Seville_, after a prohibition of two years, was put on
+the stage in 1775. The first representation was a complete failure.
+Beaumarchais had overloaded the last scene with allusions to the facts
+of his own case and the whole action of the piece was laboured and
+heavy. But he cut down and remodelled the piece in time for the second
+representation, when it achieved a complete success. The intrigues which
+were necessary in order to obtain a licence for the second and more
+famous comedy, _Le Mariage de Figaro_, are highly amusing, and throw
+much light on the unsettled state of public sentiment at the time. The
+play was completed in 1778, but the opposition of Louis XVI., who alone
+saw its dangerous tendencies, was not overcome till 1784. The comedy had
+an unprecedented success. The principal character in both plays, Figaro,
+is a completely original conception; in fact Beaumarchais drew a
+portrait of himself in the resourceful adventurer, who, for mingled wit,
+shrewdness, gaiety and philosophic reflection, may not unjustly be
+ranked with Tartuffe. To English readers the Figaro plays are generally
+known through the adaptations of them in the grand opera of Mozart and
+Rossini; but in France they long retained popularity as acting pieces.
+The success of _Le Mariage de Figaro_ was helped on by the methods of
+self-advertisement so well understood by Beaumarchais. The proceeds of
+the fiftieth performance were devoted to a charity, the choice of which
+provoked numerous epigrams. Beaumarchais had the imprudence to retaliate
+by personalities that were reported by his enemies to be dedicated
+against the king and queen. Beaumarchais was imprisoned for a short time
+by royal order in the prison of St Lazare. Brilliant pamphleteer as he
+was, Beaumarchais was at last to meet more than his match. He undertook
+to defend the company of the "Eaux de Paris," in which he had a large
+interest, against Mirabeau, and brought down on himself an invective to
+which he could offer no reply. His real influence was gone from that
+date (1785-1786). Shortly afterwards he was violently attacked by
+Nicolas Bergasse, whom he sued for defamation of character. He gained
+his case, but his reputation had suffered in the pamphlet war.
+Beaumarchais's later productions, the bombastic opera _Tarare_ (1787)
+and the drama _La Mere coupable_ (1792), which was very popular, are in
+no way worthy of his genius.
+
+By his writings Beaumarchais contributed greatly, though quite
+unconsciously, to hurry on the events that led to the Revolution. At
+heart he hardly seems to have been a republican, and the new state of
+affairs did not benefit him. The astonishing thing is that the society
+travestied in _Le Mariage de Figaro_ was the most vehement in its
+applause. The court looked on at a play justly characterized by Napoleon
+as the "revolution already in action" apparently without a suspicion of
+its real character. His popularity had been destroyed by the Mirabeau
+and Bergasse affairs, and his great wealth exposed him to the enmity of
+the envious. A speculation into which he entered, to supply the
+Convention with muskets from Holland, proved a ruinous failure. He was
+accused of concealing arms and corn in his house, but when his house was
+searched nothing was discovered but some thousands of copies of the
+edition (1783-1790) of the works of Voltaire which he had had printed at
+his private press at Kehl, in Baden. He was charged with treason to the
+republic and was imprisoned in the Abbaye on the 20th of August 1792. A
+week later he was released at the intercession of Mme Houret de la
+Mariniere, who had been his mistress. He took refuge in Holland and
+England. His memoirs entitled, _Mes six epoques_, detailing his
+sufferings under the republic, are not unworthy of the Goezman period.
+His courage and happy disposition never deserted him, although he was
+hunted as an agent of the Convention in Holland and England, while in
+Paris he was proscribed as an _emigre_. He returned to Paris in 1796,
+and died there, suddenly, on the 18th of May 1799.
+
+  Gudin de la Brenellerie's _Histoire de Beaumarchais_ (1809) was edited
+  by M. Maurice Tourneux in 1888. See also L. de Lomenie, _Beaumarchais
+  et son temps_ (1855), Eng. trans. by H.S. Edwards, (4. vols., 1856);
+  A. Hallay's _Beaumarchais_ (1897); M. de Lescure, _Eloge de
+  Beaumarchais_ (1886); and Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. vi.
+  Beaumarchais's works have been edited by Gudin (7 vols., 1809); by
+  Furne (6 vols., 1827); and by E. Fournier (1876). A variorum edition
+  of his _Theatre complet_ was published by MM. d'Heylli and de Marescot
+  (4 vols., 1869-1875); and a _Bibliographie des oeuvres de
+  Beaumarchais_, by H. Cordier in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMARIS, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of
+Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the Bay of Beaumaris, not far from
+Penmon, the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. Pop. (1901) 2326. It
+has but one considerable street. The large castle chapel, dedicated to
+the Virgin, has some fine monuments. David Hughes, of Jesus College,
+Oxford, founded the free grammar school in 1603. Buildings include
+town-hall and county-hall, with St Mary's church of the 13th century,
+with chancel of the 16th. Practically without trade and with no
+manufactures, Beaumaris is principally noted as a bathing-place. Its
+earliest charter dates from 1283 and was revised under Elizabeth. The
+town was formerly called Barnover and, still earlier, Rhosfair, and
+bears its present name of French origin since Edward I. built its castle
+in 1293. This extensive building was erected on low ground, so that the
+fosse might communicate with the sea, and vessels might unload under its
+walls. The castle capitulated, after siege, to General Mytton (1646).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT, BELMONT, or BELLOMONT, the name of a Norman and English
+family, taken from Beaumont-le-Roger in Normandy. Early in the 11th
+century Roger de Beaumont, a kinsman of the dukes of Normandy, married a
+daughter of Waleran, count of Meulan, and their son, ROBERT DE BEAUMONT
+(d. 1118), became count of Meulan or Mellent about 1080. Before this
+date, however, he had fought at Hastings, and had added large estates in
+Warwickshire to the Norman fiefs of Beaumont and Pont Audemer, which he
+received when his father entered the abbey of St Peter at Preaux. It was
+during the reigns of William II. and Henry I. that the count rose to
+eminence, and under the latter monarch he became "the first among the
+counsellors of the king." A "strenuous and sagacious man" he rendered
+valuable service to both kings in their Norman wars, and Henry I. was
+largely indebted to him for the English crown. He obtained lands in
+Leicestershire, and it has been said he was created earl of Leicester;
+this statement, however, is an error, although he exercised some of the
+privileges of an earl. His abilities as a counsellor, statesman and
+diplomatist gained him the admiration of his contemporaries, and Henry
+of Huntingdon describes him as "the wisest man between this and
+Jerusalem." He seems to have been a man of independent character, for he
+assisted Anselm against William Rufus, although he supported Henry I. in
+his quarrel with Pope Paschal II. When Robert died on the 5th of June
+1118 his lands appear to have been divided between his twin sons, Robert
+and Waleran, while a third son, Hugh, became earl of Bedford in 1138.
+
+ROBERT DE BEAUMONT (1104-1168), justiciar of England, married a
+granddaughter of Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, and receiving his
+father's English fiefs in 1118 became earl of Leicester. He and his
+brother, Waleran, were the chief advisers of Stephen, and helped this
+king to seize the bishops of Salisbury and Lincoln in 1139; later,
+however, Robert made his peace with Henry II., and became chief
+justiciar of England. First among the lay nobles he signed the
+Constitutions of Clarendon, he sought to reconcile Henry and Archbishop
+Becket, and was twice in charge of the kingdom during the king's
+absences in France. The earl founded the abbey of St Mary de Pre at
+Leicester and other religious houses, and by a charter confirmed the
+burgesses of Leicester in the possession of their merchant-gild and
+customs. His son, Robert, succeeded to the earldom of Leicester, and
+with other English barons assisted prince Henry in his revolt against
+his father the king in 1173. For this participation, and also on a later
+occasion, he was imprisoned; but he enjoyed the favour of Richard I.,
+and died in Greece when returning from a pilgrimage in 1190. His son and
+heir, Robert, died childless in 1204.
+
+WALERAN DE BEAUMONT (1104-1166) obtained his father's French fiefs and
+the title of count of Meulan in 1118. After being imprisoned for five
+years by Henry I. he spent some time in England, and during the civil
+war between Stephen and the empress Matilda he fought for the former
+until about 1150, when he deserted the king and assisted the empress.
+His later history appears to have been uneventful. The county of Meulan
+remained in possession of the Beaumont family until 1204, when it was
+united with the royal domain.
+
+Another member of the Beaumont family, possibly a relative of the
+earlier Beaumonts, was LOUIS DE BEAUMONT (d. 1333), bishop of Durham
+from 1317 until his death. This prelate was related to the English king,
+Edward II., and after a life spent in strife and ostentation, he died on
+the 24th of September 1333. JOHN BEAUMONT, master of the rolls under
+Edward VI., was probably a member of the same family. A dishonest and
+corrupt judge, he was deprived of his office and imprisoned in 1552.
+
+The barony of Beaumont dates from 1309, when HENRY BEAUMONT (d. 1340),
+who was constable of England in 1322, was summoned to parliament under
+this title. It was retained by his descendants until the death of
+William, the 7th baron and the 2nd viscount,[1] in 1507, when it fell
+into abeyance. In 1840 the barony was revived in favour of Miles Thomas
+Stapleton (1805-1854), a descendant of Joan, Baroness Lovel, a daughter
+of the 6th baron, and it has since been retained by his descendants.
+
+In 1906 WENTWORTH BLACKETT BEAUMONT (1829-1907), the head of a family
+well known in the north of England, was created Baron Allendale.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] His father John (d. 1460), the 6th baron, great chamberlain and
+    constable of England, was the first person advanced to the dignity of
+    a viscount in England.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE (1703-1781), French ecclesiastic and archbishop
+of Paris, was a cadet of the Les Adrets and Saint-Quentin branch of the
+illustrious Dauphine family of Beaumont. He became bishop of Bayonne in
+1741, then archbishop of Vienne in 1743, and in 1746, at the age of
+forty-three, archbishop of Paris. Beaumont is noted for his struggle
+with the Jansenists. To force them to accept the bull _Unigenitus_ which
+condemned their doctrines, he ordered the priests of his diocese to
+refuse absolution to those who would not recognize the bull, and to deny
+funeral rites to those who had confessed to a Jansenist priest. While
+other bishops sent Beaumont their adhesion to his crusade, the parlement
+of Paris threatened to confiscate his temporalities. The king forbade
+the parlement to interfere in these spiritual questions, and upon its
+proving obdurate it was exiled (September 18, 1753). The "royal
+chamber," which was substituted, having failed to carry on the
+administration of justice properly, the king was obliged to recall the
+parlement, and the archbishop was sent into honourable exile (August
+1754). An effort was made to induce him to resign the active duties of
+his see to a coadjutor, but in spite of the most tempting
+offers--including a cardinal's hat--he refused. On the contrary, to his
+polemic against the Jansenists he added an attack on the _philosophes_,
+and issued a formal mandatory letter condemning Rousseau's _Emile_.
+Rousseau replied in his masterly _Lettre a M. de Beaumont_ (1762), in
+which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is
+essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force.
+
+  De Beaumont's _Mandements, lettres et instructions pastorales_ were
+  published in two volumes in 1780, the year before his death.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN (1583-1627), English poet, second son of the judge,
+Sir Francis Beaumont, was born at Grace-Dieu in Leicestershire in 1583.
+The deaths of his father (in 1598) and of his elder brother, Sir Henry
+Beaumont (in 1605), made the poet early the head of this brilliant
+family; the dramatist, Francis Beaumont, being a younger brother. John
+went to Oxford in February 1597, and entered as a gentleman commoner in
+Broadgates Hall, the present Pembroke College. He was admitted to the
+Inner Temple in 1600, but on the death of Henry he no doubt went down to
+Grace-Dieu to manage the family estates. He began to write verse early,
+and in 1602, at the age of nineteen, he published anonymously his
+_Metamorphosis of Tabacco_, written in very smooth couplets, in which he
+addressed Drayton as his "loving friend." He lived in Leicestershire for
+many years as a bachelor, being one "who never felt Love's dreadful
+arrow." But in process of time he became a tardy victim, and married a
+lady of the Fortescue family, who bore him four stout sons, the eldest
+of whom, another John, was accounted one of the most athletic men of his
+time. "He could leap 16 ft. at one leap, and would commonly, at a
+stand-leap, jump over a high long table in the hall, light on a settle
+beyond the table, and raise himself straight up." This magnificent young
+man was not without literary taste; he edited his father's posthumous
+poems, and wrote an enthusiastic elegy on him; he was killed in 1644 at
+the siege of Gloucester. Another of Sir John Beaumont's sons, Gervaise,
+died in childhood, and the incidents of his death are recorded in one of
+his father's most touching poems. Sir John Beaumont concentrated his
+powers on a poem in eight books, entitled _The Crown of Thorns_, which
+was greatly admired in MS. by the earl of Southampton and others, but
+which is lost. After long retirement, Beaumont was persuaded by the duke
+of Buckingham to move in larger circles; he attended court and in 1626
+was made a baronet. This honour he did not long survive, for he died on
+the 19th of April 1627, and was buried in Westminster Abbey ten days
+later. The new Sir John, the strong man, published in 1629 a volume
+entitled _Bosworth Field; with a taste of the variety of other Poems
+left by Sir John Beaumont_. No more "tastes" were ever vouchsafed, so
+that it is by this volume and by the juvenile _Metamorphosis of Tobacco_
+that Beaumont's reputation has to stand. Of late years, the
+peculiarities of John Beaumont's prosody have drawn attention to his
+work. He wrote the heroic couplet, which was his favourite measure, with
+almost unprecedented evenness. Bosworth Field, the scene of the battle
+of which Beaumont's principal poem gives a vaguely epical narrative, lay
+close to the poet's house of Grace-Dieu. He writes on all occasions with
+a smoothness which was very remarkable in the first quarter of the 17th
+century, and which marks him, with Edmund Waller and George Sandys, as
+one of the pioneers of the classic reformation of English verse.
+
+  The poems of Sir John Beaumont were included in A. Chalmers's _English
+  Poets_, vol. vi. (1810). An edition, with "memorial introduction" and
+  notes, was included (1869) in Dr A.B. Grosart's _Fuller Worthies'
+  Library_; and the _Metamorphosis of Tobacco_ was included in J.P.
+  Collier's _Illustrations of Early English Popular Literature_, vol. i.
+  (1863).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT and FLETCHER, English dramatists[1] The names of FRANCIS
+BEAUMONT (1584-1616) and JOHN FLETCHER (1579-1625) are inseparably
+connected in the history of the English drama. John Fletcher was born in
+December 1579 at Rye in Sussex, and baptized on the 20th of the same
+month. Richard Fletcher, his father, afterwards queen's chaplain, dean
+of Peterborough, and bishop successively of Bristol, Worcester and
+London, was then minister of the parish in which the son was born who
+was to make their name immortal. That son was just turned of seven when
+the dean distinguished and disgraced himself as the spiritual tormentor
+of the last moments on earth of Mary Stuart. When not quite twelve he
+was admitted pensioner of Bene't College, Cambridge, and two years later
+was made one of the Bible-clerks: of this college Bishop Fletcher had
+been president twenty years earlier, and six months before his son's
+admission had received from its authorities a first letter of thanks for
+various benefactions, to be followed next year by a second. Four years
+later than this, when John Fletcher wanted five or six months of his
+seventeenth year, the bishop died suddenly of over much tobacco and the
+displeasure of Queen Elizabeth at his second marriage--this time, it
+appears, with a lady of such character as figures something too
+frequently on the stage of his illustrious son. He left eight children
+by his first marriage in such distress that their uncle, Dr Giles
+Fletcher, author of a treatise on the Russian commonwealth which is
+still held in some repute, was obliged to draw up a petition to the
+queen on their behalf, which was supported by the intercession of Essex,
+but with what result is uncertain.
+
+From this date we know nothing of the fortunes of John Fletcher, till
+the needy orphan boy of seventeen reappears as the brilliant and
+triumphant poet whose name is linked for all time with the yet more
+glorious name of Francis Beaumont, third and youngest son of Sir Francis
+Beaumont of Grace-Dieu, one of the justices of the common pleas--born,
+according to general report, in 1586, but, according to more than one
+apparently irrefragable document, actually born two years earlier. The
+first record of his existence is the entry of his name, together with
+those of his elder brothers Henry and John, as a gentleman-commoner of
+Broadgates Hall, Oxford, now supplanted by Pembroke College. But most
+lovers of his fame will care rather to remember the admirable lines of
+Wordsworth on the "eager child" who played among the rocks and woodlands
+of Grace-Dieu; though it may be doubted whether even the boy's first
+verses were of the peaceful and pastoral character attributed to them by
+the great laureate of the lakes. That passionate and fiery genius which
+was so soon and for so short a time to "shake the buskined stage" with
+heroic and tragic notes of passion and of sorrow, of scorn and rage, and
+slighted love and jealousy, must surely have sought vent from the first
+in fancies of a more ardent and ambitious kind; and it would be a
+likelier conjecture that when Frank Beaumont (as we know on more
+authorities than one that he was always called by his contemporaries,
+even in the full flush of his adult fame--"never more than Frank," says
+Heywood) went to college at the ripe age of twelve, he had already
+committed a tragedy or two in emulation of _Tamburlaine_, _Andronicus_
+or _Jeronymo_. The date of his admission was the 4th of February 1597;
+on the 22nd of April of the following year his father died; and on the
+3rd of November 1600, having left Oxford without taking his degree, the
+boy of fifteen was entered a member of the Inner Temple, his two
+brothers standing sponsors on the grave occasion. But the son of Judge
+Beaumont was no fitter for success at the bar than the son of Bishop
+Fletcher for distinction in the church: it is equally difficult to
+imagine either poet invested with either gown. Two years later appeared
+the poem of _Salmacis and Hermaphroditus_, generally attributed to
+Beaumont, a voluptuous and voluminous expansion of the Ovidian legend,
+not on the whole discreditable to a lad of eighteen, fresh from the
+popular love-poems of Marlowe and Shakespeare, which it naturally
+exceeds in long-winded and fantastic diffusion of episodes and conceits.
+At twenty-three Beaumont prefixed to the magnificent masterpiece of Ben
+Jonson some noticeable verses in honour of his "dear friend" the author;
+and in the same year (1607) appeared the anonymous comedy of _The Woman
+Hater_, usually assigned to Fletcher alone; but being as it is in the
+main a crude and puerile imitation of Jonson's manner, and certainly
+more like a man's work at twenty-two than at twenty-eight, internal
+evidence would seem to justify, or at least to excuse those critics who
+in the teeth of high authority and tradition would transfer from
+Fletcher to Beaumont the principal responsibility for this first play
+that can be traced to the hand of either. As Fletcher also prefixed to
+the first edition of _Volpone_ a copy of commendatory verses, we may
+presume that their common admiration for a common friend was among the
+earliest and strongest influences which drew together the two great
+poets whose names were thenceforward to be for ever indivisible. During
+the dim eleven years between the death of his father and the dawn of his
+fame, we cannot but imagine that the career of Fletcher had been
+unprosperous as well as obscure. From seventeen to twenty-eight his
+youth may presumably have been spent in such painful struggles for
+success, if not for sustenance, as were never known to his younger
+colleague, who, as we have seen, was entered at Oxford a few months
+after Fletcher must in all likelihood have left Cambridge to try his
+luck in London: a venture most probably resolved on as soon as the youth
+had found his family reduced by the father's death to such ruinous
+straits that any smoother course can hardly have been open to him.
+Entering college at the same age as Fletcher had entered six years
+earlier, Beaumont had before him a brighter and briefer line of life
+than his elder. But whatever may have been their respective situations
+when, either by happy chance or, as Dyce suggests, by the good offices
+of Jonson, they were first brought together, their intimacy soon became
+so much closer than that of ordinary brothers that the household which
+they shared as bachelors was conducted on such thoroughly communistic
+principles as might have satisfied the most trenchant theorist who ever
+proclaimed as the cardinal point of his doctrine, a complete and
+absolute community of bed and board, with all goods thereto
+appertaining. But in the year following that in which the two younger
+poets had united in homage to Jonson, they had entered into a
+partnership of more importance than this in "the same clothes and cloak,
+etc.," with other necessaries of life specified by Aubrey.
+
+In 1608, if we may trust the reckoning which seems trust-worthiest, the
+twin stars of our stage rose visibly together for the first time. The
+loveliest, though not the loftiest, of tragic plays that we owe to the
+comrades or the successors of Shakespeare, _Philaster_, has generally
+been regarded as the first-born issue of their common genius. The noble
+tragedy of _Thierry and Theodoret_ has sometimes been dated earlier and
+assigned to Fletcher alone; but we can be sure neither of the early date
+nor the single authorship. The main body of the play, comprising both
+the great scenes which throw out into full and final relief the
+character of either heroine for perfect good or evil, bears throughout
+the unmistakable image and superscription of Fletcher; yet there are
+parts which for gravity and steady strength of style, for reserve and
+temperance of effect, would seem to suggest the collaboration of a
+calmer and more patient hand; and these more equable and less passionate
+parts of the poem recall rather the touch of Massinger than of Beaumont.
+In the second act, for example, the regular structure of the verse, the
+even scheme of the action, the exaggerated braggardism which makes of
+the hero a mere puppet or mouthpiece of his own self-will, are all
+qualities which, for better or for worse, remind us of the strength or
+the weakness of a poet with whom we know that Fletcher, before or after
+his alliance with Beaumont, did now and then work in common. Even the
+Arbaces of Beaumont, though somewhat too highly coloured, does not
+"write himself down an ass," like Thierry on his first entrance, after
+the too frequent fashion of Massinger's braggarts and tyrants; does not
+proclaim at starting or display with mere wantonness of exposure his
+more unlovely qualities in the naked nature of their deformity. Compare
+also the second with the first scene of the fourth act. In style and
+metre this second scene is as good an example of Massinger as the first
+is of Fletcher at his best. Observe especially in the elaborate
+narrative of the pretended self-immolation of Ordella these distinctive
+notes of the peculiar style of Massinger; the excess of parenthetic
+sentences, no less than five in a space of twenty lines; the classical
+common-place of allusion to Athens, Rome and Sparta in one superfluous
+breath; the pure and vigorous but somewhat level and prosaic order of
+language, with the use of certain cheap and easy phrases familiar to
+Massinger as catchwords; the flat and feeble terminations by means of
+which the final syllable of one verse runs on into the next without more
+pause or rhythm than in a passage of prose; the general dignity and
+gravity of sustained and measured expression. These are the very points
+in which the style of Massinger differs from that of Fletcher; whose
+lightest and loosest verses do not overlap each other without sensible
+distinction between the end of one line and the beginning of the next;
+who is often too fluent and facile to be choice or forcible in his
+diction, but seldom if ever prosaic or conventional in phrase or
+allusion, and by no means habitually given to weave thoughts within
+thoughts, knit sentence into sentence, and hang whole paragraphs
+together by the help of loops and brackets. From these indications we
+might infer that this poem belongs altogether to a period later than the
+death of Beaumont; though even during his friend's life it appears that
+Fletcher was once at least allied with Massinger and two lesser
+dramatists in the composition of a play, probably the _Honest Man's
+Fortune_, of which the accounts are to be found in Henslowe's papers.
+
+Hardly eight years of toil and triumph of joyous and glorious life were
+spared by destiny to the younger poet between the date assigned to the
+first radiant revelation of his genius in _Philaster_ and the date which
+marks the end of all his labours. On the 6th of March 1616 Francis
+Beaumont died--according to Jonson and tradition, "ere he was thirty
+years of age," but this we have seen to be inconsistent with the
+registry of his entrance at Oxford. If we may trust the elegiac evidence
+of friends, he died of his own genius and fiery overwork of brain; yet
+from the magnificent and masculine beauty of his portrait one should
+certainly never have guessed that any strain of spirit or stress of
+invention could have worn out so long before its time so fair and royal
+a temple for so bright and affluent a soul. A student of physiognomy
+will not fail to mark the points of likeness and of difference between
+the faces of the two friends; both models of noble manhood, handsome and
+significant in feature and expression alike;--Beaumont's the statelier
+and serener of the two, with clear thoughtful eyes, full arched brows,
+and strong aquiline nose, with a little cleft at the tip; a grave and
+beautiful mouth, with full and finely curved lips; the form of face a
+long pure oval, and the imperial head with its "fair large front" and
+clustering hair set firm and carried high with an aspect at once of
+quiet command and kingly observation: Fletcher's a more keen and fervid
+face, sharper in outline every way, with an air of bright ardour and
+glad fiery impatience; sanguine and nervous, suiting the complexion and
+colour of hair; the expression of the eager eyes and lips almost
+recalling that of a noble hound in act to break the leash it strains
+at;--two heads as lordly of feature and as expressive of aspect as any
+gallery of great men can show. That spring of 1616, we may note in
+passing, was the darkest that ever dawned upon England or the world;
+for, just forty-eight days afterwards, it witnessed, on the 23rd of
+April, the removal from earth of the mightiest genius that ever dwelt
+among men. Scarcely more than a month and a half divided the death-days
+of Beaumont and of Shakespeare. Some three years earlier by Dyce's
+estimate, when about the age of twenty-nine, Beaumont had married
+Ursula, daughter and co-heiress to Henry Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by
+whom he left two daughters, one of them posthumous. Fletcher survived
+his friend just nine years and five months; he died "in the great
+plague, 1625," and was buried on the 29th of August in St Saviour's,
+Southwark; not, as we might have wished, beside his younger fellow in
+fame, who but three days after his untimely death had added another
+deathless memory to the graves of our great men in Westminster Abbey,
+which he had sung in such noble verse. Dying when just four months short
+of forty-six, Fletcher had thus, as well as we can now calculate,
+altogether some fourteen years and six months more of life than the poet
+who divides with him the imperial inheritance of their common glory.
+
+The perfect union in genius and in friendship which has made one name of
+the two names of these great twin brothers in song is a thing so
+admirable and so delightful to remember, that it would seem ungracious
+and unkindly to claim for either a precedence which we may be sure he
+would have been eager to disclaim. But if a distinction must be made
+between the Dioscuri of English poetry, we must admit that Beaumont was
+the twin of heavenlier birth. Only as Pollux was on one side a demigod
+of diviner blood than Castor can it be said that on any side Beaumont
+was a poet of higher and purer genius than Fletcher; but so much must be
+allowed by all who have eyes and ears to discern in the fabric of their
+common work a distinction without a difference. Few things are stranger
+than the avowal of so great and exquisite a critic as Coleridge, that he
+could trace no faintest line of demarcation between the plays which we
+owe mainly to Beaumont and the plays which we owe solely to Fletcher. To
+others this line has always appeared in almost every case unmistakable.
+Were it as hard and broad as the line which marks off, for example,
+Shakespeare's part from Fletcher's in _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, the
+harmony would of course be lost which now informs every work of their
+common genius, and each play of their writing would be such another
+piece of magnificent patchwork as that last gigantic heir of
+Shakespeare's invention, the posthumous birth of his parting Muse which
+was suckled at the breast of Fletcher's as a child of godlike blood
+might be reared on the milk of a mortal mother--or in this case, we
+might sometimes be tempted to say, of a she-goat who left in the veins
+of the heaven-born suckling somewhat too much of his nurse Amalthaea.
+That question however belongs in any case more properly to the study of
+Shakespeare than to the present subject in hand. It may suffice here to
+observe that the contributions of Fletcher to the majestic temple of
+tragedy left incomplete by Shakespeare show the lesser workman almost
+equally at his best and at him worst, at his weakest and at his
+strongest. In the plays which we know by evidence surer than the most
+trustworthy tradition to be the common work of Beaumont and Fletcher,
+there is indeed no trace of such incongruous and incompatible admixture
+as leaves the greatest example of romantic tragedy--for _Cymbeline_ and
+the _Winter's Tale_, though not guiltless of blood, are in their issues
+no more tragic than _Pericles_ or the _Tempest_--a unique instance of
+glorious imperfection, a hybrid of heavenly aid other than heavenly
+breed, disproportioned and divine. But throughout these noblest of the
+works inscribed generally with the names of both dramatists we trace on
+every other page the touch of a surer hand, we hear at every other turn
+the note of a deeper voice, than we can ever recognize in the work of
+Fletcher alone. Although the beloved friend of Jonson, and in the field
+of comedy his loving and studious disciple, yet in that tragic field
+where his freshest bays were gathered Beaumont was the worthiest and the
+closest follower of Shakespeare. In the external but essential matter of
+expression by rhythm and metre he approves himself always a student of
+Shakespeare's second manner, of the style in which the graver or tragic
+part of his historical or romantic plays is mostly written; doubtless,
+the most perfect model that can be studied by any poet who, like
+Beaumont, is great enough to be in no danger of sinking to the rank of a
+mere copyist, but while studious of the perfection set before him is yet
+conscious of his own personal and proper quality of genius, and enters
+the presence of the master not as a servant but as a son. The general
+style of his tragic or romantic verse is as simple and severe in its
+purity of note and regularity of outline as that of Fletcher's is by
+comparison lax, effusive, exuberant. The matchless fluency and rapidity
+with which the elder brother pours forth the stream of his smooth swift
+verse gave probably the first occasion for that foolish rumour which has
+not yet fallen duly silent, but still murmurs here and there its
+suggestion that the main office of Beaumont was to correct and contain
+within bounds the overflowing invention of his colleague. The poet who
+while yet a youth had earned by his unaided mastery of hand such a crown
+as was bestowed by the noble love and the loving "envy" of Ben Jonson
+was, according to this tradition, a mere precocious pedagogue, fit only
+to revise and restrain the too liberal effusions of his elder in genius
+as in years. Now, in every one of the plays common to both, the real
+difficulty for a critic is not to trace the hand of Beaumont, but to
+detect the touch of Fletcher. Throughout the better part of every such
+play, and above all of their two masterpieces, _Philaster_ and _The
+Maid's Tragedy_, it should be clear to the most sluggish or cursory of
+readers that he has not to do with the author of _Valentinian_ and _The
+Double Marriage_. In those admirable tragedies the style is looser, more
+fluid, more feminine. From the first scene to the last we are swept as
+it were along the race of a running river, always at full flow of light
+and buoyant melody, with no dark reaches or perilous eddies, no stagnant
+pools or sterile sandbanks; its bright course only varied by sudden
+rapids or a stronger ripple here and there, but in rough places or
+smooth still stirred and sparkling with summer wind and sun. But in
+those tragic poems of which the dominant note is the note of Beaumont's
+genius a subtler chord of thought is sounded, a deeper key of emotion is
+touched, than ever was struck by Fletcher. The lighter genius is
+palpably subordinate to the stronger, and loyally submits itself to the
+impression of a loftier spirit. It is true that this distinction is
+never grave enough to produce a discord: it is also true that the plays
+in which the predominance of Beaumont's mind and style is generally
+perceptible make up altogether but a small section of the work that
+bears their names conjointly; but it is no less true that within this
+section the most precious part of that work is comprised. Outside it we
+shall find no figures so firmly drawn, no such clearness of outline, no
+such cunning of hands as we recognize in the three great studies of
+Bellario, Evadne and Aspatia. In his male characters, as for instance in
+the parts of Philaster and Arbaces, Beaumont also is apt to show
+something of that exaggeration or inconsistency for which his colleague
+is perhaps more frequently and more heavily to blame; but in these there
+is not a jarring note, not a touch misplaced; unless, indeed, a rigid
+criticism may condemn as unfeminine and incongruous with the gentle
+beauty of her pathetic patience the device by which Aspatia procures
+herself the death desired at the hand of Amintor. This is noted as a
+fault by Dyce; but may well be forgiven for the sake of the magnificent
+scene which follows, and the highest tragic effect ever attained on the
+stage of either poet. That this as well as the greater part of those
+other scenes which are the glory of the poem is due to Beaumont might
+readily be shown at length by the process of comparison. The noble scene
+of regicide, which it was found expedient to cancel during the earlier
+years of the Restoration, may indeed be the work of Fletcher; but the
+part of Evadne must undoubtedly be in the main assigned to the more
+potent hand of his fellow. There is a fine harmony of character between
+her naked audacity in the second act and her fierce repentance in the
+fourth, which is not unworthy a disciple of the tragic school of
+Shakespeare; Fletcher is less observant of the due balance, less heedful
+of the nice proportions of good and evil in a faulty and fiery nature,
+compounded of perverse instinct and passionate reaction. From him we
+might have had a figure as admirable for vigour of handling, but hardly
+in such perfect keeping as this of Beaumont's Evadne, the
+murderess-Magdalen, whose penitence is of one crimson colour with her
+sin. Nor even in Fletcher's Ordella, worthy as the part is throughout
+even of the precious and exquisite praise of Lamb, is there any such
+cunning touch of tenderness or delicate perfume of pathos as in the
+parts of Bellario and Aspatia. These have in them a bitter sweetness, a
+subtle pungency of mortal sorrow and tears of divine delight, beyond the
+reach of Fletcher. His highest studies of female character have dignity,
+energy, devotion of the heroic type; but they never touch us to the
+quick, never waken in us any finer and more profound sense than that of
+applause and admiration. There is a modest pathos now and then in his
+pictures of feminine submission and slighted or outraged love; but this
+submission he is apt to make too servile, this love too dog-like in its
+abject devotion to retain that tender reverence which so many
+generations of readers have paid to the sweet memories of Aspatia and
+Bellario. To excite compassion was enough for Fletcher as in the
+masculine parts of his work it was enough for him to excite wonder, to
+sustain curiosity, to goad and stimulate by any vivid and violent means
+the interest of readers or spectators. The single instance of noble
+pathos, the one scene he has left us which appeals to the higher and
+purer kind of pity, is the death of the child Hengo in _Bonduca_--a
+scene which of itself would have sufficed to enrol his name for ever on
+the list of our great tragic poets. To him we may probably assign the
+whole merit of that fiery and high-toned tragedy, with all its spirit
+and splendour of national and martial passion; the conscious and
+demonstrative exchange of courtesy between Roman and Briton, which is
+one of the leading notes of the poem, has in it a touch of overstrained
+and artificial chivalry characteristic of Fletcher; yet the parts of
+Caratach and Poenius may be counted among the loftiest and most equal of
+his creations. But no surer test or better example can be taken of the
+distinctive quality which denotes the graver genius of either poet than
+that supplied by a comparison of Beaumont's _Triumph of Love_ with
+Fletcher's _Triumph of Death_. Each little play, in the brief course of
+its single act, gives proof of the peculiar touch and special trick of
+its author's hand: the deeper and more delicate passion of Beaumont, the
+rapid and ardent activity of Fletcher, have nowhere found a more
+noticeable vent for the expression respectively of the most tender and
+profound simplicity of quiet sweetness, the most buoyant and impatient
+energy of tragic emotion.
