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diff --git a/34405.txt b/34405.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d1ac4d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/34405.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18535 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 3, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4 + "Basso-relievo" to "Bedfordshire" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 22, 2010 [EBook #34405] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 3 SLICE 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical error has been corrected: + + ARTICLE BATHS: "Separate baths used to be of wood, painted; they + are now most frequently of metal, painted or lined with porcelain + enamel." 'porcelain' amended from 'procelain'. + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME III, SLICE IV + + Basso-relievo to Bedfordshire + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + BASSO-RELIEVO BAY ISLANDS + BASS ROCK, THE BAYLE, PIERRE + BASSUS, AUFIDIUS BAYLO + BASSUS, CAESIUS BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES + BASSUS, CASSIANUS BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER + BASSUS, SALEIUS BAYONET + BASSVILLE, JEAN HUGON DE BAYONNE (town of France) + BASTAR BAYONNE (New Jersey, U.S.A.) + BASTARD BAYOU + BASTARNAE BAYREUTH + BASTI BAZA + BASTIA BAZAAR + BASTIAN, ADOLF BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANCOIS + BASTIAT, FREDERIC BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM + BASTIDE, JULES BAZARD, AMAND + BASTIDE BAZAS + BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES BAZIGARS + BASTILLE BAZIN, RENE + BASTINADO BAZIRE, CLAUDE + BASTION BDELLIUM + BASTWICK, JOHN BEACH + BASUTOLAND BEACHY HEAD + BAT BEACON + BATAC BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI + BATALA BEACONSFIELD (town of Tasmania) + BATALHA BEACONSFIELD (town of South Africa) + BATANGAS BEACONSFIELD (town of England) + BATARNAY, IMBERT DE BEAD + BATAVIA (residency of Java) BEADLE + BATAVIA (city of Java) BEAK + BATAVIA (New York, U.S.A.) BEAKER + BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM BEALE, DOROTHEA + BATEMENT LIGHTS BEAM + BATES, HARRY BEAN + BATES, HENRY WALTER BEAN-FEAST + BATES, JOHN BEAR + BATES, JOSHUA BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING + BATES, WILLIAM BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK + BATESON, THOMAS BEARD + BATH, THOMAS THYNNE BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT + BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY BEARDSTOWN + BATH (county of England) BEARER + BATH (Maine, U.S.A.) BEARINGS + BATH-CHAIR BEAR-LEADER + BATHGATE BEARN + BATHOLITE BEAS + BATHONIAN SERIES BEAT + BATHORY, SIGISMUND BEATIFICATION + BATHOS BEATON, DAVID + BATHS BEATRICE + BATHURST, EARLS BEATTIE, JAMES + BATHURST BEATUS + BATHVILLITE BEAUCAIRE + BATHYBIUS BEAUCE + BATHYCLES BEAUCHAMP + BATLEY BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE + BATON BEAUFORT + BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO BEAUFORT, FRANCOIS DE VENDOME + BATON ROUGE BEAUFORT, HENRY + BATRACHIA BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE + BATRACHOMYOMACHIA BEAUFORT SCALE + BATTA BEAUFORT WEST + BATTAGLIA BEAUGENCY + BATTAKHIN BEAUHARNAIS + BATTALION BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE + BATTAMBANG BEAUJEU + BATTANNI BEAULIEU + BATTAS BEAULY + BATTEL BEAUMANOIR + BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE REMI + BATTEN BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE + BATTENBERG BEAUMARIS + BATTER BEAUMONT (English family) + BATTERING RAM BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE + BATTERSEA BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN + BATTERY BEAUMONT and FLETCHER + BATTEUX, CHARLES BEAUMONT (Texas, U.S.A.) + BATTHYANY, LOUIS BEAUNE + BATTICALOA BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE + BATTISHILL, JONATHAN BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT + BATTLE (town of England) BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE + BATTLE (military engagement) BEAUVAIS + BATTLE ABBEY ROLL BEAUVILLIER + BATTLE CREEK BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE + BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK BEAUX, CECILIA + BATTLEMENT BEAVER (animal) + BATTUE BEAVER (part of the helmet) + BATTUS BEAVER DAM + BATU BEAVER FALLS + BATUM BEAWAR + BATWA BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST + BATYPHONE BECCAFICO + BAUAN BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE + BAUBLE BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA + BAUCHI BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE + BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE BECCLES + BAUDIER, MICHEL BECERRA, GASPAR + BAUDRILLART, HENRI LEON BECHE-DE-MER + BAUDRY, OF BOURGUEIL BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM + BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME BECHUANA + BAUER, BRUNO BECHUANALAND + BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL + BAUFFREMONT BECK, DAVID + BAUHIN, GASPARD BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND + BAULK BECKENHAM + BAUMBACH, RUDOLF BECKER, HEINRICH + BAUME, ANTOINE BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF + BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER BECKET, THOMAS + BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL BECKFORD, WILLIAM + BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG BECKINGTON, THOMAS + BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN BECKMANN, JOHANN + BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL + BAUTZEN BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY + BAUXITE BECKX, PIERRE JEAN + BAVAI BECQUE, HENRY FRANCOIS + BAVARIA BECQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO + BAVENO BECQUEREL + BAWBEE BED (furniture) + BAXTER, ANDREW BED (layer of rock) + BAXTER, RICHARD BEDARESI, YEDAIAH + BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY BEDARIEUX + BAXTER, WILLIAM BEDDGELERT + BAY BEDDOES, THOMAS + BAYAMO BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL + BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL BEDE + BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS BEDE, CUTHBERT + BAYAZID BEDELL, WILLIAM + BAYBAY BEDESMAN + BAY CITY BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF + BAYEUX BEDFORD (town of England) + BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE BEDFORD (Indiana, U.S.A.) + BAYEZID I BEDFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + BAYEZID II BEDFORDSHIRE + + + + +BASSO-RELIEVO (Ital. for "low relief"), the term applied to sculpture in +which the design projects but slightly from the plane of the background. +The relief may not project at all from the original surface of the +material, as in the sunken reliefs of the Egyptians, and may be nearly +flat, as in the Panathenaic procession of the Parthenon. In the early +19th century the term _basso-relievo_, or "low relief," came to be +employed loosely for all forms of relief, the term _mezzo-relievo_ +having already dropped out of general use owing to the difficulty of +accurate application. + + + + +BASS ROCK, THE, a small island in the Firth of Forth, about 2 m. from +Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, Scotland. It is circular in shape, measuring +a mile in circumference, and is 350 ft. high. On three sides the cliffs +are precipitous, but they shelve towards the S.W., where landing is +effected. The Bass Rock is an intrusive mass of phonolitic trachyte or +orthophyre. No nepheline has been detected in the rock, but analcite is +present in small quantity together with abundant orthoclase and green +soda-augite. It bears a close resemblance to the eruptive masses of +North Berwick Law and Traprain Law, but is non-porphyritic. It is +regarded by Sir A. Geikie as a plug filling an old volcanic vent, from +which lava emanated during the Calciferous Sandstone period. It used to +be grazed by sheep, of which the mutton was thought to be unusually +good, but its principal denizens are sea-birds, chiefly solan geese, +which haunt the rock in vast numbers. A lighthouse with a six-flash +lantern of 39,000 candle power was opened in 1002. For a considerable +distance E. and W. there runs through the rock a tunnel, about 15 ft. +high, accessible at low water. St Baldred, whose name has been given to +several of the cliffs on the shore of the mainland, occupied a hermitage +on the Bass, where he died in 756. In the 14th century the island became +the property of the Lauders, called afterwards Lauders of the Bass, from +whom it was purchased in 1671 by government, and a castle with dungeons +was erected on it, in which many Covenanters were imprisoned. Among them +were Alexander Peden (1626-1686), for four years, and John Blackadder +(1615-1686), who died there after five years' detention. At the +Revolution four young Jacobites captured the Rock, and having been +reinforced by a few others, held it for King James from June 1691 to +April 1694, only surrendering when threatened by starvation. Thus the +island was the last place in Great Britain to submit to William III. +Dismantled of its fortifications in 1701, the Bass passed into the +ownership of Sir Hew Dalrymple, to whose family it belongs. It is let on +annual rental for the feathers, eggs, oil and young of the sea-birds and +for the fees of visitors, who reach it usually from Canty Bay and North +Berwick. + + + + +BASSUS, AUFIDIUS, a Roman historian, who lived in the reign of Tiberius. +His work, which probably began with the civil wars or the death of +Caesar, was continued by the elder Pliny, who, as he himself tells us, +carried it down at least as far as the end of Nero's reign. The _Bellum +Germanicum_ of Bassus, which is commended, may have been either a +separate work or a section of his general history. The elder Seneca +speaks highly of him as an historian, but the fragments preserved in +that writer's _Suasoriae_ (vi. 23) relating to the death of Cicero, are +characterized by an affected style. + + Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, praefatio, 20; Tacitus, _Dialogus de Oratoribus_, + 23; Quintilian, _Instit_, x. 1. 103. + + + + +BASSUS, CAESIUS, a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign of Nero. He +was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated his sixth satire to +him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on Persius, vi. 1). He is said to +have lost his life in the eruption of Vesuvius (79). He had a great +reputation as a poet; Quintilian (_Instit_, x. 1. 96) goes so far as to +say that, with the exception of Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth +reading. He is also identified with the author of a treatise _De +Metris_, of which considerable fragments, probably of an abbreviated +edition, are extant (ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally +in verse, and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used +as an instruction book. A worthless and scanty account of some of the +metres of Horace (in Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi. 305), bearing the +title _Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris_ is not by him, but chiefly borrowed +by its unknown author from the treatise mentioned above. + + + + +BASSUS, CASSIANUS, called SCHOLASTICUS (lawyer), one of the _geoponici_ +or writers on agricultural subjects. He lived at the end of the 6th or +the beginning of the 7th century A.D. He compiled from earlier writers a +collection of agricultural literature (_Geoponica_) which was afterwards +revised by an unknown editor and published about the year 950, in the +reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, to whom the work itself has been +ascribed. It contains a full list of the authorities drawn upon, and the +subjects treated include agriculture, birds, bees, horses, cattle, +sheep, dogs, fishes and the like. + + COMPLETE EDITIONS.--Needham (1704), Niclas (1781), Beckh (1895); see + also Gemoll in _Berliner Studien_, i. (1884); Oder in _Rheinisches + Museum_, xlv. (1890), xlviii. (1893), and De Raynal in _Annuaire de + l'Assoc. pour l'Encouragement des Etudes Grecques_, viii. (1874). + + + + +BASSUS, SALEIUS, Roman epic poet, a contemporary of Valerius Flaccus, in +the reign of Vespasian. Quintilian credits him with a vigorous and +poetical genius (_Instit_, x. 1. 90) and Julius Secundus, one of the +speakers in Tacitus _Dialogus de Oratoribus_ (5; see also 9) styles him +a perfect poet and most illustrious bard. He was apparently overtaken by +poverty, but was generously treated by Vespasian, who made him a present +of 500,000 sesterces. Nothing from his works has been preserved; the +_Laus Pisonis_, which has been attributed to him, is probably by Titus +Calpurnius Siculus (J. Held, _De Saleio Basso_. 1834). + + + + +BASSVILLE, or BASSEVILLE, NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE (d. 1793), French +journalist and diplomatist, was born at Abbeville on the 7th of February +1753. He was trained for the priesthood, taught theology in a provincial +seminary and then went to Paris. Here in 1784 he published _Elements de +mythologie_ and some poems, which brought him into notice. On the +recommendation of the prince of Conde he became tutor to two young +Americans travelling in Europe. With them he visited Berlin, made the +acquaintance there of Mirabeau, and became a member of the Berlin +Academy Royal. At the outbreak of the Revolution he turned to +journalism, becoming editor of the _Mercure international_. Then, +through the Girondist minister Lebrun-Tondu, he entered the diplomatic +service, went in May, 1792, as secretary of legation to Naples and was +shortly afterwards sent, without official status, to Rome. Here his +conduct was anything but diplomatic. He at once announced himself as the +protector of the extreme Jacobins in Rome, demanded the expulsion of the +French _emigres_ who had taken refuge there, including the "demoiselles +Capet," and ordered the _fleur-de-lys_ on the escutcheon of the French +embassy to be replaced by a picture of Liberty painted by a French art +student. He talked at large of the "purple geese of the Capitol" and met +the remonstrances of Cardinal Zelada, the papal secretary of state, with +insults. This enraged the Roman populace; a riot broke out on the 13th +of January 1793, and Bassville, who was driving with his family to the +Corso, was dragged from his carriage and so roughly handled that he +died. The affair was magnified in the Convention into a deliberate +murder of the "representative of the Republic" by the pope's orders. In +1797 by an article of the treaty of Tolentino the papal government +agreed to pay compensation to Bassville's family. Among his writings we +may also mention _Memoires historiques, critiques el politiques sur la +Revolution de France_ (Paris 1790; English trans. London, 1790). + + See F. Masson, _Les Diplomates de la Revolution_ (Paris, 1882); + Silvagni, _La Carte e la Societa romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX._ + (Florence, 1881). + + + + +BASTAR, a feudatory state of British India, in the Chattisgarh division +of the Central Provinces; area, 13,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was +306,501, showing a decrease of 1% compared with an apparent increase of +58% in the preceding decade. Estimated revenue L22,000; tribute L1100. +The eastern part of Bastar is a flat elevated plateau, from 1800 to 2000 +ft. above the level of the sea, the centre and N.W. portions are very +mountainous, and the southern parts consist of hills and plains. On the +plateau there are but few hills; the streams run slowly and the country +is a mixture of plain and undulating ground covered by dense _sal_ +forests. Principal mountains of the district: (1) a lofty range which +separates it from the Sironcha district; (2) a range of equal height +called the Bela Dila lying in the centre of the district; (3) a range +running N. and S. near Narayanpur; (4) Tangri Dongri range, running E. +and W.; (5) Tulsi Dongri, bordering on the Sabari river and the Jaipur +state. There is also a small range running from the river Indravati to +the Godavari. The Indravati, the Sabari and the Tal or Talper, are the +chief rivers of the district; all of them affluents of the Godavari. The +soil throughout the greater portion of Bastar consists of light clay, +with an admixture of sand, suited for raising rice and wet crops. In +the jungles the Marias, who are among the aboriginal tribes of Gond +origin, raise kosra (_Panicum italicum_) and other inferior grains. +Aboriginal races generally follow the migratory system of tillage, +clearing the jungle on selected patches, and after taking crops for two +or three years abandoning them for new ground. They do not use the +plough; nor do they possess buffaloes, bullocks or cows; their only +agricultural implement is a long-handled iron hoe. They are a timid, +quiet, docile race, and although addicted to drinking not quarrelsome. +They inhabit the densest jungles and are very shy, avoiding contact with +strangers, and flying to the hills on the least alarm; but they bear a +good character for honesty and truthfulness. They are very scantily +dressed, wear a variety of trinkets, with a knife, hatchet, spear, bow +and arrows, the only weapons they use. Their hair is generally shaved, +excepting a topknot; and when not shaved it gets into a matted, tangled +mass, gathered into a knot behind or on the crown. The Marias and the +Jhurias are supposed to be a subdivision of the true Gond family. All +the aboriginal tribes of Bastar worship the deities of the Hindu +pantheon along with their own national goddess Danteswari. + +Bastar is divided into two portions--that held by the Raja or chief +himself, and that possessed by feudatory chiefs under him. The climate +is unhealthy--fever, smallpox, dysentery and rheumatism being the +prevailing diseases. Jagdalpur, Bijapur, Madder and Bhupalpatnam are the +only places of any note in the dependency, the first (on the Indravati +river) being the residence of the raja and the chief people of the +state. The principal products are rice, oil-seeds, lac, tussur silk, +horns, hides, wax and a little iron. Teak timber is floated down the +rivers to the Madras coast. A good road has brought Jagdalpur into +connexion with the railway at Raipur. + + + + +BASTARD (O. Fr. _bastard_, mod. _batard = fils de bast_, "pack-saddle +child," from _bast_, saddle), a person born out of legal wedlock. +Amongst the Romans, bastards were classified as _nothi_, children born +in concubinage, and _spurii_, those not so born. Both classes had a +right of succession to their mother, and the _nothi_, were entitled to +support from their father, but had no rights of inheritance from him. +Both, however, had in other respects most of the rights of citizenship. +The Germanic law was based upon an entirely different principle. It +recognized as legitimate only those whose parents were of the same +social rank. All others were regarded as bastards, and took the status +of the parent of inferior rank. The aim of all the Germanic codes was to +preserve purity of race, not to improve morals, for incestuous unions +are not censured. The influence of the Germanic law lasted throughout +the early feudal period, and bastards were debarred rights of +inheritance. In the 13th century the influence of Roman law tended again +to modify this severity. An exception was probably made in the case of +those whose fathers were of royal blood, in which case it even seems +that no stigma was attached to the accident of their birth, nor did they +suffer from the usual disabilities as to inheritance which attended +those of illegitimate birth (Gregory of Tours, v. 25). Among the Franks +we find Theodoric I., a natural son of Clovis, sharing the kingdom with +the legitimate sons; Zwentibold, natural son of Arnulf, was created king +of Lorraine by his father in 895; and even William the Conqueror +actually assumed the appellation of bastard. + +In English law a bastard still retains certain disabilities. His rights +are only such as he can acquire; for civilly he can inherit nothing, +being looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes called _filius +nullius_, sometimes _filius populi_. This, however, does not hold as to +moral purposes, e.g. he cannot marry his mother or bastard sister. Yet +he may gain a surname by reputation though he has none by inheritance, +and may even be made legitimate and capable of inheriting by the +transcendent power of an act of parliament. + +For poor-law purposes, all legitimate children take the settlement of +their father, but a bastard takes the settlement of its mother. The +mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to its custody in preference +to the father, and consequently the responsibility of its support falls +primarily on her. But the English law has always recognized the +principle that to a certain extent the father must share in that +responsibility. This, however, was imposed not with the idea of +furnishing the woman with a civil remedy, nor to have a penal effect +against the man, but solely to prevent the cost of maintenance of the +bastard child from falling upon the parish. Indeed, the legislation upon +the subject, which dates back to 1576, was until 1845 an intimate part +of the poor law. The act of 1576, the basis of English bastardy law, +empowered justices to take order for the punishment of the mother and +reputed father of every bastard child left to the care of the parish, +and to charge the mother and reputed father with the payment of a weekly +sum or other needful sustenance. Other acts were passed in 1609 and +1733, enabling the mother of any child chargeable or likely to become +chargeable to the parish to secure the apprehension, and even the +imprisonment, of the father until he should indemnify the parish, +provisions which were made somewhat more stringent by acts passed in +1809 and 1810. In 1832 a commission was appointed to inquire into the +operation of the poor laws, and the commissioners in their report gave +great attention to the subject of bastardy. They reviewed the various +acts from 1576 downwards and gave examples of their operation. The +conclusion to which the commissioners came was that the laws "which +respect bastardy appear to be pre-eminently unwise," and that they gave +rise to many abuses. For example, the weekly payment recovered by the +parish was usually transferred to the mother; even in many cases +guaranteed. The commissioners recommended that the mother alone should +be responsible for the maintenance of the child. "This," they said, "is +now the position of a widow, and there can be no reason for giving to +vice privileges which we deny to misfortune." Acting on the +recommendation of the commissioners the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 +endeavoured to discourage the principle of making the putative father +contribute by introducing a somewhat cumbersome method of procedure. The +trend of public opinion proved against the discouragement of +affiliation, and an act of 1839 transferred jurisdiction in affiliation +cases from quarter-sessions to petty-sessions. A commission of inquiry +on the working of the bastardy acts in 1844 recommended "that +affiliation should be facilitated," and, accordingly, by the Bastardy +Act of 1845 effect was given to this recommendation by giving the mother +an independent civil remedy against the putative father and dissociating +the parish altogether from the proceedings. Subsequently, legislation +gave the parish the right of attaching, and in some cases suing for, +money due from the putative father for the maintenance of the child. The +existing law is set out under AFFILIATION. + +The incapacities attaching to a bastard consist principally in this, +that he cannot be heir to any one; for being _nullius filius_, he is +therefore of kin to nobody, and has no ancestor from whom an inheritable +blood can be derived. Therefore, if there be no other claimant upon an +inheritance than such illegitimate child, it escheats to the lord. And +as bastards cannot be heirs themselves, so neither can they have any +heirs but those of their own bodies; for as all collateral kindred +consists in being derived from the same common ancestor, and as a +bastard has no legal ancestor, he can have no collateral kindred, and +consequently no legal heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent +from himself. And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised +therefor without issue and intestate, the land escheats to the lord of +the fee. Originally a bastard was deemed incapable of holy orders, and +disqualified by the fact of his birth from holding any dignity in the +church; but this doctrine is now obsolete, and in all other respects +there is no distinction between a bastard and another man. By the law of +Scotland a bastard is not only excluded from his father's succession, +because the law knows no father who is not marked out by marriage; and +from all heritable succession, whether by the father or mother, because +he cannot be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest in terms of the +brief; but also from the movable succession of his mother, because he is +not her lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all succession +deferred by the law. But a bastard, although he cannot succeed _jure +sanguinis_, may succeed by destination, where he is specially called to +the succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as in England, a +bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his own body; and hence, +failing his lawful issue, the king succeeds to him as last heir. +Formerly bastards in Scotland without issue of their own could not make +a will, but this disability was removed by a statute of 1835. If +bastards or other persons without kindred die intestate without wife or +child, their effects go to the king as _ultimus haeres_; but a grant is +usually made of them by letters patent, and the grantee becomes entitled +to the administration. + +According to the common law, which is the law of England, a bastard +cannot be divested of his state of illegitimacy, unless by the supreme +power of an act of parliament. But in those countries which have +followed the Roman or civil law, a bastard's status may be provisional, +and he can be made legitimate by the subsequent marriage of his parents. +(See LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION; and, for statistics, ILLEGITIMACY.) + + AUTHORITIES.--Bacquet, _Traite de la batardise_ (1608); Du Cange, + _Gloss. Lat._, infra "Bastardus"; L.G. Koenigswater, _Histoire de + l'organisation de la famille en France_ (1851), and _Essai sur les + enfants nes hors mariage_ (1842); E.D. Glasson, _Histoire des droits + et des institutions de l'Angleterre_ (6 vols., 1882-1883), _Histoire + du droit et des institutions de la France_ (1887); Pollock and + Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898); Stephen's _Commentaries_; + Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_ (3 vols., + 1898). + + + + +BASTARNAE, the easternmost people of the Germanic race, the first to +come into contact with the ancient world and the Slavs. Originally +settled in Galicia and the Bukovina, they appeared on the lower Danube +about 200 B.C., and were used by Philip V. of Macedon against his +Thracian neighbours. Defeated by these the Bastarnae returned north, +leaving some of their number (hence called Peucini) settled on Peuce, an +island in the Danube. Their main body occupied the country between the +eastern Carpathians and the Danube. As allies of Perseus and of +Mithradates the Great, and lastly on their own account, they had hostile +relations with the Romans who in the time of Augustus defeated them, and +made a peace, which was disturbed by a series of incursions. In these +the Bastarnae after a time gave place to the Goths, with whom they seem +to have amalgamated, and we last hear of them as transferred by the +emperor Probus to the right bank of the Danube. Polybius and the authors +who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; Strabo, having learned of +the Romans to distinguish Celts and Germans, first allows a German +element; Tacitus expressly declares their German origin but says that +the race was degraded by intermarriage with Sarmatians. The descriptions +of their bodily appearance, tribal divisions, manner of life and methods +of warfare are such as are applied to either race. No doubt they were an +outpost of the Germans, and so had absorbed into themselves strong +Getic, Celtic and Sarmatian elements. (E. H. M.) + + + + +BASTI, a town and district of British India, in the Gorakhpur division +of the United Provinces. The town, a collection of villages, is on the +river Kuana, 40 m. from Gorakhpur by railway. The population in 1901 was +14,761. It has no municipality. The district has an area of 2792 sq. m. +It stretches out in one vast marshy plain, draining towards the +south-east, and traversed by the Rapti, Kuana, Banganga, Masdih, Jamwar, +Ami and Katneihia rivers. The tract lying between these streams consists +of a rich alluvial deposit, more or less subject to inundations, but +producing good crops of rice, wheat and barley. In 1901 the population +was 1,846,153, showing an increase of 3% in the decade. A railway from +Gorakhpur to Gonda runs through the district, and the river Gogra is +navigable. A large transit trade is conducted with Nepal. The export +trade of the district itself is chiefly in rice, sugar and other +agricultural produce. + + + + +BASTIA, a town and seaport on the eastern coast of the island of +Corsica, 98 m. N.N.E. of Ajaccio by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,509. Bastia, +the chief commercial town in Corsica, consists of the densely-populated +quarter of the old port with its labyrinth of steep and narrow streets, +and of a more modern quarter to the north, which has grown up round the +new port. La Traverse, a fine boulevard, intersects the town from north +to south. Rising from the sea-shore like an amphitheatre, Bastia +presents an imposing appearance, which is enhanced by the loftiness of +its houses; it has, however, little of architectural interest to offer. +Its churches, of which the largest is San Giovanni Battista, are florid +in decoration, as are the law-court, the theatre and the hotel-de-ville. +The citadel, which dominates the old port, has a keep of the 14th +century. As capital of an arrondissement, Bastia is the seat of a +tribunal of first instance and a sub-prefect, while it is also the seat +of the military governor of Corsica, of a court of appeal for the whole +island, of a court of assizes, and of a tribunal and a chamber of +commerce, and has a lycee, a branch of the Bank of France, and a library +with between 30,000 and 40,000 volumes. The town has active commerce, +especially with Italy. The new port has 1100 ft. of quayage, served by a +railway, and with a depth alongside of 25 ft. The total number of +vessels entered in 1907 was 721 with a tonnage of 337,551, of which +203,950 were French. The chief exports are chestnut extract for tanning, +cedrates, citrons, oranges, early vegetables, fish, copper ore and +antimony ore. Imports include coal, grain, flour and wine. Industry +consists chiefly in fishing (sardines, &c., and coral), the manufacture +of tobacco, oil-distilling, tanning, and the preparation of preserved +citrons and of macaroni and similar provisions. + +Bastia dates from the building of the Genoese fortress or "bastille" by +Lionello Lomellino in 1383. Under the Genoese it was long the principal +stronghold in the north of the island, and the residence of the +governor; and in 1553 it was the first town attacked by the French. On +the division of the island in 1797 into the two departments of Golo and +Liamone, Bastia remained the capital of the former; but when the two +were again united Ajaccio obtained the superiority. The city was taken +by the English in 1745 and again in 1794. + + + + +BASTIAN, ADOLF (1826- ), German ethnologist, was born at Bremen on the +26th of June 1826. He was educated as a physician, but from his early +years devoted himself to travel. Proceeding to Australia in 1851 as +surgeon on a vessel, he had visited almost every part of the world +before his return in 1859. In 1861 he made an expedition to the Far East +which lasted five years. Upon his return he commenced the publication of +his great work on _The Peoples of Eastern Asia_, an immense storehouse +of facts owing little to arrangement or style. He settled in Berlin, +where he was made professor of ethnology at the university and keeper of +the ethnological museum. He succeeded R. Virchow as president of the +Berlin Anthropological Society, and to him was largely due the formation +in 1878 of the German Africa Society of Berlin, which did much to +encourage German colonization in Africa. Later he undertook further +scientific travels in Africa, South America and India. The results of +these explorations were made public in a long series of separate +publications comprising several on Buddhism, and on the psychological +problems presented by native superstitions. Bastian also edited the +_Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_ from 1869, in conjunction with Virchow and +Robert von Hartmann. On his seventieth birthday, 1896 (during which year +he started on an expedition to Malaysia), he was presented with a volume +of essays composed by the most distinguished ethnologists in celebration +of the event and dedicated to him. Among his more important works may be +mentioned:--_Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1860); _Die Volker +des ostlichen Asien_ (Jena, 1866-1871); _Ethnologische Forschungen_ +(Leipzig, 1871-1873); _Die Kulturlander des alten Amerika_ (Berlin, +1878); _Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologie_ (Berlin, 1881); +_Indonesien_ (Leipzig, 1884); _Der Fetisch an der Kuste Guineas_ +(Berlin, 1885); _Die mikronesischen Kolonien_ (1899-1900); _Die +wechselnden Phasen im geschichtlichen Sehkreis und ihre Ruckwirkung auf +die Volkerkunde_ (1900). + + + + +BASTIAT, FREDERIC (1801-1850), French economist, was the son of a +merchant of Bayonne, and was born in that town on the 29th of June 1801. +Educated at the colleges of Saint-Sever and of Soreze, he entered in +1818 the counting-house of his uncle at Bayonne. The practical routine +of mercantile life being distasteful to him, in 1825 he retired to a +property at Mugron, of which he became the owner on the death of his +grandfather. Here Bastiat occupied himself with farming, his leisure +being devoted to study and meditation. He welcomed with enthusiasm the +Revolution of 1830. In 1831 he became a _juge de paix_ of his canton, +and in 1832 a member of the _conseil general_ of the Landes. In 1834 he +published his first pamphlet, and between 1841 and 1844 three others, +all on questions of taxation affecting local interests. During this +period an accidental circumstance led him to become a subscriber to an +English newspaper, the _Globe and Traveller_, through which he was made +acquainted with the nature and progress of the crusade of the +Anti-Corn-Law League against protection. After studying the movement for +two years, he resolved to inaugurate a similar movement in France. To +prepare the way, he contributed in 1844 to the _Journal des Economistes_ +an article "Sur l'influence des tarifs anglais et francais," which +attracted great attention, and was followed by others, including the +first series of his brilliant _Sophismes Economiques_. + +In 1845 Bastiat came to Paris in order to superintend the publication of +his _Cobden et la Ligue, ou l'agitation anglaise pour la liberte des +echanges_, and was very cordially received by the economists of the +capital. From Paris he went to London and Manchester, and made the +personal acquaintance of Cobden, Bright and other leaders of the league. +When he returned to France he found that his writings had been exerting +a powerful influence; and in 1846 he assisted in organizing at Bordeaux +the first French Free-Trade Association (Association pour la Liberte des +Echanges). The rapid spread of the movement soon required him to abandon +Mugron for Paris. + +During the eighteen months which followed this change his labours were +prodigious. He acted as secretary of the central committee of the +association, organized and corresponded with branch societies, waited on +ministers, procured subscriptions, edited a weekly paper, the +_Libre-Echange_, contributed to the _Journal des Economistes_ and to +three other periodicals, addressed meetings in Paris and the provinces, +and delivered a course of lectures on the principles of political +economy to students of the schools of law and of medicine. The cause to +which he thus devoted himself at the expense of his health and life +appeared for a time as if it would be successful; but the forces in its +favour were much weaker and those opposed to it were much stronger in +France than in England, and this became more apparent as the struggle +proceeded, until it was brought to an abrupt end by the Revolution of +February 1848. This event made the socialistic and communistic +principles, which had been gathering and spreading during the previous +thirty years, temporarily supreme. (See NATIONAL WORKSHOPS.) In this +grave crisis Bastiat nobly performed his duty. Although exhausted by the +far too heavy labours in which he had been engaged, although robbed of +his voice by the malady which was preying upon him, so that he could do +but little to defend the truth from the tribune of the Constituent +Assembly, he could still suggest wise counsels in the committee of +finance of which he was vice-president, and he could still use his pen +with a vigour and dexterity which made him capable of combating +single-handed many opponents. + +He wrote in rapid succession a series of brilliant and effective +pamphlets and essays, showing how socialism was connected with +protection, and exposing the delusions on which it rested. Thus within +the space of two years there appeared _Propriete et Loi, Justice et +Fraternite, Propriete et Spoliation, L'Etat, Baccalaureat et Socialisme, +Protectionisme et Communisme, Capital et Rente, Maudit Argent, +Spoliation et Loi, Gratuite du Credit_, and _Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on +ne voit pas_. While thus occupied he was meditating the composition of a +great constructive work, meant to renovate economical science by basing +it on the principle that "interests, left to themselves, tend to +harmonious combinations, and to the progressive preponderance of the +general good." The first volume of this work _Les Harmonies economiques_ +was published in the beginning of 1850. In the autumn of that year, when +working on the second volume, the increase of his malady compelled him +to go to Italy. After lingering at Pisa and Florence he reached Rome, +but only to die there on the 24th of December 1850 in the fiftieth year +of his age. + +The life-work of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated, requires to +be considered in three aspects. (1) He was the advocate of free-trade, +the opponent of protection. The general principles of free-trade had, of +course, been clearly stated and solidly established before he was born, +but he did more than merely restate them. He showed, as no one before +him had done, how they were practically applicable to French +agriculture, trade and commerce; and in the _Sophismes Economiques_ we +have the completest and most effective, the wisest and the wittiest +exposure of protectionism in its principles, reasonings and consequences +which exists in any language. (2) He was the opponent of socialism. In +this respect also he had no equal among the economists of France. He +alone fought socialism hand to hand, body to body, as it were, not +caricaturing it, not denouncing it, not criticizing under its name some +merely abstract theory, but taking it as actually presented by its most +popular representatives, considering patiently their proposals and +arguments, and proving conclusively that they proceeded on false +principles, reasoned badly and sought to realize generous aims by +foolish and harmful means. Nowhere will reason find a richer armoury of +weapons available against socialism than in the pamphlets published by +Bastiat between 1848 and 1850. (3) He attempted to expound in an +original and independent manner political economy as a science. In +combating, first, the Protectionists, and, afterwards, the Socialists, +there gradually rose on his mind a conception which seemed to him to +shed a flood of light over the whole of economical doctrine, and, +indeed, over the whole theory of society, viz. the harmony of the +essential tendencies of human nature. The radical error, he became +always more convinced, both of protectionism and socialism, was the +assumption that human interests, if left to themselves would inevitably +prove antagonistic and anti-social, capital robbing labour, manufactures +ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the native, the consumer the +producer, &c.; and the chief weakness of the various schools of +political economy, he believed, he had discovered in their imperfect +apprehension of the truth that human interests, when left to themselves, +when not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered with, tend to harmonious +combination, to the general good. + + His _OEuvres completes_ are in 7 vols. The first contains an + interesting _Memoir_ by M. Paillottet. + + + + +BASTIDE, JULES (1800-1879), French publicist, was born at Paris on the +22nd of November 1800. He studied law for a time, and afterwards engaged +in business as a timber merchant. In 1821 he became a member of the +French Carbonari, and took a prominent part in the Revolution of 1830. +After the "July Days" he received an artillery command in the national +guard. For his share in the _emeute_ in Paris (5th of June 1832) on the +occasion of the funeral of General Maximilien Lamarque, Bastide was +sentenced to death but escaped to London. On his return to Paris in 1834 +he was acquitted, and occupied himself with journalism, contributing to +the _National_, a republican journal of which he became editor in 1836. +In 1847 he founded the _Revue nationale_ with the collaboration of P.J. +Buchez (q.v.), with whose ideas he had become infected. After the +Revolution of February 1848 Bastide's intimate knowledge of foreign +affairs gained for him a secretarial post in the provisional government, +and, after the creation of the executive commission, he was made +minister of foreign affairs. At the close of 1848 he threw up his +portfolio, and, after the _coup d'etat_ of December 1851, retired into +private life. He died on the 2nd of March 1879. His writings comprise +_De l'education publique en France_ (1847); _Histoire de l'assemblee +legislative_ (1847); _La Republique francaise et l'Italie en 1848_ +(1858); _Histoire des guerres religieuses en France_ (1859). + + + + +BASTIDE (Provencal _bastida_, building), a word applied to the fortified +towns founded in south-western France in the middle ages, and +corresponding to the _villes neuves_ of northern France. They were +established by the abbeys, the nobles and the crown, frequently by two +of these authorities in co-operation, and were intended to serve as +defensive posts and centres of population for sparsely-inhabited +districts. In addition, they formed a source of revenue and power for +their founders, who on their part conceded liberal charters to the new +towns. They were built on a rectangular plan, with a large central +square and straight thoroughfares running at right angles or parallel to +one another, this uniformity of construction being well exemplified in +the existing _bastide_ of Monpazier (Dordogne) founded by the English in +1284. Mont-de-Marsan, the oldest of the bastides, was founded in 1141, +and the movement for founding them lasted during the 12th, 13th and 14th +centuries, attaining its height between 1250 and 1350. + + See E. Menault, _Les Villes Neuves, leur origine et leur influence + dans le mouvement communal_ (Paris, 1868); Curie-Seimbres, _Essai sur + les villes fondees dans le sud-ouest de la France sous le nom de + bastides_ (Toulouse, 1880). + + + + +BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES (1848-1884), French painter, was born in the +village of Damvillers, Meuse, France, on the 1st of November 1848 and +spent his childhood there. He first studied at Verdun, and prompted by a +love of art went in 1867 to Paris, where he was admitted to the Ecole +des Beaux-arts, working under Cabanel. After exhibiting in the Salons of +1870 and 1872 works which attracted no attention, in 1874 he made his +mark with his "Song of Spring," a study of rural life, representing a +peasant girl sitting on a knoll looking down on a village. His "Portrait +of my Grandfather," exhibited in the same year, was not less remarkable +for its artless simplicity and received a third-class medal. This +success was confirmed in 1875 by the "First Communion," a picture of a +little girl minutely worked up as to colour, and a "Portrait of M. +Hayem." In 1875 he took the second Prix de Rome with his "Angels +appearing to the Shepherds," exhibited again in 1878. His next endeavour +to win the Grand Prix de Rome in 1876 with "Priam at the Feet of +Achilles" was again unsuccessful (it is in the Lille gallery), and the +painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon of 1877 he +sent a full-length "Portrait of Lady L." and "My Parents"; and in 1878 a +"Portrait of M. Theuriet" and "The Hayfield." The last picture, now in +the Luxembourg, is regarded as a typical work from its stamp of +realistic truth. Thenceforth Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as +the leader of a school, and his "Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt" +(1879), painted in a light key, won him the cross of the Legion of +Honour. In 1880 he exhibited a small portrait of M. Andrieux and "Joan +of Arc listening to the Voices"; and in the same year, at the Royal +Academy, the little portrait of the "Prince of Wales." In 1881 he +painted "The Beggar" and the "Portrait of Albert Wolf"; in 1882 "Le Pere +Jacques"; in 1883 "Love in a Village," in which we find some trace of +Courbet's influence. His last dated work is "The Forge" (1884). The +artist, long ailing, had tried in vain to re-establish his health in +Algiers. He died in Paris on the 10th of December 1884, when planning a +new series of rural subjects. Among his more important works may also be +mentioned the portrait of "Mme J. Drouet" (1883); "Gambetta on his +death-bed," and some landscapes; "The Vintage" (1880), and "The Thames +at London" (1882). "The Little Chimney-Sweep" was never finished. An +exhibition of his collected works was opened in March and April 1885. + + See A. Theuriet, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885--English edition, 1892); L. de + Fourcaud, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885). (H. Fr.) + + + + +BASTILLE (from Fr. _bastir_, now _batir_, to build), originally any +fortified building forming part of a system of defence or attack; the +name was especially applied to several of the principal points in the +ancient fortifications of Paris. In the reign of King John, or even +earlier, the gate of Saint Antoine was flanked by two towers; and about +1369 Hugues Aubriot, at the command of Charles V., changed it into a +regular bastille or fort by the addition of six others of massive +structure, the whole united by thick walls and surrounded by a ditch 25 +ft. wide. Various extensions and alterations were afterwards effected; +but the building remained substantially what it was made by the vigorous +provost, a strong and gloomy structure, with eight stern towers. As the +ancient fortifications of the city were superseded, the use of the word +bastille as a general designation gradually died out, and it became +restricted to the castle of Saint Antoine, the political importance of +which made it practically, long before it was actually, the only +bastille of Paris. The building had originally a military purpose, and +it appears as a fortress on several occasions in French history. When +Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, his opponents in the +city took refuge in the Bastille, which they were prepared to defend +with vigour, but the want of provisions obliged them to capitulate. In +1588 the duke of Guise took possession of the Bastille, gave the command +of it to Bussy-Leclerc, and soon afterwards shut up the whole parlement +within its walls, for having refused their adherence to the League. When +Henry IV. became master of Paris he committed the command of the +Bastille to Sully, and there he deposited his treasures, which at the +time of his death amounted to the sum of 15,870,000 livres. On the 11th +of January 1649 the Bastille was invested by the forces of the Fronde, +and after a short cannonade capitulated on the 13th of that month. The +garrison consisted of only twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a +peace with the court on the 11th of March; but it was stipulated by +treaty that they should retain possession of the Bastille, which in fact +was not restored to the king till the 21st of October 1651. + +At a very early period, however, the Bastille was employed for the +custody of state prisoners, and it was ultimately much more of a prison +than a fortress. According to the usual account, which one is tempted to +ascribe to the popular love of poetical justice, the first who was +incarcerated within its walls was the builder himself, Hugues Aubriot. +Be this as it may, the duke of Nemours spent thirteen years there in one +of those iron cages which Louis XI. called his _fillettes_; and Jacques +d'Armagnac, Poyet and Chabot were successively prisoners. It was not +till the reign of Louis XIII. that it became recognized as a regular +place of confinement; but from that time till its destruction it was +frequently filled to embarrassment with men and women of every age and +condition. Prisoners were detained without trial on _lettres de cachet_ +for different reasons, to avoid a scandal, either public or private, or +to satisfy personal animosities. But the most frequent and most +notorious use of the Bastille was to imprison those writers who attacked +the government or persons in power. It was this which made it so hated +as an emblem of despotism, and caused its capture and demolition in the +Revolution. + +Of the treatment of prisoners in the Bastille very various accounts have +been given even by those who speak from personal experience, for the +simple reason that it varied greatly in different cases. The prisoners +were divided into two main classes, those who were detained on grounds +of precaution or by way of admonitory correction, and those who lay +under presumption or proof of guilt. The former were subject to no +investigation or judgment, and the length of their imprisonment depended +on the will of the king; the latter were brought to trial in the +ordinary courts or before special tribunals, such as that of the +Arsenal--though even in their case the interval between their arrest and +their trial was determined solely by the royal decree, and it was quite +possible for a man to grow old in the prison without having the +opportunity of having his fate decided. Until guilt was established, the +prisoner was registered in the king's name, and--except in the case of +state-prisoners of importance, who were kept with greater strictness and +often in absolute isolation--he enjoyed a certain degree of comfort and +freedom. Visitors were admitted under restrictions; games were allowed; +and, for a long time at least, exercise was permitted in open parts of +the interior. Food was both abundant and good, at least for the better +class of prisoners; and instances were not unknown of people living +below their allowance and, by arrangement with the governor, saving the +surplus. When the criminality of the prisoner was established, his name +was transferred to the register of the "commission," and he became +exposed to numerous hardships and even barbarities, which however +belonged not so much to the special organization of the Bastille as to +the general system of criminal justice then in force. + +Among the more distinguished personages who were confined in this +fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV. and XVI., were the famous +_Man of the Iron Mask_ (see IRON MASK), Foucquet, the marshal Richelieu, +Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville, Voltaire, Latude, Le Prevot de +Beaumont, Labourdonnais, Lally, Cardinal de Rohan, Linguet and La +Chalotais. While no detestation is too great for that system of "royal +pantheism" which led to the unjust and often protracted imprisonment of +even men of great ability and stainless character, it is unnecessary to +give implicit credence to all the tales of horror which found currency +during the excitement of the Revolution, and which historical evidence, +as well as _a priori_ considerations, tends to strip of their more +dreadful features, and even in many cases to refute altogether. Much +light of an unexpected kind has in modern times been shed on the history +of the Bastille from the pages of its own records. These documents had +been flung out into the courts of the building by the revolutionary +captors, and after suffering grievous diminution and damage were finally +stored up and forgotten in the vaults of the library of the (so-called) +Arsenal. Here they were discovered in 1840 by Francois Ravaisson, who +devoted himself to their arrangement, elucidation and publication. + +At the breaking out of the Revolution the Bastille was attacked by the +Parisians; and, after a vigorous resistance, it was taken and razed to +the ground on the 14th of July 1789. At the time of its capture only +seven prisoners were found in it. A very striking account of the siege +will be found in Carlyle's _French Revolution_, vol. i. The site of the +building is now marked by a lofty column of bronze, dedicated to the +memory of the patriots of July 1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded +figure of the genius of liberty. + + See the _Memoirs_ of Linguet (1783), and Latude (ed. by Thierry, tome + iii. 18mo, 1791-1793); also Francois Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la + Bastille_ (16 vols. 8vo, 1866-1886); Delort, _Histoire de la detention + des philosophes a la Bastille_ (3 vols., 1829); F. Bournon, _La + Bastille_ (1893); Fr. Funck-Brentano, _Les Lettres de cachet a Paris, + etude suivie d'une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille_ (1904); G. + Lecocq, _La Prise de la Bastille_ (1881). + + + + +BASTINADO (Span. _baston_, Fr. _baton_, a stick, cudgel), the European +name for a form of punishment common in the east, especially in Turkey, +Persia and China. It consists in blows with a light stick or lath of +bamboo upon the soles of the feet or on the buttocks. The terror of the +punishment lies not in the severity of the blows, which are on the +contrary scarcely more than tapping, but in its long continuation. A +skilful bastinadoist can kill his victim after hours of torture. + + + + +BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. _bastire_, to build), a work +forming part of a line of fortifications. The general trace of a bastion +is similar to an irregular pentagon formed by a triangle and a narrow +rectangle, the base of the triangle coinciding with the long side of the +rectangle. The two sides of the triangle form the "faces" of the +bastion, which join at the "salient" angle, the short sides of the +rectangle form the "flanks." Bastions were arranged so that the fire +from the flanks of each protected not only the front of the curtain but +also the faces of the adjacent bastions. A "tower bastion" is a +case-mated tower built in bastion form; a "demi-bastion" is a work +formed by half a bastion (bisected through the salient angle) and by a +parapet along the line of bisection; a "flat bastion" is a bastion built +on a curtain and having a very obtuse salient angle. + + + + +BASTWICK, JOHN (1593-1654), English physician and religious zealot, was +born at Writtle, in Essex, in 1593, and after a brief education at +Cambridge, wandered on the continent and graduated in medicine at Padua. +On his return he settled in Colchester. His celebrity rests on his +strong opposition to the Roman Catholic ceremonial. About 1633 he +printed in Holland two Latin treatises, entitled _Elenchus Religionis +Papisticae_, and _Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Latialium_; and as +Laud and other English prelates thought themselves aimed at, he was +fined L1000 in the court of high commission, excommunicated and +prohibited from practising physic, while his books were ordered to be +burnt and the author himself consigned to prison. Instead of recanting, +however, he wrote _Apologeticus ad Praesules Anglicanos_, and another +book called _The Litany_, in which he exclaimed vehemently against the +proceedings of the court, and charged the bishops with being the enemies +of God and "the tail of the beast." William Prynne and Henry Burton +coming under the lash of the star-chamber court at the same time, they +were all censured as turbulent and seditious persons, and condemned to +pay a fine of L5000 each, to be set in the pillory, to lose their ears, +and to undergo imprisonment for life in remote parts of the kingdom, +Bastwick being sent to Scilly. The parliament in 1640 reversed these +proceedings, and ordered Bastwick a reparation of L5000 out of the +estates of the commissioners and lords who had sentenced him. He joined +the parliamentary army, but in later years showed bitter opposition to +the Independents. He died in the latter part of 1654. + + + + +BASUTOLAND (officially "The Territory of Basutoland"), an inland state +and British crown colony of S.E. Africa, situated between 28 deg. 35' +and 30 deg. 30' S. and 27 deg. and 29 deg. 25' E. It has an area of +10,293 sq. m., being somewhat smaller than Belgium, and is bounded S., +S.E., and N.E. by the Drakensberg, N. and N.W. by the Caledon river, +S.W. by a range of low hills extending from the Caledon above Wepener to +the Orange river, and south of the Orange by the Telle or Tees river to +its source in the Drakensberg. Its greatest length S.W. to N.E. is 145 +m.; its greatest breadth N. to S. 120 m. On every side it is surrounded +by British colonies, north by the Orange River Colony, south-west and +south by Cape Colony, and east by Natal. + +Basutoland, or Lesuto (Lesotho) as the natives call it, forms the +south-eastern edge of the interior tableland of South Africa, and has a +rugged and broken surface with a mean elevation of 6000 ft. The +Drakensberg (q.v.) forming the buttress of the plateau seaward, attain +their highest elevation on the Basuto-Natal border. The frontier line +follows the crest of the mountains, three peaks some 10,000 or more ft. +high--Giant's Castle, Champagne Castle or Cathkin Peak and Mont aux +Sources--towering high above the general level. Mount Hamilton, which +lies north of the waterparting, is over 9000 ft. high. From Mont aux +Sources, table-shaped, and called by the Basutos _Potong_ (Antelope), a +second range of mountains, the Maluti, runs S.W. through the entire +length of Basutoland. The crest of the Maluti is in few places lower +than 7000 ft. whilst Machacha, the culminating point, is about 10,500 +ft. From the tableland north of the Maluti several isolated hills rise, +the most noted being the almost inaccessible Thaba Bosigo--the rallying +place of the Basuto in many of their wars. Shut off from the adjacent +Indian Ocean by its mountain barrier, the drainage of the country is +westward to the distant Atlantic. As its name implies, the chief rivers +rise in Mont aux Sources. From the inner sides of that mountain descend +the Caledon and the Senku, whilst from its seaward face the Tugela flows +through Natal to the Indian Ocean. The Caledon runs north of the Maluti, +the Senku south of that range. From the slopes of the Maluti descend +many streams, the largest being the Kornet Spruit, which joins the Senku +and other torrents from the Drakensberg to form the upper Orange +(q.v.). The Caledon also, sweeping southward, unites with the Orange +beyond the frontiers of Basutoland. Ordinarily shallow, the rivers after +heavy rain fill with great rapidity, sweeping away everything in their +path. In the richer soil they cut deep channels; the denudation thus +caused threatens to diminish seriously the area of arable and pasture +land. The river beds contain dangerous quicksands. + +The aspect of the country is everywhere grand, and often beautiful, +fully justifying the title, "The Switzerland of South Africa," often +applied to it. Viewed from a distance the mountains appear as dark +perpendicular barriers, quite impenetrable; but narrow paths lead round +the precipitous face of the hills, and when the inner side is gained a +wonderful panorama opens out. In every direction can be seen luxuriant +valleys through which rivers thread their silvery way, wild chasms, +magnificent waterfalls--that of Maletsunyane has an unbroken leap of +over 600 ft.--and, above all, hill crest after hill crest in seeming +endless succession. In winter the effect is heightened by the snow which +caps all the higher peaks. + +_Geology._--Basutoland is entirely occupied by the upper division +(Stormberg series) of the Karroo formation. The highest strata (Volcanic +group) form the rugged elevated spurs of the Drakensberg mountains which +extend along the eastern territorial boundary. It has been suggested +that these spurs represent the sites of vents or fissures of eruption. +The upper part of the Maluti range consists of flows of melaphyres and +diabases belonging to the volcanic beds. Among these lavas is the "pipe" +amygdaloid of which many blocks have been transported great distances +down the Vaal river. The amygdales are three or four inches long and +about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Heulandite, with thomsonite, +stilbite, scolecite, calcite and chalcedony, occur as infilling +minerals. + +_Climate._--The climate is excellent, invigorating alike for Europeans +and natives. The mean annual temperature is about 60 deg. F. The four +seasons are distinctly marked, a rarity in South Africa, where the +transition from summer to winter is generally very rapid. The heat of +summer (December-March, which is the rainy season) is tempered by cool +breezes; winter (May-September, inclusive) is dry, cold and bracing, and +frost prevails for prolonged periods. The average annual rainfall is +about 30 in. The general health conditions are good. Malaria is almost +unknown and chest complaints are rare. Epidemics of smallpox and typhoid +occur; and leprosy, imported from the Orange River and Cape Colonies, +has taken firm hold on the Basuto, of whom about 91 per 1000 are +sufferers from this disease. + +_Flora and Fauna._--A few kloofs are wooded, but of forest land there is +none. Along the upper courses of the rivers are willows and wild olive +trees; round the chief settlements the eucalyptus and the pine have been +planted. Heaths, generally somewhat rare in South Africa outside the +Cape peninsula, are abundant in Basutoland. The Alpine flora is very +beautiful. There are few wild animals; but the eland, hartebeest and +smaller antelopes are found, as well as the leopard and the jackal. +Mountain hares, partridges and quails afford good sport; baboons and +great hawks live in the mountains. The few fish include the barbel. +Swarms of locusts occasionally visit the country; the locusts are eaten +by the Basuto. + +_Population and Towns._--Considering the extensive area of uninhabitable +mountain land it contains, the Territory supports a large population. +The inhabitants increased from 128,206 in 1875 to 348,848 in 1904. The +females outnumber the males by about 20,000, which is, however, about +the number of adult males away from the country at any given period. The +majority live in the district between the Maluti mountains and the +Caledon river. The great bulk of the people are Basuto, but there are +some thousands of Barolong and other Kaffirs. The Basuto proper are a +branch of the Bechuana family of Bantu-Negroids. The white inhabitants +in 1904 numbered 895, and there were 222 coloured persons other than +natives. The seat of government is Maseru, on the left bank of the +Caledon, with a population of about 1000 including some 100 Europeans. +Mafeteng, in the N.W. near the Cape frontier, is a thriving agricultural +centre, as is Butha Buthe in the N.E. Morija, some 16 m. S.E. of Maseru, +is the oldest mission station in the Territory, having been founded by +the Paris Society about 1833. Three miles from Morija is Matsieng, the +kraal of the paramount chief Lerothodi (who died in August 1905). There +are numerous mission stations throughout Basutoland, to several of which +Biblical names have been given, such as Shiloh, Hermon, Cana, Bethesda, +Berea. + +_Agriculture and Trade._--Basutoland is one of the greatest +grain-growing countries of South Africa. The richest tract of land is +that between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon river. In summer the +country appears as one waving field of wheat, millet and mealies; whilst +on the mountain slopes and on their flat tops are large flocks of sheep, +cattle and goats, and troops of ponies. The Basuto ponies, said to be +descended from Shetland ponies which, imported to the Cape in 1840, +strayed into the mountains, are short-legged, strong-bodied, +sure-footed, and noted for their hardiness. Improvements in the breed +have been effected by the introduction of Arab stallions. Nearly every +Basuto is an agriculturist; there are no manufactories, and the +minerals, in accordance with the desire of the people, are not worked. +The land is wholly in the possession of the natives, who hold it on the +communal system. Whites and Indians are allowed to establish trading +stations on obtaining special permits from the government, and the +Indians absorb much of the retail trade. The chief exports are wheat, +mealies, Kaffir corn, wool, mohair, horses and cattle. The great bulk of +the imports are textiles. The value of the trade depends on regular +rains, so that in seasons of drought the exports seriously diminish. The +average annual value of trade for the five years ending the 30th of June +1905 was:--Exports L215,668, imports L203,026. Trade is almost entirely +with Orange River Colony and Cape Colony. The Territory is a member of +the South African Customs Union. Some 60,000 Basuto (annual average) +find employment outside the Territory, more than half of whom seek farm +and domestic service. A small proportion go to the Johannesburg gold +mines, and others obtain employment on the railways. + +Communication over the greater part of the Territory is by road; none of +the rivers is navigable. A state-owned railway, 16-1/2 m. long, starting +from Maseru crosses the Caledon river and joins the line connecting +Bloemfontein and Ladysmith. This railway follows, N.E. of Maseru, the +right bank of the Caledon, and affords a ready means of transport for +the cereals raised on the left or Basuto side of the river. Highroads, +maintained by the government, traverse every part of the country, and +bridges have been built across the Caledon. The usual mode of conveyance +is by ox-waggon or light cart. Several passes through the Drakensberg +into Griqualand East and Natal exist, but are little used. There is a +complete postal and telegraphic service and a telephone line connects +all government stations. + +_Government and Finance._--Basutoland is a crown colony, of which the +high commissioner for South Africa is governor. In him resides the +legislative power, exercised by proclamation. The Territory is +administered, under the direction of the governor, by a resident +commissioner, who is also the chief judicial officer. He is aided by a +government secretary and by assistant commissioners. Under the British +officials the country is governed by hereditary native chiefs, over whom +is a paramount chief. The chiefs have jurisdiction in cases affecting +natives, but there is a right of appeal to the courts of the +commissioners, who try all cases in which any of the parties are +European. A national council (_pitso_), representative of all the native +tribes, meets annually for the free discussion of public affairs. For +administrative purposes the Territory is divided into the seven +districts of Maseru, Leribe, Mohales Hoek, Berea, Mafeteng, Quthing and +Qacha's Nek, each of which is subdivided into wards presided over by +Basuto chiefs. + +Revenue is obtained from a hut tax of L1 per hut; the sale of licences +to trade; customs and post office receipts. Seven-eighths of the revenue +comes from the hut tax and customs. The average annual revenue for the +five years 1901-1905 was L96,880; the average annual expenditure +L69,559. Basutoland has no public debt. + +_Education and Social Condition._--Education is given in schools founded +by missionary societies, of which the chief is the Societe des Missions +Evangeliques de Paris. A large proportion of the people can read and +write Sesuto (as the Basuto language is called) and English, and speak +Dutch, whilst a considerable number also receive higher education. Many +Basuto at the public examinations take higher honours than competitors +of European descent. There are over 200 schools, with an average +attendance exceeding 10,000. Nine-tenths of the scholars are in the +schools of the French Protestant Mission, which are conducted by +English, or English-speaking, missionaries. A government grant is made +towards the cost of upkeep. A government industrial school (opened in +1906) is maintained at Maseru, and the Paris Society has an industrial +school at Leloaleng. The social condition of the people is higher than +that of the majority of South African natives. Many Basuto profess +Christianity and have adopted European clothing. Serious crime is rare +among them and "deliberate murder is almost unknown." [1] They are, like +mountaineers generally, of a sturdy, independent spirit, and are given +to the free expression of their views, generally stated with good sense +and moderation. These views found a new medium of publicity in 1904 when +an independent native newspaper was started, called _Naledi ea Lesotha_ +(Star of Basutoland). The publication of this paper was followed in 1906 +by the adoption of a uniform system of Sesuto orthography. A book on +national customs, the first work in the vernacular by a South African +native, was published in 1893. The brandy-drinking habit, which, when +the imperial government assumed control of the administration in 1884, +threatened the existence of the nation, has been very largely checked. A +strong beer, brewed from Kaffir corn, is a favourite drink. + + + Moshesh forms the Basuto nation. + +_History._--Until the beginning of the 19th century Basutoland appears +to have been uninhabited save by wandering Bushmen, whose rude rock +pictures are to be found in several parts of the Drakensberg. About 1800 +the country was occupied by various tribes of Bechuana, such as Batau, +Basuto, Baputi, who then possessed the greater part of what is now +Orange River Colony. They appear to have recognized the paramount +authority of a family descended from a chief named Monaheng. By the wars +of the Zulu chiefs Chaka, Matiwana and Mosilikatze, these tribes were +largely broken up and their power destroyed. One tribe, living in the +Maluti mountains, was reduced to cannibalism. From their chief Machacha +mountain takes its name. At this period a young man named Moshesh (born +about 1790), who was of the family of Monaheng and already noted as +hunter and warrior, gathered round him the remnants of several broken +clans, out of which he welded the existing Basuto nation. He established +himself in 1824 on the rock-fortress of Thaba Bosigo, where, in 1831, he +successfully defended himself against Mosilikatze; and thereafter became +second only to that chief among the natives north of the Orange River. +In 1833 Moshesh invited the missionaries of the Societe des Missions +Evangeliques of Paris to settle in his country, and from that day until +his death proved their firm friend. A few years later, in 1836-1837, +large parties of emigrant Boers settled north of the Orange, and before +long disputes arose between them and Moshesh, who claimed a great part +of the land on which the white farmers had settled. The Basuto acquired +an unenviable notoriety as a race of bold cattle lifters and raiders, +and the emigrant Boers found them extremely troublesome neighbours. At +the same time, if the Basuto were eager for cattle, the Boers were eager +for land; and their encroachments on the territories of the Basuto led +to a proclamation in 1842 from Sir George Napier, the then governor of +Cape Colony, forbidding further encroachments on Basutoland. In 1843 a +treaty was signed with Moshesh on the lines of that already arranged +with Waterboer, the Griqua chief (see GRIQUALAND), creating Basutoland a +native state under British protection. + + + Annexation to Great Britain. + +To the quarrels between Basuto and Boers were added interminable +disputes between the Basuto and other Bechuana tribes, which continued +unabated after the proclamation of British sovereignty over the Orange +river regions by Sir Harry Smith in 1848. In 1849, however, Moshesh was +unwillingly induced by Sir Harry to surrender his claims to part of the +territory recognized as his by the Napier treaty. The British continued +to intervene in the inter-tribal disputes, and in 1851 Major H.D. Warden +led against the Basuto a commando composed of British soldiers, farmers +and a native contingent. This commando was defeated at Viervoet, near +Thaba Nchu, by the Basuto, who thereafter raided and plundered the +natives opposed to them and the farmers who had helped the British. +Attempts were made to come to terms with Moshesh and the justice of many +of his complaints was admitted. The efforts at accommodation failed, and +in 1852 General Sir George Cathcart, who had succeeded Sir Harry Smith +as governor of Cape Colony, decided to take strong measures with the +tribe, and proceeded with three small divisions of troops against +Moshesh. The expedition was by no means a success, but Moshesh, with +that peculiar statecraft for which he was famous, saw that he could not +hope permanently to hold out against the British troops, and followed up +his successful skirmishes with General Cathcart by writing him a letter, +in which he said: "As the object for which you have come is to have a +compensation for Boers, I beg you will be satisfied with what you have +taken. You have shown your power, you have chastised; I will try all I +can to keep my people in order in the future." General Cathcart accepted +the offer of Moshesh and peace was proclaimed, the Basuto power being +unbroken. Fourteen months later (February 1854) Great Britain renounced +sovereignty over the farmers settled beyond the Orange, and Moshesh +found himself face to face with the newly constituted Free State. +Boundary disputes at once arose but were settled (1858) by the mediation +of Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony. In 1865 a fresh feud +occurred between the Orange Free State Boers and the Basuto. The latter +applied to Sir Philip Wodehouse at the Cape for protection, but he +declined to interfere. The Boers proved more successful than they had +been in the past, and occupied several of the Basuto strongholds. They +also annexed a certain fertile portion of Basuto territory, and finally +terminated the strife by a treaty at Thaba Bosigo, by which Moshesh gave +up the tract of territory taken by the Boers and professed himself a +subject of the Free State. Seeing that the struggle against the Boers +was hopeless, no fewer than 2000 Basuto warriors having been killed, +Moshesh again appealed for protection to the British authorities, +saying: "Let me and my people rest and live under the large folds of the +flag of England before I am no more." In response to this request, the +British authorities decided to take over Basutoland, and a proclamation +of annexation was issued on the 12th of March 1868. At the same time the +Boer commandoes were requested to leave the country. The Free State +strongly resented the British annexation of Basutoland, but much +negotiation the treaty of Aliwal North was concluded (1869) between the +Free State and the high commissioner. This treaty defined the boundary +between the Free State and Basutoland, whereby the fertile strip of +country west of the Caledon river, known as the Conquered Territory, was +finally transferred to the Free State, and the remainder of Basutoland +was recognized as a portion of the British dominions. + +Moshesh, who for nearly fifty years had led his people so skilfully and +well, died in 1870. He was one of the rare instances among the Kaffirs +of a leader endowed with intellectual gifts which placed him on a level +with Europeans, and his life-work has left a permanent mark on South +African history. In diplomacy he proved fully the equal of all--white or +black--with whom he had to deal, while he ruled with a rare combination +of vigour and moderation over the nation which he had created. + + + The "gun" war. + +In 1871 Basutoland was annexed to Cape Colony, the area at that time +being given as 10,300 sq. m. The turbulent Basuto warriors did not +remain quiet for any length of time, and in 1879 Moirosi, a chief +residing in the southern portion of Basutoland, openly repudiated +colonial rule. An expedition was despatched from Cape Colony and severe +fighting followed. Moirosi's stronghold was captured and the chief +himself was killed. Immediately after the war, strife occurred among the +Basuto themselves over the question of the partition of Moirosi's +territory, which had been decided on as one of the results of the war. +In 1880 the Cape government felt sufficiently strong to extend to +Basutoland the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878. This act provided +for the disarmament of natives, and had already been put in force +successfully among some of the Kaffir tribes on the Cape eastern +frontier. Its execution in Basutoland, however, proved an extremely +difficult task, and was never entirely accomplished. Desultory warfare +was carried on between the colonial troops and the Basuto until 1881, +when the intervention of the high commissioner, Sir Hercules Robinson +(afterward Lord Rosmead), was asked for. Peace in Basutoland was not +announced until the end of 1882. In the following year a form of +self-government was established, but was once more followed by internal +strife among the petty chieftains. + + + A crown colony. + +The subjection of Basutoland to the control of the Cape government had +by this time proved unsatisfactory, both to the Basuto and to Cape +Colony. The Cape government therefore offered no opposition to the +appeal made by the Basuto themselves to the imperial government to take +them over, and, moreover, Cape Colony undertook to pay towards the cost +of administration an annual contribution of L18,000. Consequently, in +1884, Basutoland ceased to be a portion of the Cape Colony and became a +British crown colony. Native laws and customs were interfered with as +little as possible and the authority of the chiefs--all members of the +Moshesh family--was maintained. Moshesh had been succeeded as paramount +chief by his son, Letsie, and he in turn was succeeded in 1891 by +Lerothodi (c. 1837-1905). These chieftains acted in concert with the +British representative in the country, to whom was given the title of +resident commissioner. The first commissioner was Sir Marshall Clarke, +to whose tact and ability the country owed much. The period of warfare +over, the Basuto turned their attention more and more to agricultural +pursuits and also showed themselves very receptive of missionary +influence. Trade increased, and in 1891 Basutoland was admitted to the +customs union, which already existed between Orange Free State, Cape +Colony and British Bechuanaland. When Lord (then Sir Alfred) Milner +visited Basutoland in 1898, on his way to Bloemfontein, he was received +by 15,000 mounted Basuto. The chiefs also attended a large meeting at +Maseru, and gave expression to their gratitude for the beneficent +character of Queen Victoria's rule and protection. On the outbreak of +the Boer War in 1899, these same chiefs, at a great meeting held in the +presence of the resident commissioner, gave a further protestation of +their loyalty to Her Majesty. They remained passive throughout the War +and the neutrality of the country was respected by both armies. One +chief alone sought to take advantage of the situation by disloyal +action, and his offence was met by a year's imprisonment. The conversion +of Basutoland into a crown colony contributed alike to the prosperity of +the Basuto, the security of the property of neighbouring colonists and a +peaceful condition among the natives of South Africa generally. In +pursuance of the policy of encouraging the self-governing powers of the +Basuto, a national council was instituted and held its first sitting in +July 1903. In August 1905 the paramount chief Lerothodi died. In early +life he had distinguished himself in the wars with the Boers, and in +1880 he took an active part in the revolt against the Cape government. +Since 1884 he had been a loyal supporter of the imperial authorities, +being unwavering in his adherence in critical times. Fearless and +masterful he also possessed high diplomatic gifts, and though on +occasion arbitrary and passionate he was neither revengeful nor cruel. +On the 19th of September following Lerothodi's death, the national +council, with the concurrence of the imperial government, elected his +son Letsie as paramount chief. The completion in October 1905 of a +railway putting Maseru in connexion with the South African railway +system proved a great boon to the community. During the rebellion of the +natives in Natal and Zululand in 1906 the Basuto remained perfectly +quiet. + + AUTHORITIES.