+
+In the wider field of their comic or romantic drama it is yet easier to
+distinguish the respective work of either hand. The bias of Fletcher was
+towards mixed comedy; his lightest and wildest humour is usually crossed
+or tempered by an infusion of romance; like Shakespeare in this one
+point at least, he has left no single play without some touch on it of
+serious interest, of poetic eloquence or fancy, however slight and
+fugitive. Beaumont, evidently under the imperious influence of Ben
+Jonson's more rigid theories, seems rather to have bent his genius with
+the whole force of a resolute will into the form or mould prescribed for
+comedy by the elder and greater comic poet. The admirable study of the
+worthy citizen and his wife, who introduce to the stage and escort with
+their applause _The Knight of the Burning Pestle_ through his
+adventurous career to its untimely end, has all the force and fulness of
+Jonson's humour at its best, with more of freshness and freedom. In pure
+comedy, varied with broad farce and mock-heroic parody, Beaumont was the
+earliest as well as the ablest disciple of the master whose mantle was
+afterwards to be shared among the academic poets of a younger
+generation, the Randolphs and Cartwrights who sought shelter under the
+shadow of its voluminous folds. The best example of the school of Jonson
+to be found outside the ample range of his own work is _The Scornful
+Lady_, a comedy whose exceptional success and prolonged popularity must
+have been due rather to the broad effect of its forcible situations, its
+wealth and variety of ludicrous incidents, and the strong gross humour
+of its dialogue, than to any finer quality of style, invention or
+character. It is the only work of Beaumont and Fletcher which a critic
+who weighs the meaning of his words can admit to be as coarse as the
+coarsest work of Ben Jonson. They are prone, indeed, to indulge
+elsewhere in a wanton and exuberant licence of talk; and Fletcher, at
+least, is liable to confuse the shades of right and wrong, to deface or
+efface the boundary lines of good and evil, to stain the ermine of
+virtue and palliate the nakedness of vice with the same indecorous and
+incongruous laxity of handling. Often in mere haste to despatch the
+business of a play, to huddle up a catastrophe or throw out some
+particular scene into sharp and immediate relief, he will sacrifice all
+seemliness and consistency of character to the present aim of stage
+effect, and the instant impression of strong incident or audacious
+eloquence. His heroines are too apt to utter sentiments worthy of Diana
+in language unworthy of Doll Tearsheet. But in this play both style and
+sentiment are throughout on a lower level, the action and emotion are of
+a baser kind than usual; the precept of Aristotle and the practice of
+Jonson have been so carefully observed and exaggerated that it might
+almost be said to offer us in one or two places an imitation not merely
+of the sorrier but of the sorriest qualities of human nature; and full
+as it is of spontaneous power and humorous invention, the comedy
+extolled by the moral Steele (with just so much of reservation as
+permits him to deprecate the ridicule cast upon the clerical character)
+is certainly more offensive to artistic law and aesthetic judgment by
+the general and ingrained coarseness of its tone, than the tragi-comedy
+denounced by the immoral Dryden as exceeding in licence his own worst
+work and that of his fellow playwrights; an imputation, be it said in
+passing, as groundless as the protest pleaded on their behalf is
+impudent; for though we may hardly agree with the uncompromising
+panegyrist who commends that play in particular to the approval of "the
+austere scarlet" (remembering, perhaps, that Aristophanes was the chosen
+bedfellow of Chrysostom), there is at least no such offence against art
+or taste in the eccentricity of its situations or the daring of its
+dialogue. The buoyant and facile grace of Fletcher's style carries him
+lightly across quagmires in which a heavier-footed poet, or one of
+slower tread, would have stuck fast, and come forth bemired to the
+knees. To Beaumont his stars had given as birthright the gifts of tragic
+pathos and passion, of tender power and broad strong humour; to Fletcher
+had been allotted a more fiery and fruitful force of invention, a more
+aerial ease and swiftness of action, a more various readiness and
+fulness of bright exuberant speech. The genius of Beaumont was deeper,
+sweeter, nobler than his elder's; the genius of Fletcher more brilliant,
+more supple, more prodigal, and more voluble than his friend's. Without
+a taint or a shadow on his fame of such imitative servility as marks and
+degrades the mere henchman or satellite of a stronger poet, Beaumont may
+fairly be said to hold of Shakespeare in his tragedy, in his comedy of
+Jonson; in each case rather as a kinsman than as a client, as an ally
+than as a follower: but the more special province of Fletcher was a land
+of his own discovering, where no later colonist has ever had power to
+settle or to share his reign. With the mixed or romantic comedy of
+Shakespeare it has nothing in common except the admixture or alternation
+of graver with lighter interest, of serious with humorous action.
+Nothing is here of his magic exaltation or charm of fairy empire. The
+rare and rash adventures of Fletcher on that forbidden track are too
+sure to end in pitiful and shameful failure. His crown of praise is to
+have created a wholly new and wholly delightful form of mixed comedy or
+dramatic romance, dealing merely with the humours and sentiments of men,
+their passions and their chances; to have woven of all these a web of
+emotion and event with such gay dexterity, to have blended his colours
+and combined his effects with such exquisite facility and swift light
+sureness of touch, that we may return once and again from those heights
+and depths of poetry to which access was forbidden him, ready as ever to
+enjoy as of old the fresh incomparable charm, the force and ease and
+grace of life, which fill and animate the radiant world of his romantic
+invention. Neither before him nor after do we find, in this his special
+field of fancy and of work, more than shadows or echoes of his coming or
+departing genius. Admirable as are his tragedies already mentioned, rich
+in splendid eloquence and strong in large grasp of character as is the
+Roman history of _The False One_, full of interest and vigour as is the
+better part of _Rollo Duke of Normandy_, and sublime in the loveliness
+of passion as is the one scene of perfect beauty and terror which crowns
+this latter tragedy, Fletcher may claim a yet higher and more special
+station among his great dramatic peers by right of his comic and
+romantic than by right of his tragic and historic plays. Even in these
+he is more a romantic than a tragic poet. The quality of his genius,
+never sombre or subtle or profound, bears him always towards fresh air
+and sunshine. His natural work is in a midday world of fearless boyish
+laughter and hardly bitter tears. There is always more of rainbow than
+of storm in his skies; their darkest shadow is but a tragic twilight.
+What with him is the noon of night would seem as sunshine on the stage
+of Ford or Webster. There is but one passage in all these noble plays
+which lifts us beyond a sense of the stage, which raises our admiration
+out of speech into silence, tempers and transfigures our emotion with a
+touch of awe. And this we owe to the genius of Beaumont, exalted for an
+instant to the very tone and manner of Shakespeare's tragedy, when
+Amintor stands between the dead and the dying woman whom he has
+unwittingly slain with hand and tongue. The first few lines that drop
+from his stricken lips are probably the only verses of Beaumont or
+Fletcher which might pass for Shakespeare's even with a good judge of
+style--
+
+  "This earth of mine doth tremble," &c.
+
+But in Fletcher's tragedy, however we may be thrilled and kindled with
+high contagious excitement, we are never awed into dumb delight or
+dread, never pierced with any sense of terror or pity too deep or even
+deep enough for tears. Even his Brunhalts and Martias can hardly
+persuade us to forget for the moment that "they do but jest, poison in
+jest." A critic bitten with the love of classification might divide
+those plays of Fletcher usually ranked together as comedies into three
+kinds: the first he would class under the head of pure comedy, the next
+of heroic or romantic drama, the third of mixed comedy and romance; in
+this, the last and most delightful division of the poet's work the
+special qualities of the two former kinds being equally blended and
+delicately harmonized. The most perfect and triumphant examples of this
+class are _The Spanish Curate, Monsieur Thomas, The Custom of the
+Country_, and _The Elder Brother_. Next to these and not too far below
+them, we may put _The Little French Lawyer_ (a play which in its broad
+conception of a single eccentric humour suggests the collaboration of
+Beaumont and the influence of Jonson, but in style and execution
+throughout is perfect Fletcher), _The Humorous Lieutenant_ (on which an
+almost identical verdict might be passed), _Women Pleased, Beggars'
+Bush_, and perhaps we might add _The Fair Maid of the Inn_; in most if
+not in all of which the balance of exultant and living humour with
+serious poetic interest of a noble and various kind is held with even
+hand and the skill of a natural master. In pure comedy _Rule a Wife and
+have a Wife_ is the acknowledged and consummate masterpiece of Fletcher.
+Next to it we might class, for comic spirit and force of character, _Wit
+without Money, The Wildgoose Chase, The Chances_, and _The Noble
+Gentleman_, a broad poetic farce to whose overflowing fun and masterdom
+of extravagance no critic has ever done justice but Leigh Hunt, who has
+ventured, not without reason, to match its joyous and preposterous
+audacities of superlative and sovereign foolery with the more
+sharp-edged satire and practical merriment of _King and No King_, where
+the keen prosaic humour of Bessus and his swordsmen is as typical of the
+comic style in which Beaumont had been trained up under Ben Jonson as
+the high interest and graduated action of the serious part of the play
+are characteristic of his more earnest genius. Among the purely romantic
+plays of Fletcher, or those in which the comic effect is throughout
+subordinate to the romantic, _The Knight of Malta_ seems most worthy of
+the highest place for the noble beauty and exaltation of spirit which
+informs it with a lofty life, for its chivalrous union of heroic passion
+and Catholic devotion. This poem is the fairest and the first example of
+those sweet fantastic paintings in rose-colour and azure of visionary
+chivalry and ideal holiness, by dint of which the romance of more recent
+days has sought to cast the glamour of a mirage over the darkest and
+deadliest "ages of faith." The pure and fervent eloquence of the style
+is in perfect keeping with the high romantic interest of character and
+story. In the same class we may rank among the best samples of
+Fletcher's workmanship _The Pilgrim, The Loyal Subject, A Wife for a
+Month, Love's Pilgrimage_, and _The Lover's Progress_,--rich all of them
+in exquisite writing, in varied incident, in brilliant effects and
+graceful and passionate interludes. In _The Coxcomb_, and _The Honest
+Man's Fortune_--two plays which, on the whole, can hardly be counted
+among the best of their class--there are tones of homelier emotion,
+touches of a simpler and more pathetic interest than usual; and here, as
+in the two admirable first scenes between Leucippus and Bacha, which
+relieve and redeem from contempt the tragic burlesque of _Cupid's
+Revenge_, the note of Beaumont's manner is at once discernible.
+
+Even the most rapid revision of the work done by these great twin poets
+must impress every capable student with a sense of the homage due to
+this living witness of their large and liberal genius. The loss of their
+names from the roll of English poetry would be only less than the loss
+of the few greatest inscribed on it. Nothing could supply the want of
+their tragic, their comic or romantic drama; no larger or more fiery
+planet can ever arise to supplant or to eclipse the twin lights of our
+zodiac. Whatever their faults of shortcoming or excess, there is in
+their very names or the mere thought of their common work a kind of
+special and personal attraction for all true lovers of high dramatic
+poetry. There is the glory and grace of youth in all they have left us;
+if there be also somewhat too much of its graceless as well as its
+gracious qualities, yet there hangs about their memory as it were a
+music of the morning, a breath and savour of bright early manhood, a
+joyous and vigorous air of free life and fruitful labour, which might
+charm asleep for ever all thought or blame of all mortal infirmity or
+folly, or any stain of earth that may have soiled in passing the feet of
+creatures half human and half divine while yet they dwelt among men. For
+good or for evil, they are above all things poets of youth; we cannot
+conceive of them grown grey in the dignity of years, venerable with the
+authority of long life, and weighted with the wisdom of experience. In
+the Olympian circle of the gods and giants of our race who on earth were
+their contemporaries and corrivals, they seem to move among the graver
+presences and figures of sedater fame like the two spoilt boys of
+heaven, lightest of foot and heart and head of all the brood of deity.
+Shakespeare may have smiled as Jonson may have nodded approval of their
+bright swift work, neither of these great elders grudging his praise to
+the special charm which won for it a preference during one generation at
+least even over their own loftier and weightier verse; and indeed the
+advance in natural ease, in truth and grace of dialogue, is alike
+manifest whether we turn to such of their comic characters as Valentine
+and Don John, Rutilio and Monsieur Thomas, from the Truewit of Jonson or
+even from the Mercutio of Shakespeare; the one too stiff with classic
+starch, the other too full of mere verbal catches and forced conceits,
+to persuade us that either can in any age have fairly represented the
+light free talk and facile humour of its youth. In another field than
+this Beaumont and Fletcher hold as high and secure a station of their
+own as any poet of their race. In perfect workmanship of lyrical
+jewellery, in perfect bloom and flower of song-writing, they equal all
+compeers whom they do not excel; the blossoms of their growth in this
+kind may be matched for colour and fragrance against Shakespeare's, and
+for morning freshness and natural purity of form exceed the finest
+grafts of Jonson. _The Faithful Shepherdess_ alone might speak for
+Fletcher on this score, being as it is simply a lyric poem in
+semi-dramatic shape, to be judged only as such, and as such almost
+faultless; but in no wise to be classed for praise or blame among the
+acting plays of its author, whose one serious error in the matter was
+the submission of his Dryad to the critical verdict of an audience too
+probably in great part composed of clowns and satyrs far unlike the
+loving and sweet-tongued sylvan of his lovely fancy. And whether we
+assign to him or to Beaumont the divine song of melancholy (_moestius
+lacrymis Simonideis_), perfect in form as Catullus and profound in
+sentiment as Shelley, which Milton himself could but echo and expand,
+could not heighten or deepen its exquisite intensity of thought and word
+alike, there will remain witness enough for the younger brother of a
+lyric power as pure and rare as his elder's.
+
+The excess of influence and popularity over that of other poets usually
+ascribed to the work of Beaumont and Fletcher for some half century or
+so after their own time has perhaps been somewhat overstated by
+tradition. Whatever may have been for a season the fashion of the stage,
+it is certain that Shakespeare can show two editions for one against
+them in folio; four in all from 1623 to 1685, while they have but their
+two of 1647 and 1679. Nor does one see how it can accurately or even
+plausibly be said that they were in any exact sense the founders of a
+school either in comedy or in tragedy. Massinger, for some years their
+survivor, and in some points akin to them as a workman, cannot properly
+be counted as their disciple; and no leading poet of the time had so
+much in common with them as he. At first sight, indeed, his choice of
+romantic subject and treatment of foreign stories, gathered from the
+fertile tale-tellers of the south, and ranging in date from Boccaccio to
+Cervantes, may seem to mark him out as a member of the same school; but
+the deepest and most distinctive qualities of his genius set it far
+apart from theirs; though undoubtedly not so far that any discrepancy or
+discord should impair the excellence or injure the keeping of works in
+which he took part with Fletcher. Yet, placed beside theirs, the tone of
+his thought and speech seems by comparison severe as well as sober, and
+sad as well as severe. Their extravagant and boyish insanity of
+prostrate royalism is not more alien from his half pensive and half
+angry undertone of political protest than his usually careful and
+complete structure of story from their frequently lax and slovenly
+incoherence of character or plot, than his well composed and
+proportioned metre from their lighter and looser melodies, than the
+bitter insistence and elaborate acrimony of his judicial satire on
+hypocrisy or oppression from the gaiety or facility of mood which
+suffers them in the shifting of a scene to redeem their worst characters
+by some juggler's trick of conversion at the last moment allowed them to
+wind up a play with universal reconciliation and an act of oblivion on
+all hands. They could hardly have drawn with such steady skill and
+explicit finish an Overreach or a Luke; but the strenuous and able work
+of Massinger at its highest point of success has no breath in it of
+their brighter and more immediate inspiration. Shirley, on the other
+hand, may certainly be classed as a pupil who copied their style in
+water-colour; his best tragedy and his best comedy, _The Traitor_ and
+_The Lady of Pleasure_, might pass muster undetected among the plays of
+Fletcher, and might fairly claim to take rank above the lowest class of
+these. In the finest work of Middleton we recognize an almost exact
+reproduction of Fletcher's metrical effects,--a reverberation of that
+flowing music, a reiteration of those feminine final notes. In his later
+tragi-comedies, throughout his masterpiece of _Women beware Women_, and
+in the noble scenes which make up the tragic or serious parts of _The
+Changeling_ or _The Spanish Gipsy_,--wherever, in a word, we find the
+admirable but unequal genius of this poet at its best--we find a
+likeness wholly wanting in his earlier and ruder work, which undoubtedly
+suggests the influence of Fletcher. Other instances of imitation, other
+examples of discipleship, might perhaps be found among lesser men of the
+next generation; but the mass of succeeding playwrights began in a very
+short time to lower the style and debase the scheme of dramatic poetry;
+and especially to loosen the last ties of harmony, to deface the very
+form and feature of tragic verse. In Shirley, the last and least of
+those in whom the lineal blood of the old masters was yet discernible,
+we find side by side with the fine ancestral indications of legitimate
+descent exactly such marks of decadence rather than degeneracy as we
+might have anticipated in the latest heir of a long line which began
+with the rise of Marlowe, "sun of the morning," in the highest heaven of
+our song, to prepare a pathway for the sun. After Shakespeare there was
+yet room for Beaumont and Fletcher; but after these and the other
+constellations had set, whose lights filled up the measure of that
+diviner zodiac through which he moved, there was but room in heaven for
+the pallid moonrise of Shirley; and before this last reflex from a
+sunken sun was itself eclipsed, the glory had passed away from English
+drama, to alight upon that summit of epic song, whence Milton held
+communion with darkness and the stars.     (A. C. S.)
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX
+
+The chief collected editions of the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher are:
+_Comedies and Tragedies written by Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher
+Gentlemen_, printed by Humphrey Moseley in folio in 1647 as containing
+plays "never printed before"; _Fifty Comedies and Tragedies written,
+etc._ (fol. 1679); _Works_ ... (11 vols. 1843-1846), edited by Alexander
+Dyce, which superseded earlier editions by L. Theobald, G. Colman and H.
+Weber, and presented a modernized text; a second two-volume edition by
+Dyce in 1852; _The Works of Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher_ (15
+vols. 1905, &c.) edited by Arnold Glover and A.R. Waller in the
+"Cambridge English Classics" from the text of the 2nd folio, and giving
+variant readings from all separate issues of the plays previous to that
+edition; and _Works_ ... (12 vols. 1904, &c.), under the general
+editorship of A.H. Bullen, the text of which is founded on Dyce but with
+many variant readings, the last volume containing memoirs and excursuses
+by the editor.
+
+The foundation of all critical work on Beaumont and Fletcher is to be
+found in Dyce. Discrimination between the work of the two dramatists and
+their collaborators has been the object of a series of studies for the
+establishment of metrical and other tests. Fletcher's verse is
+recognizable by the frequency of an extra syllable, often an accented
+one, at the end of a line, the use of stopped lines, and the frequency
+of trisyllabic feet. He thus obtained an adaptable instrument enabling
+him to dispense with prose even in comic scenes. The pioneer work in
+these matters was done by F.G. Fleay in a paper read before the New
+Shakspere Society in 1874 on "Metrical Tests as applied to Fletcher,
+Beaumont and Massinger." His theories were further developed in the
+article "Fletcher" in his _Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama_. Further
+investigations were published by R. Boyle in _Englische Studien_ (vols.
+v.-x., Heilbronn, 1882-1887), and in the New Shakspere Society
+_Transactions_ (1880-1886), by Benno Leonhardt in _Anglia_ (Halle, vols.
+xix. _seq._), and by E.H. Oliphant in _Englische Studien_ (vols. xiv.
+_seq._). Mr Oliphant restores to Beaumont much which other critics had
+been inclined to deny him. On the sources of the plays see E. Koppel in
+_Munchener Beitrage zur roman. u. eng. Phil._ (Erlangen and Leipzig,
+1895). Consult further articles by A.H. Bullen and R. Boyle respectively
+on Fletcher and Massinger in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._; G.C. Macaulay,
+_Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study_ (1883); and Dr A.W. Ward's chapter
+on "Beaumont and Fletcher" in vol. ii. of his _Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit._
+(new ed. 1899).
+
+A list of the plays attributed to Beaumont and Fletcher, with some
+details, is added, with the premiss that beyond the main lines of
+criticism laid down in Mr Swinburne's article above it is often
+difficult to dogmatize on authorship. Even in cases where the play was
+produced long after Beaumont had ceased to write for the stage there can
+be no certainty that we are not dealing with a piece which is an
+adaptation of an earlier play by a later hand.
+
+  _The Joint Works of Beaumont and Fletcher.--The Scornful Lady_ (acted
+  c. 1609, pr. 1616) is a farcical comedy of domestic life, in which
+  Oliphant finds traces of alteration by a third and perhaps a fourth
+  hand. _Philaster or Love Lies a-Bleeding_ is assigned by Macaulay to
+  Beaumont practically in its entirety, while Fleay attributes only
+  three scenes to Fletcher. It was probably acted c. 1609, and was
+  printed 1620; it was revised (1695) by Elkanah Settle and (1763) by
+  the younger Colman, probably owing its long popularity to the touching
+  character of Bellario. Beaumont's share also predominated in _The
+  Maid's Tragedy_ (acted c. 1609, pr. 1619), in _A King and No King_
+  (acted at court December 26, 1611, and perhaps earlier, pr. 1619),
+  while _The Knight of the Burning Pestle_ (c. 1610, pr. 1613),
+  burlesquing the heroic and romantic play of which Heywood's _Four
+  Prentices_ is an example, might perhaps be transferred entire to
+  Beaumont's account. In _Cupid's Revenge_ (acted at court January 1612,
+  and perhaps at Whitefriars in 1610, pr. 1615), founded on Sidney's
+  _Arcadia_, the two dramatists appear to have had a third collaborator
+  in Massinger and perhaps a fourth in Nathaniel Field.
+
+  The _Coxcomb_ (acted c. 1610, and by the Children of the Queen's
+  Revels in 1612, pr. 1647) seems to have undergone later revision by
+  Massinger. Fletcher's collaboration with other dramatists had begun
+  during his connexion with Beaumont, who apparently ceased to write for
+  the stage two or three years before his death.
+
+  _Works Assigned to Beaumont's Sole Authorship.--The Woman-Hater_ (pr.
+  1607, as "lately acted by the children of Paul's") was assigned
+  formerly to Fletcher. The _Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_
+  was presented at Whitehall on the 26th of February 1612, on the
+  marriage of the Prince and Princess Palatine. Of _Four Plays, or Moral
+  Representations, in One_ (acted 1608, pr. 1647), the _Induction_, with
+  _The Triumph of Honour_ and _The Triumph of Love_, both founded on
+  tales from the _Decameron_, are by Beaumont.
+
+  _Works Assigned to Fletcher's Sole Authorship.--The Faithful
+  Shepherdess_ (pr. c. 1609) was ill received on its original
+  production, but was revived in 1634. That Fletcher was the sole author
+  is practically unquestioned, though Ben Jonson in Drummond's
+  _Conversations_ is made to assert that "Beaumont and Fletcher ten
+  years since hath written _The Faithful Shepherdess_." It was
+  translated into Latin verse by Sir R. Fanshawe in 1658, and Milton's
+  _Comus_ owes not a little to it. In _Four Plays in One_, the two last,
+  _The Triumph of Death_ and _The Triumph of Time_, are Fletcher's. In
+  the indifferent comedy of _The Captain_ (acted 1612-1613, revived
+  1626, pr. 1647) there is no definite evidence of any other hand than
+  Fletcher's, though the collaboration of Beaumont, Massinger and Rowley
+  has been advanced. Other Fletcher plays are: _Wit Without Money_
+  (acted 1614, pr. 1639); the two romantic tragedies of _Bonduca_ (in
+  which Caradach or Caractacus is the chief figure rather than Bonduca
+  or Boadicea) and _Valentinian_, both dating from c. 1616 and printed
+  in the first folio; _The Loyal Subject_ (acted 1618, revived at court
+  1633, pr. 1647); _The Mad Lover_ (acted before March 1619, pr. 1647),
+  which borrows something from the story of Mundus and Paulina in
+  Josephus (bk. xviii.); _The Humorous Lieutenant_ (1619, pr. 1647);
+  _Woman Pleased_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647); _The Woman's Prize or The Tamer
+  Tam'd_ (produced probably between 1610 and 1613, acted 1633 at
+  Blackfriars and at court, pr. 1647), a kind of sequel to _The Taming
+  of the Shrew_; _The Chances_ (uncertain date, pr. 1647), taken from
+  _La Sennora Cornelia_ of Cervantes, and repeatedly revived after the
+  Restoration and in the 18th century; _Monsieur Thomas_ (acted perhaps
+  as early as 1609, pr. 1639); _The Island Princess_ (c. 1621, pr.
+  1647); _The Pilgrim_ and _The Wild Goose-Chase_ (pr. 1652), the second
+  of which was adapted in prose by Farquhar, both acted at court in
+  1621, and possibly then not new pieces; _A Wife for a Month_ (acted
+  1624, pr. 1647); _Rule a Wife and Have a Wife_ (lic. 1624, pr. 1640).
+  _The Pilgrim_ received additions from Dryden, and was adapted by
+  Vanbrugh.
+
+  _Fletcher in Collaboration with other Dramatists._--External evidence
+  of Fletcher's connexion with Massinger is given by Sir Aston Cokaine,
+  who in an epitaph on Fletcher and Massinger wrote: "Playes they did
+  write together, were great friends," and elsewhere claimed for
+  Massinger a share in the plays printed in the 1647 folio. James
+  Shirley and William Rowley have their part in the works that used to
+  be included in the Beaumont and Fletcher canon; and to a letter from
+  Field, Daborne and Massinger, asking for L5 for their joint
+  necessities from Henslowe about the end of 1615, there is a postscript
+  suggesting the deduction of the sum from the "mony remaynes for the
+  play of Mr Fletcher and ours." The problem is complicated when the
+  existing versions of the play are posterior to Fletcher's lifetime,
+  that is, revisions by Massinger or another of pieces which were even
+  originally of double authorship. In this way Beaumont's work may be
+  concealed under successive revisions, and it would be rash to assert
+  that none of the late plays contains anything of his. Mr R. Boyle
+  joins the name of Cyril Tourneur to those of Fletcher and Massinger in
+  connexion with _The Honest Man's Fortune_ (acted 1613, pr. 1647),
+  which Fleay identifies with "the play of Mr Fletcher's and ours." _The
+  Knight of Malta_ (acted 1618-1619, pr. 1647) is in its existing form a
+  revision by Fletcher, Massinger, and possibly Field, of an earlier
+  play which Oliphant thinks was probably written by Beaumont about
+  1608. The same remarks (with the exclusion of Field's name) apply to
+  _Thierry and Theodoret_ (acted c. 1617, pr. 1621), perhaps a satire on
+  contemporary manners at the French court, though Beaumont's share in
+  either must be regarded as problematical. Fletcher and Massinger's
+  great tragedy of _Sir John van Olden Barnaveldt_ (acted 1619) was
+  first printed in Bullen's _Old Plays_ (vol. ii., 1883). They followed
+  it up with _The Custom of the Country_ (acted 1619, pr. 1647), based
+  on an English translation (1619) of _Los Trabajos de Persiles y
+  Sigismunda; The Double Marriage_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647); _The Little
+  French Lawyer_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647), the plot of which can be traced
+  indirectly to a _novellino_ by Massuccio Salernitano; _The Laws of
+  Candy_ (c. 1618, pr. 1647), of disputed authorship; _The False One_
+  (c. 1620, pr. 1647), dealing with the subject of Caesar and
+  Cleopatra; _The Spanish Curate_ (acted 1622, pr. 1647), repeatedly
+  revived after the Restoration, was derived from Leonard Digges's
+  translation (1622) of a Spanish novel, _Gerardo, the Unfortunate
+  Spaniard; The Prophetess_ (1622, pr. 1647), afterwards made into an
+  opera by Betterton to Purcell's music; _The Sea-Voyage_ (1622, pr.
+  1647); _The Elder Brother_ (perhaps originally written by Fletcher
+  c. 1614; revised and acted 1635, pr. 1647); _Beggar's Bush_ (acted
+  at court 1622, probably then not new, pr. 1647); and _The Noble
+  Gentleman_ (1625-1626, pr. 1647). Fletcher only had a small share in
+  _Wit at Several Weapons_--"if he but writ an act or two," says an
+  epilogue on its revival (1623 or 1626),--and the play is probably a
+  revision by Rowley and Middleton of an early Beaumont and Fletcher
+  play. _A Very Woman_ (1634, pr. 1655) is a revision by Massinger of
+  _The Woman's Plot_ ascribed to Fletcher and acted at court in 1621.