--_The Basutos_ (2 vols., London, 1909), a standard + history, and "Basutoland and the Basutos" in _Jnl. Ryl. Col. Inst._ + 1901, both by Sir G. Lagden, resident-commissioner, 1893-1901; E. + Jacottet, "Moeurs, coutumes et superstitions des Ba-Souts," in _Bull. + Soc. neuchateloise Geog._, vol. ix. pp. 107-151, 1897; G.M. Theal, + _Basutoland Records_ (Cape Town, 1883); E. Casalis, _Les Bassutos_ + (Paris, 1859), a description of exploration, manners and customs, the + result of twenty-three years' residence in the country; Minnie Martin, + _Basutoland: its Legends and Customs_ (London, 1903); Mrs F.A. Barkly, + _Among Boers and Basutos_ (new ed., London, 1897), a record, chiefly, + of the Gun War of 1880-1882; C.W. Mackintosh, _Coillard of the + Zambesi_ (London, 1907). For geology consult E. Cohen, + "Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Sud-Afrika," _Neues Jahrb. + f. Min._, 1874, and _N. Jahrb. Beil._, Bd. v., 1887; D. Draper, "Notes + on the Geology of South-eastern Africa," _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, + vol. 1., 1894; Hatch-Corstorphine. _The Geology of South Africa_ + (London, 1905). For current information see the annual report on + Basutoland (Colonial Office, London). Many books dealing with South + Africa generally have chapters relating to Basutoland, e.g. A.P. + Hillier, _South African Studies_ (London, 1900); James Bryce, + _Impressions of South Africa_ (3rd ed., London, 1899). Consult also + Theal's _History of South Africa_ (1908-9 ed.). + (F. R. C.; A. P. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Report by resident-commissioner H.C. Sloley, for 1902-1903. + + + + +BAT,[1] a name for any member of the zoological order Chiroptera (q.v.). +Bats are insectivorous animals modified for flight, with slight powers +of progression on the ground; the patagium or "flying-membrane" of some +squirrels and of _Galeopithecus_ (q.v.) probably indicates the way in +which the modification was effected. They are distributed throughout the +world, but are most abundant in the tropics and the warmer parts of the +temperate zones; within these limits the largest forms occur. There is +great variation in size; the Malay "flying-fox" (_Pteropus edulis_) +measures about a foot in the head and body, and has a wing-spread of 5 +ft.; while in the smaller forms the head and body may be only about 2 +in., and the wing-spread no more than a foot. The coloration is +generally sombre, but to this there are exceptions; the fruit-bats are +brownish yellow or russet on the under surface; two South American +species are white; Blainville's chin-leafed bat is bright orange; and +the Indian painted bat (_Cerivoula picta_) with its deep orange dress, +spotted with black on the wing-membranes, has reminded observers of a +large butterfly. In habits bats are social, nocturnal and crepuscular; +the insect-eating species feed on the wing, in winter in the temperate +regions they migrate to a warmer climate, or hibernate, as do the +British bats. The sense-organs are highly developed; the wing-membranes +are exceedingly sensitive; the nose-leaf is also an organ of perception, +and the external ear is specially modified to receive sound-waves. Most +bats are insect-eaters, but the tropical "flying foxes" or fox-bats of +the Old World live on fruit; some are blood-suckers, and two feed on +small fish. Twelve species are British, among which are the pipistrelle +(_Pipistrellus pygmaeus_, or _P. pipistrellus_), the long-eared bat +(_Plecotus auritus_), the noctule (_Pipistrellus [Pterygistes] +noctulus_) the greater and lesser horseshoe bats (_Rhinolophus +ferrum-equinum_ and _R. hipposiderus_), &c. (See FLYING-FOX and +VAMPIRE.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] M. E. _bakke_, the change to "bat" having apparently been + influenced by Lat. _batta_, _blatta_, moth. The word is thus distinct + from the other common term "bat," the implement for striking, which + is probably connected with Fr. _battre_, though a Celtic or simply + onomatopoetic origin has been suggested. + + + + +BATAC, a town of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine +Islands, 10 m. S. of Laoag, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,524; +subsequently, in October 1903, the town of Banna (pop. 4015) was +annexed. Cacao, tobacco, cotton, rice and indigo are grown in the +neighbouring country, and the town has a considerable trade in these and +other commodities; it also manufactures sugar, fans and woven fabrics. +Batac was founded in 1587. It is the birthplace and home of Archbishop +Gregorio Aglipay (b. 1860), the founder of an important sect of Filipino +Independent Catholics. + + + + +BATALA, a town of British India, in the Gurdaspur district of the +Punjab, with a station on a branch of the North-Western railway, 24 m. +from Amritsar. Pop. (1901) 27,365. It is an important centre of trade, +with manufactures of cotton and silk goods, shawls, brass-ware, soap and +leather. There are two mission schools. + + + + +BATALHA (i.e. battle), a town of Portugal, in the district of Leiria, +formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 8 m. S. of Leiria. +Pop. (1900) 3858. Batalha, which occupies the site of the medieval +Canoeira, is chiefly interesting for its great Dominican monastery of +Santa Maria da Victoria ("St Mary of the Victory"), also known as +Batalha. Both town and monastery owe their names to the battle fought on +the plain between Canoeira and Aljubarrota, 9 m. S. W., in which John I. +of Portugal defeated John I. of Castile in 1385 and secured the +independence of his kingdom. The monastery is built of golden-brown +limestone, resembling marble, and richly sculptured. In size and beauty +it excels all the other buildings of Portugal in which Gothic and +Moorish architecture are combined. Its ground-plan may be roughly +described as a parallelogram, measuring about 500 ft. from north to +south, and 445 from east to west; with the circular annexe of the royal +mausoleum on the east, and the Founder's chapel at the south-western +corner. In the centre is the royal cloister, which is flanked by the +refectory, now a museum, on the west; and by the chapter-house, on the +east. Two smaller cloisters, named respectively after Alphonso V. and +John III., form the northern division of the parallelogram; its southern +division is the Gothic church. The Founder's chapel contains the tomb of +John I. (d. 1433) and Philippa of Lancaster (d. 1416), his queen, with +the tomb of Prince Henry the Navigator (d. 1460). Like the royal +mausoleum, where several later monarchs are buried, it is remarkable +for the intricacy and exquisite finish of its carved stonework. The +monastery was probably founded in 1388. Plans and masons were procured +from England by Queen Philippa, and the work was entrusted to A. +Domingues, a native architect, and Huetor Houguet, an Irishman. Only the +royal cloister, church and Founder's chapel were included in the +original design; and all three show signs of English influence. Various +additions were made up to 1551, beginning with the royal mausoleum and +ending with the cloister of John III. Considerable damage was inflicted +by the earthquake of 1755; and in 1810 the monastery was sacked by the +French. It was secularized in 1834 and declared a national monument in +1840. Thenceforward it was gradually restored. + + + + +BATANGAS, a town, port of entry, and the capital of the province of +Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the Batangas river, about 1 m. +from its mouth on the E. coast of the Gulf of Batangas, and about 65 m. +S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 33,131. The United States government has +established a military post here, and the town has numerous fine public +buildings and private residences. It is the most important port of a +province noted for the fertility of its soil and the industry of its +inhabitants. Its exports, which are large, include rice, coffee of +excellent quality, cacao, sugar, Indian corn, horses and cattle. The +horses of Batangas are unusually strong and active. Cotton is produced, +and is woven into fabrics by the women. The language is Tagalog. + + + + +BATARNAY, IMBERT DE (? 1438-1523), French statesman, was born of an old +but obscure family in Dauphine, about the year 1438. In consequence of a +chance circumstance he entered into relations with the dauphin Louis, at +that time (1455) in arms against the king his father; he attached +himself to the prince, and followed him on his retreat into Burgundy. +From the beginning of his reign Louis XI. loaded Batarnay with favours: +he married him to a rich heiress, Georgette de Montchenu, lady of Le +Bouchage; besides making him captain of Mont Saint Michel and giving him +valuable estates, with, later, the titles of counsellor and chamberlain +to the king. In 1469 Batarnay was sent to keep watch upon the duke of +Guienne's intrigues, which began to appear dangerous. As +lieutenant-general in Roussillon in 1475 he protected the countryside +against the wrath of the king, who wished to repress with cruel severity +a rebellion of the inhabitants. He was present at the interview between +Louis XI. and Edward IV. of England at Picquigny, and was afterwards +employed on negotiations with the duke of Burgundy. In accordance with +the recommendations of his father, Charles VIII. kept the lord of Le +Bouchage in his confidential service. During the differences that arose +in 1485 between the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and the dukes of Orleans, +Brittany and Alencon, Imbert de Batarnay kept the inhabitants of Orleans +faithful to the king. He proved his skill in the negotiations concerning +the marquisate of Saluzzo and the town of Genoa. During the Naples +expedition he was in charge of the dauphin, Charles Orland, who died in +1495. He treated with Maximilian of Austria to prevent him from entering +Picardy during the war with Naples, and then proceeded to Castile to +claim promised support. Under Louis XII. he took part in the expedition +against the Genoese republic in 1507. Francis I. employed him to +negotiate the proposed marriage of Charles of Austria with Renee of +France, daughter of Louis XII., and appointed him governor to the +dauphin Francis in 1518. He died on the 12th of May 1523. + + See also B. de Mandrot's _Ymbert de Batarnay_ (Paris, 1886). + (M. P.*) + + + + +BATAVIA, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded +E., S. and W. by the residencies of Krawana, Preanger and Bantam, and N. +by the Java Sea. It also comprises a number of small islands in the Java +Sea, including the Thousand Islands group, with a total area of 24 sq. +m. The population in 1898 was 1,313,383, including 12,434 Europeans, +82,510 Chinese, 3426 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The natives +belong to a Sundanese group, but in the north contain a large admixture +of Malays. The northern half of the province is flat, and even marshy +along the coast, and consists of a broad band of alluvium formed by the +series of parallel rivers descending from the south. The southern half +on the other hand is covered by a mountain range whose chief peaks are +situated along the southern border, namely Halimun mountain, the +volcanoes Salak, Pangerango and Gede, and the Megamendung. The soil is +fertile, and whereas rice is mainly grown on the lowlands the highlands +are especially suitable for the cultivation of coffee, tea, tobacco, +cinchona and vanilla. Extensive cocoanut plantations are also found in +the plains, and market-gardening is practised in the neighbourhood of +the towns. Sugar was formerly cultivated. The government of the +residency of Batavia differs from that of the other residencies in +having no native regencies, the lands being privately owned. The +divisions of the residency are Batavia, town and surroundings, +Tangerang, Meester Cornelis and Buitenzorg, the first being directly +governed by a resident and the remainder by assistant residents. As +early as the second half of the 17th century the Dutch East India +Company began the practice of selling portions of the land to private +persons, and of granting other portions as the reward of good services. +A large strip of hill-country, almost corresponding to the present +southern or Buitenzorg division of the residency, was appropriated by +the governor-general in 1745 and attached to that office. In 1808, +however, Marshal Daendels disposed of this property to various +purchasers, including the Dutch government, and thus the whole of the +residency gradually passed into private hands. Hence the administration +of the residency is largely confined to police duties. The principal +towns are Batavia (q.v.), which is the capital of the residency, as well +as the seat of government of the whole Dutch East Indies, Meester +Cornelis, Tangerang, Bekasi and Buitenzorg (q.v.). Tangerang and Bekasi +are important centres of trade. The Buitenzorg hill-country is much +visited on account of its beauty, and cool and healthy climate. Gadok is +a health resort 6 m. south-east of Buitenzorg. + + + + +BATAVIA, a city and seaport on the north coast of the island of Java, +and the capital of all the Dutch settlements in the East. The population +in 1880 was 96,957; in 1898, 115,567; including 9423 Europeans, 26,433 +Chinese, 2828 Arabs and 132 other Asiatic foreigners. It is situated on +both sides of the river Jacatra or Jilivong, in a swampy plain at the +head of a capacious bay. The streets are for the most part straight and +regular, and many of them have a breadth of from 100 to 200 ft. In +several cases there is a canal in the centre lined with stone, and +protected by low parapets or banks, while almost every street and square +is fringed with trees. The old town has greatly changed from its +condition in the 18th century. It was then surrounded by strong +fortifications, and contained a number of important buildings, such as +the town-house (built in 1652 and restored in 1706), the exchange, the +infirmary and orphan asylum, and the European churches. But the ramparts +were long ago demolished; only natives, Malays, Arabs and Chinese live +here, and the great European houses have either fallen into decay or +been converted into magazines and warehouses. The European inhabitants +live principally in the new town, which was gradually formed by the +integration of Weltevreden (_Well-content_), Molenvliet (_Mill-stream_), +Rijswijk (_Rice-town_), Noordwijk (_North-town_), Koningsplein (_King's +square_), and other suburban villages or stations. The situation of this +modern part is higher and healthier. The imitation of Dutch arrangements +has been avoided, and the natural advantages of the situation and +climate have been turned to account. The houses, generally of a single +storey or two at most, are frequently separated from each other by rows +of trees. Batavia contains numerous buildings connected with the civil +and military organisation of the government. The governor-general's +palace and the government buildings are the most important of these; in +the district of Weltevreden are also the barracks, and the artillery +school, as well as the military and civil hospital, and not far off is +the Frederik-Hendrik citadel built in 1837. Farther inland, at Meester +Cornelis, are barracks and a school for under-officers. The +Koningsplein is a large open square surrounded by mansions of the +wealthier classes. Noordwijk is principally inhabited by lesser +merchants and subordinate officials. There is an orphan asylum in the +district of Parapatna. Batavia has various educational and scientific +institutions of note. In 1851 the government founded a medical school +for Javanese, and in 1860 the "Gymnasium William III." in which a +comprehensive education is bestowed. A society of arts and sciences +(which possesses an excellent museum) was established in 1778, a royal +physical society in 1850, and a society for the promotion of industry +and agriculture in 1853. In addition to the _Transactions_ of these +societies--many of which contain valuable contributions to their +respective departments in their relation to the East Indies--a +considerable number of publications are issued in Batavia. Among +miscellaneous buildings of importance may be mentioned the public hall +known as the _Harmonie_, the theatre, club-house and several fine +hotels. + +The population of Batavia is varied, the Dutch residents being a +comparatively small class, and greatly intermixed with Portuguese and +Malays. Here are found members of the different Indian nations, +originally slaves; Arabs, who are principally engaged in navigation, but +also trade in gold and precious stones; Javanese, who are cultivators; +and Malays, chiefly boatmen and sailors, and adherents of Mahommedanism. +The Chinese are both numerous and industrious. They were long greatly +oppressed by the Dutch government, and in 1740 they were massacred to +the number of 12,000. + +Batavia Bay is rendered secure by a number of islands at its mouth, but +grows very shallow towards the shore. The construction of the new +harbour at Tanjong Priok, to the east of the old one, was therefore of +the first importance. The works, begun in 1877 and completed in 1886, +connect the town with Tanjong ("cape") Priok by a canal, and include an +outer port formed by two breakwaters, 6072 ft. long, with a width at +entrance of 408 ft. and a depth of 27 ft. throughout. The inner port has +3282 ft. of quayage; its length is 3609 ft., breadth 573 ft. and depth +24 ft. There is also a coal dock, and the port has railway and roadway +connexion with Batavia. The river Jilivong is navigable 2 m. inland for +vessels of 30 or 40 tons, but the entrance is narrow, and requires +continual attention to keep it open. + +The exports from Batavia to the other islands of the archipelago, and to +the ports in the Malay Peninsula, are rice, sago, coffee, sugar, salt, +oil, tobacco, teak timber and planks, Java cloths, brass wares, &c., and +European, Indian and Chinese goods. The produce of the Eastern Islands +is also collected at its ports for re-exportation to India, China and +Europe--namely, gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benzoin and other drugs; +edible bird-nests, trepang, rattans, beeswax, tortoise-shell, and dyeing +woods from Borneo and Sumatra; tin from Banka; spices from the Moluccas; +fine cloths from Celebes and Bali; and pepper from Sumatra. From Bengal +are imported opium, drugs and cloths; from China, teas, raw silk, silk +piece-goods, coarse China wares, paper, and innumerable smaller articles +for the Chinese settlers. The tonnage of vessels clearing from Batavia +to countries beyond the archipelago had increased from 879,000 tons in +1887 to nearly 1,500,000 tons by the end of the century. The old and new +towns are connected by steam tramways. The Batavia-Buitenzorg railway +passes the new town, thus connecting it with the main railway which +crosses the island from west to east. + +Almost the only manufactures of any importance are the distillation of +arrack, which is principally carried on by Chinese, the burning of lime +and bricks, and the making of pottery. The principal establishment for +monetary transactions is the Java Bank, established in 1828 with a +capital of L500,000. + +Batavia owes its origin to the Dutch governor-general Pieter Both, who +in 1610 established a factory at Jacatra (which had been built on the +ruins of the old Javanese town of Sunda Calappa), and to his successor, +Jan Pieters Coen, who in 1619 founded in its stead the present city, +which soon acquired a flourishing trade and increased in importance. In +1699 Batavia was visited by a terrible earthquake, and the streams were +choked by the mud from the volcano of Gunong Salak; they overflowed the +surrounding country and made it a swamp, by which the climate was so +affected that the city became notorious for its unhealthiness, and was +in great danger of being altogether abandoned. In the twenty-two years +from 1730 to 1752, 1,100,000 deaths are said to have been recorded. +General Daendels, who was governor from 1808 to 1811, caused the +ramparts of the town to be demolished, and began to form the nucleus of +a new city at Weltevreden. By 1816 nearly all the Europeans had left the +old town. In 1811 a British armament was sent against the Dutch +settlements in Java, which had been incorporated by France, and to this +force Batavia surrendered on the 8th of August. It was restored, +however, to the Dutch by the treaty of 1814. + + + + +BATAVIA, a village and the county-seat of Genesee county, New York, +U.S.A., about 36 m. N.E. of Buffalo, on the Tonawanda Creek. Pop. (1890) +7221; (1900) 9180, of whom 1527 were foreign-born; (1910), 11,613. +Batavia is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Erie, and +the Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of the New York State School +for the Blind, and of St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic), and has a +historical museum, housed in the Old Holland Land Office (1804), +containing a large collection of relics of the early days of New York, +and a memorial library erected in 1889 in memory of a son by Mary E. +Richmond, the widow of Dean Richmond; the building contained in 1908 +more than 14,000 volumes. The public schools are excellent; in them in +1898 Superintendent John Kennedy (b. 1846) introduced the method of +individual instruction now known as the "Batavia scheme," under which in +rooms of more than fifty pupils there is, besides the class teacher, an +"individual" teacher who helps backward children in their studies. Among +Batavia's manufactures are harvesters, ploughs, threshers and other +agricultural implements, firearms, rubber tires, shoes, shell goods, +paper-boxes and inside woodwork. In 1905 the city's factory products +were valued at $3,589,406, an increase of 39.5% over their value in +1900. Batavia was laid out in 1801 by Joseph Ellicott (1760-1826), the +engineer who had been engaged in surveying the land known as the +"Holland Purchase," of which Batavia was a part. The village was +incorporated in 1823. Here lived William Morgan, whose supposed murder +(1826) by members of the Masonic order led to the organization of the +Anti-Masonic party. Batavia was the home during his last years of Dean +Richmond (1804-1866), a capitalist, a successful shipper and wholesaler +of farm produce, vice-president (1853-1864) and president (1864-1866) of +the New York Central railway, and a prominent leader of the Democratic +party in New York state. + + See O. Turner, _History of the Holland Purchase_ (Buffalo, 1850). + + + + +BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM (1812-1875), American actor and manager, was +born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 6th of December 1812. He was +intended for an engineer, but in 1832 became an actor, playing with +Ellen Tree (afterwards Mrs Charles Kean) in juvenile leads. In 1855 he +was manager of the St Louis theatre for a few years and in 1859 moved to +New York. In 1866 he was manager for his daughter Kate, and in 1871 +returned to London, where he took the Lyceum theatre. Here he engaged +Henry Irving, presenting him first in _The Bells_, with great success. +He died on the 22nd of March 1875. + +His wife, SIDNEY FRANCES (1823-1881), daughter of Joseph Cowell, an +English actor who had settled in America, was also an actress and the +author of several popular plays, in one of which, _Self_ (1857), she and +her husband made a great success. After her husband's death Mrs Bateman +continued to manage the Lyceum till 1875. She later took the Sadler's +Wells theatre, which she managed until her death on the 13th of January +1881. She was the first to bring to England an entire American company +with an American play, Joaquin Miller's _The Danites_. + +Mr and Mrs Bateman had eight children, three of the four daughters being +educated for the stage. The two oldest, Kate Josephine (b. 1842), and +Ellen (b. 1845), known as the "Bateman children," began their theatrical +career at an early age. In 1862 Kate played in New York as Juliet and +Lady Macbeth, and in 1863 had a great success in London as Leah in +Augustin Daly's adaptation of Mosenthal's _Deborah_. In 1866 she married +George Crowe, but returned to the stage in 1868, playing later as Lady +Macbeth with Henry Irving, and in 1875 in the title-part of Tennyson's +_Queen Mary_. When her mother opened the Sadler's Wells theatre in 1879 +Miss Bateman appeared as Helen Macgregor in _Rob Roy_, and in 1881 as +Margaret Field in Henry Arthur Jones' _His Wife_. Her daughter, Sidney +Crowe (b. 1871), also became an actress. Virginia Bateman (b. 1854), a +younger sister of Kate, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, went on the stage as a +child, and first appeared in London in the title-part of her mother's +play, _Fanchette_, in 1871. She created a number of important parts +during several seasons at the Lyceum and elsewhere. She married Edward +Compton the actor. Another sister was Isabel (b. 1854), well known on +the London stage. + + + + +BATEMENT LIGHTS, in architecture the lights in the upper part of a +perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of those below. + + + + +BATES, HARRY (1850-1899), British sculptor, was born at Stevenage, +Herts, on the 26th of April 1850. He began his career as a carver's +assistant, and before beginning the regular study of plastic art he +passed through a long apprenticeship in architectural decoration. In +1879 he came to London and entered the Lambeth School of Art, studying +under Jules Dalou and Rodin, and winning a silver medal in the national +competition at South Kensington. In 1881 he was admitted to the Royal +Academy schools, where in 1883 he won the gold medal and the travelling +scholarship of L200 with his relief of "Socrates teaching the People in +the Agora," which showed grace of line and harmony of composition. He +then went to Paris and studied under Rodin. A head and three small +bronze panels (the "Odyssey,") executed by Bates in Paris, were +exhibited at the Royal Academy, and selected for purchase by the +Chantrey trustees; but the selection had to be cancelled because they +had not been modelled in England. His "Aeneas" (1885), "Homer" (1886), +three "Psyche" panels and "Rhodope" (1887) all showed marked advance in +form and dignity; and in 1892, after the exhibition of his vigorously +designed "Hounds in Leash," Bates was elected A.R.A. This and his +"Pandora," in marble and ivory, which was bought in the same year for +the Chantrey Bequest, are now in the Tate Gallery. The portrait-busts of +Harry Bates are good pieces of realism--strong, yet delicate in +technique, and excellent in character. His statues have a +picturesqueness in which the refinement of the sculptor is always felt. +Among the chief of these are the fanciful "Maharaja of Mysore," somewhat +overladen with ornament, and the colossal equestrian statue of Lord +Roberts (1896) upon its important pedestal, girdled with a frieze of +figures, now set up in Calcutta, and a statue of Queen Victoria for +Dundee. But perhaps his masterpiece, showing the sculptor's delicate +fancy and skill in composition, was an allegorical presentment of "Love +and Life"--a winged male figure in bronze, with a female figure in ivory +being crowned by the male. Bates died in London on the 30th of January +1899, his premature death robbing English plastic art of its most +promising representative at the time. (See SCULPTURE.) + + + + +BATES, HENRY WALTER (1825-1892), English naturalist and explorer, was +born at Leicester on the 8th of February 1825. His father, a +manufacturing hosier, intended him for business, and for a time the son +yielded to his wishes, escaping as often as he could into the +neighbouring country to gratify his love of botany and entomology. In +1844 he met a congenial spirit in Alfred Russel Wallace, and the result +was discussion and execution of a plan to explore some then little-known +region of the globe. The banks of the Amazons was the district chosen, +and in April 1848 the two friends sailed in a trader for Para. They had +little or no money, but hoped to meet their expenses by the sale of +duplicate specimens. After two years Bates and Wallace agreed to collect +independently, Wallace taking the Rio Negro and the upper waters of the +Orinoco, while Bates continued his route up the great river for 1400 m. +He remained in the country eleven years, during which time he collected +no fewer than 8000 species of insects new to science. His long residence +in the tropics, with the privations which it entailed, undermined his +health. Nor had the exile from home the compensation of freeing him from +financial cares, which hung heavy on him till he had the good fortune to +be appointed in 1864 assistant-secretary of the Royal Geographical +Society, a post which, to the inestimable gain of the society, and the +advantage of a succession of explorers, to whom he was alike Nestor and +Mentor, he retained till his death on the 16th of February 1892. Bates +is best known as the auther of one of the most delightful books of +travel in the English language, _The Naturalist on the Amazons_ (1863), +the writing of which, as the correspondence between the two has shown, +was due to Charles Darwin's persistent urgency. "Bates," wrote Darwin to +Sir Charles Lyell, "is second only to Humboldt in describing a tropical +forest." But his most memorable contribution to biological science, and +more especially to that branch of it which deals with the agencies of +modification of organisms, was his paper on the "Insect Fauna of the +Amazon Valley," read before the Linnaean Society in 1861. He therein, as +Darwin testified, clearly stated and solved the problem of "mimicry," or +the superficial resemblances between totally different species and the +likeness between an animal and its surroundings, whereby it evades its +foes or conceals itself from its prey. Bates's other contributions to +the literature of science and travel were sparse and fugitive, but he +edited for several years a periodical of _Illustrated Travels_. A man of +varied tastes, he devoted the larger part of his leisure to entomology, +notably to the classification of coleoptera. Of these he left an +extensive and unique collection, which, fortunately for science, was +purchased intact by Rene Oberthur of Rennes. + + + + +BATES, JOHN. A famous case in English constitutional history, tried +before the court of exchequer in November 1606, arose out of the refusal +of a merchant of the Levant Company, John Bates, to pay an extra duty of +5s. per cwt. on imported currants levied by the sole authority of the +crown in addition to the 2s. 6d. granted by the Statute of Tonnage and +Poundage, on the ground that such an imposition was illegal without the +sanction of parliament. The unanimous decision of the four barons of the +exchequer in favour of the crown threatened to establish a precedent +which, in view of the rapidly increasing foreign trade, would have made +the king independent of parliament. The judgments of Chief Baron Fleming +and Baron Clark are preserved. The first declares that "the king's power +is double, ordinary and absolute, and they have several laws and ends. +That of the ordinary is for the profit of particular subjects, for the +execution of civil justice ... in the ordinary courts, and by the +civilians is nominated _jus privatum_, and with us common law; and these +laws cannot be changed without parliament.... The absolute power of the +king is not that which is converted or executed to private uses to the +benefit of particular persons, but is only that which is applied to the +general benefit of the people and is _salus populi_; and this power is +not guided by the rules which direct only at the common law, and is most +properly named policy or government; and as the constitution of this +body varieth with the time, so varieth this absolute law, according to +the wisdom of the king, for the common good; and these being general +rules, and true as they are, all things done within these rules are +lawful. The matter in question is material matter of state, and ought to +be ruled by the rules of policy, and if it be so, the king hath done +well to execute his extraordinary power. All customs (i.e. duties levied +at the ports), be they old or new, are no other but the effects and +issues of trades and commerce with foreign nations; but all commerce and +affairs with foreigners, all wars and peace, all acceptance and +admitting for foreign current coin, all parties and treaties whatsoever +are made by the absolute power of the king; and he who hath power of +causes hath power also of effects." Baron Clark, in his judgment, +concurred, declaring that the seaports were the king's ports, and that, +since foreign merchants were admitted to them only by leave of the +crown, the crown possessed also the right of fixing the conditions under +which they should be admitted, including the imposition of a money +payment. Incidentally, Baron Clark, in reply to the argument that the +king's right to levy impositions was limited by the statute of +1370-1371, advanced a principle still more dangerous to constitutional +liberty. "The statute of the 45 Edward III. cap. 4," he said, "which +hath been so much urged, that no new imposition shall be imposed upon +wool-fells, wool or leather, but only the custom and subsidy granted to +the king--this extends only to the king himself and shall not bind his +successors, for it is a principal part of the crown of England, which +the king cannot diminish." + + See _State Trials_ (ed. 1779), xi. pp. 30-32; excerpts in G.W. + Prothero, _Statutes and Constitutional Documents_ (Clarendon Press, + 1894); G.B. Adams and H. Morse Stephens, _Select Documents of Eng. + Const. Hist._ (New York, 1901); cf. T.P. Taswell-Langmead, _Eng. + Const. Hist._ (London, 1905), p. 393. (W. A. P.) + + + + +BATES, JOSHUA (1788-1864), American financier, was born in Weymouth, +Massachusetts, on the 10th of October 1788, of an old Massachusetts +family prominent in colonial affairs. After several winters' schooling +in his native town, he entered the counting-house of William Gray & Son +in Boston. In 1809 he began business on his own account, but failed +during the War of 1812 and again became associated with the Grays, then +the largest shipowners in America, by whom a few years later he was sent +to London in charge of their European business. There he came into +relations with the Barings, and in 1826 formed a partnership with John, +a son of Sir Thomas Baring. Two years later both partners were admitted +to the firm of Baring Brothers & Company, of which Bates eventually +became senior partner, occupying in consequence an influential position +in the British financial world. In 1853-1854 he acted with rare +impartiality and justice as umpire of the international commission +appointed to settle claims growing out of the War of 1812. In 1852-1855 +he contributed $100,000 in books and in cash for a public library in +Boston, the money to be invested and the annual income to be applied to +the purchase of books. Upon his death the "upper hall," or main +reference-room (opened in 1861) in the building erected in 1858 by the +order of the library trustees, was named Bates Hall; and upon the +opening of the new building in 1895 this name was transferred to its +principal reading-room, one of the finest library halls in the world. +During the Civil War Bates's sympathies were strongly with the Union, +and besides aiding the United States government fiscal agents in various +ways, he used his influence to prevent the raising of loans for the +Confederacy. He died in London on the 24th of September 1864. + + See _Memorial of Joshua Bates_ (Boston, 1865). + + + + +BATES, WILLIAM (1625-1699), English nonconformist divine, was born in +London in November 1625. He was admitted to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, +and removed thence to King's College in 1644. Of Presbyterian belief, he +held the rich living of St Dunstan's-in-the-West, London. He was one of +the commissioners at the conference in the Savoy, for reviewing the +public liturgy, and was concerned in drawing up the exceptions to the +Book of Common Prayer. Notwithstanding this he was appointed chaplain to +Charles II., and was offered the deanery of Lichfield and Coventry, but +he came out in 1662 as one of the 2000 ejected ministers. Bates was of +an amiable character, and enjoyed the friendship of the lord-keeper +Bridgeman, the lord-chancellor Finch, the earl of Nottingham and +Archbishop Tillotson. With other moderate churchmen he made several +efforts towards a comprehensive settlement, but the bishops were +uncompromising. He addressed William and Mary on their accession in +behalf of the dissenters. After some years of pastoral service at +Hackney he died there on the 14th of July 1699. Bates published _Select +Lives of Illustrious and Pious Persons_ in Latin; and after his death +all his works, except this, were printed in 1 vol. fol.; again in 1723; +and in 4 vols. 8vo in 1815. They treat of practical theology and include +_Considerations on the Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul_ +(1676), _Four Last Things_ (1691), _Spiritual Perfection_ (1699). + + + + +BATESON (BATSON or BETSON), THOMAS, an English writer of madrigals in +the early 17th century. He is said to have been organist of Chester +cathedral in 1599, and is believed to have been the first musical +graduate of Trinity College, Dublin. He is known to have written church +music, but his fame rests on his madrigals, which give him an important +place among Elizabethan composers. He published a set of madrigals in +1604 and a second set in 1618, and both collections have been reprinted +in recent years. He died in 1630. + + + + +BATH, THOMAS THYNNE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1734-1796), English politician, +was the elder son of Thomas Thynne, 2nd Viscount Weymouth (1710-1751), +and the great-grandnephew of Thomas Thynne (c. 1640-1714), the friend of +Bishop Ken, who was created Baron Thynne and Viscount Weymouth in 1682. +His mother was Louisa (d. 1736), daughter of John Carteret, 1st Earl +Granville, and a descendant of the family of Granville who held the +earldom of Bath from 1661 to 1711. The Thynnes are descended from Sir +John Thynne, the builder of Longleat, the splendid seat of the family in +Wiltshire. Sir John, owed his wealth and position to the favour of his +master, the protector Somerset; he was comptroller of the household of +the princess Elizabeth, and was a person of some importance after the +princess became queen. He died in April 1580. Another famous member of +this family was Thomas Thynne (1648-1682), called on account of his +wealth "Tom of Ten Thousand." He is celebrated by Dryden as Issachar in +_Absalom and Achitophel_, and was murdered in London by some Swedes in +February 1682. + +Born on the 13th of September 1734, Thomas Thynne succeeded, his father +as 3rd Viscount Weymouth in January 1751, and was lord-lieutenant of +Ireland for a short time during 1765, although he never visited that +country. Having, however, become prominent in English politics he was +appointed secretary of state for the northern department in January +1768; he acted with great promptitude during the unrest caused by John +Wilkes and the Middlesex election of 1768. He was then attacked and +libelled by Wilkes, who was consequently expelled from the House of +Commons. Before the close of 1768 he was transferred, from the northern +to the southern department, but he resigned in December 1770 in the +midst of the dispute with Spain over the possession of the Falkland +Islands. In November 1775 Weymouth returned to his former office of +secretary for the southern department, undertaking in addition the +duties attached to the northern department for a few months in 1779, but +he resigned both positions in the autumn of this year. In 1789 he was +created marquess of Bath, and he died on the 19th of November 1796. +Weymouth was a man of considerable ability especially as a speaker, but +according to more modern standards his habits were very coarse, +resembling those of his friend and frequent companion, Charles James +Fox. Horace Walpole refers frequently to his idleness and his +drunkenness, and in early life at least "his great fortune he had +damaged by such profuse play, that his house was often full of +bailiffs." He married Elizabeth (d. 1825), daughter of William Bentinck, +2nd duke of Portland, by whom he had three sons and ten daughters. His +eldest son Thomas (1765-1837) succeeded to his titles, while the two +younger ones, George (1770-1838) and John (1772-1849), succeeded in turn +to the barony of Carteret of Hawnes, which came to them from their +uncle, Henry Frederick Thynne (1735-1826). Weymouth's great-grandson, +John Alexander, 4th marquess of Bath (1831-1896), the author of +_Observations on Bulgarian affairs_ (1880), was succeeded as 5th +marquess by his son Thomas Henry (b. 1862). + + See B. Botfield, _Stemmata Botevilliana_ (1858). + + + + +BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY, 1ST EARL OF (1684-1764), generally known by the +surname of PULTENEY, English politician, descended from an ancient +family of Leicestershire, was the son of William Pulteney by his first +wife, Mary Floyd, and was born in April 1684. The boy was sent to +Westminster school, and from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, +matriculating the 31st of October 1700. At these institutions he +acquired his deep classical knowledge. On leaving Oxford he made the +usual tour on the continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by +Henry Guy (secretary of the treasury, 1679-1688, and June 1691 to +February 1695) for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at his death on +the 23rd of February 1710 inherited an estate of L500 a year and +L40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him without a break until 1734. +Throughout the reign of Queen Anne William Pulteney played a prominent +part in the struggles of the Whigs, and on the prosecution of +Sacheverell he exerted himself with great zeal against that violent +divine. When the victorious Tories sent his friend Robert Walpole to the +Tower in 1712, Pulteney championed his cause in the House of Commons and +with the leading Whigs Visited him in his prison-chamber. He held the +post of secretary of war from 1714 to 1717 in the first ministry of +George I., and when the committee of secrecy on the Utrecht treaty was +formed in April 1715 the list included the flame of William Pulteney. +Two years later (6th of July 1716), he became one of the privy council. +When Townshend was dismissed, in April 1717, from his post of +lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Walpole resigned his places, they were +followed in their retirement by Pulteney. The crash of the South Sea +Company restored Walpole to the highest position, but all that he +offered to Pulteney was a peerage. The offer was rejected, but in May +1723 Pulteney stooped to accept the lucrative but insignificant post of +cofferer of the household. In this obscure position he was content for +some time to await the future; but when he found himself neglected he +opposed the proposition of Walpole to discharge the debts of the civil +list, and in April 1725 was dismissed from his sinecure. From the day of +his dismissal to that of his ultimate triumph Pulteney remained in +opposition, and, although Sir Robert Walpole attempted in 1730 to +conciliate him by the offer of Townshend's place and of a peerage, all +his overtures were spurned. Pulteney's resentment was not confined to +his speeches in parliament. With Bolingbroke he set on foot in December +1726 the well-known periodical called the _Craftsman_, and in its pages +the minister was incessantly denounced for many years. Lord Hervey +published an attack on the _Craftsman_, and Pulteney, either openly or +behind the person of Amhurst, its editor, replied to the attack. Whether +the question at issue was the civil list, the excise, the income of the +prince of Wales, or the state of domestic affairs Pulteney was ready +with a pamphlet, and the minister or one of his friends came out with a +reply. For his "Proper reply to a late scurrilous libel" (_Craftsman_, +1731), an answer to "Sedition and defamation displayed," he was +challenged to a duel by Lord Hervey; for another, "An answer to one part +of an infamous libel entitled remarks on the _Craftsman's_ indication of +his two honourable patrons," he was in July 1731 struck off the roll of +privy councillors and dismissed from the commission of the peace in +several counties. In print Pulteney was inferior to Bolingbroke alone +among the antagonists of Walpole, but in parliament, from which St John +was excluded, he excelled all his comrades. When the sinking fund was +appropriated in 1733 his voice was the foremost in denunciation; when +the excise scheme in the same year was stirring popular feeling to its +lowest depths the passion of the multitude broke out in his oratory. +Through Walpole's prudent withdrawal of the latter measure the fall, of +his ministry was averted. Bolingbroke withdrew to France on the +suggestion, it is said, of Pulteney, and the opposition was weakened by +the dissensions of the leaders. + +From the general election of 1734 until his elevation to the peerage +Pulteney sat for Middlesex. For some years after this election the +minister's assailants made little progress in their attack, but in 1738 +the troubles with Spain supplied them with the opportunity which they +desired. Walpole long argued for peace, but he was feebly supported in +his own cabinet, and the frenzy of the people for War knew no bounds. In +an evil moment for his own reputation he consented to remain in office +and to gratify popular passion with a war against Spain. His downfall +was not long deferred. War was declared in 1739; a new parliament was +summoned in the summer of 1741, and over the divisions on the election +petitions the ministry of Walpole fell to pieces. The task of forming +the new administration was after some delay entrusted to Pulteney, who +weakly offered the post of first lord of the treasury to that harmless +politician the earl of Wilmington, and contented himself with a seat in +the cabinet and a peerage thinking that by this action he would preserve +his reputation for consistency in disdaining office and yet retain his +supremacy in the ministry. At this act popular feeling broke out into +open indignation, and from the moment of his elevation to the Upper +House Pulteney's influence dwindled to nothing. Horace Walpole asserts +that when Pulteney wished to recall his desire for a peerage it was +forced upon him through the ex-minister's advice by the king, and +another chronicler of the times records that when victor and vanquished +met in the House of Lords, the one as Lord Orford, the other as the earl +of Bath, the remark was made by the exulting Orford: "Here we are, my +lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England." On the 14th of +July 1742 Pulteney was created Baron Pulteney of Hedon, Co. York, +Viscount Pulteney of Wrington, Co. Somerset, and earl of Bath. On the +20th of February he had been restored to his rank in the privy council. +At Wilmington's death in 1743 he made application to the king for the +post of first lord of the treasury, only to find that it had been +conferred on Henry Pelham. For two days, 10th-12th February 1746, he was +at the head of a ministry, but in "48 hours, three quarters, seven +minutes, and eleven seconds" it collapsed. An occasional pamphlet and an +infrequent speech were afterwards the sole fruits of Lord Bath's +talents. His praises whilst in retirement have been sung by two bishops, +Zachary Pearce and Thomas Newton. He died on the 7th of July 1764, and +was buried on the 17th of July in his own vault in Islip chapel, +Westminster Abbey. He married on the 27th of December 1714 Anna Maria, +daughter and co-heiress of John Gumley of Isleworth, commissary-general +to the army who was often satirized by the wits of the day (_Notes and +Queries_, 3rd S. ii. 402-403, iii. 490). She died on the 14th of +September 1758, and their only son William died unmarried at Madrid on +the 12th of February 1763. Pulteney's vast fortune came in 1767 to +William Johnstone of Dumfries (third son of Sir James Johnstone), who +had married Frances, daughter and co-heiress of his cousin, Daniel +Pulteney, a bitter antagonist of Walpole in parliament, and had taken +the name of Pulteney. + +Pulteney's eloquence was keen and incisive, sparkling with vivacity and +with allusions drawn from the literature of his own country and of Rome. +Of business he was never fond, and the loss in 1734 of his trusted +friend John Merrill, who had supplied the qualities which he lacked, was +feelingly lamented by him in a letter to Swift. His chief weakness was a +passion for money. Lord Bath has left no trace of the possession of +practical statesmanship. + + + + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Wm. Coxe's _Memoirs_ of Sir Robert Walpole (1816), and + of Henry Pelham (1829); John Morley's _Walpole_ (1889); Walter + Sichel's _Bolingbroke_ (1901-1902); A. Ballantyne's _Carteret_ (1887); + _Eng. Hist. Rev._ iv. 749-753, and the general political memoirs of + the time. (W. P. C.) + + + + +BATH, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and health +resort of Somersetshire, England, on the Great Western, Midland, and +Somerset & Dorset railways, 107-1/2 m. W. by S. of London. Pop. (1901) +49,839. Its terraces and crescents, built mostly of grey freestone, +cover the slopes and heights of the abrupt hills which rise like an +amphitheatre above the winding valley of the river Avon. The climate is +pleasant, and the city, standing amidst fine scenery, itself possesses a +number of beautiful walks and gardens. Jointly with Wells, it is an +episcopal see of the Church of England. The abbey church of St Peter and +St Paul occupies the site of earlier Saxon and Norman churches, founded +in connexion with a 7th-century convent, which was transferred for a +time to a body of secular canons, and from about 970 until the +Dissolution, to Benedictine monks. The present cruciform building dates +from the 15th century, being a singularly pure and ornate example of +late Perpendicular work. From the number of its windows, it has been +called "The Lantern of the West," and especially noteworthy is the great +west window, with seven lights, and flanking turrets on which are carved +figures of the angels ascending and descending on Jacob's Ladder. Within +are the tombs of James Quin, the actor, with an epitaph by Garrick; +Richard Nash; Thomas Malthus the economist; William Broome the poet, and +many others. Some of the monuments are the work of Bacon, Flaxman and +Chantrey. Slight traces of the previous Norman building remain. There +are many other churches and chapels in Bath, the oldest being that of St +Thomas of Canterbury, and one of the most interesting St Swithin's, +which contains the tombs of Christopher Anstey and Madame d'Arblay. +Among educational institutions may be mentioned the free grammar school, +founded by Edward VI., the Wesleyan College, originally established at +Bristol by John Wesley, and the Roman Catholic College. The hospital of +St John was founded in the 12th century. The public buildings include a +guild hall, assembly rooms, Jubilee hall, art gallery and library, +museum, literary and scientific institute, and theatres. In the populous +suburb of Twerton (pop. 11,098), there are lias quarries, and bricks and +woollen cloths are manufactured. The parliamentary borough returns two +members. The city is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 +councillors. Area, 3382 acres. + +The mineral springs supply several distinct establishments. The +temperature varies in the different springs from 117 deg. to 120 deg. F, +and the specific gravity of the hot baths is 1.002. The principal +substances in solution are calcium and sodium sulphates, and sodium and +magnesium chlorides. Traces of radium have been revealed, and the gases +contain argon and helium. The waters are very beneficial in cases of +rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, sciatica, diseases of the liver, and +cutaneous and scrofulous affections. The highest archaeological +interest, moreover, attaches to the baths in view of the magnificent +Roman remains testifying to the early recognition of the value of the +waters. It may here be noted that two distinct legends ascribe the +foundation of Bath to a British king Bladud. According to Geoffrey of +Monmouth this monarch gave its healing power to the water by his spells. +According to a later version, he was banished as a leper, and made the +discovery leading to his cure, and to the origin of Bath, whilst +wandering as a swineherd in 863 B.C. This, at least, is the date +inscribed on a statue of Bladud placed in the Pump Room in 1699. There +is, however, no real evidence of a British settlement. By the Romans +Bath was named _Aquae Sulis_, the name indicating the dedication to a +British goddess Sul or Sulis, whom the Romans considered the counterpart +of Minerva. There were a temple of the goddess and a few houses for +priests, officials and visitors, besides the large baths, and the place +was apparently walled; but it did not contain a large resident +population. Many relics have been disinterred, such as altars, +inscriptions, fragments of stone carvings and figures, Samian ware, and +others. The chief buildings were apparently grouped near the later abbey +churchyard, and included, besides two temples, a magnificent bath, +discovered when the duke of Kingston pulled down the old priory in 1755 +to form the Kingston Baths. Successive excavations have rendered +accessible a remarkable series of remains, including several baths, a +_sudarium_, and conduits. The main bath still receives its water (now +for the purpose of cooling) through the original conduit. The +fragmentary colonnade surrounding this magnificent relic still supports +the street and buildings beneath which it lies, the Roman foundations +having been left untouched. The remains of the bath and of the temple +are among the most striking Roman antiquities in western Europe. + +Bath (variously known as Achemann, Hat Bathun, Bathonea, Batha) was a +place of note in Saxon times, King Edgar being crowned there in 973. It +was a royal borough governed by a reeve, with a burg mote in 907. +Richard I. granted the first charter in 1189, which allowed the same +privileges as Winchester to the members of the merchant gild. This was +confirmed by Henry III. in 1236, 1247 and 1256, by charters giving the +burgesses of Bath the right to elect coroners, with freedom from arrest +for the debts of others, and from the interference of sheriffs or kings' +bailiffs. Charters were granted by succeeding kings in 1312, 1322, 1341, +1382, 1399, 1414, 1432, 1447, 1466 and 1545. The existence of a +corporation being assumed in the earliest royal charter, and a common +seal having been used since 1249, there was no formal incorporation of +Bath until the charter of 1590, 1794 and 1835. Parliamentary +representation began in 1297. Various fairs were granted to Bath, to be +held on the 29th of August, the 9th of August, the 30th of June to the +8th of July (called Cherry Fair), the 1st of February to the 6th of +February, in 1275, 1305, 1325 and 1545 respectively. Fairs are now held +on the 4th of February and on the Monday after the 9th of December. +These fairs were flourishing centres of the cloth trade in the middle +ages, but this industry has long departed. Bath "beaver," however, was +known throughout England, and Chaucer makes his "Wife of Bath" excel the +cloth-weavers "of Ypres and of Gaunt." The golden age of Bath began in +the 18th century, and is linked with the work of the two architects Wood +(both named John), of Ralph Allen, their patron, and of Richard Nash, +master of the ceremonies. Previously the baths had been ill-kept, the +lodging poor, the streets beset by footpads. All this was changed by the +architectural scheme, including Queen Square, the Royal Crescent and the +North and South Parades, which was chiefly designed by the elder Wood, +and chiefly executed by his son. Instead of the booth which did duty as +a gaming club and chocolate house, Nash provided the assembly rooms +which figure largely in the pages of Fielding, Smollett, Burney, Dickens +and their contemporaries. Anstey published his _New Bath Guide_ to +ridicule the laws of taste which "Beau" Nash dictated; but two royal +visits, in 1734 and 1738, established Bath as a centre of English +fashion. The weekly markets granted on Wednesday and Saturday in 1305 +are still held. + + See R. Warner, _History and Antiquities of Bath_ (1801); C.E. Davis, + _Ancient Landmarks of Bath; The Mineral Baths of Bath_ (1883); + _Excavations of Roman Baths_ (1895), and _The Saxon Cross_ (1898); Sir + G. Jackson, _Archives of Bath_ (2 vols., 1873); R.E.M. Peach, _Rambles + about Bath_ (1875), _Bath Old and New_ (1888), _Collections of Books + belonging to the City_ (1893), &c.; H. Scarth, _Aquae Solis, or + Notices of Roman Bath_ (1864); A. Barbeau, _Life and Letters at Bath + in the 18th Century_ (from the French _Une Ville d'eaux anglaise au + XVIII^e siecle_) (London, 1904); A.H. King, _Charter of Bath + Corporation_. + + + + +BATH, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Sagadahoc county, +Maine, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river, 12 m. from its +mouth and 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 8723; (1900) 10,477, of +whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 9396. It is served by the +Maine Central railway, by steamboat lines to Boston, and by inter-urban +electric railway. The city covers an area of about 9 sq. m., and extends +along the W. bank of the river for about 5 m.; the business district is +only a few feet above sea-level, but most of the residences are on +higher ground. The streets are well shaded, chiefly with elms. At Bath +are the state military and naval orphan asylum, two homes for the aged, +and a soldiers' monument. Bath has a good harbour and its principal +industry is the building of ships, both of wood and of iron and steel, +several vessels of the United States navy have been built here. In 1905 +three-fourths of the city's wage-earners were employed in this industry. +Bath also manufactures lumber, iron and brass goods, and has a +considerable trade in ice, coal, lumber and iron and steel. First +settled about 1660, Bath was a part of Georgetown until 1781, when it +was incorporated as a separate town; in 1789 it was made a port of +entry, and in 1847 was chartered as a city. + + + + +BATH-CHAIR, a vehicle with a folding hood, which can be used open or +closed, and a glass front, mounted on three or four wheels and drawn or +pushed by hand. If required to be drawn by a donkey or small pony it is +then mounted on four wheels, with the usual turning arrangement. James +Heath, of Bath, who flourished rather before the middle of the 18th +century, was the inventor. + +[Illustration] + + + + +BATHGATE, a municipal and police burgh of Linlithgowshire, Scotland, 19 +m. W. by S. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 7549. +The district is rich in limestone, coal, ironstone, shale and fireclay, +all of which are worked. Silver also was once mined. The manufactures +include paraffin, paper, glass, chemicals, flour and whisky, and +freestone is quarried. The burgh is a considerable centre for +agricultural produce. Bathgate became a burgh of barony in 1824 and a +police burgh in 1865. Although it was not until the development of its +mineral wealth that it attained to commercial importance, it is a place +of some antiquity, and formed the dowry of Marjory, Robert Bruce's +daughter, who married Walter, the hereditary steward of Scotland, in +1315. + + + + +BATHOLITE (from Gr. [Greek: bothus], deep, and [Greek: lithus], a +stone), in geology, a term given to certain intrusive rock masses. +Especially in districts which are composed principally of rocks +belonging to the older geological systems extensive areas of granite +frequently occur. By their relations to the strata around them, it is +clear that these granites have been forced into their present positions +in a liquid state, and under great pressure. The bedding planes of +stratified rocks are wedged apart and tongues of granite have been +injected into them, while cracks have been opened up and filled with +intrusions in the shape of igneous veins. Great masses of the strata +which the granite has invaded are often floated off, and are found lying +in the heart of the granite much altered by the heat to which they have +been exposed, and traversed by the igneous rock in ramifying threads. +Such granite intrusions are generally known as bosses from their rounded +surfaces, and the frequency with which they form flattish dome-shaped +hills, rising above the older rocks surrounding them. At one time many +geologists held that in certain situations the granite had arisen from +the complete fusion and transformation of the stratified rocks over a +limited area of intense metamorphism. The chemical no less than the +structural relations of the two sets of rocks, however, preclude the +acceptance of this hypothesis. Obviously the granite is an intruder +which has welled up from below, and has cooled gradually, and solidified +in its present situation. + +Regarding the mechanism of this process there are two theories which +hold the field, each having a large number of supporters. One school +considers that they are mostly "batholites" or conical masses rising +from great depths and eating up the strata which lie above and around +them. The frequency of inclusions of the surrounding rocks, their +rounded shapes indicating that they have been partly dissolved by the +igneous magma, the intense alteration which they have undergone pointing +to a state approaching actual fusion, the extensive changes induced in +the rocks which adjoin the granite, the abundance of veins, and the +unusual modifications of the granite which occur where it comes in +contact with the adjacent strata, are adduced as evidence that there has +been absorption and digestion of the country rock by the intrusive mass. +These views are in favour especially in France; and instances are cited +in which as the margins of the granite are approached diorites and other +rocks make their appearance, which are ascribed to the effect which +admixture with dissolved sedimentary material has had on the composition +of the granite magma; at the same time the schists have been permeated +with felspar from the igneous rocks, and are said to have been +felspathized. + +The opponents of this theory hold these granitic masses to be +"laccolites" (Gr. [Greek: lakkos], a cistern), or great cake-shaped +injections of molten rock, which have been pressed from below into +planes of weakness in the upper portions of the earth's crust, taking +the lines of least resistance, and owing their shape to the varying +flexibility of the strata they penetrated. The modifications of the +granite are ascribed to magmatic segregation (chemical and physical +processes which occasioned diffusion of certain components towards the +cooling surfaces). Absorption of country rock is held to be unimportant +in amount, and insufficient to account for the great spaces in the +schists which are occupied by the granite. Those who support this theory +leave the question of the ultimate source of the granite unanswered, but +consider that it is of deep-seated origin, and the bosses which now +appear at the surface are only comparatively superficial manifestations. + +The bulk of the evidence is in favour of the laccolitic theory; in fact +it has been clearly demonstrated in many important cases. Still it is +equally clear that many granites are not merely passive injections, but +have assimilated much foreign rock. Possibly much depends on the +chemical composition of the respective masses, and on the depths and +temperatures at which the intrusion took place. Increase of pressure and +of temperature, which we know to take place at great depths, would +stimulate resorption of sedimentary material, and by retarding cooling +would allow time for dissolved foreign substances to diffuse widely +through the magma. (J. S. F.) + + + + +BATHONIAN SERIES, in geology. The typical Bathonian is the Great Oolite +series of England, and the name was derived from the "Bath Oolite," so +extensively mined and quarried in the vicinity of that city, where the +principal strata were first studied by W. Smith. The term was first used +by J. d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1843 (_Precis Geol_.) as a synonym for +"Dogger"; but it was limited in 1849 by A. d'Orbigny (_Pal. Franc. Jur_. +i. p. 607). In 1864 Mayer-Eymar (_Tabl. Synchron_.) used the word +"Bathien" = Bajocian + Bathonian (sen. str.). According to English +practice, the Bathonian includes the following formations in descending +order: Cornbrash, Forest Marble with Bradford Clay, Great or Bath +Oolite, Stonesfield Slate and Fullers' Earth. (The Fullers' Earth is +sometimes regarded as constituting a separate stage, the "Fullonian.") +The "Bathonien" of some French geologists differs from the English +Bathonian in that it includes at the base the zone of the ammonite +_Parkinsonia Parkinsoni_, which in England is placed at the summit of +the Inferior Oolite. The Bathonian is the equivalent of the upper part +of the "Dogger" (Middle Jurassic) of Germany, or to the base of the +Upper Brown Jura (substage "E" of Quenstedt). + +Rocks of Bathonian age are well developed in Europe: in the N.W. and +S.W. oolite limestones are characteristically associated with +coral-bearing, crinoidal and other varieties, and with certain beds of +clay. In the N. and N.E., Russia, &c., clays, sandstones and ferruginous +oolites prevail, some of the last being exploited for iron. They occur +also in the extreme north of America and in the Arctic regions, +Greenland, Franz Josef Land, &c.; in Africa, Algeria, German East +Africa, Madagascar and near the Cape (Enon Beds); in India, Rajputana +and Gulf of Cutch, and in South America. + +The well-known Caen stone of Normandy and "Hauptrogenstein" of Swabia, +as well as the "Eisenkalk" of N.W. Germany, and "Klaus-Schichten" of the +Austrian Alps, are of Bathonian age. + + For a general account, see A. de Lapparent, _Traite de geologie_ (5th + ed., 1906), vol. ii.; see also the article JURASSIC. (J. A. H.) + + + + +BATHORY, SIGISMUND (ZSIGMOND), (1572-1613), prince of Transylvania, was +the son of Christopher, prince of Transylvania, and Elizabeth Bocskay, +and nephew of the great Stephen Bathory. He was elected prince in his +father's lifetime, but being quite young at his father's death (1581), +the government was entrusted to a regency. In 1588 he attained his +majority, and, following the advice of his favourite councillor Alfonso +Carillo, departed from the traditional policy of Transylvania in its +best days (when friendly relations with the Porte were maintained as a +matter of course, in order to counterpoise the ever hostile influence of +the house of Habsburg), and joined the league of Christian princes +against the Turk. The obvious danger of such a course caused no small +anxiety in the principality, and the diet of Torda even went so far as +to demand a fresh coronation oath from Sigismund, and, on his refusal to +render it, threatened him with deposition. Ultimately Bathory got the +better of his opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands +(1595). Nevertheless, if anybody could have successfully carried out an +anti-Turkish policy, it was certainly Bathory. He had inherited the +military genius of his uncle, and his victories astonished contemporary +Europe. In 1595 he subdued Walachia and annihilated the army of Sinan +Pasha at Giurgevo (October 28th). The turning-point of his career was +his separation from his wife, the archduchess Christina of Austria, in +1599, an event followed by his own abdication the same year, in order +that he might take orders. It was on this occasion that he offered the +throne of Transylvania to the emperor Rudolph II., in exchange for the +duchy of Oppeln. In 1600, however, at the head of an army of Poles and +Cossacks, he attempted to recover his throne, but was routed by Michael, +voivode of Moldavia, at Suceava. In February 1601 the diet of +Klausenburg reinstated him, but again he was driven out by Michael, +never to return. He died at Prague in 1613. Bathory's indisputable +genius must have been warped by a strain of madness. His +incalculableness, his savage cruelty (like most of the princes of his +house he was a fanatical Catholic and persecutor) and his perpetual +restlessness point plainly enough to a disordered mind. + + See Ignaz Acsady, _History of the Hungarian State_ (Hung.) vol. ii., + (Budapest, 1904). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BATHOS (Gr. [Greek: bathos]), properly depth, the bottom or lowest part +of anything. The current usage for an anticlimax, a descent "from the +sublime to the ridiculous," from the elevated to the commonplace in +literature or speech, is due to Pope's satire on _Bathos_ +(_Miscellanies_, 1727-1728), "the art of sinking in poetry." The title +was a travesty of Longinus's essay, _On the Sublime_, [Greek: Peri +hupsous]. + + + + +BATHS. In the ordinary acceptation of the word a bath is the immersion +of the body in a medium different from the ordinary one of atmospheric +air, which medium is usually common water in some form. In another sense +it includes the different media that may be used, and the various +arrangements by which they are applied. + +_Ancient Baths._--Bathing, as serving both for cleanliness and for +pleasure, has been almost instinctively practised by nearly every +people. The most ancient records mention bathing in the rivers Nile and +Ganges. From an early period the Jews bathed in running water, used both +hot and cold baths, and employed oils and ointments. So also did the +Greeks; their earliest and commonest form of bathing was swimming in +rivers, and bathing in them was practised by both sexes. Warm baths +were, according to Homer, used after fatigue or exercise. The Athenians +appear for a long time to have had only private baths, but afterwards +they had public ones: the latter seem to have originated among the +Lacedaemonians, who invented the hot-air bath, at least the form of it +called after them the _laconicum_. Although the baths of the Greeks were +not so luxurious as those of some other nations, yet effeminate people +were accused among them of using warm baths in excess; and the bath +servants appear to have been rogues and thieves, as in later and larger +establishments. The Persians must have had handsomely equipped baths, +for Alexander the Great admired the luxury of the bath of Darius. + +But the baths of the Greeks, and probably of all Eastern nations, were +on a small scale as compared with those which eventually sprang up among +the Romans. In early times the Romans used after exercise to throw +themselves into the Tiber. Next, when ample supplies of water were +brought into the city, large _piscinae_, or cold swimming baths, were +constructed, the earliest of which appear to have been the _piscina +publica_ (312 B.C.), near the Circus Maximus, supplied by the Appian +aqueduct, the _lavacrum_ of Agrippina, and a bath at the end of the +Clivus Capitolinus. Next, small public as well as private baths were +built; and with the empire more luxurious forms of bathing were +introduced, and warm became far more popular than cold baths. + +Public baths (_balneae_) were first built in Rome after Clodius brought +in the supply of water from Praeneste, After that date baths began to be +common both in Rome and in other Italian cities; and private baths, +which gradually came into use, were attached to the villas of the +wealthy citizens. Maecenas was one of the first who built public baths +at his own expense. After his time each emperor, as he wished to +ingratiate himself with the people, lavished the revenues of the state +in the construction of enormous buildings, which not only contained +suites of bathing apartments, but included gymnasia, and sometimes even +theatres and libraries. Such enormous establishments went by the name of +_thermae_. The principal thermae were those of Agrippa 21 B.C., of Nero +65 A.D., of Titus 81, of Domitian 95, of Commodus 185, of Caracalla 217, +and still later those of Diocletian 302, and of Constantine. The +technical skill displayed by the Romans in rendering their walls and the +sides of reservoirs impervious to moisture, in conveying and heating +water, and in constructing flues for the conveyance of hot air through +the walls, was of the highest order. + +The Roman baths contained swimming baths, warm baths, baths of hot air, +and vapour baths. The chief rooms (which in the largest baths appear to +have been mostly distinct, whereas in smaller baths one chamber was made +to do duty for more than a single purpose) were the following:--(1) The +_apodyterium_ or _spoliatorium_, where the bathers undressed; (2) the +_alipterium_ or _unctuarium_, where oils and ointments were kept +(although the bathers often brought their own pomades), and where the +_aliptae_, anointed the bathers; (3) the _frigidarium_, or cool room, +_cella frigida_, in which usually was the cold bath, the _piscina_ or +_baptisterium_; (4) the _tepidarium_, a room moderately heated, in which +the bathers rested for a time, but which was not meant for bathing; (5) +the _calidarium_ or heating room, over the _hypocaustum_ or furnace; +this in its commonest arrangement had at one end a warm bath, the +_alveus_ or _calida lavatio_; at the other end in a sort of alcove was +(6) the _sudatorium_ or _laconicum_, which usually had a _labrum_ or +large vessel containing water, with which bathers sprinkled themselves +to help in rubbing off the perspiration. In the largest baths the +laconicum was probably a separate chamber, a circular domical room with +recesses in the sides, and a large opening in the top; but there is no +well-preserved specimen, unless that at Pisa may be so regarded. In the +drawing of baths from the thermae of Titus (fig. 1), the laconicum is +represented as a small cupola rising in a corner of the calidarium. It +is known that the temperature of the laconicum was regulated by drawing +up or down a metallic plate or _clypeus_. Some think that this clypeus +was directly over the flames of the hypocaustum, and that when it was +withdrawn, the flames must have sprung into the laconicum. Others, and +apparently they have Vitruvius on their side, think that the clypeus was +drawn up or down only from the aperture in the roof, and that it +regulated the temperature simply by giving more or less free exit to the +hot air. If the laconicum was only one end of the calidarium, it is +difficult to see how that end of the room was kept so much hotter than +the rest of it; on the other hand, to have had flames actually issuing +from the laconicum must have caused smoke and soot, and have been very +unpleasant. The most usual order in which the rooms were employed seems +to have been the following, but there does not appear to have been any +absolute uniformity of practice then, any more than in modern Egyptian +and Turkish baths. Celsus recommends the bather first to sweat a little +in the tepidarium with his clothes on, to be anointed there, and then to +pass into the calidarium; after he has sweated freely there he is not to +descend into the solium or cold bath, but to have plenty of water poured +over him from his head,--first warm, then tepid, and then cold +water--the water being poured longer over his head than on the rest of +the body; next to be scraped with the strigil, and lastly to be rubbed +and anointed. + +The warmest of the heated rooms, i.e. the calidarium and laconicum, were +heated directly from the hypocaustum, over which they were built or +suspended (_suspensura_); while from the hypocaustum tubes of brass, or +lead, or pottery carried the hot air or vapour to the walls of the other +rooms. The walls were usually hollow, so that the hot air could readily +circulate. + +The water was heated ingeniously. Close to the furnace, about 4 in. off, +was placed the calidarium, the copper (_ahenum_) for boiling water, near +which, with the same interval between them, was the copper for warm +water, the _tepidarium_, and at the distance of 2 ft. from this was the +receptacle for cold water, or the _frigidarium_, often a plastered +reservoir. A constant communication was kept up between these vessels, +so that as fast as hot water was drawn off from the calidarium a supply +was obtained from the tepidarium, which, being already heated, but +slightly reduced the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium, +again, was supplied from the frigidarium, and that from an aqueduct. In +this way the heat which was not taken up by the first boiler passed on +to the second, and instead of being wasted, helped to heat the second--a +principle which has only lately been introduced into modern furnaces. In +the case of the large thermae the water of an aqueduct was brought to +the _castellum_ or top of the building and was allowed to descend into +chambers over the hypocaustum, where it was heated and transmitted in +pipes to the central buildings. Remains of this arrangement are to be +seen in the baths of Caracalla. The general plan of such buildings may +be more clearly understood by the accompanying illustrations. In the +well-known drawing (fig. 1) found in the baths of Titus, the name of +each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small dome inscribed +laconicum directly over the furnace, and having the clypeus over it, +will be observed in the corner of the chamber named concamerata sudatio. +The vessels for water are inscribed, according to their temperature, +with the same names as some of the chambers, frigidarium, tepidarium and +calidarium. + +[Illustration: FIG 1.