+  Field worked with Fletcher and Massinger on the lost play of the
+  _Jeweller of Amsterdam_ (1619), as on the _Faithful Friends_
+  (1613-1614) and _The Queen of Corinth_ (c. 1618, pr. 1647). _The
+  Lover's Progress_ (acted 1634, pr. 1647) is probably a revision by
+  Massinger of the Fletcher play licensed in 1623 as _The Wandering
+  Lovers_, and is perhaps identical with _Cleander_, licensed in 1634.
+  _Love's Cure or The Martial Maid_ (1623 or 1625) is thought by Mr
+  Fleay to be a revision by Massinger of a Beaumont and Fletcher play
+  produced as early as 1607-1608. W. Rowley joined Fletcher in _The Maid
+  in the Mill_ (1623, pr. 1647), and had a share with Massinger in the
+  revision of _The Fair Maid of the Inn_ (licensed 1626, pr. 1647),
+  based on _La illustre Fregona_ of Cervantes. _Nice Valour_ (acted
+  1625-1626, pr. 1647) seems to have been altered by Middleton from an
+  earlier play; _The Widow_, printed in 1652 as by Jonson, Fletcher and
+  Middleton, must be ascribed almost exclusively to Middleton. _The
+  Night Walker_ (1633) is a revision by Shirley of a Fletcher play.
+
+  _Fletcher and Jonson in Collaboration._--The history of _The Bloody
+  Brother or Rollo, Duke of Normandy_, printed in 1637 as by "B.J.F.,"
+  is matter of varied speculation. Mr Oliphant thinks the basis of the
+  play to be an early work (c. 1604) of Beaumont, on which is
+  superimposed a revision (1616) by Fletcher, Jonson and Middleton, and
+  a subsequent revision (1636-1637) by Massinger. The general view is
+  that the main portion of the play is referable to Jonson and Fletcher.
+  Jonson apparently had a share in Fletcher's _Love's Pilgrimage_ (pr.
+  1647), which seems to have been revised by Massinger in 1635.
+
+  _Fletcher and Shakespeare._--_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ was printed in
+  1634 as by Mr John Fletcher and Mr William Shakespeare. If its first
+  representation was in 1625 it was in the year of Fletcher's death. It
+  was included in the second folio of Beaumont and Fletcher's comedies
+  and tragedies. If Shakespeare and Fletcher worked in concert it was
+  probably in 1612-1613, and the existing play probably represents a
+  revision by Massinger in 1625. _Henry VIII._ (played at the Globe in
+  1613) is usually ascribed mainly to Fletcher and Massinger, and the
+  conditions of its production were probably similar. Fletcher and
+  Shakespeare are together credited at Stationers' Hall with the lost
+  play of _Cardenio_, destroyed by Warburton's cook.     (M. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Recent research has resulted in some variation of opinion as to
+    the precise authorship of some of the plays commonly attributed to
+    them; but this article, contributed to the ninth edition of the
+    _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, remains the classical modern criticism of
+    Beaumont and Fletcher, and its value is substantially unaffected. As
+    representing to the end the views of its distinguished author, it is
+    therefore retained as written, the results of later research being
+    epitomized in the Bibliographical Appendix at the end. (_Ed._)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUMONT, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+situated on the Neches river, in the E. part of the state, about 28 m.
+from the Gulf of Mexico and 72 m. N.E. of Galveston. Pop. (1890) 3296;
+(1900) 9427, of whom 2953 were negroes; (1910, census) 20,640. It is
+served by the Gulf & Interstate, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the
+Kansas City Southern, the Texas & New Orleans, the Colorado Southern,
+New Orleans & Pacific, the Beaumont, Sour Lake & Western (from Beaumont
+to Sour Lake, Tex.), and the (short) Galveston, Beaumont & North-Eastern
+railways. The Neches river from Beaumont to its mouth has a depth of not
+less than 19 ft.; from its mouth extends a canal (9 ft. deep, 100 ft.
+wide, and 12 m. long) which connects with the Port Arthur Canal (180 ft.
+wide and 25 ft. deep) extending to the sea. Situated in the midst of a
+region covered with dense forests of pine and cypress, Beaumont is one
+of the largest lumber centres of the southern states; it is also the
+centre of a large rice-growing region. The manufactories include rice
+mills, saw mills, sash, door and blind factories, shingle mills, iron
+works, oil refineries, broom factories and a dynamite factory. In 1905
+the cleaning and polishing of rice was the most important industry, its
+output being valued at $1,203,123, being nearly twice the value of the
+product of the rice mills of the city in 1900, 25.9% of the total value
+of the state's product of polished and cleaned rice, 46.1% of the value
+($2,609,829) of all of Beaumont's factory products, and about 7.4% of
+the value of the product of polished and cleaned rice for the whole
+United States in 1905. After the sinking of oil wells in 1901, Beaumont
+became one of the principal oil-producing places in the United States;
+its oil refineries are connected by pipe lines with the surrounding oil
+fields, and two 6-in. pipe lines extend from Beaumont to Oklahoma.
+Beaumont was first settled in 1828, and was first chartered as a city in
+1899.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUNE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Cote-d'Or, on the Bouzoise, 23 m. S.S.W. of Dijon on the
+main line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 11,668. Beaune lies at
+the foot of the hills of Cote-d'Or. Portions of its ancient
+fortifications are still to be seen, but they have been for the most
+part replaced by a shady promenade which separates the town from its
+suburbs. The most interesting feature of Beaune is the old hospital of
+St Esprit, founded in 1443 by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of Burgundy.
+Though it is built largely of wood, the fabric is in good preservation.
+The exterior is simple, but the buildings which surround the main
+courtyard have high-pitched roofs surmounted by numerous dormer windows
+with decorated gables, recalling the Flemish style of architecture. In
+the interior there are several interesting apartments; the chief of
+these is the ample council chamber with its fine tapestries, where an
+important wine sale is held annually. The hospital possesses many
+artistic treasures, among them the mural paintings of the 17th century
+in the Salle St Hugues and an altar-piece, the Last Judgment, attributed
+to Roger van der Weyden. The principal church of the town, Notre-Dame,
+dating mainly from the 12th and 13th centuries, has a fine central tower
+and a triple portal with handsome wooden doors. In the interior there is
+some valuable tapestry of the 15th century, and other works of art. Two
+round towers (15th century) are a survival of the castle of Beaune,
+dismantled by Henry IV. A belfry of 1403 and several houses of the
+Renaissance period, some of which are built over ancient wine-cellars,
+are architecturally notable. There is a statue to the mathematician, G.
+Monge, born in the town (1746), and a monument to Pierre Joigneaux the
+politician (d. 1892). Beaune has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a chamber of commerce, a school of agriculture and viticulture
+and colleges for girls and boys. It carries on considerable trade in
+live-stock and cereals and in the vegetables of its market-gardens, and
+manufactures of casks, corks, white metal, oil, vinegar and machinery
+for the wine-trade are included among the industries; it is chiefly
+important for its vineyards and as the centre of the wine-trade of
+Burgundy.
+
+Beaune was a fortified Roman camp and a stronghold during the middle
+ages. It was the capital of a separate county which in 1227 was united
+to the duchy of Burgundy; it then became the first seat of the
+Burgundian parlement or _jours generaux_ and a ducal residence. On the
+death of Charles the Bold, it sided with his daughter, Mary of Burgundy,
+but was besieged and taken by the forces of Louis XI. in 1478. Its rank
+as commune, conceded to it in 1203, was confirmed by Francis I. in 1521.
+In the Wars of Religion it at first sided with the League, but
+afterwards opened its gates to the troops of Henry IV., from whom it
+received the confirmation of its communal privileges and permission to
+demolish its fortifications. The revocation of the edict of Nantes
+struck a severe blow at the cloth and iron industries, which had
+previously been a source of prosperity to the town. In the 18th century
+there were no fewer than seven monastic buildings in Beaune, besides a
+Bernardine abbey, a Carthusian convent and an ecclesiastical college.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE (c. 1772-?), French adventurer, the son of a
+poor vinegrower named Leuthraud, was born about 1772. He received the
+name Beauregard from a nobleman in whose service he was engaged as
+valet. On the outbreak of the revolution, this nobleman converted all
+his fortune into gold, and entrusting the bag containing the cash to his
+valet, fled to the frontier. For security's sake master and man took
+different roads, but Beauregard turned back with the money to Paris. By
+speculations in provisions and military equipments under the
+Directorate he amassed a considerable fortune, and styling himself the
+marquis de Beauregard, purchased a splendid mansion and began giving
+magnificent entertainments. Detected at the height of his success, the
+impostor was arrested and condemned to four years in irons and to be
+branded. He soon escaped from prison, and had the audacity to reappear
+in Paris and start his old life afresh. After a short time, however, he
+disappeared again, and is supposed to have committed suicide. It is
+probable that most of the information available about him is a blend of
+fact and fiction.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT (1818-1893), American soldier, was
+born near New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 28th of May 1818. At the United
+States military academy he graduated second in his class in July 1838,
+and was appointed lieutenant of engineers. In the Mexican War he
+distinguished himself in siege operations at Vera Cruz, and took part in
+all the battles around Mexico, being wounded at Chapultepec, and
+receiving the brevets of captain and major. In 1853 he became captain
+and was in charge of fortification and other engineer works of various
+points, on the Gulf coast from 1853 to 1860. He had just been appointed
+superintendent of West Point when the secession of his state brought
+about his resignation (20th February 1861). As a brigadier-general of
+the new Confederate army he directed the bombardment of Fort Sumter,
+S.C. As the commander of the Southern "Army of the Potomac" he opposed
+McDowell's advance to Bull Run, and during the battle was second in
+command under Joseph E. Johnston, who had joined him on the previous
+evening. He was one of the five full generals appointed in August 1861,
+and in 1862 was second in command under Sidney Johnston on the
+Tennessee. After Johnston's death he directed the battle of Shiloh,
+subsequent to which he retired to Corinth. This place he defended
+against the united armies under Halleck, until the end of May 1862, when
+he retreated in good order to the southward. His health now failing, he
+was employed in less active work. He defended Charleston against the
+Union forces from September 1862 to April 1864. In May 1864 he fought a
+severe and eventually successful battle at Drury's Bluff against General
+Butler and the Army of the James. Later in the year he endeavoured to
+gather troops wherewith to oppose Sherman's advance from Atlanta, and
+eventually surrendered with Johnston's forces in April 1865. After the
+war he engaged in railway management, became adjutant-general of his
+state and managed the Louisiana lottery. He declined high commands which
+were offered to him in the Rumanian and later in the Egyptian armies.
+General Beauregard died in New Orleans on the 20th of February 1893. He
+was the author of _Principles and Maxims of the Art of War_ (Charleston,
+1863); _Report on the Defence of Charleston_ (Richmond, 1864).
+
+  See Alfred Roman, _Military Operations of General Beauregard_ (New
+  York, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE (1659-1738), French Protestant divine, was born at
+Niort on the 8th of March 1659. After studying theology at the
+Protestant academy of Saumur, he was ordained at the age of twenty-two,
+becoming pastor at Chatillon-sur-Indre. After the revocation of the
+edict of Nantes he fled to Rotterdam (November 1685), and in 1686 was
+appointed chaplain to the princess of Dessau, Henrietta Catherine of
+Orange. In 1693, on the death of the prince of Dessau, he went to Berlin
+and became chaplain to the court at Oranienbaum, and in 1695 pastor of
+the French church at Berlin. He became court preacher, counsellor of the
+Consistory, director of the _Maison francaise_, a hospice for French
+people, inspector of the French gymnasium and superintendent of all the
+French churches in Brandenburg. He died on the 5th of June 1738. He had
+strong sense with profound erudition, was one of the best writers of his
+time and an excellent preacher.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUVAIS, a town of northern France, capital of the department of Oise,
+49 m. N. by W. of Paris, on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 17,045.
+Beauvais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the left bank of the
+Therain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its ancient ramparts have
+been destroyed, and it is now surrounded by boulevards, outside which
+run branches of the Therain. In addition, there are spacious promenades
+in the north-east of the town. Its cathedral of St Pierre, in some
+respects the most daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists
+only of a transept and choir with apse and seven apse-chapels. The
+vaulting in the interior exceeds 150 ft. in height. The small Romanesque
+church of the 10th century known as the Basse-Oeuvre occupies the site
+destined for the nave. Begun in 1247, the work was interrupted in 1284
+by the collapse of the vaulting of the choir, in 1573 by the fall of a
+too ambitious central tower, after which little addition was made. The
+transept was built from 1500 to 1548. Its facades, especially that on
+the south, exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved
+wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are masterpieces
+respectively of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship. The church possesses
+an elaborate astronomical clock (1866) and tapestries of the 15th and
+17th centuries; but its chief artistic treasures are stained glass
+windows of the 13th, 14th and 16th centuries, the most beautiful of them
+from the hand of the Renaissance artist, Engrand Le Prince, a native of
+Beauvais. To him also is due some of the stained glass in St. Etienne,
+the second church of the town, and an interesting example of the
+transition stage between the Romanesque and Gothic styles.
+
+In the Place de l'Hotel de Ville and in the old streets near the
+cathedral there are several houses dating from the 12th to the 16th
+centuries. The hotel de ville, close to which stands the statue of
+Jeanne Hachette (see below), was built in 1752. The episcopal palace,
+now used as a court-house, was built in the 16th century, partly upon
+the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The industry of Beauvais comprises,
+besides the state manufacture of tapestry, which dates from 1664, the
+manufacture of various kinds of cotton and woollen goods, brushes, toys,
+boots and shoes, and bricks and tiles. Market-gardening flourishes in
+the vicinity and an extensive trade is carried on in grain and wine.
+
+The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assizes; it
+has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, together with a chamber
+of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a higher ecclesiastical
+seminary, a lycee and training colleges.
+
+Beauvais was known to the Romans as _Caesaromagus_, and took its present
+name from the Gallic tribe of the Bellovaci, whose capital it was. In
+the 9th century it became a countship, which about 1013 passed to the
+bishops of Beauvais, who ultimately became peers of France. In 1346 the
+town had to defend itself against the English, who again besieged it in
+1433. The siege which it suffered in 1472 at the hands of the duke of
+Burgundy was rendered famous by the heroism of the women, under the
+leadership of Jeanne Hachette, whose memory is still celebrated by a
+procession on the 14th of October (the feast of Ste Angadreme), in which
+the women take precedence of the men.
+
+  See V. Lhuillier, _Choses du vieux Beauvais et au Beauvaisis_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+BEAUVILLIER, the name of a very ancient French family belonging to the
+country around Chartres, members of which are found filling court
+offices from the 15th century onward. For Charles de Beauvillier,
+gentleman of the chamber to the king, governor and _bailli_ of Blois,
+the estate of Saint Aignan was created a countship in 1537. Francois de
+Beauvillier, comte de Saint Aignan, after having been through the
+campaigns in Germany (1634-1635), Franche-Comte (1636), and Flanders
+(1637), was sent to the Bastille in consequence of his having lost the
+battle of Thionville in 1640. In reward for his devotion to the court
+party during the Fronde he obtained many signal favours, and Saint
+Aignan was raised to a duchy in the peerage of France (duche-pairie) in
+1663. His son Paul, called the duc de Beauvillier, was several times
+ambassador to England; he became chief of the council of finance in
+1685, governor of the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou and Berri from 1689 to
+1693, minister of state in 1691, and grandee of Spain in 1701. He
+married a daughter of Colbert. Paul Hippolyte de Beauvillier, comte de
+Montresor, afterwards duc de Saint Aignan, was ambassador at Madrid from
+1715 to 1718 and at Rome in 1731, and a member of the council of regency
+in 1719.     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE, the _nom de plume_ of EUGENE AUGUSTE ROGER DE BULLY
+(1806-1866), French writer, who was born on the 8th of November 1806 in
+Paris. He was the son and nephew of public officials who did not approve
+his literary inclinations, and it was at their request that he wrote
+over the signature of Roger de Beauvoir. A good-looking young fellow, of
+independent means, an indefatigable _viveur_, he astonished all Paris
+with his ostentatious luxury and his adventures, while his romantic
+novels gave him a more serious if not durable reputation. Among the best
+of them are _L'Ecolier de Cluny ou le Sophisme_ (1832), which is said to
+have furnished Alexandre Dumas and Theodore Gaillardet (1808-1882) with
+the idea of the _Tour de Nesle_, and _Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_
+(1840). He had married in 1847 an actress, Eleonore Leocadie Doze
+(1822-1859), from whom he obtained a judicial separation a year or two
+later after a long and notorious trial, following which his
+mother-in-law got him imprisoned for three months and fined 500 francs
+for a satirical poem, _Mon Proces_ (1849). Ruined by extravagance and
+tied to his chair by gout, he spent the last years of his life in
+retirement, and died in Paris on the 27th of August 1866.
+
+
+
+
+BEAUX, CECILIA (1863-   ), American portrait-painter, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became a pupil of William Sartain.
+But her real art training was obtained in Paris, where she started in
+the _atelier_ Julian and had the coaching of painters like
+Robert-Fleury, Bouguereau and Dagnan Bouveret. In 1890 she exhibited at
+the Paris Exposition. Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in
+1893 the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge
+prize at the New York National Academy, and later various other
+distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy of Design, New
+York, in 1902. Among her portraits are those of Bishop-Coadjutor Greer
+(exhibited at the Salon in 1896); Mrs Roosevelt and her daughter; and
+Mrs Larz Anderson. Her "Dorothea and Francesca," and "Ernesta and her
+Little Brother," are good examples of her skill in painting children.
+
+
+
+
+BEAVER,[1] the largest European aquatic representative of the mammalian
+order RODENTIA (q.v.), easily recognized by its large trowel-like, scaly
+tail, which is expanded in the horizontal direction. The true beaver
+(_Castor fiber_) is a native of Europe and northern Asia, but it is
+represented in North America by a closely-allied species (_C.
+canadensis_), chiefly distinguished by the form of the nasal bones of
+the skull. Beavers are nearly allied to the squirrels (_Sciuridae_),
+agreeing in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull.
+In the _Sciuridae_ the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower
+half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the
+habits are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or _Castoridae_
+these bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is
+depressed, expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic. Beavers have
+webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double. In length
+beavers--European and American--measure about 2 ft. exclusive of the
+tail, which is about 10 in. long. They are covered with a fur to which
+they owe their chief commercial value; this consists of two kinds of
+hair--the one close-set, silky and of a greyish colour, the other much
+coarser and longer, and of a reddish brown. Beavers are essentially
+aquatic in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by
+necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver has not only
+been exterminated there, but likewise in most of the countries of the
+continent, although a few remain on the Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of
+Scandinavia. The American species is also greatly diminished in numbers
+from incessant pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur. Beavers are
+sociable anirrals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water
+of sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and boughs
+of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the neighbourhood
+they make their "lodges," which are roomy chambers, with the entrance
+beneath the water. The mud is plastered down by the fore-feet, and not,
+as often supposed, by the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder.
+They are mainly nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the
+roots of water plants. The dam differs in shape according to the nature
+of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it is almost
+straight; where the current is considerable it is curved, with its
+convexity towards the stream. The materials made use of are driftwood,
+green willows, birch and poplars; also mud and stones intermixed in such
+a manner as contributes to the strength of the dam, but there is no
+particular method observed, except that the work is carried on with a
+regular sweep, and that all the parts are made of equal strength. "In
+places," writes Hearne, "which have been long frequented by beavers
+undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank,
+capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as the
+willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by
+degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some
+places so tall that birds have built their nests among the branches."
+Their houses are formed of the same materials as the dams, with little
+order or regularity of structure, and seldom contain more than four old,
+and six or eight young beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of
+the larger houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts
+of the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for the
+apartments have usually no communication with each other except by
+water. The beavers carry the mud and stones with their fore-paws and the
+timber between their teeth. They always work in the night and with great
+expedition. They cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud,
+which, freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone,
+so that neither wolves nor wolverines can disturb their repose.
+
+The favourite food of the American beaver is the water-lily (_Nuphar
+luteum_), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk, and grows at the
+bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also gnaw the bark of birch, poplar
+and willow trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the
+addition of berries, is consumed. When the ice breaks up in spring they
+always leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before the
+fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations, and lay in
+their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to repair the houses till
+the frost sets in, and never finish the outer coating till the cold
+becomes severe. When they erect a new habitation they fell the wood
+early in summer, but seldom begin building till towards the end of
+August.
+
+The flesh of the American beaver is eaten by the Indians, and when
+roasted in the skin is esteemed a delicacy and is said to taste like
+pork. _Castoreum_ is a substance contained in two pear-shaped pouches
+situated near the organs of reproduction, of a bitter taste and slightly
+foetid odour, at one time largely employed as a medicine, but now used
+only in perfumery.
+
+Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial
+deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the
+Pleistocene formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant
+extinct beaver, _Trogontherium cuvieri_, representing a genus by itself.
+
+  For an account of beavers in Norway see R. Collett, in the _Bergens
+  Museum Aarbog_ for 1897. See also R.T. Martin, _Castorologia, a
+  History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver_ (London, 1892).
+       (R. L.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf.
+    Sanskrit _babhrus_, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. _fiber_, Ger.
+    _Biber_, Swed. _bafver_, Russ. _bobr'_; the root _bhru_ has given
+    "brown," and, through Romanic, "bronze" and "burnish."
+
+
+
+
+BEAVER (from Fr. _baviere_, a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva), the
+lower part of the helmet, fixed to the neck-armour to protect the face
+and cheeks; properly it moved upwards, as the visor moved down, but the
+word is sometimes used to include the visor. The right form of the word,
+"baver," has been altered from a confusion with "beaver," a hat made of
+beaver-fur or a silk imitation, also, in slang, called a "castor," from
+the zoological name of the beaver family.
+
+
+
+
+BEAVER DAM, a city of Dodge county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated in the
+S.E. part of the state, 63 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, on Beaver Lake, which
+is 9 m. long and 3 m. wide. Pop. (1890) 4222; (1900) 5128, of whom 1023
+were foreign-born; (1905) 5615; (1910) 6758. Most of the population is
+of German descent. Beaver Dam is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St
+Paul railway. The city is a summer resort, has a public library, and is
+the seat of Wayland Academy (1855, Baptist), a co-educational
+preparatory school affiliated with the university of Chicago. Beaver Dam
+is situated in the midst of a fine farming country; it has a good
+water-power derived from Beaver Lake, and among its manufactures are
+woollen and cotton goods, malleable iron, foundry products, gasolene
+engines, agricultural implements, stoves and beer. The city was first
+settled about 1841, and was incorporated in 1856.
+
+
+
+
+BEAVER FALLS, a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on
+Beaver river, about 3-1/2 m. from its confluence with the Ohio, opposite
+New Brighton, and about 32 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 9735;
+(1900) 10,054, of whom 1554 were foreign-born; (1910), census, 12,191.
+The borough is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie
+railways. It is built for the most part on a plateau about 50 ft. above
+the river, hemmed in on either side by hills that rise abruptly,
+especially on the W., to a height of more than 200 ft. Bituminous coal,
+natural gas and oil abound in the vicinity; the river provides excellent
+water-power; the borough is a manufacturing centre of considerable
+importance, its products including iron and steel bridges, boilers,
+steam drills, carriages, saws, files, axes, shovels, wire netting,
+stoves, glass-ware, scales, chemicals, pottery, cork, decorative tile,
+bricks and typewriters. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued
+at $4,907,536. Geneva College (Reformed Presbyterian, co-educational),
+established in 1849 at Northwood, Logan county, Ohio, was removed in
+1880 to the borough of College Hill (pop. in 1900, 899), 1 m. N. of
+Beaver Falls; it has a preparatory and a collegiate department,
+departments of music, oratory and art, and a physical department, and in
+1907-1908 had 13 instructors and 235 students. Beaver Falls was first
+settled in 1801; was laid out as a town and named Brighton in 1806;
+received its present name a few years later; and in 1868 was
+incorporated as a borough.
+
+
+
+
+BEAWAR, or NAYANAGAR, a town of British India, the administrative
+headquarters of Merwara district in Ajmere-Merwara. It is 33 m. from
+Ajmere. Pop. (1901) 21,928. It is an important centre of trade,
+especially in raw cotton, and has cotton presses and the Krishna cotton
+mills. It was founded by Colonel Dixon in 1835.
+
+
+
+
+BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST (1840- ), German socialist, was born at Cologne
+on the 22nd of February 1840; he became a turner and worked at Leipzig.
+Here he took a prominent part in the workmen's movement and in the
+association of working men which had been founded under the influence of
+Schultz-Delitzsch; at first an opponent of socialism, he came under the
+influence of Liebknecht, and after 1865 he was a confirmed advocate of
+socialism. With Liebknecht he belonged to the branch of the socialists
+which was in close correspondence with Karl Marx and the International,
+and refused to accept the leadership of Schweitzer, who had attempted to
+carry on the work after Lassalle's death. He was one of those who
+supported a vote of want of confidence in Schweitzer at the Eisenach
+conference in 1867, from which his party was generally known as "the
+Eisenacher." In this year he was elected a member of the North German
+Reichstag for a Saxon constituency, and, with an interval from 1881 to
+1883, remained a member of the German parliament. His great organizing
+talent and oratorical power quickly made him one of the leaders of the
+socialists and their chief spokesman in parliament. In 1870 he and
+Liebknecht were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary
+subsidy required for the war with France; the followers of Lassalle, on
+the other hand, voted for the government proposals. He was the only
+Socialist who was elected to the Reichstag in 1871, but he used his
+position to protest against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and to
+express his full sympathy with the Paris Commune. Bismarck afterwards
+said that this speech of Bebel's was a "ray of light," showing him that
+Socialism was an enemy to be fought against and crushed; and in 1872
+Bebel was accused in Brunswick of preparation for high treason, and
+condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress, and, for insulting
+the German emperor, to nine months' ordinary imprisonment. After his
+release he helped to organize, at the congress of Gotha, the united
+party of Social Democrats, which had been formed during his
+imprisonment. After the passing of the Socialist Law he continued to
+show great activity in the debates of the Reichstag, and was also
+elected a member of the Saxon parliament; when the state of siege was
+proclaimed in Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886
+condemned to nine months' imprisonment for taking part in a secret
+society. Although the rules of the Social Democratic party do not
+recognize a leader or president, Bebel subsequently became by far the
+most influential member of the party. In the party meetings of 1890 and
+1891 his policy was severely attacked, first by the extremists, the
+"young" Socialists from Berlin, who wished to abandon parliamentary
+action; against these Bebel won a complete victory. On the other side he
+was involved in a quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put
+aside from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the
+Socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bringing
+about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual amelioration.
+This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel came to be regarded as
+the chief exponent of the traditional views of the orthodox Marxist
+party. He was exposed to some natural ridicule on the ground that the
+"Kladderadatsch," which he often spoke of as imminent, failed to make
+its appearance. On the other hand, though a strong opponent of
+militarism, he publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany
+must not expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. His
+book, _Die Frau und der Socialismus_ (1893), which went through many
+editions and contained an attack on the institution of marriage,
+identified him with the most extreme forms of Socialism.
+
+  See also Mehring, _Geschichte der deutschen Social-Demokratie_
+  (Stuttgart, 1898); _Reports of the Annual Meetings of the Social
+  Democratic Party_, Berlin Vorwarts Publishing Company (from 1890); B.
+  Russell, _German Social-Democracy_ (London, 1897).     (J. W. He.)
+
+
+
+
+BECCAFICO (Ital. for "fig-pecker"), a small migratory bird of the
+warbler (_Sylviidae_) family, which frequents fig-trees and vineyards,
+and, when fattened, is considered a great delicacy.
+
+
+
+
+BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE (1486-1551), Italian painter, of the school
+of Siena. In the early days of the Tuscan republics Siena had been in
+artistic genius, and almost in political importance, the rival of
+Florence. But after the great plague in 1348 the city declined; and
+though her population always comprised an immense number of skilled
+artists and artificers, yet her school did not share in the general
+progress of Italy in the 15th century. About the year 1500, indeed,
+Siena had no native artists of the first importance; and her public and
+private commissions were often given to natives of other cities. But
+after the uncovering of the works of Raphael and Michelangelo at Rome in
+1508, all the schools of Italy were stirred with the desire of imitating
+them. Among these accomplished men who now, without the mind and
+inspiration of Raphael or Michelangelo, mastered a great deal of their
+manner, and initiated the decadence of Italian art, several of the most
+accomplished arose in the school of Siena. Among these was Domenico, the
+son of a peasant, one Giacomo di Pace, who worked on the estate of a
+well-to-do citizen named Lorenzo Beccafumi. Seeing some signs of a
+talent for drawing in his labourer's son, Lorenzo Beccafumi took the boy
+into his service and presently adopted him, causing him to learn
+painting from masters of the city. Known afterwards as Domenico
+Beccafumi, or earlier as Il Mecarino (from the name of a poor artist
+with whom he studied), the peasant's son soon gave proof of
+extraordinary industry and talent. In 1509 he went to Rome and steeped
+himself in the manner of the great men who had just done their first
+work in the Vatican. Returning to his native town, Beccafumi quickly
+gained employment and a reputation second only to Sodoma. He painted a
+vast number both of religious pieces for churches and of mythological
+decorations for private patrons. But the work by which he will longest
+be remembered is that which he did for the celebrated pavement of the
+cathedral of Siena. For a hundred and fifty years the best artists of
+the state had been engaged laying down this pavement with vast designs
+in _commesso_ work,--white marble, that is, engraved with the outlines
+of the subject in black, and having borders inlaid with rich patterns in
+many colours. From the year 1517 to 1544 Beccafumi was engaged in
+continuing this pavement. He made very ingenious improvements in the
+technical processes employed, and laid down multitudinous scenes from
+the stories of Ahab and Elijah, of Melchisedec, of Abraham and of Moses.
+These are not so interesting as the simpler work of the earlier schools,
+but are much more celebrated and more jealously guarded. Such was their
+fame that the agents of Charles I. of England, at the time when he was
+collecting for Whitehall, went to Siena expressly to try and purchase
+the original cartoons. But their owner would not part with them, and
+they are now in the Siena Academy and elsewhere. The subjects have been
+engraved on wood, by the hand, as it seems, of Beccafumi himself, who at
+one time or another essayed almost every branch of fine art. He made a
+triumphal arch and an immense mechanical horse for the procession of the
+emperor Charles V. on his entry into Siena. In his later days, being a
+solitary liver and continually at work, he is said to have accelerated
+his death by over-exertion upon the processes of bronze-casting.
+
+
+
+
+BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1716-1781), Italian physicist, was born at
+Mondovi on the 3rd of October 1716, and entered the religious order of
+the Pious Schools in 1732. He became professor of experimental physics,
+first at Palermo and then at Rome, and was appointed to a similar
+situation at Turin in 1748. He was afterwards made tutor to the young
+princes de Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally
+at Turin during the remainder of his life. In May 1755 he was elected a
+fellow of the Royal Society of London, and published several papers on
+electrical subjects in the _Phil. Trans_. He died at Turin on the 27th
+of May 1781. Beccaria did much, in the way both of experiment and
+exposition, to spread a knowledge of the electrical researches of
+Franklin and others. His principal work was the treatise _Dell'
+Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale_ (1753), which was translated into
+English in 1776.
+
+
+
+
+BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE, MARCHESE DE (1735-1794), Italian publicist,
+was born at Milan on the 15th of March 1735. He was educated in the
+Jesuit college at Parma, and showed at first a great aptitude for
+mathematics. The study of Montesquieu seems to have directed his
+attention towards economic questions; and his first publication (1762)
+was a tract on the derangement of the currency in the Milanese states,
+with a proposal for its remedy. Shortly after, in conjunction with his
+friends the Verris, he formed a literary society, and began to publish a
+small journal, in imitation of the _Spectator_, called _Il Caffe_. In
+1764 he published his brief but justly celebrated treatise _Dei Delitti
+e delle Pene_ ("On Crimes and Punishments"). The weighty reasonings of
+this work were expounded with all the additional force of a clear and
+animated style. It pointed out distinctly and temperately the grounds of
+the right of punishment, and from these principles deduced certain
+propositions as to the nature and amount of punishment which should be
+inflicted for any crime. The book had a surprising success. Within
+eighteen months it passed through six editions. It was translated into
+French by Morellet in 1766, and published with an anonymous commentary
+by Voltaire. An English translation appeared in 1768 and it was
+translated into several other languages. Many of the reforms in the
+penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable to
+Beccaria's treatise. In November 1768 he was appointed to the chair of
+law and economy, which had been founded expressly for him at the
+Palatine college of Milan. His lectures on political economy, which are
+based on strict utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with
+the theories of the English school of economists. They are published in
+the collection of Italian writers on political economy (_Scrittori
+Classici Italiani di Economia politico_., vols. xi. and xii.). In 1771
+Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic council; and in 1791
+he was appointed one of the board for the reform of the judicial code.
+In this post his labours were of very great value. He died at Milan on
+the 28th of November 1794.
+
+
+
+
+BECCLES, a market town and municipal borough, in the Lowestoft
+parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; on the right bank of the
+river Waveney, 109 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway.
+Pop. (1901) 6898. It has a pleasant, well-wooded site overlooking the
+flat lands bordering the Waveney. The church of St Michael, wholly
+Perpendicular, is a fine example of the style, having an ornate south
+porch of two storeys and a detached bell tower. There are a grammar
+school (1712), and boys' school and free school on the foundation of Sir
+John Leman (1631). Rose Hall, in the vicinity, is a moated manor of
+brick, of the 16th century. Printing works, malting, brick and tile, and
+agricultural implement works are the chief industries. Beccles was
+incorporated in 1584. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 2017 acres.
+
+
+
+
+BECERRA, GASPAR (1520-1570), Spanish painter and sculptor, was born at
+Baeza in Andalusia. He studied at Rome, it is said under Michelangelo,
+and assisted Vasari in painting the hall of the Concelleria. He also
+contributed to the anatomical plates of Valverde. After his return to
+Spain he was extensively employed by Philip II., and decorated many of
+the rooms in the palace at Madrid with frescoes. He also painted
+altar-pieces for several of the churches, most of which have been
+destroyed. His fame as a sculptor almost surpassed that as a painter.
+His best work was a magnificent figure of the Virgin, which was
+destroyed during the French war. He became court painter at Madrid in
+1563, and played a prominent part in the establishment of the fine arts
+in Spain.
+
+
+
+
+BECHE-DE-MER (sometimes explained as "sea-spade," from the shape of the
+prepared article, but more probably from the Port, _bicho_, a worm or
+grub), or TREPANG (Malay, _tripang_), an important food luxury among the
+Chinese and other Eastern peoples, connected with the production of
+which considerable trade exists in the Eastern Archipelago and the
+coasts of New Guinea, and also in California. It consists of several
+species of echinoderms, generally referred to the genus _Holothuria_,
+especially _H. edulis_. The creatures, which exist on coral reefs, have
+bodies from 6 to 15 in. long, shaped like a cucumber, hence their name
+of "sea-cucumbers." The skin is sometimes covered with spicules or
+prickles, and sometimes quite smooth, and with or without "teats" or
+ambulacral feet disposed in rows. Five varieties are recognized in the
+commerce of the Pacific Islands, the finest of which is the "brown with
+teats." The large black come next in value, followed by the small black,
+the red-bellied and the white. They are used in the gelatinous soups
+which form an important article of food in China. They are prepared for
+use by being boiled for about twenty minutes, and then dried first in
+the sun and afterwards over a fire, so that they are slightly smoked.
+
+
+
+
+BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM (1635-1682), German chemist, physician, scholar and
+adventurer, was born at Spires in 1635. His father, a Lutheran minister,
+died while he was yet a child, leaving a widow and three children. The
+mother married again; the stepfather spent the tiny patrimony of the
+children; and at the age of thirteen Becher found himself responsible not
+only for his own support but also for that of his mother and brothers. He
+learned and practised several small handicrafts, and devoting his nights
+to study of the most miscellaneous description earned a pittance by
+teaching. In 1654, at the age of nineteen, he published an edition of
+Salzthal's _Tractatus de lapide trismegisto_; his _Metallurgia_ followed
+in 1660; and the next year appeared his _Character pro notitia linguarum
+universali_, in which he gives 10,000 words for use as a universal
+language. In 1663 he published his _Oedipum Chemicum_ and a book on
+animals, plants and minerals (_Thier- Krauter- und Bergbuch_). At the same
+time he was full of schemes, practical and unpractical. He negotiated with
+the elector palatine for the establishment of factories at Mannheim;
+suggested to the elector of Bavaria the creation of German colonies in
+Guiana and the West Indies; and brought down upon himself the wrath of the
+Munich merchants by planning a government monopoly of cloth manufacture
+and of trade. He fled from Munich, but found a ready welcome elsewhere. In
+1666 he was appointed teacher of medicine at Mainz and body-physician to
+the archbishop-elector; and the same year he was made councillor of
+commerce (_Commerzienrat_) at Vienna, where he had gained the powerful
+support of Albrecht, Count Zinzendorf, prime minister and grand
+chamberlain of the emperor Leopold I. Sent by the emperor on a mission to
+Holland, he there wrote in ten days his _Methodus Didactica_, which was
+followed by the _Regeln der Christlichen Bundesgenossenschaft_ and the
+_Politischer Discurs vom Auj- und Abbluhen der Stadte_. In 1669 he
+published his _Physica subterranea_, and the same year was engaged with
+the count of Hanau in a scheme for settling a large territory between the
+Orinoco and the Amazon. Meanwhile he had been appointed physician to the
+elector of Bavaria; but in 1670 he was again in Vienna advising on the
+establishment of a silk factory and propounding schemes for a great
+company to trade with the Low Countries and for a canal to unite the Rhine
+and Danube. He then returned to Bavaria, and his absence bringing him into
+ill odour at Vienna, he complained of the incompetence of the council of
+commerce and dedicated a tract on trade (_Commercien-Tractat_) to the
+emperor Leopold. His _Psychosophia_ followed, and "An invitation to a
+psychological community" (_Einladung zu einer psychologischen Societat_),
+for the realization of which Duke Gustavus Adolphus of Mecklenburg-Gustrow
+(d. 1695) offered him in 1674 a site in his duchy. The plan came to
+nothing, and next year Becher was again busy at Vienna, trying to
+transmute Danube sand into gold, and writing his _Theses chemicae
+veritatem transmutationis metallorum evincentes_. For some reason he
+incurred the disfavour of Zinzendorf and fled to Holland, where with the
+aid of the government he continued his experiments. Pursued even there by
+the resentment of his former patron, he crossed to England, whence he
+visited the mines of Scotland at the request of Prince Rupert. He
+afterwards went for the same purpose to Cornwall, where he spent a year.
+At the beginning of 1680 he presented a paper to the Royal Society, _De
+nova temporis dimetiendi ratione et accurata horologiorum constructione_,
+in which he attempted to deprive Huygens of the honour of applying the
+pendulum to the measurement of time. The views of Becher on the
+composition of substances mark little essential advance on those of the
+two preceding centuries, and the three elements or principles of salt,
+mercury and sulphur reappear as the vitrifiable, the mercurial and the
+combustible earths. When a substance was burnt he supposed that the last
+of these, the _terra pinguis_, was liberated, and this conception is the
+basis on which G.E. Stahl founded his doctrine of "phlogiston." His ideas
+and experiments on the nature of minerals and other substances are
+voluminously set forth in his _Physica Subterranea_ (Frankfort, 1669); an
+edition of this, published at Leipzig in 1703, contains two supplements
+(_Experimentum chymicum novum_ and _Demonstratio Philosophica_), proving
+the truth and possibility of transmuting metals, _Experimentum novum ac
+curiosum de minera arenaria perpetua_, the paper on timepieces already
+mentioned and also _Specimen Becherianum_, a summary of his doctrines by
+Stahl, who in the preface acknowledges indebtedness to him in the words
+_Becheriana sunt quae profero_. At Falmouth he wrote his _Laboratorium
+portabile_ and at Truro the _Alphabetum minerale_. In 1682 he returned to
+London, where he wrote the _Chemischer Gluckshafen oder grosse Concordanz
+und Collection van 1500 Processen_ and died in October of the same year.
+
+
+
+
+BECHUANA, a South African people, forming a branch of the great
+Bantu-Negroid family. They occupy not only Bechuanaland, to which they
+have given their name, and Basutoland, but are the most numerous native
+race in the Orange River Colony and in the western and northern
+districts of the Transvaal. It seems certain that they reached their
+present home later than the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples who came down the
+east coast of the continent, but it is probable that they started on
+their southward journey before the latter. It would appear that the
+forerunners of the movement were the Bakalahari and Balala, who were
+subsequently reduced to the condition of serfs by the later arrivals,
+and who by intermingling to a certain extent with the aborigines gave
+rise to the "Kalahari Bushmen" (see KALAHARI DESERT). The Bechuana
+family may be classed in two great divisions, the western or Bechuana
+proper, and the eastern or Basuto. The Bechuana proper consist of a
+large number of tribes, whose early history is extremely confused and
+involved owing to continual inter-tribal wars and migrations, during
+which many tribes were practically annihilated. Further confusion was
+produced by subsequent marauding expeditions by the coast "Kaffirs." An
+ingenious attempt to disentangle the highly complicated tribal movements
+which took place in the early 19th century may be found in Stow's
+_Native Races of South Africa_. One migration of particular interest
+calls for mention. In the early part of the 19th century a number of
+Basuto, led by the chief Sebituane, crossed the Zambezi near the
+Victoria Falls, and, under the name Makololo, established a supremacy
+over the Barotse and neighbouring tribes on the upper portion of the
+river, imposing their language on the conquered peoples. After the death
+of Sekeletu, Sebituane's successor, the vassal tribes arose and
+exterminated their conquerors. Only a few escaped, whom Sekeletu had
+sent with David Livingstone to the coast. These established themselves
+to the south of Lake Nyasa, where they are still to be found. Sesuto
+speech, however, still prevails in Barotseland. The chief Bechuana
+tribes were the Batlapin and Barolong (the last including the Baratlou,
+Bataung, Barapulana and Baseleka), together with the great Bakuena or
+Bakone people (including the Bahurutsi, Batlaru, Bamangwato, Batauana,
+Bangwaketse and Bakuena). The clans representing the southern Bakuena
+were in comparatively recent times welded together to form the Basuto
+nation, of which the founder was the chief Moshesh (see BASUTOLAND). The
+Basuto have been not only influenced in certain cultural details (e.g.
+the form of their huts) by the neighbouring Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples,
+but have moreover received an infusion of their blood which has improved
+their physique. They are good riders and make considerable use of their
+horses in war and the chase.
+
+The Bechuana, though not so tall as Kaffirs, average 5 ft. 6 in. in
+stature; they are of slender build and their musculature is but
+moderately developed except where a Kaffir strain is found. Their skin
+is of a reddish-brown or bronze colour, and their features are fairly
+regular, though in all cases coarser than those of Europeans. One of
+their chief peculiarities lies in the fact that each tribe respects
+(usually) a particular animal, which the members of the tribe may not
+eat, and the killing of which, if necessary, must be accompanied by
+profuse apologies and followed by subsequent purification. Many of the
+tribes take their name from their _siboko_, as the animal in question is
+called; e.g. the Batlapin, "they of the fish"; Bakuena, "they of the
+crocodile." The _siboko_ of the Barolong, who as a tribe are
+accomplished smiths, is not an animal but the metal iron; other tribes
+have adopted as their particular emblem respectively the sun, rain, dew,
+&c. Certain ceremonies are performed in honour of the tribal emblem,
+hence an inquiry as to the tribe of an individual is put in the form
+"What do you dance?" In certain tribes the old and feeble and the sickly
+children were killed, and albinos and the deaf and dumb exposed; those
+born blind were strangled, and if a mother died in childbirth the infant
+was buried alive in the same grave. With the extension of British
+authority these practices were prohibited. Circumcision is universally
+practised, though there is no fixed age for it. It is performed at
+puberty, when the boys are secluded for a period in the bush. The
+operation is accompanied by whipping and even tortures. Girls at puberty
+must undergo trials of endurance, e.g. the holding of a bar of heated
+iron without crying out. The Bechuana inhabit, for the most part, towns
+of considerable size, containing from 5000 to 40,000. Politically they
+live under a tribal despotism limited by a council of elders, the chief
+seldom exercising his individual authority independently, though the
+extent of his power naturally depends on his personality. They have
+their public assemblies, but only when circumstances, chiefly in
+reference to war, require. These are generally characterized by great
+freedom of speech, and there is no interruption of the speaker. The
+chief generally closes the meeting with a long speech, referring to the
+subjects which each speaker has either supported or condemned, not
+forgetting to clear his own character of any imputation. These public
+assemblies are now, except in Basutoland, of very rare occurrence. The
+clothing of the men consists of a leather bandage; the women wear a skin
+apron, reaching to the knee, under which is a fringed girdle. Skin
+cloaks (_kaross_) are worn by both sexes, with the difference that the
+male garment is distinguished by a collar. The hair is kept short for
+the most part; women shave the head, leaving a tuft on the crown which
+is plastered with fat and earth, and adorned with beads. Beads are worn,
+and various bracelets of iron, copper and brass.
+
+The Bechuana are mainly an agricultural people, the Bangwaketse and
+Bakuena excelling as cultivators. Cattle they possess, but these are
+used chiefly for the purpose of purchasing wives, especially among the
+Basuto. At the same time they are excellent craftsmen, and show no
+little skill in smelting and working iron and copper and the preparation
+of hides and pottery vessels. The most efficient smiths are the Barolong
+and Bamangwato (the latter were spared by the Matabele chief Umsilikazi
+on this account); the Bangwaketse excel as potters; the Barolong as wood
+carvers, and the Bakuena as hut builders. The huts, with the exception
+of those of the Basuto who have adopted the Kaffir model, are
+cylindrical, with clay-plastered walls and a conical roof of thatch. In
+spite of the constant tribal feuds dating from the beginning of the 19th
+century, the Bechuana cannot be classed as a warlike people, especially
+when they are compared with the Zulu. Their weapons consist of the
+throwing assegai, usually barbed, axes, daggers in carved sheaths, and,
+occasionally, bows and arrows, the last sometimes poisoned. Hide shields
+of a peculiar shape, resembling a depressed hour-glass, are found except
+among the Basuto, who use a somewhat different pattern. Hunting usually
+takes the form of great drives organized in concert, and the game is
+driven by means of converging fences to a large pitfall or series of
+pits. Their religious beliefs are very vague; they appear to recognize a
+somewhat indeterminate spirit of, mainly, evil tendencies, called
+_Morimo_. The plural form of this word, _Barimo_, is used of the _manes_
+of dead ancestors, to whom a varying amount of reverence is paid. There
+is universal belief in charms and witchcraft, and divination by means of
+dice is common. Witchdoctors, who are supposed to counteract evil magic,
+play a not insignificant part, and the magician who claims the power of
+making rain occupies a very important position, as might be expected
+among an agricultural people inhabiting a country where droughts are not
+infrequent. They have a great dread of anything connected with death;
+when an old man is on the point of expiring, a net is thrown over him,
+and he is dragged from his hut by a hole in the wall, if possible before
+life is extinct. The dead are buried in a sitting position with their
+faces to the north, in which direction lies their ancestral home. Under
+the influence of missionaries, however, large numbers of the Bechuana
+have become Christianized, and many of the customs mentioned are no
+longer practised.
+
+Polygamy is the rule, but, except in the case of chiefs, is not found to
+the same extent as among the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffirs]. The woman is purchased
+from her father, chiefly by means of cattle, though among the western
+Bechuana other articles are included, many of which become the property
+of the girl herself. The wives live in separate huts, and the first is
+given priority over those purchased subsequently. Chastity after
+marriage is the rule, and adultery and rape are severely punished, as
+offences against property. Cannibalism is found, but is rare and
+confined to certain tribes.
+
+The Bechuana language, which belongs to the Bantu linguistic family, is
+copious, with but few slight dialectic differences, and is free from the
+Hottentot elements found in the Kaffir and Zulu tongues. The richness of
+the language may be judged from the fact that, though only oral until
+reduced to writing by the missionaries, it has sufficed for the
+translation of the whole Bible.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G.W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_ (London,
+  1905); Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrikas_ (Breslau, 1872);
+  Robert Moffat, _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_
+  (1842); David Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South
+  Africa_ (London, 1857); J.C. MacGregor, _Basuto Traditions_ (Cape
+  Town, 1905).     (T. A. J.)
+
+
+
+
+BECHUANALAND (a name given from its inhabitants, the Bechuana, q.v.), a
+country of British South Africa occupying the central part of the vast
+tableland which stretches north to the Zambezi. It is bounded S. by the
+Orange river, N.E. and E. by Matabeleland, the Transvaal and Orange
+River Colony, and W. and N. by German South-West Africa. Bechuanaland
+geographically and ethnically enjoys almost complete unity, but
+politically it is divided as follows:--
+
+I. British Bechuanaland, since 1895 an integral part of Cape Colony.
+Area, 51,424 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 84,210, of whom 9276 were whites.
+
+II. The Bechuanaland Protectorate, the northern part of the country,
+governed on the lines of a British crown colony. Area (estimated),
+225,000 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 120,776, of whom Europeans numbered 1004. The
+natives, in addition to the Bechuana tribes, include some thousands of
+Bushmen (Masarwa). Administratively attached to the protectorate is the
+Tati concession, which covers 2500 sq. m. and forms geographically the
+south-west corner of Matabeleland.
+
+The Griqualand West province of Cape Colony belongs also geographically
+to Bechuanaland, and except in the Kimberley diamond mines region is
+still largely inhabited by Bechuana. (See GRIQUALAND.)
+
+_Physical Features._--The average height of the tableland of which
+Bechuanaland consists is nearly 4000 ft. The surface is hilly and
+undulating with a general slope to the west, where the level falls in
+considerable areas to little over 2000 ft. A large part of the country
+is covered with grass or shrub, chiefly acacia. There is very little
+forest land. The western region, the Kalahari Desert (q.v.), is mainly
+arid, with a sandy soil, and is covered in part by dense bush. In the
+northern region are large marshy depressions, in which the water is
+often salt. The best known of these depressions, Ngami (q.v.), lies to
+the north-west and is the central point of an inland water system
+apparently in process of drying up. To the north-east and connected with
+Ngami by the Botletle river, is the great Makari-Kari salt pan, which
+also drains a vast extent of territory, receiving in the rainy season a
+large volume of water. The marsh then becomes a great lake, the water
+surface stretching beyond the horizon, while in the dry season a mirage
+is often seen. The permanent marsh land covers a region 60 m. from south
+to north and from 30 to 60 m. east to west. In the south the rivers,
+such as the Molopo and the Kuruman, drain towards the Orange. Other
+streams are tributaries of the Limpopo, which for some distance is the
+frontier between Bechuanaland and the Transvaal.
+
+The rivers of Bechuanaland are, with few exceptions, intermittent or
+lose themselves in the desert. It is evident, however, from the extent
+of the beds of these streams and of others now permanently dry, and from
+remains of ancient forests, that at a former period the country must
+have been abundantly watered. From the many cattle-folds and walls of
+defence scattered over the country, and ruins of ancient settlements, it
+is also evident that at that period stone-dykes were very common. The
+increasing dryness of the land is partly, perhaps largely, attributable
+to the cutting down of timber trees both by natives and by whites, and
+to the custom of annually burning the grass, which is destructive to
+young wood.
+
+_Climate._--The climate is healthy and bracing, except in the lower
+valleys along the river banks and in the marsh land, where malarial
+fever is prevalent. Though in great part within the tropics, the heat is
+counteracted by the dryness of the air. Throughout the year the nights
+are cool and refreshing; in winter the cold at night is intense. In the
+western regions the rainfall does not exceed 10 in. in the year; in the
+east the average rainfall is 26 in. and in places as much as 30 in. The
+rainy season is the summer months, November to April, but the rains are
+irregular, and, from the causes already indicated, the rainfall is
+steadily declining. From December to February violent thunder and hail
+storms are experienced. In the whiter or dry season there are occasional
+heavy dust storms.
+
+_Geology._--The greater part of Bechuanaland is covered with superficial
+deposits consisting of the sands of the desert regions of the Kalahari
+and the alluvium and saliferous marls of the Okavango basin. The oldest
+rocks, granites, gneisses and schistose sandstones, the Ngami series,
+rise to the surface in the east and south-east and doubtless immediately
+underlie much of the sand areas. A sandstone found in the neighbourhood
+of Palapye is considered to be the equivalent of the Waterberg formation
+of the Transvaal. The Karroo formation and associate dolerites
+(_Loalemandelstein_) occur in the same region. A deposit of sinter and a
+calcareous sandstone, known as the Kalahari Kalk, considered by Dr
+Passarge to be of Miocene age, overlies a sandstone and curious breccia
+(_Botletle Schnichten_). These deposits are held by Passarge to indicate
+Tertiary desert conditions, to which the basin of the Zambezi is slowly
+reverting.
+
+_Fauna._--Until towards the close of the 19th century Bechuanaland
+abounded in big game, and the Kalahari is still the home of the lion,
+leopard, hyena, jackal, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, buffalo,
+antelope of many species, ostrich and even the giraffe. Venomous
+reptiles, e.g. puff-adders and cobras, are met with, enormous frogs are
+common, and walking and flying locusts, mosquitoes, white ants, flying
+beetles, scorpions, spiders and tarantulas are very numerous. The
+crocodile is found in some of the rivers. Many of the rivers are well
+stocked with fish. In those containing water in the rainy season only,
+the fish preserve life when the bed is dry by burrowing deeply in the
+ooze before it hardens. The principal fish are the baba or cat-fish
+(_clarias_ sp.) and the yellow-fish, both of which attain considerable
+size. Bustards (the great kori and the koorhaan) are common.
+
+_Flora._--In the eastern district are stretches of grass land, both
+sweet and sour veld. In the "bush" are found tufts of tall coarse grass
+with the space between bare or covered with herbaceous creepers or
+water-bearing tubers. A common creeper is one bearing a small scarlet
+cucumber, and a species of watermelon called _tsoma_ is also abundant.
+Of the melon and cucumber there are both bitter and sweet varieties.
+Besides the grass and the creepers the bush is made up of berry-yielding
+bushes (some of the bushes being rich in aromatic resinous matter), the
+wait-a-bit thorn and white thorned mimosa. The indigo and cotton plants
+grow wild. Among the rare big trees--found chiefly in the
+north-east--are baobab and palmyra and certain fruit trees, one bearing
+a pink plum. There are remains of ancient forests consisting of wild
+olive trees and the camel thorn, near which grows the _ngotuane_, a
+plant with a profusion of fine, strongly scented yellow flowers.
+
+_Chief Towns._--The chief town in southern Bechuanaland, i.e. the part
+incorporated in Cape Colony, is Mafeking (q.v.), near the headwaters of
+the Molopo river. It is the headquarters of the Barolong tribe, and
+although within the Cape border is the seat of the administration of the
+protectorate. Vryburg (pop., 1904, 2985), founded by Boer filibusters in
+1882, and Taungs, are towns on the railway between Kimberley and
+Mafeking. Taungs has some 22,000 inhabitants, being the chief kraal of
+the Batlapin tribe. About 7 m. south of Vryburg, at Tiger Kloof, is an
+Industrial Training Institute for natives founded in 1904 by the London
+Missionary Society. Upington (2508) on the north bank of the Orange, an
+agricultural centre, is the chief town in Gordonia, the western division
+of southern Bechuanaland. Kuruman (q.v.) is a native town near the
+source of the Kuruman river, 85 m. south-west of Vryburg. It has been
+the scene of missionary labours since the early years of the 19th
+century. North of Mafeking on the railway to Bulawayo are the small
+towns of Gaberones and Francistown. The last named is the chief township
+in the Tati concession, the centre of a gold-mining region, and the most
+important white settlement in the protectorate. Besides these places
+there are five or six large native towns, each the headquarters of a
+distinct tribe. The most important is Serowe, with over 20,000
+inhabitants, the capital of the Bamangwato, founded by the chief Khama
+in 1903. It is about 250 m. north-north-east of Mafeking, and took the
+place of the abandoned capital Palapye, which in its turn had succeeded
+Shoshong. The chief centre in the western Kalahari is Lehututu.
+
+_Agriculture and Trade._--The soil is very fertile, and if properly
+irrigated would yield abundant harvests. Unirrigated land laid under
+wheat by the natives is said to yield twelve bushels an acre. Cereals
+are grown in many of the river valleys. Maize and millet are the chief
+crops. The wealth of the Bechuana consists principally in their cattle,
+which they tend with great care, showing a shrewd discrimination in the
+choice of pasture suited to oxen, sheep and goats. Water can usually be
+obtained all the year round by sinking wells from 20 to 30 ft. deep. The
+"sweet veld" is specially suitable to cattle, and the finer shorter
+grass which succeeds it affords pasturage for sheep.
+
+Gold mines are worked in the Tati district, the first discoveries having
+been made there in 1864. There are gold-bearing quartz reefs at Madibi,
+near Mafeking, where mining began in 1906. Diamonds have been found near
+Vryburg. The existence of coal near Palapye about 60 ft. below the
+surface has been proved. The coal, however, is not mined, and much of
+the destruction of timber in southern Bechuanaland was caused by the
+demand for fuel for Kimberley. Copper ore has been found near
+Francistown.
+
+Formerly there was a trade in ostrich feathers and ivory; but this has
+ceased, and the chief trade has since consisted in supplying the natives
+with European goods in exchange for cattle, hides, the skins and horns
+of game, firewood and fencing poles, and in forwarding goods north and
+south. The protectorate is a member of the South African Customs Union.
+The value of the goods imported into the protectorate in 1906 was
+L118,322; the value of the exports was L77,736. The sale of spirits to
+natives is forbidden.
+
+_Communications._--As the great highway from Cape Colony to the north,
+Bechuanaland has been described as the "Suez canal of South Africa." The
+trunk railway from Cape Town to the Victoria Falls traverses the eastern
+edge of Bechuanaland throughout its length. The railway enters the
+country at Fourteen Streams, 695 m. from Cape Town, and at Ramaquabane,
+584 m. farther north, crosses into Rhodesia. The old trade route to
+Bulawayo, which skirts the eastern edge of the Kalahari, is now rarely
+used. Wagon tracks lead to Ngami, 320 m. N.W. from Palapye Road Station,
+and to all the settlements. From the scarcity of water on the main
+routes through the Kalahari these roads are known as "the thirsts";
+along some of them wells have been sunk by the administration.
+
+_Government._--The protectorate is administered by a resident
+commissioner, responsible to the high commissioner for South Africa.
+Legislation is enacted by proclamations in the name of the high
+commissioner. Order is maintained by a small force of semi-military
+police recruited in Basutoland and officered by Europeans. Revenue is
+obtained mostly from customs and a hut tax, while the chief items of
+expenditure have been the police force and a subsidy of L20,000 per
+annum towards the cost of the railway, a liability which terminated in
+the year 1908. The average annual revenue for the five years ending the
+31st of March 1906 was L30,074; the average annual expenditure during
+the same period was L80,114. There is no public debt, the annual
+deficiency being made good by a grant-in-aid from the imperial
+exchequer. The tribal organization of the Bechuana is maintained, and
+native laws and customs, with certain modifications, are upheld.
+
+
+  Missionary work.
+
+_History._--Bechuanaland was visited by Europeans towards the close of
+the 18th century. The generally peaceful disposition of the tribes
+rendered the opening up of the country comparatively easy. The first
+regular expedition to penetrate far inland was in 1801-1802, when John
+(afterwards Sir John) Truter, of the Cape judicial bench, and William
+Somerville--an army physician and afterwards husband of Mary
+Somerville--were sent to the Bechuana tribes to buy cattle. The London
+Missionary Society established stations in what is now Griqualand West
+in 1803, and in 1818 the station of Kuruman, in Bechuanaland proper, was
+founded. In the meantime M.H.K. Lichtenstein (1804) and W.J. Burchell
+(1811-1812), both distinguished naturalists, and other explorers, had
+made familiar the general characteristics of the southern part of the
+country. The Rev. John Campbell, one of the founders of the Bible
+Society, also travelled in southern Bechuanaland and the adjoining
+districts in 1812-1814 and 1819-1821, adding considerably to the
+knowledge of the river systems. About 1817 Mosilikatze, the founder of
+the Matabele nation, fleeing from the wrath of Chaka, the Zulu king,
+began his career of conquest, during which he ravaged a great part of
+Bechuanaland and enrolled large numbers of Bechuana in his armies.
+Eventually the Matabele settled to the north-east in the country which
+afterwards bore their name. In 1821 Robert Moffat arrived at Kuruman as
+agent of the London Missionary Society, and made it his headquarters for
+fifty years. Largely as the result of the work of Moffat (who reduced
+the Bechuana tongue to writing), and of other missionaries, the Bechuana
+advanced notably in civilization. The arrival of David Livingstone in
+1841 marked the beginning of the systematic exploration of the northern
+regions. His travels, and those of C.J. Andersson (1853-1858) and
+others, covered almost every part of the country hitherto unknown. In
+1864 Karl Mauch discovered gold in the Tati district.
+
+
+  Boer encroachment.
+
+At the time of the first contact of the Bechuana with white men the Cape
+government was the only civilized authority in South Africa; and from
+this cause, and the circumstance that the missionaries who lived among
+and exercised great influence over them were of British nationality, the
+connexion between Bechuanaland and the Cape became close. As early as
+1836 an act was passed extending the jurisdiction of the Cape courts in
+certain cases as far north as 25 deg. S.--a limit which included the
+southern part of Bechuanaland. Although under strong British influence
+the country was nevertheless ruled by its own chiefs, among whom the
+best-known in the middle of the 19th century were Montsioa, chief of the
+Barolong, and Sechele, chief of the Bakwena and the friend of
+Livingstone. At this period the Transvaal Boers were in a very unsettled
+state, and those living in the western districts showed a marked
+inclination to encroach upon the lands of the Bechuana. In 1852 Great
+Britain by the Sand river convention acknowledged the independence of
+the Transvaal. Save the Vaal river no frontier was indicated, and
+"boasting," writes Livingstone in his _Missionary Travels_, "that the
+English had given up all the blacks into their power ... they (the
+Boers) assaulted the Bakwains" (Bakwena).