--Roman baths.] + +The baths of Pompeii (as shown in fig. 2) were a double set, and were +surrounded with tabernae or shops, which are marked by a lighter shade. +There were streets on four sides; and the reservoir supplying water was +across the street in the building on the left hand of the cut. There +were three public entrances--21a, 21b, 21c--to the men's baths and one +to the women's. The furnaces (9) heated water, which was conveyed on one +side to the larger baths of the men, on the other to the women's. +Entering from the street at 21c there was a latrina on the left hand +(22). From this entrance it was usual to proceed to a court (20) +surrounded by pillars, where servants were in attendance. There is some +doubt as to the purpose to which the room (19) was devoted. Leaving the +hall a passage conducted to the apodyterium or dressing-room (17), at +one end of it is the frigidarium, baptisterium or cold plunge bath (18). +Entering out of the apodyterium is the tepidarium or warming-room (15), +which most probably was also used as the alipterium or anointing-room. +From it bathers passed into the hot room or calidarium (12), which had +at one end the alveus or calida lavatio (13), at the other end the +labrum (14). This end of the calidarium served as the laconicum. The +arrangements of the women's baths were similar, but on a smaller scale. +The calidarium (5) had the labrum (7) at one end, and the alveus (6) was +in one side of the room. The general arrangements of a calidarium are +well illustrated by the accompanying section (fig. 3) of a bath +discovered at Tusculum. The disposition of the parts is the same as at +Pompeii. We here have the calidarium supported on the pillars of the +fornax, the suspensura. The alveus (3) is at one end, and the labrum (4) +at the other. (1) and (2) are the vessels for water over the fornax; and +the passages in the roof and walls for the escape of heated air will be +observed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ground plan of the baths of Pompeii.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of bath discovered at Tusculum, showing +the calidarium (hot room).] + +A clear idea of the relative position of the different rooms, and some +slight indication of their ornamentation, will be obtained from fig. 4. +The flues under the calidarium and the labrum (1) may be observed, as +also the opening in the roof above. (2), (3) and (4) mark the vessels +for water which are placed between the men's baths on the left and the +women's on the right. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of baths of Pompeii.] + +The arrangements of the _thermae_ were mainly those of the balneae on a +larger scale. Some idea of their size may be gathered from such facts as +these, that in the baths of Diocletian one room has been transmuted into +a church of most imposing proportions, and that the outside walls of +the baths of Caracalla extend about a quarter of a mile on each of the +four sides. A visit to the remains of the baths of Titus, of Diocletian, +or of Caracalla impresses the mind strongly with a sense of the vast +scale on which they were erected, and Ammianus's designation of them as +provinces appears scarcely exaggerated. It is said that the baths of +Caracalla contained 1600, and those of Diocletian 3200 marble seats for +the use of the bathers. In the largest of the thermae there was a +stadium for the games of the young men, with raised seats for the +spectators. There were open colonnades and seats for philosophers and +literary men to sit and discourse or read their productions aloud or for +others to discuss the latest news. Near the porticoes, in the interior +open space, rows of trees were planted. There was a _sphaeristerium_ or +place for playing ball, which was often over the apodyterium; but it +must be confessed that the purposes of many portions of these large +edifices have not been made out in as satisfactory a way as those of +smaller baths. A more definite idea of the thermae can be best got by an +examination of the accompanying plan of the baths of Caracalla (fig. 5). +A good deal of the plan is conjectural, the restorations being marked by +lighter shading. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Ground plan of the baths of Caracalla.] + + At the bottom of the plan is shown a long colonnade, which faces the + street, behind which was a series of chambers, supposed to have been + separate bathing-rooms. Entering by the opening in its centre, the + visitor passes what was probably an inner colonnade round the main + building. Passing in by either of the gates (2, 2), he reaches the + large chamber (3), which has been variously called the natatio or + large swimming-bath, or the tepidarium. The great central room (4) in + all probability was the calidarium, with two labra (6, 6) on opposite + sides, and with four alvei, one in each corner, represented by small + circular dots. (9) has been regarded by some as the laconicuim, + although it appears very large for that purpose. The rooms (15, 15) + have been variously described as baptisteria and as laconica. Most + authors are agreed in thinking that the large rooms (13) and (16) were + the sphaeristeria or places for playing ball. + + Returning to the outside, (1) and (18) and the corresponding places on + the other side are supposed to have been the exedrae for philosophers, + and places corresponding to the Greek xysti. (20) and (19) have been + considered to be servants' rooms. (22) was the stadium, with raised + seats for the spectators. The space between this and the large central + hall (9) was planted with trees, and at (21) the aqueduct brought + water into the castellum or reservoir, which was on an upper storey. + There were upper storeys in most portions of the building, and in + these probably were the libraries and small theatres. + +The piscinae were often of immense size--that of Diocletian being 200 +ft. long--and were adorned with beautiful marbles. The halls were +crowded with magnificent columns and were ornamented with the finest +pieces of statuary. The walls, it has been said, were covered with +exquisite mosaics that imitated the art of the painter in their elegance +of design and variety of colour. The Egyptian syenite was encrusted with +the precious green marbles of Numidia. The rooms contained the works of +Phidias and Praxiteles. A perpetual stream of water was poured into +capacious basins through the wide mouths of lions of bright and polished +silver, water issued from silver, and was received on silver. "To such a +pitch of luxury have we reached," says Seneca, "that we are dissatisfied +if we do not tread on gems in our baths." + +The richer Romans used every variety of oils and pomades (_smegmata_); +they scarcely had true soaps. The poorer class had to be content with +the flour of lentils, an article used at this day for the same purpose +by Orientals. The most important bath utensil was the strigillus, a +curved instrument made of metal, with which the skin was scraped and all +sordes removed. + +The bath servants assisted in anointing, in using the strigillus and in +various other menial offices. The poorer classes had to use their +strigils themselves. The various processes of the aliptae seem to have +been carried on very systematically. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.[1] Ring on which are suspended some of the +articles in use in the Alipterium] + +The hot baths appear to have been open from 1 P.M. till dark. It was +only one of the later emperors that had them lighted up at night. When +the hot baths were ready (for, doubtless, the plunge baths were +available at an earlier hour), a bell or _aes_ was rung for the +information of the people. Among the Greeks and Romans the eighth hour, +or 1 o'clock, before their dinner, was the commonest hour for bathing. +The bath was supposed to promote appetite, and some voluptuaries had one +or more baths after dinner, to enable them to begin eating again; but +such excesses, as Juvenal tells us, occasionally proved fatal. Some of +the most effeminate of the emperors are said to have bathed seven or +eight times in the course of the day. In early times there was delicacy +of feeling about the sexes bathing together--even a father could not +bathe with his sons; but latterly, under most of the emperors, men and +women often used the same baths. There frequently were separate baths +for the women, as we see at Pompeii or at Badenweiler; but although +respectable matrons would not go to public baths, promiscuous bathing +was common during the Empire. + +The public baths and thermae were under the more immediate +superintendence of the aediles. The charge made at a public bath was +only a quadrans or quarter of an as, about half a farthing. Yet cheap +though this was, the emperors used to ingratiate themselves with the +populace, by making the baths at times gratuitous. + +Wherever the Romans settled, they built public baths; and wherever they +found hot springs or natural stufae, they made use of them, thus saving +the expense of heating, as at the _myrteta_ of Baiae or the _Aquae +Sulis_ of Bath. In the cities there appear to have been private baths +for hire, as well as the public baths; and every rich citizen had a set +of baths attached to his villa, the fullest account of which is given in +the _Letters_ of Pliny, or in Ausonius's _Account of a Villa on the +Moselle_, or in Statius's _De Balneo Etrusco_. Although the Romans never +wholly gave up cold bathing, and that practice was revived under +Augustus by Antonius Musa, and again under Nero by Charmis (at which +later time bathing in the open sea became common), yet they chiefly +practised warm bathing (_calida lavatio_). This is the most luxurious +kind of bathing, and when indulged in to excess is enervating. The women +were particularly fond of these baths, and were accused, at all events +in some provincial cities, of drunkenness in them. + +The unbounded license of the public baths, and their connexion with +modes of amusement that were condemned, led to their being to a +considerable extent proscribed by the early Christians. The early +Fathers wrote that bathing might be practised for the sake of +cleanliness or of health, but not of pleasure; and Gregory the Great saw +no objection to baths being used on Sunday. About the 5th century many +of the large thermae in Rome fell into decay. The cutting off of the +aqueducts by the Huns, and the gradual decrease of the population, +contributed to this. Still it is doubtful whether bathing was ever +disused to the extent that is usually represented. It was certainly kept +up in the East in full vigour at Alexandria and at Brusa. Hot bathing, +and especially hot air and vapour baths, were adopted by the +Mahommedans; and the Arabs brought them with them into Spain. The Turks, +at a later time, carried them high up the Danube, and the Mahommedans +spread or, it may be more correct to say, revived their use in Persia +and in Hindustan. The Crusaders also contributed to the spread of baths +in Europe, and hot vapour baths were specially recommended for the +leprosy so prevalent in those days. After the commencement of the 13th +century there were few large cities in Europe without hot vapour baths. +We have full accounts of their regulations--how the Jews were only +allowed to visit them once a week, and how there were separate baths for +lepers. In England they were called hothouses. Erasmus, at the date of +the Reformation, spoke of them as common in France, Germany and Belgium; +he gives a lively account of the mixture of all classes of people to be +found in them, and would imply that they were a common adjunct to inns. +They seem after a time to have become less common, though Montaigne +mentions them as being still in Rome in his day. In England the next +revival of baths was at the close of the 17th century, under the Eastern +name of _Hummums_ or the Italian name of Bagnios. These were avowedly on +the principle of the Turkish baths described below. But there were +several considerable epochs in the history of baths, one in the +commencement of the 18th century, when Floyer and others recalled +attention to cold bathing, of which the virtues had long been +overlooked. In the middle of the century also, Russell and others +revived sea-bathing in England, and were followed by others on the +continent, until the value of sea-bathing became fully appreciated. +Later in the same century the experiments of James Currie on the action +of complete or of partial baths on the system in disease attracted +attention; and though forgotten for a while, they bore abundant fruit in +more recent times. + +_Modern Baths._--It is uncertain how far the Turkish and Egyptian and +even the Russian baths are to be regarded merely as successors of the +Roman baths, because the principle of vapour baths has been known to +many nations in a very early period of civilization. Thus the Mexicans +and Indians were found using small vapour baths. The ancient inhabitants +of Ireland and of Scotland had some notion of their use, and the large +vapour baths of Japan, now so extensively employed, are probably of +independent origin. + +The following accounts of Turkish and Russian baths illustrate the +practices of the ancient Roman and also of modern Turkish baths. In +Lane's _On the Modern Egyptians_ we read: "The building consists of +several apartments, all of which are paved with marble, chiefly white. +The inner apartments are covered with domes, which have a number of +small glazed apertures for the admission of light. The bather, on +entering, if he has a watch or purse, gives them in charge to the keeper +of the bath. The servant of the bath takes off his shoes and supplies +him with a pair of wooden clogs. The first apartment has generally three +or four _leewans_ (raised parts of the floor used as couches) cased with +marble, and a fountain of cold water, which rises from an octagonal +basement in the centre. One of the leewans, which is meant for the +higher classes, is furnished with cushions or mats. In warm weather +bathers usually undress in this room; in winter they undress in an inner +room, called the _beytowwal_ or first chamber, between which and the +last apartment there is a passage often with two or three latrines off +it. This is the first of the heated chambers. It generally has two +raised seats. The bather receives a napkin in which to put his clothes +and another to put round his waist--this reaches to the knees; a third, +if he requires it, is brought him to wind round his head, leaving the +top of it bare; a fourth to put over his chest; and a fifth to cover his +back. When the bather has undressed, the attendant opens to him the door +of the inner and principal apartment. This in general has four leewans, +which gives it the form of a cross, and in the centre a fountain of hot +water rises from a small shallow basin. The centre room, with the +adjoining ones, forms almost a square. The beytowwal already mentioned +is one of them. Two small chambers which adjoin each other, one +containing a tank of hot water, the other containing a trough, over +which are two taps, one of hot and one of cold water, occupy the two +other angles; while the fourth angle of the square is occupied by the +chamber which contains the fire, over which is the boiler. The bather +having entered this apartment soon perspires profusely from the humid +heat which is produced by the hot water of tanks and fountains, and by +the steam of the boiler. The bather sits on one of the marble seats, or +lies on the leewan or near one of the tanks, and the operator then +commences his work. The operator first cracks aloud every joint in the +body. He makes the vertebrae of the back and even of the neck crack. The +limbs are twisted with apparent violence, but so skilfully, that no harm +is ever done. The operator next kneads the patient's flesh. After this +he rubs the soles of the feet with a kind of rasp of baked clay. There +are two kinds of rasps, one porous and rough, one of fine smooth clay. +Those used by ladies are usually encased in thin embossed silver. The +next operation is rubbing the bather's flesh with a small coarse woollen +bag, after which the bather dips himself in one of the tanks. He is next +taken to one of the chambers in the corner, and the operator lathers the +bather with fibres of the palm tree, soap and water. The soap is then +washed off with water, when the bather having finished washing, and +enveloped himself in dry towels, returns to the beytowwal and reclines. +Here he generally remains an hour to an hour and a half, sipping coffee +and smoking, while an attendant rubs the soles of the feet and kneads +the body and limbs. The bather then dresses and goes out." + +The following description of a Russian bath is from Kohl's _Russia_ +(1842): "The passage from the door is divided into two behind the +check-taker's post, one for the male, one for the female guests. We +first enter an open space, in which a set of men are sitting in a state +of nudity on benches, those who have already bathed dressing, while +those who are going to undergo the process take off their clothes. Round +this space or apartment are the doors leading to the vapour-rooms. The +bather is ushered into them, and finds himself in a room full of vapour, +which is surrounded by a wooden platform rising in steps to near the +roof of the room. The bather is made to lie down on one of the lower +benches, and gradually to ascend to the higher and hotter ones. The +first sensation on entering the room amounts almost to a feeling of +suffocation. After you have been subjected for some time to a +temperature which may rise to 145 deg. the transpiration reaches its +full activity, and the sensation is very pleasant. The bath attendants +come and flog you with birchen twigs, cover you with the lather of soap, +afterwards rub it off, and then hold you over a jet of ice-cold water. +The shock is great, but is followed by a pleasant feeling of great +comfort and of alleviation of any rheumatic pains you may have had. In +regular establishments you go after this and lie down on a bed for a +time before issuing forth. But the Russians often dress in the open air, +and instead of using the jet of cold water, go and roll themselves at +once in the snow." + +Turkish baths have, with various modifications, become popular in +Europe. The Russian baths were introduced into German towns about 1825. +They had a certain limited amount of popularity, but did not take firm +root. Another class practically owes its origin to Dr Barter and David +Urquhart. It professed to be founded on the Turkish bath, but in reality +it was much more of a hot air bath, i.e. more devoid of vapour than +either Roman or Turkish baths ever were, for it is doubtful whether in +any case the air of the laconicum was free from vapour. These baths, +with their various modifications, have become extremely popular in Great +Britain, in Germany and in northern Europe, but have, curiously enough, +never been used extensively in France, notwithstanding the familiarity +of the French with Turkish baths in Algiers. + +In England hot air baths are now employed very extensively. They are +often associated with Turkish and electric baths. + +Bathing among the ancients was practised in various forms. It was +sometimes a simple bath in cold or in tepid water; but at least, in the +case of the higher orders, it usually included a hot air or vapour bath, +and was followed by affusion of cold or warm water, and generally by a +plunge into the piscina. In like manner the order varies in which the +different processes are gone through in Turkish baths in modern Europe. +Thus in the baths in Vienna, the process begins by immersion in a large +basin of warm water. Sudation is repeatedly interrupted by cold douches +at the will of the bathers, and after the bath they are satisfied with a +short stay in the cooling-room, where they have only a simple sheet +rolled round them. In Copenhagen and in Stockholm the Oriental baths +have been considerably modified by their association with hydropathic +practices. + +This leads us to notice the introduction of the curiously misnamed +system known as hydropathy (q.v.). Although cold baths were in vogue +for a time in Rome, warm baths were always more popular. Floyer, as we +have seen, did something to revive their use in England; but it was +nearly a century and a half afterwards that a Silesian peasant, +Priessnitz, introduced, with wonderful success, a variety of operations +with cold water, the most important of which was the packing the patient +in a wet sheet, a process which after a time is followed by profuse +sudation. Large establishments for carrying out this mode of bathing and +its modifications were erected in many places on the continent and in +Great Britain, and enjoyed at one time a large share of popularity. The +name "hydropathic" is still retained for these establishments, though +hydropathy so-called is no longer practised within them to any extent. + +But the greatest and most important development of ordinary baths in +modern times was in England, though it has extended gradually to some +parts of the continent. The English had long used affusion and +swimming-baths freely in India. Cold and hot baths and shower baths have +been introduced into private houses to an extent never known before; +and, since 1842, public swimming-baths, besides separate baths, have +been supplied to the public at very moderate rates, in some cases +associated with wash-houses for the poorer classes. Their number has +increased rapidly in London and in the principal continental cities. +Floating-baths in rivers, always known in some German towns, have become +common wherever there are flowing streams. The better supply of most +European cities with water has aided in this movement. Ample enclosed +swimming-baths have been erected at many seaside places. When required, +the water, if not heated in a boiler, is raised to a sufficient +temperature by the aid of hot water pipes or of steam. Separate baths +used to be of wood, painted; they are now most frequently of metal, +painted or lined with porcelain enamel. The swimming-baths are lined +with cement, tiles or marble and porcelain slabs; and a good deal of +ornamentation and painting of the walls and ceiling of the apartments, +in imitation of the ancients, has been attempted. + +We have thus traced in outline the history of baths through successive +ages. The medium of the baths spoken of thus far has been water, vapour +or dry hot air. But baths of more complex nature, and of the greatest +variety, have been in use from the earliest ages. The best known media +are the various mineral waters and sea-water. Of baths of _mineral_ +substances, those of sand are the oldest and best known; the practice of +_arenation_ or of burying the body in the sand of the sea-shore, or in +heated sand near some hot spring, is very ancient, as also that of +applying heated sand to various parts of the body. Baths of _peat_ earth +are of comparatively recent origin. The peat earth is carefully prepared +and pulverized, and then worked up with water into a pasty consistence, +of which the temperature can be regulated before the patient immerses +himself in it. + +There are various terms that may be termed _chemical_, in which chlorine +or hydrochloric acid is added to the water of the bath, or where fumes +of sulphur are made to rise and envelop the body. + +Of _vegetable_ baths the number is very large. Lees of wine, in a state +of fermentation, have been employed. An immense variety of aromatic +herbs have been used to impregnate water with. At one time fuci or +sea-weed were added to baths, under the idea of conveying into the +system the iodine which they contain; but by far the most popular of all +vegetable baths are those made with an extract got by distilling certain +varieties of pine leaves. + +The strangeness of the baths of _animal_ substances, that have been at +various times in use, is such that their employment seems scarcely +credible. That baths of milk or of whey might be not unpopular is not +surprising, but baths of blood, in some cases even of human blood, have +been used; and baths of horse dung were for many ages in high favour, +and were even succeeded for a short time by baths of guano. + +_Electrical_ baths are now largely used, a current being passed through +the water; and electrical _massage_, by the d'Arsonval or other system, +is colloquially termed a "bath." + +Baths also of _compressed air_, in which the patient is subjected to the +pressure of two or three atmospheres, were formerly employed in some +places. + +A _sun_ bath (_insolatio_ or _heliosis_), exposing the body to the sun, +the head being covered, was a favourite practice among the Greeks and +Romans. + +Some special devices require a few words of explanation. + +_Douches_ were used by the ancients, and have always been an important +mode of applying water to a circumscribed portion of the body. They are, +in fact, spouts of water, varying in size and temperature, applied by a +hose-pipe with more or less force for a longer or shorter time against +particular parts. A douche exercises a certain amount of friction, and a +continued impulse on the spot to which it is applied, which stimulate +the skin and the parts beneath it, quickening the capillary circulation. +The effects of the douche are so powerful that it cannot be applied for +more than a few minutes continuously. The alternation of hot and cold +douches, which for some unknown reason has got the name of _Ecossaise_, +is a very potent type of bath from the strong action and reaction which +it produces. The _shower_ bath may be regarded as a union of an immense +number of fine douches projected on the head and shoulders. It produces +a strong effect on the nervous system. An ingenious contrivance for +giving circular _spray_ baths, by which water is propelled laterally in +fine streams against every portion of the surface of the body, is now +common. + +To all these modes of acting on the cutaneous surface and circulation +must be added dry rubbing, as practised by the patient with the flesh +glove, but much more thoroughly by the bath attendants, if properly +instructed (see also MASSAGE). + +_Action of Baths on the Human System._--The primary operation of baths +is the action of heat and cold on the cutaneous surfaces through the +medium of water. + +The first purpose of baths is simply that of abstersion and cleanliness, +to remove any foreign impurity from the surface, and to prevent the +pores from being clogged by their own secretions or by desquamations of +cuticle. It need scarcely be said that such objects are greatly promoted +by the action of the alkali of soaps and by friction; that the use of +warm water, owing to its immediate stimulation of the skin, promotes the +separation of sordes, and that the vapour of water is still more +efficient than water itself. + +It has been supposed that water acts on the system by being absorbed +through the skin, but, under ordinary circumstances, no water is +absorbed, or, if any, so minute a quantity as not to be worth +considering. No dissolved substances, under the ordinary circumstances +of a bath, are actually absorbed into the system; although when a +portion of skin has been entirely cleared of its sebaceous secretion, it +is possible that a strong solution of salts may be partially absorbed. +In the case of medicated baths we therefore only look (in addition to +the action of heat and cold, or more properly to the abstraction or +communication and retention of heat) to any stimulant action on the skin +that the ingredients of the bath may possess. + +The powerful influence of water on the capillaries of the skin, and the +mode and extent of that operation, depend primarily on the temperature +of the fluid. The human system bears changes of temperature of the air +much better than changes of the temperature of water. While the +temperature of the air at 75 deg. may be too warm for the feelings of +many people, a continued bath at that temperature is felt to be cold and +depressing. Again, a bath of 98 deg. to 102 deg. acts far more +excitingly than air of the same temperature, both because, being a +better conductor, water brings more heat to the body and because it +suppresses the perspiration which is greatly augmented by air of that +temperature. Further, a temperature a few degrees below blood heat is +that of indifferent baths, which can be borne longest without natural +disturbance of the system. + +_Cold baths_ act by refrigeration, and their effects vary according to +the degree of temperature. The effects of a cold bath, the temperature +not being below 50 deg., are these:--there is a diminution of the +temperature of the skin and of the subjacent tissues; there is a certain +feeling of shock diffused over the whole surface, and if the cold is +intense it induces a slight feeling of numbness in the skin. It becomes +pale and its capillaries contract. The further action of a cold bath +reaches the central nervous system, the heart and the lungs, as +manifested by the tremor of the limbs it produces, along with a certain +degree of oppression of the chest and a gasping for air, while the pulse +becomes small and sinks. After a time reaction takes place, and brings +redness to the skin and an increase of temperature. + +The colder the water is, and the more powerful and depressing its +effects, the quicker and more active is the reaction. Very cold baths, +anything below 50 deg., cannot be borne long. Lowering of the +temperature of the skin may be borne down to 9 deg., but a further +reduction may prove fatal. The diminution of temperature is much more +rapid when the water is in motion, or when the bather moves about; +because, if the water is still, the layer of it in immediate contact +with the body is warmed to a certain degree. + +A great deal depends on the form of the cold bath; thus one may +have--(1) Its depressing operation,--with a loss of heat, retardation of +the circulation, and feeling of weariness, when the same water remains +in contact with the skin, and there is continuous withdrawal of heat +without fresh stimulation. This occurs with full or sitz baths, with +partial or complete wrapping up the body in a wet sheet which remains +unchanged, and with frictions practised without removing the wet sheets. +(2) Its exciting operation,--with quickening of the action of the heart +and lungs, and feeling of glow and of nervous excitement and of +increased muscular power. These sensations are produced when the layer +of water next the body and heated by it is removed, and fresh cold water +causes fresh stimulus. These effects are produced by full baths with the +water in motion used only for a short time, by frictions when the wet +sheet is removed from the body, by douches, shower baths, bathing in +rivers, &c. The depressing operation comes on much earlier in very cold +water than in warmer; and in the same way the exciting operation comes +on faster with the colder than with the warmer water. The short duration +of the bath makes both its depressing and its exciting action less; its +longer duration increases them; and if the baths be continued too long, +the protracted abstraction of animal heat may prove very depressing. + +_Tepid baths_, 85 deg. to 95 deg.--The effects of a bath of this +temperature are confined to the peripheral extremities of the nerves, +and are so slight that they do not reach the central system. There is no +reaction, and the body temperature remains unchanged. Baths of this kind +can be borne for hours with impunity. + +_Warm baths_ from 96 deg. to 104 deg.--In these the action of the heat +on the peripheral surface is propagated to the central system, and +causes reaction, which manifests itself in moderately increased flow of +the blood to the surface, and in an increased frequency of pulse. + +With a _hot bath_ from 102 deg. up to 110 deg. the central nervous and +circulating systems are more affected. The frequency of the pulse +increases rapidly, the respiration becomes quickened, and is interrupted +by deep inspirations. The skin is congested, and there is profuse +perspiration. + +_Very hot baths._--Everything above 110 deg. feels very hot; anything +above 120 deg. almost scalding. Baths of from 119 deg. to 126 deg. have +caused a rise of 2 deg. to 4-1/2 deg. in the temperature of the blood. +Such a bath can be borne for only a few minutes. It causes great +rapidity of the pulse, extreme lowering of the blood-pressure, excessive +congestion of the skin, and violent perspiration. + +In the use of hot baths a certain amount of vapour reaches the parts of +the body not covered by the water, and is also inhaled. + +_Vapour_ baths produce profuse perspiration and act in cleansing the +skin, as powerful hot water baths do. Vapour, owing to its smaller +specific heat, does not act so fast as water on the body. A vapour bath +can be borne for a much longer time when the vapour is not inhaled. +Vapour baths can be borne hotter than water baths, but cannot be +continued too long, as vapour, being a bad conductor, prevents radiation +of heat from the body. A higher heat than 122 deg. is not borne +comfortably. The vapour bath though falling considerably short of the +temperature of the hot air bath, raises the temperature much more. + +_Hot air_ baths differ from vapour baths in not impeding the respiration +as the latter do, by depositing moisture in the bronchial tubes. The +lungs, instead of having to heat the inspired air, are subjected to a +temperature above their own. Hot air baths, say of 135 deg., produce +more profuse perspiration than vapour baths. If very hot, they raise the +temperature of the body by several degrees. Vapour baths, hot air baths, +and hot water baths agree in producing violent perspiration. As +perspiration eliminates water and effete matter from the system, it is +obvious that its regulation must have an important effect on the +economy. + +In comparing the general effects of cold and hot baths, it may be said +that while the former tend to check perspiration, the latter favour it. + +The warm bath causes swelling and congestion of the capillaries of the +surface in the first instance; when the stimulus of heat is withdrawn +their contraction ensues. A cold bath, again, first causes a contraction +of the capillaries of the surface, which is followed by their expansion +when reaction sets in. A warm bath elevates the temperature of the body, +both by bringing a supply of heat to it and by preventing the radiation +of heat from it. It can be borne longer than a cold bath. It draws blood +to the surface, while a cold bath favours internal congestions. + +But baths often produce injurious effects when used injudiciously. Long +continued warm baths are soporific, and have, owing to this action, +often caused death by drowning. The effects of very hot baths are +swimming in the head, vomiting, fainting, congestion of the brain, and, +in some instances, apoplexy. + +The symptoms seem to point to paralysis of the action of the heart. It +is therefore very evident how cautious those should be, in the use of +hot baths, who have weak hearts or any obstruction to the circulation. +Fat men, and those in whom the heart or blood-vessels are unsound, +should avoid them. Protracted indulgence in warm baths is relaxing, and +has been esteemed a sign of effeminacy in all ages. Sleepiness, though +it will not follow the first immersion in a cold bath, is one of the +effects of protracted cold baths; depression of the temperature of the +surface becomes dangerous. The risk in cold baths is congestion of the +internal organs, as often indicated by the lips getting blue. Extremely +cold baths are always dangerous. + +For the medical use of baths see BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS. + +_Public Baths._--It was not till 1846 that it was deemed advisable in +England, for the "health, comfort, and welfare" of the inhabitants of +towns and populous districts, to encourage the establishment therein of +baths by the local authority acting through commissioners. A series of +statutes, known collectively as "The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to +1896," followed. By the Public Health Act 1875, the urban authority was +declared to be the authority having power to adopt and proceed under +the previous acts, and in 1878 provision was for the first time +expressly made for the establishment of swimming baths, which might be +used during the winter as gymnasia, and by an amending act of 1899, for +music or dancing, provided a licence is obtained. By the Local +Government Act 1894, it was provided that the parish meeting should be +the authority having exclusive power of adopting the Baths and +Wash-houses Acts in rural districts, which should, if adopted, be +carried into effect by the parish council. Up to 1865 it seems as if +only twenty-five boroughs had cared to provide bathing accommodation for +their inhabitants. There is no complete information as to the number of +authorities who have adopted the acts since 1865, but a return of +reproductive undertakings presented to the House of Commons in 1899 +shows that no local authorities outside the metropolis applied for power +to raise loans to provide baths, of whom 48 applied before 1875 and 62 +after 1875. In the year 1907 the loans sanctioned for the purpose +amounted to L53,026. The revenues of parish councils are so limited that +it has not been possible for them to take much advantage of the acts. In +the metropolis, by the Local Government Act of 1894, the power of +working the act was given to vestries, and by the act of 1899 this power +was transferred to the borough councils. There are 35 parishes in London +in which the acts have been adopted, all of which except 11 have taken +action since 1875. These establishments, according to the return made in +1908, provided 3502 private baths and 104 swimming baths. The maximum +charge for a second-class cold bath is 1d., for a hot bath 2d. In +1904-1905 the number of bathers was 6,342,158, of whom 3,064,998 were +bathers in private baths and 3,277,160 bathers in swimming baths. In +1896-1897 the gross total had been only 2,000,000. In cases where the +proportion between the sexes has been worked out, it is found that only +18% of the users of private baths, and 10% of the users of swimming +baths, are females. In 1898 the School Board was authorized to pay the +fees for children using the baths if instruction in swimming were +provided, and in 1907-1908 the privilege was used by 1,556,542 children. +The cost of this public provision in London--water being supplied by +measure--is over L80,000 a year. No account can be given of the numbers +using the ponds and lakes in the parks and open spaces, but it is +computed that on a hot Sunday 25,000 people bathe in Victoria Park, +London, some of the bathers starting as early as four o'clock in the +morning. These returns show how great is the increase of the habit of +bathing, but they also show how even now the habit is limited to a +comparatively small part of the population. People require to be tempted +to the use of water, at any rate at the beginning. There are still +authorities in London responsible for 800,000 persons who have provided +no baths, and those who have made provision have not always done so in a +sufficiently liberal and tempting way. The comparison between English +great towns and those of the continent is not in favour of the former. + + For the literature of baths in earlier periods we may refer to the + _Architecture_ of Vitruvius, and to Lucian's _Hippias_; see art. + "Bader" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_ (1896), by A. Mau; + "Balneum" in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. des antiquites_ J. Marquardt + _Das Privalleben der Romer_ (1886), pp. 269-297; Backer's _Gallus_, + and the article "Balneae" by Rich, in Dr Smith's _Dictionary of Greek + and Roman Antiquities_ (rev. ed. 1890); also the bibliography to + HYDROPATHY. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The figure represents four strigils, in which the hollow for + collecting the oil or perspiration from the body may be observed. + There is also a small ampulla or vessel containing oil, meant to keep + the strigils smooth, and a small flat patera or drinking vessel out + of which it was customary to drink after the bathing was finished. + + + + +BATHURST, EARLS. ALLEN BATHURST, 1st Earl Bathurst (1684-1775), was the +eldest son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst (d. 1704), by his wife, Frances (d. +1727), daughter of Sir Allen Apsley of Apsley, Sussex, and belonged to a +family which is said to have settled in Sussex before the Norman +Conquest. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and became member +of parliament for Cirencester in May 1705, retaining his seat until +December 1711, when he was created Baron Bathurst of Battlesden, +Bedfordshire. As a zealous Tory he defended Atterbury, bishop of +Rochester, and in the House of Lords was an opponent of Sir Robert +Walpole. After Walpole left office in 1742 he was made a privy +councillor, and in August 1772 was created Earl Bathurst, having +previously received a pension of L2000 a year chargeable upon the Irish +revenues. He died on the 16th of September 1775, and was buried in +Cirencester church. In July 1704 Bathurst married his cousin, Catherine +(d. 1768), daughter of Sir Peter Apsley, by whom he had four sons and +five daughters. The earl associated with the poets and scholars of the +time. Pope, Swift, Prior, Sterne, and Congreve were among his friends. +He is described in Sterne's _Letters to Eliza_; was the subject of a +graceful reference on the part of Burke speaking in the House of +Commons; and the letters which passed between him and Pope are published +in Pope's _Works_, vol. viii. (London, 1872). + +HENRY, 2nd Earl Bathurst (1714-1794), was the eldest surviving son of +the 1st earl. Educated at Balliol College, Oxford, he was called to the +bar, and became a K.C. in 1745. In April 1735 he had been elected member +of parliament for Cirencester, and was rewarded for his opposition to +the government by being made solicitor-general and then attorney-general +to Frederick, prince of Wales. Resigning his seat in parliament in April +1754 he was made a judge of the court of common pleas in the following +month, and became lord high chancellor in January 1771, when he was +raised to the peerage as Baron Apsley. Having become Earl Bathurst by +his father's death in September 1775, he resigned his office somewhat +unwillingly in July 1778 to enable Thurlow to join the cabinet of Lord +North. In November 1779 he was appointed lord president of the council, +and left office with North in March 1782. He died at Oakley Grove near +Cirencester on the 6th of August 1794. Bathurst was twice married, and +left two sons and four daughters. He was a weak lord chancellor, but +appears to have been just and fair in his distribution of patronage. + +HENRY, 3rd Earl Bathurst (1762-1834), the elder son of the second earl, +was born on the 22nd of May 1762. In April 1789 he married Georgiana (d. +1841), daughter of Lord George Henry Lennox, and was member of +parliament for Cirencester from 1783 until he succeeded to the earldom +in August 1794. Owing mainly to his friendship with William Pitt, he was +a lord of the admiralty from 1783 to 1789; a lord of the treasury from +1789 to 1791; and commissioner of the board of control from 1793 to +1802. Returning to office with Pitt in May 1804 he became master of the +mint, and was president of the Board of Trade and master of the mint +during the ministries of the duke of Portland and Spencer Perceval, only +vacating these posts in June 1812 to become secretary for war and the +colonies under the earl of Liverpool. For two months during the year +1809 he was in charge of the foreign office. He was secretary for war +and the colonies until Liverpool resigned in April 1827; and deserves +some credit for improving the conduct of the Peninsular War, while it +was his duty to defend the government concerning its treatment of +Napoleon Bonaparte. Bathurst's official position caused his name to be +mentioned frequently during the agitation for the abolition of slavery, +and with regard to this traffic he seems to have been animated by a +humane spirit. He was lord president of the council in the government of +the duke of Wellington from 1828 to 1830, and favoured the removal of +the disabilities of Roman Catholics, but was a sturdy opponent of the +reform bill of 1832. The earl, who had four sons and two daughters, died +on the 27th of July 1834. Bathurst was made a knight of the Garter in +1817, and held several lucrative sinecures. + +His eldest son, HENRY GEORGE, 4th Earl Bathurst (1790-1866), was member +of parliament for Cirencester from 1812 to 1834. He died unmarried on +the 25th of May 1866, and was succeeded in the title by his brother, +WILLIAM LENNOX, 5th Earl Bathurst (1791-1878), member of parliament for +Weobley from 1812 to 1816, and clerk of the privy council from 1827 to +1860, who died unmarried on the 24th of February 1878. + +ALLEN ALEXANDER. 6th Earl Bathurst (1832-1892), was the son of Thomas +Seymour Bathurst, and grandson of the 3rd earl. He was member of +parliament for Cirencester from 1857 until he became Earl Bathurst in +February 1878, and died on the 2nd of August 1892, when his eldest son, +SEYMOUR HENRY (b. 1864), became 7th Earl Bathurst. + + + + +BATHURST, a city of Bathurst county, New South Wales, Australia, 144 m. +by rail W.N.W. of Sydney on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9223. +It is situated on the south bank of the Macquarie river, at an elevation +of 2153 ft., in a fertile undulating plain on the west side of the Blue +Mountains. Bathurst has broad streets,, crossing one another at right +angles, with a handsome park in the centre of the town, while many of +the public buildings, specially the town hall, government buildings, and +Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, are noteworthy. Bathurst is the +centre of the chief wheat-growing district of New South Wales, while +gold, copper and silver are extensively mined in its vicinity. There are +railway works, coach factories, tanneries, breweries, flour-mills and +manufactures of boots and shoes and other commodities. The town was +founded in 1815 by Governor Macquarie, taking its name from the 3rd Earl +Bathurst, then secretary of state for the colonies, and it has been a +municipality since 1862. + + + + +BATHVILLITE, a naturally occurring organic substance. It is an +amorphous, opaque, and very friable material of fawn-brown colour, +filling cavities in the torbanite or Boghead coal of Bathville, +Scotland. It has a specific gravity of 1.01, and is insoluble in +benzene. + + + + +BATHYBIUS ([Greek: bathis], deep, and [Greek: bios], life), a slimy +substance at one time supposed to exist in great masses in the depths of +the ocean and to consist of undifferentiated protoplasm. Regarding it as +an organism which represented the simplest form of life, Huxley about +1868 named it _Bathybius Haeckelii_. But investigations carried out in +connexion with the "Challenger" expedition indicated that it was an +artificial product, composed of a flocculent precipitate of gypsum +thrown down from sea-water by alcohol, and the hypothesis of its organic +character was abandoned by most biologists, Huxley included. + + + + +BATHYCLES, an Ionian sculptor of Magnesia, was commissioned by the +Spartans to make a marble throne for the statue of Apollo at Amyclae, +about 550 B.C. Pausanias (iii. 18) gives us a detailed description of +this monument, which is of the greatest value to us, showing the +character of Ionic art at the time. It was adorned with scenes from +mythology in relief and supporting figures in the round. + + For a reconstruction, see Furtwangler, _Meisterwerke der griech + Plastik_, p. 706. + + + + +BATLEY, a municipal borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, +within the parliamentary borough of Dewsbury, 8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on +the Great Northern, London & North Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire +railways. Pop. (1900) 30,321. Area 2039 acres. The church of All Saints +is mainly Perpendicular, and contains some fine woodwork, mostly of the +17th century, and some good memorial tombs. The market square contains +an excellent group of modern buildings, including the town hall, public +library, post office and others. The town is a centre of the heavy +woollen trade, and has extensive manufactures of army cloths, pilot +cloths, druggets, flushings, &c. The working up of old material as +"shoddy" is largely carried on. There are also iron foundries, +manufactures of machinery, and stone quarries. The town lies on the +south-west Yorkshire coalfield, and there are a number of collieries in +the district. The borough is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and +eighteen councillors. + + + + +BATON (Fr. _baton_, _baston_, from Late Lat. _basto_, a stick or staff), +the truncheon carried by a field marshal as a sign of authority, by a +police constable, &c.; in music, the stick with which the conductor of +an orchestra beats time; in heraldry, the fourth part of a bend, +frequently broken off short at the ends so as to be shaped like a rod; +in English coats of arms, only as a mark of illegitimacy, the "baton +sinister." + + + + +BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO (1708-1787), Italian painter, was born at Lucca. +He was regarded in Italy as a great painter in the 18th century, and +unquestionably did much to rescue the art from the intense mannerism +into which it had fallen during the preceding century. His paintings, +however, are not of the highest order of merit, though they are +generally graceful, well designed, and harmoniously coloured. His best +production is thought to be his group of "Peace and War." Batoni painted +an unusual number of pictures, and was also celebrated for his +portraits. + + + + +BATON ROUGE, the capital of Louisiana, U.S.A., and of East Baton Rouge +parish, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 70 m. N.W. of New +Orleans. Pop. (1890) 10,478; (1900) 11,269, of whom 6596 were of negro +descent; (1910 census) 14,897. It is served by the Yazoo & Mississippi +Valley railway and by the Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company; and +the Texas & Pacific enters Port Alien, just across the river. The city +lies on the river bluff, secure against the highest floods. Old houses +in the Spanish style give quaintness to its appearance. The state +capitol was built in 1880-1882, replacing another burned in 1862. At +Baton Rouge is the State University and Agricultural and Mechanical +College (1860), of which the Audubon Sugar School, "for the highest +scientific training in the growing of sugar cane and in the technology +of sugar manufacture," is an important and distinctive feature. The +university grew out of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning and +Military Academy, founded in 1855 near Alexandria and opened in 1860 +under the charge of W.T. Sherman. In 1869 the institution was removed to +Baton Rouge, and in 1877 it was united with the Agricultural and +Mechanical College, established in 1873 and in 1874 opened at New +Orleans. The campus of the university is the former barracks of the +Baton Rouge garrison, occupied by the college since 1886 and transferred +to it by the Federal government in 1902. The enrolment of the university +in 1907-1908 was 636. Other important institutions at Baton Rouge are a +State Agricultural Experiment Station, asylums and schools for the deaf +and dumb, for the blind, and for orphans, and the state penitentiary. +The surrounding bluff and alluvial country is very rich. Sugar and +cotton plantations and sub-tropic fruit orchards occupy the front-lands +on the river. The manufactures include lumber and cotton seed products, +and sugar. The value of the city's factory products increased from +$717,368 in 1900 to $1,383,061 in 1905 or 92.8%. The city is governed +under a charter granted by the legislature in 1898. This charter is +peculiar in that it gives to the city council the power to elect various +administrative boards--of police, finance, &c.--from which the +legislative council of most cities is separated. + +Baton Rouge was one of the earliest French settlements in the state. As +a part of West Florida, it passed into the hands of the British in 1763, +and in 1779 was captured by Bernardo Galvez, the Spanish governor of +Louisiana. The town was incorporated in 1817. In 1849 it was made the +state capital, remaining so until 1862, when Shreveport became the +Confederate state capital. In 1864 the Unionists made New Orleans the +seat of government. The Secession Ordinance of Louisiana was passed on +the 26th of January 1861 by a convention that met at Baton Rouge. On the +and of May 1862 the city was captured by the forces of the United States +under Col. Benjamin H. Grierson (b. 1826), who had led raiders thither +from Tennessee; on the 12th of May it was formally occupied by troops +from New Orleans, and was successfully defended by Brig.-Gen. Thomas +Williams (1815-1862) against an attack by Confederate forces under +General John C. Breckinridge on the 5th of August 1862; Gen. Williams, +however, was killed during the attack. Baton Rouge was soon abandoned +for a month, was then reoccupied, and was held throughout the rest of +the war. It became the state capital again in 1882, in accordance with +the state constitution of 1879. For several years after 1840 Zachary +Taylor made his home on a plantation near Baton Rouge. + + + + +BATRACHIA. The arguments adduced by T.H. Huxley, in his article on this +subject in the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, for +applying the name Amphibia to those lung-breathing, pentadactyle +vertebrates which had been first severed from the Linnaean Amphibia by +Alexandre Brongniart, under the name of _Batrachia_, have not met with +universal acceptance. Although much used in text-books and anatomical +works in Great Britain and in Germany, the former name has been +discarded in favour of the latter by the principal authors on +systematic herpetology, such as W. Peters, A. Gunther and E.D. Cope, and +their lead is followed in the present article. Bearing in mind that +Linnaeus, in his use of the name Amphibia, was not alluding to the +gill-breathing and air-breathing periods through which most frogs and +newts pass in the course of their existence, but only wished to convey +the fact that many of the constituents of the group resort to both land +and water (e.g. crocodiles), it seems hard to admit that the term may be +thus diverted from its original signification, especially when such a +change results in discarding the name expressly proposed by Brongniart +to denote the association which has ever since been universally adopted +either as an order, a sub-class or a class. Many authors who have +devoted special attention to questions of nomenclature therefore think +_Reptilia_ and _Batrachia_ the correct names of the two great classes +into which the Linnaean _Amphibia_ have been divided, and consider that +the latter term should be reserved for the use of those who, like that +great authority, the late Professor Peters, down to the time of his +death in 1883, would persist in regarding reptiles and batrachians as +mere sub-classes (1). However extraordinary it may appear, especially to +those who bring the living forms only into focus, that opposition should +still be made to Huxley's primary division of the vertebrates other than +mammals into _Sauropsida_ (birds and reptiles) and _Ichthyopsida_ +(batrachians and fishes), it is certain that recent discoveries in +palaeontology have reduced the gap between batrachians and reptiles to +such a minimum as to cause the greatest embarrassment in the attempt to +draw a satisfactory line of separation between the two; on the other +hand the hiatus between fishes and batrachians remains as wide as it was +at the time Huxley's article Amphibia (_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th +ed.) was written. + +The chief character which distinguishes the Batrachians from the +reptiles, leaving aside the metamorphoses, lies in the arrangement of +the bones of the palate, where a large parasphenoid extends forwards as +far or nearly as far as the vomers and widely separates the pterygoids. +The bones which bear the two occipital condyles have given rise to much +discussion, and the definition given by Huxley in the previous +edition--"two occipital condyles, the basi-occipital region of the skull +either very incompletely or not at all ossified"--requires revision. +Some authors have held that the bone on which the occipital condyles +have been found most developed in some labyrinthodonts (2) represents a +large basi-occipital bearing two knobs for the articulation with the +first vertebra, whilst the skull of the batrachians of the present day +has lost the basi-occipital, and the condyles are furnished by the +exoccipitals. On the other hand, some reptiles have the occipital +condyle divided into two and produced either by the basi-occipital or by +the exoccipitals. But the recent find of a well preserved skull of a +labyrinthodont (_Capitosaurus stantonensis_) from the Trias of +Staffordshire has enabled A.S. Woodward (3) to show that, in that form +at any rate, the condyles are really exoccipital, although they are +separated by a narrow basi-occipital. It is therefore very probable that +the authors quoted in (2) were mistaken in their identification of the +elements at the base of the foramen magnum. The fact remains, however, +that some if not all of the stegocephalous batrachians have an ossified +basi-occipital. + +As a result of his researches on the anomodont reptiles and the +Stegocephalia (4), as the extinct order that includes the well known +labyrinthodonts is now called, we have had the proposal by H.G. Seeley +(5) to place the latter with the reptiles instead of with the +batrachians, and H. Gadow, in his most recent classification (6), places +some of them among the reptiles, others being left with the batrachians; +whilst H. Credner, basing his views on the discovery by him of various +annectent forms between the Stegocephalia and the Rhynchocephalian +reptiles, has proposed a class, _Eotetrapoda_, to include these forms, +ancestors of the batrachians proper on the one hand, of the reptiles +proper on the other. Yet, that the Stegocephalia, notwithstanding their +great affinity to the reptiles, ought to be included in the batrachians +as commonly understood, seems sufficiently obvious from the mere fact of +their passing through a branchiate condition, i.e. undergoing +metamorphosis (7). The outcome of our present knowledge points to the +Stegocephalia, probably themselves derived from the Crossopterygian +fishes (8), having yielded on the one hand the true batrachians +(retrogressive series), with which they are to a certain extent +connected through the _Caudata_ and the _Apoda_, on the other hand the +reptiles (progressive series), through the Rhynchocephalians and the +Anomodonts, the latter being believed, on very suggestive evidence, to +lead to the mammals (9). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Upper view of _Archegosaurus Decheni_. + + (Outlines after Gredner.) + + pm, Praemaxilla. st, Supratemporal. + n, Nasal. sq, Squamosal. + m, Maxilla. pto, Postorbital. + l, Lachrymal. qj, Quadrato-jugal. + pf, Praefrontal. o, Occipital. + f, Frontal. pt, Post-temporal. + j, Jugal. q, Quadrate. + ptf, Postfrontal. + p, Parietal.] + +The division of the class Amphibia or Batrachia into four orders, as +carried out by Huxley, is maintained, with, however, a change of names: +_Stegocephalia_, for the assemblage of minor groups that cluster round +the _Labyrinthodonta_ of R. Owen, which name is restricted to the forms +for which it was originally intended; _Peromela_, _Urodela_, _Anura_, +are changed to _Apoda_, _Caudata_, _Ecaudata_, for the reason that +(unless obviously misleading, which is not the case in the present +instance) the first proposed name should supersede all others for higher +groups as well as for genera and species, and the latter set have the +benefit of the law of priority. In the first subdivision of the +batrachians into two families by C. Dumeril in 1806 (_Zool. Anal_. pp. +90-94) these are termed "Anoures" and "Urodeles" in French, _Ecaudati_ +and _Caudati_ in Latin. When Dumeril's pupil, M. Oppel, in 1811 (_Ordn. +Rept_. p. 72), added the Caecilians, he named the three groups _Apoda_, +_Ecaudata_ and _Caudata_. The Latin form being the only one entitled to +recognition in zoological nomenclature, it follows that the +last-mentioned names should be adopted for the three orders into which +recent batrachians are divided. + + I. STEGOCEPHALIA (10).--Tailed, lacertiform or serpentiform + batrachians, with the temporal region of the skull roofed over by + postorbital, squamosal, and supratemporal plates similar to the same + bones in Crossopterygian fishes, and likewise with paired dermal bones + (occipitals and post-temporals) behind the parietals and + supratemporals. A parietal foramen; scales or bony scutes frequently + present, especially on the ventral region, which is further protected + by three large bony plates--interclavicle and clavicles, the latter in + addition to cleithra. + + Extinct, ranging from the Upper Devonian to the Trias. Our knowledge + of Devonian forms is still extremely meagre, the only certain proof of + the existence of pentadactyle vertebrates at that period resting on + the footprints discovered in Pennsylvania and described by O.C. Marsh + (11) as _Tinopus antiquus_. Sundry remains from Belgium, as to the + identification of which doubts are still entertained, have been + regarded by M. Lohest (12) as evidence of these batrachians in the + Devonian. Over 200 species are now distinguished, from the + Carboniferous of Europe and North America, the Permian of Spitsbergen, + Europe, North America and South Africa, and the Trias of Europe, + America, South Africa, India and Australia. The forms of batrachians + with which we are acquainted show the vertebral column to have been + evolved in the course of time from a notochordal condition with + segmented centra similar to that of early bony ganoid fishes (e.g. + _Caturus_, _Eurycormus_), to biconcave centra, and finally to the + socket-and-ball condition that prevails at the present day. However, + owing to the evolution of the vertebral column in various directions, + and to the inconstant state of things in certain annectent groups, it + is not possible, it seems, to apply the vertebral characters to + taxonomy with that rigidity which E.D. Cope and some other recent + authors have attempted to enforce. This is particularly evident in + the case of the Stegocephalians; and recent batrachians, tailed and + tailless, show the mode of articulation of the vertebrae, whether + amphicoelous, opisthocoelous or procoelous, to be of but secondary + systematic importance in dealing with these lowly vertebrates. The + following division of the Stegocephalians into five sub-orders is + therefore open to serious criticism; but it seems on the whole the + most natural to adopt in the light of our present knowledge. + + [Illustration: FIG 2.--A, Dorsal vertebrae. B, Caudal vertebra of + _Archegosaurus_. na, Neural arch; ch, chorda; pl, pleurocentrum; ic, + intercentrum. + + (Outline after Jaekel.)] + + A. Rhachitomi, (figs. 1, 2), in which the spinal cord rests on the + notochord, which persists uninterrupted and is surrounded by three + bony elements in addition to the neural arch: a so-called + pleurocentrum on each side, which appears to represent the centrum + proper of reptiles and mammals, and an intercentrum or hypocentrum + below, which may extend to the neural arch, and probably answers to + the hypapophysis, as it is produced into chevrons in the caudal + region. Mostly large forms, of Carboniferous and Permian age, with a + more or less complex infolding of the walls of the teeth. Families: + ARCHEGOSAURIDAE, ERYOPIDAE, TRIMERORHACHIDAE, DISSORHOPHIDAE. The last + is remarkable for an extraordinary endo- and exo-skeletal carapace, + _Dissorhophus_ being described by Cope (13) as a "batrachian + armadillo." + + B. Embolomeri, with the centra and intercentra equally developed + disks, of which there are thus two to each neural arch; these disks + perforated in the middle for the passage of the notochord. This type + may be directly derived from the preceding, with which it appears to + be connected by the genus _Diplospondylus_. Fam.: CRICOTIDAE, Permian. + + C. Labyrinthodonta, with simple biconcave vertebral disks, very + slightly pierced by a remnant of the notochord and supporting the + loosely articulated neural arch. This condition is derived from that + of the _Rhachitomi_, as shown by the structure of the vertebral column + in young specimens. Mostly large forms from the Trias (a few Permian), + with true labyrinthic dentition. Families: LABYRINTHODONTIDAE, + ANTHRACOSAURIDAE, DENDRERPETIDAE, NYRANIIDAE. + + D. Microsauria, nearest the reptiles, with persistent notochord + completely surrounded by constricted cylinders on which the neural + arch rests. Teeth hollow, with simple or only slightly folded walls. + Mostly of small size and abundant in the Carboniferous and Lower + Permian. Families: UROCORDYLIDAE, LIMNERPETIDAE, HYLONOMIDAE (fig. 3), + MICROBRACHIDAE, DOLICHOSOMATIDAE, the latter serpentiform, apodal. + + E. Branchiosauria, nearest to the true batrachians; with persistent + non-constricted notochord, surrounded by barrel-shaped, bony cylinders + formed by the neural arch above and a pair of intercentra below, both + these elements taking an equal share in the formation of a transverse + process on each side for the support of the rib. This plan of + structure, apparently evolved out of the rhachitomous type by + suppression of the pleurocentra and the downward extension of the + neural arch, leads to that characteristic of frogs in which, as + development shows, the vertebra is formed wholly or for the greater + part by the neural arch (14). Small forms from the Upper Carboniferous + and Permian formations. A single family: BRANCHIOSAURIDAE. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--A, Dorsal vertebra of _Hylonomus_ (side view + and front view). B, Dorsal vertebra of _Branchiosaurus_ (side view and + front view). n, Neural canal; ch, chorda. + + (After Credner.)] + + II. APODA (15).--No limbs. Tail vestigial or absent. Frontal bones + distinct from parietals; palatines fused with maxillaries. Male with + an intromittent copulatory organ. Degraded, worm-like batrachians of + still obscure affinities, inhabiting tropical Africa, south-eastern + Asia and tropical America. Thirty-three species are known. No fossils + have yet been discovered. It has been attempted of late to do away + with this order altogether and to make the Caecilians merely a family + of the Urodeles. This view has originated out of the very remarkable + superficial resemblance between the _Ichthyophis_-larva and the + _Amphiuma_. Cope (16) regarded the Apoda as the extremes of a line of + degeneration from the Salamanders, with _Amphiuma_ as one of the + annectent forms. In the opinion of P. and F. Sarasin (17), whose great + work on the development of _Ichthyophis_ is one of the most important + recent contributions to our knowledge of the batrachians, _Amphiuma_ + is a sort of neotenic Caecilian, a larval form become sexually mature + while retaining the branchial respiration. If the absence of limbs and + the reduction of the tail were the only characteristic of the group, + there would be, of course, no objection to unite the Caecilians with + the Urodeles; but, to say nothing of the scales, present in many + genera of Apodals and absent in all Caudates, which have been shown by + H. Credner to be identical in structure with those of Stegocephalians, + the Caecilian skull presents features which are not shared by any of + the tailed batrachians. G.M. Winslow (18), who has made a study of the + chondrocranium of _Ichthyophis_, concludes that its condition could + not have been derived from a Urodele form, but points to some more + primitive ancestor. That this ancestor was nearly related to, if not + one of, the Stegocephalians, future discovery will in all probability + show. + + III. CAUDATA (19).--Tailed batrachians, with the frontals distinct + from the parietals and the palatines from the maxillary. Some of the + forms breathe by gills throughout their existence, and were formerly + regarded as establishing a passage from the fishes to the + air-breathing batrachians. They are now considered as arrested larvae + descended from the latter. One of the most startling discoveries of + the decade 1890-1900 was the fact that a number of forms are devoid of + both gills and lungs, and breathe merely by the skin and the buccal + mucose membrane (20). Three blind cave-forms are known: one + terrestrial--_Typhlotriton_, from North America, and two + perennibranchiate--_Proteus_ in Europe and _Typhlomolge_ in North + America. + + This order contains about 150 species, referred to five families: + HYLAEOBATRACHIDAE, SALAMANDRIDAE, AMPHIUMIDAE, PROTEIDAE, SIRENIDAE. + + Fossil remains are few in the Upper Eocene and Miocene of Europe and + the Upper Cretaceous of North America. The oldest Urodele known is + _Hylaeobatrachus_ Dollo (21) from the Lower Wealden of Belgium. At + present this order is confined to the northern hemisphere, with the + exception of two _Spelerpes_ from the Andes of Ecuador and Peru, and a + _Plethodon_ from Argentina. + + IV. ECAUDATA (22).--Frogs and toads. Four limbs and no tail. Radius + confluent with ulna, and tibia with fibula; tarsus (astragalus and + calcaneum) elongate, forming an additional segment in the hind limb. + Caudal vertebrae fused into a urostyle or coccyx. Frontal bones + confluent with parietals. + + This order embraces about 1300 species, of which some 40 are fossil, + divided into two sub-orders and sixteen families:-- + + A. Aglossa,--Eustachian tubes united into a single ostium pharyngeum; + no tongue. DACTYLETHRIDAE, PIPIDAE. + + B. Phaneroglossa,--Eustachian tubes separated; tongue present. + DISCOGLOSSIDAE, PELOBATIDAE, HEMIPHRACTIDAE, AMPHIGNATHODONTIDAE, + HYLIDAE, BUFONIDAE, DENDROPHRYNISCIDAE, CYSTIGNATHIDAE, DYSCOPHIDAE, + GENYOPHRYNIDAE, ENGYSTOMATIDAE, CERATOBATRACHIDAE, RANIDAE, + DENDROBATIDAE. + + The Phaneroglossa are divided into two groups; _Arcifera_ and + _Firmisternia_, representing two stages of evolution. The family + characters are mainly derived from the dilatation or non-dilatation of + the sacral diapophyses, and the presence of teeth in one or both jaws, + or their absence. The _Discoglossidae_ are noteworthy for the presence + of short ribs to some of the vertebrae, and in some other points also + they approach the tailed batrachians; they may be safely regarded as, + on the whole, the most generalized of known Ecaudata. Distinct ribs + are present at an early age in the Aglossa, as discovered by W.G. + Ridewood (23). The recent addition of a third genus of Aglossa, + _Hymenochirus_ (24) from tropical Africa, combining characters of + _Pipa_ and _Xenopus_, has removed every doubt as to the real affinity + which connects these genera. _Hymenochirus_ is further remarkable for + the presence of only six distinct pieces in the vertebral column, + which is thus the most abbreviated among all the vertebrata. + + Frogs and toads occur wherever insect food is procurable, and their + distribution is a world-wide one, with the exception of many islands. + Thus New Caledonia, which has a rich and quite special lizard-fauna, + has no batrachians of its own, although the Australian _Hyla aurea_ + has been introduced with success. New Zealand possesses only one + species (_Liopelma hochstetteri_), which appears to be rare and + restricted to the North Island. The forest regions of southern Asia, + Africa and South America are particularly rich in species. + + According to our present knowledge, the Ecaudata can be traced about + as far back in time as the Caudata. An unmistakable batrachian of this + order, referred by its describer to _Palaeobatrachus_, a determination + which is only provisional, has been discovered in the Kimmeridgian of + the Sierra del Montsech, Catalonia (25), in a therefore somewhat older + formation than the Wealden Caudata _Hylaeobatrachus_. + + Apart from a few unsatisfactory remains from the Eocene of Wyoming, + fossil tailless batrachians are otherwise only known from the + Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene of Europe and India. These forms + differ very little from those that live at the present day in the same + part of the world, and some of the genera (_Discoglossus, Bufo, + Oxyglossus, Rana_) are even identical. _Palaeobatrachus_ (26), of + which a number of species represented by skeletons of the perfect form + and of the tadpole have been described from Miocene beds in Germany, + Bohemia and France, seems to be referable to the _Pelobatidae_; this + genus has been considered as possibly one of the Aglossa, but the + absence of ribs in the larvae speaks against such an association. + + Numerous additions have been made to our knowledge of the development + and nursing habits, which are extremely varied, some forms dispensing + with or hurrying through the metamorphoses and hopping out of the egg + in the perfect condition (27). + + _Skeleton._--In the earliest forms of this order, the Stegocephalia, + we meet with considerable variety in the constitution of the + vertebrae, and these modifications have been used for their + classification. All agree, however, in having each vertebra formed of + at least two pieces, the suture between which persists throughout + life. In this they differ from the three orders which have living + representatives. Even the inferior arches or chevrons of the tail of + salamanders are continuously ossified with the centra. As a matter of + fact, these vertebrae have no centra proper, that part which should + correspond with the centrum being formed, as a study of the + development has shown (H. Gadow, 14), by the meeting and subsequent + complete co-ossification of the two chief dorsal and ventral pairs of + elements (tail-vertebrae of Caudata), or entirely by the pair of + dorsal elements. In the Ecaudata, the vertebrae of the trunk are + formed on two different plans. In some the notochord remains for a + long time exposed along the ventral surface, and, owing to the absence + of cartilaginous formation around it, disappears without ever becoming + invested otherwise than by a thin elastic membrane; it can be easily + stripped off below the vertebrae in larval specimens on the point of + metamorphosing. This has been termed the _epichordal_ type. In others, + which represent the _perichordal_ type, the greater share of the + formation of the whole vertebra falls to the (paired) dorsal + cartilage, but there is in addition a narrow ventral or hypochordal + cartilage which fuses with the dorsal or becomes connected with it by + calcified tissue; the notochord is thus completely surrounded by a + thick sheath in tadpoles with imperfectly developed limbs. This mode + of formation of both the arch and the greater part or whole of the + so-called centrum from the same cartilage explains why there is never + a neuro-central suture in these batrachians. + + During segmentation of the dorsal cartilages mentioned above, which + send out the transverse processes of diapophyses, there appears + between each two centra an intervertebral cartilage, out of which the + articulating condyle of the centrum is formed, and becomes attached + either to the vertebra anterior (precoelous type) or posterior + (opisthocoelous type) to it, if not remaining as an independent, + intervertebral, ossified sphere, as we sometimes find in specimens of + _Pelobatidae_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The first two vertebrae of _Necturus_. Vt^1, + Atlas; Vt^2, second vertebrae; a, intercondyloid process of the atlas; + b, the articular surfaces for the occipital condyles. The ribs of the + second vertebra are not represented. A, Dorsal; B, ventral; C, lateral + view. ] + + In the Caudata and Apoda, cartilage often persists between the + vertebrae; this cartilage may become imperfectly separated into a + cup-and-ball portion, the cup belonging to the posterior end of the + vertebra. In such cases the distinction between amphicoelous and + opisthocoelous vertebrae rests merely on a question of ossification, + and has occasionally given rise to misunderstandings in the use of + these terms. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Necturus_. Posterior (A) and ventral (B) + views of the sacral vertebrae (S.V.); S.R.^1, S.R.^2, sacral ribs; Il, + ilium; Is, ischium.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.-Vertebral column of _Hymenochtrus_ (ventral + view).] + + Amphicoelous (bi-concave) vertebrae are found in the Apoda and in some + of the Caudata; opisthocoelous (convexo-concave) vertebrae in the + higher Caudata and in the lower Ecaudata; whilst the great majority of + the Ecaudata have procoelous (concavo-convex) vertebrae. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Chondrocranium of _Rana esculenta_--ventral + aspect. + + rp, The rhinal process. + pnl, The praenasal processes. + an, The alinasal processes, shown by the removal of part of the + floor of the left nasal chamber. + AO., The antorbital process. + pd, The pedicle of the suspensorium continued into cv, the + ventral crus of the suspensorium. + cd, Its dorsal crus. + tt, The tegmen tympani. + SE, The sphen-ethmoid. + EO., The exoccipitals. + Qu.J., The quadratojugal. + II. V. VI. Foramina by which the optic, trigeminal and abortio dura, + and abducens nerves leave the skull.] + + All living batrachians, and some of the Stegocephalia, have transverse + processes on the vertebrae that succeed the atlas (fig. 4), some of + which, in the Caudata, are divided into a dorsal and a ventral + portion. Ribs are present in the lower Ecaudata (_Discoglossidae_ and + larval Aglossa), but they are never connected with a sternum. It is in + fact doubtful whether the so-called sternum of batrachians, in most + cases a mere plate of cartilage, has been correctly identified as + such. When limbs are present, one vertebra, rarely two (fig. 5) or + three, are distinguished as sacral, giving attachment to the ilia. In + the Ecaudata, the form of the transverse processes of the sacral + vertebra varies very considerably, and has afforded important + characters to the systematist. In accordance with the saltatorial + habits of the members of this order, the vertebrae, which number from + 40 to 60 in the Caudata, to upwards of 200 in the Apoda, have become + reduced to 10 as the normal number, viz., eight praecaudal, one sacral + and an elongate coccyx or urostyle, formed by coalescence of at least + two vertebrae. In some genera this coccyx is fused with the ninth + vertebra, and contributes to the sacrum, whilst in a few others the + number of segments is still further reduced by the co-ossification of + one or two vertebrae preceding that corresponding to the normal sacral + and by the fusion of the two first vertebrae, the extreme of reduction + being found in the genus _Hymenochirus_, the vertebral column of which + is figured here (fig 6.) + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--The skull of _Ichthyophis glutinosus_ A, + Dorsal; B, ventral; C, lateral view. The letters have the same + signification as below.] + + As stated above in the definition of the order, the Stegocephalia have + retained most of the cranial bones which are to be found in the + Crossopterygian fishes, and it is worthy of note that the bones termed + post-temporals may give attachment to a further bone so prolonged + backwards as to suggest the probability of the skull being connected + with the shoulder-girdle, as in most teleostome fishes. This + supposition is supported by a specimen from the Lower Permian of + Autun, determined as _Actinodon frossardi_, acquired in 1902 by the + British Museum, which shows a bone, similar to the so-called "epiotic + cornu" of the microsaurians, _Ceraterpeton_ and _Scincosaurus_, to + have the relations of the supra-cleithrum of fishes, thus confirming a + suggestion made by C.W. Andrews (28). As in fishes also, the sensory + canal system must have been highly developed on the skulls of many + labyrinthodonts, and the impressions left by these canals have been + utilized by morphologists for homologizing the various elements of the + cranial roof with those of Crossopterygians. The pineal foramen, in + the parietal bones, is as constantly present as it is absent in the + other orders. Although not strictly forming part of the skull, + allusion should be made here to the ring of sclerotic plates which has + been found in many of the Stegocephalia, and which is only found + elsewhere in a few Crossopterygian fishes as well as in many reptiles + and birds. + + In the orders which are still represented at the present day, the + bones of the skull are reduced in number and the "primordial skull," + or chondrocranium (fig. 7), remains to a greater or less extent + unossified, even in the adult. Huxley's figures of the skull of a + caccilian (_Ichthyophis glutinosus_), fig. 8, of a perennibranchiate + urodele (_Necturus maculosus = Menobranchus lateralis_), fig. 9, and + of a frog (_Rana esculenta_), fig. 10, are here given for comparison. + + The skull, in the _Apoda_, is remarkably solid and compact, and it + possesses a postorbital or postfrontal bone (marked 1 in the figure) + which does not exist in any of the other living batrachians. The + squamosal bone is large and either in contact with the frontals and + parietals or separated from them by a vacuity; the orbit is sometimes + roofed over by bone. The presence, in some genera, of a second row of + mandibular teeth seems to indicate the former existence of a splenial + element, such as exists in _Siren_ among the Caudata and apparently in + the labyrinthodonts. + + In the Caudata, the frontals remain likewise distinct from the + parietals, whilst in the Ecaudata the two elements are fused into one, + and in a few forms (Aglossa, some _Pelobalidae_) the paired condition + of these bones has disappeared in the adult. Prefrontal bones are + present in the _Salamandridae_ and _Amphiumidae_, but absent (or fused + with the nasals) in the other Caudata and in the Ecaudata. In most of + the former the palatines fuse with the vomers, whilst they remain + distinct, unless entirely lost, in the latter. The vomer is single, or + absent, in the Aglossa. In the lower jaw of most of the Ecaudata the + symphysial cartilages ossify separately from the dentary bones, + forming the so-called mento-meckelian bones; but these symphysial + bones, so distinct in the frog, are less so in the _Hylidae_ and + _Bufonidae_, almost indistinguishable in the _Pelobatidae_ and + _Discoglossidae_, whilst in the Aglossa they do not exist any more + than in the other orders of batrachians. + + No batrachian is known to possess an ossified azygous supra-occipital. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lateral, dorsal and ventral views of the + cranium of _Necturus maculosus_. In the dorsal view, the bones are + removed from the left half of the skull, in the ventral view, the + parasphenoid, palato-pterygoid, and vomers are given in outline. The + letters have, for the most part, the same signification as before. + + VII.p, Posterior division of the seventh nerve. + VII. Chorda tympani + V^1, V^2, V^3, First, second and third divisions of the trigeminal. + s.s.l, Stapedio-suspensorial ligament. + h.s.l, Hyo-suspensorial ligament. + m.h.l, Mandibulo-hyoid ligament. + a, Ascending process of the suspensorium. + p, Pterygo-palatine process. + q, Quadrate process. + o, Otic process. + Na, Posterior nares. + Mck, Meckel's cartilage. + Gl (fig. 10), The position of the glottis. + Bb^1, Bb^2, Basilbranchials.] + + Although there are four branchial arches in all the larval forms of + the three orders, and throughout life in the _Sirenidae_, the + perennibranchiate _Proteidae_ have only three (see fig. 11). In the + adult Apoda these arches and the hyoid fuse into three transverse, + curved or angular bones (see fig. 13), the two posterior disconnected + from the hyoid. In the Ecaudata, as shown by F. Gaupp (29) and by W.G. + Ridewood (30), the whole hyobranchial apparatus forms a cartilaginous + continuum, and during metamorphosis the branchialia disappear without + a trace. The hyoid of the adult frog (fig. 12) consists of a plate of + cartilage with two slender cornua, three processes on each side, and + two long bony rods behind, termed the thyro-hyals, which embrace the + larynx. In the Aglossa, which are remarkable for the large size and + complexity of the larynx, the thyro-hyal bones are incorporated into + the laryngeal apparatus, whilst the recently discovered _Hymenochirus_ + is further remarkable for the large size and ossification of the + hyoidean cornua (ceratohyals), a feature which, though not uncommon + among the salamanders, is unique among the Ecaudata (31). + + [Illustration: FIG. 10--Dorsal, ventral, lateral, and posterior views + of the skull of _Rana esculenta_. The letters have the same + signification throughout. + + Pmx, Premaxilla. + Mx, Maxilla. + Vo, Vomer. + Na, Nasal. + S.e, Sphen-ethmoid. + Fr, Frontal. + Pa, Parietal. + E.O, Exoccipital. + Ep, Epiotic process. + Pr.O, Pro-otic. + t.t, Tegmentympani. + Sq, Squamosal. + Q.J, Quadrato-jugal. + Pt1, Pterygoid, anterior process. + Pt2, Internal process. + Pt3, Posterior or external process. + Ca, Columella auris. + St, Stapes. + Hy, Hyoidean cornu. + P.S, Parasphenoid. + An, Angulate. + D, Dentale. + V, Foramen of exit of the trigeminal. + H, Of the optic. + X, Of the pneumogastric and glosso-pharyngeal nerves. + V1. Foramen by which the orbito-nasal or first division of the fifth + passes to the nasal cavity.] + + The pectoral girdle of the Stegocephalia is, of course, only known + from the ossified elements, the identification of which has given rise + to some diversity of opinion. But C. Gegenbaur's (32) interpretation + may be regarded as final. He has shown that, as in the Crossopterygian + and Chondrostean ganoid fishes, there are two clavicular elements on + each side; the lower corresponds to the clavicle of reptiles and + higher vertebrates, whilst the upper corresponds to the clavicle of + teleostean fishes, and has been named by him "cleithrum." As stated + above, there is strong evidence in favour of the view that some forms + at least possessed in addition a "supracleithrum," corresponding to + the supra-clavicle of bony fishes. The element often termed "coracoid" + in these fossils would be the scapula. The clavicles rest on a large + discoidal, rhomboidal, or T-shaped median bone, which clearly + corresponds to the interclavicle of reptiles. + + The pectoral girdle of the living types of batrachians is + distinguishable into a scapular, a coracoidal, and a praecoracoidal + region. In most of the Caudata the scapular region alone ossifies, but + in the Ecaudata the coracoid is bony and a clavicle is frequently + developed over the praecoracoid cartilage. In these batrachians the + pectoral arch falls into two distinct types--the _arciferous_, in + which the precoracoid (+clavicle) and coracoid are widely separated + from each other distally and connected by an arched cartilage (the + epicoracoid), the right usually overlapping the left; and the + _firmisternal_, in which both precoracoid and coracoid nearly abut on + the median line, and are only narrowly separated by the more or less + fused epicoracoids. The former type is exemplified by the toads and + the lower Ecaudata, whilst the latter is characteristic of the true + frogs (_Ranidae_), although when quite young these batrachians present + a condition similar to that which persists throughout life in their + lower relatives. A cartilage in the median line in front of the + precoracoids, sometimes supported by a bony style, is the so-called + Omosternum; a large one behind the cora-coids, also sometimes provided + with a bony style, has been called the sternum. But these names will + probably have to be changed when the homologies of these parts are + better understood. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Hyoid and branchial apparatus of _Necturus + maculosus_. + + Hh, Hypo-hyal. + Ch, Cerato-hyal. + Bb^1, First basibranchial. + Bb^2, Ossified second basibranchial. + Ep.b^1, Ep.b^2, Ep.b^3, First, second and third epibranchials. + Gl, Glottis.] + + The pelvic arch of some of the Stegocephalia contained a well ossified + pubic element, whilst in all other batrachians only the ilium, or the + ilium and the ischium are ossified. In the Ecaudata the ilium is + greatly elongated and the pubis and ischium are flattened, discoidal, + and closely applied to their fellows by their inner surfaces; the + pelvic girdle looks like a pair of tongs. + + The long bones of the limbs consist of an axis of cartilage; the + extremities of the cartilages frequently undergo calcification and are + thus converted into epiphyses. In the Ecaudata the radius and ulna + coalesce into one bone. The carpus, which remains cartilaginous in + many of the Stegocephalia and Caudata, contains six to eight elements + when the manus is fully developed, whilst the number is reduced in + those forms which have only two or three digits. Except in some of the + Stegocephalia, there are only four functional digits in the manus, but + the Ecaudata have a more or less distinct rudiment of pollex; in the + Caudata it seems to be the outer digit which has been suppressed, as + atavistic reappearance of a fifth digit takes place on the outer side + of the manus, as it does on the pes in those forms in which the toes + are reduced to four. The usual number of phalanges is 2, 2, 3, 2 in + the Stegocephalia and Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 3 in the Ecaudata. In the foot + the digits usually number five, and the phalanges 2, 2, 3, 3, 2 in the + Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3 in the Stegocephalia and Ecaudata. There are + occasionally intercalary ossifications between the two distal + phalanges (33). There are usually nine tarsal elements in the Caudata; + this number is reduced in the Ecaudata, in which the two bones of the + proximal row (sometimes coalesced) are much elongated and form an + additional segment to the greatly lengthened hind-limb, a sort of + _crus secundarium_. In the Ecaudata also, the tibia and fibula + coalesce into one bone, and two or three small bones on the inner side + of the tarsus form what has been regarded as a rudimentary digit or + "prehallux." + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Ventral view of the hyoid of _Rana + esculenta_. a, Anterior; b, lateral; c, posterior processes; d, + thyro-hyals.] + + _Integument._--In all recent batrachians, the skin is naked, or if + small scales are present, as in many of the Apoda, they are concealed + in the skin. The extinct Stegocephalia, on the other hand, were mostly + protected, on the ventral surface at least, by an armour of + overlapping round, oval, or rhomboidal scales, often very similar to + those of Crossopterygian or ganoid fishes, and likewise disposed in + transverse oblique lines converging forwards on the middle line of the + belly. Sometimes these scales assumed the importance of scutes and + formed a carapace, as in the "batrachian armadillo" discovered by E.D. + Cope. A few frogs have the skin of the back studded with stellate bony + deposits (_Phyllomedusa, Nototrema_), whilst two genera are remarkable + for possessing a bony dorsal shield, free from the vertebrae + (_Ceratorphrys_) or ankylosed to them (_Brachycephalus_). None of the + Stegocephalia appears to have been provided with claws, but some + living batrachians (_Onychodactylus, Xenopus, Hymenochirus_) have the + tips of some or all of the digits protected by a claw-like horny + sheath. + + The integument of tailed and tailless batrachians is remarkable for + the great abundance of follicular glands, of which there may be two + kinds, each having a special secretion, which is always more or less + acrid and irritating, and affords a means of defence against the + attacks of many carnivorous animals. A great deal has been published + on the poisonous secretion of batrachians (34), which is utilized by + the Indians of South America for poisoning their arrows. Some of the + poison-secreting glands attain a greater complication of structure and + are remarkable for their large size, such as the so-called "parotoid" + glands on the back of the head in toads and salamanders. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Ventral view of the head and trunk of + _Ichthyophis glutinosus_. + + Mn, Mandible. + Hy, Hyoid. + Br^1 Br^2, Br^3, Branchial arches. + Gl, Glottis. + Tr, Trachea. + Ivc, Inferior vena cava. + V, Ventricle. + Au, Auricles. + Rsvc, Lsvc, right and left superior cavae. + Ta, Truncus arteriosus. + Ao, Left aortic arch. + P.A. Right pulmonary artery. The pericardium (lightly shaded) + extends as far as the bifurcation of the synangium.] + + In all larval forms, in the Caudata, and in a few of the Ecaudata + (_Xenopus_, for instance), the epidermis becomes modified in relation + with the termination of sensory nerves, and gives rise to organs of + the same nature as those of the lateral line of fishes. In addition to + diffuse pigment (mostly in the epidermis), the skin contains granular + pigment stored up in cells, the chromatophores, restricted to the + cutis, which are highly mobile and send out branches which, by + contraction and expansion, may rapidly alter the coloration, most + batrachians being in this respect quite comparable to the famous + chameleons. Besides white (guanine) cells, the pigment includes black, + brown, yellow and red. The green and blue, so frequent in frogs and + newts, are merely subjective colours, due to interference. On the + mechanism of the change of colour, cf. W. Biedermann (35). + + One of the interesting recent discoveries is that of the "hairy" frog + (_Trichobatrachus_), in which the sides of the body and limbs are + covered with long villosities, the function of which is still unknown + (36). + + The nuptial horny asperities with which the males of many batrachians + are provided, for the purpose of clinging to the females, will be + noticed below, under the heading _Pairing and Oviposition_. + + _Dentition._--In the Microsauria and Branchiosauria among the + Stegocephalia, as in the other orders, the hollow, conical or slightly + curved teeth exhibit simple or only slightly folded walls. But in the + Labyrinthodonta, grooves are more or less marked along the teeth and + give rise to folds of the wall which, extending inwards and ramifying, + produce the complicated structure, exhibited by transverse sections, + whence these batrachians derive their name; a somewhat similar + complexity of structure is known in some holoptychian (dendrodont) + Crossopterygian fishes. In the remarkable salamander _Autodax_, the + teeth in the jaws are compressed, sharp-edged, lancet shaped. The + teeth are not implanted in sockets, but become ankylosed with the + bones that bear them, and are replaced by others developed at their + bases. Teeth are present in the jaws of all known Stegocephalia and + Apoda and of nearly all Caudata, _Siren_ alone presenting plates of + horn upon the gingival surfaces of the premaxillae and of the dentary + elements of the mandible. But they are nearly always absent in the + lower jaw of the Ecaudata (exceptions in _Hemiphractus, + Amphignathodon, Amphodus, Ceratobatrachus_, the male of + _Dimorphognathus_), many of which (toads, for instance) are entirely + edentulous. + + There is great variety in the distribution of the teeth on the palate. + They may occur simultaneously on the vomers, the palatines, the + pterygoids and the parasphenoid in some of the Stegocephalia + (_Dawsonia, Seeleya, Acanthostoma_), on the vomers, palatines and + parasphenoid in many salamandrids (_Plethodontinae_ and + _Desmognathinae_), on the vomers, pterygoids and parasphenoid (some + _Pelobates_), on the vomers and parasphenoid (_Triprion, Amphodus_), + whilst in the majority or other batrachians they are confined to the + vomers and palatines or to the vomers alone (37). + + As regards the alimentary organs, it will suffice to state, in this + very brief sketch, that all batrachians being carnivorous in their + perfect condition, the intestine is never very long and its + convolutions are few and simple. But the larvae of the Ecaudata are + mainly herbivorous and the digestive tract is accordingly extremely + elongate and coiled up like the spring of a watch. The gullet is + short, except in the Apoda. The tongue is rudimentary in the + perennibranchiatea Caudata, well developed, and often protrusile, in + the _Salamandridae_ and most of the Ecaudata, totally absent in the + Aglossa. + + The organs of circulation cannot be dealt with here; the most + important addition made to our knowledge in recent years being found + in the contributions of F. Hochstetter (38) and of G.B. Howes (39), + dealing with the azygous (posterior) cardinal veins in salamanders and + some of the Ecaudata. The heart is situated quite forward, in the + gular or pectoral region, even in those tailed batrachians which have + a serpentiform body, whilst in the Apoda (fig. 13) it is moved back to + a distance which is comparable to that it occupies in most of the + snakes. + + _The Respiratory Organs._--The larynx, which is rudimentary in most of + the Caudata and in the Apoda, is highly developed in the Ecaudata, and + becomes the instrument of the powerful voice with which many of the + frogs and toads are provided. The lungs are long simple tubes in some + of the perennibranchiate Caudata; they generally shorten or become + cellular in the salamandrids, and attain their highest development in + the Ecaudata, especially in such forms as the burrowing _Pelobates_. + Although the lungs are present in such forms as preserve the gills + throughout life, it is highly remarkable that quite a number of + abranchiate salamanders, belonging mostly to the subfamilies + _Desmognathinae_ and _Plethodontinae_, are devoid of lungs and breathe + entirely by the skin and by the bucco-pharyngeal mucose membrane (20). + Some of the _Salamandrinae_ show the intermediate conditions which + have led to the suppression of the trachea and lungs. In the Apoda, as + in many serpentiform reptiles, one of the lungs, either the right or + the left, is much less developed than the other, often very short. + + _Urino-genital Organs._--The genital glands, ovaries and testes, are + attached to the dorsal wall of the body-cavity, in the immediate + vicinity of the kidneys, with which the male glands are intimately + connected. The oviducts are long, usually more or less convoluted + tubes which open posteriorly into the cloaca, while their anterior + aperture is situated far forward, sometimes close to the root of the + lung; their walls secrete a gelatinous substance which invests the ova + as they descend. In most male batrachians the testes are drained by + transverse canals which open into a longitudinal duct, which also + receives the canals of the kidneys, so that this common duct conveys + both sperma and urine. In some of the discogloesid frogs, however, the + seminal duct is quite independent of the kidney, which has its own + canal, or true ureter. Many of the Ecaudata have remnants of oviducts, + or Mullerian ducts, most developed in _Bufo_, which genus is also + remarkable as possessing a problematic organ, Bidder's organ, situated + between the testis and the adipose or fat-bodies that surmount it. + This has been regarded by some anatomists as a rudimentary ovary. + Female salamandrids are provided with a _receptaculum seminis_. + Copulatory organs are absent, except in the Apoda, in which a portion + of the cloaca can be everted and acts as a penis. The urinary bladder + is always large. + + The spermatozoa have received a great share of attention, on the part + not only of anatomists and physiologists, but even of systematic + workers (40). This is due to the great amount of difference in + structure and size between these elements in the various genera, and + also to the fact that otherwise closely allied species may differ very + considerably in this respect. The failure to obtain hybrids between + certain species of _Rana_ has been attributed principally to these + differences. The spermatozoa of _Discoglossus_ are remarkable for + their great size, measuring three millimetres in length. + + _Pairing and Oviposition_--Batrachians may be divided into four + categories under this head:--(1) no amplexation; (2) amplexation + without internal fecundation; (3) amplexation with internal + fecundation; (4) copulation proper. The first category embraces many + aquatic newts, the second nearly all the Ecaudata, the third the rest + of the Caudata, and the fourth the Apoda. + + In the typical newts (_Molge_) of Europe, the males are adorned during + the breeding season with bright colours and crests or other ornamental + dermal appendages, and, resorting to the water, they engage in a + lengthy courtship accompanied by lively evolutions around the females, + near which they deposit their spermatozoa in bundles on a gelatinous + mass, the spermatophore, probably secreted by the cloacal gland. This + arrangement facilitates the internal fecundation of the female without + copulation, the female absorbs the spermatozoa by squeezing them out + of the spermatophore between the cloacal lips. Other newts, and many + salamanders, whether terrestrial or aquatic, pair, the male embracing + the female about the fore limbs or in the pelvic region, and the males + of such forms are invariably devoid of ornamental secondary sexual + characters; but in spite of this amplexation the same mode of + fecundation by means of a spermatophore is resorted to, although it + may happen that the contents of the spermatophore are absorbed direct + from the cloaca of the male. The spermatozoa thus reach the eggs in + the oviducts, where they may develop entirely, some of the salamanders + being viviparous. + + In all the tailless batrachians (with the exception of a single known + viviparous toad), the male clings to the female round the breast, at + the arm-pits, or round the waist, and awaits, often for hours or days, + the deposition of the ova, which are immediately fecundated by several + seminal emissions. + + The fourth category is represented by the Apoda or Caecilians in + which, as we have stated above, the male is provided with an + intromittent organ. Some of these batrachians are viviparous. + + In those species in which the embrace is of long duration the limbs + of the male, usually the fore limbs (pleurodele newt, Ecaudata), + rarely the hind limbs (a few American and European newts), according + to the mode of amplexation, acquire a greater development, and are + often armed with temporary horny excrescences which drop off after the + pairing season. These asperities usually form brush-like patches on + the inner side of one or more of the digits, but may extend over the + inner surface of the limbs and on the breast and chin; the use of them + on these parts is sufficiently obvious, but they are sometimes also + present, without apparent function, on various parts of the foot, as + in _Discoglossus, Bombinator_, and _Pelodytes_. In some species of the + South American frogs of the genus _Leptodactylus_ the breast and hands + are armed with very large spines, which inflict deep wounds on the + female held in embrace. + + In most of the Caudata, the eggs are deposited singly in the axils of + water plants or on leaves which the female folds over the egg with her + hind limbs. The eggs are also deposited singly in some of the lower + Ecaudata. In many of the Ecaudata, and in a few of the Caudata and + Apoda, the eggs are laid in strings or bands which are twined round + aquatic plants or carried by the parent; whilst in other Ecaudata they + form large masses which either float on the surface of the water or + sink to the bottom. + + A few batrachians retain the ova within the oviducts until the young + have undergone part or the whole of the metamorphosis. Viviparous + parturition is known among the Caudata (_Salamandra, Spelerpes + fuscus_), and the Apoda (_Dermophis thomensis, Typhlonectes + compressicauda_); also in a little toad (_Pseudophryne vivipara_) + recently discovered in German East Africa (41). + + _Development and Metamorphosis._--In a great number of batrachians, + including most of the European species, the egg is small and the + food-yolk is in insufficient quantity to form an external appendage of + the embryo. But in a few European and North American species, and in a + great many inhabitants of the tropics, the egg is large and a + considerable portion of it persists for a long time as a yolk-sac. + Although the segmentation is always complete, it is very irregular in + these types, some of which make a distinct approach to the meroblastic + egg. + + With the exception of a number of forms in which the whole development + takes place within the egg or in the body of the mother, batrachians + undergo metamorphoses, the young passing through a free-swimming, + gill-breathing period of considerable duration, during which their + appearance, structure, and often their _regime_, are essentially + different from those of the mature form. Even the fossil Stegocephalia + underwent metamorphosis, as we know from various larval remains first + described as _Branchiosaurus_. They are less marked or more gradual in + the Apoda and Caudata than in Ecaudata, in which the stage known as + tadpole is very unlike the frog or toad into which it rather suddenly + passes (see TADPOLE). In the Caudata, external gills (three on each + side) persist until the close of the metamorphosis, whilst in the + Apoda and Ecaudata they exist only during the earlier periods, being + afterwards replaced by internal gills. + + Many cases are known in which the young batrachian enters the world in + the perfect condition, as in the black salamander of the Alps + (_Salamandra atra_), the cave salamander (_Spelerpes fuscus_), the + caecinan _Typhlonectes_, and a number of frogs, such as _Pipa, + Rhinoderma, Hylodes_, some _Nototrema, Rana opisthodon_, &c. A fairly + complete bibliographical index to these cases and the most remarkable + instances of parental care in tailless batrachians will be found in + the interesting articles by Lilian V. Sampson (42), and by G. Brandes + and W. Schoenichen (43). It will suffice to indicate here in a + synoptic form, as was done by the present writer many years ago, when + our knowledge of these wonders of batrachian life was far less + advanced than it is now, the principal modes of protection which are + resorted to:-- + + 1. Protection by means of nests or nurseries. + + A. In enclosures in the water.--_Hylafaber_. + B. In nests in holes near the water.--_Rhacophorus, Leptodactylus_. + C. In nests overhanging the water.--_Rhacophorus, Chiromantis, + Phyllpmedusa_. + D. On trees or in moss away from the water.--_Rana opisthodon, + Hylodes, Hylelia platycephala_. + E. In a gelatinous bag in the water.--_Phrynixalus, Salamandrella_. + + 2. Direct nursing by the parents. + + A. Tadpoles transported from one place to another.--_Dendrebates, + Phyllobates, Sooglossus_. + B. Eggs protected by the parents who coil themselves round or "sit" + on them.--_Mantophryne, Desmognathus, Autodax, Plethodon, + Cryptobranchus, Amphiuma, Ichthyophis, Hypogeophis, Siphonops_. + C. Eggs carried by the parents. + (a) Round the legs, by the male.--_Alytes_. + (b) On the back, by the female. + (1) Exposed.--_Hyla goeldii, H. evansii, Ceratohyla_. + (2) In cell-like pouches.--_Pipa_. + (3) In a common pouch.--_Nototrema, Amphignathodon_. + (c) On the belly. + (1) Exposed, by the female.--_Rhacophorus reticulatus_. + (2) In a pouch (the produced vocal sac), by the + male.--_Rhinoderma_. + (d) In the mouth, by the female.--_Hylambates brevirostris_. + + _Geographical Distribution._--If a division of the world according to + its batrachian faunae were to be attempted, it would differ very + considerably from that which would answer for the principal groups of + reptiles, the lizards especially. We should have four great + realms:--(1) Europe and Northern and Temperate Asia, Africa north of + the Sahara (palaearctic region) and North and Central America + (nearctic region); (2) Africa and South-Eastern Asia (Ethiopian and + Indian region); (3) South America (neotropical region); and (4) + Australia (Australian region). The first would be characterized by the + Caudata, which are almost confined to it (although a few species + penetrate into the Indian and neotropical regions), the + _Discoglossidae_, mostly Europaeo-Asiatic, but one genus in + California, and the numerous _Pelobatidae_; the second by the presence + of Apoda, the prevalence of firmisternal Ecaudata and the absence of + _Hylidae_; the third by the presence of Apoda, the prevalence of + arciferous Ecaudata and the scarcity of _Ranidae_, the fourth by the + prevalence of arciferous Ecaudata and the absence of _Ranidae_, as + well as by the absence of either Caudata or Apoda. Madagascar might + almost stand as a fifth division of the world, characterized by the + total absence of Caudata, Apoda, and arciferous Ecaudata. But the + close relation of its very rich frog-fauna to that of the Ethiopian + and Indian regions speaks against attaching too great importance to + these negative features. It may be noted here that no two parts of the + world differ so considerably in their Ecaudata as do Madagascar and + Australia, the former having only Firmisternia, the latter only + Arcifera. Although there is much similarity between the Apoda of + Africa and of South America, one genus being even common to both parts + of the world, the frogs are extremely different, apart from the + numerous representatives of the widely distributed genus _Bufo_. It + may be said that, on the whole, the distribution of the batrachians + agrees to some extent with that of fresh-water fishes, except for the + much less marked affinity between South America and Africa, although + even among the former we have the striking example of the distribution + of the very natural group of the aglossal batrachians, represented by + _Pipa_ in South America and by _Xenopus_ and _Hymenochirus_ in Africa. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(1) On the use of the names _Batrachia_ and _Amphibia_, + cf. E.D. Cope, _Geol. Mag._ (3) ii., 1885, p. 575; G. Baur, _Science_ + (2), vi., 1897, pp. 170, 372; B.G. Wilder, t.c. p. 295; T Gill, t.c. + p. 446; O.P. Hay, t.c. p. 773; T. Gill, _Science_ (2), xx., 1900, p. + 730; L. Steineger, op. cit. xx., 1904, p. 924. (2) E. Fraas, "Die + Labyrinthodonten der schwabischen Trias," _Palaeontogr._ xxxvi., 1889, + p. 1. (3) _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1904, ii. p. 170. (4) E.D. Cope, + "Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia of North America," _Proc. Ac. + Philad._, 1868, p. 208. (5) "Researches on the Structure, Organization + and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia, vii" _Phil. Trans._ + clxxxiii. (B), 1892, p. 311. (6) _Cambridge Natural History_, viii. + (1901). (7) "Die Urvierfussler (Eotetrapoda) des sachsischen + Rotliegenden," _Allgem. verstandl. naturh. Abh._, Berlin, 1891, No. + 15; "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte von Branchiosaurus amblystomus," + _Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges._, 1886, p. 576. (8) C. Emery, "Uber die + Beziehungen des Chiropterygium zum Ichthyopterygium," _Zool. Anz._ x., + 1887, p. 185; E.D. Cope, "On the Phylogeny of the Vertebrata," _Proc. + Amer. Philos. Soc._ xxx., 1892, p. 280; H.B. Pollard, "On the Anatomy + and Phylogenetic Position of _Polypterus_," _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ v., + 1892, p. 414; G. Baur, "The Stegocephali: a Phylogenetic Study," + _Anat. Anz._ xi., 1896, p. 657; L. Dollo, "Sur le phylogenie des + dipneustes," _Mem. soc. belge geol._ ix., 1895, p. 79; T. Gill, "On + the Derivation of the Pectoral Member in Terrestrial Vertebrates," + _Rep. Brit. Ass._, 1897, p. 697. (9) E.D. Cope, "The Origin of the + Mammalia," _Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc._ xxii., 1884, p. 43; cf. + Discussion on Origin of Mammals, _Proc. Intern. Congr. Zool._, + Cambridge, 1898; also H. Gadow, "The Origin of the _Mammalia_," _Z. f. + Morphol._ iv., 1902, p. 345; and R. Broom, _Rep. Brit. Ass._, 1905, p. + 437. (10) A. Fritsch, _Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksleine der + Permformation Bohmens_, vols. i. and ii (Prague, 1879-1885, 4to); H. + Credner, "Die Stegocephalen aus dem Rotliegenden des Plauenschen + Grundes bei Dresden," _Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges._, 1881-1894; J.W. + Dawson, "On the Results of Recent Explorations of Erect Trees + containing Animal Remains in the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia," + _Phil. Trans._ clxxiii., 1882, p. 621; H.B. Geinitz and J.V. + Deichmuller, "Die Saurier der unteren Dyas von Sachsen," + _Palaeontogr._ xxix., 1882, p. 1; A. Gaudry, _Les Enchainements du + monde animal dans les temps geologiques, fossiles primaires_ (Paris, + 1883, 8vo), p. 251; E.D. Cope, "The Batrachia of the Permian Period of + North America," _Amer. Nat._ xviii., 1884, p. 26; E. Fraas, "Die + Labyrinthodonten der schwabischen Trias," _Palaeontogr._ xxxvi., 1889, + p. 1; L.v. Ammon, _Die permischen Amphibien der Rheinpfalz_ (Munich, + 1889-1891, 4to); R. Lydekker, _Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and + Amphibia in the British Museum_, part iv. (London, 1890, 8vo); E. + Fraas, _Die schwabischen Trias-Saurier nach dem Material der k. + Naturalien-Sammlung in Stuttgart zusammengestellt_ (Stuttgart, 1896, + 4to); O. Jaekel, "Die Organization von _Archegosaurus_," _Zeitschr. + deutsch. geol. Ges_. xlviii., 1896, p. 505; F. Broili, "Ein Beitrag + zur Kenntnis von _Eryops megacephalus_," _Palaeontogr_. xlvi., 1899, + p. 61. (11) "Amphibian Footprints from the Devonian," _Amer. Journ. + Sci_. ii., 1896, p. 374. (12) "Decouverte du plus ancien amphibien + connu ... dans le famennien superieur de Modave," _Bull. soc. beige + geol_. xv., 1888, p. cxx, (13) "A Batrachian Armadillo," _Amer. Nat_. + xxix., 1895, p. 998. (14) C. Gegenbaur, _Untersuchungen zur + vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelsaule bei Amphibien und Reptilien_ + (Leipzig, 1862, 4to); H. Gadow, "On the Evolution of the Vertebral + Column of Amphibia and Amniota," _Phil. Trans_. clxxxvii. (B), 1896, + p. 1. (15) R. Wiedersheim, _Die Anatomie der Gymnophionen_ (Jena, + 1879, 4to); W. Peters, "Uber die Einteilung der Caecilien," _Mon. + Berl. Ac_., 1879, p. 924; G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue of Batrachia + Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the + British Museum_ (London, 1882, 8vo), and "A Synopsis of the Genera and + Species of Apodal Batrachians," _P. Z. S_., 1895, p. 401. (16) "On the + Structure and Affinities of the _Amphiumidae_" _Proc. Amer. Philos. + Soc._ xxiii., 1886, p. 442. (17) _Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher + Forschungen auf Ceylon_, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890, 4to), (18) "The + Chondrocranium of the Ichthyopsida," _Stud. Biol. Lab. Tufts Coll_. + No. 5, 1898, p. 147. (19) G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue, &c._, 1882. (20) + H.H. Wilder, "Lungenlose Salamandriden," _Anat. Anz_. ix., 1894, p. + 216; L. Camerano, "Ricerche anatomofisiologiche intorno ai + Salamandridi normalmente apneumoni," _Atti Acc. Torin_. xxix., 1894, + p. 705, and xxxi., 1896, p. 512; H.H. Wilder, "Lungless Salamanders," + _Anat. Anz_. xii., 1896, p. 182; E. Loennberg, "Notes on Tailed + Batrachians without Lungs," _Zool. Anz_. xix., 1896, p. 33. (21) "Note + sur le batracien de Bernissart," _Bull. mus. belg_. iii., 1884, p. 85. + (22) G.A. Boulenger, _Catalogue of Batrachia Salientia s. Ecaudata in + the Collection of the British Museum_ (London, 1882, 8vo). (23) "On + the Development of the Vertebral Column in _Pipa_ and _Xenopus_," + _Anat. Anz_. xiii., 1898, p. 359. (24) G.A. Boulenger, "On + _Hymenochirus_, a New Type of Aglossal Batrachians," _Ann. and Mag. N. + H._ (7), iv., 1899, p. 122. (25) L.M. Vidal, _Mem. Ac. Barcelona_ (3), + iv., 1902, No. 18, pl. iv. (26) W. Wolterstorff, "Uber fossile + Frosche, insbesondere Palaeobatrachus," _Jahresb. Nat. Ver. Magdeb_., + 1885 and 1886. (27) W. Peters, "Uber die Entwickelung eines + Batrachiers. _Hylodes martinicensis_, ohne Metamorphose," _Mon. Berl. + Ac_., 1876, p. 709; A. Kappler, "Die Tierwelt im hollandischen + Guiana," _Das Ausland_, 1885, p. 358; G.A. Boulenger, "Reptiles and + Batrachians of the Solomon Islands," _Trans. Zool. Soc_. xii., 1886, + p. 51; H. v. Ihering, "On the Oviposition of _Phyllomedusa + iheringii_," _Ann. and Mag. N.H._ (5), xvii., 1886, p. 461; H.H. + Smith, "On Oviposition and Nursing in the Batrachian genus + _Dendrobates_," _Amer. Nat_. xxi., 1887, p. 307; G.B. Howes, "Notes on + the Gular Brood-pouch of _Rhinoderma darwini_," _P.Z.S_., 1888, p. + 231; W.J. Holland, "Arboreal Tadpoles," _Amer. Nat_. xxiii., 1889, p. + 383; E.A. Goeldi, "Contribution to the Knowledge of the Breeding + Habits of some Tree-frogs of the Serra dos Orgaos, Rio de Janeiro, + Brazil," _P.Z.S_., 1895. p. 89; G.A. Boulenger, "On the Nursing Habits + of two South American Frogs," _P.Z.S_., 1895, p. 209; A. Brauer, "Ein + neuer Fall von Brutpflege bei Froschen," _Zool. Jahrb. Syst_. xi., + 1898, p. 89; S. Ikeda, "Notes on the Breeding Habit and Development of + _Rhacophorus schlegelii_," _Annot. Zool. Japan_, i., 1898, p. 113; G. + Brandes, "Larven zweier Nototrema-Arten," _Verh. deutsch. zool. Ges_., + 1899, p. 288; L. v. Mehely, "Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Engystomatiden + von Neu-Guinea," _Termes. Fuzetek, Budapest_, xxiv., 1901, p. 216; + G.A. Boulenger, "_Ceratohyla bubalus_ carrying eggs on its back," + _P.Z.S_., 1903, ii. p. 115; _Idem_. "Description of a new Tree-frog of + the genus _Hyla_, from British Guiana, carrying eggs on the back," + _op. cit_., 1904, ii. p. 106; H.S. Ferguson, "Travancore Batrachians," + _J. Bombay N.H. Soc_. xv., 1904, p. 499. (28) _Geol. Mag_. iv., ii., + 1895, p. 83. (29) "Das Hyobranchial-Skelett der Anura," _Morph. Arb_. + iii., 1894, p. 399. (30) "On the Structure and Development of the + Hyobranchial Skeleton of the Parsley Frog," _P.Z.S_., 1897, p. 577. + (31) W.G. Ridewood, "On the Hyobrachial Skeleton and Larynx of + _Hymenochirus_," _J. Linn. Soc_. xxviii., 1899, p. 454. (32) _Morphol. + Jahrb_. xxiii., 1895, p. 1. (33) G.B. Howes and A.M. Davies, _P.Z.S_., + 1888, p. 495. (34) G.A. Boulenger, "The Poisonous Secretion of + Batrachians," _Nat. Science_, i., 1892, p. 185; F. Gidon, _Venins + multiples et toxicite humorale chez les batraciens_ (Paris, 1897, + 8vo). (35) _Arch. Ges. Physiol_. li., 1892, p. 455. (36) G.A. + Boulenger, _P.Z.S_., 1900, p. 433, and 1901, ii. p. 709; H. Gadow, + _Anat. Anz_. xviii., 1900, p. 588. (37) G.A. Boulenger, "On the + Presence of Pterygoid Teeth in a Tailless Batrachian, with remarks on + the Localization of Teeth on the Palate," _P.Z.S_., 1890, p. 664. (38) + _Morphol. Jahrb_. xiii., 1887, p. 119. (39) _P.Z.S_., 1888, p. 122. + (40) G.A. Boulenger, _Tailless Batrachians of Europe_ (1897), p. 75. + (41) G. Tornier, "Pseudophryne vivipara, ein lebendig gebarender + Frosch," _Sitzb. Ak. Ber_. xxxix., 1905, p. 855. (42) "Unusual Modes + of Breeding and Development among _Anura_," _Amer. Nat_. xxxiv., 1900, + p. 405. (43) "Brutpflege der schwanzlosen Batrachier," _Abh. Nat. + Ges_. Halle, xxii., 1901, p. 395. (G. A. B.) + + + + +BATRACHOMYOMACHIA (Gr. [Greek: Batrachos], "frog," [Greek: mus], +"mouse," and [Greek: machae], "battle"), the "Battle of Frogs and Mice," +a comic epic or parody on the _Iliad_, definitely attributed to Homer by +the Romans, but according to Plutarch (_De Herodoti Malignitate_, 43) +the work of Pigres of Halicarnassus, the brother (or son) of Artemisia, +queen of Caria and ally of Xerxes. Some modern scholars, however, assign +it to an anonymous poet of the time of Alexander the Great. + + Edition by A. Ludwich (1896). + + + + +BATTA, an Anglo-Indian military term, probably derived from the Canarese +_bhatta_ (rice in the husk), meaning a special allowance made to +officers, soldiers, or other public servants in the field. + + + + +BATTAGLIA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Padua, 11 m. +S.S.W. by rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4456. It lies at the edge of the +volcanic Euganean Hills, and is noted for its warm saline springs and +natural vapour grotto. A fine palace was erected in the Palladian style +in the 17th century by Marchese Benedetto Selvatico-Estense, then owner +of the springs. + + + + +BATTAKHIN, African "Arabs" of Semitic stock. They occupy the banks of +the Blue Nile near Khartum, and it was against them that General Gordon +fought most of his battles near the town. Their sheikh, El Obeid, routed +Gordon's troops on the 4th of September 1884, a defeat which led to the +close investment of Khartum. In the 18th century James Bruce described +them as "a thieving, pilfering lot." + + + + +BATTALION, a unit of military organization consisting of four or more +companies of infantry. The term is used in nearly every army, and is +derived through Fr. from It. _battaglione_, Med. Lat. _battalia_ (see +BATTLE). "Battalion" in the 16th and 17th centuries implied a unit of +infantry forming part of the line of battle, but at first meant an +unusually large _battalia_ or a single large body of men formed of +several _battalias_. In the British regular service the infantry +battalion is commanded by a lieut.-colonel, who is assisted by an +adjutant, and consists at war strength of about 1000 bayonets in eight +companies. Engineers, train, certain kinds of artillery, and more rarely +cavalry are also organized in battalions in some countries. + + + + +BATTAMBANG, or BATTAMBONG (locally _Phralabong_), the chief town of the +north-western division of Cambodia, formerly capital of Monton Kmer, +i.e. "The Cambodian Division," one of the eastern provinces of Siam, now +included in the French protectorate of Cambodia. It is situated in 103 +deg. 6' E., 13 deg. 6' N., in the midst of a fertile plain and on the +river Sang Ke, which flows eastwards and falls into the Tonle or Tale +Sap, the great lake of Cambodia. The town is a collection of bamboo +houses of no importance, but there is a walled enceinte of some +historical interest. Trade is small and is carried on by Chinese +settlers, chiefly overland with Bangkok, but to a small extent also by +water with Saigon. The population is about 5000, two-thirds Cambodian +and the remainder Chinese and Siamese. The language is Cambodian. + +Battambang was taken by the Siamese when they overran the kingdom of +Cambodia towards the end of the 18th century, and was recognized by the +French as belonging to Siam when the frontier of Cambodia was adjusted +by treaty in 1867-1872. In another treaty in 1893, Siam bound herself to +maintain no armed forces there other than police, but this arrangement +was annulled by the treaty of 1904, by which Battambang was definitely +admitted to lie within the French sphere of influence. Under a further +treaty in March 1907 (see SIAM), the district of Battambang was finally +ceded to the French. + + + + +BATTANNI, or BHITANI, a small tribe on the Waziri border of the +North-West Frontier Province of India. The Battannis hold the hills on +the borders of Tank and Bannu in the Dera Ismail Khan district, from the +Gabar mountain on the north to the Gomal valley on the south. They are +only 3000 fighting men strong, and are generally regarded as the jackals +of the Waziris. Their chief importance arises from the fact that no +raids can be carried into British districts by the Mahsud Waziris +without passing through Battanni territory. A small British expedition +against the Battannis was led by Lt.-Col. Rynd in 1880. Under the +excitement caused by the preaching of a fanatical mullah the Mahsud +Waziris had attacked the town of Gomal. The Battannis failed to supply +information as to their movements, and gave them a passage through +their lands. The British troops accordingly stormed the Hinis Tangi +defile in face of opposition, and burned the village of Jandola. + + + + +BATTAS (Dutch _Battaks_), the inhabitants of the formerly independent +Batta country, in the central highlands of Sumatra, now for the most +part subjugated to the Dutch government. The still independent area +extends from 98 deg.-99 deg. 35' E., and 2 deg.-3 deg. 25' S. North-east +of Toba Lake dwell the Timor Battas, and west of it the Pakpak, but on +its north (in the mountains which border on the east coast residency) +the Karo Battas form a special group, which, by its dialects and +ethnological character, appears to be allied to the Gajus and Allas +occupying the interior of Achin. The origin of the Battas is doubtful. +It is not known whether they were settled in Sumatra before the Hindu +period. Their language contains words of Sanskrit origin and others +referable to Javanese, Malay and Tagal influence. Their domain has been +doubtless much curtailed, and their absorption into the Achin and Malay +population seems to have been long going on. The Battas are undoubtedly +of Malayan stock, and by most authorities are affiliated to that +Indonesian pre-Malayan race which peopled the Indian Archipelago, +expelling the aboriginal negritos, and in turn themselves submitting to +the civilized Malays. In many points the Battas are physically quite +different from the Malay type. The average height of the men is 5 ft. 4 +in.; of the women 4 ft. 8 in. In general build they are rather thickset, +with broad shoulders and fairly muscular limbs. The colour of the skin +ranges from dark brown to a yellowish tint, the darkness apparently +quite independent of climatic influences or distinction of race. The +skull is rather oval than round. In marked contrast to the Malay type +are the large, black, long-shaped eyes, beneath heavy, black or dark +brown eyebrows. The cheek-bones are somewhat prominent, but less so than +among the Malays. The Battas are dirty in their dress and dwellings and +eat any kind of food, though they live chiefly on rice. They are +remarkable as a people who in many ways are cultured and possess a +written language of their own, and yet are cannibals. The more civilized +of them around Lake Toba are good agriculturists and stock-breeders, and +understand iron-smelting. They weave and dye cotton, make jewellery and +krisses which are often of exquisite workmanship, bake pottery, and +build picturesque chalet-like houses of two storeys. They have an +organized government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a +written civil and penal code. There is even an antiquated postal system, +the letter-boxes being the hollow tree trunks at crossroads. Yet in +spite of this comparative culture the Battas have long been notorious +for the most revolting forms of cannibalism. (See _Memoirs of the Life, +&c., of Sir T.S. Raffles_, 1830.) + +The Battas are the only lettered people of the Indian Archipelago who +are not Mahommedans. Their religion is mainly confined to a belief in +evil spirits; but they recognize three gods, a Creator, a Preserver and +a Destroyer, a trinity suggestive of Hindu influence. + +Up to the publication of Dr H.N. van der Tuuk's essay, _Over schrift en +uitspraak der Tobasche taal_ (1855), our knowledge of the Batta language +was confined to lists of words more or less complete, chiefly to be +found in W. Marsden's _Miscellaneous Works_, in F.W. Junghuhn's +_Battalander_, and in the _Tijdschrift van het Bataviaasch Genootschap, +_vol. iii. (1855). By his exhaustive works (_Bataksch Leesboek_, in 4 +vols., 1861-1862; _Bataksch-nederduitsch Woordenboek_, 1861; _Tobasche +Spraakkunst_, 1864-1867) van der Tuuk made the Batta language the most +accessible of the various tongues spoken in Sumatra. According to him, +it is nearest akin to the old Javanese and Tagal, but A. Schreiber (_Die +Battas in ihrem Verhaltnis zu den Malaien von Sumatra_, 1874) +endeavoured to prove its closer affinity with the Malay proper. Like +most languages spoken by less civilized tribes, Batta is poor in general +terms, but abounds in terms for special objects. The number of dialects +is three, viz. the Toba, the Mandailing and the Dairi dialects; the +first and second have again two subdivisions each. The Battas further +possess six peculiar or recondite modes of speech, such as the _hata +andung_, or language of the wakes, and the _hata poda_ or the +soothsayer's language. A fair acquaintance with reading and writing is +very general among them. Their alphabet is said, with the Rejang and +Lampong alphabets, to be of Indian origin. The language is written on +bark or bamboo staves from bottom to top, the lines being arranged from +left to right. The literature consists chiefly in books on witchcraft, +in stories, riddles, incantations, &c., and is mostly in prose, +occasionally varied by verse.[1] + + See also "Reisen nach dem Toba See," _Petermanns Mitteil_. (1883); + Modigliani, _Fra i Batacchi indipendenti_ (Rome, 1892); Neumann, "Het + Pane- en Bilastroomgebied," _Tydschr. Aardr. Gen._, 1885-1887; Van + Dijk in the same periodical (1890-1895); Wing Easton in the _Jaarboek + voor het Mynwezen_, 1894; Niemann in the _Encyclopaedia van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, under the heading _Bataks_, with very detailed + bibliography; Baron J. v. Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen + Sumatras_ (Wurzburg, 1893); H. Breitenstein, _21 Jahre in Indien, + Java, Sumatra_ (Leipzig, 1899-1900); G.P. Rouffaer, _Die Batik-Kunst + in niederlandisch-Indien und ihre Geschichte_ (Haarlem, 1899). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Mr C.A. van Ophuijsen has published (in _Bijd. tot Land-, Taalen + Volken-Kunde_, 1886) an interesting collection of Battak poetry. He + describes a curious leaf language used by Battak lovers, in which the + name of some leaf or plant is substituted for the word with which it + has greatest phonetic similarity. + + + + +BATTEL, or BATTELS (of uncertain origin, possibly connected with +"battle," a northern English word meaning to feed, or "batten"), a word +used at Oxford University for the food ordered by members of the college +as distinct from the usual "commons"; and hence college accounts for +board and provisions supplied from kitchen and buttery, and, generally, +the whole of a man's college accounts. "Batteler," now a resident in a +college, was originally a rank of students between commoners and +servitors who, as the name implies, were not supplied with "commons," +but only such provisions as they ordered for themselves. + + + + +BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM (_floruit_ 1626-1667), British sailor, son of Andrew +Batten, master in the royal navy, first appears as taking out letters of +marque in 1626, and in 1638 he obtained the post of surveyor to the +navy, probably by purchase. In March 1642 he was appointed +second-in-command under the earl of Warwick, the parliamentary admiral +who took the fleet out of the king's hands. It was Vice-Admiral Batten's +squadron which bombarded Scarborough when Henrietta Maria landed there. +He was accused (it appears unjustly) by the Royalists of directing his +fire particularly on the house occupied by the queen, and up to the end +of the First Civil War showed himself a steady partisan of the +parliament. To the end of the First Civil War, Batten continued to +patrol the English seas, and his action in 1647 in bringing into +Portsmouth a number of Swedish ships of war and merchantmen, which had +refused the customary salute to the flag, was approved by parliament. +When the Second Civil War began he was distrusted by the Independents +and removed from his command, though he confessed his continued +willingness to serve the state. When part of the fleet revolted against +the parliament, and joined the prince of Wales in Holland, May 1648, +Batten went with them. He was knighted by the prince, but being +suspected by the Royalists, was put ashore mutinously in Holland and +returned to England. He lived in retirement during the Commonwealth +period. At the Restoration Sir William Batten became once more surveyor +of the navy. In this office he was in constant intercourse with Pepys, +whose diary frequently mentions him; but the insinuations of Pepys +against him must not be taken too seriously, as there is no evidence to +show that Batten in making a profit from his office fell below the +standards of the time. In 1661 he became M.P. for Rochester, and in 1663 +he was made master of the Trinity House. He died in 1667. + + There is no separate life of Batten, but many notices of him will be + found in Penn's _Life of Sir W. Penn_, and in Pepys' _Diary_. + + + + +BATTEN, (1) A term (a form of "baton") used in joinery (q.v.) for a +board not more than 4 to 7 in. broad or 3 in. thick, used for various +purposes, such as for strengthening or holding together laths and other +wood-work; and specially, on board ship, a strip of wood nailed to a +mast to prevent rubbing, or fixing down a tarpaulin over a hatchway, in +rough weather, to keep out water. (2) A verb (the root is found in words +of several Teutonic languages meaning profit or improvement, and also in +the English "better" and "boot") meaning to improve in condition, +especially in the case of animals by feeding; so, to feed gluttonously; +the word is used figuratively of prospering at the expense of another. + + + + +BATTENBERG, the name of a family of German counts which died out about +1314, whose seat was the castle of Kellerburg, near Battenberg, a small +place now in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. The title was +revived in 1851, when Alexander (1823-1888), a younger son of Louis II., +grand-duke of Hesse, contracted a morganatic marriage with a Polish +lady, Countess Julia Theresa von Haucke (1825-1895), who was then +created countess of Battenberg. Raised to the rank of a princess in +1858, the countess and her children were allowed to style themselves +princes and princesses of Battenberg, with the addition of _Durchlaucht_ +or Serene Highness. The eldest son of this union, Louis Alexander (b. +1854), married in 1884 Victoria, daughter of Louis IV., grand-duke of +Hesse, and became an admiral in the British navy. The second son, +Alexander Joseph (q.v.), was prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886. The +third son, Henry Maurice, was born in 1858, and married on the 23rd of +July 1885 Beatrice, youngest daughter of Victoria, queen of England. He +died at sea on the 20th of January 1896 when returning from active +service with the British troops during the Ashanti War, and left three +sons and a daughter, Victoria Eugenie, who was married in 1906 to +Alphonso XIII., king of Spain. The fourth son, Francis Joseph, born in +1861, married in 1897 Anna, daughter of Nicholas I., prince of +Montenegro, and is the author of _Die volkswirtschaftliche Entwickelung +Bulgariens von 1879 bis zur Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1891). The only +daughter of the princess of Battenberg, Marie Caroline, born in 1852, +was married in 1871 to Gustavus Ernest, prince and count of +Erbach-Schonberg. + + + + +BATTER, an architectural term of unknown origin, used of the face of a +wall which is slightly inclined to the perpendicular. It is most +commonly employed in retaining walls, the lower courses of which are +laid at right angles to the batter, so as to resist the thrust of the +earth inside. For aesthetic reasons it is often adopted in the lowest or +basement porticos of a great building. From a historical point of view +it is the most ancient system employed, as throughout Egypt and Chaldaea +all the temples built in unburnt brick were perforce obliged to be +thicker at the bottom, and this gave rise to the batter or raking side +which was afterwards in Egypt copied in stone. For defensive purposes +the walls of the lower portions of a fortress were built with a batter +as in the case of the tower of David and some of the walls built by +Herod at Jerusalem. The Crusaders also largely adopted the principle, +which was followed in some of the castles of the middle ages throughout +Europe. + + + + +BATTERING RAM (Lat. _aries_, ram), a military engine used before the +invention of cannon, for beating down the walls of besieged fortresses. +It consisted of a long heavy beam of timber, armed at the extremity with +iron fashioned something like the head of a ram. In its simplest form +the beam was carried in the hands of the soldiers, who assailed the +walls with it by main force. The improved ram was composed of a longer +beam, in some cases extending to 120 ft., shod with iron at one end, and +suspended, either by the middle or from two points, from another beam +laid across two posts. This is the kind described by Josephus as having +been used at the siege of Jerusalem (_B.J._ iii. 7. 19). The ram was +shielded from the missiles of the besieged by a penthouse (_vinea_) or +other overhead protection. It was often mounted on wheels, which greatly +facilitated its operations. A hundred soldiers at a time, and sometimes +even a greater number, were employed to work it, and the parties were +relieved in constant succession. No wall could resist the continued +application of the ram, and the greatest efforts were always made to +destroy it by various means, such as dropping heavy stones on the head +of the ram and on the roof of the penthouse; another method being to +seize the ram head with grapnels and then haul it up to a vertical +position by suitable windlasses on the wall of the fortress. Sometimes +the besieged ran countermines under the ram penthouse; this if +successful would cause the whole engine to fall into the excavation. In +medieval warfare the low penthouse, called _cat_, was generally employed +with some form of ram. + + + + +BATTERSEA, a south-western metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded N. by the Thames, N.E. by Lambeth, and S.E., S., and W. by +Wandsworth. Pop. (1901) 168,907. The principal thoroughfares are +Wandsworth Road and Battersea Park and York Roads from east to west, +connected north and south with the Victoria or Chelsea, Albert and +Battersea bridges over the Thames. The two first of these three are +handsome suspension bridges; the third, an iron structure, replaced a +wooden bridge of many arches which was closed in 1881, after standing a +little over a century. Battersea is a district mainly consisting of +artisans' houses, and there are several large factories by the river. +The parish church of St Mary, Church Road (1776), preserves from an +earlier building stained glass and monuments, including one to Henry St +John, Viscount Bolingbroke (d. 1751), and his second wife, who had a +mansion close by. Of this a portion remains on the riverside, containing +a room associated with Pope, who is said to have worked here upon the +"Essay on Man." Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common (220 acres) lie +partly within the borough, but the principal public recreation ground is +Battersea Park, bordering the Thames between Albert and Victoria +Bridges, beautifully laid out, containing a lake and subtropical garden, +and having an area of nearly 200 acres. It was constructed with +difficulty by embanking the river and raising the level of the formerly +marshy ground, and was opened in 1858. Among institutions are the +Battersea Polytechnic, the Royal Masonic Institution for girls, founded +in 1788, and Church of England and Wesleyan Training Colleges. Battersea +is in the parliamentary borough of Battersea and Clapham, including the +whole of the Battersea division and part of the Clapham division. The +borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors. +Area, 2160.3 acres. + +An early form of the name is _Patricsey_ or Peter's Island; the manor at +the time of the Domesday survey, and until the suppression of the +monasteries, belonging to the abbey of St Peter, Westminster. It next +passed to the crown, and subsequently to the family of St John and to +the earls Spencer. York Road recalls the existence of a palace of the +archbishops of York, occasionally occupied by them between the reigns of +Edward IV. and Mary. Battersea Fields, bordering the river, were +formerly a favourite resort, so that the park also perpetuates a memory. +The art of enamelling was introduced, c. 1750, at works in Battersea, +examples from which are highly valued. + + + + +BATTERY (Fr. _batterie_, from _battre_, to beat), the action of beating, +especially in law the unlawful wounding of another (see ASSAULT). The +term is applied to the apparatus used in battering, hence its use in +military organization for the unit of mobile artillery of all kinds. +This consists of from four to eight guns with their _personnel_, wagons +and train. In the British service the term is applied to field, horse, +field-howitzer, heavy and mountain artillery units. "Battery" is also +used to imply a mass of guns in action, especially in connexion with the +military history of the 18th and early 19th centuries. In siegecraft, a +battery is simply an emplacement for guns, howitzers or mortars, +constructed for the purposes of the siege, and protected as a rule by a +parapet. In fortification the term is applied similarly to permanent or +semi-permanent emplacements for the artillery of the defence. In all +these senses the presence of artillery is implied in the use of the word +(see ARTILLERY, and FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). The word is also used +for the "pitcher" and "catcher" in baseball; for a collection of +utensils, primarily of hammered copper or brass, especially in the +French term _batterie de cuisine_; and for the instruments of percussion +in an orchestra. + +_Electric Battery_--This term was applied by the old electricians to a +collection of Leyden jars, but is now used of a device for generating +electricity by chemical action, or more exactly, of a number of such +devices joined up together. There are two main classes of electric +battery. In _primary_ batteries, composed of a number of galvanic or +voltaic "cells," "couples" or "elements," on the completion of the +interactions between the substances on which the production of +electricity depends, the activity of the cells comes to an end, and can +only be restored with the aid of a fresh supply of those substances; in +_secondary_ batteries, also called storage batteries or accumulators +(q.v.), the substances after the exhaustion of the cells can be brought +back to a condition in which they will again yield an electric current, +by means of an electric current passed through them in the reverse +direction. The first primary battery was constructed about 1799 by +Alessandro Volta. In one form, the "voltaic pile," he placed a series of +pairs of copper and zinc disks one above the other, separating each pair +from the one above it by a piece of cloth moistened with a solution of +common salt. In another form, the "couronne de tasses," he took a number +of vessels or cells containing brine or dilute acid, and placed in each +a zinc plate and a copper plate; these plates were not allowed to touch +each other within the vessels, but each zinc plate was connected to the +copper plate of the adjoining vessel. In both these arrangements an +electric current passes through a wire which is connected to the +terminal plates at the two ends of the series. The direction of this +current is from copper to zinc; within each cell itself it is from zinc +to copper. The plate to which the current flows within the cell is the +_negative plate_, and that from which it flows the _positive plate_; but +the point on the negative plate at which the current enters the external +wire is the _positive pole_, and the point on the positive plate at +which it leaves the external circuit the _negative pole_. During the +time that the external connexion is maintained between the two poles and +the current passes in the wire, the zinc or positive plates are +gradually dissolved, and hydrogen gas is liberated at the surface of the +copper or negative plates; but when the external connexion is broken +this action ceases. If the materials used in the cells were perfectly +pure, probably the cessation would be complete. In practice, however, +only impure commercial zinc is available, and with this corrosion +continues to some extent, even though the external circuit is not +closed, thus entailing waste of material. This "local action" is +explained as due to the fact that the impurities in the zinc plate form +miniature voltaic couples with the zinc itself, thus causing its +corrosion by voltaic action; and an early improvement in the voltaic +cell was the discovery, applied by W. Sturgeon in 1830, that the evil +was greatly reduced if the surface of the zinc plates was amalgamated, +by being rubbed with mercury under dilute sulphuric acid. Another +disadvantage of the simple cell composed of copper and zinc in dilute +acid is that the current it yields rapidly falls off. The hydrogen +formed by the operation of the cell does not all escape, but some +adheres as a film to the negative plate, and the result is the +establishment of a counter or reverse electromotive force which opposes +the main current flowing from the zinc plate and diminishes its force. +This phenomenon is known as "polarization," and various remedies have +been tried for the evils it introduces in the practical use of primary +batteries. Alfred Smee in 1839 modified the simple copper-zinc couple +excited by dilute sulphuric acid by substituting for the copper thin +leaves of platinum or platinized silver, whereby the elimination of the +hydrogen is facilitated; and attempts have also been made to keep the +plates free from the gas by mechanical agitation. The plan usually +adopted, however, is either to prevent the formation of the film, or to +introduce into the cell some "depolarizer" which will destroy it as it +is formed by oxidizing the hydrogen to water (see also ELECTROLYSIS). + +The former method is exemplified in the cell invented by J.F. Daniell in +1836. Here the zinc stands in dilute sulphuric acid (or in a solution of +zinc sulphate), and the copper in a saturated solution of copper +sulphate, the two liquids being separated by a porous partition. The +hydrogen formed by the action of the cell replaces copper in the copper +sulphate, and the displaced copper, instead of the hydrogen, being +deposited on the copper plate polarization is avoided. The electromotive +force is about one volt. This cell has been constructed in a variety of +forms to suit different purposes. In a portable form, designed by Lord +Kelvin in 1858, the copper plate, soldered to a gutta-percha covered +wire, is placed at the bottom of a glass vessel and covered with +crystals of copper sulphate; over these wet sawdust is sprinkled, and +then mere sawdust, moistened with solution of zinc sulphate, upon which +is placed the zinc plate. The Minotto cell is similar, except that sand +is substituted for sawdust. In these batteries the sawdust or sand takes +the place of the porous diaphragm. In another class of batteries the +diaphragm is dispensed with altogether, and the action of gravity alone +is relied upon to retard the interdiffusion of the liquids. The cell of +J.H. Meidinger, invented in 1859, may be taken as a type of this class. +The zinc is formed into a ring which fits the upper part of a glass +beaker filled with zinc sulphate solution. At the bottom of the beaker +is placed a smaller beaker, in which stands a ring of copper with an +insulated connecting wire. The mouth of the beaker is closed by a lid +with a hole in the centre, through which passes the long tapering neck +of a glass balloon filled with crystals of copper sulphate; the narrow +end of this neck dips into the smaller beaker, the copper sulphate +slowly runs out, and being specifically heavier than the zinc sulphate +it collects at the bottom about the copper ring. In Lord Kelvin's +tray-cell a large wooden tray is lined with lead, and is covered at the +bottom with copper by electrotyping. The zinc plate is enveloped in a +piece of parchment paper bent into a tray shape, the whole resting on +little pieces of wood placed on the bottom of the leaden tray. Copper +sulphate is fed in at the edge of the tray and zinc sulphate is poured +upon the parchment. A battery is formed by arranging the trays in a +stack one above the other. + +Various combinations have been devised in which the hydrogen is got rid +of more or less completely by oxidation. Sir W.R. Grove in 1839 employed +nitric acid as the oxidizing agent, his cell consisting of a zinc +positive plate in dilute sulphuric acid, separated by a porous diaphragm +of unglazed earthenware from a platinum negative immersed in +concentrated nitric acid. Its electromotive force is nearly two volts, +but it has the objection of giving off disagreeable nitrous fumes. R.W. +von Bunsen modified Grove's cell by replacing the platinum with the much +cheaper material, gas carbon. Chromic acid is much used as a +depolarizer, and cells in which it is employed are about as powerful as, +and more convenient than, either of the preceding. In its two-fluid form +the chromic acid cell consists of a porous pot containing amalgamated +zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, and a carbon plate surrounded with +sulphuric acid and a solution of potassium or sodium bichromate or of +chromic acid. But it is commonly used in a one-fluid form, the porous +pot being dispensed with, and both zinc and carbon immersed in the +chromic acid solution. Since the zinc is dissolved even when the circuit +is not closed, arrangements are frequently provided by which either the +zinc plate alone or both plates can be lifted out of the solution when +the cell is not in use. In preparing the solution the sodium salt is +preferable to the potassium, and chromic acid to either. In the cell +devised by Georges Leclanche in 1868 a solid depolarizer is employed, in +the shape of manganese dioxide packed with fragments of carbon into a +porous pot round a carbon plate. A zinc rod constitutes the positive +plate, and the exciting fluid is a solution of sal-ammoniac. Sometimes +no porous pot is employed, and the manganese dioxide and granulated +carbon are agglomerated into a solid block round the carbon plate. The +electromotive force is about one and a half volt. The cell is widely +used for such purposes as ringing electric bells, where current is +required intermittently, and for such service it will remain effective +for months or years, only needing water to be added to the outer jar +occasionally to replace loss by evaporation. On a closed circuit the +current rapidly falls off, because the manganese dioxide is unable to +oxidize all the hydrogen formed, but the cell quickly recovers after +polarization. The so-called "dry cells," which came into considerable +use towards the end of the 19th century, are essentially Leclanche cells +in which the solution is present, not as a liquid, but as a paste formed +with some absorbent material or gelatinized. Black oxide of copper is +another solid depolarizer, employed in the Lalande cell. In the +Edison-Lalande form the copper oxide is suspended in a light copper +frame. The exciting solution consists of one part of caustic soda +dissolved in three parts by weight of water, and to prevent it from +being acted on by the carbonic acid of the air it is covered with a +layer of petroleum oil. Sodium zincate, which is soluble, is formed by +the action of the cell, and the hydrogen produced is oxidized by oxygen +from the copper oxide. The electromotive force may be about one volt +initially, but in practice only about three-quarters of a volt can be +relied on. + +Primary cells form a convenient means of obtaining electricity for +laboratory experiments, and for such light services as working +telegraphs, bells, &c.; but as a source of the heavy currents required +for electric lighting and traction they are far too expensive in +operation, apart from other considerations, to compete with +dynamoelectric machinery driven by steam or water power. Certain forms, +known as "standard cells," are also used in electrical measurements as +standards of electromotive force (see POTENTIOMETER). + + See W.R. Cooper, _Primary Batteries_ (London, 1901); Park Benjamin, + _The Voltaic Cell_ (New York, 1893); W.E. Ayrton, _Practical + Electricity_ (London, 1896). + + + + +BATTEUX, CHARLES (1713-1780), French philosopher and writer on +aesthetics, was born near Vouziers (Ardennes), and studied theology at +Reims. In 1739 he came to Paris, and after teaching in the colleges of +Lisieux and Navarre, was appointed to the chair of Greek and Roman +philosophy in the College de France. In 1746 he published his treatise +_Les Beaux-Arts reduits a un meme principe_, an attempt to find a unity +among the various theories of beauty and taste, and his views were +widely accepted. The reputation thus gained, confirmed by his +translation of Horace (1750), led to his becoming a member of the +Academie des Inscriptions (1754) and of the French Academy (1761). His +_Cours de belles lettres_ (1765) was afterwards included with some minor +writings in the large treatise, _Principes de la lilterature_ (1774). +The rules for composition there laid down are, perhaps, somewhat +pedantic. His philosophical writings were _La Morale d'Epicure tiree de +ses propres ecrits_ (1758), and the _Histoire des causes premieres_ +(1769). In consequence of the freedom with which in this work he +attacked the abuse of authority in philosophy, he lost his professorial +chair. His last and most extensive work was a _Cours d'etudes a l'usage +des eleves de l'ecole militaire_ (45 vols.). In the _Beaux-Arts_, +Batteux developed a theory which is derived from Locke through +Voltaire's sceptical sensualism. He held that Art consists in the +faithful imitation of the beautiful in nature. Applying this principle +to the art of poetry, and analysing, line by line and even word by word, +the works of great poets, he deduced the law that the beauty of poetry +consists in the accuracy, beauty and harmony of individual expression. +This narrow and pedantic theory had at least the merit of insisting on +propriety of expression. His _Histoire des causes premieres_ was among +the first attempts at a history of philosophy, and in his work on +Epicurus, following on Gassendi, he defended Epicureanism against the +general attacks made against it. + + See Dacier et Dupuy, "Eloges," in _Memoires de l'Academie des + Inscriptions_. + + + + +BATTHYANY, LOUIS (LAJOS), COUNT (1806-1849), Hungarian statesman, was +born at Pressburg in 1806. He supplied the defects of an indifferent +education while serving in garrison in Italy as a lieutenant of hussars, +and thenceforward adopted all the new ideas, economical and political. +According to Szechenyi, he learnt much from a German tutor of the +radical school, but it was not till after his marriage with the +noble-minded and highly-gifted countess Antonia Zichy that he began +working earnestly for the national cause. When Szechenyi drew nearer to +the court in 1839-1840, Batthyany became the leader of the opposition in +the Upper House, where his social rank and resolute character won for +him great influence. Despite his "sardanapalian inclinations," he +associated himself unreservedly with the extremists, and spent large +sums for the development of trade and industry. In 1847 he fiercely +opposed the government, procured the election of Kossuth as the +representative of Pest, took part in the Great Deputation of the 15th of +March, and on the 31st of March 1848 became the first constitutional +prime-minister of Hungary. His position became extremely difficult when +Jellachich and the Croats took up arms. Convinced that the rigid +maintenance of the constitution was the sole panacea, he did his utmost, +in his frequent journeys to Innsbruck, to persuade the court to condemn +Jellachich and establish a strong national government at Pest. +Unfortunately, however, he was persuaded to consent to the despatch of +Magyar troops to quell the Italian rising, before the Croat difficulty +had been adjusted, and thenceforth, despite his perfect loyalty, and his +admirable services as Honved minister in organizing the national forces, +his authority in Hungary declined before the rising star of Kossuth. +When Jellachich invaded Hungary, Batthyany resigned with the intention +of forming a new ministry excluding Kossuth, but this had now become +impossible. Then Batthyany attempted to mediate between the two extreme +parties, and subsequently raised a regiment from among his peasantry and +led them against the Croats. On the 11th of October he was incapacitated +for active service by a fall from his horse which broke his arm. On his +recovery he returned to Pest, laboured hard to bring about peace, and +was a member of the deputation from the Hungarian diet to Prince +Windischgratz, whom the Austrian commander refused to receive. A few +days later (8th of January 1849) he was arrested at Pest. As a magnate +he was only indictable by the grand justiciary, as a minister he was +responsible to the diet alone. At Laibach, whither he was taken, he +asked that Deak might be his advocate, but this being refused he wrote +his own defence. Sentence of hanging was finally pronounced upon him at +Olmtitz for violating the Pragmatic Sanction, overthrowing the +constitution, and aiding and abetting the rebellion. To escape this fate +he Stabbed himself with a small concealed dagger, and bled to death in +the night of the 5th of October 1849. + + See Bertalan Szemere, _Batthyany, Kossuth, Gorgei_ (Ger.), (Hamburg, + 1853). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BATTICALOA, the provincial capital of the eastern province of Ceylon, on +the E. coast, 69 m. S.S.E. of Trincomalee, situated on an island in lat. +7 deg. 44' N. and long. 81 deg. 52' E. It is of importance for its haven +and the adjacent salt lagoons. The population of the town in 1901 was +9969; of the district (2872 sq. m.) 143,161. The old Dutch fort dates +from 1682. Batticaloa is the seat of a government agent and district +judge; criminal sessions of the supreme court are also held. Rice and +cocoanuts are the two staples of the district, and steamers trading +round the island call regularly at the port. The lagoon is famous for +its "singing fish," supposed to be shell-fish which give forth musical +notes. The district has a remnant of Veddahs or wild men of the wood. +The average annual rainfall is 55-1/2 in.; the average temperature 80.4 +deg. F. + + + + +BATTISHILL, JONATHAN (1738-1801), one of the best 18th century English +composers of church music. Until 1764 he wrote chiefly for the theatre +(incidental songs, pantomime music, and an opera in collaboration with +Michael Arne, the son of Thomas Arne), but his later compositions are +chiefly glees, part-songs and church music. In 1763 he had married a +singer at Covent Garden theatre where he was harpsichordist. She retired +from her profession when she married; and her death in 1777 so crushed +him that he composed no more. + + + + +BATTLE, a market-town in the Rye parliamentary division of Sussex, +England, 54-1/2 m. S.E. by S. from London by the South Eastern & Chatham +railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2996. It is pleasantly situated +in an undulating well-wooded district, 7 m. from the sea at Hastings. +Its name is derived from the conflict in 1066, which insured to William +the Norman the crown of England (see also BATTLE ABBEY ROLL). Before the +battle, in which King Harold fell, William vowed to build an abbey on +the spot if he should prove victorious, and in 1094 the consecration +took place with great pomp. The gatehouse, forming a picturesque +termination to the main street of the town, is Decorated; and there also +remain parts of the foundations of the Norman church, of the +Perpendicular cloisters, and of the Early English refectory. A mansion +occupies part of the site, and incorporates some of the ancient +building. The church of St Mary is of various dates, the earliest +portions being transitional Norman. + + See _Chronicles of Battle Abbey_. 