+
+With this event the political history of Bechuanaland may be said to
+have begun. Not only was Sechele attacked at his capital Kolobeng, and
+the European stores and Livingstone's house there looted, but the Boers
+stopped a trader named M'Cabe from going northward. Again to quote
+Livingstone, "The Boers resolved to shut up the interior and I
+determined to open the country." In 1858 the Boers told the missionaries
+that they must not go north without their (the Boers') consent. Moffat
+complained to Sir George Grey, the governor of Cape Colony, through
+whose intervention the molestation by Transvaal Boers of British
+subjects in their passage through Bechuanaland was stopped. At a later
+date (1865) the Boers tried to raise taxes from the Barolong, but
+without success, a commando sent against them in 1868 being driven off
+by Montsioa's brother Molema. This led to a protest (in 1870) from
+Montsioa, which he lodged with a landdrost at Potchefstroom in the
+Transvaal, threatening to submit the matter to the British high
+commissioner if any further attempt at taxation were made on the part of
+the Boers. The Boers then resorted to cajolery, and at a meeting held in
+August 1870, at which President Pretorius and Paul Kruger represented
+the Transvaal, invited the Barolong to join their territories with that
+of the republic, in order to save them from becoming British. Montsioa's
+reply was short: "No one ever spanned-in an ass with an ox in one yoke."
+In the following year the claims of the Boers, the Barolong, and other
+tribes were submitted to the arbitration of R.W. Keate,
+lieutenant-governor of Natal, and his award placed Montsioa's territory
+outside the limits of the Transvaal. This attempt of the Boers to gain
+possession of Bechuanaland having failed, T.F. Burgers, the president of
+the Transvaal in 1872, endeavoured to replace Montsioa as chief of the
+Barolong by Moshette, whom he declared to be the rightful ruler and
+paramount chief of that people. The attacks of the Boers at length
+became so unbearable that Montsioa in 1874 made a request to the British
+authorities to be taken under their protection. In formulating this
+appeal he declared that when the Boers were at war with Mosilikatze,
+chief of the Matabele, he had aided them on the solemn understanding
+that they were to respect his boundaries. This promise they had broken.
+Khama, chief of the Bamangwato in northern Bechuanaland, wrote in August
+1876 to Sir Henry Barkly making an appeal similar to that sent by the
+Barolong. The letter contained the following significant passages:
+
+  "I write to you, Sir Henry, in order that your queen may preserve for
+  me my country, it being in her hands. The Boers are coming into it,
+  and I do not like them." "Their actions are cruel among us black
+  people. We are like money, they sell us and our children." "I ask Her
+  Majesty to defend me, as she defends all her people. There are three
+  things which distress me very much--war, selling people, and drink.
+  All these things I shall find in the Boers, and it is these things
+  which destroy people to make an end of them in the country. The custom
+  of the Boers has always been to cause people to be sold, and to-day
+  they are still selling people."
+
+
+  Stellaland and Goshen.
+
+The statements of Khama in this letter do not appear to have been
+exaggerated. The testimony of Livingstone confirms them, and even a
+Dutch clergyman, writing in 1869, described the system of apprenticeship
+of natives which obtained among the Boers "as slavery in the fullest
+sense of the word." These representations on the part of the Barolong,
+and the Bamangwato under Khama, supported by the representations of Cape
+politicians, led in 1878 to the military occupation of southern
+Bechuanaland by a British force under Colonel (afterwards General Sir
+Charles) Warren. A small police force continued to occupy the district
+until April 1881, but, ignoring the wishes of the Bechuana and the
+recommendations of Sir Bartle Frere (then high commissioner), the home
+government refused to take the country under British protection. On the
+withdrawal of the police, southern Bechuanaland fell into a state of
+anarchy, nor did the fixing (on paper) of the frontier between it and
+the Transvaal by the Pretoria convention of August 1881 have any
+beneficial effect. There was fighting between Montsioa and Moshette,
+while Massow, a Batlapin chief, invited the aid of the Boers against
+Mankoroane, who claimed to be paramount chief of the Batlapin. The
+Transvaal War of that date offered opportunities to the freebooting
+Boers of the west which were not to be lost. At this time the British,
+wearied of South African troubles, were disinclined to respond to native
+appeals for help. Consequently the Boers proceeded without let or
+hindrance with their conquest and annexation of territory. In 1882 they
+set up the republic of Stellaland, with Vryburg as its capital, and
+forthwith proceeded to set up the republic of Goshen, farther north, in
+spite of the protests of Montsioa, and established a small town called
+Rooi Grond as capital. They then summoned Montsioa to quit the
+territory. The efforts of the British authorities at this period
+(1882-1883) to bring about a satisfactory settlement were feeble and
+futile, and fighting continued until peace was made entirely on Boer
+lines. The Transvaal government was to have supreme power, and to be the
+final arbiter in case of future quarrels arising among the native
+chiefs. This agreement, arrived at without any reference to the British
+government, was a breach of the Pretoria convention, and led to an
+intimation on the part of Great Britain that she could not recognize the
+new republics. In South Africa, as well as in England, strong feeling
+was aroused by this act of aggression. Unless steps were taken at once,
+the whole of Bechuanaland might be permanently lost, while German
+territory on the west might readily be extended to join with that of the
+Boers. In the London convention of February 1884, conceded by Lord Derby
+in response to the overtures of Boer delegates, the Transvaal boundaries
+were again defined, part of eastern Bechuanaland being included in Boer
+territory. In spite of the convention the Boers remained in Stellaland
+and Goshen--which were west of the new Transvaal frontier, and in April
+1884 the Rev. John Mackenzie, who had succeeded Livingstone, was sent to
+the country to arrange matters. He found very little difficulty in
+negotiating with the various Bechuana chiefs, but with the Boers he was
+not so successful. In Goshen the Boers defied his authority, while in
+Stellaland only a half-hearted acceptance of it was given. At the
+instance of the new Cape government, formed in May and under control of
+the Afrikander Bond, Mackenzie, who was accused of being too
+"pro-Bechuana" and who had been refused the help of any armed force, was
+recalled on the 30th of July by the high commissioner, Sir Hercules
+Robinson. In his place Cecil Rhodes, then leader of the Opposition in
+the Cape parliament, was sent to Bechuanaland.
+
+
+  Rhodes's Mission.
+
+  Warren expedition.
+
+Rhodes's mission was attended with great difficulty. British prestige
+after the disastrous Boer War of 1881 was at a very low ebb, and he
+realized that he could not count on any active help from the imperial or
+colonial authorities. He adopted a tone of conciliation, and decided
+that the Stellaland republic should remain under a sort of British
+suzerainty. But in Goshen the Boers would let him do nothing. Commandant
+P.J. Joubert, after meeting him at Rooi Grond, entered the country and
+attacked Montsioa. Rhodes then left under protest, declaring that the
+Boers were making war against Great Britain. The Boers now (10th of
+September) proclaimed the country under Transvaal protection. This was a
+breach of the London convention, and President Kruger explained that the
+steps had been taken in the "interests of humanity." Indignant protest
+in Cape Town and throughout South Africa, as well as England, led to the
+despatch in October 1884 of the Warren expedition, which was sent out by
+the British government to remove the filibusters, to bring about peace
+in the country, and to hold it until further measures were decided upon.
+Before Sir Charles Warren reached Africa, Sir Thomas Upington, the Cape
+premier, and Sir Gordon Sprigg, the treasurer-general, went to
+Bechuanaland and arranged a "settlement" which would have left the Boer
+filibusters in possession, but the imperial government refused to take
+notice of this "settlement." Public opinion throughout Great Britain was
+too strong to be ignored. The limit of concessions to the Boers had been
+reached, and Sir Charles Warren's force--4000 strong--had reached the
+Vaal river in January 1885. On the 22nd of January Kruger met Warren at
+the Modder river, and endeavoured to stop him from proceeding farther,
+saying that he would be responsible for keeping order in the country.
+Warren, however, continued his march, and without firing a shot broke up
+the republics of Stellaland and Goshen. Bechuanaland was formally taken
+under British protection (30th of September 1885), and the sphere of
+British influence was declared to extend N. to 22 deg. S. and W. to 20
+deg. E. (which last-mentioned line marks the eastern limit of German
+South-West Africa).
+
+
+  British protectorate.
+
+The natives cheerfully accepted this new departure in British policy,
+and from this time forward Khama's country was known as the British
+protectorate of Bechuanaland. That portion lying to the south of the
+Molopo river was described as British Bechuanaland, and was constituted
+a crown colony. In 1891 the northern frontier of the protectorate was
+extended to its present boundaries, and the whole of it placed under the
+administration of a resident commissioner, a protest being made at the
+time by the British South Africa Company on the ground that the
+protectorate was included in the sphere of their charter. Under the able
+administration (1885-1895) of Sir Sidney Shippard (q.v.) peace was
+maintained among the natives, who have shown great loyalty to British
+rule.
+
+The history of the country shows how much has been due to the efforts of
+men like Livingstone, Mackenzie and Rhodes. It is quite clear that had
+they not represented the true state of affairs to the authorities the
+whole of this territory would have gradually been absorbed by the Boers,
+until they had effected a union with the Germans on the west. The great
+road to the north would thus have been effectually shut against trade
+and British colonization. With regard to the precise effect of
+missionary influence upon the natives, opinion will always remain
+divided. But Livingstone, who was not only a missionary but also an
+enlightened traveller, stated that a considerable amount of benefit had
+been conferred upon the native races by missionary teaching. Livingstone
+was a great advocate of the prohibition of alcohol among the natives,
+and that policy was always adhered to by Khama.
+
+In 1891 the South African Customs Union was extended to British
+Bechuanaland, and in 1895 the country was annexed to Cape Colony. At the
+same time it was provisionally arranged that the Bechuanaland
+protectorate should pass under the administration of the British South
+Africa Company (see RHODESIA). Khama and two other Bechuana chiefs came
+to England and protested against this arrangement. The result was that
+their territories and those of other petty chiefs lying to the north of
+the Molopo were made native reserves, into which the importation of
+alcohol was forbidden. A British resident officer was to be appointed to
+each of the reserves. A stipulation, however, was made with these chiefs
+that a strip of country sufficient for the purposes of a railway to
+Matabeleland should be conceded to the Chartered Company. In December
+1895 the occurrence of the Jameson Raid, which started from these
+territories, prevented the completion of negotiations, and the
+administration of the protectorate remained in the hands of the imperial
+government. The administration, besides fostering the scanty material
+resources of the country, aids the missionaries in their endeavours to
+raise the Bechuanas in the scale of civilization. The results are full
+of encouragement. The natives proved staunch to the British connexion
+during the war of 1899-1902, and Khama and other chiefs gave help by
+providing transport. Anxiety was caused on the western frontier during
+the German campaigns against the Hottentots and Herero (1903-1908), many
+natives seeking refuge in the protectorate. A dispute concerning the
+chieftainship of the Batawana in the Ngami district threatened trouble
+in 1906, but was brought to a peaceful issue. The Bechuana were entirely
+unaffected by the Kaffir rebellion in Natal.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of early works the most valuable are David Livingstone,
+  _Missionary Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1857); Robert Moffat,
+  _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_ (London, 1842); J.
+  Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1815), _Travels ... a
+  Second Journey_ ... (2 vols., London, 1822); and A.A. Anderson,
+  _Twenty-five Years in a Waggon in the Gold Regions of Africa_, vol. i.
+  (London, 1887). See also J.D. Hepburn, _Twenty Years in Khama's
+  Country_ (London, 1895); S. Passarge's _Die Kalahari_ (Berlin, 1904)
+  deals chiefly with geological and allied questions; John Mackenzie's
+  _Austral Africa, Losing it or Ruling it_ (London, 1887); _John
+  Mackenzie_, a biography by W.D. Mackenzie (London, 1902); and the
+  article "Bechuanaland" by Sir S. Shippard in _British Africa_ (London,
+  1899), give the story of the beginnings of British rule in the
+  protectorate. Of larger works dealing incidentally with Bechuanaland
+  consult G.M. Theal's _History of South Africa_; E.A. Pratt's _Leading
+  Points in South African History_ (London, 1900); and _Cecil Rhodes,
+  His Political Life and Speeches_, by Vindex (London, 1900). See also
+  the _Statistical Register, Cape of Good Hope_, issued yearly at Cape
+  Town, and the _Annual Report, Bechuanaland Protectorate_, issued by
+  the Colonial Office, London.     (F. R. C.; A. P. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (1757-1832), German philologist, historian,
+theologian and antiquarian, one of the most learned men of his time, was
+born at Leipzig on the 22nd of January 1757. He studied at Leipzig
+University, where he was appointed (1785) professor of Greek and Latin
+literature. This post he resigned in 1819 in order to take up the
+professorship of history, but resumed it in 1825. He also had the
+management of the university library, was director of the institute for
+the deaf and dumb, and filled many educational and municipal offices. In
+1784 he founded a philological society, which grew into a philological
+seminary, superintended by him until his death. In 1808 he was made a
+_Hofrath_ by the king of Saxony, and in 1820 a knight of the civil order
+of merit. His philological lectures, in which grammar and criticism were
+subordinated to history, were largely attended by hearers from all parts
+of Germany. He died at Leipzig on the 13th of December 1832. He edited a
+number of classical authors: _Pedo Albinovanus_ (1783), Pindar and the
+Scholia (1792-1795), Aristophanes (with others, 1794, &c.), Euripides
+(1778-1788), Apollonius Rhodius (1797), Demosthenes _De Pace_ (1799),
+Plato (1813-1819), Cicero (1795-1807), Titus Calpurnius Siculus (1803).
+He translated Ferguson's _Fall of the Roman Republic_ and Goldsmith's
+_History of Greece_, and added two volumes to Bauer's Thucydides. He
+also wrote on theological and historical subjects, and edited
+philological and bibliographical journals. He possessed a large and
+valuable library of 24,000 volumes.
+
+  See Nobbe, _Vita C.D. Beckii_ (1837); and G. Hermann, _Opuscula_, v.
+  312.
+
+
+
+
+BECK (or BEEK), DAVID (1621-1656), Dutch portrait-painter, was born at
+Arnheim in Guelderland. He was trained by Van Dyck, from whom he
+acquired the fine manner of pencilling and sweet style of colouring
+peculiar to that great master. He possessed likewise that freedom of
+hand and readiness, or rather rapidity of execution, for which Van Dyck
+was so remarkable, insomuch that when King Charles I. observed the
+expeditious manner of Beck's painting, he exclaimed, "Faith! Beck, I
+believe you could paint riding post." He was appointed portrait-painter
+and chamberlain to Queen Christina of Sweden, and he executed portraits
+of most of the sovereigns of Europe to adorn her gallery. His death at
+the Hague was suspected of being due to poisoning.
+
+
+
+
+BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND (1761-1840), German philosopher, was born at
+Danzig in 1761. Educated at Konigsberg, he became professor of
+philosophy first at Halle (1791-1799) and then at Rostock. He devoted
+himself to criticism and explanation of the doctrine of Kant, and in
+1793 published the _Erlauternder Auszug aus Kants kritischen Schriften_,
+which has been widely used as a compendium of Kantian doctrine. He
+endeavoured to explain away certain of the contradictions which are
+found in Kant's system by saying that much of the language is used in a
+popular sense for the sake of intelligibility, e.g. where Kant
+attributes to things-in-themselves an existence under the conditions of
+time, space and causality, and yet holds that they furnish the material
+of our apprehensions. Beck maintains that the real meaning of Kant's
+theory is idealism; that of objects outside the domain of consciousness,
+knowledge is impossible, and hence that nothing positive remains when we
+have removed the subjective element. Matter is deduced by the "original
+synthesis." Similarly, the idea of God is a symbolical representation of
+the voice of conscience guiding from within. The value of Beck's
+exegesis has been to a great extent overlooked owing to the greater
+attention given to the work of Fichte. Beside the three volumes of the
+_Erlauternder Auszug_, he published the _Grundriss der krit.
+Philosophie_ (1796), containing an interpretation of the Kantian
+_Kritik_ in the manner of Salomon Maimon.
+
+  See Ueberweg, _Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos. der Neuzeit_; Dilthey
+  in the _Archiv fur Geschichte der Philos._, vol. ii. (1889), pp.
+  592-650. For Beck's letters to Kant, see R. Reicke, _Aus Kants
+  Briefwechsel_ (Konigsberg, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+BECKENHAM, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary division of
+Kent, England, 10 m. S.S.E. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. (1881) 13,045; (1901) 26,331. It is a long straggling
+parish extending from the western tower of the Crystal Palace almost to
+the south end of Bromley, and contains the residential suburb of
+Shortlands. Its rapid increase in size in the last decade of the 19th
+century was owing to the popularity which it attained as a place of
+residence for London business men. It retains, however, some of its
+rural character, and has wide thoroughfares and many handsome residences
+standing in extensive grounds. King William IV.'s Naval Asylum was
+endowed by Queen Adelaide for 12 widows of naval officers. The church of
+St George was built in 1866 on the site of an ancient Perpendicular
+church. Some 16th-century brasses, an altar tomb and a piscina were
+removed hither from the old church. The tower of the church was
+completed in 1903, and furnished with two bells in memory of Cecil
+Rhodes, in addition to the old bells, one of which dates from 1624.
+
+
+
+
+BECKER, HEINRICH (1770-1822), German actor, whose real name was
+BLUMENTHAL, was born at Berlin. He obtained, while quite a young man, an
+appointment in the court theatre at Weimar, at that time under Goethe's
+auspices. The poet recognized his talent, appointed him stage-manager,
+entrusted him with several of the leading roles in his dramas and
+consulted him in all matters connected with the staging of his plays.
+For many years Becker was the favourite of the Weimar stage, and
+although he was at his best in comedy, he played, to Goethe's great
+satisfaction, Vansen in _Egmont_, and was also seen to great advantage
+in the leading parts of several of Schiller's plays; notably Burleigh in
+_Maria Stuart_, Karl Moor in _Die Rauber_, and Antonio in _Torquato
+Tasso_. Becker left Weimar in the spring of 1809, played for a short
+time at Hamburg (under Schroder) and at Breslau, and then began a
+wandering life, now joining travelling companies, now playing at
+provincial theatres. Broken in health and ruined in fortune he returned
+in 1820 to Weimar, where he was again cordially received by Goethe, who
+reinstated him at the theatre. After playing for two short years with
+indifferent success, he died at Weimar in 1822.
+
+Becker was twice married. His first wife, CHRISTIANE LUISE AMALIE BECKER
+(1778-1797), was the daughter of a theatrical manager and dramatic poet,
+Johann Christian Neumann, and made her first stage appearance in 1787 at
+Weimar. Here she received some training from Goethe and from Corona
+Schroter, the singer, and her beauty and charm made her the favourite
+both of court and public. She married Heinrich Becker in 1793. She died
+on the 22nd of September 1797. Her last part was that of Euphrosyne in
+the opera _Das Petermannchen_, and it is under this name that Goethe
+immortalized her in a poem which first appeared in Schiller's _Musen
+Almanack_ of 1799.
+
+
+
+
+BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF (1796-1846), German classical archaeologist, was
+born at Dresden. At first destined for a commercial life, he was in 1812
+sent to the celebrated school at Pforta. In 1816 he entered the
+university of Leipzig, where he studied under Beck and Hermann. After
+holding subordinate posts at Zerbst and Meissen, he was in 1842
+appointed professor of archaeology at Leipzig. He died at Meissen on the
+30th of September 1846. The works by which Becker is most widely known
+are the _Gallus_ or _Romische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts_ (1838, new
+ed. by Goll, 1880-1882), and the _Charicles_ or _Bilder altgriechischer
+Sitte_, (1840, new ed. by Goll, 1877-1878). These two books, which have
+been translated into English by Frederick Metcalfe, contain a very
+interesting description of the everyday life of the ancient Greeks and
+Romans, in the form of a romance. The notes and appendixes are valuable.
+More important is the great _Handbuch der rom. Alterthumer_ (1843-1868),
+completed after Becker's death by Marquardt and Mommsen. Becker's
+treatises _De Comicis Romanorum Fabulis_ (1837), _De Romae Veteris Muris
+atque Portis_ (1842), _Die romische Topographie in Rom_ (1844), and _Zur
+romischen Topographie_ (1845) may also be mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118-1170), by his contemporaries more commonly
+called Thomas of London, English chancellor and archbishop of Canterbury
+under Henry II., was born about the year 1118 in London. His mother was
+a native of Caen; his father, who came of a family of small Norman
+landowners, had been a citizen of Rouen, but migrated to London before
+the birth of Thomas, and held at one time the dignified office of
+portreeve, although he ended his life in straitened circumstances. The
+young Thomas received an excellent education. At the age of ten he was
+put to school with the canons of Merton priory in Surrey. Later he spent
+some time in the schools of London, which enjoyed at that time a high
+reputation, and finally studied theology at Paris. Returning at the age
+of twenty-two he was compelled, through the misfortunes of his parents,
+to become a notary in the service of a wealthy kinsman, Osbert Huit
+Deniers, who was of some importance in London politics. About 1142 a
+family friend brought Thomas under the notice of Archbishop Theobald, of
+whose household he at once became an inmate. He accompanied the primate
+to Rome in 1143, and also to the council of Reims (1148), which Theobald
+attended in defiance of a prohibition from the king. It appears to have
+been at some time between the dates of these two journeys that he
+visited Bologna and Auxerre, and began those studies in the canon law
+to which he was in no small degree indebted for his subsequent
+advancement and misfortunes. Although the bent of his mind was legal, he
+never made himself an expert jurist; but he had the art of turning his
+knowledge, such as it was, to excellent account. In 1151 he was sent to
+Rome by the archbishop with instructions to dissuade the Curia from
+sanctioning the coronation of Stephen's eldest son Eustace. It is said
+that Thomas distinguished himself by the ability with which he executed
+his commission; in any case it gave him a claim on the gratitude of the
+Angevin party which was not forgotten. In 1154 he was promoted to be
+archdeacon of Canterbury, after first taking deacon's orders. In the
+following year Henry II., at the primate's recommendation, bestowed on
+him the important office of chancellor. In this capacity Thomas
+controlled the issue of royal writs and the distribution of
+ecclesiastical patronage; but it was more important for his future that
+he had ample opportunities of exercising his personal fascination upon a
+prince who was comparatively inexperienced, and thirteen or fourteen
+years his junior. He became Henry's bosom friend and was consulted in
+all affairs of state. It had been the hope of Theobald that Becket's
+influence would be exercised to support the extensive privileges which
+the Church had wrested from Stephen. But the chancellor, although
+preserving friendly relations with his old patron, subordinated the
+interests of the Church to those of his new master. Under his
+administration the Church was severely taxed for the prosecution of
+Henry's foreign wars; and the chancellor incurred the reproach "of
+plunging his sword into the bowels of his mother." Like Wolsey he
+identified himself with the military aspirations of his sovereign. It
+was Thomas who organized the Toulouse campaign of 1159; even in the
+field he made himself conspicuous by commanding a company of knights,
+directing the work of devastation, and superintending the conduct of the
+war after the king had withdrawn his presence from the camp. When there
+was war with France upon the Norman border, the chancellor acted as
+Henry's representative; and on one occasion engaged in single combat and
+unhorsed a French knight of reputation. Later it fell to his part to
+arrange the terms of peace with France. He discharged the duties of an
+envoy with equal magnificence and dexterity; the treaty of May 1160,
+which put an end to the war, was of his making.
+
+In 1162 he was transferred to a new sphere of action. Henry bestowed on
+him the see of Canterbury, left vacant by the death of Theobald. The
+appointment caused some murmurs; since Becket, at the time when it was
+made, was still a simple deacon. But it had been desired by Theobald as
+the one means of averting an attack on clerical privileges which had
+been impending almost since the accession of Henry II.; and the bishops
+accepted it in silence. Henry on his side looked to find in Becket the
+archbishop a coadjutor as loyal as Becket the archdeacon; and
+anticipated that the Church would once more be reduced to that state of
+dependence in which she had stood during the latter years of Henry I.
+Becket, however, disappointed all the conflicting expectations excited
+by his appointment. He did not allow himself to be made the king's tool;
+nor on the other hand did he attempt to protect the Church by humouring
+the king in ordinary matters. He devoted himself to ascetic practices,
+confined himself to the society of churchmen, and resigned the
+chancellorship in spite of a papal dispensation (procured by the king)
+which authorized him to hold that office concurrently with the primacy.
+By nature a violent partisan, the archbishop now showed himself the
+uncompromising champion of his order and his see. Hence he was on the
+worst of terms with the king before a year had elapsed. They came into
+open conflict at the council of Woodstock (July 1163), when Becket
+successfully opposed the king's proposal that a land-tax, known as the
+sheriff's aid, which formed part of that official's salary, should be
+henceforth paid into the Exchequer. But there were more serious
+differences in the background. Becket had not shrunk from
+excommunicating a tenant in chief who had encroached upon the lands of
+Canterbury, and had protected against the royal courts a clerk named
+Philip de Brois who was charged with an assault upon a royal officer.
+These disputes involved questions of principle which had long occupied
+Henry's attention, and Becket's defiant attitude was answered by the
+famous Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.), in which the king defined,
+professedly according to ancient use and custom, the relations of Church
+and State. Becket and the bishops were required to give these
+constitutions their approval. Henry's demands were more defensible in
+substance than might be supposed from the manner in which he pressed
+them on the bishops. On the most burning question, that of criminous
+clerks, he offered a compromise. He was willing that the accused should
+be tried in the courts Christian provided that the punishment of the
+guilty were left to the lay power. Becket's opposition rested upon a
+casuistic interpretation of the canon law, and an extravagant conception
+of the dignity attaching to the priesthood; he showed, moreover, a
+disposition to quibble, to equivocate, and to make promises which he had
+no intention of fulfilling. His conduct may be excused on the ground
+that the bishops were subjected to unwarrantable intimidation. But when
+he renounced his promise to observe the constitutions his conduct was
+reprobated by the other bishops, although approved by the pope. It was
+fortunate for Becket's reputation that Henry punished him for his change
+of front by a systematic persecution in the forms of law. The archbishop
+was thus enabled to invoke the pope's assistance, and to quit the
+country with some show of dignity.
+
+Becket fled to France in November 1164. He at once succeeded in
+obtaining from Alexander III. a formal condemnation of the
+constitutions. But Alexander, a fugitive from Italy and menaced by an
+alliance of the emperor with an antipope, was indisposed to take extreme
+measures against Henry; and six years elapsed before the king found
+himself definitely confronted with the choice between an interdict and a
+surrender. For the greater part of this time the archbishop resided at
+the Burgundian monastery of Pontigny, constantly engaged in negotiations
+with Alexander, whose hand he desired to force, and with Henry, from
+whom he hoped to extract an unconditional submission. In 1166 Becket
+received from the pope a commission to publish what censures he thought
+fit; of which he at once availed himself to excommunicate the king's
+principal counsellors. In 1169 he took the same step against two of the
+royalist bishops. In more sweeping measures, however, the pope refused
+to support him, until in 1170 Henry infringed the rights of Canterbury
+by causing Archbishop Roger of York to crown the young king. In that
+year the threats of the pope forced Henry to a reconciliation which took
+place later at Freteval on the 22nd of July. It was a hollow truce,
+since the subject of the constitutions was not mentioned; and Thomas
+returned to England with the determination of riding roughshod over the
+king's supporters. If he had not given a definite pledge to forgive the
+bishops who had taken part in the young king's coronation, he had at
+least raised expectations that he would overlook all past offences. But
+the archbishop prevailed upon the pope to suspend the bishops, and
+before his return published papal letters which, in announcing these
+sentences, spoke of the constitutions as null and void. It was only to
+be expected that such a step, which was virtually a declaration of war
+against the king, should arouse in him the strongest feelings of
+resentment. The archbishop's murder, perpetrated within a month of his
+return to England (29th December 1170), was, however, the work of over
+zealous courtiers and regretted by no one more than Henry.
+
+Becket was canonized in 1172. Within a short time his shrine at
+Canterbury became the resort of innumerable pilgrims. Plenary
+indulgences were given for a visit to the shrine, and an official
+register was kept to record the miracles wrought by the relics of the
+saint. The shrine was magnificently adorned with the gold and silver and
+jewels offered by the pious. It was plundered by Henry VIII., to whom
+the memory of Becket was specially obnoxious; but the reformers were
+powerless to expunge the name of the saint from the Roman calendar, on
+which it still remains. Even to those who are in sympathy with the
+principles for which he fought, the posthumous reputation of Becket must
+appear strangely exaggerated. It is evident that in the course of his
+long struggle with the state he fell more and more under the dominion of
+personal motives. At the last he fought not so much for an idea as for
+the humiliation of an opponent by whom he had been ungenerously treated.
+William of Newburgh appears to express the verdict of the most impartial
+contemporaries when he says that the bishop was _zelo justitiae
+fervidus, utrum autem plene secundum scientiam novit Deus_: "burning
+with zeal for justice, but whether altogether according to wisdom God
+knows."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Original:_--The correspondence of Becket and most of
+  the contemporary biographies are collected by J.C. Robertson in
+  _Materials for the History of Thomas Becket_ (7 vols., Rolls Series,
+  1875-1885). See also the _Vie de Saint Thomas_, by Garnier de Pont
+  Sainte Maxence (ed. Hippeau, Paris, 1859). For the chronology of the
+  controversy see Eyton's _Itinerary of Henry II._
+
+  _Modern:_--Morris, _Life and Martyrdom of St Thomas Becket_ (London,
+  1885); Lhuillier, _Saint Thomas de Cantorbery_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1891-1892); J.C. Robertson, _Becket_ (London, 1859); F.W. Maitland,
+  _Roman Canon Law in the Church of England_, c. iv.; J.A. Froude in his
+  _Short Studies_, vol. iv., and Freeman in his _Historical Essays_
+  (1871), give noteworthy but conflicting appreciations.
+       (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BECKFORD, WILLIAM (1760-1844), English author, son of Alderman William
+Beckford (1709-1770), was born on the 1st of October 1760. His father
+was lord mayor of London in 1762 and again in 1769; he was a famous
+supporter of John Wilkes, and on his monument in the Guildhall were
+afterwards inscribed the words of his manly and outspoken reproof to
+George III. on the occasion of the City of London address to the king in
+1770. At the age of eleven young Beckford inherited a princely fortune
+from his father. He married Lady Margaret Gordon in 1783, and spent his
+brief married life in Switzerland. After his wife's death (1786) he
+travelled in Spain and Portugal, and wrote his _Portuguese Letters_
+(published 1834, 1835), which rank with his best work. He afterwards
+returned to England, and after selling his old house, Fonthill Abbey,
+Wiltshire, began to build a magnificent residence there, on which he
+expended in about eighteen years the sum of L273,000. His
+eccentricities, together with the strict seclusion in which he lived,
+gave rise to scandal, probably unjustified. In 1822 he sold his house,
+together with its splendid library and pictures, to John Farquhar, and
+soon after one of the towers, 260 ft. high, fell, destroying part of the
+villa in the ruins. Beckford erected another lofty structure on
+Lansdowne Hill, near Bath, where he continued to reside till his death
+in 1844. His first work, _Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary
+Painters_ (1780) was a slight, sarcastic _jeu d'esprit_. In 1782 he
+wrote in French his oriental romance, _The History of the Caliph
+Vathek_, which appeared in English, translated by the Rev. Samuel
+Henley, in 1786 and has taken its place as one of the finest productions
+of luxuriant imagination.
+
+Beckford's wealth and large expenditure, his position as a collector and
+patron of letters (he bought Gibbon's library at Lausanne), his literary
+industry, and his reputation as author of _Vathek_, make him an
+interesting figure in literary history. He had a seat in parliament from
+1784 to 1793, and again from 1806 to 1820. He left two daughters, the
+eldest of whom was married to the 10th duke of Hamilton.
+
+  Cyrus Redding's _Memoir_ (1859) is the only full biography, but
+  prolix; see Dr R. Garnett's introduction to his edition of _Vathek_
+  (1893).
+
+
+
+
+BECKINGTON (or BEKYNTON), THOMAS (c. 1390-1465), English statesman and
+prelate, was born at Beckington in Somerset, and was educated at
+Winchester and New College, Oxford. Having entered the church he held
+many ecclesiastical appointments, and became dean of the Arches in 1423;
+then devoting his time to secular affairs he was sent on an embassy to
+Calais in 1439, and to John IV., count of Armagnac, in 1442. At this
+time Beckington was acting as secretary to Henry VI., and soon after his
+return in 1443 he was appointed lord privy seal and bishop of Bath and
+Wells. The bishop erected many buildings in Wells, and died there on the
+14th of January 1465. The most important results of Beckington's
+missions to France were one Latin journal, written by himself, referring
+to the embassy to Calais; and another, written by one of his attendants,
+relating to the journey to Armagnac.
+
+  Beckington's own journal is published in the _Proceedings of the Privy
+  Council_, vol. v., edited by N.H. Nicolas (1835); and the other
+  journal in the _Official Correspondence of Thomas Bekynton_, edited by
+  G. Williams for the Rolls Series (1872), which contains many
+  interesting letters. This latter journal has been translated into
+  English by N.H. Nicolas (1828). See G.G. Perry, "Bishop Beckington and
+  Henry VI.," in the _English Historical Review_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BECKMANN, JOHANN (1739-1811), German scientific author, was born on the
+4th of June 1739 at Hoya in Hanover, where his father was postmaster and
+receiver of taxes. He was educated at Stade and the university of
+Gottingen. The death of his mother in 1762 having deprived him of his
+means of support, he went in 1763 on the invitation of the pastor of the
+Lutheran community, Anton Friedrich Busching, the founder of the modern
+historic statistical method of geography, to teach natural history in
+the Lutheran academy, St Petersburg. This office he relinquished in
+1765, and travelled in Denmark and Sweden, where he studied the methods
+of working the mines, and made the acquaintance of Linnaeus at Upsala.
+In 1766 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy at
+Gottingen. There he lectured on political and domestic economy with such
+success that in 1770 he was appointed ordinary professor. He was in the
+habit of taking his students into the workshops, that they might acquire
+a practical as well as a theoretical knowledge of different processes
+and handicrafts. While thus engaged he determined to trace the history
+and describe the existing condition of each of the arts and sciences on
+which he was lecturing, being perhaps incited by the _Bibliothecae_ of
+Albrecht von Haller. But even Beckmann's industry and ardour were unable
+to overtake the amount of study necessary for this task. He therefore
+confined his attention to several practical arts and trades; and to
+these labours we owe his _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Erfindungen_
+(1780-1805), translated into English as the _History of Inventions_--a
+work in which he relates the origin, history and recent condition of the
+various machines, utensils, &c., employed in trade and for domestic
+purposes. This work entitles Beckmann to be regarded as the founder of
+scientific technology, a term which he was the first to use in 1772. In
+1772 Beckmann was elected a member of the Royal Society of Gottingen,
+and he contributed valuable scientific dissertations to its proceedings
+until 1783, when he withdrew from all further share in its work. He died
+on the 3rd of February 1811. Other important works of Beckmann are
+_Entwurf einer allgemeinen Technologie_ (1806); _Anleitung zur
+Handelswissenschaft_ (1789); _Vorbereitung zur Warenkunde_ (1795-1800);
+_Beitrage zur Okonomie, Technologie, Polizei- und, Kameralwissenschaft_
+(1777-1791).
+
+
+
+
+BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL (1852-), American portrait-painter, was born at
+Hannibal, Missouri, on the 23rd of September 1852. He studied in the
+National Academy of Design, New York City, of which he afterwards became
+a member, and in Paris (1873-1878) under Carolus Duran. Returning to the
+United States in 1878, he gradually became a prominent figure in
+American art. He took an active part in the formation of the Fine Arts
+Society, and was president of the National Free Art League, which
+attempted to secure the repeal of the American duty on works of art.
+Among his portraits are those of W.M. Chase (1882), of Miss Jordan
+(1883), of Mark Twain, T.A. Janvier, General Schofield and William
+Walton. He decorated one of the domes of the Manufactures Building at
+the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893.
+
+
+
+
+BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY (1772-1831), British general, was the son of
+Major-General John Beckwith, who was colonel of the 20th regiment
+(Lancashire Fusiliers) in the charge at Minden. In 1791 he entered the
+71st regiment (then commanded by Colonel David Baird), in which he
+served in India and elsewhere until 1800, when he obtained a company in
+Colonel Coote Manningham's experimental regiment of riflemen, shortly
+afterwards numbered as the 95th Rifles and now called the Rifle Brigade.
+In 1802 he was promoted major, and in the following year
+lieutenant-colonel. Beckwith was one of the favourite officers of Sir
+John Moore in the famous camp of Shorncliffe, and aided that general in
+the training of the troops which afterwards became the Light Division.
+In 1806 he served in the expedition to Hanover, and in 1807 in that
+which captured Copenhagen. In 1806 the Rifles were present at Vimeira,
+and in the campaign of Sir John Moore they bore the brunt of the
+rearguard fighting. Beckwith took part in the great march of Craufurd to
+the field of Talavera, in the advanced guard fights on the Coa in 1810
+and in the campaign in Portugal. On the formation of the Light Division
+he was given a brigade command in it. After the brilliant action of
+Sabugal, Beckwith had to retire for a time from active service, but the
+Rifles and the brigade he had trained and commanded added to their fame
+on every subsequent battlefield. In 1812 he went to Canada as assistant
+quartermaster-general, and he took part in the war against the United
+States. In 1814 he became major-general, and in 1815 was created K.C.B.
+In 1827 he was made colonel commandant of the Rifle Brigade. He went to
+India as commander-in-chief at Bombay in 1829, and was promoted
+lieutenant-general in the following year. He died on the 15th of January
+1831 at Mahableshwar.
+
+His elder brother, Sir GEORGE BECKWITH (1753-1823), distinguished
+himself as a regimental officer in the American War of Independence, and
+served subsequently in high administrative posts and in numerous
+successful military operations in the West Indies during the French
+Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. He was made a K.B. for his capture of
+Martinique in 1809, and attained the full rank of general in 1814. Sir
+George Beckwith commanded the forces in Ireland, 1816-1820. He died in
+London on the 20th of March 1823.
+
+Their nephew, Major-General JOHN CHARLES BECKWITH (1789-1862), joined
+the 50th regiment in 1803, exchanging in 1804 into the 95th Rifles, with
+which regiment he served in the Peninsular campaigns of 1808-10. He was
+subsequently employed on the staff of the Light Division, and he was
+repeatedly mentioned in despatches, becoming in 1814 a brevet-major, and
+after the battle of Waterloo (in which he lost a leg) lieutenant-colonel
+and C.B. In 1820 he left active service. Seven years later an accident
+drew his attention to the Waldenses, whose past history and present
+condition influenced him so strongly that he settled in the valleys of
+Piedmont. The rest of his life was spent in the self-imposed task of
+educating the Waldenses, for whom he established and maintained a large
+number of schools, and in reviving the earlier faith of the people. In
+1848 King Charles Albert made him a knight of the order of St Maurice
+and St Lazarus. He was promoted colonel in the British army in 1837 and
+major-general in 1846. He died on the 19th of July 1862 at La Torre,
+Piedmont.
+
+
+
+
+BECKX, PIERRE JEAN (1795-1887), general of the Society of Jesus, was
+born at Sichem in Belgium on the 8th of February 1795, and entered the
+novitiate of the order at Hildesheim in 1819. His first important post
+was as procurator for the province of Austria, 1847; next year he became
+rector of the Jesuit college at Louvain, and, after serving as secretary
+to the provincials of Belgium and Austria, was elected head of the order
+in 1853. His tenure of office was marked by an increased zeal for
+missions in Protestant lands, and by the removal of the society's
+headquarters from Rome to Fiesole near Florence in 1870. His chief
+literary work was the often-translated _Month of Mary_ (Vienna, 1843).
+He retired in September 1883, being succeeded by Anthony M. Anderledy, a
+Swiss, who had seen service in the United States. He died at Rome on the
+4th of March 1887.
+
+
+
+
+BECQUE, HENRY FRANCOIS (1837-1899), French dramatist, was born on the
+9th of April 1837 in Paris. He wrote the book of an opera _Sardanapale_
+in imitation of Lord Byron for the music of M. Victorin Joncieres in
+1867, but his first important work, _Michel Pauper_, appeared in 1870.
+The importance of this sombre drama was first realized when it was
+revived at the Odeon in 1886. _Les Corbeaux_ (1882) established Becque's
+position as an innovator, and in 1885 he produced his most successful
+play, _La Parisienne_. Becque produced little during the last years of
+his life, but his disciples carried on the tradition he had created. He
+died in May 1899.
+
+  See his _Querelles litteraires_ (1890), and _Souvenirs d'un auteur
+  dramatique_ (1895), consisting chiefly of reprinted articles in which
+  he does not spare his opponents. His _Theatre complet_ (3 vols., 1899)
+  includes _L'Enfant prodigue_ (Vaudeville Theatre, 6th of Nov. 1868);
+  _Michel Pauper_ (Theatre de la Porte-Saint-Martin, 17th of June 1870);
+  _L'Enlevement_ (Vaudeville, 18th of Nov. 1871); _La Navette_ (Gymnase,
+  15th of Nov. 1878); _Les Honnetes Femmes_ (Gymnase, 1st of Jan. 1880);
+  _Les Corbeaux_ (Comedie Francaise, 14th of Sept. 1882); _La
+  Parisienne_ (Theatre de la Renaissance, 7th of Feb. 1885).
+
+
+
+
+BECQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO (1836-1870), Spanish poet and romance-writer,
+was born at Seville on the 17th of February 1836. Left an orphan at an
+early age, he was educated by his godmother, refused to adopt any
+profession, and drifted to Madrid, where he obtained a small post in the
+civil service. He was dismissed for carelessness, became an incorrigible
+Bohemian, and earned a precarious living by translating foreign novels;
+he died in great poverty at Madrid on the 22nd of December 1870. His
+works were published posthumously in 1873. In such prose tales as _El
+Rayo de Luna_ and _La Mujer de piedra_, Becquer is manifestly influenced
+by Hoffmann, and as a poet he has analogies with Heine. He dwells in a
+fairyland of his own, crooning a weird elfin music which has no parallel
+in Spanish; his work is unfinished and unequal, but it is singularly
+free from the rhetoric characteristic of his native Andalusia, and its
+lyrical ardour is of a beautiful sweetness and sincerity.
+
+
+
+
+BECQUEREL, the name of a French family, several members of which have
+been distinguished in chemical and physical research.
+
+ANTOINE CESAR BECQUEREL (1788-1878), was born at Chatillon sur Loing on
+the 8th of March 1788. After passing through the Ecole Polytechnique he
+became _ingenieur-officier_ in 1808, and saw active service with the
+imperial troops in Spain from 1810 to 1812, and again in France in 1814.
+He then resigned from the army and devoted the rest of his life to
+scientific investigation. His earliest work was mineralogical in
+character, but he soon turned his attention to the study of electricity
+and especially of electrochemistry. In 1837 he received the Copley medal
+from the Royal Society "for his various memoirs on electricity, and
+particularly for those on the production of metallic sulphurets and
+sulphur by the long-continued action of electricity of very low
+tension," which it was hoped would lead to increased knowledge of the
+"recomposition of crystallized bodies, and the processes which may have
+been employed by nature in the production of such bodies in the mineral
+kingdom." In biological chemistry he worked at the problems of animal
+heat and at the phenomena accompanying the growth of plants, and he also
+devoted much time to meteorological questions and observations. He was a
+prolific writer, his books including _Traite d'electricite et du
+magnetisme_ (1834-1840), _Traite de physique dans ses rapports avec la
+chimie_ (1842), _Elements de l'electro-chimie_ (1843), _Traite complet
+du magnetisme_ (1845), _Elements de physique terrestre et de
+meteorologie_ (1847), and _Des climats et de l'influence qu'exercent les
+sols boises et deboises_ (1853). He died on the 18th of January 1878 in
+Paris, where from 1837 he had been professor of physics at the Musee
+d'Histoire Naturelle.
+
+His son, ALEXANDRE EDMOND BECQUEREL (1820-1891), was born in Paris on
+the 24th of March 1820, and was in turn his pupil, assistant and
+successor at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle; he was also appointed
+professor at the short-lived Agronomic Institute at Versailles in 1849,
+and in 1853 received the chair of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts
+et Metiers. Edmond Becquerel was associated with his father in much of
+his work, but he himself paid special attention to the study of light,
+investigating the photochemical effects and spectroscopic characters of
+solar radiation and the electric light, and the phenomena of
+phosphorescence, particularly as displayed by the sulphides and by
+compounds of uranium. It was in connexion with these latter inquiries
+that he devised his phosphoroscope, an apparatus which enabled the
+interval between exposure to the source of light and observation of the
+resulting effects to be varied at will and accurately measured. He
+published in 1867-1868 a treatise in two volumes on _La Lumiere, ses
+causes et ses effets_. He also investigated the diamagnetic and
+paramagnetic properties of substances; and was keenly interested in the
+phenomena of electrochemical decomposition, accumulating much evidence
+in favour of Faraday's law and proposing a modified statement of it
+which was intended to cover certain apparent exceptions. He died in
+Paris on the 11th of May 1891.
+
+ANTOINE HENRI BECQUEREL (1852-1908), son of the last-named, who
+succeeded to his chair at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle in 1892, was
+born in Paris on the 15th of December 1852, studied at the Ecole
+Polytechnique, where he was appointed a professor in 1895, and in 1875
+entered the department _des ponts et chaussees_, of which in 1894 he
+became _ingenieur en chef_. He was distinguished as the discoverer of
+radioactivity, having found in 1896 that uranium at ordinary
+temperatures emits an invisible radiation which in many respects
+resembles Rontgen rays, and can affect a photographic plate after
+passing through thin plates of metal. For his researches in this
+department he was in 1903 awarded a Nobel prize jointly with Pierre
+Curie. He also engaged in work on magnetism, the polarization of light,
+phosphorescence and the absorption of light in crystals. He died at
+Croisic in Brittany on the 25th of August 1908.
+
+
+
+
+BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German _Bett_, probably connected with
+the Indo-European root _bhodh_, seen in the Lat. _fodere_, to dig; so "a
+dug-out place" for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden
+"bed"), a general term for a resting or sleeping place for men and
+animals, and in particular for the article of household furniture for
+that object, and so used by analogy in other senses, involving a
+supporting surface or layer. The accompaniments of a domestic bed
+(bedding, coverlets, &c.) have naturally varied considerably in
+different times, and its form and decoration and social associations
+have considerable historical interest. The Egyptians had high bedsteads
+which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and curtains to
+hang round. Often there was a head-rest as well, semi-cylindrical and
+made of stone, wood or metal. Assyrians, Medes and Persians had beds of
+a similar kind, and frequently decorated their furniture with inlays or
+_appliques_ of metal, mother-of-pearl and ivory. The oldest account of a
+bedstead is probably that of Ulysses which Homer describes him as making
+in his own house, but he also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork of
+beds with gold, silver and ivory. The Greek bed had a wooden frame, with
+a board at the head and bands of hide laced across, upon which skins
+were placed. At a later period the bedstead was often veneered with
+expensive woods; sometimes it was of solid ivory veneered with
+tortoise-shell and with silver feet; often it was of bronze. The pillows
+and coverings also became more costly and beautiful; the most celebrated
+places for their manufacture were Miletus, Corinth and Carthage. Folding
+beds, too, appear in the vase paintings. The Roman mattresses were
+stuffed with reeds, hay, wool or feathers; the last was used towards the
+end of the Republic, when custom demanded luxury. Small cushions were
+placed at the head and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high
+and could only be ascended by the help of steps. They were often
+arranged for two persons, and had a board or railing at the back as well
+as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were sometimes very
+costly, generally purple embroidered with figures in gold; and rich
+hangings fell to the ground masking the front. The bedsteads themselves
+were often of bronze inlaid with silver, and Elagabalus, like some
+modern Indian princes, had one of solid silver. In the walls of some of
+the houses at Pompeii bed niches are found which were probably closed by
+curtains or sliding partitions. The marriage bed, _lectus genialis_, was
+much decorated, and was placed in the atrium opposite the door. A low
+pallet-bed used for sick persons was known as _scimpodium_. Other forms
+of couch were called _lectus_, but were not beds in the modern sense of
+the word except the _lectus funebris_, on which the body of a dead
+person lay in state for seven days, clad in a toga and rich garments,
+and surrounded by flowers and foliage. This bed rested on ivory legs,
+over which purple blankets embroidered with gold were spread, and was
+placed in the atrium with the foot to the door and with a pan of incense
+by its side. The ancient Germans lay on the floor on beds of leaves
+covered with skins, or in a kind of shallow chest filled with leaves and
+moss. In the early middle ages they laid carpets on the floor or on a
+bench against the wall, placed upon them mattresses stuffed with
+feathers, wool or hair, and used skins as a covering. They appear to
+have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping themselves in the large linen
+sheets which were stretched over the cushions. In the 13th century
+luxury increased, and bedsteads were made of wood much decorated with
+inlaid, carved and painted ornament. They also used folding beds, which
+served as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon
+leather. At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed, while
+silk-covered skins served as coverlets. Curtains were hung from the
+ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall. The Carolingian
+MSS. show metal bedsteads much higher at the head than at the feet, and
+this shape continued in use till the 13th century in France, many
+cushions being added to raise the body to a sloping position. In the
+12th-century MSS. the bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving
+and painting, and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony.
+Curtains were hung above the bed, and a small hanging lamp is often
+shown. In the 14th century the woodwork became of less importance, being
+generally entirely covered by hangings of rich materials. Silk, velvet
+and even cloth of gold were much used. Inventories from the beginning of
+the 14th century give details of these hangings lined with fur and
+richly embroidered. Then it was that the tester bed made its first
+appearance, the tester being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the
+walls, a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut in
+by double curtains, sometimes even so as to exclude all draughts. The
+space between bed and wall was called the _ruelle_, and very intimate
+friends were received there. In the 15th century beds became very large,
+reaching to 7 or 8 ft. by 6 or 7 ft. Viollet-le-Duc says that the
+mattresses were filled with pea-shucks or straw--neither wool nor
+horsehair is mentioned--but feathers also were used. At this time great
+personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property about
+with them, including beds and bed-hangings, and for this reason the
+bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks to be covered up; but
+about the beginning of the 16th century bedsteads were made lighter and
+more decorative, since the lords remained in the same place for longer
+periods. In the museum at Nancy is a fine bedstead of this period which
+belonged to Antoine de Lorraine. It has a carved head and foot as well
+as the uprights which support the tester. Another is in the Musee Cluny
+ascribed to Pierre de Gondi, very architectural in design, with a
+bracketed cornice, and turned and carved posts; at the head figures of
+warriors watch the sleeper. Louis XIV. had an enormous number of
+sumptuous beds, as many as 413 being described in the inventories of his
+palaces. Some of them had embroideries enriched with pearls, and figures
+on a silver or golden ground. The carving was the work of Proux or
+Caffieri, and the gilding by La Baronniere. The great bed at Versailles
+had crimson velvet curtains on which "The Triumph of Venus" was
+embroidered. So much gold was used that the velvet scarcely showed.
+Under the influence of Madame de Maintenon "The Sacrifice of Abraham,"
+which is now on the tester, replaced "The Triumph of Venus." In the 17th
+century, which has been called "the century of magnificent beds," the
+style _a la duchesse_, with tester and curtains only at the head,
+replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though they lasted much
+longer in England. In the 18th century feather pillows were first used
+as coverings in Germany, which in the fashions of the bed and the
+curious etiquette connected with the bedchamber followed France for the
+most part. The beds were _a la duchesse_, but in France itself there was
+great variety both of name and shape--the _lit a alcove, lit d'ange_,
+which had no columns, but a suspended tester with curtains drawn back,
+_lit a l'Anglaise_, which looked like a high sofa by day, _lit en
+baldaquin_, with the tester fixed against the wall, _lit a couronne_
+with a tester shaped like a crown, a style which appeared under Louis
+XVI., and was fashionable under the Restoration and Louis Philippe, and
+_lit a l'imperiale_, which had a curved tester, are a few of their
+varieties. The _lit en baldaquin_ of Napoleon I. is still at
+Fontainebleau, and the Garde Meuble contains several richly carved beds
+of a more modern date. The custom of the "bed of justice" upon which the
+king of France reclined when he was present in parliament, the princes
+being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials
+kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the throne.
+Louis XI. is credited with its first use, and the custom lasted till the
+end of the monarchy. From the habit of using this bed to hear petitions,
+etc., came the usage of the _grand lit_, which was provided wherever the
+king stayed, called also _lit de parement_ or _lit de parade_, rather
+later. Upon this bed the dead king lay in state. The beds of the king
+and queen were saluted by the courtiers as if they were altars, and none
+approached them even when there was no railing to prevent it. These
+railings were apparently placed for other than ceremonial reasons
+originally, and in the accounts of several castles in the 15th century
+mention is made of a railing to keep dogs from the bed. In the _chambre
+de parade_, where the ceremonial bed was placed, certain persons, such
+as ambassadors or great lords, whom it was desired to honour, were
+received in a more intimate fashion than the crowd of courtiers. The
+_petit lever_ was held in the bedroom itself, the _grand lever_ in the
+_chambre de parade_. At Versailles women received their friends in their
+beds, both before and after childbirth, during periods of mourning, and
+even directly after marriage--in fact in any circumstances which were
+thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During the 17th
+century this curious custom became general, perhaps to avoid the
+tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used in high society
+in France till the end of the _ancien regime_. The earliest of which
+mention has been found belonged to Charles the Bold (see _Memoirs_ of
+Philippe de Comines). They had curtains over a light framework, and were
+in their way as fine as the stationary beds. Iron beds appear in the
+18th century; the advertisements recommend them as free from the insects
+which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads, but one is mentioned in the
+inventory of the furniture of the castle of Nerac in 1569, "un lit de
+fer et de cuivre, avec quatre petites colonnes de laiton, ensemble
+quatre satyres de laiton, quatre petits vases de laiton pour mettre sur
+les colonnes; dedans le dit lit il y a la figure d'Olopherne ensemble de
+Judith, qui sont d'albatre." In Scotland, Brittany and Holland the
+closed bed with sliding or folding shutters has persisted till our own
+day, and in England--where beds were commonly quite simple in form--the
+four-poster, with tester and curtains all round, was the usual citizen's
+bed till the middle of the 19th century. Many fine examples exist of
+17th-century carved oak bedsteads, some of which have found their way
+into museums. The later forms, in which mahogany was usually the wood
+employed, are much less architectural in design. Some exceedingly
+elegant mahogany bedsteads were designed by Chippendale, Hepplewhite and
+Sheraton, and there are signs that English taste is returning to the
+wooden bedstead in a lighter and less monumental form.     (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+BED, in geology, a term for certain kinds of rock usually found to be
+arranged in more or less distinct layers; these are the beds of rock or
+strata. Normally, the bedding of rocks is horizontal or very nearly so;
+when the upper and lower surfaces of a bed are parallel, the bedding is
+said to be regular; if it is thickest at one point and thins away thence
+in every direction, the bedding is lenticular. Beds may be thick (50 ft.
+or more) or so thin as to be like sheets of paper, e.g. paper shales,
+such thin beds being often termed layers or laminae; intermediate
+regular varieties may be called flags, flagstones or tilestones. In
+fine-grained rocks the bedding is usually thinner and more regular than
+in coarser rocks, such as sandstones and grits. Bedding is confined to
+rocks which have been formed under water or by the agency of wind; these
+are the "stratified" rocks.
+
+The deposition of rock material by moving water is not as a rule
+uniform, slight changes in the velocity produce an immediate change in
+the size of the particles deposited upon a given area; thus a coarse
+sand layer may be succeeded by a finer sand or a mud, or two sandy
+layers may be separated by a thin layer of muddy shale. Bedding is most
+often induced by a change in the nature of the contiguous strata; thus a
+sandstone is followed by a shale or vice versa--changes which may be due
+to the varying volume or velocity of a current. Or the nature of the
+deposit may be influenced by chemical actions, whereby we get beds of
+rock-salt or gypsum between beds of marl. Or again, organic activities
+may influence the deposit, beds of coal may succeed layers of shale,
+iron-stone may lie between limestones or clays, a layer of large fossils
+or of flints may determine a bedding plane in massive limestones. Flaky
+minerals like mica frequently assist in the formation of bedding planes;
+and the pressure of superincumbent strata upon earlier formed deposits
+has no doubt often produced a tendency in the particles to arrange
+themselves normal to the direction of pressure, thus causing the rock to
+split more readily along the same direction.
+
+Where rapidly-moving currents of water (or air) are transporting or
+depositing sand, &c., the bedding is generally not horizontal, but
+inclined more or less steeply; this brings about the formation of what
+is variously called "cross-bedding," "diagonal bedding", "current
+bedding" or improperly "false-bedding." Igneous materials, when
+deposited through the agency of water or air, exhibit bedding, but no
+true stratification is seen in igneous rocks that have solidified after
+cooling, although in granites and similar rocks the process of
+weathering frequently produces an appearance resembling this structure.
+Miners not infrequently describe a bed of rock as a "vein," if it is one
+that has some economic value, e.g. a "vein of coal or ironstone."
+     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BEDARESI, YEDAIAH (1270-1340), Jewish poet, physician and philosopher of
+Provence. His most successful work was an ethical treatise, _Behinath
+'Olam_ (Examination of the World), a didactic poem in thirty-seven short
+sections. The work is still very popular. It was translated into English
+by Tobias Goodman.
+
+
+
+
+BEDARIEUX, a town of southern France, in the department of Herault, on
+the Orb, 27 m. N.N.W. of Beziers by rail. Pop. (1906) 5594. The town has
+a 16th-century church, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of arts
+and manufactures, a communal college and a school of drawing. Bedarieux
+was at one time a notable manufacturing centre. Its cloth-weaving
+industry, carried on under a special royal privilege from the end of the
+17th century to the Revolution, employed in 1789 as many as 5000
+workmen, while some thousand more were occupied in wool and cotton
+spinning, &c. In spite of the introduction of modern machinery from
+England, the industries of the place declined, mainly owing to the loss
+of the trade with the Levant; but of late years they have somewhat
+revived, owing partly to the opening up of coal mines in the
+neighbourhood. Besides cloth factories and wool-spinning mills, there
+are now numerous tanneries and leather-dressing works. There is some
+trade in timber, wool and agricultural produce.
+
+
+
+
+BEDDGELERT ("Gelert's grave"), a village in Carnarvonshire, North Wales,
+at the foot of Snowdon. The tradition of Gelert, Llewelyn's hound, being
+buried there is old in Wales; and common to it and India is the legend
+of a dog (or ichneumon) saving a child from a beast of prey (or
+reptile), and being killed by the child's father under the delusion that
+the animal had slain the infant. The English poet, W.R. Spencer, has
+versified the tale of Llewelyn, king of Wales, leaving Gelert and the
+baby prince at home, returning to find Gelert stained with the blood of
+a wolf, and killing the hound because he thought his child was slain.
+Sir W. Jones, the Welsh philologist and linguist, gives the Indian
+equivalent (Lord Teignmouth's _Life of Jones_, ed. Rev. S.C. Wilkes,
+editor's supplement). A Brahmin, leaving home, left his daughter in
+charge of an ichneumon, which he had long cherished. A black snake came
+up and was killed by the ichneumon, mistakenly killed, in its turn, by
+the Brahmin on his coming back. Another version is the medieval romance
+in _The Seven Wise Masters of Rome_. In the edition printed by Wynkyn de
+Worde it is told by "the first master"--a knight had one son, a
+greyhound and a falcon; the knight went to a tourney, a snake attacked
+the son, the falcon roused the hound, which killed the serpent, lay down
+by the cradle, and was killed by the knight, who discovered his error,
+like Llewelyn, and similarly repented (Villon Society, British Museum
+reprint, by Gomme and Wheatley).
+
+On the west of Beddgelert is Moel Hebog (Bare-hill of the falcon), a
+hiding-place of Owen Glendower. Here, in 1784, was found a brass Roman
+shield. Near is the famous Aberglaslyn Pass, dividing Carnarvon and
+Merioneth. In the centre is Cadair Rhys Goch o'r Eryri, a rock named as
+the chair of Rhys Goch, a bard contemporary with Glendower (died
+traditionally, 1429). Not far hence passed the Roman road from Uriconium
+to Segontium (see CARNARVON).
+
+
+
+
+BEDDOES, THOMAS (1760-1808), English physician and scientific writer,
+was born at Shiffnall in Shropshire on the 13th of April 1760. After
+being educated at Bridgnorth grammar school and at Pembroke College,
+Oxford, he studied medicine in London under John Sheldon (1752-1808). In
+1784 he published a translation of L. Spallanzani's _Dissertations on
+Natural History_, and in 1785 produced a translation, with original
+notes, of T.O. Bergman's _Essays on Elective Attractions_. He took his
+degree of doctor of medicine at Oxford in 1786, and, after visiting
+Paris, where he became acquainted with Lavoisier, was appointed reader
+in chemistry at Oxford University in 1788. His lectures attracted large
+and appreciative audiences; but his sympathy with the French Revolution
+exciting a clamour against him, he resigned his readership in 1792. In
+the following year he published _Observations on the Nature of
+Demonstrative Evidence_, and the _History of Isaac Jenkins_, a story
+which powerfully exhibits the evils of drunkenness, and of which 40,000
+copies are reported to have been sold. About the same time he began to
+work at his project for the establishment of a "Pneumatic Institution"
+for treating disease by the inhalation of different gases. In this he
+was assisted by Richard Lovell Edgeworth, whose daughter, Anna, became
+his wife in 1794. In 1798 the institution was established at Clifton,
+its first superintendent being Humphry Davy, who investigated the
+properties of nitrous oxide in its laboratory. The original aim of the
+institution was gradually abandoned; it became an ordinary
+sick-hospital, and was relinquished by its projector in the year before
+his death, which occurred on the 24th of December 1808. Beddoes was a
+man of great powers and wide acquirements, which he directed to noble
+and philanthropic purposes. He strove to effect social good by
+popularizing medical knowledge, a work for which his vivid imagination
+and glowing eloquence eminently fitted him. Besides the writings
+mentioned above, he was the author of _Political Pamphlets_ (1795-1797),
+a popular _Essay on Consumption_ (1799), which won the admiration of
+Kant, an _Essay on Fever_ (1807), and _Hygeia, or Essays Moral and
+Medical_ (1807). He also edited John Brown's _Elements of Medicine_
+(1795), and _Contributions to Physical and Medical Knowledge,
+principally from the West of England_ (1799).
+
+  A life of Beddoes by Dr John E. Stock was published in 1810.