1066-1176, translated, &c., by M.A. + Lower (London, 1851). + + + + +BATTLE, a general engagement between the armed forces, naval or +military, of enemies. The word is derived from the Fr. _bataille_, and +this, like the Ital. _battaglia_, and Span. _batalla_, comes from the +popular Lat. _battalia_ for _battualia_. Cassiodorus Senator (480-?575) +says: _Battualia quae vulgo Batalia dicuntur ... exercitationes militum +vel gladiatorum significant_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. +_Batalia_). The verb _battuere_, cognate with "beat," is a rare word, +found in Pliny, used of beating in a mortar or of meat before cooking. +Suetonius (_Caligula_, 54-32) uses it of fencing, _battuebat pugnatoriis +armis_, i.e. not with blunted weapons or foils. _Battalia_ or _batalia_ +was used for the array of troops for battle, and hence was applied to +the body of troops so arranged, or to a division of an army, whence the +use of the word "battalion" (q.v.). + +A "pitched battle," loosely used as meaning almost a decisive +engagement, is strictly, as the words imply, one that is fought on +ground previously selected ("pitched" meaning arranged in a fixed order) +and in accordance with the intentions of the commanders of both sides; +the French equivalent is _bataille arrangee_, opposed to _bataille +manoeuvree_, which is prearranged but may come off on any ground. With +"battle," in its usual meaning of a general engagement of hostile +forces, are contrasted "skirmish,"[1] a fight between small bodies +("skirmishing" technically means fighting by troops in extended or +irregular order), and "action," a more or less similar engagement +between large bodies of troops. (See also TACTICS and STRATEGY.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This is the same word as "scrimmage," and is derived from the + Anglo-French _eskrimir_, modern _escrimer_, properly to fight behind + cover, now to fence. The origin of this is the Old High German + _scirman_, to fight behind a shield, _scirm_. Modern German _Schirm_. + + + + +BATTLE ABBEY ROLL. This is popularly supposed to have been a list of +William the Conqueror's companions preserved at Battle Abbey, on the +site of his great victory over Harold. It is known to us only from 16th +century versions of it published by Leland, Holinshed and Duchesne, all +more or less imperfect and corrupt. Holinshed's is much the fullest, but +of its 629 names several are duplicates. The versions of Leland and +Duchesne, though much shorter, each contain many names found in neither +of the other lists. It was so obvious that several of the names had no +right to figure on the roll, that Camden, as did Dugdale after him, held +them to have been interpolated at various times by the monks, "not +without their own advantage." Modern writers have gone further, Sir +Egerton Brydges denouncing the roll as "a disgusting forgery," and E.A. +Freeman dismissing it as "a transparent fiction." An attempt to +vindicate the roll was made by the last duchess of Cleveland, whose +_Battle Abbey Roll_ (3 vols., 1889) is the best guide to its contents. + +It is probable that the character of the roll has been quite +misunderstood. It is not a list of individuals, but only of family +surnames, and it seems to have been intended to show which families had +"come over with the Conqueror," and to have been compiled about the 14th +century. The compiler appears to have been influenced by the French +sound of names, and to have included many families of later settlement, +such as that of Grandson, which did not come to England from Savoy till +two centuries after the Conquest. The roll itself appears to be unheard +of before and after the 16th century, but other lists were current at +least as early as the 15th century, as the duchess of Cleveland has +shown. In 1866 a list of the Conqueror's followers, compiled from +Domesday and other authentic records, was set up in Dives church by M. +Leopold Delisle, and is printed in the duchess' work. Its contents are +naturally sufficient to show that the Battle Roll is worthless. + + See Leland, _Collectanea_; Holinshed, _Chronicles of England_; + Duchesne, _Historia Norm. Scriptores_; Brydges, _Censura Literaria_; + Thierry, _Conquete de l'Angleterre_, vol. ii. (1829); Burke, _The Roll + of Battle Abbey_ (annotated, 1848); Planche, _The Conqueror and His + Companions_ (1874); duchess of Cleveland, _The Battle Abbey Roll_ + (1889); Round, "The Companions of the Conqueror" (_Monthly Review_, + 1901, iii. pp. 91-111). (J. H. R.) + + + + +BATTLE CREEK, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A., at the +confluence of the Kalamazoo river with Battle Creek, about 48 m. S. of +Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 13,197; (1900) 18,563, of whom 1844 were +foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,267. It is served by the Michigan +Central and the Grand Trunk railways, and by interurban electric lines. +Here are the hospital and laboratories of the American Medical +Missionary College (of Chicago) and the Battle Creek Sanitarium, +established in 1866, which was a pioneer in dietetic reform, and did +much to make Battle Creek important in the manufacture of health foods, +and in the publication of diet-reform literature. Among the principal +buildings, besides the hospital and the sanitarium, are several fine +churches, the central high school, the Post tavern and the Post theatre. +The city is a trading centre for the rich agricultural and fruit-growing +district by which it is surrounded, has good water-power, and is an +important manufacturing centre, its chief manufactured products being +cereal health foods, for which it has a wide reputation, and the +manufacture of which grew out of the dietetic experiments made in the +laboratories of the sanitarium; and threshing machines and other +agricultural implements, paper cartons and boxes, flour, boilers, +engines and pumps. Extensive locomotive and car shops of the Grand Trunk +railway are here. In 1904 the total factory product of Battle Creek was +valued at $12,298,244, an increase of 95% over that for 1900; and of the +total in 1904 $5,191,655 was the value of food preparations, which was +8.5% of the value of food preparations manufactured in the United +States, Battle Creek thus ranking first among American cities in this +industry. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality, +the water being obtained from Lake Goguac, a summer pleasure resort +about 2 m. from the city. Battle Creek, said to have been named from +hostilities here between some surveyors and Indians, was settled in +1831, incorporated as a village in 1850, and chartered as a city in +1859, the charter of that year being revised in 1900. + + + + +BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK, a game played by two persons with small +rackets, called battledores, made of parchment or rows of gut stretched +across wooden frames, and shuttlecocks, made of a base of some light +material, like cork, with trimmed feathers fixed round the top. The +object of the players is to bat the shuttlecock from one to the other as +many times as possible without allowing it to fall to the ground. There +are Greek drawings extant representing a game almost identical with +battledore and shuttlecock, and it has been popular in China, Japan, +India and Siam for at least 2000 years. In Europe it has been played by +children for centuries. A further development is Badminton. + + + + +BATTLEMENT (probably from a lost Fr. form _bastillement_, cf. mod. Fr. +_bastille_, from Med. Lat. _bastilia_, towers, which is derived from +Ital. _bastire_, to build, cf. Fr. _batir_; the English word was, +however, early connected with "battle"), a term given to a parapet of a +wall, in which portions have been cut out at intervals to allow the +discharge of arrows or other missiles; these cut-out portions are known +as "crenels"; the solid widths between the "crenels" are called +"merlons." The earliest example in the palace at Medinet-Abu at Thebes +in Egypt is of the inverted form, and is said to have been derived from +Syrian fortresses. Through Assyria they formed the termination of all +the walls surrounding the towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud and +elsewhere. Traces of them have been found at Mycenae, and they are +suggested on Greek vases. In the battlements of Pompeii, additional +protection was given by small internal buttresses or spur walls against +which the defender might place himself so as to be protected completely +on one side. In the battlements of the middle ages the crenel was about +one-third of the width of the merlon, and the latter was in addition +pierced with a small slit. The same is also found in Italian +battlements, where the merlon is of much greater height and is capped in +a peculiar fashion. The battlements of the Mahommedans had a more +decorative and varied character, and were retained from the 13th century +onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to +their walls. They may be regarded therefore in the same light as the +cresting found in the Spanish renaissance. The same retention of the +battlement as a purely decorative feature is found throughout the +Decorated and Perpendicular periods, and not only occurs on parapets +but on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and on +screens. A further decorative treatment was given in the elaborate +panelling of the merlons and that portion of the parapet walls rising +above the cornice, by the introduction of quatrefoils and other +conventional forms filled with foliage and shields. + + + + +BATTUE (from Fr. _battre_, to beat), the beating of game from cover +under the sportsmen's fire; by analogy the word is used to describe any +slaughter of defenceless crowds. + + + + +BATTUS, the legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene in Libya +(about 630 B.C.). The Greeks who accompanied him were, like himself, +natives of Thera, and descended partly from the race of the Minyae. +Various accounts are given both of the founding of Cyrene and of the +origin of the founder's name. According to the Cyrenaeans (Herod, iv. +150-156), Battus, having an impediment in his speech, consulted the +oracle at Delphi, and was told to found a colony in Libya; according to +the Theraeans, Battus was entrusted with this mission by their aged king +Grinus. In another version, there was civil war in Thera; Battus, leader +of one party, was banished, and, on applying to the oracle, was +recommended to take out a colony to "the continent" (Schol. Pindar, +_Pyth._ iv. 10). In any case the foundation is attributed to the direct +instructions of Apollo. The name was connected by some with [Greek: +battarizo], ("stammer"), but Herodotus (iv. 155) says that it was the +Libyan word for "king," that Battus was not called by the name until +after his arrival at Libya, and that the oracle addressed him as +"Battus" by anticipation. This, however, would imply on the part of the +oracle a knowledge of Libya, which was not shared by the rest of Greece +(Herod. _l.c._), and it is noteworthy that the name occurs in Arcadian +and Messenian legends. Herodotus does not know his real name, but Pindar +(_Pyth._ v. 116), no doubt rightly, calls the founder of the colony +Aristoteles, while Justin (xiii. 7) gives his name as Aristaeus who was +worshipped at Cyrene. Four kings named Battus, alternating with four +named Arcesilaus, ruled in Cyrene (q.v.) till the fall of the dynasty +about 450 B.C. + + See R.W. Macan's _Herodotus IV.-VI._ (1895), vol. i. pp. 104 seq. and + notes. + + + + +BATU, or ROCK ISLANDS (Dutch _Batoe_), a group of three greater and +forty-eight lesser islands in the Dutch East Indies, W. of Sumatra, +between 0 deg. 10' N. to 0 deg. 45' S. and 97 deg. 50'-98 deg. 35' E., +belonging to the Ayerbangi district of the lowlands of Padang (Sumatra). +They are separated by the strait of Sibirut from the Mentawi group. The +three chief islands, from N. to S., are Pini or Mintao, Masa, and Bala. +The total land area of the group is 445 sq. m. The islands are generally +low, and covered with forest, in which the cocoanut palm is conspicuous. +There is trade in cocoanuts, oil, and other forest produce. The natives, +about 3000 in number, are of Malayan or pre-Malayan stock, akin to those +of the island of Nias to the north-west. Only about twenty of the +smaller islands are inhabited. + + + + +BATUM, a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of and 90 +m. by rail S.W. of the city of Kutais, on the S.E. shore of the Black +Sea, in 41 deg. 39' N. and 41 deg. 38' E. Pop. (1875) 2000; (1900) +28,512, very mixed. The bay is being filled up by the sand carried into +it by several small rivers. The town is protected by strong forts, and +the anchorage has been greatly improved by artificial works. Batum +possesses a cathedral, finished in 1903, and the Alexander Park, with +sub-tropical vegetation. The climate is very warm, lemon and orange +trees, magnolias and palms growing in the open air; but it is at the +same time extremely wet and changeable. The annual rainfall (90 in.) is +higher than anywhere in Caucasia, but it is very unequally distributed +(23 in. in August and September, sometimes 16 in. in a couple of days), +and the place is still most unhealthy. The town is connected by rail +with the main Transcaucasian railway to Tiflis, and is the chief port +for the export of naphtha and paraffin oil, carried hither in great part +through pipes laid down from Baku, but partly also in tank railway-cars; +other exports are wheat, manganese, wool, silkworm-cocoons, liquorice, +maize and timber (total value of exports nearly 5-1/2 millions sterling +annually). The imports, chiefly tin plates and machinery, amount to less +than half that total. Known as Bathys in antiquity, as Vati in the +middle ages, and as Bathumi since the beginning of the 17th century, +Batum belonged to the Turks, who strongly fortified it, down to 1878, +when it was transferred to Russia. In the winter of 1905-1906 Batum was +in the hands of the revolutionists, and a "reign of terror" lasted for +several weeks. + + + + +BATWA, a tribe of African pygmies living in the mountainous country +around Wissmann Falls in the Kasai district of the Belgian Congo. They +were discovered in 1880 by Paul Pogge and Hermann von Wissmann, and have +been identified with Sir H.M. Stanley's Vouatouas. They are typical of +the negrito family south of the Congo. They are well made, with limbs +perfectly proportioned, and are seldom more than 4 ft. high. Their +complexion is a yellow-brown, much lighter than their Bantu-Negroid +neighbours. They have short woolly hair and no beard. They are feared +rather than despised by the Baluba and Bakuba tribes, among whom they +live. They are nomads, cultivating nothing, and keeping no animals but a +small type of hunting-dog. Their weapon is a tiny bow, the arrows for +which are usually poisoned. They build themselves temporary huts of a +bee-hive shape. As hunters they are famous, bounding through the jungle +growth "like grasshoppers" and fearlessly attacking elephants and +buffalo with their tiny weapons. Their only occupation apart from +hunting is the preparation of palm-wine which they barter for grain with +the Baluba. They are monogamous and display much family affection. See +further PYGMY; AKKA; WOCHUA; BAMBUTE. + + See A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_ (Eng. ed., 1895); Sir H.H. + Johnston, _Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); Hermann von Wissmann, _My + Second Journey through Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1891). + + + + +BATYPHONE (Ger. and Fr. _Batyphon_), a contrabass clarinet which was the +outcome of F.W. Wieprecht's endeavour to obtain a contrabass for the +reed instruments. The batyphone was made to a scale twice the size of +the clarinet in C, the divisions of the chromatic scale being arranged +according to acoustic principles. For convenience in stopping holes too +far apart to be covered by the fingers, crank or swivel keys were used. +The instrument was constructed of maple-wood, had a clarinet mouthpiece +of suitable size connected by means of a cylindrical brass crook with +the upper part of the tube, and a brass bell. The pitch was two octaves +below the clarinet in C, the compass being the same, and thus +corresponding to the modern bass tuba. The tone was pleasant and full, +but not powerful enough for the contrabass register in a military band. +The batyphone had besides one serious disadvantage: it could be played +with facility only in its nearly related keys, G and F major. The +batyphone was invented and patented in 1839 by F.W. Wieprecht, director +general of all the Prussian military bands, and E. Skorra, the court +instrument manufacturer of Berlin. In practice the instrument was found +to be of little use, and was superseded by the bass tuba. A similar +attempt was made in 1843 by Adolphe Sax, and met with a similar fate. + +A batyphone bearing the name of its inventors formed part of the Snoeck +collection which was acquired for Berlin's collection of ancient musical +instruments at the Technische Hochschule fur Musik. The description of +the batyphone given above is mainly derived from a MS. treatise on +instrumentation by Wieprecht, in 1909 in the possession of Herr Otto +Lessmann (Berlin), and reproduced by Capt. C.R. Day, in _Descriptive +Catalogue of the Musical Instruments of the Royal Military Exhibition, +London, 1890_ (London, 1891), p. 124. (K. S.) + + + + +BAUAN (or BAUN), a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine +Islands, at the head of Batangas Bay, about 54 m. S. of Manila. Pop. +(1903) 39,094. A railway to connect the town with Manila was under +construction in 1908. Bauan has a fine church and is known as a market +for "sinamay" or hemp cloth, the hemp and cotton being imported and dyed +and woven by the women in their homes. Palm-fibre mats and hats, fans, +bamboo baskets and cotton fish-nets are woven here. There is excellent +fishing in the bay. Hogs and horses are raised for the Manila market. +The surrounding country is fertile and grows cacao, indigo, oranges, +sugar-cane, corn and rice. The language is Tagalog. + + + + +BAUBLE (probably a blend of two different words, an old French _baubel_, +a child's plaything, and an old English _babyll_, something swinging to +and fro), a word applied to a stick with a weight attached, used in +weighing, to a child's toy, and especially to the mock symbol of office +carried by a court jester, a baton terminating in a figure of Folly with +cap and bells, and sometimes having a bladder fastened to the other end; +hence a term for any triviality or childish folly. + + + + +BAUCHI, a province in the highlands of the British protectorate of +Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between 11 deg. 15' and 9 deg. +15' N. and 11 deg. 15' and 8 deg. 30' E. Bauchi is bounded N. by the +provinces of Kano, Katagum and Bornu; E. by Bornu, S. by Yola and Muri, +and W. by the provinces of Zaria and Nassarawa. The province has an area +of about 21,000 sq. m. The altitude rises from 1000 ft. above the sea in +its north-eastern corner to 4000 ft. and 6000 ft. in the south-west. The +province is traversed diagonally from N.E. to S.W. by a belt of mountain +ranges alternating with fertile plateaus. Towards the south the country +is very rugged and a series of extinct volcanic craters occur. + +Amongst the more important plateaus are the Assab or Kibyen country, +having a general level of upwards of 4000 ft., and the Sura country, +also reaching to elevations of from 3000 to 5000 ft. Both these +extensive plateaus are situated in the south-west portion of the +province. Their soil is fertile, they possess an abundance of pure +water, the air is keen and bracing, and the climate is described as +resembling in many respects that of the Transvaal. They form the +principal watershed not only of the province of Bauchi, but of the +protectorate of Northern Nigeria. The Gongola, flowing east and south to +the Benue, rises in the Sura district, and from the Kibyen plateau +streams flow north to Lake Chad, west to the Kaduna, and south to the +Benue. The soil is generally fertile between the hills, and in the +volcanic districts the slopes are cultivated half-way up the extinct +craters. The climate in the western parts is temperate and healthy. In +the winter months of November and December the thermometer frequently +falls to freezing-point, and in the hottest months the maximum on the +Kibyen plateau has been found to be rarely over 85 deg. + +The population of Bauchi is estimated at about 1,000,000 and is of a +very various description. The upper classes are Fula, and there are some +Hausa and Kanuri (Bornuese), but the bulk of the people are pagan tribes +in a very low state of civilization. Sixty-four tribes sufficiently +differentiated from each other to speak different languages have been +reported upon. Hausa is the _lingua franca_ of the whole. The pagan +population has been classified for practical purposes as Hill pagans and +Plains pagans, Mounted pagans and Foot pagans. The Foot pagans of the +plains were brought under the Fula yoke in the beginning of the 19th +century and have never cast it off. The Hill pagans were partly +conquered, but many remained independent or have since succeeded in +asserting their freedom. The Mounted pagans are confined to the healthy +plateaus of the south-west corner of the province. They are independent +and there is considerable variety in the characteristics of the +different tribes. The better types are hardy, orderly and agriculturally +industrious. They are intelligent and have shown themselves peaceful and +friendly to Europeans. Others are, on the contrary, disposed to be +turbulent and warlike. Amongst the different tribes many are cannibals. +They all go practically naked. They are essentially horsemen, and have a +cruel habit of gashing the backs of their ponies that they may get a +good seat in the blood. They are armed with bows and arrows, but depend +almost entirely in battle on the charges of their mounted spearmen. + +The native name "Bauchi," which is of great antiquity, Signifies the +"Land of Slaves," and from the earliest times the uplands which now form +the principal portion of the province been the hunting ground of the +slave raider, while the hill fastnesses have offered defensible refuge +to the population. So entirely was slavery a habit of the people, that +as late as 1905, after the slave-trade had been abolished for three +years, it was found that, in consequence of a famine which rendered food +difficult to obtain, a whole tribe (the Tangali) were selling themselves +as slaves to their neighbours. Children are readily sold by their +parents at a price varying from the equivalent of one shilling to one +and sixpence. + +The province of Bauchi was conquered by the Fula at the beginning of the +19th century, and furnished them with a valuable slave preserve. But the +more civilized portion had already, under enlightened native rulers, +attained to a certain degree of prosperity and order. Mahommedanism was +partly adopted by the upper classes in the 18th century, if not earlier, +and the son of a Mahommedan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted +the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula. The name +of this remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba (Jacob). His father's +name was Daouad (David), and his grandfather was Abdullah, all names +which indicate Arab or Mahommedan influence. The town of Bauchi and +capital of the province was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the +emirate remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year, in +consequence of determined slave-raiding and the defiant misrule of the +emir, a British expedition was sent against the capital, which submitted +without fighting. The emir was deposed, and the country was brought +under British control. A new emir was appointed, but he died within a +few months. The slave-trade was immediately abolished, and the +slave-market which was held at Bauchi, as in all Fula centres, was +closed. The Kano-Sokoto campaign in 1903 rendered necessary a temporary +withdrawal of the British resident from Bauchi, and comparatively little +progress was made until the following year. In 1904 the province was +organized for administration on the same system as the rest of Northern +Nigeria, and the reigning emir took the oath of allegiance to the +British crown. The province has been subdivided into thirteen +administrative districts, which again have been grouped into their +principal divisions, with their respective British headquarters at +Bauchi, Kanan and Bukuru. The Fula portion of this province, held like +the other Hausa states under a feudal system of large landowners or +fief-holders, has been organized and assessed for taxation on the system +accepted by the emirs throughout the protectorate, and the populations +are working harmoniously under British rule. Roads and telegraphs are in +process of construction, and the province is being gradually opened to +trade. Valuable indications of tin have been found to the north of the +Kibyen plateau, and have attracted the attention of the Niger Company. + +Bauchi is a province of special importance from the European point of +view because, with free communication from the Benue assured, it is +probable that on the Kibyen and Sura plateaus, which are the healthiest +known in the protectorate, a sanatorium and station for a large civil +population might be established under conditions in which Europeans +could live free from the evil effects of a West African climate. + +The emirate of Gombe, which is included in the first division of the +Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the emirs of Bauchi. +It forms a rich and important district, and its chiefs held themselves +in a somewhat sullen attitude of hostility to the British. It was at +Burmi in this district that the last stand was made by the religious +following of the defeated sultan of Sokoto, and here the sultan was +finally overthrown and killed in July 1903. Gombe has now frankly +accepted British rule. (F. L. L.) + + + + +BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE (1821-1867), French poet, was born in Paris +on the 9th of April 1821. His father, who was a civil servant in good +position and an amateur artist, died in 1827, and in the following year +his mother married a lieutenant-colonel named Aupick, who was afterwards +ambassador of France at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons +and at the College Louis-le Grand in Paris. On taking his degree in 1839 +he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next two +years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his guardians, in +1841, to send him on a voyage to India. When he returned to Paris, after +less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his +extravagance threatened to exhaust his small patrimony, and his family +obtained a decree to place his property in trust. His _salons_ of 1845 +and 1846 attracted immediate attention by the boldness with which he +propounded many views then novel, but since generally accepted. He took +part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years interested +himself in republican politics but his permanent convictions were +aristocratic and Catholic. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker, +and it was not until 1857 that he produced his first and famous volume +of poems, _Fleurs du mal_. Some of these had already appeared in the +_Revue des deux mondes_ when they were published by Baudelaire's friend +Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at +Alencon. The consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by +a limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse +selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word for +unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo, writing to the +poet, said, "Vous dotez le ciel de l'art d'un rayon macabre, vous creez +un frisson nouveau." Baudelaire, the publisher, and the printer were +successfully prosecuted for offending against public morals. The +obnoxious pieces were suppressed, but printed later as _Les Epaves_ +(Brussels, 1866). Another edition of the _Fleurs du mal_, without these +poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1861. + +Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found some of +his favourite reading in the English "Satanic" romances, such as Lewis's +_Monk_. In 1846-1847 he became acquainted with the works of Edgar Allan +Poe, in which he discovered romances and poems which had, he said, long +existed in his own brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till +1865 he was largely occupied with his version of Poe's works, producing +masterpieces of the art of translation in _Histoires extraordinaires_ +(1852), _Nouvelles Histoires extraordinaires_ (1857), _Adventures +d'Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka_, and _Histoires grotesques et serieuses_ +(1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his _Oeuvres completes_ +(vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial difficulties grew upon him. +He was involved in the failure of Poulet Malassis in 1861, and in 1864 +he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the vain hope of disposing of his +copyrights. He had for many years a _liaison_ with a coloured woman, +whom he helped to the end of his life in spite of her gross conduct. He +had recourse to opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess. +Paralysis followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in +_maisons de sante_ in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on the 31st +of August 1867. + +His other works include:--_Petits Poemes en prose_; a series of art +criticisms published in the _Pays, Exposition universelle_; studies on +Gustave Flaubert (in _L'artiste_, 18th of October 1857); on Theophile +Gautier (_Revue contemporaine_, September 1858); valuable notices +contributed to Eugene Crepet's _Poetes francais_; _Les Paradis +artificiels opium et haschisch_ (1860); _Richard Wagner et Tannhauser a +Paris_ (1861); _Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac_ +(1880), originally an article entitled "Comment on paye ses dettes quand +on a du genie," in which his criticism is turned against his friends H. +de Balzac, Theophile Gautier, and Gerard de Nerval. + + + + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An edition of his _Lettres_ (1841-1866) was issued by + the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His _Oeuvres completes_ were + edited (1868-1870) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a preface by + Theophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vindication of his + character from the attacks made upon it in his _Charles Baudelaire, sa + vie, son oeuvre_ (1869). He left some material of more private + interest in a MS. entitled _Baudelaire_. See _Charles Baudelaire, + souvenirs, correspondance, bibliographie_ (1872), by Charles Cousin + and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; _Charles Baudelaire, oeuvres posthumes et + correspondances inedites_ (1887), containing a journal entitled _Mon + coeur mis a nu_, and a biographical study by Eugene Crepet; also _Le + Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire_ (1896), a collection of pieces + unpublished or prohibited during the author's lifetime, edited by S. + Mallarme and others, with a study of the text of the _Fleurs du mal_ + by Prince A. Ourousof; Feli Gautier, _Charles Baudelaire_ (Brussels, + 1904), with facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la + Fitzeliere and C. Decaux, _Charles Baudelaire_ (1868) in the series of + _Essais de bibliographie contemporaine_; essays by Paul Bourget, + _Essais de psychologie conlemporaine_ (1883), and Maurice Spronck, + _Les Artistes litteraires_ (1889). Among English translations from + Baudelaire are _Poems in Prose_, by A. Symons (1905), and a selection + for the _Canterbury Poets_ (1904), by F.P. Sturm. + + + + +BAUDIER, MICHEL (c. 1589-1645), French historian, was born in Languedoc. +During the reign of Louis XIII. he was historiographer to the Court of +France. He contributed to French history by writing _Histoire de la +guerre de Flandre 1559-1609_ (Paris, 1615); _Histoire de +l'administration du cardinal d'Amboise, grand ministre d'etat en France_ +(Paris, 1634), a defence of the cardinal; and _Histoire de +l'administration de l'abbe Suger_ (Paris, 1645). Taking an especial +interest in the Turks he wrote _Inventaire general de l'histoire des +Turcs_ (Paris, 1619); _Histoire generale de la religion des Turcs avec +la vie de leur prophete Mahomet_ (Paris, 1626); and _Histoire generale +du serail et de la cour du grand Turc_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. by +E. Grimeston, London, 1635). Having heard the narrative of a Jesuit who +had returned from China, Baudier wrote _Histoire de la cour du roi de +Chine_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. in vol. viii. of the _Collection of +Voyages and Travels_ of A. and J. Churchill, London, 1707-1747). He also +wrote _Vie du cardinal Ximenes_ (Paris, 1635), which was again published +with a notice of the author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious +romance entitled _Histoire de l'incomparable administration de Romieu, +grand ministre d'etat de Raymond Berenger, comte de Provence_ (Paris, +1635). + + See J. Lelong, _Bibliotheque historique de la France_ (Paris, + 1768-1778); L. Moreri, _Le Grand Dictionnaire historique_ (Amsterdam, + 1740). + + + + +BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LEON (1821-1892), French economist, was born +in Paris on the 28th of November 1821. His father, Jacques Joseph +(1774-1832), was a distinguished writer on forestry, and was for many +years in the service of the French government, eventually becoming the +head of that branch of the department of agriculture which had charge of +the state forests. Henri was educated at the College Bourbon, where he +had a distinguished career, and in 1852 he was appointed assistant +lecturer in political economy to M. Chevalier at the College de France. +In 1866, on the creation of a new chair of economic history, Baudrillart +was appointed to fill it. His first work was an _Eloge de Turgot_ +(1846), which at once won him notice among the economists. In 1853 he +published an erudite work on _Jean Bodin et son temps_; then in 1857 a +_Manuel d'economie politique_; in 1860, _Des rapports de la morale et de +l'economie politique_; in 1865, _La Liberte du travail_; and from 1878 +to 1880, _L'Histoire du luxe ... depuis l'antiquite jusqu'a nos +jours_, in four volumes. At the instance of the Academie des Sciences +Morales et Politiques he investigated the condition of the farming +classes of France, and published the results in four volumes (1885, _et +seq_.). From 1855 to 1864 he directed the _Journal des economistes_, and +contributed many articles to the _Journal des debats_ and to the _Revue +des deux mondes_. His writings are distinguished by their style, as well +as by their profound erudition. In 1863 he was elected member of the +Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques; in 1870 he was appointed +inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1881 he succeeded J. +Garnier as professor of political economy at the Ecole des Ponts et +Chaussees. Baudrillart was made an officer of the Legion of Honour in +1889. He died in Paris on the 24th of January 1892. + + + + +BAUDRY, or BALDERICH, OF BOURGUEIL (1046 or 1047-1130), archbishop of +Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-sur-Loire, where he passed +his early days. Educated at Meung and at Angers, he entered the +Benedictine abbey of Bourgueil, and in 1079 became abbot of this place, +but his time was devoted to literary pursuits rather than to his +official duties. Having failed to secure the bishopric of Orleans in +1097, he became archbishop of Dol in 1107, and went to Rome for his +pallium in 1108. The bishopric of Dol had been raised to the rank of an +archbishopric during the 10th century by Nomenoe, king of Brittany, but +this step had been objected to by the archbishops of Tours. Consequently +the position of the see was somewhat ambiguous, and Baudry is referred +to both as archbishop and as bishop of Dol. He appears to have striven +earnestly to do something for the education of the ignorant inhabitants +of Brittany but his efforts were not very successful, and he soon +abandoned the task. In 1116 he attended the Lateran council, and in 1119 +the council of Reims, after which he paid a visit of two years' duration +to England. Returning to France he neglected the affairs of his diocese, +and passed his time mainly at St Samson-sur-Risle in Normandy. He died +on the 5th or 7th of January 1130. + +Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent quality. The +most important of these, from the historical point of view, have been +published in the _Historiae Francorum Scriptores_, tome iv., edited by +A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry's prose works are more important. +The best known of these is his _Historiae Hierosolymitance_, a history +of the first crusade from 1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books, +the material for which was mainly drawn from the anonymous _Gesta +Francorum_, but some valuable information has been added by Baudry. It +was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by Ordericus +Vitalis for his _Historiae ecclesiasticae_; by William, archbishop of +Tyre, for his _Belli sacri historia_; and by Vincent of Beauvais for his +_Speculum historiale_. The best edition is that by C. Thurot, which +appears in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_, tome iv. (Paris, +1841-1887), Other works probably by Baudry are _Epistola ad Fiscannenses +monachos_, a description of the monastery of Fecamp; _Vita Roberti de +Arbrissello; Vita S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio +capitis Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relatio de scuto et +gladio_, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and _Vita S. Samsonis +Dolensis episcopi_. Other writings which on very doubtful authority have +been attributed to Baudry are _Acta S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De +visitatione infirmorum; Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S. +Maclovii, Alectensis episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium_; +and _Confirmatio bonorum monasterii S. Florentii_. Many of these are +published by J.P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tomes 160, 162 and +166 (Paris 1844). + + See _Histoire litteraire de la France_, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869); + H. von Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); A. + Thurot, "Etudes critiques sur les historiens de la premiere croisade; + Baudri de Bourgueil" in the _Revue historique_ (Paris, 1876). + + + + +BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME (1828-1886), French painter, was born at La +Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendee). He studied under Drolling, a sound but +second-rate artist, and carried off the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his +picture of "Zenobia found on the banks of the Araxes." His talent from +the first revealed itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and +grace, but somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence +in Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with the +mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works he exhibited +in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for the Luxembourg: "The +Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin" and "The Child." His "Leda," "St John the +Baptist," and a "Portrait of Beule," exhibited at the same time, took a +first prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry commonly +selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most noteworthy +being "The Pearl and the Wave." Once only did he attempt an historical +picture, "Charlotte Corday after the murder of Marat" (1861), and +returned by preference to the former class of subjects or to painting +portraits of illustrious men of his day--Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond +About. The works that crowned Baudry's reputation were his mural +decorations, which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for +colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de Cassation, +at the chateau of Chantilly, and some private residences--the hotel +Fould and hotel Paiva--but, above all, in the decorations of the _foyer_ +of the Paris opera house. These, more than thirty paintings in all, and +among them compositions figurative of dancing and music, occupied the +painter, for ten years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of +the Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of his +colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating with his +brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to him in Paris +(1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-Yonne (1897) is by Gerome. + + See H. Delaborde, _Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry_ + (1886); Ch. Ephrussi, _Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1887). + (H. Fr.) + + + + +BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882), German theologian and historian, was born on +the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a porcelain factory, +at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied at Berlin, where he attached +himself to the "Right" of the Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In +1834 he began to teach in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in +1839 was transferred to Bonn. In 1838 he published his _Kritische +Darstellung der Religion des Alten Testaments_ (2 vols.), which shows +that at that date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon +afterwards his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the +Fourth Gospel, _Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes_ +(1840), and the other on the Synoptics, _Kritik der evangelischen +Geschichte der Synoptiker_ (1841), as well as in his _Herr Hengstenberg, +kritische Briefe uber den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des Evangeliums_, +he announced his complete rejection of his earlier orthodoxy. In 1842 +the government revoked his license and he retired for the rest of his +life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Henceforward he took a deep interest in +modern history and politics, as well as in theology, and published +_Geschichte der Politik, Kultur und Aufklarung des 18ten Jahrhunderts_ +(4 vols. 1843-1845), Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution (3 vols. +1847), and _Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer +Imperialismus_ (1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the +gospels and a history of their origin, _Kritik der Evangelien und +Geschichte ihres Ursprungs_ (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the +Apostles, _Apostelgeschichte_ (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline +epistles, _Kritik der paulinischen Briefe_ (1850-1852). He died at +Rixdorf on the 13th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament +was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his _Life of Jesus_ +had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious products of +the mythic instinct in the early Christian communities. Bauer ridiculed +Strauss's notion that a community could produce a connected narrative. +His own contention, embodying a theory of C.G. Wilke (_Der +Urevangelist_, 1838), was that the original narrative was the Gospel of +Mark; that this was composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after +this the other narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however, +"regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the creator +of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction and Christianity +the invention of a single original evangelist" (Pfleiderer). On the same +principle the four principal Pauline epistles were regarded as forgeries +of the 2nd century. He argued further for the preponderance of the +Graeco-Roman element, as opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian +writings. The writer of Mark's gospel was "an Italian, at home both in +Rome and Alexandria"; that of Matthew's gospel "a Roman, nourished by +the spirit of Seneca"; the Pauline epistles were written in the West in +antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on. Christianity is +essentially "Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish garb." This line of +criticism has found few supporters, mostly in the Netherlands. It +certainly had its value in emphasizing the importance of studying the +influence of environment in the formation of the Christian Scriptures. +Bauer was a man of restless, impetuous activity and independent, if +ill-balanced, judgment, one who, as he himself perceived, was more in +place as a free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came +in the end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not +afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the Jewish +question (_Die Judenfrage_, 1843). + + His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the + _Jewish Encyclopedia_. See generally Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_; + and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, _Development of Theology_, p. 226; Carl + Schwarz, _Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_, pp. 142 ff.; and F. + Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology in the 19th Century_ + (1889), pp. 374-378. + + + + +BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON (1802-1890), Austrian dramatist, was born at +Vienna on the 13th of January 1802. Having studied jurisprudence at the +university of Vienna, he entered the government service in a legal +capacity, and after holding various minor offices was transferred in +1843 to a responsible post on the Lottery Commission. He had already +embarked upon politics, and severely criticized the government in a +pamphlet, _Pia Desideria eines osterreichischen Schriftstellers_ (1842); +and in 1845 he made a journey to England, after which his political +opinions became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he +quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely to +letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the 9th of August 1890, +and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies and farces, +Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German playwrights of the century; +his plots are clever, the situations witty and natural and the diction +elegant. His earliest essays, the comedies _Leichtsinn aus Liebe_ +(1831); _Das Liebes-Protokoll_ (1831) and _Die ewige Liebe_ (1834); +_Burgerlich und Romantisch_, (1835) enjoyed great popularity. Later he +turned his attention to so-called _Salonstucke_ (drawing-room pieces), +notably _Aus der Gesellschaft_ (1866); _Moderne Jugend_ (1869), and _Der +Landfrieden_ (1869), in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy +sallies the social conditions of the capital in which he lived. + + A complete edition of Bauernfeld's works, _Gesammelte Schriften_, + appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Dramatischer Nachlass_, ed. + by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols., + 1905). See A. Stern, _Bauernfeld, Ein Dichterportrat_ (1890), R. von + Gottschall, "E. von Bauernfeld" (in _Unsere Zeit_, 1890), and E. + Horner, _Bauernfeld_ (1900). + + + + +BAUFFREMONT, a French family which derives its name from a village in +the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In consequence of an alliance +with the house of Vergy the Bauffremonts established themselves in +Burgundy and Franche-Comte. In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of +Charny, married Marie, a legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke +of Burgundy. Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson +Henri, all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588 +and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre Emmanuel +Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, was +created a peer of France in 1817, and duke in 1818. After having served +in the army of the princes he returned to France under the Empire, and +had been made a count by Napoleon. (M. P.*) + + + + +BAUHIN, GASPARD (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anatomist, was the son +of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-1582), who had to leave his +native country on becoming a convert to Protestantism. He was born at +Basel on the 17th of January 1560, and devoting himself to medicine, he +pursued his studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated +schools in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to the +degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and anatomy. In +1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship in that university, and +in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and botany. He was afterwards made city +physician, professor of the practice of medicine, rector of the +university, and dean of his faculty. He died at Basel on the 5th of +December 1624. He published several works relative to botany, of which +the most valuable was his _Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in +Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo +scripserunt opera_ (1596). Another great work which he planned was a +_Theatrum Botanicum_, meant to be comprised in twelve parts folio, of +which he finished three; only one, however, was published (1658). He +also gave a copious catalogue of the plants growing in the environs of +Basel, and edited the works of P.A. Mattioli (1500-1577) with +considerable additions. He likewise wrote on anatomy, his principal work +on this subject being _Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum_ +(1592). + +His son, JEAN GASPARD BAUHIN (1606-1685), was professor of botany at +Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, JEAN BAUHIN (1541-1613), +after studying botany at Tubingen under Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and +travelling with Conrad Gesner, began to practise medicine at Basel, +where he was elected professor of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he +was invited to become physician to the duke of Wurttemberg at +Montbeliard, where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted +himself chiefly to botany. His great work, _Historia plantarum nova et +absolutissima_, a compilation of all that was then known about botany, +was not complete at his death, but was published at Yverdon in +1650-1651, the _Prodromus_ having appeared at the same place in 1619. He +also wrote a book _De aquis medicatis_ (1605). + + + + +BAULK, or BALK (a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning a ridge, +partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughed between furrows or +ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip of land used as a boundary +in the "open-field" system of agriculture. From the meaning of something +left untouched comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse +stopping short of an obstacle, of the "baulk-line" in billiards, or of +the deceptive motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original +meaning, i.e. "beam," comes the use of the word for the cross or +tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one or one +and a half foot square section (see JOINERY). + + + + +BAUMBACH, RUDOLF (1840-1905), German poet, was born at Kranichfeld on +the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September 1840, the son of a local +medical practitioner, and received his early schooling at the gymnasium +of Meiningen, to which place his father had removed. After studying +natural science in various universities, he engaged in private tuition, +both independently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz, +Brunn, Gorz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular +taste with an Alpine legend, _Zlatorog_ (1877), and songs of a +journeyman apprentice, _Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_ (1878), both of +which have run into many editions. Their success decided him to embark +upon a literary career. In 1885 he returned to Meiningen, where he +received the title of _Hofrat_, and was appointed ducal librarian. His +death occurred on the 14th of September 1905. + +Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and wrote, in +imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel, many excellent +drinking songs, among which _Die Lindenwirtin_ has endeared him to the +German student world. But his real strength lay in narrative verse, +especially when he had the opportunity of describing the scenery and +life of his native Thuringia. Special mention may be made of _Frau +Holde_ (1881), _Spielmannslieder_ (1882), _Von der Landstrasse_ (1882), +_Thuringer Lieder_ (1891), and his prose, _Sommermarchen_ (1881). + + + + +BAUME, ANTOINE (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at Senlis on the +26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to the chemist Claude Joseph +Geoffroy, and in 1752 was admitted a member of the Ecole de Pharmacie, +where in the same year he was appointed professor of chemistry. The +money he made in a business he carried on in Paris for dealing in +chemical products enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote +himself to applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was +obliged to return to a commercial career. He devised many improvements +in technical processes, e.g. for bleaching silk, dyeing, gilding, +purifying saltpetre, &c., but he is best known as the inventor of the +hydrometer associated with his name (often in this connexion improperly +spelt Beaume). Of the numerous books and papers he wrote the most +important is his _Elemens de pharmacie theorique et pratique_ (9 +editions, 1762-1818). He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in +1772, and an associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the +15th of October 1804. + + + + +BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB (1714-1762), German philosopher, born at +Berlin. He studied at Halle, and became professor of philosophy at Halle +and at Frankfort on the Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple +of Leibnitz and Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been +the first to establish the _Theory of the Beautiful_ as an independent +science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics (q.v.) from +the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out a definite object +for its researches. The very name (_Aesthetics_), which Baumgarten was +the first to use, indicates the imperfect and partial nature of his +analysis, pointing as it does to an element so variable as _feeling_ or +_sensation_ as the ultimate ground of judgment in questions pertaining +to beauty. It is important to notice that Baumgarten's first work +preceded those of Burke, Diderot, and P. Andre, and that Kant had a +great admiration for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the +following: _Dispulationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus_ (1735); +_Aesthetics; Metaphysica_ (1739; 7th ed. 1779); _Ethica philosophica_ +(1751, 2nd ed. 1763); _Initia philosophiae practicae primae_ (1760). +After his death, his pupils published a _Philosophia Generalis_ (1770) +and a _Jus Naturae_ (1765), which he had left in manuscript. + + See Meyer, _Baumgarten's Leben_ (1763); Abbt, _Baumgarten's Leben und + Charakler_ (1765); H.G. Meyer, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (1874); J. + Schmidt, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (Halle, 1875); and article + AESTHETICS. + +His brother, SIEGMUND JACOB BAUMGARTEN (1706-1757), was professor of +theology at Halle, and applied the methods of Wolff to theology. His +chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.), is sometimes called, the +father of German rationalism. Baumgarten, though he did not renounce the +Pietistic doctrine, began the process which Semler completed. His works +include _Evangelische Glaubenslehre_ (1759); _Auszug der +Kirchengeschichte_ (1743-1762); _Primae lineae breviarii anliquitatum +Christianarum_ (1747); _Geschichte der Religionsparteien_ (1760); +_Nachricht van merkwurdigen Buchern_ (1752-1757); _Nachrichten van einer +hallischen Bibliothek_ (1748-1751). + + See life by Semler (Halle, 1758). + + + + +BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL (1812-1889), German Protestant theologian, was born +at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of March 1812. He studied +at Kiel University (1832), and became professor ordinarius of theology +at Rostock (1850). A liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854 +through a work, _Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus +der Gegenwart_, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament and +assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every kind. At a +pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended evangelical freedom as +regards the legal sanctity of Sunday. This, with other attempts to +liberalize religion, brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical +authorities of Mecklenburg, and in 1858 he was deprived of his +professorship. He then travelled throughout Germany, demanding justice, +telling the story of his life (_Christliche Selbstgesprache_, 1861), and +lecturing on the life of Jesus (_Die Geschichte Jesu. Fur das +Verstandniss der Gegenwart_, 1859). In 1865 he helped to found the +_Deutsche Protestantenverein_, but withdrew from it in 1877. On several +occasions (1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of +the progressive party. He died on the 21st of July 1889. Other works: +_Apostelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche van Jerusalem bis +Rom_ (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and _Doktor Martin Luther, ein Volksbuch_ +(1883). + + H.H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see also C. + Schwartz, _Neueste Theologie_ (1869); Lichtenberger, _Hist. Germ. + Theol._, 1889; Calwer-Zeller, _Kirchen-Lexikon_. + + + + +BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO (1788-1842), German Protestant +divine, was born at Merseburg. In 1805 he entered the university of +Leipzig and studied theology and philology. After acting as +_Privatdocent_ at Leipzig, he was, in 1812, appointed professor +extraordinarius of theology at Jena, where he remained to the end of his +life, rising gradually to the head of the theological faculty. He died +on the 31st of May 1842. With the exception of Church history, he +lectured on all branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially +on New Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the +history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate scholarship +and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his lectures and treatises, +especially those on the development of church doctrine. His published +works are many, the most important being:--_Lehrbuch der christtichen +Sittenlehre_ (1826); _Grundzuge der biblischen Theologie_ (1828); +_Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_ (1832); _Compendium der +Dogmengeschichte_ (1840). The last, perhaps his best work, was left +unfinished, but was completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase. + + + + +BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN (1792-1860), leader of the Tubingen school of +theology, was born at Schmiden, near Canstatt, on the 21st of June 1792. +After receiving an early training in the theological seminary at +Blaubeuren, he went in 1809 to the university of Tubingen. Here he +studied for a time under Ernst Bengel, grandson of the eminent New +Testament critic, Johann Albrecht Bengel, and at this early stage in his +career he seems to have been under the influence of the old Tubingen +school. But at the same time the philosophers Immanuel Fichte and +Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide and deep impression. In 1817 +Baur returned to the theological seminary at Blaubeuren as professor. +This move marked a turning-point in his life, for he was now able to set +to work upon those investigations on which his reputation rests. He had +already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser's _Biblische Theologie_ +for Bengel's _Archiv fur Theologie_ (ii. 656); its tone was moderate and +conservative. When, a few years after his appointment at Blaubeuren, he +published his first important, work, _Symbolik und Mythologie oder die +Naturreligion des Altertums_ (1824-1825), it became evident that he had +made a deeper study of philosophy, and had come under the influence of +Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher. The +learning of the work was fully recognized, and in 1826 the author was +called to Tubingen as professor of theology. It is with Tubingen that +his greatest literary achievements are associated. His earlier +publications here treated of mythology and the history of dogma. _Das +manichaische Religionssystem_ appeared in 1831, _Apollonius von Tyana_ +in 1832, _Die christliche Gnosis_ in 1835, and _Uber das Christliche im +Platonismus oder Socrates und Christus_ in 1837. As Otto Pfleiderer +(_Development of Theology_, p. 285) observes, "the choice not less than +the treatment of these subjects is indicative of the large breadth of +view and the insight of the historian into the comparative history of +religion." Meantime Baur had exchanged one master in philosophy for +another, Schleiermacher for Hegel. In doing so, he had adopted +completely the Hegelian philosophy of history. "Without philosophy," he +has said, "history is always for me dead and dumb." The change of view +is illustrated clearly in the essay, published in the _Tubinger +Zeitschrift_ for 1831, on the Christ-party in the Corinthian Church, +_Die Chrislusparlei in der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz des +paulinischen und petrinischen in der alsten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus +in Rom_, the trend of which is suggested by the title. Baur contends +that St Paul was opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party which +wished to set up its own form of Christian religion instead of his +universal Christianity. He finds traces of a keen conflict of parties in +the post-apostolic age. The theory is further developed in a later work +(1835, the year in which David Strauss' _Leben Jesu_ was published), +_Uber die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe_. In this Baur attempts to prove +that the false teachers mentioned in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus +are the Gnostics, particularly the Marcionites, of the second century, +and consequently that the Epistles were produced in the middle of this +century in opposition to Gnosticism. He next proceeded to investigate +the Pauline Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles in the same manner, +publishing his results in 1845 under the title _Paulus, der Apostel Jesu +Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre_. In this +he contends that only the Epistles to the Galatians, Corinthians and +Romans are genuinely Pauline, and that the Paul of Acts is a different +person from the Paul of these genuine Epistles, the author being a +Paulinist who, with an eye to the different parties in the Church, is at +pains to represent Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as +far as possible as a Petrinist. Thus it becomes clear that Baur is +prepared to apply his theory to the whole of the New Testament; in the +words of H.S. Nash, "he carried a sweeping hypothesis into the +examination of the New Testament." Those writings alone he considers +genuine in which the conflict between Jewish-Christians and +Gentile-Christians is clearly marked. In his _Kritische Untersuchungen +uber die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss zu einander, ihren +Charakter und Ursprung_ (1847) he turns his attention to the Gospels, +and here again finds that the authors were conscious of the conflict of +parties; the Gospels reveal a mediating or conciliatory tendency +(_Tendenz_) on the part of the writers or redactors. The Gospels, in +fact, are adaptations or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the +Gospel of the Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites. +The Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original +Gospel (_Urevangelium_); the Pauline Luke is later and arose +independently; Mark represents a still later development; the account in +John is idealistic: it "does not possess historical truth, and cannot +and does not really lay claim to it." Baur's whole theory indeed starts +with the supposition that Christianity was gradually developed out of +Judaism. Before it could become a universal religion, it had to struggle +with Jewish limitations and to overcome them. The early Christians were +Jewish-Christians, to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other +hand, represented a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus +there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter, James and +John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle continued down to +the middle of the 2nd century. In short, the conflict between Petrinism +and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz puts it, the key to the literature of +the 1st and 2nd century. + +But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical critic. As +early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work, _Gegensatz des +Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der +beiden Lehrbegriffe_, a strong defence of Protestantism on the lines of +Schleiermacher's _Glaubenslehre_, and a vigorous reply to J. Mohler's +_Symbolik_ (1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma, +_Die christliche Lehre van der Versohnung in ihrer geschichtlichen +Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (1838), _Die christliche Lehre von +der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer geschichtlichen +Entwicklung_ (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the _Lehrbuch der christlichen +Dogmengeschichte_ (1847). The value of these works is impaired somewhat +by Baur's habit of making the history of dogma conform to the formulae of +Hegel's philosophy, a procedure "which only served to obscure the truth +and profundity of his conception of history as a true development of the +human mind" (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon came to attach more +importance to personality, and to distinguish more carefully between +religion and philosophy. The change is marked in his _Epochen der +kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung_ (1852), _Das Christenthum und die +christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte_ (1853), and _Die +christliche Kirche von Anfang des vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten +Jahrhunderts_ (1859), works preparatory to his _Kirchengeschichte_, in +which the change of view is specially pronounced. The _Kirchengeschichte_ +was published in five volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur +himself, partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard +Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him. +Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as "a +classic for all time." "Taken as a whole, it is the first thorough and +satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity and the Church +on _strictly historical_ lines, i.e. as a natural development of the +religious spirit of our race under the combined operation of various +human causes" (_Development of Theology_, p. 288). Baur's lectures on the +history of dogma, _Ausfuhrlichere Vorlesungen uber die christliche +Dogmengeschichte_, were published later by his son (1865-1868). + +Baur's views were revolutionary and often extreme; but, whatever may be +thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic he rendered a great +service to theological science. "One thing is certain: New Testament +study, since his time, has had a different colour" (H.S. Nash). He has +had a number of disciples or followers, who have in many cases modified +his positions. + + A full account of F.C. Baur's labours, and a complete list of his + writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopadie_, in which his work is divided into three periods: + (1) "Philosophy of Religion," (2) "Biblical criticism," (3) "Church + History." See also H.S. Nash, _The History of the Higher Criticism of + the New Testament_ (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, _The Development + of Theology in Germany since Kant_ (trans., 1890); Carl Schwarz, _Zur + Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_ (Leipzig, 1869); R.W. Mackay, _The + Tubingen School and its Antecedents_ (1863); A.S. Farrar, _A Critical + History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion_ + (Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on "The Tubingen + Historical School," in _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862. + (M. A. C.) + + + + +BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE (1796-1867), French philosopher and +theologian, was born at Paris. At the Ecole Normale he came under the +influence of Cousin. In 1816 he adopted the profession of higher +teaching, and was soon after called to the chair of philosophy in the +university of Strassburg. He held this position for many years, and gave +a parallel course of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in +the same city. The reaction against speculative philosophy, which +carried away De Maistre and Lamennais, influenced him also. In 1828 he +took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For several years +he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty and at the college +of Juilly, but in 1840 he set out for Paris as vicar of the diocese. At +Paris he obtained considerable reputation as an orator, and in 1853 was +made professor of moral theology at the theological faculty. This post +he held till his death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason +and faith, and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise +unattainable, which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods. +Theology and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science. Yet Bautain +was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he exalted faith above +reason. He pointed out, following chiefly the Kantian criticism, that +reason can never yield knowledge of things in themselves. But there +exists in addition to reason another faculty which may be called +intelligence, through which we are put in connexion with spiritual and +invisible truth. This intelligence does not of itself yield a body of +truth; it merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are +made productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts. This +fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the departments of +psychology and morals. The details of this theology are highly +imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a spirit of the world +and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth to a physical and +psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the animal and vegetable +spirits. His theories may well be compared with the arbitrary mysticism +of van Helmont and the Gnostics. The most important of his works +are:--_Philosophie du Christianisme_ (1835); _Psychologic experimentale_ +(1839), new edition entitled _Esprit humain et ses facultes_ (1859); +_Philosophie morale_ (1840); _Religion et liberte_ (1848); _La Morale de +l'evangile comparee aux divers systemes de morale_ (Strassburg, 1827; +Paris, 1855); _De l'education publique en France au XIX^e siecle_ +(Paris, 1876). + + + + +BAUTZEN (Wendish _Budissin_, "town"), a town of Germany, in the kingdom +of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515; +(1905) 29,412. It occupies an eminence on the right bank of the Spree, +680 ft. above the level of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the +Dresden-Gorlitz-Breslau main line of railway, and at the junction of +lines from Schandau and Konigswartha. The town is surrounded by walls, +and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned into +promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the left bank of +the river. Among its churches the most remarkable is the cathedral of St +Peter, dating from the 15th century, with a tower 300 ft. in height. It +is used by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, an iron screen +separating the parts assigned to each. There are five other churches, a +handsome town hall, an orphan-asylum, several hospitals, a mechanics' +institute, a famous grammar school (gymnasium), a normal and several +other schools, and two public libraries. The general trade and +manufactures are considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth), +linen and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It has +also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar +factories, &c. + +Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler, conquered +Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under Otto I., his +successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth and importance, for +a good share of which it was indebted to the pilgrimages which were made +to the "arm of St Peter," preserved in one of the churches. It suffered +greatly during the Hussite war, and still more during the Thirty Years' +War, in the course of which it was besieged and captured by the elector +of Brandenburg, John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wallenstein +(1633), and, in the following year was burned by its commander before +being surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in +1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity. + + + Battle of Bautzen, 1813. + +The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 20th and 21st +of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of Russians and +Prussians (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The position chosen by the allies +as that in which to receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from +Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right. Bautzen +itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing (Russians), the +main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near Jenkwitz. On the +heights of Burk, 2-1/2 m. N.E. of Bautzen, was Kleist's Prussian corps, +with Yorck's in support. On Kleist's right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of +Burk) lay Blucher's corps, and on Blucher's right, formed at an angle to +him, and refused towards Gleina (7 m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the +Russians of Barclay de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought +abounded in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as +battlegrounds of the Seven Years' War. The whole line was covered by the +river Spree, which served as an immediate defence for the left and +centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to attack the right; +moreover the interval between the river and the position on this side +was covered with a network of ponds and watercourses. Napoleon's right +and centre approached (on a broad front owing to the want of cavalry) +from Dresden by Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was +separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at Luckau, was +ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and Klix to strike the allies' +right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon, after a prolonged reconnaissance, +advanced the main army against Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy's +right to be dealt with by Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the +extreme left of the allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to +move his artillery and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot's +(XII.) corps, the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly +country to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald's (XI.) corps was to +assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the Spree and +attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three corps were directed +by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand's (IV.) corps was held back to +connect with Ney, who had then reached Weissig with the head of his +column. The Guard and other general reserves were in rear of Macdonald +and Marmont. Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont +easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the other +bank of the river by about 4 P.M. A heavy and indecisive combat took +place in the evening between Oudinot and the Russian left, directed by +the tsar in person, in which Oudinot's men made a little progress +towards Jenkwitz. Marmont's battle was more serious. The Prussians were +not experienced troops, but were full of ardour and hatred of the +French. Kleist made a most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and +Bertrand's corps was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but +part of Blucher's corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not +taken till 7 P.M. The French attack was much impeded by the ground and +by want of room to deploy between the river and the enemy. But +Napoleon's object in thus forcing the fighting in the centre was +achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the French attack, +gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and right to sustain the +shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were in possession of the French, +and the allied line now stretched from Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz, +Blucher and Barclay maintaining their original positions at Pliskowitz +and Gleina. The night of the 20th-21st was spent by both armies on the +battlefield. Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost +fought out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive +point was to be Barclay's position. Soon after daybreak fighting was +renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep until the +time appointed for Ney's attack. To a heavy counter-stroke against +Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal from the ground won on the +20th, the emperor paid no more heed than to order Macdonald to support +the XII corps. For in this second position of the allies, which was far +more formidable than the original line, the decisive result could be +brought about only by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the +corps of Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total +force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had been +sharply engaged on the 19th, but had spent the 20th in calculated +inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened; Ney and Lauriston +moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and Victor operated by a wide +turning movement against Barclay's right rear. The advance was carried +out with precision; the Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was now +closing upon the rear of Blucher's corps at the village of Preititz. +Napoleon at once ordered Soult's four corps to renew their attacks in +order to prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the +critical moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at 11 A.M. +and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite of an hour +enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was checked +until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could come upon the +scene. At 1 P.M., when Ney resumed his advance, it was too late to cut +off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now made his final stroke. The +Imperial Guard and all other troops in the centre, 80,000 strong and +covered by a great mass of artillery, moved forward to the attack; and +shortly the allied centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent +to oppose Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Blucher, now +almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make head +against Soult, and Ney's four corps then carried all before them. +Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney's appearance, +to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered a general retreat +eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and bravery directing the +rearguard. Thus the allies drew off unharmed, leaving no trophies in the +hands of Napoleon, whose success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a +variety of reasons, and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a _coup +manque_ strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side +163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses +respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded. + + + + +BAUXITE, a substance which has been considered to be a mineral species, +having the composition Al2O(OH)4 (corresponding with alumina 73.9, water +26.1%), and thus to be distinct from the crystallized aluminium +hydroxides, diaspore (AlO(OH)) and gibbsite (= hydrargillite, Al(OH)3). +It was first described by P. Berthier in 1821 as "alumine hydratee de +Beaux," and was named beauxite by P.A. Dufrenoy in 1847 and bauxite by +E.H. Sainte-Claire Deville in 1861; this name being derived from the +original locality, the village of Les Baux (or Beaux), near Arles, dep. +Bouches-du-Rhone in the south of France, where the material has been for +many years extensively mined as an ore of aluminium. It is never found +in a crystallized state, but always as earthy, clay-like or +concretionary masses, often with a pisolitic structure. In colour it +varies from white through yellow and brown to red, depending on the +amount and the degree of hydration of the iron present. The specific +gravity also varies with the amount of iron; that of the variety known +as wocheinite (from near Lake Wochein, near Radmannsdorf, in northern +Carniola) is given as 2.55. The numerous chemical analyses, which have +mostly been made for technical purposes, show that material known as +bauxite varies very widely in composition, the maximum and minimum +percentages of each constituent being as follows: alumina (Al2O3) +33.2-76.9; water (H2O) 8.6-31.4; iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.1-48.8; silica +(SiO2) 0.3-37.8; titanic acid (TiO2) up to 4. The material is thus +usually very impure, being mixed with clay, quartz-sand and hydroxides +of iron in variable amounts, the presence of which may be seen by a +microscopical examination. Analyses of purer material often approximate +to diaspore or gibbsite in composition, and minute crystalline scales of +these minerals have been detected under the microscope. + +Bauxite can therefore scarcely be regarded as a simple mineral, but +rather as a mixture of gibbsite and diaspore with various impurities; it +is in fact strikingly like laterite, both in chemical composition and in +microscopical structure. Laterite is admittedly a decomposition-product +of igneous or other crystalline rocks, and the same is no doubt also +true of bauxite. The deposits in Co. Antrim occur with pisolitic iron +ore inter-bedded with the Tertiary basalts, and similar deposits are met +with in connexion with the basaltic rocks of the Westerwald in Germany. +On the other hand, the more extensive deposits in the south of France +(departments Bouches-du-Rhone, Ariege, Herault, Var) and the southern +United States (Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas) are often associated with +limestones; in this case the origin of the bauxite has been ascribed to +the chemical action of solutions of aluminium sulphate on the +limestones. + +Bauxite is of value chiefly as a source of metallic aluminium (q.v.); +the material is first purified by chemical processes, after which the +aluminium hydroxide is reduced in the electric furnace. Bauxite is also +largely used in the manufacture of alum and other aluminium salts used +in dyeing. Its refractory qualities render it available for the +manufacture of fire-bricks and crucibles. (L. J. S.) + + + + +BAVAI, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 15 m. E.S.E. +of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1622. The town carries on the +manufacture of iron goods and of fertilizers. Under the name of +_Bagacum_ or _Bavacum_ it was the capital of the Nervii and, under the +Romans, an important centre of roads, the meeting-place of which was +marked by a milestone, destroyed in the 17th century and replaced in the +19th century by a column. Bavai was destroyed during the barbarian +invasions and never recovered its old importance. It suffered much +during the wars of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. + + + + +BAVARIA (Ger. _Bayern_), a kingdom of southern Germany, next to Prussia +the largest state of the German empire in area and population. It +consists of two distinct and unequal portions. Bavaria proper, and the +Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from 25 to 40 m. W. apart and are +separated by the grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse. + +_Physical Features._--Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by the Alps, +on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a long range of mountains known as the +Bohmerwald, on the N. by the Fichtelgebirge and the Frankenwald, which +separate it from the kingdom of Saxony, the principality of Reuss, the +duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Meiningen and the Prussian province of +Hesse-Cassel. The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.; +but the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain an +elevation of 9000 or 10,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded by +Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. The country mainly belongs to +the basins of the Danube and the Main; by far the greater portion being +drained by the former river, which, entering from Swabia as a navigable +stream, traverses the entire breadth of the kingdom, with a winding +course of 200 m., and receives in its passage the Iller, the Lech, the +Isar and the Inn from the south, and the Naab, the Altmuhl and the +Wornitz from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian +territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river flowing +from Upper Austria. The Isar does not become navigable till it has +passed Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar size. The Main +traverses the northern regions, or Upper and Lower Franconia, with a +very winding course and greatly facilitates the trade of the provinces. +The district watered by the southern tributaries of the Danube consists +for the most part of an extensive plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390 +ft. In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous lakes and +in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy ground. The +smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is bounded on the E. by the +Rhine, which divides it from the grand-duchy of Baden, on the S. by +Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a lofty range of hills, the +Haardtgebirge, which separate it from Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine +province. + +The climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the character of the +region, being cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the plains +adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the temperature is in +the winter months considerably colder than that of England, and a good +deal hotter during summer and autumn. + +_Area and Population._--Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion, contains +an area of 26,998 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western, 2288 sq. m., +making the whole extent of the kingdom about 29,286 sq. m. The total +population, according to the census of 1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a +quarter of the inhabitants live in towns, of which Munich and Nuremberg +have populations exceeding 100,000, Augsburg, Wurzburg, Furth and +Ludwigshafen between 50,000 and 100,000, while twenty-six other towns +number from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. + +Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various ancient tribes; +Germanized Slavs in the north-east, Swabians and Franks in the centre, +Franks towards the west, and, in the Palatinate, Walloons. Politically, +the country is divided into eight provinces, as follows:-- + + + +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+ + | | |Pop. of Province| Area in | + | Provinces. | Capital. | in 1905. | sq. m. | + +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+ + | Upper Bavaria | Munich | 1,410,763 | 6,456 | + | Lower Bavaria | Landshut | 706,345 | 4,152 | + | Upper Palatinate | Regensburg | 573,476 | 3,728 | + | Upper Franconia | Bayreuth | 637,239 | 2,702 | + | Middle Franconia | Ansbach | 868,072 | 2,925 | + | Lower Franconia | Wurzburg | 680,769 | 3,243 | + | Swabia | Augsburg | 750,880 | 3,792 | + | The Palatinate | Spires | 885,280 | 2,288 | + | | +----------------+---------+ + | | Total | 6,512,824 | 29,286 | + +------------------+------------+----------------+---------+ + +_Religion._--The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are Roman +Catholics. The Protestant-Evangelical Church claims about 29%, while +Jews, and a very small number of other sects, account for the remainder. + +The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate +are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in the Rhine Palatinate, Upper +Franconia, and especially Middle Franconia, the preponderance is on the +side of the Protestants. The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is +altogether free. The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Roman +Catholics, and the sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or Protestant. +Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads are the two archbishops of +Munich-Freising and Bamberg, and the six bishops of Eichstatt, Spires, +Wurzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg and Passau, of whom the first three are +suffragans of Bamberg. The "Old Catholic" party, under the bishop of +Bonn, has failed, despite its early successes, to take deep root in the +country. Among the Protestants the highest authority is the general +consistory of Munich. The numbers of the different religions in 1900 +were as follows:--Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants, 1,749,206; +Jews, 54,928. + +_Education._--Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has recently done +much in this connexion. The state has two Roman Catholic universities, +Munich and Wurzburg, and a Lutheran, Erlangen; in Munich there are a +polytechnic, an academy of sciences and an academy of art. + +_Agriculture._--Of the total surface of Bavaria about one-half is under +cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth mostly pasture. +The level country, including both Lower Bavaria (extending northwards to +the Danube) and the western and middle parts of Franconia, is productive +of rye, oats, wheat, barley and millet, and also of hemp, flax, madder +and fruit and vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the +Lake of Constance, on the banks of the Main, in the lower part of its +course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively grown +in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Germany) round Nuremberg and +in the Palatinate, which also largely produces the sugar-beet. Potatoes +are cultivated in all the provinces, but especially in the Palatinate +and in the Spessart district, which lies in the north-west within a +curve of the Main. The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria, +where pasture-land predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and the +dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in large numbers. + +The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of Bavaria. +This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly and mountainous +country, the thinness of the population and the necessity of keeping a +given extent of ground under wood for the supply of fuel. More than a +third of the forests are public property and furnish a considerable +addition to the revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces +of Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine. The +forests are well stocked with game, deer, chamois (in the Alps), wild +boars, capercailzie, grouse, pheasants, &c. being plentiful. The greater +proportion of the land throughout the kingdom is in the hands of peasant +proprietors, the extent of the separate holdings differing very much in +different districts. The largest peasant property may be about 170 +acres, and the smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50. + +_Minerals._--The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria are coal, iron ore, +graphite and salt. The coal mines lie principally in the districts of +Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the Rhine Palatinate. Salt is +obtained on a large scale partly from brine springs and partly from +mines, the principal centres being Halle, Berchtesgaden, Traunstein and +Rosenheim. The government monopoly which had long existed was abolished +in 1867 and free trade was established in salt between the members of +the customs-union. Of quicksilver there are several mines, chiefly in +the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of copper, manganese +and cobalt are obtained. There are numerous quarries of excellent +marble, alabaster, gypsum and building stone; and the porcelain-clay is +among the finest in Europe. To these may be added emery, steatite, +barytes, felspar and ochre, in considerable quantities; excellent +lithographic stone is obtained at Solenhofen; and gold and silver are +still worked, but to an insignificant extent. + +_Manufactures and Trade._--A great stimulus was given to manufacturing +industry in Bavaria by the law of 1868, which abolished the last remains +of the old restrictions of the gilds, and gave the whole country the +liberty which had been enjoyed by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief +centres of industry are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Furth, Erlangen, +Aschaffenburg, Regensburg, Wurzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and Hof +in Bavaria proper, and in the Palatinate Spires and the Rhine port of +Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware industry are Munich, +Nuremberg, Augsburg and Furth; the two first especially for locomotives +and automobiles, the last for tinfoil and metal toys. Aschaffenburg +manufactures fancy goods, Augsburg and Hof produce excellent cloth, and +Munich has a great reputation for scientific instruments. In Franconia +are numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is largely +carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. A considerable +quantity of glass is made, particularly in the Bohmerwald. Brewing forms +an important industry, the best-known breweries being those of Munich, +Nuremberg, Erlangen and Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are +leather, tobacco, porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nuremberg), +plate-glass, sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets. The +commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist chiefly of +corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods, glass, fancy +wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat of the hop-trade is +Nuremberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports comprise sugar, tobacco, +cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron. + +_Communications._--Trade is served by an excellent railway system and +there are steamboat services on the navigable rivers, to the east by way +of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by Ludwigshafen. The high roads +of Bavaria, many of which are military roads laid out at the beginning +of the 19th century, extend in all over about 10,000 m. There were 4377 +m. of railways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the +hands of the state, and about 440 m. belonged to the private system of +the Palatinate. The principal canal is the Ludwigskanal, which connects +the Rhine with the Danube, extending from Bamberg on the Regnitz to +Dietfurt on the Altmuhl. There is an extensive network of telegraph and +telephone lines. All belong to the government post office, which forms +an administrative system independent of the imperial German post office. + +_Constitution and Administration._--By the treaty of Versailles (23rd +November 1870) and the imperial constitution of the 16th of April 1871, +Bavaria was incorporated with the German empire, reserving, however, +certain separate privileges (_Sonderrechte_) in respect of the +administration of the army, the railways and the posts, the excise +duties on beer, the rights of domicile and the insurance of real estate. +The king is the supreme chief of the army, and matters requiring +adjudication in the adjutant-general's court are referred to a special +Bavarian court attached to the supreme imperial military tribunal in +Berlin. Bavaria is represented in the Bundesrat by six votes and sends +forty-eight deputies to the imperial diet. The Bavarian constitution is +mainly founded on the constitutional act of the 26th of May 1818, +modified by subsequent acts--that of the 9th of March 1828 as affecting +the upper house, and those of the 4th of June 1848 and of the 21st of +March 1881 as affecting the lower--and is a limited monarchy, with a +legislative body of two houses. The crown is hereditary in the house of +Wittelsbach, according to the rights of primogeniture, females being +excluded from succession so long as male agnates of equal birth exist. +The title of the sovereign is king of Bavaria, that of his presumptive +heir is crown-prince of Bavaria, and during the minority or incapacity +of the sovereign a regency is declared, which is vested in the nearest +male agnate capable of ascending the throne. Such a regency began on the +10th of June 1886, at first for King Louis II., and after the 14th of +the same month for King Otto I., in the person of the prince regent +Luitpold. The executive power resides in the king and the responsibility +for the government of the kingdom in his ministers. The royal family is +Roman Catholic, and the seat of government is Munich, the capital. + +The upper house of the Bavarian parliament (_Kammer der Reichsrate_) is +composed of (1) the princes of the blood royal (being of full age), (2) +the ministers of the crown, (3) the archbishops of Munich, Freising and +Bamberg, (4) the heads of such noble families as were formerly +"immediate" so long as they retain their ancient possessions in Bavaria, +(5) of a Roman Catholic bishop appointed by the king for life, and of +the president for the time being of the Protestant consistory, (6) of +hereditary counsellors (_Reichsrate_) appointed by the king, and (7) of +other counsellors appointed by the king for life. The lower house +(_Kammer der Abgeordneten_) or chamber of representatives, consists, +since 1881, of 159 deputies, in proportion of one--reckoned on the +census of 1875--to every 31,500 inhabitants. A general election takes +place every six years, and, under the electoral law of 1906, is direct. +Qualifications for the general body of electors are full age of +twenty-five years, Bavarian citizenship of one year at least, and +discharge of all rates and taxes. Parliament must be assembled every +three years, but as the budget is taken every two years, it is regularly +called together within that period. No laws affecting the liberty or +property of the subject can be passed without the sanction of +parliament. + +_Revenue._--The following is a fairly typical statement of the budget +estimates (1902-1903), in marks (= 1 shilling sterling):-- + + + Receipts. + Mks. + Direct taxes 38,199,000 + Customs and indirect taxes 50,900,990 + State railways 184,551,000 + Posts and telegraphs 41,665,100 + Forests and agricultural dues 37,395,000 + Imperial assignments 62,571,605 + ------------ + 415,282,695 + =========== + = L20,764,135 + + Disbursements. + Mks. + Civil list 5,402,475 + State debt 51,323,200 + Ministry of the Royal house + and of Foreign dept. 688,398 + Ministry of Justice 20,615,299 + Ministry of interior 30,055,338 + Public worship and education 34,667,673 + Minister of finance 6,696,780 + Constribution to imperial + exchequer 72,647,090 + ------------ + 222,296,253 + =========== + = L11,114,813 + + +The public debt amounts to about L95,000,000, of which over 75% was +incurred for railways. + +_Army._--The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the army of the +German empire, with a separate administration, but in time of war is +under the supreme command of the German emperor. The regulations +applicable to other sections of the whole imperial army are, however, +observed. It consists, on a peace footing, of three army corps, 1st, 2nd +and 3rd Royal Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of +which are in Munich, Nuremberg and Wurzburg respectively. The Bavarian +army comprises sixty-seven battalions of infantry, two battalions of +rifles, ten regiments of cavalry (two heavy, two Ulan and six +Chevauxlegers), a squadron of mounted infantry (_Jager-zu-pferde_), +twelve field- and two foot-artillery regiments, three battalions of +engineers, three of army service, and a balloon section; in all 60,000 +men with 10,000 horses. In time of war the total force is trebled. + (P. A. A.) + + +HISTORY + +The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called Bavaria +were a people, probably of Celtic extraction, who were subdued by the +Romans just before the opening of the Christian era, when colonies were +founded among them and their land was included in the province of +Raetia. During the 5th century it was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer +and, after being almost denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes +who, pushing along the valley of the Danube, settled there between A.D. +488 and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the race and +origin of these people, who were certainly a new and composite social +aggregate. Most likely they were descendants of the Marcomanni, Quadi +and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or Swabian race, with possibly a small +intermixture of Gothic or Celtic elements. They were called _Baioarii, +Baiowarii, Bawarii_ or _Baiuwarii_, words derived most probably from +_Baja_ or _Baya_, corruptions of _Bojer_, and given to them because they +came from _Bojerland_ or _Bohemia_. Another but less probable +explanation derives the name from a combination of the old high German +word _uuara_, meaning league, and _bai_, a Gothic word for both. The +Bavarians are first mentioned in a Frankish document of 520, and twenty +years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east of the Swabians. Their +country bore some traces of Roman influence, and its main boundaries +were the Enns, the Danube, the Lech and the Alps; but its complete +settlement was a work of time. + + + Frankish influence. + +The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks, probably +without a serious struggle; and were ruled from 555 to 788 by dukes of +the Agilolfing family, who were possibly of Frankish descent. For a +century and a half a succession of dukes resisted the inroads of the +Slavs on their eastern frontier, and by the time of Duke Theodo I., who +died in 717, were completely independent of the feeble Frankish kings. +When Charles Martel became the virtual ruler of the Frankish realm he +brought the Bavarians into strict dependence, and deposed two dukes +successively for contumacy. Pippin the Short was equally successful in +maintaining his authority, and several marriages took place between the +family to which he belonged and the Agilolfings, who were united in a +similar manner with the kings of the Lombards. The ease with which +various risings were suppressed by the Franks gives colour to the +supposition that they were rather the outcome of family quarrels than +the revolt of an oppressed people. Between the years 739 and 748 the +Bavarian law was committed to writing and supplementary clauses were +afterwards added, all of which bear evident traces of Frankish +influence. Thus, while the dukedom belongs to the Agilolfing family, the +duke must be chosen by the people and his election confirmed by the +Frankish king, to whom he owes fealty. He has a fivefold wergild, +summons the nobles and clergy for purposes of deliberation, calls out +the host, administers justice and regulates finance. There are five +noble families, possibly representing a former division of the people, +after whom come the freeborn, and then the freedmen. The country is +divided into _gaus_ or counties, under their counts, who are assisted by +judges responsible for declaring the law. + + + Christianity. + +Christianity had lingered in Bavaria from Roman times; but a new era set +in when Rupert, bishop of Worms, came to the country at the invitation +of Duke Theodo I. in 696. He founded several monasteries, and a similar +work was also performed by St Emmeran, bishop of Poitiers; with the +result that before long the bulk of the people professed Christianity +and relations were established between Bavaria and Rome. The 8th century +witnessed indeed a heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival +in Bavaria about 734 of St. Boniface, who organized the Bavarian church +and founded or restored bishoprics at Salzburg, Freising, Regensburg and +Passau. + + + Frankish conquest. + +Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749, recognized the +supremacy of the Frankish king Pippin the Short in 757, but soon +afterwards refused to furnish a contribution to the war in Aquitaine. +Moreover, during the early years of the reign of Charlemagne, Tassilo +gave decisions in ecclesiastical and civil causes in his own name, +refused to appear in the assemblies of the Franks, and in general acted +as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the Alpine passes, +as an ally of the Avars, and as son-in-law of the Lombard king +Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Frankish kingdom that +Charlemagne determined to crush him. The details of this contest are +obscure. Tassilo appears to have done homage in 781, and again in 787, +probably owing to the presence of Frankish armies. But further trouble +soon arose, and in 788 the duke was summoned to Ingelheim, where on a +charge of treachery he was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned +by the king; and he then entered a monastery and formally renounced his +duchy at Frankfort in 794. The country was ruled by Gerold, a +brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till his death in a battle with the Avars +in 799, when its administration was entrusted to Frankish counts and +assimilated with that of the rest of the Carolingian empire, while its +condition was improved by the measures taken by Charlemagne for the +intellectual progress and material welfare of his realm. The Bavarians +offered no resistance to the change which thus abolished their dukedom; +and their incorporation with the Frankish dominions, due mainly to the +unifying influence of the church, was already so complete that +Charlemagne did not find it necessary to issue more than two +capitularies dealing especially with Bavarian affairs. + + + Union with Carolingian Empire. + + Part of the German Kingdom. + + The duchy passes to the Welfs. + +The history of Bavaria for the ensuing century is bound up with that of +the Carolingian empire. Given at the partition of 817 to the king of the +East Franks, Louis the German, it formed part of the larger territories +which were confirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of Verdun, Louis made +Regensburg the centre of his government, and was active in improving the +condition of Bavaria, and providing for its security by numerous +campaigns against the Slavs. When he divided his possessions in 865 it +passed to his eldest son, Carloman, who had already undertaken its +government, and after his death in 880 it formed part of the extensive +territories of the emperor Charles the Fat. Its defence was left by this +incompetent emperor to Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, and it +was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that Arnulf was able to +take the field against Charles in 887, and to secure his own election as +German king in the following year. Bavaria, which was the centre of the +East Frankish kingdom, passed in 899 to Louis the Child, during whose +reign it was constantly ravaged by the Hungarians. The resistance to +these inroads became gradually feebler, and it is said that on the 5th +of July 907 almost the whole of the Bavarian race perished in battle +with these formidable enemies. For the defence of Bavaria the mark of +Carinthia had been erected on the south-eastern frontier, and during the +reign of Louis the Child this was ruled by Liutpold, count of Scheyern, +who possessed large domains in Bavaria. He was among those who fell in +the great fight of 907; but his son Arnulf, surnamed the Bad, rallied +the remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was chosen duke +of the Bavarians in 911, when Bavaria and Carinthia were united under +his rule. Refusing to acknowledge the supremacy of the German king +Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully attacked by the latter, and in 920 was +recognized as duke by Conrad's successor, Henry I., the Fowler, who +admitted his right to appoint the bishops, to coin money and to issue +laws. A similar conflict took place between Arnulf's son and successor +Eberhard and Otto the Great; but Eberhard was less successful than his +father, for in 938 he was driven from Bavaria, which was given by Otto +with reduced privileges to the late duke's uncle, Bertold; and a count +palatine in the person of Eberhard's brother Arnulf was appointed to +watch the royal interests. When Bertold died in 947 Otto conferred the +duchy upon his own brother Henry, who had married Judith, a daughter of +Duke Arnulf. Henry was disliked by the Bavarians and his short reign was +spent mainly in disputes with his people. The ravages of the Hungarians +ceased after their defeat on the Lechfeld in 955, and the area of the +duchy was temporarily increased by the addition of certain adjacent +districts in Italy. In 955 Henry was succeeded by his young son Henry, +surnamed the Quarrelsome, who in 974 was implicated in a conspiracy +against King Otto II. The reason for this rising was that the king had +granted the duchy of Swabia to Henry's enemy, Otto, a grandson of the +emperor Otto the Great, and had given the new Bavarian East Mark, +afterwards known as Austria, to Leopold I., count of Babenberg. The +revolt was, however, soon suppressed; but Henry, who on his escape from +prison renewed his plots, was formally deposed in 976 when Bavaria was +given to Otto, duke of Swabia. At the same time Carinthia was made into +a separate duchy, the office of count palatine was restored, and the +church was made dependent on the king instead of on the duke. Restored +in 985, Henry proved himself a capable ruler by establishing internal +order, issuing important laws and taking measures to reform the +monasteries. His son and successor, who was chosen German king as Henry +II. in 1002, gave Bavaria to his brother-in-law Henry of Luxemburg; +after whose death in 1026 it passed successively to Henry, afterwards +the emperor Henry III., and to another member of the family of +Luxemburg, as Duke Henry VII. In 1061 the empress Agnes, mother of and +regent for the German king Henry IV., entrusted the duchy to Otto of +Nordheim, who was deposed by the king in 1070, when the duchy was +granted to Count Welf, a member of an influential Bavarian family. In +consequence of his support of Pope Greegory VII. in his quarrel with +Henry, Welf lost but subsequently regained Bavaria; and was followed +successively by his sons, Welf II. in 1101, and Henry IX. in 1120, both +of whom exercised considerable influence among the German princes. Henry +was succeeded in 1126 by his son Henry X., called the Proud, who +obtained the duchy of Saxony in 1137. Alarmed at this prince's power, +King Conrad III. refused to allow two duchies to remain in the same +hands; and, having declared Henry deposed, he bestowed Bavaria upon +Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. When Leopold died in 1141, the king +retained the duchy himself; but it continued to be the scene of +considerable disorder, and in 1143 he entrusted it to Henry II., +surnamed Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria. The struggle for its +possession continued until 1156, when King Frederick I. in his desire to +restore peace to Germany persuaded Henry to give up Bavaria to Henry the +Lion, a son of Duke Henry the Proud. + + + Then to the Wittelsbachs. + + Area of Bavaria. + +A new era of government set in when, in consequence of Henry being +placed under the imperial ban in 1180, the duchy was given by Frederick +I. to Otto, a member of the old Bavarian family of Wittelsbach (q.v.), +and a descendant of the counts of Scheyern. During the years following +the destruction of the Carolingian empire the borders of Bavaria were +continually changing, and for a lengthened period after 955 this process +was one of expansion. To the west the Lech still divided Bavaria from +Swabia, but on three other sides the opportunities for extension had +been taken advantage of, and the duchy embraced an area of considerable +dimensions north of the Danube. During the later years of the rule of +the Welfs, however, a contrary tendency had operated, and the extent of +Bavaria had been reduced. The immense energies of Duke Henry the Lion +had been devoted to his northern rather than his southern duchy, and +when the dispute over the Bavarian succession was settled in 1156 the +district between the Enns and the Inn had been transferred to Austria. +The increasing importance of the mark of Styria, erected into a duchy in +1180, and the county of Tirol, had diminished both the actual and the +relative strength of Bavaria, which was now deprived on almost all sides +of opportunities for expansion. The neighbouring duchy of Carinthia, the +great temporal possessions of the archbishop of Salzburg, as well as a +general tendency to independence on the part of both clerical and lay +nobles, were additional forces of similar influence. + + + Rule of the Wittelsbachs. + + Division of the duchy. + + Upper Bavaria. + +When Otto of Wittelsbach was invested with Bavaria at Altenburg in +September 1180 the duchy was bounded by the Bohmerwald, the Inn, the +Alps and the Lech; and the power of the duke was practically confined to +his extensive private domains around Wittelsbach, Kelheim and Straubing. +Otto only enjoyed his new dignity for three years, and was succeeded in +1183 by his son Louis I., who took a leading part in German affairs +during the earlier years of the reign of the emperor Frederick II., and +was assassinated at Kelheim in September 1231. His son Otto II., called +the Illustrious, was the next duke, and his loyalty to the Hohenstaufen +caused him to be placed under the papal ban, and Bavaria to be laid +under an interdict. Like his father, Otto increased the area of his +lands by purchases; and he had considerably strengthened his hold upon +the duchy before he died in November 1253. The efforts of the dukes to +increase their power and to give unity to the duchy had met with a fair +measure of success; but they were soon vitiated by partitions among +different members of the family which for 250 years made the history of +Bavaria little more than a jejune chronicle of territorial divisions +bringing war and weakness in their train. The first of these divisions +was made in 1255 between Louis II. and Henry I., the sons of Duke Otto +II., who for two years after their father's death had ruled Bavaria +jointly; and by it Louis obtained the western part of the duchy, +afterwards called Upper Bavaria, and Henry secured eastern or Lower +Bavaria. In the course of a long reign Louis, who was called the Stern, +became the most powerful prince in southern Germany. He was the uncle +and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, and when this prince was put +to death in Italy in 1268, Louis and his brother Henry inherited the +domains of the Hohenstaufen in Swabia and elsewhere. He supported +Rudolph, count of Habsburg, in his efforts to secure the German throne +in 1273, married the new king's daughter Mechtild, and aided him in +campaigns in Bohemia and elsewhere. For some years after Louis' death in +1294 his sons Rudolph I. and Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV., +ruled their duchy in common; but as their relations were never +harmonious a division of Upper Bavaria was made in 1310, by which +Rudolph received the land east of the Isar together with the town of +Munich, and Louis the district between the Isar and the Lech. It was not +long, however, before this arrangement led to war between the brothers, +the outcome of which was that in 1317, three years after he had been +chosen German king, Louis compelled Rudolph to abdicate, and for twelve +years ruled alone over the whole of Upper Bavaria. But in 1329 a series +of events induced him to conclude the treaty of Pavia with Rudolph's +sons, Rudolph and Rupert, to whom he transferred the Palatinate of the +Rhine, which had been in the possession of the Wittelsbach family since +1214, and also a portion of Upper Bavaria north of the Danube, which was +afterwards called the Upper Palatinate. At the same time it was decided +that the electoral vote should be exercised by the two lines +alternately, and that in the event of either branch of the family +becoming extinct the surviving branch should inherit its possessions. + + + Lower Bavaria. + + Reunion of the duchy. + +Henry I. of Lower Bavaria spent most of his time in quarrels with his +brother, with Ottakar II. of Bohemia and with various ecclesiastics. +When he died in February 1200 Lower Bavaria was ruled by his three sons, +Otto III., Louis III. and Stephen I. Louis died childless in 1296; +Stephen left two sons at his death in 1310, namely, Henry II. and Otto +IV., and Otto, who was king of Hungary from 1305 to 1308, died in 1312, +leaving a son, Henry III. Lower Bavaria was governed by these three +princes until 1333, when Henry III. died, followed in 1334 by his cousin +Otto; and as both died without sons the whole of Lower Bavaria then +passed to Henry II. Dying in 1339, Henry left an only son, John I., who +died childless in the following year, when the emperor Louis IV., by +securing Lower Bavaria for himself, united the whole of the duchy under +his sway. The consolidation of Bavaria under Louis lasted for seven +years, during which the emperor was able to improve the condition of the +country. When he died in 1347 he left six sons to share his possessions, +who agreed upon a division of Bavaria in 1349. Its history, however, was +complicated by its connexion with Brandenburg, Holland and Tirol, all of +which had also been left by the emperor to his sons. All the six +brothers exercised some authority in Bavaria; but three alone left +issue, and of these the eldest, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, died in +1361; and two years later was followed to the grave by his only son +Meinhard, who was childless. The two remaining brothers, Stephen II. and +Albert I., ruled over Bavaria-Landshut and Bavaria-Straubing +respectively, and when Stephen died in 1375 his portion of Bavaria was +governed jointly by his three sons. In 1392, when all the lines except +those of Stephen and Albert had died out, an important partition took +place, by which the greater part of the duchy was divided among +Stephen's three sons, Stephen III., Frederick and John II., who founded +respectively the lines of Ingolstadt, Landshut and Munich. Albert's +duchy of Bavaria-Straubing passed on his death in 1404 to his son +William II., and in 1417 to his younger son John, who resigned the +bishopric of Liege to take up his new position. When John died in 1425 +this family became extinct, and after a contest between various +claimants Bavaria-Straubing was divided between the three remaining +branches of the family. + + + Internal condition 1392. + + Intestine troubles. + +The main result of the threefold division of 1392 was a succession of +civil wars which led to the temporary eclipse of Bavaria as a force in +German politics. Neighbouring states encroached upon its borders, and +the nobles ignored the authority of the dukes, who, deprived of the +electoral vote, were mainly occupied for fifty years with intestine +strife. This condition of affairs, however, was not wholly harmful. The +government of the country and the control of the finances passed mainly +into the hands of an assembly called the _Landtag_ or _Landschaft_, +which had been organized in 1392. The towns, assuming a certain +independence, became strong and wealthy as trade increased, and the +citizens of Munich and Regensburg were often formidable antagonists to +the dukes. Thus a period of disorder saw the growth of representative +institutions and the establishment of a strong civic spirit. Stephen +III., duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, was distinguished rather as a soldier +than as a statesman; and his rule was marked by struggles with various +towns, and with his brother, John of Bavaria-Munich. Dying in 1413 he +was followed by his son, Louis, called the Bearded, a restless and +quarrelsome prince, who before his accession had played an important +part in the affairs of France, where his sister Isabella was the queen +of King Charles VI. About 1417 he became involved in a violent quarrel +with his cousin, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, fell under both the papal +and the imperial ban, and in 1439 was attacked by his son Louis the +Lame. This prince, who had married a daughter of Frederick I. of +Hohenzollern, margrave of Brandenburg, was incensed at the favour shown +by his father to an illegitimate son. Aided by Albert Achilles, +afterwards margrave of Brandenburg, he took the elder Louis prisoner and +compelled him to abdicate in 1443. When Louis the Lame died in 1445 his +father came into the power of his implacable enemy, Henry of +Bavaria-Landshut, and died in prison in 1447. The duchy of +Bavaria-Ingolstadt passed to Henry, who had succeeded his father +Frederick as duke of Bavaria-Landshut in 1393, and whose long reign was +almost entirely occupied with family feuds. He died in July 1450, and +was followed by his son, Louis IX. (called the Rich), and about this +time Bavaria began to recover some of its former importance. Louis IX. +expelled the Jews from his duchy, did something for the security of +traders, and improved both the administration of justice and the +condition of the finances. In 1472 he founded the university of +Ingolstadt, attempted to reform the monasteries, and was successful in a +struggle with Albert Achilles of Brandenburg. On his death in January +1479 he was succeeded by his son George, also called the Rich; and when +George, a faithful adherent of the German king Maximilian I., died +without sons in December 1503, a war broke out for the possession of his +duchy. + + + War over the succession to Bavaria-Landshut. + + Reigns of Albert the Wise and William IV. + +Bavaria-Munich passed on the death of John II. in 1397 to his sons +Ernest and William III., but they only obtained possession of their +lands after a struggle with Stephen of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Both brothers +were then engaged in warfare with the other branches of the family and +with the citizens of Munich. William, a loyal servant of the emperor +Sigismund, died in 1435, leaving an only son, Adolf, who died five years +later; and Ernest, distinguished for his bodily strength, died in 1438. +In 1440 the whole of Bavaria-Munich came to Ernest's son Albert, who had +been estranged from his father owing to his union with the unfortunate +Agnes Bernauer (q.v.). Albert, whose attempts to reform the monasteries +earned for him the surname of Pious, was almost elected king of Bohemia +in 1440. He died in 1460, leaving five sons, the two elder of whom, John +IV. and Sigismund, reigned in common until the death of John in 1463. +The third brother, Albert, who had been educated for the church, joined +his brother in 1465, and when Sigismund abdicated two years later became +sole ruler in spite of the claims of his two younger brothers. Albert, +who was called the Wise, added the district of Abensberg to his +possessions, and in 1504 became involved in the war which broke out for +the possession of Bavaria-Landshut on the death of George the Rich. +Albert's rival was George's son-in-law, Rupert, formerly bishop of +Freising, and son of Philip, count palatine of the Rhine; and the +emperor Maximilian I., interested as archduke of Austria and count of +Tirol, interfered in the dispute. Rupert died in 1504, and the following +year an arrangement was made at the diet of Cologne by which the emperor +and Philip's grandson, Otto Henry, obtained certain outlying districts, +while Albert by securing the bulk of George's possessions united Bavaria +under his rule. In 1506 Albert decreed that the duchy should pass +undivided according to the rules of primogeniture, and endeavoured in +other ways also to consolidate Bavaria. He was partially successful in +improving the condition of the country; and in 1500 Bavaria formed one +of the six circles into which Germany was divided for the maintenance of +peace. He died in March 1508, and was succeeded by his son, William IV., +whose mother, Kunigunde, was a daughter of the emperor Frederick III. In +spite of the decree of 1506 William was compelled in 1516, after a +violent quarrel, to grant a share in the government to his brother +Louis, an arrangement which lasted until the death of Louis in 1545. + + + Roman Catholicism in Bavaria. + + Reign of Maximillian I. and the Thirty Years' War. + +William followed the traditional Wittelsbach policy, opposition to the +Habsburgs, until in 1534 he made a treaty at Linz with Ferdinand, king +of Hungary and Bohemia. This was strengthened in 1546, when the emperor +Charles V. obtained the help of the duke during the war of the league of +Schmalkalden by promising him in certain eventualities the succession to +the Bohemian throne, and the electoral dignity enjoyed by the count +palatine of the Rhine. William also did much at a critical period to +secure Bavaria for Catholicism. The reformed doctrines had made +considerable progress in the duchy when the duke from the pope extensive +rights over the bishoprics and monasteries, and took measures to repress +the reformers, many of whom were banished; while the Jesuits, whom he +invited into the duchy in 1541, made the university of Ingolstadt their +headquarters for Germany. William, whose death occurred in March 1550, +was succeeded by his son Albert IV., who had married a daughter of +Ferdinand of Habsburg, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I. Early in his +reign Albert made some concessions to the reformers, who were still +strong in Bavaria; but about 1563 he changed his attitude, favoured the +decrees of the council of Trent, and pressed forward the work of the +Counter-Reformation. As education passed by degrees into the hands of +the Jesuits the progress of Protestantism was effectually arrested in +Bavaria. Albert IV. was a great patron of art. His court at Munich was +the resort of artists of all kinds, and the city was enriched with +splendid buildings; while artistic works were collected from Italy and +elsewhere. The expenses of a magnificent court led the duke to quarrel +with the _Landschaft_, to oppress his subjects, and to leave a great +burden of debt when he died in October 1579. The succeeding duke was +Albert's son, William V. (called the Pious), who was educated by the +Jesuits and was keenly attached to their tenets. He secured the +archbishopric of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this +dignity remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years. +In 1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian I., and retired +into a monastery, where he died in 1626. Maximilian found the duchy +encumbered with debt and filled with disorder, but ten years of his +vigorous rule effected a remarkable change. The finances and the +judicial system were reorganized, a class of civil servants and a +national militia founded, and several small districts were brought under +the duke's authority. The result was a unity and order in the duchy +which enabled Maximilian to play an important part in the Thirty Years' +War; during the earlier years of which he was so successful as to +acquire the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity which had been +enjoyed since 1356 by the elder branch of the Wittelsbach family. In +spite of subsequent reverses these gains were retained by Maximilian at +the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the later years of this war +Bavaria, especially the northern part, suffered severely. In 1632 it was +invaded by the Swedes, and, when Maximilian violated the treaty of Ulm +in 1647, was ravaged by the French and the Swedes. After repairing this +damage to some extent, the elector died at Ingolstadt in September 1651, +leaving his duchy much stronger than he had found it. The recovery of +the Upper Palatinate made Bavaria compact; the acquisition of the +electoral vote made it influential; and the duchy was able to play a +part in European politics which intestine strife had rendered impossible +for the past four hundred years. (A. W. H.*) + + + Beginning of modern period. + + Re-union of the Palatinate. + +Whatever lustre the international position won by Maximilian I. might +add to the ducal house, on Bavaria itself its effect during the next two +centuries was more dubious. Maximillian's son, Ferdinand Maria +(1651-1679), who was a minor when he succeeded, did much indeed to +repair the wounds caused by the Thirty Years' War, encouraging +agriculture and industries, and building or restoring numerous churches +and monasteries. In 1669, moreover, he again called a meeting of the +diet, which had been suspended since 1612. His good work, however, was +largely undone by his son Maximilian II. Emmanuel (1679-1726), whose +far-reaching ambition set him warring against the Turks and, on the side +of France, in the great struggle of the Spanish succession. He shared in +the defeat at Hochstadt on the 13th of August 1704; his dominions were +temporarily partitioned between Austria and the elector palatine, and +only restored to him, harried and exhausted, at the peace of Baden in +1714. Untaught by Maximilian Emmanuel's experience, his son, Charles +Albert (1726-1745), devoted all his energies to increasing the European +prestige and power of his house. The death of the emperor Charles VI. +was his opportunity; he disputed the validity of the Pragmatic Sanction +which secured the Habsburg succession to Maria Theresa, allied himself +with France, conquered Upper Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia at +Prague and, in 1742, emperor at Frankfort. The price he had to pay, +however, was the occupation of Bavaria itself by Austrian troops; and, +though the invasion of Bohemia in 1744 by Frederick II. of Prussia +enabled him to return to Munich, at his death on the 20th of January +1745 it was left to his successor to make what terms he could for the +recovery of his dominions. Maximilian III. Joseph (1745-1777), by the +peace of Fussen signed on the 22nd of April 1745, obtained the +restitution of his dominions in return for a formal acknowledgment of +the Pragmatic Sanction. He was a man of enlightenment, did much to +encourage agriculture, industries and the exploitation of the mineral +wealth of the country, founded the Academy of Sciences at Munich, and +abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. At his death, without +issue, on the 30th of December 1777, the Bavarian line of the +Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed to Charles +Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of four and a half +centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Julich and Berg had +been added, was thus reunited with Bavaria. So great an accession of +strength to a neighbouring state, whose ambition she had so recently had +just reason to fear, was intolerable to Austria, which laid claim to a +number of lordships--forming one-third of the whole Bavarian +inheritance--as lapsed fiefs of the Bohemian, Austrian, and imperial +crowns. These were at once occupied by Austrian troops, with the secret +consent of Charles Theodore himself, who was without legitimate heirs, +and wished to obtain from the emperor the elevation of his natural +children to the status of princes of the Empire. The protests of the +next heir, Charles, duke of Zweibrucken (Deux-Ponts), supported by the +king of Prussia, led to the war of Bavarian succession. By the peace of +Teschen (May 13th, 1779) the Inn quarter was ceded to Austria, and the +succession secured to Charles of Zweibrucken. For Bavaria itself Charles +Theodore did less than nothing. He felt himself a foreigner among +foreigners, and his favourite scheme, the subject of endless intrigues +with the Austrian cabinet and the immediate cause of Frederick II.'s +League of Princes (_Furstenbund_) of 1785, was to exchange Bavaria for +the Austrian Netherlands and the title of king of Burgundy. For the +rest, the enlightened internal policy of his predecessor was abandoned. +The funds of the suppressed order of Jesus, which Maximilian Joseph had +destined for the reform of the educational system of the country, were +used to endow a province of the knights of St John of Jerusalem, for the +purpose of combating the enemies of the faith. The government was +inspired by the narrowest clericalism, which culminated in the attempt +to withdraw the Bavarian bishops from the jurisdiction of the great +German metropolitans and place them directly under that of the pope. On +the eve of the Revolution the intellectual and social condition of +Bavaria remained that of the middle ages. + + + The revolutionary wars. + +In 1792 the revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in 1795 the +French, under Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced to Munich--where +they were received with joy by the long-suppressed Liberals--and laid +siege to Ingolstadt. Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent +or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony, leaving a regency, the +members of which signed a convention with Moreau, by which he granted an +armistice in return for a heavy contribution (September 7th, 1796). +Immediately afterwards he was forced to retire. + +Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in an evil case. +Before the death of Charles Theodore (February 16th, 1799) the Austrians +had again occupied the country, preparatory to renewing the war with +France. Maximilian IV. Joseph (of Zweibrucken), the new elector, +succeeded to a difficult inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and +those of his all-powerful minister, Max Josef von Montgelas (q.v.), +were, if anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the +Bavarian finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered +and disorganized, placed him helpless in the hands of Austria; on the +2nd of December 1800 the Bavarian arms were involved in the Austrian +defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more occupied Munich. By the +treaty of Luneville (February 9th, 1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and +the duchies of Zweibrucken and Julich. + + + French influence. + +In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of the +Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of Bavaria lay +in a frank alliance with the French republic; he succeeded in overcoming +the reluctance of Maximilian Joseph; and, on the 24th of August, a +separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at Paris. +By the third article of this the First Consul undertook to see that the +compensation promised under the 7th article of the treaty of Luneville +for the territory ceded on the left bank of the Rhine, should be carried +out at the expense of the Empire in the manner most agreeable to Bavaria +(de Martens, _Recueil_, vol. vii. p. 365). In 1803, accordingly, in the +territorial rearrangements consequent on Napoleon's suppression of the +ecclesiastical states, and of many free cities of the Empire, Bavaria +received the bishoprics of Wurzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg and Freisingen, +part of that of Passau, the territories of twelve abbeys, and seventeen +cities and villages, the whole forming a compact territory which more +than compensated for the loss of her outlying provinces on the Rhine.[1] +Montgelas' ambition was now to raise Bavaria to the rank of a first-rate +power, and he pursued this object during the Napoleonic epoch with +consummate skill, allowing fully for the preponderance of France--so +long as it lasted--but never permitting Bavaria to sink, like so many of +the states of the confederation of the Rhine, into a mere French +dependency. In the war of 1805, in accordance with a treaty of alliance +signed at Wurzburg on the 23rd of September, Bavarian troops, for the +first time since Charles VII., fought side by side with the French, and +by the treaty of Pressburg, signed on the 26th of December, the +principality of Eichstadt, the margraviate of Burgau, the lordship of +Vorarlberg, the countships of Hohenems and Konigsegg-Rothenfels, the +lordships of Argen and Tetnang, and the city of Lindau with its +territory were to be added to Bavaria. On the other hand Wurzburg, +obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria to the elector of Salzburg +in exchange for Tirol. By the 1st article of the treaty the emperor +acknowledged the assumption by the elector of the title of king, as +Maximilian I.[2] The price which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for +this accession of dignity was the marriage of his daughter Augusta with +Eugene Beauharnais. + +For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French alliance had +noteworthy consequences. Maximilian himself was an "enlightened" prince +of the 18th-century type, whose tolerant principles had already +grievously offended his clerical subjects; Montgelas was a firm believer +in drastic reform "from above," and, in 1803, had discussed with the +rump of the old estates the question of reforms. But the revolutionary +changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on the 1st of May 1808 +were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean sweep was made of +the medieval polity surviving in the somnolent local diets and +corporations. In place of the old system of privileges and exemptions +were set equality before the law, universal liability to taxation, +abolition of serfdom, security of person and property, liberty of +conscience and of the press. A representative assembly was created on +paper, based on a narrow franchise and with very limited powers, but was +never summoned. + + + Treaty of Ried. + +In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on the side of +France, and by the treaty signed at Paris on the 28th of February 1810 +ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some small districts to Wurttemberg, +receiving as compensation parts of Salzburg, the quarters of the Inn and +Hausruck and the principalities of Bayreuth and Regensburg. So far the +policy of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful; but the star of +Napoleon had now reached its zenith, and already the astute opportunist +had noted the signs of the coming change. The events of 1812 followed; +in 1813 Bavaria was summoned to join the alliance against Napoleon, the +demand being passionately backed by the crown prince Louis and by +Marshal Wrede; on the 8th of October was signed the treaty of Ried, by +which Bavaria threw in her lot with the Allies. Montgelas announced to +the French ambassador that he had been compelled temporarily to bow +before the storm, adding "Bavaria has need of France." (For Bavaria's +share in the war see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) + + + Relations with Austria. + +Immediately after the first peace of Paris (1814), Bavaria ceded to +Austria Tirol and Vorarlberg; by the congress of Vienna it was decided +that she was to add to these the greater part of Salzburg and the +quarters of the Inn and Hausruck, receiving as compensation, besides +Wurzburg and Aschaffenburg, the Palatinate on the left bank of the Rhine +and certain districts of Hesse and of the former abbacy of Fulda. But +with the collapse of France the old fear and jealousy of Austria had +revived in full force, and Bavaria only agreed to these cessions (treaty +of Munich, April 16th, 1816) on Austria promising that, in the event of +the powers ignoring her claim to the Baden succession in favour of that +of the line of the counts of Hochberg, she should receive also the +Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine. The question was thus left +open, the tension between the two powers remained extreme, and war was +only averted by the authority of the Grand Alliance. At the congress of +Aix (1818) the question of the Baden succession was settled in favour of +the Hochberg line, without the compensation stipulated for in the treaty +of Munich; and by the treaty of Frankfort, signed on behalf of the four +great powers on the 20th of July 1819, the territorial questions at +issue between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the protests +of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement made at Vienna. A +small strip of territory was added, to connect Bavaria with the +Palatinate, and Bavarian troops were to garrison the federal fortress of +Mainz. + + + Constitution of 1818. + + Lola Montez. + +Meanwhile, on the 1st of February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed; +and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform. This +implied no breach with the European policy of the fallen minister. In +the new German confederation Bavaria had assumed the role of defender of +the smaller states against the ambitions of Austria and Prussia, and +Montgelas had dreamed of a Bavarian hegemony in South Germany similar to +that of Prussia in the north. It was to obtain popular support for this +policy and for the Bavarian claims on Baden that the crown prince +pressed for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to +concede it being the cause of his dismissal. On the 26th of May 1818 the +constitution was proclaimed. The parliament was to consist of two +houses; the first comprising the great hereditary landowners, government +officials and nominees of the crown; the second, elected on a very +narrow franchise, representatives of the small land-owners, the towns +and the peasants. By additional articles the equality of religions was +guaranteed and the rights of Protestants safeguarded, concessions which +were denounced at Rome as a breach of the Concordat, which had been +signed immediately before. The result of the constitutional experiment +hardly justified the royal expectations; the parliament was hardly +opened (February 5th, 1819) before the doctrinaire radicalism of some of +its members, culminating in the demand that the army should swear +allegiance to the constitution, so alarmed the king, that he appealed to +Austria and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures +they might recommend. Prussia, however, refused to approve of any _coup +d'etat_; the parliament, chastened by the consciousness that its life +depended on the goodwill of the king, moderated its tone; and Maximilian +ruled till his death as a model constitutional monarch. On the 13th of +October 1825, he was succeeded by his son, Louis I., an enlightened +patron of the arts and sciences, who transferred the university of +Landshut to Munich, which, by his magnificent taste in building, he +transformed into one of the most beautiful cities of the continent. The +earlier years of his reign were marked by a liberal spirit and the +reform, especially, of the financial administration; but the revolutions +of 1831 frightened him into reaction, which was accentuated by the +opposition of the parliament to his expenditure on building and works of +art. In 1837 the Ultramontanes came into power with Karl von Abel +(1788-1859) as prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand; +one by one the liberal provisions of the constitution were modified or +annulled; the Protestants were harried and oppressed; and a rigorous +censorship forbade any free discussion of internal politics. The +collapse of this regime was due, not to popular agitation, but to the +resentment of Louis at the clerical opposition to the influence of his +mistress, Lola Montez. On the 17th of February 1847, Abel was dismissed, +for publishing his memorandum against the proposal to naturalize Lola, +who was an Irishwoman; and the Protestant Georg Ludwig von Maurer +(q.v.) took his place. The new ministry granted the certificate of +naturalization; but riots, in which ultramontane professors of the +university took part, were the result. The professors were deprived, the +parliament dissolved, and, on the 27th of November, the ministry +dismissed. Lola Montez, created Countess Landsfeld, was supreme in the +state; and the new minister, Prince Ludwig von Oettingen-Wallerstein +(1791-1870), in spite of his efforts to enlist Liberal sympathy by +appeals to pan-German patriotism, was powerless to form a stable +government. His cabinet was known as the "Lolaministerium"; in February +1848, stimulated by the news from Paris, riots broke out against the +countess; on the 11th of March the king dismissed Oettingen, and on the +20th, realizing the force of public opinion against him, abdicated in +favour of his son, Maximilian II. + + + Anti-Prussian policy. + +Before his abdication Louis had issued, on the 6th of March, a +proclamation promising the zealous co-operation of the Bavarian +government in the work of German freedom and unity. To the spirit of +this Maximilian was faithful, accepting the authority of the central +government at Frankfort, and (19th of December) sanctioning the official +promulgation of the laws passed by the German parliament. But Prussia +was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In refusing to agree to the offer +of the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., Maximilian had the +support of his parliament. In withholding his assent to the new German +constitution, by which Austria was excluded from the Confederation, he +ran indeed counter to the sentiment of his people; but by this time the +back of the revolution was broken, and in the events which led to the +humiliation of Prussia at Olmutz in 1851, and the restoration of the old +diet of the Confederation, Bavaria was safe in casting in her lot with +Austria (see GERMANY: _History_). The guiding spirit in this +anti-Prussian policy, which characterized Bavarian statesmanship up to +the war of 1866, was Ludwig Karl Heinrich von der Pfordten (1811-1880), +who became minister for foreign affairs on the 19th of April 1849. His +idea for the ultimate solution of the question of the balance of power +in Germany was the so-called _Trias_, i.e. a league of the Rhenish +states as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and Prussia. In +internal affairs his ministry was characterized by a reactionary policy +less severe than elsewhere in Germany, which led none the less from 1854 +onward to a struggle with the parliament, which ended in the dismissal +of Pfordten's ministry on the 27th of March 1859. He was succeeded by +Karl Freiherr von Schrenk auf Notzing (1806-1884), an official of +Liberal tendencies who had been Bavarian representative in the diet of +the Confederation. Important reforms were now introduced, including the +separation of the judicial and executive powers and the drawing up of a +new criminal code. In foreign affairs Schrenk, like his predecessor, +aimed at safeguarding the independence of Bavaria, and supported the +idea of superseding the actual constitution of the Confederation by a +supreme directory, in which Bavaria, as leader of the purely German +states, would hold the balance between Prussia and Austria. Bavaria +accordingly opposed the Prussian proposals for the reorganization of the +Confederation, and one of the last acts of King Maximilian was to take a +conspicuous part in the assembly of princes summoned to Frankfort in +1863 by the emperor Francis Joseph (see GERMANY). + +Maximilian was succeeded on the 10th of March 1864 by his son Louis II., +a youth of eighteen. The government was at first carried on by Schrenk +and Pfordten in concert. Schrenk soon retired, when the Bavarian +government found it necessary, in order to maintain its position in the +Prussian _Zollverein_, to become a party to the Prussian commercial +treaty with France, signed in 1862. In the complicated Schleswig-Holstein +question (q.v.) Bavaria, under Pfordten's guidance, consistently opposed +Prussia, and headed the lesser states in their support of Frederick of +Augustenburg against the policy of the two great German powers. Finally, +in the war of 1866, in spite of Bismarck's efforts to secure her +neutrality, Bavaria sided actively with Austria. + + + Union with German Empire. + +The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation of Bismarck +paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria's relation to Prussia +and the German question. The South German Confederation, contemplated by +the 6th article of the treaty of Prague, never came into being; and, +though Prussia, in order not prematurely to excite the alarm of France, +opposed the suggestion that the southern states should join the North +German Confederation, the bonds of Bavaria, as of the other southern +states, with the north, were strengthened by an offensive and defensive +alliance with Prussia, as the result of Napoleon's demand for +"compensation" in the Palatinate. This was signed at Berlin on the 22nd +of August 1866, on the same day as the signature of the formal treaty of +peace between the two countries. The separatist ambitions of Bavaria +were thus formally given up; she had no longer "need of France"; and in +the war of 1870-71, the Bavarian army marched, under the command of the +Prussian crown prince, against the common enemy of Germany. It was on +the proposal of King Louis II. that the imperial crown was offered to +King William. + +This was preceded, on the 23rd of November 1870, by the signature of a +treaty between Bavaria and the North German Confederation. By this +instrument, though Bavaria became an integral part of the new German +empire, she reserved a larger measure of sovereign independence than any +of the other constituent states. Thus she retained a separate diplomatic +service, military administration, and postal, telegraph and railway +systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian chambers on the 21st of +January 1871, though not without considerable opposition on the part of +the so-called "patriot" party. Their hostility was increased by the +_Kulturkampf_, due to the promulgation in 1870 of the dogma of papal +infallibility. Munich University, where Dollinger (q.v.) was professor, +became the centre of the opposition to the new dogma, and the "old +Catholics" (q.v.) were protected by the king and the government. The +federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on the 6th +of September 1871 and was extended to the Redemptorists in 1873. On the +31st of March 1871, moreover, the bonds with the rest of the empire had +been drawn closer by the acceptance of a number of laws of the North +German Confederation, of which the most important was the new criminal +code, which was finally put into force in Bavaria in 1879. The +opposition of the "patriot" party, however, reinforced by the strong +Catholic sentiment of the country, continued powerful, and it was only +the steady support given by the king to successive Liberal ministries +that prevented its finding disastrous expression in the parliament, +where it remained in a greater or less majority till 1887, and has +since, as the "centre," continued to form the most compact party in an +assembly made up of "groups." + +Meanwhile the royal dreamer, whose passion for building palaces was +becoming a serious drain on the treasury, had been declared insane, and, +on the 7th of June 1886, the heir-presumptive, Prince Luitpold, was +proclaimed regent. Six days later, on the 13th of June, Louis committed +suicide. His brother, Otto I., being also insane, the regency was +confirmed to Prince Luitpold. + +Since 1871 Bavaria has shared to the full in the marvellous development +of Germany; but her "particularism," founded on traditional racial and +religious antagonism to the Prussians, was by no means dead, though it +exhibited itself in no more dangerous form than the prohibition, +reissued in 1900, to display any but the Bavarian flag on public +buildings on the emperor's birthday; a provision which has been since so +far modified as to allow the Bavarian and imperial flags to be hung side +by side. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Monumenta Boica_ (44 vols., Munich, 1763-1900); G.T. + Rudhart, _Aelteste Geschichte Bayerns_ (Hamburg, 1841); A. Quitzmann, + _Abstammung, Ursitz, und alteste Geschichte der Bairwaren_ (Munich, + 1857), and _Die alteste Geschichte der Baiern bis 911_ (Brunswick, + 1873); S. Riezler, _Geschichte Bayerns_ (Gotha, 1878-1899); Ad. + Brecher, _Darstellung der geschichtlichen Entwickelung des bayrischen + Staatsgebiets_, map (Berlin, 1890); E. Rosenthal, _Geschichte des + Gerichtswesens und der Verwaltungsorganisation Bayerns_ (Wurzburg, + 1889); A. Buchner, _Geschichte von Baiern_ (Munich, 1820-1853); + _Forschungen zur Geschichte Bayerns_, edited by K. von + Reinhardstottner (Berlin, 1897 fol.). Much valuable detail will be + found in the lives of Bavarian princes and statesmen in the + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (Leipzig, 1875-1906 in progr.) + (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Reces de la deputation de l'empire ... du 25 fevr, 1803_, + &c., S II. vol. vii. p. 453 of G.F. de Martens, _Recueil des + Traites_, &c. (Gottingue, 1831). + + [2] Text in de Martens' _Recueil_, viii. p. 388. + + + + +BAVENO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Novara, on the +west shore of Lago Maggiore, 13 m. N.N.W. of Arona by rail. Pop. (1901) +2502. It is much frequented as a resort in spring, summer and autumn, +and has many beautiful villas. To the north-west are the famous red +granite quarries, which have supplied the columns for the cathedral of +Milan, the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, the Galleria +Vittorio Emanuele at Milan, and other important buildings. + + + + +BAWBEE (of very doubtful origin, the most plausible conjecture being +that the word is a corruption from the name of the mint master +Sillebawby, by whom they were first issued, c. 1541), the Scottish name +for a halfpenny or other small coin, and hence used of money generally. +A writer in 1573, quoted in Tytler's _History of Scotland_, speaks of "a +coin called a bawbee, ... which is in value English one penny and a +quarter." The word was sometimes written "babie," and has therefore been +identified merely with a "baby coin," but this etymology is less +probable. + + + + +BAXTER, ANDREW (1686-1750), Scottish metaphysician, was born in Aberdeen +and educated at King's College. He maintained himself by acting as tutor +to noblemen's sons. From 1741 to 1747 he lived with Lord Blantyre and Mr +Hay of Drummelzier at Utrecht, and made excursions in Flanders, France +and Germany. Returning to Scotland, he lived at Whittingehame, near +Edinburgh, till his death in 1750. At Spa he had met John Wilkes, then +twenty years of age, and formed a lasting friendship with him. His chief +work, _An Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul_ (editions 1733, +1737 and 1745; with appendix added in 1750 in answer to an attack in +Maclaurin's Account of Sir I. Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, and +dedication to John Wilkes), examines the properties of matter. The one +essential property of matter is its inactivity, _vis inertiae_ (accepted +later by Monboddo). All movement in matter is, therefore, caused by some +immaterial force, namely, God. But the movements of the body are not +analogous to the movements of matter; they are caused by a special +immaterial force, the soul. The soul, as being immaterial, is immortal, +and its consciousness does not depend upon its connexion with the body. +The argument is supported by an analysis of the phenomena of dreams, +which are ascribed to direct spiritual influences. Lastly Baxter +attempted to prove that matter is finite. His work is an attack on +Toland's _Letters to Serena_ (1704), which argued that motion is +essential to matter, and on Locke and Berkeley. His criticism of +Berkeley (in the second volume) is, however, based on the common +misinterpretation of his theory (see BERKELEY). Sir Leslie Stephen +speaks of him as a curious example of "the effects of an exploded +metaphysics on a feeble though ingenious intellect." + +Beside the _Inquiry_, Baxter wrote _Matho sive Cosmotheoria Puerilis_ +(an exposition in Latin of the elements of astronomy written for his +pupils--editions in English 1740, 1745 and 1765, with one dialogue +re-written); _Evidence of Reason in Proof of the Immortality of the +Soul_ (published posthumously from MSS. by Dr Duncan in 1779). + + See life in _Biographia Britannica_; McCosh's _Scottish Philosophy_, + pp. 42-49. + + + + +BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691), English puritan divine, called by Dean +Stanley "the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen," was born at Rowton, +in Shropshire, at the house of his maternal grandfather, in November +(probably the 12th) 1615. His ancestors had been gentlefolk, but his +father had reduced himself to hard straits by loose living. About the +time of Richard's birth, however, he changed decisively for the better. +The boy's early education was poor, being mainly in the hands of the +illiterate and dissolute clergy and readers who held the neighbouring +livings at that time. He was better served by John Owen, master of the +free school at Wroxeter, where he studied from about 1629 to 1632, and +made fair progress in Latin. On Owen's advice he did not proceed to +Oxford (a step which he afterwards regretted), but went to Ludlow Castle +to read with Richard Wickstead, the council's chaplain there. Wickstead +neglected his pupil entirely, but Baxter's eager mind found abundant +nourishment in the great library at the castle. He was persuaded--against +his will--to turn his attention to a court life, and he went to London +under the patronage of Sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels, to follow +that course; but he very soon returned home with a fixed +resolve--confirmed by the death of his mother--to study divinity. After +three months' schoolmastering for Owen at Wroxeter he read theology, and +especially the schoolmen, with Francis Garbet, the local clergyman. About +this time (1634) he met Joseph Symonds and Walter Cradock, two famous +Nonconformists, whose piety and fervour influenced him considerably. In +1638 he was nominated to the mastership of the free grammar school, +Dudley, in which place he commenced his ministry, having been ordained +and licensed by John Thornborough, bishop of Worcester. His success as a +preacher was, at this early period, not very great; but he was soon +transferred to Bridgnorth (Shropshire), where, as assistant to a Mr +Madstard, he established a reputation for the vigorous discharge of the +duties of his office. + +He remained at Bridgnorth nearly two years, during which time he took a +special interest in the controversy relating to Nonconformity and the +Church of England. He soon, on some points, especially matters of +discipline, became alienated from the Church; and after the requirement +of what is called "the _et cetera_ oath," he rejected episcopacy in its +English form. He could not, however, be called more than a moderate +Nonconformist; and such he continued to be throughout his life. Though +commonly denominated a Presbyterian, he had no exclusive attachment to +Presbyterianism, and often manifested a willingness to accept a modified +Episcopalianism. All forms of church government were regarded by him as +subservient to the true purposes of religion. + +One of the first measures of the Long Parliament was to effect the +reformation of the clergy; and, with this view, a committee was +appointed to receive complaints against them. Among the complainants +were the inhabitants of Kidderminster, a town which had become famous +for its ignorance and depravity. This state of matters was so clearly +proved that an arrangement was agreed to on the part of the vicar +(Dance), by which he allowed L60 a year, out of his income L200, to a +preacher who should be chosen by certain trustees. Baxter was invited to +deliver a sermon before the people, and was unanimously elected as the +minister of the place. This happened in April 1641, when he was +twenty-six years of age. + +His ministry continued, with very considerable interruptions, for about +nineteen years; and during that time he accomplished a work of +reformation in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood which is as notable +as anything of the kind upon record. Civilized behaviour succeeded to +brutality of manners; and, whereas the professors of religion had been +but small exceptions to the mass, the unreligious people became the +exceptions in their turn. He formed the ministers in the country around +him into an association for the better fulfilment of the duties of their +calling, uniting them together irrespective of their differences as +Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Independents. The spirit in which he +acted may be judged of from _The Reformed Pastor_, a book published in +relation to the general ministerial efforts he promoted. It drives home +the sense of clerical responsibility with extraordinary power. The +result of his action is that, to this day his memory is cherished as +that of the true apostle of the district where he laboured. + +The interruptions to which his Kidderminster life was subjected arose +from the condition of things occasioned by the civil war. Baxter blamed +both parties, but Worcestershire was a cavalier county, and a man in his +position was, while the war continued, exposed to annoyance and danger +in a place like Kidderminster. He therefore removed to Gloucester, and +afterwards (1643-1645) settled in Coventry, where he preached regularly +both to the garrison and the citizens. After the battle of Naseby he +took the situation of chaplain to Colonel Whalley's regiment, and +continued to hold it till February 1647. During these stormy years he +wrote his _Aphorisms of Justification_, which on its appearance in 1649 +excited great controversy. + +Baxter's connexion with the Parliamentary army was a very characteristic +one. He joined it that he might, if possible, counteract the growth of +the sectaries in that field, and maintain the cause of constitutional +government in opposition to the republican tendencies of the time. He +regretted that he had not previously accepted an offer of Cromwell to +become chaplain to the Ironsides, being confident in his power of +persuasion under the most difficult circumstances. His success in +converting the soldiery to his views does not seem to have been very +great, but he preserved his own consistency and fidelity in a remarkable +degree. By public disputation and private conference, as well as by +preaching, he enforced his doctrines, both ecclesiastical and political, +and shrank no more from urging what he conceived to be the truth upon +the most powerful officers than he did from instructing the meanest +followers of the camp. Cromwell disliked his loquacity and shunned his +society; but Baxter having to preach before him after he had assumed the +Protectorship, chose for his subject the old topic of the divisions and +distractions of the church, and in subsequent interviews not only +opposed him about liberty of conscience, but spoke in favour of the +monarchy he had subverted. There is a striking proof of Baxter's insight +into character in his account of what happened under these +circumstances. Of Cromwell he says, "I saw that what he learned must be +from himself." It is worthy of notice that this intercourse with +Cromwell occurred when Baxter was summoned to London to assist in +settling "the fundamentals of religion," and made the memorable +declaration, in answer to the objection that what he had proposed as +fundamental "might be subscribed by a Papist or Socinian,"--"So much the +better, and so much the fitter it is to be the matter of concord." In +1647 he was staying at the home of Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, and there, +in much physical weakness, wrote a great part of his famous work, _The +Saints' Everlasting Rest_ (1650). On his recovery he returned to his +charge at Kidderminster, where he also became a prominent political +leader, his sensitive conscience leading him into conflict with almost +every one of the contending parties in state and church. His conduct +now, as at all times, did "credit to his conscientiousness rather than +to his wisdom." + +After the Restoration in 1660 Baxter, who had helped to bring about that +event, settled in London. He preached there till the Act of Uniformity +took effect in 1662, and was employed in seeking for such terms of +comprehension as would have permitted the moderate dissenters with whom +he acted to have remained in the Church of England. In this hope he was +sadly disappointed. There was at that time on the part of the rulers of +the church no wish for such comprehension, and their object in the +negotiations that took place was to excuse the breach of faith which +their rejection of all reasonable methods of concession involved. The +chief good that resulted from the Savoy conference was the production of +Baxter's _Reformed Liturgy_, a work of remarkable excellence, though it +was cast aside without consideration. The same kind of reputation which +Baxter had obtained in the country he secured in the larger and more +important circle of the metropolis. The power of his preaching was +universally felt, and his capacity for business placed him at the head +of his party. He had been made a king's chaplain, and was offered the +bishopric of Hereford, but he could not accept the offer without +virtually assenting to things as they were. This he could not do, and +after his refusal he was not allowed, even before the passing of the Act +of Uniformity, to be a curate in Kidderminster, though he was willing to +serve that office gratuitously. Bishop Morley even prohibited him from +preaching in the diocese of Worcester. Baxter, however, found much +consolation in his marriage on the 24th of September 1662 with Margaret +Charlton, a woman like-minded with himself. She died in 1681. + +From the ejectment of 1662 to the indulgence of 1687, Baxter's life was +constantly disturbed by persecution of one kind or another. He retired +to Acton in Middlesex, for the purpose of quiet study, and was dragged +thence to prison for keeping a conventicle. The _mittimus_ was +pronounced illegal and irregular, and Baxter procured a _habeas corpus_ +in the court of common pleas. He was taken up for preaching in London +after the licences granted in 1672 were recalled by the king. The +meetinghouse which he had built for himself in Oxendon Street was closed +against him after he had preached there but once. He was, in 1680, +seized in his house, and conveyed away at the risk of his life; and +though he was released that he might die at home, his books and goods +were distrained. He was, in 1684, carried three times to the sessions +house, being scarcely able to stand, and without any apparent cause was +made to enter into a bond for L400 in security for his good behaviour. + +But his worst encounter was with the chief justice, Sir George Jeffreys, +in May 1685. He had been committed to the king's bench prison on the +ridiculous charge of libelling the Church in his _Paraphrase on the New +Testament_, and was tried before Jeffreys on this accusation. The trial +is well known as among the most brutal perversions of justice which have +occurred in England, though it must be remembered that no authoritative +report of the trial exists. If the partisan account on which tradition +is based is to be accepted, it would appear that Jeffreys himself acted +like an infuriated madman. (See JEFFREYS, SIR GEORGE.) Baxter was +sentenced to pay 500 marks, to lie in prison till the money was paid, +and to be bound to his good behaviour for seven years. It was even +asserted at the time that Jeffreys proposed he should be whipped at the +cart's tail through London. The old man, for he was now seventy, +remained in prison for eighteen months, when the government, vainly +hoping to win his influence to their side, remitted the fine and +released him. + +During the long time of oppression and injury which followed the +ejectment, Baxter was sadly afflicted in body. His whole life was indeed +one continued illness, but in this part of it his pain and languor had +greatly increased. Yet this was the period of his greatest activity as a +writer. He was a most voluminous author, his separate works, it is said, +amounting to 168. They are as learned as they are elaborate, and as +varied in their subjects as they are faithfully composed. Such treatises +as the _Christian Directory_, the _Methodus Theologiae Christianae_, and +the _Catholic Theology_, might each have occupied the principal part of +the life of an ordinary man. His _Breviate of the Life of Mrs Margaret +Baxter_ records the virtues of his wife, and reveals on the part of +Baxter a tenderness of nature which might otherwise have been unknown. +His editors have contented themselves with re-publishing his "Practical +Works," and his ethical, philosophical, historical and political +writings still await a competent editor. + +The remainder of Baxter's life, from 1687 onwards, was passed in peace +and honour. He continued to preach and to publish almost to the end. He +was surrounded by attached friends, and reverenced by the religious +world. His saintly behaviour, his great talents, and his wide influence, +added to his extended age, raised him to a position of unequalled +reputation. He helped to bring about the downfall of James II. and +complied with the Toleration Act under William and Mary. He died in +London on the 8th of December 1691, and his funeral was attended by +churchmen as well as dissenters. A similar tribute of general esteem was +paid to him nearly two centuries later, when a statue was erected to his +memory at Kidderminster in July 1875. + +Baxter was possessed by an unconquerable belief in the power of +persuasive argument. He thought every one was amenable to +reason--bishops and levellers included. And yet he was as far as +possible from being a quarrelsome man. He was at once a man of fixed +belief and large appreciation, so that his dogmatism and his liberality +sometimes came into collision. His popularity as a preacher was +deservedly pre-eminent; but no more diligent student ever shut himself +up with his books. He was singularly fitted for intellectual debate, but +his devotional tendency was equally strong with his logical aptitude. +Some of his writings, from their metaphysical subtilty, will always +puzzle the learned; but he could write to the level of the common heart +without loss of dignity or pointedness. His _Reasons for the Christian +Religion_ is still, for its evidential purpose, better than most works +of its kind. His _Poor Man's Family Book_ is a manual that continues to +be worthy of its title. His _Saints' Everlasting Rest_ will always +command the grateful admiration of pious readers. It is also charged +with a robust and manly eloquence and a rare and unsought felicity of +language that make it a masterpiece of style. Perhaps no thinker has +exerted so great an influence upon nonconformity as Baxter has done, and +that not in one direction only, but in every form of development, +doctrinal, ecclesiastical and practical. He is the type of a distinct +class of the Christian ministry--that class which aspires after +scholarly training, prefers a broad to a sectarian theology, and adheres +to rational methods of religious investigation and appeal. The rational +element in him was very strong. He had a settled hatred of fanaticism. +Even Quakerism he could scarcely endure. Religion was with him all and +in all--that by which all besides was measured, and to whose interests +all else was subordinated. Isaac Barrow said that "his practical +writings were never minded, and his controversial ones seldom confuted," +and John Wilkins, bishop of Chester, asserted that "if he had lived in +the primitive time he had been one of the fathers of the church." + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Our most valuable source is Baxter's autobiography, + called _Reliquiae Baxterianae or Mr Richard Baxter's Narrative of the + most memorable Passages of his Life and Times_ (published by Matthew + Sylvester in 1696). Edmund Calamy abridged this work (1702). The + abridgment forms the first volume of the account of the ejected + ministers, but whoever refers to it should also acquaint himself with + the reply to the accusations which had been brought against Baxter, + and which will be found in the second volume of Calamy's Continuation. + William Orme's _Life and Times of Richard Baxter_ appeared in 2 vols. + in 1830; it also forms the first volume of "Practical Works" (1830, + reprinted 1868). Sir James Stephen's interesting paper on Baxter, + contributed originally to the _Edinburgh Review_, is reprinted in the + second volume of his _Essays_. More recent estimates of Baxter are + those given by John Tulloch in his _English Puritanism and its + Leaders_, and by Dean Stanley in his address at the inauguration of + the statue to Baxter at Kidderminster (see _Macmillan's Magazine_, + xxxii. 385). + + There is a good portrait of Baxter in the Williams library, Gordon + Square, London. + + + + +BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY (1827-1875), English economist and statistician, +was born at Doncaster in 1827. He was educated privately and at Trinity +College, Cambridge. He studied law and entered his father's firm of +Baxter & Co., solicitors, with which he was connected till his death. +Though studiously attentive to business, he was enabled, as a member of +the Statistical and other learned societies, to accomplish much useful +economic work. His principal economic writings were _The Budget and the +Income Tax_ (1860), _Railway Extension and its Results_ (1866), _The +National Income_ (1868), _The Taxation of the United Kingdom_ (1869), +_National Debts of the World_ (1871), _Local Government and Taxation_ +(1874), and his purely political writings included _The Volunteer +Movement_ (1860), _The Redistribution of Seats and the Counties_ (1866), +_History of English Parties and Conservatism_ (1870), and _The Political +Progress of the Working Classes_ (1871). + + + + +BAXTER, WILLIAM (1650-1723), British antiquarian, critic and grammarian, +nephew of Richard Baxter, the divine, was born at Llanllugan, +Montgomeryshire. When he went to Harrow school, at the age of eighteen, +he was unable to read, and could speak no language except Welsh. His +progress must have been remarkable, since he published his Latin grammar +about ten years afterwards. During the greater part of his life Baxter +was a schoolmaster, and was finally headmaster of the Mercers' school, +where he remained till shortly before his death on the 31st of May 1723. +He was an accomplished linguist, and his learning was undoubtedly very +great. His published works are: _De Analogia_ (1679), an advanced Latin +grammar; _Anacreontis Teii Carmina_, including two odes of Sappho (1695; +reprinted in 1710, "with improvements," which he was accused of having +borrowed from the edition of Joshua Barnes); _Horace_ (1701 and +subsequent editions, regarded as remarkable for its abuse of Bentley); +_Glossarium Antiquitatum Britannicarum_ (1719); and _Glossarium +Antiquitatum Romanarum_ (1826). The last two works were published by the +Rev. Moses Williams, the second (which goes no farther than the letter +A) under the title of _Reliquiae Baxterianae_, including an +autobiographical fragment. Baxter also contributed to a joint +translation of Plutarch's _Moralia_, and left notes on Juvenal and +Persius. + + + + +BAY, a homonymous term of which the principal branches are as follows, +(1) The name of the sweet laurel (_Laurus nobilis_) or bay tree (see +LAUREL); this word is derived through the O. Fr. _baie_, from Lat. +_baca_, berry, the bay bearing a heavy crop of dark purple berries. The +leaves of the bay were woven in garlands to crown poets, and hence the +word is often used figuratively in the sense of fame and reward. (2) A +wide opening or indentation in a coast line. This may be of the same +origin as "bay," in the architectural sense, or from a Latin word which +is seen in the place name Baiae. (3) The name of a colour, of a reddish +brown, principally used of the colour in horses; there are various +shades, light bay, bright bay, &c. This word is derived from the Latin +_badius_, which is given by Varro (in _Nonnius_, pp. 80-82) as one of +the colours of horses. The word is also seen in baize (q.v.). (4) The +deep bark of dogs. This word is also seen in the expression "at bay," +properly of a hunted animal who at the last turns on the "baying" hounds +and defends itself. The origin of the word is the O. Fr. _bayer, +abayer_, Lat. _badare_, properly to gape, open wide the mouth. (5) An +architectural term (Fr. _travee_, Ital. _compartimento_, Ger. +_Abteilung_) for any division or compartment of an arcade, roof, &c. +Each space from pillar to pillar in a cathedral, church or other +building is called a "bay" or "severy." This word is also to be referred +to _bayer_, to gape. + +A "bay-window" or "bow-window" is a window projecting outwards and +forming a recess in the apartment. Bay-windows may be rectangular, +polygonal or semicircular in plan, in the last case being better known +as bow-windows. The bay-window would seem to have been introduced in the +15th century, but the earliest examples of importance are those which +were built during the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), when it was +largely employed in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and in the +feudal castles of the period. Examples are found in the palace at +Eltham, Cowdray Castle in Sussex, Thornbury Castle in Gloucestershire, +and in the George Inn at Glastonbury; one of the finest of a later date +is that of the Banqueting Hall at Hampton Court, some 50 ft. high. In +the great entrance halls of ancient mansions the floor of the last bay +of the hall was generally raised two or three steps, and this portion +was reserved for the lord of the manor and his guests, and was known as +the dais. The usual position of the bay-window is at one end of this +dais, and occasionally but rarely at both ends. The sills of the windows +are at a lower level than those in the hall, and, raised on one or two +steps, are seats in the recess. The recess of the bay-window was +generally covered with a ribbed vault of elaborate design, and the +window itself subdivided by mullions and transoms. In some of the larger +windows such as those at Cowdray and Hampton Court there are no fewer +than five transoms, and this sub-division gave great scale to the +design. The same feature when employed in an upper storey and supported +by corbels or brackets is known as an oriel window. (See also DAIS and +HALL.) + + + + +BAYAMO, an old inland city on the N. slope of the Sierra Maestra in +Santiago province, Cuba. Pop. (1907) 4102. It lies on a plain by the +Bayamo river, in a fertile country, but isolated from sea and from +railway. Its older parts are extraordinarily irregular. The streets are +of all widths, and of all degrees of crookedness, and run in all +directions. Bayamo was the third of the seven cities founded by Diego +Velazquez, and was established in 1513. During much of the 16th century +it was one of the most important agricultural and commercial settlements +of the island. Its inland situation gave it relative security against +the pirates who then infested West Indian seas, and the misfortunes of +Santiago were the fortunes of Bayamo. Down the river Cauto, then open to +the sea for vessels of 200 tons, and through Manzanillo, Bayamo drove a +thriving contraband trade that made it at the opening of the 17th +century the leading town of Cuba. A tremendous flood, in 1616, choking +the Cauto with trees and wrecked vessels, cut it off from direct access +to the sea; but through Manzanillo it continued a great clandestine +traffic with Curacao, Jamaica, and other foreign islands all through the +17th and 18th centuries. Bayamo was then surrounded by fine plantations. +It was a rich and turbulent city. In the war of 1868-78 it was an +insurgent stronghold; near it was fought one of the most desperate +conflicts of the war, and it was nearly destroyed by the opposing +parties. Bayamo was the birthplace and the home of Carlos Manuel de +Cespedes (1819-1874), first president of the "first" Cuban republic, +and was also the birthplace and home of Tomas Estrada Palma +(1835-1908), first president of the present Cuban republic. + + + + +BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL, SEIGNEUR DE (1473-1524), French soldier, the +descendant of a noble family, nearly every head of which for two +centuries past had fallen in battle, was born at the chateau Bayard, +Dauphine (near Pontcharra, Isere), about 1473. He served as a page to +Charles I., duke of Savoy, until Charles VIII. of France, attracted by +his graceful bearing, placed him among the royal followers under the +seigneur (count) de Ligny (1487). As a youth he was distinguished for +comeliness, affability of manner, and skill in the tilt-yard. In 1494 he +accompanied Charles VIII. into Italy, and was knighted after the battle +of Fornova (1495), where he had captured a standard. Shortly afterwards, +entering Milan alone in ardent pursuit of the enemy, he was taken +prisoner, but was set free without a ransom by Lodovico Sforza. In 1502 +he was wounded at the assault of Canossa. Bayard was the hero of a +celebrated combat of thirteen French knights against an equal number of +Germans, and his restless energy and valour were conspicuous throughout +the Italian wars of this period. On one occasion it is said that, +single-handed, he made good the defence of the bridge of the Garigliano +against about 200 Spaniards, an exploit that brought him such renown +that Pope Julius II. sought to entice him into the papal service, but +unsuccessfully. In 1508 he distinguished himself again at the siege of +Genoa by Louis XII., and early in 1509 the king made him captain of a +company of horse and foot. At the siege of Padua he won further +distinction, not only by his valour, but also by his consummate skill. +He continued to serve in the Italian wars up to the siege of Brescia in +1512. Here his intrepidity in first mounting the rampart cost him a +severe wound, which obliged his soldiers to carry him into a +neighbouring house, the residence of a nobleman, whose wife and +daughters he protected from threatened insult. Before his wound was +healed, he hurried to join Gaston de Foix, under whom he served in the +terrible battle of Ravenna (1512). In 1513, when Henry VIII. of England +routed the French at the battle of the Spurs (Guinegate, where Bayard's +father had received a lifelong injury in a battle of 1479), Bayard in +trying to rally his countrymen found his escape cut off. Unwilling to +surrender, he rode suddenly up to an English officer who was resting +unarmed, and summoned him to yield; the knight complying, Bayard in turn +gave himself up to his prisoner. He was taken into the English camp, but +his gallantry impressed Henry as it had impressed Lodovico, and the king +released him without ransom, merely exacting his parole not to serve for +six weeks. On the accession of Francis I. in 1515 Bayard was made +lieutenant-general of Dauphine; and after the victory of Marignan, to +which his valour largely contributed, he had the honour of conferring +knighthood on his youthful sovereign. When war again broke out between +Francis I. and Charles V., Bayard, with 1000 men, held Mezieres, which +had been declared untenable, against an army of 35,000, and after six +weeks compelled the imperial generals to raise the siege. This stubborn +resistance saved central France from invasion, as the king had not then +sufficient forces to withstand the imperialists. All France rang with +the achievement, and Francis gained time to collect the royal army which +drove out the invaders (1521). The parlement thanked Bayard as the +saviour of his country; the king made him a knight of the order of St +Michael, and commander in his own name of 100 _gens d'armes_, an honour +till then reserved for princes of the blood. After allaying a revolt at +Genoa, and striving with the greatest assiduity to check a pestilence in +Dauphine, Bayard was sent, in 1523, into Italy with Admiral Bonnivet, +who, being defeated at Robecco and wounded in a combat during his +retreat, implored Bayard to assume the command and save the army. He +repulsed the foremost pursuers, but in guarding the rear at the passage +of the Sesia was mortally wounded by an arquebus ball (April 30th, +1524). He died in the midst of the enemy, attended by Pescara, the +Spanish commander, and by his old comrade the constable de Bourbon. His +body was restored to his friends and interred at Grenoble. Chivalry, +free of fantastic extravagance, is perfectly mirrored in the character +of Bayard. As a soldier he was one of the most skilful commanders of the +age. He was particularly noted for the exactitude and completeness of +his information of the enemy's movements; this he obtained both by +careful reconnaissance and by a well-arranged system of espionage. In +the midst of mercenary armies Bayard remained absolutely disinterested, +and to his contemporaries and his successors he was, with his romantic +heroism, piety and magnanimity, the fearless and faultless knight, _le +chevalier sans peur et sans reproche_. His gaiety and kindness won him, +even more frequently, another name bestowed by his contemporaries, _le +bon chevalier_. + + Contemporary lives of Bayard are the following:--"_Le loyal + serviteur_" (? Jacques de Maille); _La tres joyeuse, plaisante, et + recreative histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du + bon chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de + Bayart_ (original edition printed at Paris, 1527; the modern editions + are very numerous, those of M.J. Roman and of L. Larchey appeared in + 1878 and 1882); Symphorien Champier, _Les Gestes, ensemble la vie du + preulx chevalier Bayard_ (Lyons, 1525); Aymar du Rivail, _Histoire des + Allobroges_ (edition of de Terrebasse, 1844); see _Bayard_ in + _Repertoire des sources historiques_, by Ulysse Chevalier, and in + particular A. de Terrebasse, _Hist. de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de + Bayart_ (1st ed., Paris, 1828; 5th ed., Vienna, 1870). + + + + +BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1828-1898), American diplomatist, was born in +Wilmington, Delaware, on the 29th of October 1828. His great-grandfather, +Richard Bassett (1745-1815), governor of Delaware; his grandfather, James +Asheton Bayard (1767-1815), a prominent Federalist, and one of the United +States commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent with Great +Britain after the War of 1812; his uncle, Richard Henry Bayard +(1796-1868); and his father, James Asheton Bayard (1799-1880), a +well-known constitutional lawyer, all represented Delaware in the United +States Senate. Intending to go into business, he did not receive a +college education; but in 1848 he began the study of law in the office of +his father, and was admitted to the bar in 1851. Except from 1855 to +1857, when he was a partner of William Shippen in Philadelphia, he +practised chiefly in Wilmington. He was a United States senator from +Delaware from 1869 to 1885, and in 1881 was (October 10th to 13th) +president _pro tempore_ of the Senate. His abilities made him a leader of +the Democrats in the Senate, and his views on financial and legal +questions gave him a high reputation for statesmanship. He was a member +of the electoral commission of 1877. In the Democratic national +conventions of 1872, 1876, 1880 and 1884 he received votes for nomination +as the party candidate for the presidency. He was secretary of state, +1885-1889, during the first administration of President Cleveland, and +pursued a conservative policy in foreign affairs, the most important +matter with which he was called upon to deal being the Bering Sea +controversy. As ambassador to Great Britain, 1893-1897, his tall +dignified person, unfailing courtesy, and polished, if somewhat +deliberate, eloquence made him a man of mark in all the best circles. He +was considered indeed by many Americans to have become too partial to +English ways; and, for the expression of some criticisms regarded as +unfavourable to his own countrymen, the House of Representatives went so +far as to pass, on the 7th of November 1895, a vote of censure on him. +The value of Mr Bayard's diplomacy was, however, fully recognized in the +United Kingdom, where he worthily upheld the traditions of a famous line +of American ministers. He was the first representative of the United +States in Great Britain to hold the diplomatic rank of an ambassador. He +died in Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 28th of September 1898. + + See Edward Spencer, _Public Life and Services of T.F. Bayard_ (New + York, 1880). + + + + +BAYAZID, or BAJAZET, a border fortress of Asiatic Turkey, chief town of +a sanjak of the Erzerum vilayet, situated close to the frontiers of +Russia and Persia, and looking across a marshy plain to the great cone +of Ararat, at a general altitude of 6000 ft. It occupies a site of great +antiquity, as the cuneiform inscriptions on the neighbouring rocks +testify; it stands on the site of the old Armenian town of Pakovan. It +is picturesquely situated in an amphitheatre of sharp, rocky hills. The +great trade route from Trebizond by Erzerum into N.W. Persia crosses the +frontier at Kizil Dize a few miles to the south and does not enter the +town. A knoll above the town is occupied by the half-ruined fort or +palace of former governors, built for Mahmud Pasha by a Persian +architect and considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Turkey. +It contains two churches and a monastery, the Kasa Kilissa, famous for +its antiquity and architectural grandeur. The cuneiform inscriptions are +on the rock pinnacles above the town, with some rock chambers, +indicating a town or fortress of the Vannic period. The population has +lately decreased and now numbers about 4000. A Russian consul resides +here and the town is a military station. It was captured during the +Russian campaigns of 1828 and 1854, also in 1878, but was then +recaptured by the Turks, who subjected the Russian garrison to a long +siege; the place was ultimately relieved, but a massacre of Christians +then took place in the streets. Bayazid was restored to Turkey by the +treaty of Berlin. + + + + +BAYBAY, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine +Islands, on the W. coast. Pop. (1903) 22,990. The town proper is +situated at the mouth of the Pagbanganan river, 45 m. S.S.W. of +Tacloban, the provincial capital. A superior grade of hemp is exported. +Other products are rice, corn, copra, cacao, sugar, cattle and horses. +The Cebu dialect of the Visayan language is spoken. + + + + +BAY CITY, a city and the county seat of Bay county, Michigan, U.S.A., on +the Saginaw river, about 2 m. from its entrance into Saginaw Bay and +about 108 m. N.N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 27,839; (1900) 27,628, of +whom 8483 were foreign-born, including 2413 English-Canadians, 1743 +Germans, 1822 Poles--the city has a Polish weekly newspaper--and 1075 +French-Canadians; (1910, census) 45,166. Bay City is served by the +Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, the Grand Trunk and the Detroit & +Mackinac railways, and by lake steamers. The city extends for several +miles along both sides of the river, and is in a good farming district, +with which it is connected by stone roads. Among the public buildings +are the Federal building, the city hall and the public library. The city +has lumber and fishing interests (perch, whitefish, sturgeon, pickerel, +bass, &c. being caught in Saginaw Bay), large machine shops and +foundries (value of products in 1905, $1,743,155, or 31% of the total of +the city's factory products), and various manufactures, including ships +(wooden and steel), wooden ware, wood-pipe, veneer, railroad machinery, +cement, alkali and chicory. A salt basin underlies the city, and, next +to the lumber industry, the salt industry was the first to be developed, +but its importance has dwindled, the product value in 1905 being $20,098 +out of $5,620,866 for all factory products. Near the city are valuable +coal mines, and there is one within the city limits. At Essexville (pop. +in 1910, 1477), N.E., at Banks, N.W., and at Salzbury, S.W. of Bay City, +are beet-sugar factories--sugar beets are extensively grown in the +vicinity. Alcohol is made from the refuse molasses obtained from these +beet-sugar factories. The municipality owns and operates the water-works +and electric-lighting plant. The settlements of Lower Saginaw and +Portsmouth were made in 1837, and were later united to form Bay City, +which was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered as a city in +1865. In 1905 West Bay City (pop. 1900, 13,119) and Bay City were +consolidated. + + + + +BAYEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Calvados, 18 m. N.W. of Caen on the Western railway. +Pop. (1906) 6930. Bayeux is situated on the Aure, 5 m. from the English +Channel. Its majestic cathedral was built in the 13th century on the +site of a Romanesque church, to which the lateral arcades of the nave +and the two western towers with their high stone spires belonged. A +third and still loftier tower, the upper part of which, in the florid +Gothic style, is modern, surmounts the crossing. The chancel, surrounded +with radiating chapels, is a fine example of early Gothic. Underneath it +there is a crypt of the 11th century restored in the 15th century. The +oak stalls in the choir are fine examples of late 16th-century carving. +The former bishop's palace, parts of which are of great age though the +main building is of the 18th century, serves as law-court and hotel de +ville. Bayeux possesses many quaint, timbered houses and stone mansions +in its quiet streets. The museum contains the celebrated Bayeux tapestry +(see below). The town is the seat of a bishop and of a sub-prefect; it +has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, an ecclesiastical +seminary, a communal college and a chamber of arts and manufactures. +Dyeing, leather-dressing, lace-making and the manufacture of porcelain +for household and laboratory purposes are carried on. + +Till the 4th century Bayeux bore the name of _Augustodurum_, but +afterwards, when it became the capital of the two tribes of the +Baiocasses and Viducasses, took the name of Civitas Baiocassium. Its +bishopric dates from the latter half of the 4th century. Before the +Norman invasion it was governed by counts. Taken in 890 by the +Scandinavian chief, Rollo, it was soon after peopled by the Normans and +became a residence of the dukes of Normandy, one of whom, Richard I., +built about 960 a castle which survived till the 18th century. During +the quarrels between the sons of William the Conqueror it was pillaged +and sacked by Henry I. in 1106, and in later times it underwent siege +and capture on several occasions during the Hundred Years' War and the +religious wars of the 16th century. Till 1790 it was the capital of the +Bessin, a district of lower Normandy. + + + + +BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE. This venerable relic consists of a band of linen, +231 ft. long and 20 in. wide, now light brown with age, on which have +been worked with a needle, in worsteds of eight colours, scenes +representing the conquest of England by the Normans. Of these scenes +there are seventy-two, beginning with Harold's visit to Bosham on his +way to Normandy, and ending with the flight of the English from the +battle of Hastings, though the actual end of the strip has perished. +Along the top and the bottom run decorative borders with figures of +animals, scenes from fables of Aesop and of Phaedrus, from husbandry and +the chase, and occasionally from the story of the Conquest itself (see +EMBROIDERY; Plate I. fig. 7). Formerly known as the _Toile de St Jean_, +it was used on certain feast days to decorate the nave of Bayeux +cathedral. Narrowly escaping the perils of the Revolution, it was +exhibited in Paris, by Napoleon's desire, in 1803-1804, and has since +been in civil custody at Bayeux, where it is now exhibited under glass. +In the Franco-German War (1871) it was hastily taken down and concealed. + +"The noblest monument in the world relating to our old English history," +as William Stukeley described it in 1746, it has been repeatedly +described, discussed and reproduced, both in France and in England since +1730. The best coloured reproduction is that by C.A. Stothard in 1818, +published in the sixth volume of _Vetusta Monumenta_; but in 1871-1872 +the "tapestry" was photographed for the English education authorities by +E. Dossetter. + +Local tradition assigned the work to the Conqueror's wife. F. Pluquet, +in his _Essai historique sur la ville de Bayeux_ (Caen, 1829), was the +first to reject this belief, and to connect it with the Conqueror's +half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and this view, which is now +accepted, is confirmed by the fact that three of the bishop's followers +mentioned in Domesday Book are among the very few named figures on the +tapestry. That Odo had it executed for his cathedral seems tolerably +certain, but whether it was worked by English fingers or not has been +disputed, though some of the words upon it have been held to favour that +view. Freeman emphatically pronounced it to be "a contemporary work," +and historically "a primary authority ... in fact the highest authority +on the Norman side." As some of its evidence is unique, the question of +its authority is important, and Freeman's conclusions have been +practically confirmed by recent discussion. In 1902 M. Marignan +questioned, on archaeological grounds, the date assigned to the +tapestry, as the Abbe de la Rue had questioned it ninety years before; +but his arguments were refuted by Gaston Paris and M. Lanore, and the +authority of the tapestry was vindicated. The famous relic appears to be +the solitary survivor of a class, for Abbot Baudri described in Latin +verse a similar work executed for Adela, daughter of the Conqueror, and +in earlier days the widow of Brihtnoth had wrought a similar record of +her husband's exploits and death at the hard-fought battle of Maldon +(991). + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + 1. SIEGE OF DINANT. Note the wooden castle on a mound, and the knight + handing over the keys on his lance tip. + + 2. THE FUNERAL OF EDWARD THE CONFESSOR AT WESTMINSTER ABBEY. + + 3. CORONATION OF HAROLD. + + 4. APPEARANCE OF HALLEY'S COMET. + + 5. THE NORMANS CARRY THEIR ARMS TO THE SHIPS. (_By permission of G, + Bell & Sons._)] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + 6. THE NORMANS CROSS TO PEVENSEY. + + 7. BUILDING OF HASTINGS CASTLE. + + 8. HAROLD'S ADVANCE ANNOUNCED TO WILLIAM. THE BURNING OF HASTINGS. + + 9. THE NORMAN CAVALRY ATTACKS THE ENGLISH SHIELD WALL. + + 10. WILLIAM RAISES HIS HELMET TO RALLY HIS MEN. + + 11. ODO, BISHOP OF BAYEUX, WIELDING HIS MACE. + + (_By permission of G. Bell & Sons._)] + + See E.A. Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vol. iii. (ed. 1875), with + summary of the discussion to date; _Archaeologia_, vols. xvii.--xix.; + Dawson Turner, _Tour in Normandy_ (1820); C.A. Stothard's + illustrations in _Vetusta Monumenta_, vol. vi.; _Gentleman's + Magazine_, 1837; Bolton Corney, _Researches and Conjectures on the + Bayeux Tapestry_ (1836-1838); A. de Caumont, "Un mot sur ... la + tapisserie de Bayeux," in _Bulletin monumental de Vinstilut des + provinces_, vol. viii. (1841); J. Laffetay, _Notice historique et + descriptive sur la tapisserie_ ... (1874); J. Comte, _Tapisserie de + Bayeux_; F.R. Fowke, _The Bayeux Tapestry_ (ed. 1898); Marignan, + _Tapisserie de Bayeux_ (1902); G. Pans, "Tapisserie de Bayeux," in + _Romania_, vol. xxxi.; Lanore, "La Tapisserie de Bayeux," in + _Bibliotheque de l'ecole des chartes_, vol. lxiv. (1903); and J.H. + Round, "The Bayeux Tapestry," in _Monthly Review_, xvii. (1904). + (J. H. R.) + + + + +BAYEZID I. (1347-1403), Ottoman sultan, surnamed YILDERIM or +"LIGHTNING," from the great rapidity of his movements, succeeded his +father Murad I. on the latter's assassination on the field of Kossovo, +1389, and signalized his accession by ordering at once the execution of +his brother Yakub, who had distinguished himself in the battle. His arms +were successful both in Europe and Asia, and he was the first Ottoman +sovereign to be styled "sultan," which title he induced the titular +Abbasid caliph to confer on him. After routing the chivalry of +Christendom at the battle of Nikopoli in 1396, he pursued his victorious +career in Greece, and Constantinople would doubtless have fallen before +his attack, had not the emperor Manuel Palaeologus bought him off by +timely concessions which reduced him practically to the position of +Bayezid's vassal. But his conquests met with a sudden and overpowering +check at the hands of Timur (Tamerlane). Utterly defeated at Angora by +the Mongol invader, Bayezid became his prisoner, and died in captivity +some months later, in March 1403. + +Bayezid first married Devlet Shah Khatun, daughter of the prince of +Kermian, who brought him in dowry Kutaiah and its dependencies. Two +years before his accession he also married a daughter of the emperor +John Palaeologus. + + + + +BAYEZID II. (1447-1512), sultan of Turkey, was the son of Mahommed II., +whom he succeeded in 1481, but only after gaining over the janissaries +by a large donative, which henceforth became for centuries the +invariable prerogative of that undisciplined body on the accession of a +new sultan. Before he could establish himself on the throne a long +struggle ensued with his brother Prince Jem. Being routed, Jem fled for +refuge to the knights of St John at Rhodes, who, in spite of a +safe-conduct granted to him, accepted a pension from Bayezid as the +price for keeping him a close prisoner. (See AUBUSSON, PIERRE D'.) + +So long as Jem lived he was a perpetual menace to the sultan's peace, +and there was considerable rivalry among the sovereigns of Europe for +the possession of so valuable an instrument for bringing pressure to +bear upon the Porte for the purpose of extracting money or concessions. +By common consent the prince was ultimately entrusted to Pope Innocent +VIII., who used him not only to extract an annual tribute out of the +sultan, but to prevent the execution of Bayezid's ambitious designs in +the Mediterranean. His successor, Alexander VI., used him for a more +questionable purpose, namely, not only to extract the arrears of the +pension due for Jem's safe-keeping, but, by enlarging on Charles V.'s +intention of setting him up as sultan, to persuade Bayezid to aid him +against the emperor. There appears, however, to be no truth in the +report that Bayezid succeeded in bribing the pope to have Jem poisoned. +The prince, who had lived on excellent terms with Alexander, died at +Naples in February 1495, possibly as the result of excesses in which he +had been deliberately encouraged by the pope. + +Whether as a result of his fear of the rivalry of Jem, or of his +personal character, Bayezid showed little of the aggressive spirit of +his warlike predecessors; and Machiavelli said that another such sultan +would cause Turkey to cease being a menace to Europe. He abandoned the +attack on Rhodes at the first check, made concessions, for the sake of +peace, to Venice and reduced the tribute due fiom Ragusa. His wars were +of the nature of raids, on the Dalmatian coast and into Croatia, +Hungary, Moldavia and Poland. The threat of the growing power in the +Aegean of Venice, which had acquired Cyprus in 1489, at last roused him +to a more serious effort; and in 1499 the war broke out with the +republic, which ended in 1502 by the annexation to Turkey of Lepanto and +Modon, Coron and Navarino in the Morea. Bayezid himself conducted the +siege of Modon in 1500. + +The comparative inactivity of Bayezid in the direction of Europe was +partly due to preoccupation elsewhere. In the south he was threatened by +the dangerous rivalry of Kait Bey, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, who had +extended his power northwards as far as Tarsus and Adana. In 1488 he +gained a great victory over the Ottomans, and in 1491 a peace was made +which was not again broken till after Bayezid's death. On the side of +Persia too, where the decisive battle of Shurur (1502) had raised to +power Ismail, the first of the modern line of shahs, danger threatened +the sultan, and the latter years of his reign were troubled by the +spread, under the influence of the new Persian power, of the Shi'ite +doctrine in Kurdistan and Asia Minor. The forces destined to maintain +his authority in Asia had been entrusted by Bayezid to his three sons, +Ahmed, Corcud and Selim; and the sultan's declining years were +embittered by their revolts and rivalry. Soon after the great earthquake +of 1509, which laid Constantinople in ruins, Selim, the ungovernable +pasha of Trebizond, whose vigorous rule in Asia had given Europe an +earnest of his future career as sultan, appeared before Adrianople, +where Bayezid had sought refuge. The sultan had designated Ahmed as his +successor, but Selim, though temporarily defeated, succeeded in winning +over the janissaries. On the 25th of April 1512 Bayezid was forced to +abdicate in his favour, and died a few days later. + + See J.B. Bury in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. i. chap. iii. + and bibliography p. 700. + + + + +BAY ISLANDS (ISLAS DE LA BAHIA), a small archipelago in the Caribbean +Sea, off the coast of Honduras, of which country it forms an +administrative district. Pop. (1905) about 3000, including 500 Indians. +The archipelago consists of Roatan or Ruatan, Guanaja or Bonacca, +Utilla, Barbareta, Helena, Morat, the Puercos or Hog Islands, and many +_cays_ or islets. The Bay Islands have a good soil, a fine climate and +an advantageous position. Roatan, the largest, is about 30 m. long by 9 +m. broad, with mountains rising to the height of 900 ft., covered with +valuable woods and abounding with deer and wild hogs. Its chief towns +are Coxen Hole and Puerto Real. Its trade is chiefly with New Orleans in +plantains, cocoa-nuts, pineapples and other fruit. Guanaja is 9 m. long +by 5 m. broad; it lies 15 m. E.N.E. of Roatan. Wild hogs abound in its +thickly-wooded limestone hills. The other islands are comparatively +small, and may, in some cases, be regarded as detached parts of Roatan, +with which they are connected by reefs. Guanaja was discovered in 1502 +by Columbus, but the islands were not colonized until the 17th century, +when they were occupied by British logwood cutters from Belize, and +pearlers from the Mosquito Coast. Forts were built on Roatan in 1742, +but abandoned in 1749. In 1852 the islands were annexed by Great +Britain. In 1859 they were ceded to Honduras. + + + + +BAYLE, PIERRE (1647-1706), French philosopher and man of letters, was +born on the 18th of November 1647, at le Carla-le-Comte, near Pamiers +(Ariege). Educated by his father, a Calvinist minister, and at an +academy at Puylaurens, he afterwards entered a Jesuit college at +Toulouse, and became a Roman Catholic a month later (1669). After +seventeen months he resumed his former religion, and, to avoid +persecution, fled to Geneva, where he became acquainted with +Cartesianism. For some years he acted under the name of Bele as tutor in +various Parisian families, but in 1675 he was appointed to the chair +of philosophy at the Protestant university of Sedan. In 1681 the +university at Sedan was suppressed, but almost immediately afterwards +Bayle was appointed professor of philosophy and history at Rotterdam. +Here in 1682 he published his famous _Pensees diverses sur la comete de +1680_ and his critique of Maimbourg's work on the history of Calvinism. +The great reputation achieved by this critique stirred the envy of +Bayle's colleague, P. Jurieu, who had written a book on the same +subject. In 1684 Bayle began the publication of his _Nouvelles de la +republique des lettres_, a kind of journal of literary criticism. In +1690 appeared a work entitled _Avis important aux refugies_, which +Jurieu attributed to Bayle, whom he attacked with animosity. After a +long quarrel Bayle was deprived of his chair in 1693. He was not +depressed by this misfortune, especially as he was at the time closely +engaged in the preparation of the _Historical and Critical Dictionary_ +(_Dictionnaire historique et critique_). The remaining years of Bayle's +life were devoted to miscellaneous writings, arising in many instances +out of criticisms made upon his _Dictionary_. He died in exile at +Rotterdam on the 28th of December 1706. In 1906 a statue in his honour +was erected at Pamiers, "la reparation d'un long oubli." Bayle's +erudition, despite the low estimate placed upon it by Leclerc, seems to +have been very considerable. As a constructive thinker, he did little. +As a critic he was second to none in his own time, and even yet one can +admire the delicacy and the skill with which he handles his subject. The +_Nouvelles de la republique des lettres_ (see Louis P. Betz, _P. Bayle +und die Nouvelles de la republique des lettres_, Zurich, 1896) was the +first thorough-going attempt to popularize literature, and it was +eminently successful. The _Dictionary_, however, is Bayle's masterpiece. + + EDITIONS.--_Historical and Critical Dictionary_ (1695-1697; 1702, + enlarged; best that of P. des Maizeaux, 4 vols., 1740); _Les Oeuvres + de Bayle_ (3 vols., The Hague); see des Maizeaux, _Vie de Bayle_; L.A. + Feuerbach, _Pierre Bayle_ (1838); Damiron, _La Philosophie en France + au XVII^e siecle_ (1858-1864); Sainte-Beuve, "Du genie critique et de + Bayle" (_Revue des deux mondes_, 1st Dec. 1835); A. Deschamps, _La + Genese du scepticisme erudit chez Bayle_ (Liege, 1878); J. Denis, + _Bayle et Jurieu_ (Paris, 1886); F. Brunetiere, _La Critique + litteraire au XVIII^e siecle_ (vol. i., 1890), and _La Critique de + Bayle_ (1893); Emile Gigas, _Choix de la correspondance inedite de + Pierre Bayle_ (Paris, 1890, reviewed in _Revue critique_, 22nd Dec. + 1890); de Bude, _Lettres inedites adressees a J.A. Turretini_ (Paris, + 1887); J.F. Stephen, _Horae Sabbaticae_ (London, 1892, 3rd ser. pp. + 174-192); A. Cazes, _P. Bayle, sa vie, ses idees_, &c. (1905). + + + + +BAYLO (Lat. _bajulus_ or _baillivus_; cf. Ital. _balio_, Fr. _bailli_, +Eng. _bailiff_), in diplomacy, the title borne by the Venetian +representative at Constantinople. His functions were originally in the +nature of those of a consul-general, but from the 16th century onwards +he had also the rank and functions of a diplomatic agent of the first +class. "Under the name of bayle," says A. de Wicquefort, "he performs +also the functions of consul and judge; not only between members of his +own nation, but also between all the other merchants who trade in the +Levant under the flag of St Mark." (See DIPLOMACY.) + + + + +BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES (1797-1839), English songwriter and dramatist, was +born at Bath on the 13th of October 1797. He was educated at Winchester +and at St Mary Hall, Oxford, with a view to entering the church. While +on a visit to Dublin, however, he discovered his ability to write +ballads, and on his return to England in 1824 he quickly gained a wide +reputation with "I'd be a butterfly," following this up with "We +met--'twas in a crowd," "She wore a wreath of roses," "Oh, no, we never +mention her," and other light and graceful songs for which his name is +still remembered. He set some of his songs to music himself; a +well-known example is "Gaily the troubadour." Bayly also wrote two +novels, _The Aylmers_ and _A Legend of Killarney_, and numerous plays. +His most successful dramatic piece was _Perfection_, which was produced +by Madame Vestris and received high praise from Lord Chesterfield. Bayly +had married in 1826 an Irish heiress, but her estates were mismanaged +and the anxiety caused by financial difficulties undermined his health. +He died on the 22nd of April 1839. + + His _Collected Works_ (1844) contain a memoir by his wife. + + + + +BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER (1823-1887), English editor and man of letters, +the son of a Baptist minister, was born at Wellington, Somerset, on the +24th of March 1823. He studied at Edinburgh University, where he was a +pupil of Sir William Hamilton, whose assistant he became and of whose +views on logic he became the authorized exponent. This teaching was +embodied in his _Essay on the New Analytic of Logical Forms_, published +in 1850, the same year in which he took his London University degree. +This was followed in the next year by a translation of Arnauld's _Port +Royal Logic_. In 1850 he had become editor of the _Edinburgh Guardian_, +but after four years' work his health gave way. He spent two years in +Somerset and then went to London, becoming, in 1858, assistant editor of +the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed professor of logic +metaphysics and English literature at the university of St Andrews, and +in 1873 the editorship of the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_ was entrusted to him. He conducted it singly until 1881, +when the decline of his health rendered it necessary to provide him with +a coadjutor in the person of Prof. W. Robertson Smith. Baynes, however, +continued to be engaged upon the work until his death on the 31st May +1887, shortly before its completion. His article on Shakespeare +(_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th ed.) was republished in 1894, along +with other essays on Shakespearian topics and a memoir by Prof. Lewis +Campbell. + + + + +BAYONET, a short thrusting weapon, fixed to the muzzle or fore-end of a +rifle or musket and carried by troops armed with the latter weapons. The +origin of the word is disputed, but there is some authority for the +supposition that the name is derived from the town of Bayonne, where the +short dagger called _bayonnette_ was first made towards the end of the +15th century. The elder Puysegur, a native of Bayonne, says (in his +_Memoirs_, published posthumously in Paris, 1747) that when he was +commanding the troops at Ypres in 1647 his musketeers used bayonets +consisting of a steel dagger fixed in a wooden haft, which fitted into +the muzzle of the musket--in fact plug-bayonets. Courts-martial were +held on some English soldiers at Tangier in 1663-1664 for using their +daggers on their comrades. As bayonets were at first called daggers, and +as there were few or no pikemen in Tangier until 1675, the probable +conclusion is that the troops in Tangier used plug-bayonets. In 1671 +plug-bayonets were issued to the French regiment of fusiliers then +raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment raised +in 1672 and disbanded in 1674, and to the Royal Fusiliers when raised in +1685. The danger incurred by the use of this bayonet (which put a stop +to all fire) was felt so early that the younger Puysegur saw a +ring-bayonet in 1678 which could be fixed without stopping the fire. The +English defeat at Killiecrankie in 1689 was due (among other things) to +the use of the plug-bayonet; and shortly afterwards the defeated leader, +General Mackay, introduced a ring-bayonet of his own invention. A trial +with badly-fitting socket or zigzag bayonets was made after the battle +of Fleurus, 1690, in the presence of Louis XIV., who refused to adopt +them. Shortly after the peace of Ryswick (1697) the English and Germans +abolished the pike and introduced these bayonets, and plates of them are +given in Surirey de St Remy's _Memoires d'Artillerie_, published in +Paris in that year; but owing to a military cabal they were not issued +to the French infantry until 1703. Henceforward the bayonet became, with +the musket or other firearm, the typical weapon of infantry. This +bayonet remained in the British service until 1805, when Sir John Moore +introduced a bayonet fastened to the musket by a spring clip. The +triangular bayonet (so called from the cross-section of its blade) was +used in the British army until the introduction of the magazine rifle, +when it was replaced by the sword-bayonet or dagger-bayonet. +Sword-bayonets--weapons which could be used as sword or dagger apart +from the rifle--had long been in use by special troops such as engineers +and rifles, and many ingenious attempts have been made to produce a +bayonet fitted for several uses. A long curved sword-bayonet with a +saw-edged back was formerly used by the Royal Engineers, but all troops +are now supplied with the plain sword-bayonet. The bayonet is usually +hung in a scabbard on the belt of the soldier and only fixed during the +final stages of a battle; the reason for this is that the "jump" of the +rifle due to the shock of explosion is materially altered by the extra +weight at the muzzle, which thus deranges the sighting. In the short +Lee-Enfield rifle of 1903, the bayonet, not being directly attached to +the barrel, does not influence accuracy, but with the long rifles, when +the bayonet is fixed, the sight must be raised by two or three +graduations to ensure correct elevation. In the Russian army troops +almost invariably carry the bayonet (triangular) fixed; the model (1891) +of Italian carbine has an inseparable bayonet; the United States rifle +(the new short model of 1903) has a knife bayonet, the model of 1905, +which is 20.5875 in. long, with the lower edge of the blade sharpened +along its entire length and the upper edge sharpened 5 in. from the +point; this bayonet is carried in a wooden and leather scabbard attached +to the cartridge belt. The British bayonet (pattern 1903) has a blade 1 +ft. in length. The length of the rifle and bayonet together, considered +as an _arme blanche_, varies considerably, that of the French Lebel +pattern of 1886 being 6 ft., as against the 4 ft. 8-3/4 in. of the +British short Lee-Enfield of 1903. The German rifles (1898) have a +length with bayonet of 5 ft. 9-3/4 in.; the Russian (1894) 5 ft. 9 in.; +and the Japanese 5 ft. 5-1/2 in. In 1908 a new British bayonet was +approved, 5 in. longer than its predecessor of 1903, the shape of the +point being modified to obtain the thrusting effect of a spear or lance +head. + + + + +BAYONNE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Basses-Pyrenees, 66 m. W.N.W. of Pau on the Southern +railway. Pop. (1906) 21,779. Bayonne, a first-class fortified place, is +situated at the confluence of the Adour and its left-hand tributary, the +Nive, about 3 m. from the sea. The two rivers divide the town into three +nearly equal parts, communicating with each other by bridges. Grand +Bayonne lies on the left bank of the Nive; the two squares which lie +close together at the mouth of that river constitute the most animated +quarter of the town. Petit Bayonne lies between the right bank of the +Nive and the Adour; Saint Esprit, dominated by a citadel which is one of +the finest works of Vauban, occupies the right bank of the Adour. The +last is inhabited partly by a colony of Jews dating at least from the +early 16th century. To the north-west of the town are the Allees +Marines, fine promenades which border the Adour for a mile and a +quarter, and the Allees Paulmy, skirting the fortifications. The +cathedral of Ste Marie in Grand Bayonne is an imposing Gothic structure +of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. It consists of a choir with +deambulatory and apsidal chapels (the oldest part of the church), a +transept, nave and aisles. The towers at the west end were only +completed during the general restoration which took place in the latter +half of the 19th century. A fine cloister of the 13th century adjoins +the south side of the church. Ste Marie contains glass windows of the +15th and 16th centuries and other rich decoration. The Vieux-Chateau, +also in Grand Bayonne, dates from the 12th and 15th centuries and is +built upon a portion of the old Roman fortifications; it is used for +military purposes. The Chateau Neuf (15th and 16th centuries) serves as +barracks and prison. Bayonne is the seat of a bishopric and of a +sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a +chamber of commerce, a lycee, a school of music, a library, an art +museum with a large collection of the works of the painter Leon Bonnat, +and a branch of the Bank of France. There are consulates of the chief +nations of Europe, of the United States of America and of several +Central and South American republics. The town also possesses an +important military arsenal and military hospital. The commerce of +Bayonne is much more important than its industries, which include the +manufacture of leather and of chocolate. The port consists of an outer +harbour, the so-called "rade" (roadstead) and the port proper, and +occupies the course of the Adour from its mouth, which is obstructed by +a shifting bar, to the Pont St Esprit, and the course of the Nive as far +as the Pont Mayou. Above these two bridges the rivers are accessible +only to river navigation. Vessels drawing from 16 to 22 ft. can make the +port in normal weather. In the five years 1901-1905 the average value of +the imports was L502,000, of the exports L572,000; for the five years +1896-1900 the average value of imports was L637,000, of exports +L634,000. Exports include timber, mine-props, turpentine, resinous +material from the Pyrenees and Landes and zinc ore; leading imports are +the coal and Spanish minerals which supply the large metallurgical works +of Le Boucau at the mouth of the river, the raw material necessary for +the chemical works of the same town, wine, and the cereals destined for +the flour mills of Pau, Peyrehorade and Orthez. During the early years +of the 20th century the shipping of the port increased considerably in +tonnage. In 1900 there entered 741 vessels, tonnage 277,959; and cleared +743, tonnage 276,992. In 1907 there entered 661 vessels, tonnage, +336,773; cleared 650, tonnage 335,849. + +In the 3rd century Bayonne (_Lapurdum_) was a Roman military post and +the principal port of Novempopulana. In the middle ages it belonged to +the dukes of Aquitaine and then to the kings of England, one of whom, +John, granted it full communal rights in 1216. In 1451 it offered a +strenuous opposition to the French, by whom it was eventually occupied. +By this time its maritime commerce had suffered disaster owing to the +silting up of its port and the deflection of the Adour. New +fortifications were constructed under Louis XII. and Francis I., and in +1523 the town was able to hold out against a Spanish army. In 1565 it +was the scene of an interview between Charles IX. and Catherine de' +Medici on the one hand and Elizabeth, queen of Spain, and the duke of +Alva on the other. It is thought that on this occasion the plans were +formed for the massacres of St Bartholomew, a crime in which Bayonne +took no part, in 1572. In 1808 Napoleon met Charles IV., king of Spain, +and his son Ferdinand at the Chateau de Marrac, near the town, and +induced them to renounce their rights to the crown of Spain, which fell +to Napoleon's brother Joseph. In 1814, after a severe siege, Bayonne was +occupied by the English (see PENINSULAR WAR). + + See J. Balasque and E. Dulaurens, _Etudes historiques sur la ville de + Bayonne_ (3 vols., Bayonne, 1862-1875); E. Ducere, _Bayonne historique + et pittoresque_ (Bayonne, 1893), _Histoire topographigue et + anecdotique des rues de Bayonne_ (Bayonne, 1894); H. Leon, _Histoire + des juifs de Bayonne_ (Paris, 1893). + + + + +BAYONNE, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., occupying the +peninsula (about 5-1/2 m. long and about 3/4 m. wide) between New York +harbour and Newark Bay, and immediately adjoining the south boundary of +Jersey City, from which it is partly separated by the Morris Canal. It +is separated from Staten Island only by the narrow strip of water known +as the Kill van Kull, and it has a total water frontage of about 10 m. +Pop. (1890) 19,033; (1900) 32,722, of whom 10,786 were foreign-born +(3168 Irish, 1868 Russian, 1656 German); (1910) 55,545. Land area about +4 sq. m. Bayonne is served by the Central of New Jersey and by the +Lehigh Valley railways (the latter for freight only), and by electric +railway lines to Newark and Jersey City. The principal public buildings +are the city hall, the public library, the post-office and the city +hospital. Besides having a considerable share in the commerce of the +port of New York, Bayonne is an important manufacturing centre; among +its manufactures are refined petroleum, refined copper and nickel (not +from the ore), refined borax, foundry and machine-shop products, tubular +boilers, electric launches and electric motors, chemicals (including +ammonia and sulphuric and nitric acids), iron and brass products, wire +cables and silk goods. In 1905 the value of its factory product was +$60,633,761, an increase of 57.1% over that of 1900, Bayonne ranking +third in 1905 among the manufacturing cities of the state. It is the +principal petroleum-distributing centre on the Atlantic seaboard, the +enormous refineries and storehouses of the Standard Oil Company, among +the largest in the world, being located here; there are connecting pipe +lines with the Ohio and Pennsylvania oil fields, and with New York, +Baltimore, Philadelphia and Washington. Much coal is shipped from the +city. Bayonne, which comprises several former villages (Bayonne, Bergen +Point, Pamrapo and Centerville), was settled about 1665-1670 by the +Dutch. Originally a part of Bergen, it was set off as a township in +1861. It was chartered as a city in 1869. + + + + +BAYOU (pronounced bai-yoo, probably a corruption of Fr. _boyau_, gut), +an "ox-bow" lake left behind by a river that has abandoned its old +channel in the lower stages of its course. Good examples are found in +Palmyra Lake, in the Mississippi valley below Vicksburg, and in Osage +river, Missouri. As a river swings from side to side in a series of +curves which widen laterally where the current is slow and the country +more or less level, there is a tendency in flood times for the water to +impinge more strongly upon the convex bank where the curve leaves the +main channel. This bank will be eaten away, and the process will be +repeated until the base of the "isthmus" is cut through, and the +descending channel meets the returning curve, which is thus left +stranded and filled with dead water, while the stream runs directly past +it in the shorter course cut by the flood waters that deepen the new +channel, and leave an isolated ox-bow lake in the old curve. + + + + +BAYREUTH, or BAIREUTH, a town of Bavaria, Germany, district of Upper +Franconia, 58 m. by rail N.N.E. from Nuremberg. Pop. (1900) 29,384. In +Richard-Wagner-strasse is Wagner's house, with his grave in the garden. +Franz Liszt (1811-1886) is buried here, as well as Jean Paul Friedrich +Richter, who is commemorated by a monument (1841). His house was in +Friedrichstrasse. Most of the buildings are of comparatively modern +date, the city having suffered severely from the Hussites in 1430 and +from a conflagration in 1621. There should be mentioned the palace of +Duke Alexander of Wurttemberg, the administrative offices, the statue of +King Maximilian II. (1860) and the collections of the historical society +Among the ecclesiastical buildings, the _Stadt-Pfarrkirche_, dating from +1439, and containing the monuments of the margraves of Bayreuth, is the +most important. Bayreuth is a railway junction and has an active trade, +chiefly in grain and horses. It manufactures woollen, linen and cotton +goods, leather, delft and other earthenware, and tobacco, and has also +several breweries and distilleries. The village of St Georgen is a +suburb to the north east noted for its marble works; and about 2 m. to +the east is the Hermitage, a fanciful building, erected in 1715 by the +margrave George William (d. 1726), with gardens containing terraces, +statues and fountains. Bayreuth was formerly the capital of a +principality of the same name, which was annexed in 1791 to the kingdom +of Prussia. In 1807 it was ceded by Prussia to France, which kept +possession of it till 1810, when it was transferred to Bavaria. + +_The Wagner Theatre._--Among the many advantages which Wagner gained +from his intimacy with Ludwig II., king of Bavaria, not the least was +the practical support given to his plan of erecting a theatre for the +ideal performance of his own music-dramas. The first plan of building a +new theatre for the purpose in Munich itself was rejected, because +Wagner rightly felt that the appeal of his advanced works, like the +Nibelungen trilogy, would be far stronger if the comparatively small +number of people who wished to hear them were removed from the +distractions of a large capital; Bayreuth possessed the desired +seclusion, being on a line of railway that could not be approached from +any quarter without changing. The municipality furthered Wagner's scheme +in every way, and in May 1872 the foundation stone of the Festspielhaus +was laid, the event being commemorated by a notable performance of +Beethoven's Choral Symphony in the old opera-house. The funds for the +erection of the theatre were raised in part by the issue of 1000 +certificates of patronage (_Patronatscheine_), but the bulk of the sum +was raised by founding "Wagner Societies" from St Petersburg to Cairo, +from London to New York; these societies sprang up with such success +that the theatre was opened in the summer of 1876 with the first +complete performance of _Der Ring des Nibelungen_. The theatre, which +stands on a height a little under a mile from the town, is built from +the plans of Gustav Semper, the idea of the design being Wagner's own, +an experiment indeed, but one which succeeded beyond all expectation. +The seats are arranged on a kind of sloping wedge, in such a manner that +every one has an almost equally good view of the stage, for there are no +boxes, and the only galleries are quite at the back, one, the +_Furstenloge_, being reserved for distinguished guests, the other, above +it, for the townspeople. Immediately in front of the foremost row of +seats a hood or sloping screen of wood covers a part of the orchestra, +and another hood of similar shape starts from the front of the stage at +a slightly lower level. Thus there is left a space between the two hoods +through which the sound of the orchestra ascends with wonderfully +blended effect; the conductor, sitting at the highest point of the +orchestra, though under the screen, has a complete view of the stage as +well as of his instrumentalists, and the sound of the orchestra is sent +most forcibly in the direction of the stage, so that the voices are +always well supported. + + As an important addition to the work of the theatre, a permanent + school has been established at Bayreuth for the sake of training young + musicians to take part in the festival performances, which were at + first exclusively, and then partially, undertaken by artists from + other German and foreign theatres. The special feature upon which most + stress has been laid, ever since Wagner's death in 1883, has been not + so much the musical as the dramatic significance of the works; it is + contended by the inmost circle of Wagnerian adherents that none but + they can fully realize the master's intentions or hand down his + traditions. What is called the "Bayreuth Idea" is set forth in much + detail from this point of view by Houston Stewart Chamberlain, in his + _Richard Wagner_ (1897 and 1900). + + + + +BAZA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; in the Hoya +de Baza, a fruitful valley of the Sierra Nevada, not far from the small +river Gallego, and at the terminus of a railway from Lorca. Pop. (1900) +12,770. The dome-shaped mountain of Javaleon (4715 ft.) overlooks the +town from the north-west. The ancient collegiate church of San Maximo +occupies the traditional site of a cathedral founded by the Visigothic +king Reccared about 600, and afterwards converted into a mosque. There +is a brisk local trade in farm produce, and in the linen, hempen goods +and pottery manufactured in Baza. The town nearly doubled its population +in the last quarter of the 10th century. Sulphurous springs exist in the +vicinity. + +Baza is the Roman _Basti_, the medieval _Basta_ or _Bastiana_; and +numerous relics of antiquity, both Roman and medieval, have been found +in the neighbourhood. Its bishopric was founded in 306. Under Moorish +rule (c. 713-1489) it was one of the three most important cities in +the kingdom of Granada, with an extensive trade, and a population +estimated at 50,000. In 1489, after a stubborn defence lasting seven +months, it was captured by the Spaniards under Isabella of Castile, +whose cannon still adorn the _Alameda_ or public promenade. On the 10th +of August 1810 the French under Marshal Soult defeated a large Spanish +force close to the town. + + + + +BAZAAR (Pers. _bazar_, market), a permanent market or street of shops, +or a group of short narrow streets of stalls under one roof. The word +has spread westward into Arabic, Turkish and, in special senses, into +European languages, and eastward it has invaded India, where it has been +generally adopted. In southern India and Ceylon bazaar means a single +shop or stall. The word seems to have early reached South Europe +(probably through Turkish), for F. Balducci Pegolotti in his mercantile +handbook (c. 1340) gives "bazarra" as a Genoese word for market-place. +The Malayan peoples have adopted the word as _pazar_. The meaning of the +word has been much extended in English, where it is now equivalent to +any sale, for charitable or mere commercial purposes, of mixed goods and +fancy work. + + + + +BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANCOIS (1811-1888), marshal of France, was born at +Versailles on the 13th of February 1811. He entered the army as a +private soldier in 1831, with a view to service in Algeria, and received +a commission as sub-lieutenant in 1833. By his gallantry in action he +won the cross of the Legion of Honour, and he was promoted lieutenant in +1835. He served two campaigns with the Foreign Legion against the +Carlists in Spain in 1837-38, returning to Africa as captain in 1839. +During the succeeding decade he saw continual active service in Africa, +and rose to be a brigadier-general with the charge of the district of +Tlemcen. In the Crimean War he commanded a brigade, and maintained his +reputation in the trenches before Sevastopol. On the capture of the +south side he was appointed governor of the place, and was promoted +general of division. He also commanded the French forces in the +expedition to Kinburn. In Lombardy in 1859 he was wounded when in +command of a division at Melegnano, and took a conspicuous part in the +battle of Solferino. For his services in the campaign he received the +grand cross of the Legion of Honour, of which he was already (1855) a +commander. He commanded with great distinction the first division under +General (afterwards marshal) Forey in the Mexican expedition in 1862, +succeeded him in supreme command in 1863, and became marshal and senator +of France in the following year. He at first pursued the war with great +vigour and success, entering Mexico in 1863 and driving President Juarez +to the frontier. The marshal's African experience as a soldier and as an +administrator stood him in good stead in dealing with the guerrilleros +of the Juarez party, but he was less successful in his relations with +Maximilian, with whose court the French headquarters was in constant +strife. Here, as later in his own country, Bazaine's policy seems to +have been directed, at least in part, to his own establishment in the +role of a mayor of the palace. His own army thought that he aspired to +play the part of a Bernadotte. His marriage to a rich Mexican lady, +whose family were supporters of Juarez, still further complicated his +relations with the unfortunate emperor, and when at the close of the +American Civil War the United States sent a powerful war-trained army to +the Mexican frontier, the French forces were withdrawn (see MEXICO, +_History_). Bazaine skilfully conducted the retreat and embarkation at +Vera Cruz (1867). On his return to Paris he was but coldly received by +his sovereign; public opinion was, however, in his favour, and he was +held to have been made a scapegoat for the faults of others. + +At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) Marshal Bazaine was +placed in command of the III. corps of the Army of the Rhine. He took no +part in the earlier battles, but Napoleon III. soon handed over the +chief command of the army to him. How far his inaction was the cause of +the disaster of Spicheren is a matter of dispute. The best that can be +said of his conduct is that the evil traditions of warfare on a small +scale and the mania for taking up "strong positions," common to the +French generals of 1870, were in Bazaine's own case emphasized by his +personal dislike for the "schoolmaster" Frossard, lately the Prince +Imperial's tutor and now commander of the army corps posted at +Spicheren. Frossard himself, the leader of the "strong positions" +school, could only blame his own theories for the paralysis of the rest +of the army, which left the corps at Spicheren to fight unsupported. +Bazaine, indeed, when called upon for help, moved part of his corps +forward, but only to "take up strong positions," not to strike a blow on +the battlefield. A few days later he took up the chief command, and his +tenure of it is the central act in the tragedy of 1870. He found the +army in retreat, ill-equipped and numerically at a great disadvantage, +and the generals and staffs discouraged and distrustful of one another. +There was practically no chance of success. The question was one of +extricating the army and the government from a disastrous adventure, and +Bazaine's solution of it was to bring back his army to Metz. For the +events which led up to the battles before Metz and the investment of +Bazaine's whole army in the fortress, see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR and METZ, +_Battles_. + +It seems to be clearly established that the charges of treason to which +later events gave so strong a colour had, as yet, no foundation in fact. +Nor, indeed, can his unwillingness to leave the Moselle region, while +there was yet time to slip past the advancing enemy, be considered even +as proof of special incompetence. The resolution to stay in the +neighbourhood of Metz was based on the knowledge that if the slow-moving +French army ventured far out it would infallibly be headed off and +brought to battle in the open by superior numbers. In "strong positions" +close to his stronghold, however, Bazaine hoped that he could inflict +damaging repulses and heavy slaughter on the ardent Germans, and in the +main the result justified the expectation. The scheme was creditable, +and even heroic, but the execution throughout all ranks, from the +marshal to the battalion commanders, fell far short of the idea. The +minutely cautious methods of movement, which Algerian experience had +evolved suitable enough for small African desert columns, which were +liable to surprise rushes and ambushes, reduced the mobility of a large +army, which had favourable marching conditions, to 5 m. a day as against +the enemy's rate of 15. When, before he had finally decided to stay in +Metz, Bazaine attempted half-heartedly to begin a retreat on Verdun, the +staff work and organization of the movement over the Moselle was so +ineffective that when the German staff calculated that Bazaine was +nearing Verdun, the French had in reality barely got their artillery and +baggage trains through the town of Metz. Even on the battlefield the +marshal forbade the general staff to appear, and conducted the fighting +by means of his personal orderly officers. After the cumbrous army had +passed through Metz it encountered an isolated corps of the enemy, which +was commanded by the brilliant leader Constantin von Alvensleben, and +promptly attacked the French. At almost every moment of the day victory +was in Bazaine's hands. Two corps of the Germans fought all day for bare +existence. But Bazaine had no confidence in his generals or his troops, +and contented himself with inflicting severe losses on the most +aggressive portions of the German army. Two days later, while the French +actually retreated on Metz--taking seven hours to cover 5 to 6 m.