+
+
+
+
+BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL (1803-1849), English dramatist and poet, son of
+the physician, Thomas Beddoes, was born at Clifton on the 20th of July
+1803. His mother was a sister of Maria Edgeworth, the novelist. He was
+sent to Bath grammar school and then to the Charterhouse. At school he
+wrote a good deal of verse and a novel in imitation of Fielding. In 1820
+he was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in his first year
+published _The Improvisatore_, afterwards carefully suppressed, and in
+1822 _The Bride's Tragedy_, which showed him as the disciple of the
+later Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists. The play found a small circle
+of admirers, and procured for Beddoes the friendship of Bryan Waller
+Procter (Barry Cornwall). Beddoes retired to Southampton to read for his
+degree, and there Procter introduced him to a young lawyer, Thomas
+Forbes Kelsall, with whom he became very intimate, and who became his
+biographer and editor. At this time he composed the dramatic fragments
+of _The Second Brother_ and _Torrismond_. Unfortunately he lacked the
+power of constructing a plot, and seemed to suffer from a constitutional
+inability to finish anything. Beddoes was one of the first outside the
+limited circle of Shelley's own friends to recognize Shelley's genius,
+and he was certainly one of the earliest imitators of his lyrical
+method. In the summer of 1824 he was summoned to Florence by the illness
+of his mother, but she died before he arrived. He remained some time in
+Italy, and met Mrs Shelley and Walter Savage Landor before he returned
+to England. In 1825 he took his degree at Oxford, and in that year he
+began what he calls (_Letters_, p. 68) "a very Gothic styled tragedy"
+with "a jewel of a name." This work was completed in 1829 as the
+fantastic and incoherent drama, _Death's Jest Book or The Fool's
+Tragedy_; but he continued to revise it until his death, and it was only
+published posthumously. On leaving Oxford he decided to study anatomy
+and physiology, not, however, without some hope that his studies might,
+by increasing his knowledge of the human mechanism, further his efforts
+as a dramatist. In the autumn of 1825 he entered on his studies at
+Gottingen, where he remained for four years. In 1829 he removed to
+Wurzburg, and in 1832 obtained his doctorate in medicine, but his
+intimate association with democratic and republican leaders in Germany
+and Switzerland forced him to leave Bavaria without receiving his
+diploma. He settled in Zurich, where he practised for some time as a
+physician, and was even elected to be professor of comparative anatomy
+at the university, but the authorities refused to ratify his appointment
+because of his revolutionary views. He frequently contributed political
+poems and articles to German and Swiss papers, but none of his German
+work has been identified. The years at Zurich seem to have been the
+happiest of his life, but in 1839 the anti-liberal riots in the town
+rendered it unsafe for him, and early in the next year he had to escape
+secretly. From this time he had no settled home, though he stored his
+books at Baden in Aargau. His long residence in Germany was only broken
+by visits to England in 1828 to take his master of arts degree, in 1835,
+in 1842 and for some months in 1846. He had adopted German thought and
+manners to such an extent that he hardly felt at home in England; and
+his study of the German language, which he had begun in 1825, had almost
+weaned him from his mother-tongue; he was, as he says in a letter, "a
+non-conductor of friendship"; and it is not surprising that his old
+friends found him much changed and eccentric. In 1847 he returned to
+Frankfort, where he lived with a baker called Degen, to whom he became
+much attached, and whom he persuaded to become an actor. He took Degen
+with him to Zurich, where he chartered the theatre for one night to give
+his friend a chance of playing Hotspur. The two separated at Basel, and
+in a fit of dejection (May 1848) Beddoes tried to bleed himself to
+death. He was taken to the hospital, and wrote to his friends in England
+that he had had a fall from horseback. His leg was amputated, and he was
+in a fair way to recovery when, on the first day he was allowed to leave
+the hospital, he took curare, from the effects of which he died on the
+26th of January 1849. His MSS. he left in the charge of his friend
+Kelsall.
+
+In one of his letters to Kelsall Beddoes wrote:--"I am convinced the man
+who is to awaken the drama must be a bold, trampling fellow--no creeper
+into worm-holes--no reviser even--however good. These reanimations are
+vampire cold. Such ghosts as Marloe, Webster, &c., are better
+dramatists, better poets, I dare say, than any contemporaries of
+ours--but they are ghosts--the worm is in their pages" (_Letters_, p.
+50). In spite of this wise judgment, Beddoes was himself a "creeper into
+worm-holes," a close imitator of Marston and of Cyril Tourneur,
+especially in their familiar handling of the phenomena of death, and in
+the remoteness from ordinary life of the passions portrayed. In his
+blank verse he caught to a certain degree the manner of his Jacobean
+models, and his verse abounds in beautiful imagery, but his _Death's
+Jest Book_ is only finished in the sense of having five acts completed;
+it remains a bizarre production which appeals to few minds, and to them
+rather for the occasional excellence of the poetry than as an entire
+composition. His lyrics show the influence of Shelley as well as the
+study of 17th-century models, but they are by no means mere imitations,
+and some of them, like the "Dirge for Wolfram" ("If thou wilt ease thy
+heart"), and "Dream Pedlary" ("If there were dreams to sell"), are among
+the most exquisite of 19th-century lyrics.
+
+  Kelsall published Beddoes' great work, _Death's Jest Book: or, The
+  Fool's Tragedy_, in 1850. The drama is based on the story that a
+  certain Duke Boleslaus of Munsterberg was stabbed by his court-fool,
+  the "Isbrand" of the play (see C.F. Floegel, _Geschichte der
+  Hofnarren_, Leipzig, 1789, pp. 297 et seq.). He followed this in 1851
+  with _Poems of the late Thomas Lovell Beddoes_, to which a memoir was
+  prefixed. The two volumes were printed together (1851) with the title
+  of _Poems, Posthumous and Collected_. All these volumes are very rare.
+  Kelsall bequeathed the Beddoes MSS. to Robert Browning, with a note
+  stating the real history of Beddoes' illness and death, which was kept
+  back out of consideration for his relatives. Browning is reported to
+  have said that if he were ever Professor of Poetry his first lecture
+  would be on Beddoes, "a forgotten Oxford poet." Mr Edmund Gosse
+  obtained permission to use the documents from Browning, and edited a
+  fuller selection of the _Poetical Works_ (2 vols., 1890) for the
+  "Temple Library," supplying a full account of his life. He also edited
+  the _Letters of Thomas Lovell Beddoes_ (1894), containing a selection
+  from his correspondence, which is full of gaiety and contains much
+  amusing literary criticism. See also the edition of Beddoes by Ramsay
+  Colles in the "Muses' Library" (1906).
+
+
+
+
+BEDE, BEDA, or BAEDA (672 or 673-735), English historian and theologian.
+Of Baeda, commonly called "the Venerable Bede," almost all that we know
+is contained in the short autobiographical notice which he has appended
+to his _Ecclesiastical History_:--"Thus much concerning the
+ecclesiastical history of Britain, and especially of the race of the
+English, I, Baeda, a servant of Christ and priest of the monastery of
+the blessed apostles St Peter and St Paul, which is at Wearmouth and at
+Jarrow, have with the Lord's help composed, so far as I could gather it,
+either from ancient documents, or from the tradition of the elders, or
+from my own knowledge. I was born in the territory of the said
+monastery, and at the age of seven I was, by the care of my relations,
+given to the reverend Abbot Benedict (Biscop), and afterwards to
+Ceolfrid, to be educated. From that time I have spent the whole of my
+life within that monastery devoting all my pains to the study of the
+scriptures; and amid the observance of monastic discipline, and the
+daily charge of singing in the church, it has ever been my delight to
+learn or teach or write. In my nineteenth year I was admitted to the
+diaconate, in my thirtieth to the priesthood, both by the hands of the
+most reverend Bishop John (of Hexham), and at the bidding of Abbot
+Ceolfrid. From the time of my admission to the priesthood to my
+(present) fifty-ninth year, I have endeavoured, for my own use and that
+of my brethren, to make brief notes upon the Holy Scripture, either out
+of the works of the venerable fathers, or in conformity with their
+meaning and interpretation." Then follows a list of his works, so far
+as, at that date, they had been composed. As the _Ecclesiastical
+History_ was written in 731, we obtain the following dates for the
+principal events in Bede's uneventful life:--birth, 672-673; entrance
+into the monastery, 679-680; ordination as deacon, 691-692; as priest,
+702-703.
+
+The monastery of Wearmouth was founded by Benedict Biscop in 674, and
+that of Jarrow in 681-682. Though some 5 or 6 m. apart, they were
+intended to form a single monastery under a single abbot, and so Bede
+speaks of them in the passage given above. It is with Jarrow that Bede
+is chiefly associated, though no doubt from the close connexion of the
+two localities he would often be at Wearmouth. The preface to the prose
+life of Cuthbert proves that he had stayed at Lindisfarne prior to 721,
+while the Epistle to Egbert shows that he had visited him at York in
+733. The tradition that he went to Rome in obedience to a summons from
+Pope Sergius is contradicted by his own words above, and by his total
+silence as to any such visit. In the passage cited above, "monastic
+discipline, the daily charge of singing in the church, learning,
+teaching, writing," in other words devotion and study make up the even
+tenor of Bede's tranquil life. Anecdotes have been preserved which
+illustrate his piety both in early and in later years; of his studies
+the best monument is to be found in his writings. As a little boy he
+would take his place among the pupils of the monastic school, though he
+would soon pass to the ranks of the teachers, and the fact that he was
+ordained deacon at nineteen, below the canonical age, shows that he was
+regarded as remarkable both for learning and goodness.
+
+For the rest, it is in his works that we must chiefly seek to know him.
+They fall into three main classes: (1) scientific; (2) historical; (3)
+theological. The first class comprises works on grammar, one on natural
+phenomena, and two on chronology and the calendar. These last were
+inspired largely by the Paschal Question, which was the subject of such
+bitter controversy between the Roman and Celtic Churches in the 7th
+century. They form a natural transition to the second class. In this the
+chief place is held by the _Ecclesiastical History of the English
+Nation_. By this Bede has justly earned the title of the Father of
+English History. By this almost exclusively he is known to others than
+professed students. It is indeed one of the most valuable and one of the
+most beautiful of historical works. Bede has the artist's instinct of
+proportion, the artist's sense for the picturesque and the pathetic. His
+style too, modelled largely, in the present writer's opinion, on that of
+Gregory in the _Dialogues_, is limpid and unaffected. And though it
+would be wrong to call Bede a critical historian in the modern sense of
+the words, he shows a very unusual conscientiousness in collecting his
+information from the best available sources, and in distinguishing
+between what he believed to be fact, and what he regarded only as rumour
+or tradition. Other historical works of Bede are the _History of the
+Abbots_ (of Wearmouth and Jarrow), and the lives of Cuthbert in verse
+and prose. The _History of the Abbots_ and the prose life of Cuthbert
+were based on earlier works which still survive. In the case of the
+latter it cannot honestly be said that Bede has improved on his
+original. In the _History of the Abbots_ he was much nearer to the
+facts, and could make additions out of his own personal knowledge. The
+Epistle to Egbert, though not historical in form, may be mentioned here,
+because of the valuable information which it contains as to the state of
+the Northumbrian Church, on which the disorders and revolutions of the
+Northumbrian kingdom had told with disastrous effect. It is probably the
+latest of Bede's extant works, as it was written in November 734, only
+six months before his death. The third or theological class of writings
+consists mainly of commentaries, or of works which, if not commentaries
+in name, are so in fact. They are based largely on the works of the four
+great Latin Fathers, SS. Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory; though
+Bede's reading is very far from being limited to these. His method is
+largely allegorical. For the text of scripture he uses both the Latin
+versions, the Itala and the Vulgate, often comparing them together. But
+he certainly knew Greek, and possibly some Hebrew. Indeed it may be said
+that his works, scientific, historical and theological, practically sum
+up all the learning of western Europe in his time, which he thus made
+available for his countrymen. And not for them only; for in the school
+of York, founded by his pupil Archbishop Ecgberht, was trained Alcuin
+(Ealhwine) the initiator under Charles the Great of the Frankish
+schools, which did so much for learning on the continent. And though
+Bede makes no pretensions to originality, least of all in his
+theological works, freely taking what he needed, and (what is very rare
+in medieval writers) acknowledging what he took, "out of the works of
+the venerable Fathers," still everything he wrote is informed and
+impressed with his own special character and temper. His earnest yet
+sober piety, his humility, his gentleness, appear in almost every line.
+"In history and in science, as well as in theology, he is before all
+things the Christian thinker and student." (Plummer's _Bede_, i. 2.) Yet
+it should not be forgotten that Bede could hardly have done what he did
+without the noble library of books collected by Benedict Biscop.
+
+Several quaint and beautiful legends have been handed down as to the
+origin of the epithet of "venerable" generally attached to his name.
+Probably it is a mere survival of a title commonly given to priests in
+his day. It has given rise to a false idea that he lived to a great
+age; some medieval authorities making him ninety when he died. But he
+was not born before 672 (see above); and though the date of his death
+has been disputed, the traditional year, 735, is most probably correct.
+This would make him at most sixty-three. Of his death a most touching
+and beautiful account has been preserved in a contemporary letter. His
+last hours were spent, like the rest of his life, in devotion and
+teaching, his latest work being to dictate, amid ever-increasing bodily
+weakness, a translation into the vernacular of the Gospel of St John, a
+work which unhappily has not survived. It was a fitting close to such a
+life as his.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The above sketch is largely based on the present
+  writer's essay on Bede's Life and Works, prefixed to his edition of
+  Bede's _Historia Ecclesiastica, &c._ (2 vols., Clarendon Press, 1896).
+  _Beda der Ehrwurdige und seine Zeit_, by Dr Karl Werner (Vienna,
+  1875), is excellent. Gehle, _Disputatio ... de Bedae vita et Scriptis_
+  (Leiden, 1838), is still useful. Dr William Bright's _Chapters of
+  Early English Church History_ (3rd ed., Clarendon Press, 1897) is
+  indispensable. See also Ker, _Dark Ages_, pp. 141 ff. Of the collected
+  works of Bede the most convenient edition is that by Dr Giles in
+  twelve volumes (8vo., 1843-1844), which includes translations of the
+  _Historical Works_. The Continental folio editions (Basel, 1563;
+  Cologne, 1612 and 1688) contain many works which cannot by any
+  possibility be Bede's. The edition of Migne, _Patralogia Latina_ (1862
+  ff.) is based on a comparison of the Cologne edition with Giles and
+  Smith (see below), and is open to the same criticism. On the
+  chronology and genuineness of the works commonly ascribed to Bede, see
+  Plummer's ed., i., cxlv-clix.
+
+  On the MSS. early editions and translations of the _Historia
+  Ecclesiastica_, see Plummer, u.s., i., lxxx-cxxxii. The edition of
+  Whelock (Cambridge, fol. 1643-1644) is noteworthy as the first English
+  edition of the Latin text, and as the _editio princeps_ of the
+  Anglo-Saxon version ascribed to King Alfred (see ALFRED THE GREAT).
+  Smith's edition (Cambridge, fol. 1722) contained not only these, but
+  also the other historical works of Bede, with notes and appendices. It
+  is a monument of learning and scholarship. The most recent edition is
+  that with notes and introduction by the present writer, u.s. It
+  includes also the _History of the Abbots_, and the Epistle to Egbert.
+  Of books iii. and iv. only, there is a learned edition by Professors
+  Mayor and Lumby of Cambridge (3rd ed., 1881). A cheap and handy
+  edition of the text alone is that by A. Holder (Freiburg im Breisgau,
+  1882, &c.). The best-known modern English translation is that by the
+  Rev. L. Gidley (1870). Of the minor historical works a good edition
+  was edited by Rev. J. Stevenson for the Eng. Hist. Soc. in 1841; and a
+  translation by the same hand was included in _Church Historians of
+  England_, vol. i., part ii. (1853). See also Plummer's edition, pp.
+  cxxxii-cxlii.     (C. Pl.)
+
+
+
+
+BEDE, CUTHBERT, the pen-name of Edward Bradley (1827-1889), English
+author, who was born at Kidderminster on the 25th of March 1827. He
+entered University College, Durham, in 1845, and later studied at
+Oxford, where he made the acquaintance of J.G. Wood, the naturalist. He
+took holy orders, and eventually became rector of Stretton in
+Rutlandshire. Here he gained a reputation as a humorist and numbered
+among his friends Cruikshank, Frank Smedley, Mark Lemon and Albert
+Smith. He wrote for various magazines and, in the pages of the
+_Illustrated London News_, introduced the double acrostic. He is chiefly
+known as the author of _The Adventures of Mr Verdant Green, an Oxford
+Freshman_ (1853), which he also illustrated and of which a third part
+appeared in 1856. Several well-known Oxford characters of the time are
+depicted in its pages, such as Dr Plumptre the vice-chancellor, Dr Bliss
+the registrar, and the waiter at the Mitre. The book abounds in innocent
+fun. In 1883 he was given the living of Lenton, or Lavington,
+Lincolnshire, where he died on the 12th of December 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BEDELL, WILLIAM (1571-1642), Anglican divine, was born at Black Notley
+in Essex, in 1571. He was educated at Cambridge, became fellow of
+Emmanuel in 1593, and took orders. In 1607 he was appointed chaplain to
+Sir H. Wotton, then English ambassador at Venice, where he remained for
+four years, acquiring a great reputation as a scholar and theologian. He
+translated the _Book of Common Prayer_ into Italian, and was on terms of
+closest friendship with the reformer, Sarpi (Fra Paolo). In 1616 he was
+appointed to the rectory of Horningsheath (near to Bury St Edmunds,
+where he had previously laboured), which he held for twelve years. In
+1627 he became provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and, in 1629, bishop
+of Kilmore and Ardagh. He set himself to reform the abuses of his
+diocese, encouraged the use of the Irish language, and personally
+undertook the duties generally discharged by the bishop's lay
+chancellor. In 1633 he resigned his see. In 1641, when the Protestants
+were being massacred, Bedell's house was not only left untouched, but
+became the place of refuge for many fugitives. In the end, however, the
+rebels insisted upon the dismissal of all who had taken shelter in his
+house, and on the bishop's refusal he was seized and imprisoned with
+some others in the ruined castle of Loughboughter. Here he was detained
+for several weeks, and when released, rapidly sank from the effects of
+exposure, and died on the 7th of February 1642.
+
+  His life was written by Bishop Gilbert Burnet in 1685, and also by his
+  elder son (ed. T.W. Jones, for the Camden Society, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+BEDESMAN, or BEADSMAN (Med. Eng. _bede_, prayer, from O. Eng. _biddan_,
+to pray; literally "a man of prayer"), generally a pensioner or almsman
+whose duty it was to pray for his benefactor. In Scotland there were
+public almsmen supported by the king and expected in return to pray for
+his welfare and that of the state. These men wore long blue gowns with a
+pewter badge on the right arm, and were nicknamed Blue Gowns. Their
+number corresponded to the king's years, an extra one being added each
+royal birthday. They were privileged to ask alms throughout Scotland. On
+the king's birthday each bedesman received a new blue gown, a loaf, a
+bottle of ale, and a leathern purse containing a penny for every year of
+the king's life. On the pewter badge which they wore were their name and
+the words "pass and repass," which authorized them to ask alms. In 1833
+the appointment of bedesmen was stopped. In 1863 the last payment was
+paid to a bedesman. In consequence of its use in this general sense of
+pensioner, "bedesman" was long used in English as equivalent to
+"servant." The word had a special sense as the name for those almsmen
+attached to cathedral and other churches, whose duty it was to pray for
+the souls of deceased benefactors. A relic of pre-Reformation times,
+these old men still figure in the accounts of English cathedrals.
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The present English title of duke of
+Bedford comes from a line of earls and dukes in the Russell family. In
+January 1550 John, Baron Russell, was created earl of Bedford, and in
+May 1694 his descendant, William, the 5th earl, became duke of Bedford.
+The Russell line is dealt with in the later part of this article. The
+title of duke of Bedford had, however, been previously held, notably by
+the third son of Henry IV.; and the earlier creations may first be
+considered here.
+
+JOHN PLANTAGENET, duke of Bedford (1389-1435), third son of Henry IV.,
+king of England, was born on the 20th of June 1389. He received various
+dignities after his father became king in 1399, and gained his early
+experiences in warfare when he undertook the office of warden of the
+east marches of Scotland in 1404; he was fairly successful in this
+command, which he held until September 1414. In the previous May his
+brother, the new king Henry V., had created him duke of Bedford, and
+after resigning the wardenship he began to take a leading part in the
+royal councils. He acted as lieutenant of the kingdom during Henry's
+expedition to France in 1415, and in August 1416 commanded the ships
+which defeated the French fleet at the mouth of the Seine, and was
+instrumental in relieving Harfleur. Again appointed lieutenant in July
+1417, he marched against the Scots, who abandoned the siege of Berwick
+at his approach; and on his return to London he brought Sir John
+Oldcastle to trial and was present at his execution. He appears to have
+governed the country with considerable success until December 1419, when
+he resigned his office as lieutenant and joined the king in France.
+Returning to England, he undertook the lieutenancy for the third time in
+June 1421, and in the following May conducted the queen to join Henry in
+Normandy. He then took his brother's place and led the English troops to
+the relief of Cosne, but on hearing of the king's serious illness he
+left the army and hurried to his side. Henry's last wish was that
+Bedford should be guardian of the kingdom and of the young king, and
+that Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, should act as regent in France.
+But when Philip declined to undertake this office, it too was assumed by
+Bedford, who, after the death of the French king Charles VI. in October
+1422, presided at a session of the parlement of Paris, and compelled
+all present to take an oath of fidelity to King Henry VI. Meanwhile the
+English parliament had decided that Bedford should be "protector and
+defender" of the kingdom, and that in his absence the office should
+devolve upon his brother Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. Confining himself
+to the conduct of affairs in France the protector took up Henry V.'s
+work of conquest, captured Meulan and other places, and sought to
+strengthen his position by an alliance with Philip of Burgundy. This
+task was rendered more difficult as Gloucester had just married
+Jacqueline, countess of Holland and Hainaut, a union which gave the
+English duke a claim on lands which Philip hoped to secure for himself.
+Bedford, however, having allayed Philip's irritation, formed an alliance
+with him and with John VI., duke of Brittany, at Amiens in April 1423,
+and himself arranged to marry Anne, a sister of the Burgundian duke.
+This marriage was celebrated at Troyes in the following June, and the
+war against Charles, the dauphin of France, was prosecuted with vigour
+and success. Bedford sought to restore prosperity to the districts under
+his rule by reforming the debased coinage, granting privileges to
+merchants and manufacturers, and removing various abuses. He then
+granted some counties to Philip to check the growing hostility between
+him and Gloucester, and on the 17th of August 1424 gained a great
+victory over a combined army of French and Scots at Verneuil. But in
+spite of the efforts of the protector the good understanding between
+England and Burgundy was partially destroyed when Gloucester invaded
+Hainaut in October 1424. The ambition of his brother gave Bedford
+trouble in another direction also; for on his return from Hainaut
+Gloucester quarrelled with the chancellor, Henry Beaufort, bishop of
+Winchester, and the council implored Bedford to come to England to
+settle this dispute. He reached London in January 1426, and after
+concluding a bond of alliance with Gloucester effected a reconciliation
+between the duke and the chancellor; and knighted the young king, Henry
+VI. Bedford then promised to act in accordance with the will of the
+council, and in harmony with the decision of this body raised a body of
+troops and returned to France in March 1427. Having ordered Gloucester
+to desist from a further attack on Hainaut, he threatened Brittany and
+compelled Duke John to return to the English alliance; and the success
+of his troops continued until the siege of Orleans, to which he
+consented with reluctance, was undertaken in October 1428. Having
+assured himself that Philip was prepared to desert him, Bedford sent
+orders to his army to raise the siege in April 1429. He then acted with
+great energy and judgment in attempting to stem the tide of disasters
+which followed this failure, strengthened his hold upon Paris, and sent
+to England for reinforcements; but before any engagement took place he
+visited Rouen, where he sought to bind the Normans closer to England,
+and after his return to Paris resigned the French regency to Philip of
+Burgundy in accordance with the wish of the Parisians. Retaining the
+government of Normandy Bedford established himself at Rouen and directed
+the movements of the English forces with some success. He did not
+interfere to save the life of Joan of Arc. He was joined by Henry VI. in
+April 1430, when the regency was temporarily suspended, and he secured
+Henry's coronation at Paris in December 1431. In November 1432 his wife
+Anne died, and in April 1433 he was married at Therouanne to Jacqueline,
+daughter of Pierre I., count of St Pol. But notwithstanding Bedford's
+vigour the English lost ground steadily; and the death of Anne and this
+marriage destroyed the friendly relations between England and Burgundy.
+Negotiations for peace had no result, and when the duke returned to
+England in June 1433 he told parliament that he had come home to defend
+himself against the charge that the losses in France were caused by his
+neglect, and demanded that his detractors should make their accusations
+public. The chancellor replied that no such charges were known to the
+king or the council, and the duke was thanked for his great services.
+His next act was to secure an inquiry into the national finances; and
+when asked by the parliament to stay in England he declared that his
+services were at the king's disposal. As chief councillor he offered to
+take a smaller salary than had been previously paid to Gloucester, and
+undertook this office in December 1433, when his demands with regard to
+a continual council were conceded. Bedford, who was anxious to prosecute
+the war in France, left England again in 1434, but early in 1435 was
+obliged to consent to the attendance of English r epresentatives at a
+congress held to arrange terms of peace at Arras. Unable to consent to
+the French terms the English envoys left Arras in September, and Philip
+of Burgundy made a separate treaty with France. Bedford only lived to
+see the ruin of the cause for which he struggled so loyally. He died at
+Rouen on the 14th of September 1435, and was buried in the cathedral of
+that city. He left a natural son, Richard, but no legitimate issue.
+Bedford was a man of considerable administrative ability, brave and
+humane in war, wise and unselfish in peace. He was not responsible for
+the misfortunes of the English in France, and his courage in the face of
+failure was as admirable as his continued endeavour to make the people
+under his rule contented and prosperous.
+
+  The chief contemporary authorities for Bedford's life are: _Vita et
+  gesta Henrici Quinti_, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); E. de
+  Monstrelet, _Chronique_, edited by L.D. d'Arcq. (Paris, 1857-1862);
+  William of Worcester, _Annales rerum Anglicarum_, edited by J.
+  Stevenson (London, 1864). See also _Proceedings and Ordinances of the
+  Privy Council of England_, edited by J.R. Dasent (London, 1890-1899);
+  W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895); P.A.
+  Barante, _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne_ (Paris, 1824).
+
+In 1470 GEORGE NEVILL (c. 1457-1483), son of John, earl of
+Northumberland, was created duke of Bedford; but after his father's
+attainder and death at the battle of Barnet in 1471 he was degraded from
+the peerage.
+
+The next duke of Bedford was JASPER TUDOR (c. 1430-1495), half-brother
+of King Henry VI. and uncle of Henry VII. He was made earl of Pembroke
+in 1453. Having survived the vicissitudes of the Wars of the Roses he
+was restored to his earldom and created duke of Bedford in 1485. The
+duke, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1486 to 1494, died without
+legitimate issue on the 21st of December 1495.
+
+JOHN RUSSELL, 1st earl of Bedford (c. 1486-1555), was a son of James
+Russell (d. 1509). Having travelled widely, he attained some position at
+the court of Henry VII., and was subsequently in great favour with Henry
+VIII. In 1513 he took part in the war with France, and, having been
+knighted about the same time, was afterwards employed on several
+diplomatic errands. He was with Henry at the Field of the Cloth of Gold
+in 1520, and, returning to military service when the French war was
+renewed, lost his right eye at the siege of Morlaix in 1522. He was soon
+made knight marshal of the royal household, and in 1523 went secretly to
+France, where he negotiated a treaty between Henry and Charles, duke of
+Bourbon, who was anxious to betray the French king Francis I. After a
+short visit to England Russell was sent with money to Bourbon, joining
+the constable at the siege of Marseilles. In 1524 he visited Pope
+Clement VII. at Rome, and, having eluded the French, who endeavoured to
+capture him, was present at the battle of Pavia in February 1525,
+returning to England about the close of the year. In January 1527 he was
+sent as ambassador to Clement, who employed him to treat on his behalf
+with Charles de Lannoy, the general of Charles V. The next few years of
+Russell's life were mainly spent in England. He was member of parliament
+for Buckingham in the parliament of 1529, and although an opponent of
+the party of Anne Boleyn, retained the favour of Henry VIII. He took an
+active part in suppressing the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, and was one
+of the commissioners appointed to try the Lincolnshire prisoners.
+Honours now crowded upon him. His appointment as comptroller of the
+king's household in 1537 was followed by that of a privy councillor in
+1538; then he was made lord high admiral, high steward of the duchy of
+Cornwall and a knight of the garter. In March 1539 he was created Baron
+Russell of Chenies, and in 1542 became high steward of the university of
+Oxford, and keeper of the privy seal. In 1539, when Charles V. and
+Francis I. were threatening to invade England, he was sent into the
+west, and crossed to France when Henry attacked Francis in 1544. He was
+in command of an army in the west of England in 1545, and when Henry
+died in January 1547 was one of the executors of his will. Under Edward
+VI. Russell was lord high steward and keeper of the privy seal, and the
+defeat which he inflicted on the rebels at Clyst St Mary near Exeter in
+August 1549, was largely instrumental in suppressing the rising in
+Devonshire. In January 1550 he was created earl of Bedford, and was one
+of the commissioners appointed to make peace with France in this year.
+He opposed the proposal to seat Lady Jane Grey on the throne; supported
+Queen Mary, who reappointed him lord privy seal; and assisted to prevent
+Sir Thomas Wyat's rising from spreading to Devonshire. In 1554 he went
+to Spain to conclude the marriage treaty between Mary and Philip II.,
+and soon after his return died in London on the 14th of March 1555. By
+extensive acquisitions of land Bedford was the founder of the wealth and
+greatness of the house of Russell. Through his wife, Anne (d. 1550),
+daughter of Sir Guy Sapcote, whom he married in 1526, he obtained
+Chenies, and in 1539 was granted the forest of Exmoor, and also
+Tavistock, and a number of manors in Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, which
+had formerly belonged to the abbey of Tavistock. In 1549 he received
+Thorney, the abbey of Woburn, and extensive lands in the eastern
+counties; and in 1552 Covent Garden and seven acres of land in London,
+formerly the property of the protector Somerset. He left an only son,
+Francis, who succeeded him in the title.
+
+  See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ (London, 1862-1901); _State
+  Papers during the Reign of Henry VIII._ (London, 1831-1852); _Calendar
+  of State Papers, Edward VI. and Mary_ (London, 1861); J.H. Wiffen,
+  _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833); J.A.
+  Froude, _History of England, passim_ (London, 1881 fol.).
+
+FRANCIS RUSSELL, 2nd earl of Bedford (c. 1527-1585), was educated at
+King's Hall, Cambridge. He accompanied his father to the French war in
+1544, and from 1547 to 1552 was member of parliament for
+Buckinghamshire, being probably the first heir to a peerage to sit in
+the House of Commons. He assisted to quell the rising in Devonshire in
+1549, and after his father had been created earl of Bedford in January
+1550, was known as Lord Russell, taking his seat in the House of Lords
+under this title in 1552. Russell was in sympathy with the reformers,
+whose opinions he shared, and was in communication with Sir Thomas Wyat;
+and in consequence of his religious attitude was imprisoned during the
+earlier part of Mary's reign. Being released he went into exile; visited
+Italy; came into touch with foreign reformers; and fought at the battle
+of St Quentin in 1557. Afterwards he seems to have enjoyed some measure
+of the royal favour, and was made lord-lieutenant of the counties of
+Devon, Cornwall and Dorset early in 1558. When Elizabeth ascended the
+throne in November 1558 the earl of Bedford, as Russell had been since
+1555, became an active figure in public life. He was made a privy
+councillor, and was sent on diplomatic errands to Charles IX. of France
+and Mary queen of Scots. From February 1564 to October 1567 he was
+governor of Berwick and warden of the east marches of Scotland, in which
+capacity he conducted various negotiations between Elizabeth and Mary.
+He appears to have been an efficient warden, but was irritated by the
+vacillating and tortuous conduct of the English queen. When the northern
+insurrection broke out in 1569, Bedford was sent into Wales, and he sat
+in judgment upon the duke of Norfolk in 1572. In 1576 he was president
+of the council of Wales, and in 1581 was one of the commissioners
+deputed to arrange a marriage between Elizabeth and Francis, duke of
+Anjou. Bedford, who was made a knight of the garter in 1564, was lord
+warden of the Stannaries from 1553 to 1580. He appears to have been a
+generous and popular man, and died in London on the 28th of July 1585.
+He was buried at Chenies. His first wife was Margaret (d. 1562),
+daughter of Sir John St John, by whom he had four sons and three
+daughters. His three eldest sons predeceased their father. His second
+wife was Bridget (d. 1601), daughter of John, Lord Hussey. He was
+succeeded as 3rd earl by his grandson, EDWARD (1572-1627), only son of
+Francis, Lord Russell (c. 1550-1585). The 3rd earl left no children when
+he died on the 3rd of May 1627, and was succeeded by his cousin.
+
+FRANCIS RUSSELL, 4th earl of Bedford (1593-1641), was the only son of
+William, Lord Russell of Thornhaugh, to which barony he succeeded in
+August 1613. For a short time previously he had been member of
+parliament for the borough of Lyme Regis; in 1623 he was made
+lord-lieutenant of Devonshire; and in May 1627 became earl of Bedford by
+the death of his cousin, Edward, the 3rd earl. When the quarrel broke
+out between Charles I. and the parliament, Bedford supported the demands
+of the House of Commons as embodied in the Petition of Right, and in
+1629 was arrested for his share in the circulation of Sir Robert
+Dudley's pamphlet, "Proposition for His Majesty's service," but was
+quickly released. The Short parliament meeting in April 1640 found the
+earl as one of the king's leading opponents. He was greatly trusted by
+John Pym and Oliver St John, and is mentioned by Clarendon as among the
+"great contrivers and designers" in the House of Lords. In July 1640 he
+was among the peers who wrote to the Scottish leaders refusing to invite
+a Scottish army into England, but promising to stand by the Scots in all
+legal and honourable ways; and his signature was afterwards forged by
+Thomas, Viscount Savile, in order to encourage the Scots to invade
+England. In the following September he was among those peers who urged
+Charles to call a parliament, to make peace with the Scots, and to
+dismiss his obnoxious ministers; and was one of the English
+commissioners appointed to conclude the treaty of Ripon. When the Long
+parliament met in November 1640, Bedford was generally regarded as the
+leader of the parliamentarians. In February 1641 he was made a privy
+councillor, and during the course of some negotiations was promised the
+office of lord high treasurer. He was essentially a moderate man, and
+seemed anxious to settle the question of the royal revenue in a
+satisfactory manner. He did not wish to alter the government of the
+Church, was on good terms with Archbishop Laud, and, although convinced
+of Stafford's guilt, was anxious to save his life. In the midst of the
+parliamentary struggle Bedford died of smallpox on the 9th of May 1641.
+Clarendon described him as "a wise man, and of too great and plentiful a
+fortune to wish the subversion of the government," and again referring
+to his death said that "many who knew him well thought his death not
+unseasonable as well to his fame as his fortune, and that it rescued him
+as well from some possible guilt as from those visible misfortunes which
+men of all conditions have since undergone." Bedford was the head of
+those who undertook to drain the great level of the fens, called after
+him the "Bedford level." He spent a large sum of money over this work
+and received 43,000 acres of land, but owing to various jealousies and
+difficulties the king took the work into his own hands in 1638, making a
+further grant of land to the earl. Bedford married Catherine (d. 1657),
+daughter of Giles, 3rd Lord Chandos, by whom he had four sons and four
+daughters. His eldest son, WILLIAM (1613-1700), succeeded him as 5th
+earl, fought first on the side of the parliament and then on that of the
+king during the Civil War, and in 1694 was created marquess of Tavistock
+and duke of Bedford.
+
+  See Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion, passim_ (Oxford, 1888); J.H.
+  Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833);
+  J.L. Sanford, _Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion_
+  (London, 1858).
+
+The first duke, who married Anne (d. 1684), daughter of Robert Carr,
+earl of Somerset, was succeeded in the title by his grandson Wriothesley
+(1680-1711), who was a son of Lord William Russell (q.v.) by his
+marriage with Rachel, daughter of Thomas Wriothesley, 4th earl of
+Southampton, and who became second duke in 1700. Eleven years later the
+second duke was succeeded by his eldest son Wriothesley (1708-1732), who
+died without issue in October 1732, when the title passed to his brother
+John.
+
+JOHN RUSSELL, 4th duke of Bedford (1710-1771), second son of Wriothesley
+Russell, 2nd duke of Bedford, by his wife, Elizabeth, daughter and
+heiress of John Howland of Streatham, Surrey, was born on the 30th of
+September 1710. Known as Lord John Russell, he married in October 1731
+Lady Diana Spencer, daughter of Charles, 3rd earl of Sunderland; became
+duke of Bedford on his brother's death a year later; and having lost
+his first wife in 1735, married in April 1737 Lady Gertrude
+Leveson-Gower (d. 1794), daughter of John, Earl Gower. In the House of
+Lords he joined the party hostile to Sir Robert Walpole, took a fairly
+prominent part in public business, and earned the dislike of George II.
+When Carteret, now Earl Granville, resigned office in November 1744,
+Bedford became first lord of the admiralty in the administration of
+Henry Pelham, and was made a privy councillor. He was very successful at
+the admiralty, but was not equally fortunate after he became secretary
+of state for the southern department in February 1748. Pelham accused
+him of idleness; he was constantly at variance with the duke of
+Newcastle, and resigned office in June 1751. Instigated by his friends
+he was active in opposition to the government, and after Newcastle's
+resignation in November 1756, became lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the
+ministry of William Pitt and the duke of Devonshire, retaining this
+office after Newcastle, in alliance with Pitt, returned to power in June
+1757. In Ireland he favoured a relaxation of the penal laws against
+Roman Catholics, but did not keep his promises to observe neutrality
+between the rival parties, and to abstain from securing pensions for his
+friends. His own courtly manners and generosity, and his wife's good
+qualities, however, seem to have gained for him some popularity,
+although Horace Walpole says he disgusted everybody. In March 1761 he
+resigned this office. Having allied himself with the earl of Bute and
+the party anxious to bring the Seven Years' War to a close, Bedford was
+noticed as the strongest opponent of Pitt, and became lord privy seal
+under Bute after Pitt resigned in October 1761. The cabinet of Bute was
+divided over the policy to be pursued with regard to the war, but
+pacific counsels prevailed, and in September 1762 Bedford went to France
+to treat for peace. He was considerably annoyed because some of the
+peace negotiations were conducted through other channels, but he signed
+the peace of Paris in February 1763. Resigning his office as lord privy
+seal soon afterwards, various causes of estrangement arose between Bute
+and Bedford, and the subsequent relations of the two men were somewhat
+virulent. The duke refused to take office under George Grenville on
+Bute's resignation in April 1763, and sought to induce Pitt to return to
+power. A report, however, that Pitt would only take office on condition
+that Bedford was excluded, incensed him and, smarting under this rebuff,
+he joined the cabinet of Grenville as lord president of the council in
+September 1763. His haughty manner, his somewhat insulting language, and
+his attitude with regard to the regency bill in 1765 offended George
+III., who sought in vain to supplant him, and after this failure was
+obliged to make humiliating concessions to the ministry. In July 1765,
+however, he was able to dispense with the services of Bedford and his
+colleagues, and the duke became the leader of a political party,
+distinguished for rapacity, and known as the "Bedford party," or the
+"Bloomsbury gang." During his term of office he had opposed a bill to
+place high import duties on Italian silks. He was consequently assaulted
+and his London residence attacked by a mob. He took some part in
+subsequent political intrigues, and although he did not return to
+office, his friends, with his consent, joined the ministry of the duke
+of Grafton in December 1767. This proceeding led "Junius" to write his
+"letter to the duke of Bedford," one of especial violence. Bedford was
+hostile to John Wilkes, and narrowly escaped from a mob favourable to
+the agitator at Honiton in July 1769. His health had been declining for
+some years, and in 1770 he became partially paralysed. He died at Woburn
+on the 15th of January 1771, and was buried in the family burying place
+at Chenies. His three sons all predeceased him, and he was succeeded in
+the title by his grandson, Francis. The duke held many public offices:
+lord-lieutenant of Bedfordshire and Devonshire, and chancellor of Dublin
+University among others, and was a knight of the garter. Bedford was a
+proud and conceited man, but possessed both ability and common-sense.
+The important part which he took in public life, however, was due rather
+to his wealth and position than to his personal taste or ambition. He
+was neither above nor below the standard of political morality of the
+time, and was influenced by his duchess, who was very ambitious, and by
+followers who were singularly unscrupulous.
+
+  See _Correspondence of John, 4th Duke of Bedford_, edited by Lord John
+  Russell (London, 1842-1846); J.H. Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the
+  House of Russell_ (London, 1833); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England_,
+  vol. iii. (London, 1892); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of
+  George II._ (London, 1847), and _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._,
+  edited by G.F.R. Barker (London, 1894.)
+
+FRANCIS RUSSELL, 5th duke of Bedford (1765-1802), eldest son of Francis
+Russell, marquess of Tavistock (d. 1767), by his wife, Elizabeth (d.
+1768), daughter of William Keppel, 2nd earl of Albemarle, was baptized
+on the 23rd of July 1765. In January 1771 he succeeded his grandfather
+as duke of Bedford, and was educated at Westminster school and Trinity
+College, Cambridge, afterwards spending nearly two years in foreign
+travel. Regarding Charles James Fox as his political leader, he joined
+the Whigs in the House of Lords, and became a member of the circle of
+the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. Having overcome some
+nervousness and educational defects, he began to speak in the House, and
+soon became one of the leading debaters in that assembly. He opposed
+most of the measures brought forward by the ministry of William Pitt,
+and objected to the grant of a pension to Edmund Burke, an action which
+drew down upon him a scathing attack from Burke's pen. Bedford was
+greatly interested in agriculture. He established a model farm at
+Woburn, and made experiments with regard to the breeding of sheep. He
+was a member of the original board of agriculture, and was the first
+president of the Smithfield club. He died at Woburn on the 2nd of March
+1802, and was buried in the family burying-place at Chenies. The duke
+was never married, and was succeeded in the title by his brother, John.
+
+  See Lord Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (London, 1854); J.H.
+  Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833):
+  E. Burke, _Letter to a Noble Lord_ (Edinburgh, 1837); and Earl
+  Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_ (London, 1861-1862).
+
+JOHN RUSSELL, 6th duke of Bedford (1766-1839), was succeeded as seventh
+duke by his eldest son, Francis (1788-1861), who had an only son,
+William (1809-1872), who became duke on his father's death in 1861. When
+the eighth duke died in 1872, he was succeeded by his cousin, Francis
+Charles Hastings (1819-1891), who was member of parliament for
+Bedfordshire from 1847 until he succeeded to the title. The ninth duke
+was the eldest son of Major-General Lord George William Russell
+(1790-1846), who was a son of the sixth duke. He married Elizabeth,
+daughter of George John, 5th Earl de la Warr, and both his sons, George
+William Francis Sackville (1852-1893), and Herbrand Arthur (b. 1858),
+succeeded in turn to the title.
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORD, a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county town of
+Bedfordshire, England, 50 m. north-north-west of London by the Midland
+railway; served also by a branch of the London & North-Western. Pop.
+(1901) 35,144. It lies in the fertile valley of the Ouse, on both banks,
+but mainly on the north, on which stands the mound which marks the site
+of the ancient castle. The church of St Paul is Decorated and
+Perpendicular, but its central tower and spire are modern; it contains
+the tomb of Sir William Harper or Harpur (c. 1496-1573), lord mayor of
+London, a notable benefactor of his native town of Bedford. St Peter's
+church has in its central tower masonry probably of pre-Conquest date;
+that of St Mary's is in part Norman, and that of St John's Decorated;
+but the bodies of these churches are largely restored. There are some
+remains of a Franciscan friary of the 14th century. The Congregational
+chapel called Bunyan's or the "Old Meeting" stands on the site of the
+building in which John Bunyan preached from 1656 onward. His chair is
+preserved here, and a tablet records his life in the town, where he
+underwent a long but in part nominal imprisonment. He was born at
+Elstow, 1-1/2 m. from Bedford, where, while playing on the green, he
+believed himself to have received the divine summons to renounce sin. In
+the panels of a fine pair of bronze doors in the chapel are scenes
+illustrative of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. Bedford is noted for its
+grammar school, founded by Edward VI. in 1552, and endowed by Sir
+William Harper. The existing buildings date from 1891, and have been
+increased since that date, and the school is one of the important
+public schools of England. Harper's endowment includes land in London,
+and is now of great value, and the Harper Trust supports in addition
+modern and elementary schools for boys and girls, a girls' high school,
+and almshouses. The grammar school annually awards both entrance
+exhibitions and two exhibitions to a university or other higher
+educational institution. The old grammar school buildings are used as a
+town hall; and among other modern buildings may be mentioned the shire
+hall and county hospital. There are statues of John Bunyan (1874) and
+John Howard (1894) the philanthropist (1726-1790), who founded the
+Congregational chapel which bears his name, and resided at Cardington in
+the vicinity. There are two parks. Bedford has a large trade as a market
+town for agricultural produce, and extensive engineering works and
+manufactures of agricultural implements. The parliamentary borough
+returns one member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
+and 18 councillors. Area, 2223 acres.
+
+Bedford (Bedcanforda, Bedanforda, Bedeford) is first mentioned in 571,
+when Cuthwulf defeated the Britons here. It subsequently became a Danish
+borough, which in 914 was captured by Edward the Elder. In Domesday, as
+the county town, it was entered apart from the rest of the shire, and
+was assessed at half a hundred for the host and for ship service. The
+prescriptive borough received its first charter from Henry II., who gave
+the town to the burgesses to hold at a fee-farm rent of L40 in lieu of
+all service. The privileges included a gild-merchant, all tolls, and
+liberties and laws in common with the citizens of Oxford. This charter
+was confirmed by successive sovereigns down to Charles II. During the
+15th century, owing to the rise of other market towns, Bedford became
+less prosperous, and the fee-farm rent was finally reduced to L20 by
+charter of Henry VII. Henry VIII. granted a November fair to St
+Leonard's hospital, which was still held in the 19th century at St
+Leonard's farm, the site of the hospital. Mary granted two fairs, one in
+Lent and one on the Feast of the Conception, and also a weekly market. A
+17th century pamphlet on river navigation in Bedfordshire mentions the
+trade which Bedford carried on in coal, brought by the Ouse from Lynn
+and Yarmouth. The town was also one of the earliest centres of the lace
+trade, to the success of which French refugees in the 17th and 18th
+centuries largely contributed.
+
+Bedford was represented in the parliament of 1295, and after that date
+two members were returned regularly, until by the Redistribution of
+Seats Act in 1885 Bedford lost one of its members. The unlimited power
+of creating freemen, an inherent right of the borough, led to great
+abuse, noticeably in 1769 when 500 freemen[1] were created to support
+the political interest of Sir Robert Barnard, afterwards recorder of the
+borough.
+
+Bedford castle, of which mention is first heard during Stephen's reign
+(1136), was destroyed by order of Henry III. in 1224. The mound marking
+its site is famous as a bowling-green.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Called "guinea-pigs."
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORD, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
+in the south-central part of the state, about 60 m. north-west of
+Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 3351; (1910) 8716. It is served by the
+Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern, the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville,
+the Southern Indiana, and (for freight from the Wallner quarries about 5
+m. distant) the Bedford & Wallner railways. It is the shipping point of
+the Bedford Indiana (oolitic) limestone, which is found in the vicinity
+and is one of the most valuable and best known building stones in the
+United States--of this stone were built the capitols of Indiana,
+Georgia, Mississippi and Kentucky; the state historical library at
+Madison, Wisconsin; the art building at St Louis, Missouri; and many
+other important public buildings. The city has large cement works,
+foundries and machine shops (stone-working machinery being
+manufactured), and the repair shops of the Southern Indiana railway.
+Bedford was settled in 1826 and received a city charter in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORD, a borough and the county-seat of Bedford county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the Raystown branch of the Juniata river, about 35 m. south
+by west of Altoona. Pop. (1890) 2242; (1910) 2235. Bedford is served by
+the Bedford branch of the Pennsylvania railway. It lies in a beautiful
+valley. In the borough are some interesting old houses, erected in the
+latter part of the 18th century, an art gallery and a soldiers'
+monument. There are deposits of hematite and limestone near the borough,
+and less than 2 m. south of it are the widely-known Bedford Mineral
+Springs--a magnesia spring, a limestone spring, a sulphur spring, and a
+"sweet-water" spring--which attract many visitors during the summer
+season. There are also chalybeate and other less important springs about
+the same distance east of the borough, and a white sulphur spring 10 m.
+south-west of it. Bedford has a large wholesale grocery trade,
+manufactures flour, dressed lumber, kegs and handles, and is situated in
+a fine fruit-growing district, especially known for its apples and
+plums. The borough owns and operates the water works. A temporary
+settlement was made on or near the site of the present borough about
+1750 by an Indian trader named Ray, and for a few years the place was
+known as Raystown; the present name was adopted not later than 1759. In
+July 1758 Fort Bedford, for many years an important military post on the
+frontier, was constructed, and here, later in the year, General John
+Forbes brought together his troops preparatory to advancing against Fort
+Duquesne. The town of Bedford was laid out in 1769, and in 1771 it was
+made the county-seat of Bedford county which was organized in that year.
+The borough was incorporated in 1795, and received a new charter in
+1817. Washington came here in 1794 to review the army sent to quell the
+Whisky Insurrection, and the Espy house, which he then occupied, is
+still standing.
+
+
+
+
+BEDFORDSHIRE [abbreviated Beds], a south midland county of England,
+bounded N.E. by Huntingdonshire, E. by Cambridgeshire, S.E. by
+Hertfordshire, W. by Buckinghamshire and N.W. by Northamptonshire. It is
+the fourth smallest English county, having an area of 466.4 sq. m. It
+lies principally in the middle part of the basin of the river Ouse,
+which, entering in the north-west, traverses the rich and beautiful Vale
+of Bedford with a serpentine course past the county town of Bedford to
+the north-eastern corner near St Neots. North of it the land is
+undulating, but low; to the south, a well-wooded spur of the Chiltern
+Hills separates the Vale of Bedford from the flat open tributary valley
+of the Ivel. A small part of the main line of the Chilterns is included
+in the south of the county, the hills rising sharply from the lowland to
+bare heights exceeding 600 ft. above Dunstable. In this neighbourhood
+the county includes the headwaters of the Lea, and thus a small portion
+of it falls within the Thames basin. In the north a few streams are
+tributary to the Nene.
+
+  _Geology._--The general trend of the outcrops of the various
+  formations is from south-west to north-east; the dip is
+  south-easterly. In the northern portion of the county, the Middle
+  Oolites are the most important, and of these, the Oxford Clay
+  predominates over most of the low ground upon which Bedford is
+  situated. At Ampthill a development of clay, the Ampthill clay,
+  represents the Corallian limestones of neighbouring counties. The
+  Cornbrash is represented by no more than about 2 ft. of limestone; but
+  the Kellaways Rock is well exposed near Bedford; the sandy parts of
+  this rock are frequently cemented to form hard masses called
+  "doggers." The Great Ouse, from the point where it enters the county
+  on the west, has carved through the Middle Oolites and exposed the
+  Great Oolite as far as Bedford; their alternating limestones and clays
+  may be seen in the quarries not far from the town. From Woburn through
+  Ampthill to Potton a more elevated tract is formed by the Lower
+  Greensand. These rocks are sandy throughout. At Leighton Buzzard they
+  are dug on a large scale for various purposes. Beds of fuller's earth
+  occur in this formation at Woburn. At Potton, phosphatized nodules may
+  be obtained, and here a hard bed, the "Carstone," lies at the top of
+  the formation. Above the Lower Greensand comes the Gault Clay, which
+  lies in the broad vale south-east of the former and north-west of the
+  Chalk hills. The Chalk rises up above the Gault and forms the high
+  ground of Dunshill Moors and the Chiltern Hills. At the base of the
+  Chalk is the Chalk Marl, above this is the Totternhoe Stone, which, on
+  account of its great hardness, usually stands out as a well-marked
+  feature. The Lower Chalk, which comes next in the upward succession,
+  is capped in a similar manner by the hard Chalk Rock, as at Royston
+  and elsewhere. The upper Chalk-with-Flints occurs near the
+  south-eastern boundary. Patches of glacial boulder clay and gravel lie
+  upon the older rocks over most of the area. Many interesting mammalian
+  fossils, rhinoceros, mammoth, &c., with palaeolithic implements, have
+  been found in the valley gravels of the river Ouse and its
+  tributaries.
+
+_Industries._--Agriculture is important, nearly nine-tenths of the total
+area being under cultivation. The chief crop is wheat, for which the
+soil in the Vale of Bedford is specially suited; while on the sandy loam
+of the Ivel valley, in the neighbourhood of Biggleswade,
+market-gardening is extensively carried on, the produce going
+principally to London, whither a considerable quantity of butter and
+other dairy-produce is also sent. The manufacture of agricultural
+machinery and implements employs a large number of hands at Bedford and
+Luton. Luton, however, is specially noted for the manufacture of straw
+hats. Straw-plaiting was once extensively carried on in this
+neighbourhood by women and girls in their cottage homes, but has now
+almost entirely disappeared owing to the importation of Chinese and
+Japanese plaited straw. Another local industry in the county is the
+manufacture of pillow-lace. Many of the lace designs are French, as a
+number of French refugees settled in and near Cranfield. Mechlin and
+Maltese patterns are also copied.
+
+_Communications_ are provided in the east by the Great Northern main
+line, passing Biggleswade, and in the centre by that of the Midland
+railway, serving Ampthill and Bedford. The Bletchley and Cambridge
+branch of the London & North-Western railway crosses these main lines at
+Bedford and Sandy respectively. The main line of the same company serves
+Leighton Buzzard in the south-west, and there is a branch thence to
+Dunstable, which, with Luton, is also served by a branch of the Great
+Northern line. A branch of the Midland railway south from Bedford
+connects with the Great Northern line at Hitchin, and formerly afforded
+the Midland access to London over Great Northern metals.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+298,494 acres, with a population in 1891 of 161,704 and in 1901 of
+171,240. The area of the administrative county is 302,947 acres. The
+municipal boroughs are Bedford (pop. 35,144), Dunstable (5157) and Luton
+(36,404). The other urban districts are--Ampthill (2177), Biggleswade
+(5120), Kempston, connected with Bedford to the south-west (4729), and
+Leighton Buzzard (6331). Potton (2033), Shefford (874), and Woburn
+(1129) are lesser towns, and local centres of the agricultural trade.
+The county is the midland circuit, and assizes are held at Bedford. It
+has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided into eight petty
+sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bedford, Dunstable and Luton have
+separate commissions of the peace, and Bedford has a separate court of
+quarter-sessions. There are 133 civil parishes. Bedfordshire forms an
+archdeaconry in the diocese of Ely, with 125 ecclesiastical parishes and
+parts of 6 others. The county has two parliamentary divisions, Northern
+(or Biggleswade), and Southern (or Luton), each returning one member;
+and Bedford is a parliamentary borough, returning one member. The
+principal institution, apart from those in the towns, is the great Three
+Counties asylum (for Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and Huntingdonshire),
+in the south-east of the county near Arlesey.
+
+_History._--Although the Saxon invaders were naturally attracted to
+Bedfordshire by its abundant water supply and facilities for
+agriculture, the remains of their settlements are few and scattered.
+They occur, with one exception, south of the Ouse, the most important
+being a cemetery at Kempston, where two systems--cremation and
+earth-burial--are found side by side. Early reference to Bedfordshire
+political history is scanty. In 571 Cuthwulf inflicted a severe defeat
+on the Britons at Bedford and took four towns. During the Heptarchy what
+is now the shire formed part of Mercia; by the treaty of Wedmore,
+however, it became Danish territory, but was recovered by King Edward
+(919-921). The first actual mention of the county comes in 1016 when
+King Canute laid waste to the whole shire. There was no organized
+resistance to the conqueror within Bedfordshire, though the Domesday
+survey reveals an almost complete substitution of Norman for English
+holders. In the civil war of Stephen's reign the county suffered
+severely; the great Roll of the Exchequer of 1165 proves the shire
+receipts had depreciated in value to two-thirds of the assessment for
+the Danegeld. Again the county was thrown into the barons' war when
+Bedford Castle, seized from the Beauchamps by Falkes de Breaute, one of
+the royal partisans, was the scene of three sieges before it was
+demolished by the king's orders in 1224. The peasants' revolt
+(1377-1381) was marked by less violence here than in neighbouring
+counties; the Annals of Dunstable make brief mention of a rising in that
+town and the demand for and granting of a charter. In 1638 ship-money
+was levied on Bedfordshire, and in the Civil War that followed, the
+county was one of the foremost in opposing the king. Clarendon observes
+that here Charles had no visible party or fixed quarter.
+
+Bedfordshire is divided into nine hundreds, Barford, Biggleswade,
+Clifton, Flitt, Manshead, Redbornestoke, Stodden, Willey and Wiscamtree,
+and the liberty, half hundred or borough of Bedford. From the Domesday
+survey it appears that in the 11th century there were three additional
+half hundreds, viz. Stanburge, Buchelai and Weneslai, which had by the
+14th century become parts of the hundreds of Manshead, Willey and
+Biggleswade respectively. Until 1574 one sheriff did duty for
+Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, the shire court of the former being
+held at Bedford. The jurisdiction of the hundred courts, excepting
+Flitt, remained in the king's possession. Flitt was parcel of the manor
+of Luton, and formed part of the marriage portion of Eleanor, sister of
+Henry III. and wife of William Marshall. The burgesses of Bedford and
+the prior of Dunstable claimed jurisdictional freedom in those two
+boroughs. The _Hundred Rolls_ and the _Placita de quo warranto_ show
+that important jurisdiction had accrued to the great over-lordships,
+such as those of Beauchamp, Wahull and Caynho, and to several religious
+houses, the prior of St John of Jerusalem claiming rights in more than
+fifty places in the county.
+
+With regard to parliamentary representation, the first original writ
+which has been discovered was issued in 1290 when two members were
+returned for the county. In 1295 in addition to the county members,
+writs are found for two members to represent Bedford borough.
+Subsequently until modern times two county and two borough members were
+returned regularly.
+
+Owing to its favourable situation Bedfordshire has always been a
+prominent agricultural rather than manufacturing county. From the 13th
+to the 15th century sheep farming flourished, Bedfordshire wool being in
+request and plentiful. Surviving records show that in assessments of
+wool to the king, Bedfordshire always provided its full quota. Tradition
+says that the straw-plait industry owes its introduction to James I.,
+who transferred to Luton the colony of Lorraine plaiters whom Mary queen
+of Scots had settled in Scotland. Similarly the lace industry is
+associated with Catherine of Aragon, who, when trade was dull, burnt her
+lace and ordered new to be made. As late as the 19th century the lace
+makers kept "Cattern's Day" as the holiday of their craft. The Flemings,
+expelled by Alva's persecutions (1569), brought the manufacture of
+Flemish lace to Cranfield, whence it spread to surrounding districts.
+The revocation of the edict of Nantes, and consequent French
+immigration, gave further impetus to the industry. Defoe writing in
+1724-1727 mentions the recent improvements in the Bedfordshire bone-lace
+manufacture. In 1794 further French refugees joined the Bedfordshire
+lace makers.
+
+Woburn Abbey, belonging to the Russells since 1547, is the seat of the
+duke of Bedford, the greatest landowner in the county. The Burgoynes of
+Sutton, whose baronetcy dates from 1641, have been in Bedfordshire since
+the 15th century, whilst the Osborn family have owned Chicksands Priory
+since its purchase by Peter Osborn in 1576. Sir Phillip Monoux Payne
+represents the ancient Monoux family of Wootton. Other county families
+are the Crawleys of Stockwood near Luton, the Brandreths of Houghton
+Regis, and the Orlebars of Hinwick.
+
+With the division of the Mercian diocese in 679 Bedfordshire fell
+naturally to the new see of Dorchester. It formed part of Lincoln
+diocese from 1075 until 1837, when it was finally transferred to Ely. In
+1291 Bedfordshire was an archdeaconry including six rural deaneries,
+which remained practically unaltered until 1880, when they were
+increased to eleven with a new schedule of parishes.
+
+_Antiquities._--The monastic remains in Bedfordshire include the fine
+fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory at Dunstable, serving
+as the parish church; the church (also imperfect) of Elstow near
+Bedford, which belonged to a Benedictine nunnery founded by Judith,
+niece of William the Conqueror; and portions of the Gilbertine
+Chicksands Priory and of a Cistercian foundation at Old Warden. In the
+parish churches, many of which are of great interest, the predominant
+styles are Decorated and Perpendicular. Work of pre-Conquest date,
+however, is found in the massive tower of Clapham church, near Bedford
+on the north, and in a door of Stevington church. Fine Norman and Early
+English work is seen at Dunstable and Elstow, and the later style is
+illustrated by the large cruciform churches at Leighton Buzzard and at
+Felmersham on the Ouse above Bedford. Among the Perpendicular additions
+to the church last named may be noted a very beautiful oaken
+rood-screen. To illustrate Decorated and Perpendicular the churches of
+Clifton and of Marston Moretaine, with its massive detached campanile,
+may be mentioned; and Cople church is a good specimen of fine
+Perpendicular work. The church of Cockayne Hatley, near Potton, is
+fitted with rich Flemish carved wood, mostly from the abbey of Alne near
+Charleroi, and dating from 1689, but brought here by a former rector
+early in the 19th century. In medieval domestic architecture the county
+is not rich. The mansion of Woburn Abbey dates from the middle of the
+18th century.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Victoria County History_ (London, 1904, &c.); Fishe,
+  _Collections, Historical, Genealogical and Topographical, for
+  Bedfordshire_ (London, 1812-1816, and also 1812-1836); J.D. Parrv,
+  _Select Illustrations of Bedfordshire_ (London, 1827); _Bedfordshire
+  Domesday Book_ (Bedford, 1881); _Visitation of Bedford, 1566, 1582,
+  and 1634_, in _Harleian Society's Publications_, vol. xiv. (London,
+  1884); _Genealogica Bedfordiensis_, 1538, 1800 (London, 1890); and
+  _Illustrated Bedfordshire_ (Nottingham, 1895). See also _Bedfordshire
+  Notes and Queries_, ed. F.A. Blades, and _Transactions of the
+  Bedfordshire Natural History and Field Club._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4, by Various
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