--the +masses of the Germans gathered in front of him, intercepting his +communication with the interior of France. This Bazaine expected, and +feeling certain that the Germans would sooner or later attack him in his +chosen position, he made no attempt to interfere with their +concentration. The great battle was fought, and having inflicted severe +punishment on his assailants, Bazaine fell back within the entrenched +camp of Metz. But although he made no appeals for help, public opinion, +alarmed and excited, condemned the only remaining army of France, +Marshal MacMahon's "Army of Chalons," to rescue Bazaine at all costs. +The adventure ended at Sedan, and with Sedan the Third Empire collapsed. + +Up to this point Bazaine had served his country perhaps as well as +circumstances allowed, and certainly with enough skill and a sufficient +measure of success to justify his appointment. His experience, wide as +it was, had not fitted him for the command of a large army in a delicate +position. Since his Mexican expedition, moreover, he had himself fallen +into a state of moral and physical lethargy, which, imperceptible on the +field of battle, because his reputation for impassive bearing under fire +was beyond question, was only too obvious in the staff offices, where +the work of manoeuvring the army and framing plans and orders was +chiefly done. But, in spite of these defects, it cannot be asserted that +any one of Bazaine's subordinates would have done better, with the +possible exception of Ladmirault, and Ladmirault was one of the junior +corps commanders. + +Bazaine, therefore, in the main justified his reputation for ability. He +was now to justify his reputation for intriguing and underhand +diplomacy. If in Mexico he aspired to the role of mayor of the palace, +it was far more so in Metz, where, as commander of the only organized +army of France, he conceived himself to be the ruler of the country's +destiny. Accordingly he engaged in a series of diplomatic intrigues, +some of which to this day have never been properly cleared up. +Negotiations passed between the outer world and the besieged commander, +the purport of which remains still to some extent obscure, but it is +beyond question that he proposed with the permission of the Germans to +employ his army in "saving France from herself." The scheme, however, +collapsed, and the army of the Rhine became prisoners of war to the +number of 140,000. At the moment of the surrender a week's further +resistance would have enabled the levies of the National Defence +government to crush the weak forces of the Germans on the Loire and to +relieve Paris. But the army of Prince Frederick Charles, set free by the +surrender, hurried up in time to check and to defeat the great effort at +Orleans (q.v.). The responsibility for this crushing blow was naturally +enough, and justly enough, placed on Bazaine's shoulders, and although, +when he returned from captivity, the marshal enjoyed a brief immunity, +he was in 1873 brought to trial before a military court. He was found +guilty of negotiating with and capitulating to the enemy before doing +all that was prescribed by duty and honour, and sentenced to degradation +and death, but very strongly recommended to mercy. His sentence was +commuted to twenty years' seclusion, and the humiliating ceremonies +attending degradation were dispensed with. He was incarcerated in the +Ile Sainte-Marguerite and treated rather as an exile than as a convict; +thence he escaped in 1874 to Italy. He finally took up his abode in +Madrid, where he was treated with marked respect by the government of +Alfonso XII. He died there on the 23rd of September 1888. He published +_Episodes de la guerre de 1870_ (Madrid, 1883). He also wrote _L'Armee +du Rhin_ (Paris, 1872). + + See the bibliography appended to the article FRANCO-GERMAN WAR; also + memoir by C. Pelletan in _La Grande Encyclopedie_; for Bazaine's + conduct see _Bazaine et l'armee du Rhin_ (1873); J. Valfrey, _Le + Marechal et l'armee du Rhin_ (1873); Count A. de la Guerroniere, + _L'Homme de Metz_ (1871); Rossel, _Les Derniers Jours de Metz_ (1871). + See also the article BOURBAKI for the curious Regnier episode + connected with the surrender of Metz. + + + + +BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1819-1891), English engineer, was born +at Enfield on the 28th of March 1819. At the age of seventeen he was +articled to an engineer, and a few years later he began to practise +successfully on his own account. His name is best known for the +engineering works he carried out in London, especially for the +construction of the main drainage system and the Thames embankment. In +1848 the control of London drainage, which had hitherto been divided +among eight distinct municipal bodies, was consolidated under twelve +commissioners, who were in 1849 superseded by a second commission. Under +the latter Bazalgette accepted an appointment which he continued to hold +under the three successive commissions which in the course of a year or +two followed the second one, and when finally in 1855 these bodies were +replaced by the Metropolitan Board of Works, he was at once appointed +its chief engineer. His plans were ready, but the work was delayed by +official obstruction and formality until 1858. Once begun, however, it +was vigorously pushed on, and in 1865 the system was formally opened. It +consisted of 83 m. of large intercepting sewers, draining more than 100 +sq. m. of buildings, and calculated to deal with 420 million gallons a +day. The cost was L4,600,000. Almost simultaneously Bazalgette was +engaged on the plans for the Thames embankment. The section between +Westminster and Vauxhall on the Surrey side was built between 1860 and +1869, and the length between Westminster and Blackfriars was declared +open by the prince of Wales in 1870. The Chelsea embankment followed in +1871-1874, and in 1876 Northumberland Avenue was formed. The total +outlay on the scheme exceeded L2,000,000. Bazalgette was also +responsible for various other engineering works in the metropolitan +area, designing, for example, new bridges at Putney and Battersea, and +the steam ferry between north and south Woolwich. He also prepared plans +for a bridge over the river near the Tower and for a tunnel under it at +Blackwall, but did not live to see either of these projects carried out. +He died on the 15th of March 1891 at Wimbledon. + + + + +BAZARD, AMAND (1791-1832), French socialist, the founder of a secret +society in France corresponding to the Carbonari of Italy, was born at +Paris. He took part in the defence of Paris in 1815, and afterwards +occupied a subordinate situation in the prefecture of the Seine. About +1820 he united some patriotic friends into a society, called _Amis de la +verite_. From this was developed a complete system of Carbonarism, the +peculiar principles of which were introduced from Italy by two of +Bazard's friends. Bazard himself was at the head of the central body, +and, while taking a general lead, contributed extensively to the +Carbonarist journal, _L'Aristarque_. An unsuccessful outbreak at Belfort +ruined the society, and the leaders were compelled to conceal +themselves. Bazard, after remaining for some time in obscurity in Paris, +came to the conclusion that the ends of those who wished well to the +people would be most easily attained, not through political agitation, +but by effecting a radical change in their social condition. This train +of thinking naturally drew him towards the socialist philosophers of the +school of Saint-Simon, whom he joined. He contributed to their journal, +_Le Producteur_; and in 1828 began to give public lectures on the +principles of the school (see SAINT-SIMON). His opposition to the +emancipation of women brought about a quarrel with Enfantin (q.v.) in +1831, and Bazard found himself almost deserted by the members of the +society. He attacked Enfantin violently, and in a warm discussion +between them he was struck down by apoplexy. After lingering for a few +months he died on the 29th of July 1832. + + + + +BAZAS, a town of south-western France, in the department of Gironde, +38-1/2 m. S.S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 2505; commune, +4684. The town, which was the seat of a bishop from at least the +beginning of the 6th century till 1790, has a Gothic church (formerly +the cathedral) dating from the 13th to the 16th centuries. There are +remains of ramparts (15th and 16th centuries) and several old houses of +the 16th century. The vineyards of the vicinity produce white wine. The +town is capital of an arrondissement, and carries on tanning, &c., and +trade in the well-known Bazadais cattle. + +Bazas (_Cossio_) was capital of the ancient tribe of the _Vasates_, and +under the Romans one of the twelve cities of Novempopuluna. In later +times it was capital of the district of Bazadais. It was the scene of +much bloodshed during the religious wars of the 16th century. + + + + +BAZIGARS, a nomad gipsy-folk of India, found throughout the peninsula, +and variously known as Bazigars, Panchpiri, Nats, Bediyas, &c. They live +a life apart from the surrounding Hindu population, and still preserve a +certain ethnical identity, scarcely justified by any indications given +by their physique. They make a living as jugglers, dancers, +basket-weavers and fortune-tellers; and in true European gipsy fashion +each clan has its king. + + + + +BAZIN, RENE (1853- ), French novelist and man of letters, was born at +Angers on the 26th of December 1853. He studied law in Paris, and on his +return to Angers became professor of law in the Catholic university +there. He contributed to Parisian journals a series of sketches of +provincial life and descriptions of travel, but he made his reputation +by _Une Tache d'encre_ (1888), which received a prize from the Academy. +Other novels of great charm and delicacy followed: _La Sarcelle bleue_ +(1892); _Madame Corentine_ (1893); _Humble Amour_ (1894); _De toute son +ame_ (1897); _La Terre qui meurt_ (1899); _Les Oberle_ (1901), an +Alsatian story which was dramatized and acted in the following year; +_L'Ame alsacienne_ (1903); _Donatienne_ (1903); _L'Isolee_ (1905); _Le +Ble qui leve_ (1907); _Memoires d'une vieille fille_ (1908). _La Terre +qui meurt_, a picture of the decay of peasant farming and a story of La +Vendee, is an indirect plea for the development of provincial France. A +volume of _Questions litteraires et sociales_ appeared in 1906. Rene +Bazin was admitted to the Academy on the 28th of April 1904. + + + + +BAZIRE, CLAUDE (1764-1794), French revolutionist, was deputy for the +Cote d'Or in the Legislative Assembly, and made himself prominent by +denouncing the court and the "Austrian committee" of the Tuileries. On +the 20th of June 1792 he spoke in favour of the deposition of the king. +In the Convention he sat with the Mountain, opposed adjourning the trial +of Louis XVI., and voted for his death. He joined in the attack upon the +Girondists, but, as member of the committee of general security, he +condemned the system of the Terror. He was implicated by Francois Chabot +in the falsification of a decree relative to the East India Company, and +though his share seems to have been simply that he did not reveal the +plot, of which he knew but part, he was accused before the Revolutionary +Tribunal at the same time as Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and was +executed on the 5th of April 1794. + + + + +BDELLIUM ([Greek: bdellion], used by Pliny and Dioscorides as the name +of a plant which exuded a fragrant gum), a name applied to several gums +or gum-resins that simulate and are sometimes found as adulterants of +true myrrh (q.v.). + + + + +BEACH, a word of unknown origin; probably an old dialect word meaning +shingle, hence, by transference, the place covered by shingle. Beach +sometimes denotes the material thrown up by the waves, sometimes the +long resulting ridge, but more frequently the area between high and low +water, or even the area between land and sea covered with material +thrown up by exceptional storms. + +The actual character of beach material depends upon the nature and +structure of the rocks inshore, the strength and direction of currents, +and the force of the waves. The southern shore of the Isle of Wight +furnishes a good example. The island ends westward in the well-known +"Needles," consisting of chalk with flints. The disintegration of this +rock by wave action separates the finer chalk, which is carried seawards +in suspension, from the hard flint, which is piled in rough shingle upon +the shore. The currents sweep constantly eastward up channel, and the +rough flint shingle is rolled along by wave action toward the Ventnor +rampart, and ground finer and finer until it arrives as a very fine +flinty gravel at Ventnor pier. The sweep of Sandown Bay follows, where +the cliffs are composed for the most part of greensand, and here the +beach at low water is sandy and smooth. The eastern end of the island is +again composed of chalk with flints, and here the beach material as at +the western end consists of very coarse flint shingle. In this, as in +similar cases, the material has been dragged seawards from the land by +constant action of the undertow that accompanies each retreating tide +and each returning wave. The resulting accumulated ridge is battered by +every storm, and thrown above ordinary high-water mark in a ridge such +as the Chesil Bank or the long grass-grown mound that has blocked the +old channel of the Yar and diverted its waters into Yaverland Bay. +Sandown furnishes an instructive example of the power of the eastward +currents carrying high-storm waves. The groins built to preserve the +foreshore are piled to the top with coarse shingle on the western side, +while there is a drop of over 8 ft. on to the sands east of the wall, +many thousands of tons of shingle having been moved bodily by the waves +and deposited against each groin. The force of the waves has been +measured on the west coast of Scotland and found to be as much as 3 tons +per square foot. Against these forces the preservation of the shore from +the advance of the sea becomes an extremely difficult and often a +hopeless undertaking, since blocks of rock over 100 tons in weight have +been moved by the waves. The beach is therefore unstable in its +position. It advances in front of the encroaching sea, burying former +beaches under the sand and mud of the now deeper water, or it retreats +when the sea is withdrawn from the land or the land rises locally, +leaving the old shingle stranded in a "raised beach," but its formation +is in all cases due to the form and structure of the shore, the sapping +action of the waves, the backward drag of the undertow plastering the +shore with material, which is in turn bombarded by waves and swept by +currents that cover the finer debris of the undertow with a layer of +coarse fragments that are re-sorted by the daily action of currents and +tides. + + + + +BEACHY HEAD, a promontory on the coast of Sussex, England, S.W. of +Eastbourne, about 3 m. from the centre of the town. It consists of a +perpendicular chalk cliff 532 ft. high, and forms the eastern +termination of the hill-range known as the South Downs. The old Bell +Tout lighthouse, 285 ft. above high-water mark, erected in 1831 on the +second cliff to the westward, in 0 deg. 10' 18" E., 50 deg. 43' 30" N., +has been superseded by a new lighthouse built in the sea at the foot of +the head itself. + +_Battle of Beachy Head._--This naval battle, known to the French as +Bevisier (a corruption of Pevensey), was fought on the 30th of June +1690. An allied force of 37 British sail of the line, under command of +the earl of Torrington (Arthur Herbert), and of 22 Dutch under C. +Evertsen, was at anchor under the headland, while a French fleet of over +70 sail, commanded by the comte de Tourville, was anchored some miles +off to the south-west. The French fleet had orders to co-operate with an +expected Jacobite rising in England. Torrington, to whom the general +direction of the allied fleet belonged, was much disturbed by the +enemy's superiority in number, and on the 26th had written to the +Council of Regency suggesting that he ought to retire to the Gunfleet at +the mouth of the Thames, and observe the enemy from a distance till he +could be reinforced. The council, which had the support of Admiral +Russell, afterwards earl of Orford, considered that a retreat to the +Gunfleet would have fatal consequences, by which they no doubt meant +that it would leave the French free to land troops for the support of +the Jacobites. They therefore ordered Herbert not to lose sight of the +enemy, but rather to fight if he could secure an advantage of position. +The admiral, who was on very bad terms with the council, elected to +treat this as a peremptory order to fight. At daybreak on the 30th he +got under way and bore down on the enemy. The wind was at north-east and +gave him the weather-gage. As his fleet was only 57 sail in all he was +not able to engage the enemy from end to end, but as the French were +arranged in a line from east to west he could have fallen on the end +nearest him, and could have guarded himself by telling off a part of his +ships to watch the remainder. Torrington preferred to bring his fleet +down in such a way that his van, consisting of the Dutch ships, should +be opposite the enemy's van, his centre opposite their centre, and his +rear should engage their rear. The inferiority of the allies in numbers +made it therefore inevitable that there should be gaps between the +different divisions. As the fleets actually did come to action, the +Dutch with a few English ships pressed on the French van, their leading +ship being abreast of the ninth or tenth Frenchman. Torrington took his +station opposite the rear of the French centre, leaving a great gap +between himself and the ships in the van. Being apprehensive that the +French centre would tack and pass this gap so as to put him between two +fires, he kept a long way off so as to be free to manoeuvre against them +if they made the attempt. The English rear division, consisting of the +English blue squadron under Sir Ralph Delaval, fought a close action +with the French opposite to them. In the meantime the French ships, +ahead of the leading Dutchman, succeeded in turning to windward and +putting part of Evertsen's squadron between two fires. The Dutch ships +suffered heavily, and one of them which was dismasted drifted among the +French and was taken. More severe loss would have followed if the better +average seamanship of the English and Dutch had not stood them in good +stead. The tide turned from flood to ebb during the action, and the +surface current which in the Channel sets to the west with the ebb began +to carry the fleets with it. The Dutch and English dropped anchor. The +French, who were not equally alert, did not and were carried westward. +When the tide turned the allies retreated to the Thames, abandoning +several of the most damaged ships in Pevensey Bay. The pursuit of the +French was ineffective, for Tourville persisted in keeping his ships in +line of battle, which forced them to regulate their speed by the slowest +among them. Torrington was tried for his conduct but acquitted. + + A full account of the battle of Beachy Head, written with ample + quotation of documents, and for the purpose of vindicating Herbert, + will be found in Admiral Colomb's _Naval Warfare_ (London, 1899). + (D. H.) + + + + +BEACON (from the O. Eng. _beacn_, a sign, cf. "beckon," another form of +the same word), a signal, especially a fire lit on a high hill, +structure or building for the purpose of sending a message of alarm or +of important news over long distances. Such was the courier-fire +([Greek: aggaros pur]) that brought the news of the fall of Troy to +Argos (Aeschylus, _Agamemnon_), or the chain of signals that told of the +approach of the Spanish Armada, or which circled the British Isles in +the jubilee years of 1887 and 1897. The word occurs in many names for +lofty and conspicuous hills, such as Dunkery Beacon in Somerset, the +highest point on Exmoor. On many such hills the remains of old beacon +towers and cressets are still found. The word is used generally of a +lighthouse, but technically it means either a small unattended light, a +superstructure on a floating buoy, such as a staff and cage, or staff +and globe, or an unlighted structure, forming a conspicuous object at +sea, used in each case to guide or warn sailors. (See LIGHTHOUSE and +BUOY.) + + + + +BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, EARL OF (1804-1881), British statesman, +second child and eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli (q.v.) and Maria Basevi, +who were married in 1802, was born at No. 6 John Street, Bedford Row, on +the 21st of December 1804. Of Isaac D'Israeli's other children, Sarah +was born in 1802, Naphtali in 1807, Ralph (Raphael) in 1809, and James +(Jacob) in 1813. None of the family was akin to Benjamin for genius and +character, except Sarah, to whom he was deeply indebted for a wise, +unswerving and sympathetic devotion, when, in his earlier days, he +needed it most. All Isaac D'Israeli's children were born into the Jewish +communion, in which, however, they were not to grow up. It is a +reasonable inference from Isaac's character that he was never at ease in +the ritual of Judaism. His father died in the winter of 1816, and soon +afterwards Isaac formally withdrew with all his household from the +Jewish church. His son Benjamin, who had been admitted to it with the +usual rites eight days after his birth, was baptized at St Andrew's +church in Holborn on the 31st of July 1817. One of Isaac D'Israeli's +reasons for quitting the tents of his people was that rabbinical +Judaism, with its unyielding laws and fettering ceremonies, "cuts off +the Jews from the great family of mankind." Little did he know, when +therefore he cut off the D'Israeli family from Judaism, what great +things he was doing for one small member of it. The future prime +minister was then short of thirteen years old, and there was yet time to +provide the utmost freedom which his birth allowed for the faculties and +ambitions he was born with. Taking the worldly view alone, of course, +most fortunate for his aspirations in youth was his withdrawal from +Judaism in childhood. That it was fully sanctioned by his intellect at +maturity is evident; but the vindication of unbiased choice would not +have been readily accepted had Disraeli abandoned Judaism of his own +will at the pushing _Vivian Grey_ period or after. And though a mind +like Disraeli's might work to satisfaction with Christianity as +"completed Judaism," it could but dwell on a breach of continuity which +means so much to Jews and which he was never allowed to forget amongst +Christians. With all, he was proud of his race as truly, if not as +vehemently, as his paternal grandmother detested it. Family pride +contributed to the feeling in his case; for in his more speculative +moods he could look back upon an ancestry which was of those, perhaps, +who colonized the shores of the Mediterranean from before the time of +the Captivity. More definite is the history of descent from an ennobled +Spanish family which escaped from the Torquemada persecutions to Venice, +there found a new home, took a new name, and prospered for six +generations. The Benjamin D'Israeli, Lord Beaconsfield's grandfather, +who came to England in 1748, was a younger son sent at eighteen to try +his fortune in London. "A man of ardent character, sanguine, courageous, +speculative, fortunate, with a temper which no disappointment could +disturb" (so Lord Beaconsfield described him), he soon made the +beginnings of a handsome fortune and turned country gentleman. That his +grandson exaggerated his prosperity is highly probable; but that he +became a man of wealth and consideration is certain. He married twice. +His second wife was Sarah Siprout de Gabay, "a beautiful woman of strong +intellect" and importunate ambitions, who hated the race she belonged to +because it was despised by others. She felt so keenly the social +disabilities it brought upon her, and her husband's indifference to +them, that "she never pardoned him his name." Her literary son Isaac +suffered equally or even more; for though he had ambitions he had none +that she could recognize as such. She could ridicule him for the +aspirations which he had not and for those which he had; on the other +hand, he never heard from her a tender word "though she lived to be +eighty." Nor did any other member of her family, according to her +grandson. + + + "The Representative." + +Isaac D'Israeli was devoted to the reading and writing of books in +domestic quiet; and his son Benjamin suffered appreciably from his +father's gentle preoccupations. As a child--unruly and disturbing no +doubt--he was sent to a school of small account at Blackheath, and was +there "for years" before he was recalled at the age of twelve on the +death of his grandfather. Isaac D'Israeli was his father's sole heritor, +but change of fortune seems to have awakened in him no ambitions for the +most hopeful of his sons. At fifteen, not before, Benjamin was sent to a +Unitarian school at Walthamstow--a well-known school, populous enough to +be a little world of emulation and conflict but otherwise unfit. Not +there, nor in any similar institution at that illiberal time, perhaps, +was a Jewish boy likely to make a fortunate entry into "the great family +of mankind." His name, the foreign look of him, and some pronounced +incompatibilities not all chargeable to young Disraeli (as afterwards +the name came to be spelt), soon raised a crop of troubles. His stay at +Walthamstow was brief, his departure abrupt, and he went to school no +more. With the run of his father's library, and the benefits of that +born bookman's guidance, he now set out to educate himself. This he did +with an industry stiffened by matchless self-confidence and by ambitions +fully mature before he was eighteen. Yet he yielded to an attempt to +make a man of business of him. He was barely seventeen when (in November +1821) he was taken into the office of Messrs Swain, Stevens and Co., +solicitors, in Frederick's Place, Old Jewry. Here he remained for three +years--"most assiduous in his attention to business," said one of the +partners, "and showing great ability in the transaction of it." It was +then determined that he should go to the bar; and accordingly he was +entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1824. But Disraeli had found other studies +and an alien use for his pen. Though "assiduous in his attention to +business" in Frederick's Place, he found time to write for the printer. +Dr Smiles, in his _Memoirs of John Murray_, tells of certain pamphlets +on the brightening prospects of the Spanish South American colonies, +then in the first enjoyment of emancipation--pamphlets seemingly written +for a Mr Powles, head of a great financial firm, whose acquaintance +Disraeli had made. In the same year, apparently, he wrote a novel--his +first, and never published. _Aylmer Papillon_ was the title of it, Dr +Smiles informs us; and he prints a letter from Disraeli to the John +Murray of that day, which indicates its character pretty clearly. The +last chapter, its author says, is taken up with "Mr Papillon's +banishment under the Alien Act, from a ministerial misconception of a +metaphysical sonnet." About the same time he edited a _History of Paul +Jones_, originally published in America, the preface of the English +edition being Disraeli's first appearance as an author. Murray could not +publish _Aylmer Papillon_, but he had great hopes of its boyish writer +(Isaac D'Israeli was an old friend of his), "took him into his +confidence, and related to him his experiences of men and affairs." +Disraeli had not completed his twenty-first year when (in 1825) Murray +was possessed by the idea of bringing out a great daily newspaper; and +if his young friend did not inspire that idea he keenly urged its +execution, and was entrusted by Murray with the negotiation of all +manner of preliminaries, including the attempt to bring Lockhart in as +editor. The title of the paper, _The Representative_, was Disraeli's +suggestion. He chose reporters, looked to the setting-up of a +printing-office, busied himself in all ways to Murray's great +satisfaction, and, as fully appears from Dr Smiles's account of the +matter, with extraordinary address. But when these arrangements were +brought to the point of completion, Disraeli dropped out of the scheme +and had nothing more to do with it. He was to have had a fourth share of +the proprietorship, bringing in a corresponding amount of capital. His +friend Mr Powles, whom he had enlisted for the enterprise, was to have +had a similar share on the same conditions. Neither seems to have paid +up, and that, perhaps, had to do with the quarrel which parted Benjamin +Disraeli and John Murray before a sheet of the luckless _Representative_ +was printed. Many years afterwards (1853) Disraeli took an active +interest in _The Press_, a weekly journal of considerable merit but +meagre fortunes. + + + "Vivan Grey." + +At the death of the elder Benjamin (1817), his son Isaac had moved from +the King's Road, Gray's Inn (now Theobald's Road), to No. 6 Bloomsbury +Square. Here he entertained the many distinguished friends, literary and +political, who had been drawn to him by his "Curiosities" and other +ingenious works, and here his son Benjamin also had their acquaintance +and conversation. In Bloomsbury Square lived the Austens, and to their +house, a great resort of similar persons, Mrs Austen cordially welcomed +him. Murray's friendship and associations helped him in like manner, no +doubt; and thus was opened to Disraeli the younger a world in which he +was to make a considerable stir. The very much smaller society of that +day was, of course, more comprehensible to sight and hearing, when once +you were within its borders, than the society of this. Reverberations of +the gossip of St James's and Mayfair extended to Bloomsbury in those +days. Yet Disraeli's range of observation must have been not only brief +but limited when he sat down at twenty or twenty-one to write _Vivian +Grey_. It is therefore a probable conjecture that Mrs Austen, a clever +woman of the world, helped him from her knowledge. His own strongly +perceptive imagination (the gift in which he was to excel every other +politician of his time) and the bent of political reading and aspiration +from boyhood completed his equipment; and so the wonder that so young a +man in Disraeli's social position should write a book like _Vivian Grey_ +is accounted for. It was published in 1826. The success of this +insolently clever novel, the immediate introduction of its author to the +great world, and the daring eccentricities of dress, demeanour, and +opinion by which he fixed attention on himself there, have always been +among the most favourite morsels of Disraeli's history. With them it +began, and successive generations of inquirers into a strange career and +a character still shrouded and baffling refer to them as settled +starting-points of investigation. What was the man who, in such a +society and with political aspirations to serve, could thrive by such +vagaries as these, or in spite of them? If unaffected, what is to be +thought of them as keys to character? If affected, what then? Inquiry +still takes this shape, and when any part of Disraeli's career is +studied, the laces and essences, the rings over gloves, the jewelled +satin shirt-fronts, the guitareries and chibouqueries of his early days +are never remote from memory. The report of them can hardly be doubted; +and as the last relation was made (to the writer of this article) not +with intent to ridicule Mr Disraeli's taste but to illustrate his +conquering abilities, the story is repeated here. One of Disraeli's +first friends in the world of fashion and genius was Sir Edward Lytton +Bulwer. "And," said Sir Henry Bulwer ("Pelham's" brother), "we heard so +much at the time of Edward's amazingly brilliant new friend that we were +the less inclined to make his acquaintance." At length, however, Sir +Edward got up a little dinner-party to convince the doubters. It was to +meet at the early hour of those days at one of the Piccadilly hotels. +"There was my brother, Alexander Cockburn, myself and (I think) Milnes; +but for a considerable time no Mr Disraeli. Waiting for Mr Disraeli did +not enhance the pleasure of meeting him, nor when he did arrive did his +appearance predispose us in his favour. He wore green velvet trousers, a +canary-coloured waistcoat, low shoes, silver buckles, lace at his +wrists, and his hair in ringlets." The description of the coat is +forgotten. "We sat down. Not one of us was more than five-and-twenty +years old. We were all--if you will allow me to include myself--on the +road to distinction, all clever, all ambitious, and all with a perfect +conceit of ourselves. Yet if on leaving the table we had been severally +taken aside and asked which was the cleverest of the party, we should +have been obliged to say 'the man in the green velvet trousers.'" This +story is a little lamp that throws much light. Here we see at their +sharpest the social prejudices that Disraeli had to fight against, +provocation of them carried to its utmost in every way open to him, and +complete conquest in a company of young men less likely to admit +superiority in a wit of their own years, probably, than any other that +could have been brought together at that time. + + + Travel. + +Soon after the publication of _Vivian Grey_, Disraeli, who is said by +Froude to have been "overtaken by a singular disorder," marked by fits +of giddiness ("once he fell into a trance, and did not recover for a +week"), went with the Austens on a long summer tour in France, +Switzerland and Italy. Returning to a quiet life at Bradenham--an old +manor-house near High Wycombe, which his father had taken--Disraeli put +law in abeyance and resumed novel-writing. His weakest book, and two or +three other productions, brief, but in every literary sense the finest +of his works, were written in the next two or three years. But for +_Ixion in Heaven_, _The Infernal Marriage_, and _Popanilla_, Disraeli +could not be placed among the greater writers of his kind; yet none of +his imaginative books have been so little read as these. The mysterious +malady continued, and Disraeli set out with William Meredith, who was to +have married Sarah Disraeli, for a tour in southern Europe and the +nearer East. He saw Cadiz, Seville, Granada, Athens, Constantinople, +Jerusalem, Cairo, Thebes; played the corsair with James Clay on a yacht +voyage from Malta to Corfu; visited the terrible Reschid, then with a +Turkish army in the Albanian capital; landed in Cyprus, and left it with +an expectation in his singularly prescient mind that the island would +one day be English. These travels must have profited him greatly, and we +have our share of the advantage; not so much, however, in _The Wondrous +Tale of Alroy_ or _Tancred_, or the "Revolutionary Epic" which he was +inspired to write on "the windy plains of Troy," but in the letters he +sent home to his sister. These letters, written with the utmost freedom +and fullness to the one whose affection and intellect he trusted more +than any, are of the greatest value for interpreting the writer. +Together with other letters also published some time after Disraeli's +death, they tell more of him than anything that can be found in print +elsewhere. They show, for example, that his extraordinary exuberances +were unforced, leaping by natural impulse from an overcharged source. +They also show that his Oriental fopperies were not so much "purposed +affectation" as Froude and others have surmised. That they were so in +great part is confessed again and again in these letters, but confessed +in such a way as to reveal that they were permitted for his own +enjoyment of them as much as planned. The "purposed affectation" sprang +from an unaffected delight in gauds of attire, gauds of fancy and +expression. It was not only to startle and impress the world that he +paraded his eccentricities of splendour. His family also had to be +impressed by them. It was to his sober father that he wrote, at the age +of twenty-six: "I like a sailor's life much, though it spoils the +toilette." It is in a letter from Gibraltar to the same hand that we +read of his two canes--"a morning and an evening cane"--changed as the +gun fires. And the same correspondent must be told that "Ralph's +handkerchief which he brought me from Paris is the most successful thing +I ever wore." + + + Literary production. + +When Disraeli returned to England in 1831, all thought of the law was +abandoned. The pen of romance was again taken up--the poet's also and +the politician's. In the next five years he wrote _Contarini Fleming_, +the _Revolutionary Epick, Alroy, Henrietta Temple, What is He?_ (a +pamphlet expository of his opinions), the _Runnymede Letters_, a +_Vindication of the British Constitution_, and other matter of less +note. The epic, begun in great hope and confidence, was ended in less, +though its author was to the last unwilling that it should be forgotten. +The novels revived the success he had with _Vivian Grey_, and restored +him to his place among the brilliancies and powers of the time. The +political writing, too, much of it in a garish, extravagant style, +exercised his deeper ambitions, and stands as witness to the working of +original thought and foresight. Both qualities are conspicuous in _What +is He?_ and the _Vindication_, of which it has been truly said that in +these pages he "struck the keynote to the explanations he afterwards +consistently offered of all his apparent inconsistencies." Here an +interpretation of Tory principles as capable of running with the +democratic idea, and as called upon to do so, is ingeniously attempted. +The aristocratic principle of government having been destroyed by the +Reform Bill, and the House of Lords being practically "abrogated" by +that measure, it became necessary that Toryism should start from the +democratic basis, from which it had never been alien. The filched +liberties of the crown and the people should be restored, and the nation +redeemed from the oligarchies which had stolen from both. When at the +beginning of all this writing Disraeli entered the political arena as +candidate for High Wycombe (1832), he was nominated by a Tory and +seconded by a Radical--in vain; and vain were two subsequent attempts in +the autumn of 1832 and in 1834. In the first he was recommended to the +electors by Daniel O'Connell and the Radical Hume. In his last +candidature at Wycombe he stood on more independent ground, commending +himself by a series of speeches which fully displayed his quality, +though the prescience which gemmed them with more than one prophetic +passage was veiled from his contemporaries. Among Disraeli's great +acquaintances were many--Lyndhurst at their head--whose expectations of +his future were confirmed by the Wycombe speeches. He was "thought of" +for various boroughs, Marylebone among the number, but his democratic +Toryism seems to have stood in his way in some places and his inborn +dislike of Radicalism in others. It was an impracticable situation--no +getting on from it; and so, at Lyndhurst's persuasion, as he afterwards +acknowledged, he determined to side with the Tories. Accordingly, when +in the spring of 1835 a vacancy occurred at Taunton, Disraeli contested +the seat in the Tory interest with Carlton Club support. Here again he +failed, but with enhanced reputation as a fighting politician and with +other consequences good for notoriety. It was at Taunton that Disraeli +fell upon O'Connell, rather ungratefully; whereupon the Liberator was +roused to retort on his assailant vehemently as "a liar," and humorously +as a probable descendant of the impenitent thief. And then followed the +challenge which, when O'Connell declined it, was fastened on his son +Morgan, and the interruption of the duel by seizure of Mr Disraeli in +his bed, and his famous appearance in the Marylebone police court. He +declared himself very well satisfied with this episode, but nothing in +it can really have pleased him, not even the noise it made. + + + Enters Parliament. + +Here the first period of Disraeli's public life came to an end, a period +of preliminaries and flourishes, and of what he himself called sowing +his political wild oats. It was a more mature Disraeli who in the +general election of 1837 was returned for Maidstone as the colleague of +his providential friend Mr Wyndham Lewis. Though the fortunes of the +Tory party were fast reviving under Peel's guidance, the victory was +denied him on this occasion; but, for once, the return of the Whigs to +power was no great disappointment for the junior member for Maidstone. +To gain a footing in the House of Commons was all that his confident +spirit ever asked, and Froude vouches for it that he succeeded only just +in time to avert financial ruin. His electioneering ventures, the +friendly backing of bills, and his own expense in keeping up +appearances, had loaded him with debt. Yet (mark his worldly wisdom) "he +had never entangled his friends in his financial dealings. He had gone +frankly to the professional money-lenders, who made advances to him in a +speculation on his success": they were to get their money back with +large interest or lose it altogether. Such conditions were themselves +incitement enough to a prompt redemption of the promise of parliamentary +distinction, even without the restless spurring of ambition. And +Disraeli had another promise to redeem: that which he uttered when he +told O'Connell that they would meet again at Philippi. Therefore when, +three weeks after the session began, a debate on Irish election +petitions gave him opportunity, Disraeli attempted that first House of +Commons speech which imagination still dwells upon as something wondrous +strange. That he should not have known better, even by hearsay, than to +address the House of Commons in fantastic phrase from the mouth of a +fantastic figure is indeed remarkable, but not that he retained +self-confidence enough to tell the unwitting crew who laughed him down +that a time would come when they would hear him. It was one of the least +memorable of his prophecies. The speech was a humiliating but not an +oppressive failure. In about a week afterwards he spoke again, which +shows how little damage he felt, while the good sense, brevity, and +blameless manner of the speech (on a copyright bill) announced that he +could learn. And for some time thereafter he affected no importance in +the House, though not as withdrawing from attention. + + + Mental characteristics. + +Meanwhile, consciously and unconsciously, as is the way with men of +genius, his mind was working upon problems of government, the magnitude, +the relations and the natural developments of which he was more sensible +of than any known politician of his time. "Sensible of," we say, to mark +the difference between one sort of understanding and another which comes +of labour and pains alone. Disraeli studied too, no doubt, reading and +inquiring and applying set thought, but such means were insufficient to +put into his mind all that he found there. It seems that opinions may be +formed of inquiry and study alone, which are then constructive; but +where intuitive perception or the perceptive imagination is a robust +possession, the fruits of research become assimilative--the food of a +divining faculty which needs more or less of it according to the power +of divination. The better judgment in all affairs derives from this +quality, which has some very covetable advantages for its possessor. His +judgments may be held with greater confidence, which is an intellectual +advantage; and, standing in his mind not so much an edifice as a natural +growth, they cannot be so readily abandoned at the call of ease or +self-interest. They may be denied assertion or even outraged for a +purpose, but they cannot be got rid of,--which is a moral advantage. +Disraeli's mind and its judgments were of this character. Its greatest +gift was not the romantic imagination which he possessed abundantly and +employed overmuch, but the perceptive, interpretative, judicial or +divining imagination, without which there can be no great man of +affairs. Breadth of view, insight, foresight, are more familiar but less +adequate descriptions of a faculty which Disraeli had in such force that +it took command of him from first to last. Although he knew and acted on +the principle that "a statesman is a practical character," whose +business is to "serve the country according to its present necessities," +he was unable to confine his vision to the nearer consequences of +whatever policy, or course of action, or group of conditions it rested +on. Without effort, and even without intention probably, it looked +beyond first consequences to the farther or the final outcome; and to +complete the operation, the faculty which detected the remoter +consequences did not allow them to remain in obscurity, but brought them +out as actualities no less than the first and perhaps far more important +than the first. Moreover, it did not allow him to keep silence where the +remoter consequences were of that character, and ought to be provided +for betimes. Of course silence was always possible. These renderings to +foresight might be denied assertion either for the sake of present ease +(and Disraeli's prescience of much of his country's later troubles only +made him laughed at) or in deference to hopes of personal advancement. +But the same divining imagination which showed him these things also +showed him the near time when it would be too late to speak of them, and +when not to have spoken would leave him irredeemably in the common herd +of hand-to-mouth politicians. Therefore he spoke. + + + "Coningsby," "Sybil." + +Remembrance of these characteristics--remembrance, too, that his mind, +which was neither English nor European, worked in absolute +detachment--should accompany the traveller through all the turns and +incidents of Disraeli's long career. They are sometimes puzzling, often +speculative; yet nearly all that is obscure in them becomes clear, much +apparent contradiction disappears, when read by these persistent +unvarying lights. The command which his idiosyncrasies had upon him is +shown, for example, by reproachful speeches on the treatment of Ireland, +and by a startling harangue on behalf of the Chartists, at a time when +such irregularities could but damage him, a new man, where he hoped for +influence and office. At about the same time his political genius +directed him to open a resolute critical campaign against the +Conservatism of the party he proposed to thrive in, and he could but +obey. This he did in writing _Coningsby_, a novel of the day and for the +day, but commended to us of a later generation not only by the undimmed +truth of its character-portraits, but by qualities of insight and +foresight which we who have seen the proof of them can measure as his +contemporaries could not. _Sybil_, which was written in the following +year (1845), is still more remarkable for the faculties celebrated in +the preceding paragraph. When _Sybil_ was written a long historic day +was ending in England, a new era beginning; and no eyes saw so clearly +as Disraeli's the death of the old day, the birth of the new, or what +and how great their differences would be. In _Coningsby_ the political +conditions of the country were illustrated and discussed from the +constitutional point of view, and by light of the theory that for +generations before the passing of the Reform Bill the authority of the +crown and the liberties of the people had been absorbed and extinguished +in an oligarchic system of government, itself become fossilized and +soulless. In _Sybil_ were exhibited the social relations of rich and +poor (the "two nations") under this regime, and under changes in which, +while the peasantry were neglected by a shoddy aristocracy ignorant of +its duties, factory life and a purblind gospel of political economy +imbruted the rest of the population. These views were enforced by a +startling yet strictly accurate representation of the state of things in +the factory districts at that time. Taken from the life by Disraeli +himself, accompanied by one or two members of the Young England party of +which he was the head, it was the first of its kind; and the facts as +there displayed, and Disraeli's interpretation of them--a marvel of +perceptive and prophetic criticism--opened eyes, roused consciences, and +led direct to many reforms. + +These two books, the _Vindication_, published in 1835, and his speeches +up to this time and a little beyond, are quite enough to show what +Disraeli's Tory democracy meant, how truly national was its aim, and how +exclusive of partisanship for the "landed interest"; though he did +believe the stability and prosperity of the agricultural class a +national interest of the first order, not on economic grounds alone or +even chiefly. And if Disraeli, possessed by these views, became +aggressively insubordinate some time before Peel's proclaimed conversion +to Free Trade, we can account for it on reasonable and even creditable +grounds. Spite, resentment at being passed over when Peel formed the +1841 government, is one explanation of these outbreaks, and a letter to +Peel, lately published, is proof to many minds that Disraeli's denial to +Peel's face in 1846 that he had ever solicited office was daringly +mendacious. The letter certainly reads like solicitation in the +customary half-veiled form. All that can be said in doubt is that since +the '41 government came into existence on the 6th of September, and the +letter was written on the 5th, its interpretation as complaint of being +publicly neglected, as a craving for _some_ mark of recognition, is +possible. More than possible it is if Disraeli knew on the 5th (as he +very well might from his friend Lyndhurst, Peel's lord chancellor) that +the appointments were then complete. The pecuniary need of office, if +that comes into the question, had been lightened, if not extinguished, +two years before by his marriage with Mrs Wyndham Lewis. Mrs Lewis--a +lady fifteen years his senior--brought him a considerable fortune which, +however, was but for her life. She lived to a great age, and would +gladly have lived longer, in any of the afflictions that time brings on, +to continue her mere money-worth to her "Dizzy." Her devotion to him, +and his devotion to her, is the whole known story of their private life; +and we may believe that nothing ever gratified him more than offering +her a coronet from Mr Disraeli. + + + Politics. 1841-67. + +Disraeli made Peel's acquaintance early in his career and showed that he +was proud of it. In his _Life of Lord George Bentinck_ he writes of Peel +fairly and even generously. But they were essentially antipathetic +persons; and it is clear that the great minister and complete Briton +took no pains to understand the dazzling young Jew of whom Lyndhurst +thought so much, and wished to have little to do with him. Such men make +such feelings evident; and there is no reason for thinking that when, +after 1841, Disraeli charged at Peel in obedience to his principles, he +gave himself pain. It was not long after it had settled in office that +Peel's government, the creature of an anxious Conservative reaction, +began to be suspected of drifting toward Manchester. That it was forced +in that direction we should say rather, looking back, for it was a time +of dire distress, especially in the manufacturing districts of the +north; so that in his second session Peel had to provide some relief by +revising the corn laws and reducing import dues generally. His measures +were supported by Disraeli, who understood that Protection must bend to +the menacing poverty of the time, though unprepared for total abolition +of the corn tax and strongly of opinion that it was not for Peel to +abolish it. In the next session (1843) he and his Young England party +took up a definitely independent role, which became more sharply +critical to the end. Disraeli's first strong vote of hostility was on a +coercion bill for perishing and rebellious Ireland. It was repeated with +greater emphasis in the session of 1844, also in a condition-of-Ireland +debate; and from that time forth, as if foreseeing Peel's course and its +effect on the country party, Disraeli kept up the attack. Meanwhile bad +harvests deepened the country's distress, Ireland was approached by +famine, the Anti-Corn-Law League became menacingly powerful, and Peel +showed signs of yielding to free trade. Disraeli's opportunity was soon +to come now; and in 1845, seeing it on the way, he launched the +brilliantly destructive series of speeches which, though they could not +prevent the abolition of the corn-laws, abolished the minister who ended +them. These speeches appeal more to admiration than to sympathy, even +where the limitations of Disraeli's protectionist beliefs are understood +and where his perception of the later consequences of free trade is most +cordially acknowledged. That he remained satisfied with them himself is +doubtful, unless for their foresight, their tremendous effect as +instruments of punishment, and as they swept him to so much distinction. +Within three years, on the death of Lord George Bentinck, there was none +to dispute with him the leadership of the Conservative party in the +House of Commons. + +In the parliament of 1841 he was member for Shrewsbury. In 1847 he was +returned for Buckinghamshire, and never again had occasion to change his +constituency. Up to this time his old debts still embarrassed him, but +now his private and political fortunes changed together. Froude reports +that he "received a large sum from a private hand for his _Life of Lord +George Bentinck_" (published in 1852), "while a Conservative millionaire +took upon himself the debts to the usurers; the 3% with which he was +content being exchanged for the 10% under which Disraeli had been +staggering." In 1848 his father Isaac D'Israeli died, leaving to his son +Benjamin nearly the whole of his estate. This went to the purchase of +Hughenden Manor--not, of course, a great property, but with so much of +the pleasant and picturesque, of the dignified also, as quite to explain +what it was to the affectionate fancy of its lord. About this time, too +(1851), his acquaintance was sought by an old Mrs Brydges Willyams--born +a Spanish Jewess and then the widow of a long-deceased Cornish +squire--who in her distant home at Torquay had conceived a restless +admiration for Benjamin Disraeli. She wrote to him again and again, +pressing for an appointment to consult on an important matter of +business: would meet him at the fountain of the Crystal Palace in Hyde +Park. Her importunity succeeded, and the very small, oddly-dressed, +strange-mannered old lady whom Disraeli met at the fountain became his +adoring friend to the end of her life. Gratitude for her devotion +brought him and his wife in constant intimacy with her. There were many +visits to Torquay; he gratified her with gossiping letters about the +great people with whom and the great affairs with which the man who did +so much honour to her race was connected, that being the inspiration of +her regard for him. She died in 1863, leaving him all her fortune, which +was considerable; and, as she wished, was buried at Hughenden, close to +the grave where Disraeli was to lie. + + + As leader in the House of Commons. + +It is agreed that the first three years of Disraeli's leadership in +Opposition were skilfully employed in reconstructing the shattered Tory +party. In doing this he made it sufficiently clear that there could be +no sudden return to Protectionist principles. At the same time, however, +he insisted (as he did from first to last) on the enormous importance +to the country, to the character of its people no less than to its +material welfare, of agricultural contentment and prosperity; and he +also obtained a more general recognition of the fact that "the land" had +borne fiscal burdens under the old regime which were unfair and +unendurable under the new. So far he did well; and when in 1852 he took +office as chancellor of the exchequer in Lord Derby's first +administration, the prospect was a smiling one for a man who, striving +against difficulties and prejudices almost too formidable for +imagination in these days, had attained to a place where he could fancy +them all giving way. That, however, they were not. New difficulties were +to arise and old prejudices to revive in full force. His first budget +was a quaint failure, and was thrown out by a coalition of Liberals and +Peelites which he believed was formed against Mr Disraeli more than +against the chancellor of the exchequer. It was on this occasion that he +exclaimed, "England does not love coalitions." After a reign of ten +months he was again in Opposition, and remained so for seven years. Of +the Crimean War he had a better judgment than those whose weakness led +them into it, and he could tell them the whole truth of the affair in +twenty words: "You are going to war with an opponent who does not want +to fight, and whom you are unwilling to encounter." Neither were they +prepared; and the scandals and political disturbances that ensued +revealed him as a party leader who could act on such occasions with a +dignity, moderation and sagacity that served his country well, +maintained the honour of party government and cost his friends nothing. +The mismanagement of the war broke down the Aberdeen government in 1855, +and then Disraeli had the mortification of seeing a fortunate chance of +return to office lost by the timidity and distrust of his chief, Lord +Derby--the distrust too clearly including the under-valuation of +Disraeli himself. Lord Derby wanted Lord Palmerston's help, Mr +Gladstone's, Mr Sidney Herbert's. This arrangement could not be made; +Lord Derby therefore gave up the attempt to form a ministry and Lord +Palmerston came in. The next chance was taken in less favouring times. +The government in which Disraeli was again financial minister lasted for +less than eighteen months (1858-1859), and then ensued another seven +years in the cold and yet colder shade of Opposition. Both of these +seven-year outings were bad, but the second by far the worse. +Parliamentary reform had become a burning question and an embarrassing +one for the Tory party. An enormous increase of business, consequent +upon the use of steam machinery and free-trade openings to commerce, +filled the land with prosperity, and discredited all statesmanship but +that which steered by the star over Manchester. Mr Gladstone's budgets, +made possible by this prosperity, were so many triumphs for Liberalism. +Foreign questions arose which strongly excited English feeling--the +arrangements of peace with Russia, Italian struggles for freedom, an +American quarrel, the "Arrow" affair and the Chinese war, the affair of +the French colonels and the Conspiracy Bill; and as they arose +Palmerston gathered into his own sails (except on the last occasion) +every wind of popular favour. Amid all this the Tory fortunes sank +rapidly, becoming nearly hopeless when Lord Palmerston, without +appreciable loss of confidence on his own side, persuaded many Tories in +and out of parliament that Conservatism would suffer little while he was +in power. Yet there was great despondency, of course, in the +Conservative ranks; with despondency discontent; with discontent +rancour. The prejudice against Disraeli as Jew, the revolt at his +theatricalisms, the distrust of him as "mystery man," which up to this +time had never died out even among men who were his nearest colleagues, +were now more openly indulged. Out of doors he had a "bad press," in +parliament he had some steady, enthusiastic friends, but more that were +cold. Sometimes he was seen on the front Opposition bench for hours +quite alone. Little conspiracies were got up to displace him, and might +have succeeded but for an unconquerable dread of the weapon that +destroyed Peel. In this state of things he patiently held his ground, +working for his party more carefully than it knew, and never seizing +upon false or discrediting advantages. But it was an extremely bad time +for Benjamin Disraeli. + + + Reform Bill of 1867. + + Premier, 1868. + +Though Lord Palmerston stumbled over his Foreign Conspiracy Bill in +1858, his popularity was little damaged, and it was in no hopeful spirit +that the Tories took office again in that year. They were perilously +weak in the House of Commons, and affairs abroad, in which they had +small practice and no prestige, were alarming. Yet the new +administration did very well till, after resettling the government of +India, and recovering from a blunder committed by their Indian +secretary, Lord Ellenborough, they must needs launch a Reform Bill to +put that dangerous question out of controversial politics. The +well-intended but fantastic measure brought in for the purpose was +rejected. The country was appealed to, with good but insufficient +results; and at the first meeting of the new parliament the Tories were +turned out on a no-confidence vote moved by Lord Hartington. Foreign +affairs supplied the motive: failure to preserve the peace of Europe at +the time of the Italian war of independence. It is said that the foreign +office had then in print a series of despatches which would have +answered its accusers had they been presented when the debate began, as +for some unexplained reason they were not. Lord Palmerston now returned +to Downing Street, and while he lived Disraeli and his colleagues had to +satisfy themselves with what was meant for useful criticism, though with +small hope that it was so for their own service. A Polish insurrection, +the Schleswig-Holstein question, a commercial treaty with France, the +Civil War in America, gave Disraeli occasions for speech that was always +forcible and often wiser than all could see at the time. He never +doubted that England should be strictly neutral in the American quarrel +when there was a strong feeling in favour of the South. All the while he +would have gladly welcomed any just means of taking an animated course, +for these were dull, dark days for the Conservatives as a parliamentary +party. Yet, unperceived, Conservatism was advancing. It was much more +than a joke that Palmerston sheltered Conservative principles under the +Liberal flag. The warmth of his popularity, to which Radical applause +contributed nothing in his later days, created an atmosphere entirely +favourable to the quiet growth of Conservatism. He died in 1865. Earl +Russell succeeded him as prime minister, Mr Gladstone as leader of the +House of Commons. The party most pleased with the change was the +Radical; the party best served was Disraeli's. Another Reform Bill, +memorable for driving certain good Liberals into a Cave of Aduilam, +broke up the new government in a few months; Disraeli contributing to +the result by the delivery of opinions not new to him and of lasting +worth, though presently to be subordinated to arguments of an inferior +order and much less characteristic. "At this rate," he said in 1866, +"you will have a parliament that will entirely lose its command over the +executive, and it will meet with less consideration and possess less +influence." Look for declining statesmanship, inferior aptitude, genius +dying off. "Instead of these you will have a horde of selfish and +obscure mediocrities, incapable of anything but mischief, and that +mischief devised and regulated by the raging demagogue of the hour." The +Reform legislation which promised these results in 1866 was thrown out. +Lord Derby's third administration was then formed in the summer of the +same year, and for the third time there was a Tory government on +sufferance. Its followers were still a minority in the House of Commons; +an angry Reform agitation was going on; an ingenious resolution founded +on the demand for an enlarged franchise serviceable to Liberals might +extinguish the new government almost immediately; and it is pretty +evident that the Tory leaders took office meaning to seek a cure for +this desperate weakness by wholesale extension of the suffrage. Their +excuses and calculations are well known, but when all is said, Lord +Derby's statement of its character, "a leap in the dark," and of its +intention, "dishing the Whigs," cannot be bettered. Whether Lord Derby +or Mr Disraeli originated this resolve has been much discussed, and it +remains an unsettled question. It is known that Disraeli's private +secretary, Mr Ralph Earle, quarrelled with him violently at about this +time; and Sir William Fraser relates that, meeting Mr Earle, that +gentleman said: "I know what your feelings must be about this Reform +Bill, and I think it right to tell you that it was not Disraeli's bill, +but Lord Derby's. I know everything that occurred." Mr Earle gave the +same assurances to the writer of these lines, and did so with hints and +half-confidences (quite intelligible, however) as to the persuasions +that wrought upon his chief. Mr Earle's listener on these occasions +confesses that he heard with a doubting mind, and that belief in what he +heard still keeps company with Mahomet's coffin. One thing, however, is +clear. To suppose Disraeli satisfied with the excuses made for his +adoption of the "dishing" process is forbidden by the whole tenor of his +teaching and conduct. He could not have become suddenly blind to the +fallacy of the expectations derived from such a course; and all his life +it had been his distinction to look above the transient and trafficking +expedients of the professional politician. However, the thing was done. +After various remodellings, and amid much perturbation, secession, +violent reproach, the Household Suffrage Bill passed in August 1867. +Another memorable piece of work, the confederation of Canada, had +already been accomplished. A few days after parliament met in the next +year Lord Derby's failing health compelled him to resign and Mr Disraeli +became prime minister. Irish disaffection had long been astir; the +Fenian menace looked formidable not only in Ireland but in England also. +The reconstructed government announced its intention of dealing with +Irish grievances. Mr Gladstone approved, proposing the abolition of the +Irish Church to begin with. A resolution to that effect was immediately +carried against the strong opposition of the government. Disraeli +insisted that the question should be settled in the new parliament which +the franchise act called for, and he seems to have had little doubt that +the country would declare against Mr Gladstone's proposal. He was +mistaken. It was the great question at the polls; and the first +elections by the new constituencies went violently against the authors +of their being. + +The history of the next five years is Mr Gladstone's. The Irish Church +abolished, he set to work with passionate good intention on the Irish +land laws. The while he did so sedition took courage and flourished +exceedingly, so that to pacify Ireland the constable went hand in hand +with the legislator. The abolition of the Irish Church was followed by a +coercion act, and the land act by suspension of _Habeas Corpus_. +Disraeli, who at first preferred retirement and the writing of +_Lothair_, came forward from time to time to point the moral and predict +the end of Mr Gladstone's impulsive courses, which soon began to fret +the confidence of his friends. Some unpleasant errors of conduct--the +case of Sir R. Collier (afterwards Lord Monkswell, q.v.), the Ewelme +rectory case,[1] the significant Odo Russell (Lord Ampthill) episode (to +help the government out of a scrape the ambassador was accused of +exceeding his instructions)--told yet more. Above all, many humiliating +proofs that England was losing her place among the nations came out in +these days, the discovery being then new and unendurable. To be brief, +in less than four years the government had well-nigh worn out its own +patience with its own errors, failures and distractions, and would +gladly have gone to pieces when it was defeated on an Irish university +bill. But Disraeli, having good constitutional reasons for declining +office at the moment, could not allow this. Still gathering +unpopularity, still offending, alarming, alienating, the government went +on till 1874, suddenly dissolved parliament, and was signally beaten, +the Liberal party breaking up. Like most of his political friends, +Disraeli had no expectation of such a victory--little hope, indeed, of +any distinct success. Yet when he went to Manchester on a brief +political outing two years before, he was received with such acclaim as +he had never known in his life. He was then sixty-eight years old, and +this was his first full banquet of popularity. The elation and +confidence drawn from the Manchester meetings were confirmed by every +circumstance of the 1874 elections. But he was well aware of how much he +owed to his opponents' errors, seeing at the same time how safely he +could lay his future course by them. He had always rejected the +political economy of his time, and it was breaking down. He had always +refused to accept the economist's dictum without reference to other +considerations than the turnover of trade; and even Manchester could +pardon the refusal now. The national spirit, vaporized into a +cosmopolitan mist, was fast condensing again under mortification and +insult from abroad uncompensated by any appreciable percentage of cash +profit. This was a changing England, and one that Disraeli could govern +on terms of mutual satisfaction; but not if the reviving "spirit of the +country" ran to extremes of self-assertion. At one of the great +Manchester meetings he said, "Do not suppose, because I counsel firmness +and decision at the right moment, that I am of that school of statesmen +who are favourable to a turbulent and aggressive diplomacy. I have +resisted it during a large part of my life." + + + Suez Canal shares. + +But for the hubbub occasioned by the Public Worship Regulation Act, the +first two years of the 1874 administration had no remarkable excitements +till near the end of them. The Public Worship Act, introduced by the +archbishop of Canterbury, was meant to restrain ritualism. Disraeli, who +from first to last held to the Reformed Church as capable of dispensing +social good as no other organization might, supported the Bill as +"putting down ritualism"; spoke very vehemently; gave so much offence +that at one time neither the bill nor the government seemed quite safe. +For some time afterwards there was so little legislation of the kind +called "enterprising" that even some friends of the government began to +think it too tame; but at the end of the second year an announcement was +made which put that fear to rest. The news that the khedive's Suez Canal +shares had been bought by the government was received with boundless +applause. It was a courageous thing to do; but it was not a Disraeli +conception, nor did it originate in any government department. It was +suggested from without at a moment when the possibility of ever +acquiring the shares was passing away. On the morning of the 15th of +November 1875, Mr Frederick Greenwood, then editor of the _Pall Mall +Gazette_, went to Lord Derby at the foreign office, informed him that +the khedive's shares were passing into the hands of a French syndicate, +and urged arrest of the transaction by purchase for England. (The shares +being private property their sale could not, of course, be forbidden.) +Lord Derby thought there must be a mistake. He could not believe that +bargaining of that kind could go on in Cairo without coming to the +knowledge of the British consul there. He was answered that nevertheless +it was going on. The difficulties of purchase by England were then +arrayed by Lord Derby. They were more than one or two, and of course +they had a formidable look, but so also had the alternative and the lost +opportunity. One difficulty had already come into existence, and had to +be met at once. Lord Derby had either to make direct inquiry of the +khedive or to let the matter go. If he inquired, and there was no such +negotiation, his question might be interpreted in a very troublesome +way; moreover, we should put the idea of selling the shares into the +khedive's head, which would be unfortunate. "There's my position, and +now what do you say?" The answer given, Lord Derby drafted a telegram to +the British consul-general at Cairo, and read it out. It instructed +Colonel Stanton to go immediately to the khedive and put the question +point blank. Meanwhile the prime minister would be seen, and Lord +Derby's visitor might call next day to hear the reply from Cairo. It is +enough to add here that on receipt of the answer the purchase for +England was taken up and went to a speedy conclusion.[2] + + + Eastern question. + +As if upon the impulse of this transaction, Disraeli opened the next +session of parliament with a bill to confer upon the queen the title of +empress of India--a measure which offended the instincts of many +Englishmen, and, for the time, revived the prejudices against its +author. More important was the revival of disturbances in European +Turkey, which, in their outcome, were to fill the last chapter of +Disraeli's career. But for this interruption it is likely that he would +have given much of his attention to Ireland, not because it was an +attractive employment for his few remaining years, but because he saw +with alarm the gathering troubles in that country. And his mind was +strongly drawn in another direction. In a remarkable speech delivered in +1872, he spoke with great warmth of the slighting of the colonies, +saying that "no minister in this country will do his duty who neglects +any opportunity of reconstructing as much as possible our colonial +empire, and of responding to those distant sympathies which may become +the source of incalculable strength and happiness to this island." +However, nothing was done in fulfilment of this duty in the first two +years from 1874, and early in the third the famous Andrassy note, the +Berlin memorandum, the Bashi-Bazouk atrocities, and the accumulative +excitement thereby created in England, reopened the Eastern question +with a vengeance. The policy which Disraeli's government now took up may +be truly called the national policy. Springing from the natural +suggestions of self-defence against the march of a dangerous rivalry, it +had the sanction of all British statesmanship for generations, backed by +the consenting instinct of the people. It was quite unsentimental, being +pro-Turkish or anti-Russian only as it became so in being pro-British. +The statesmen by whom it was established and continued saw in Russia a +power which, unless firmly kept within bounds, would dominate Europe; +more particularly that it would undermine and supersede British +authority in the East. And without nicely considering the desire of +Russia to expand to the Mediterranean, the Pacific or in any other +direction, they thought it one of their first duties to maintain their +own Eastern empire; or, to put it another way, to contrive that Great +Britain should be subject to Russian ascendancy (if ever), at the +remotest period allowed by destiny. Such were the ideas on which +England's Russian policy was founded. In 1876 this policy revived as a +matter of course in the cabinet, and as spontaneously, though not upon a +first provocation, became popular almost to fury. And furiously popular +it remained. But a strong opposing current of feeling, equally +passionate, set in against the Turks; war began and lasted long; and as +the agitation at home and the conflict abroad went on, certain of +Disraeli's colleagues, who were staunch enough at the beginning, +gradually weakened. It is certainly true that Disraeli was prepared, in +all senses of the word, to take strong measures against such an end to +the war as the San Stefano treaty threatened. Rather than suffer that, +he would have fought the Russians in alliance with the Turks, and had +gone much farther in maturing a scheme of attack and defence than was +known at the time or is commonly known now. That there was a master +motive for this resolution may be taken for granted; and it is to be +found in a belief that not to throw back the Russian advance then was to +lose England's last chance of postponing to a far future the +predominance of a great rival power in the East. How much or how little +judgment shows in that calculation, when viewed in the light of later +days, we do not discuss. What countenance it had from his colleagues +dropped away. At the end their voices were strong enough to insist upon +the diplomatic action which at no point falls back on the sword; Lord +Derby (foreign minister) being among the first to make a stand on that +resolution, though he was not the first seceder from the government. +Such diplomacy in such conditions is paralytic. It cannot speak thrice, +with whatever affectation of boldness, without discovering its true +character to trained ears; which should be remembered when Disraeli's +successes at Berlin are measured. It should be remembered that what with +the known timidity of his colleagues, and what with the strength and +violence of the Russian party in England, his achievement at Berlin was +like the reclamation of butter from a dog's mouth; as Prince Bismarck +understood in acknowledging Disraeli's gifts of statesmanship. It should +also be remembered, when his Eastern policy in 1876-1878 is denounced as +malign and a failure, that it was never carried out. Good or bad, ill or +well calculated, effective existence was denied to it; and a man cannot +be said to have failed in what he was never permitted to attempt. The +nondescript course of action which began at the Constantinople +conference and ended at Berlin was not of his direction until its few +last days. It only marked at various stages the thwarting and +suppression of his policy by colleagues who were haunted night and day +by memories of the Crimean War, and not least, probably, by the fate of +the statesmen who suffered for its blunders and their own. Disraeli also +looked back to those blunders, and he was by no means insensible to the +fate of fallen ministers. But just as he maintained at the time of the +conflict, and after, that there would have been no Crimean War had not +the British government convinced the tsar that it was in the hands of +the peace party, so now he believed that a bold policy would prevent or +limit war, and at the worst put off grave consequences which otherwise +would make a rapid advance. + +As if aware of much of this, the country was well content with +Disraeli's successes at Berlin, though sore on some points, he himself +sharing the soreness. Yet there were great days for him after his +return. At the Berlin conference he had established a formidable +reputation; the popularity he enjoyed at home was affectionately +enthusiastic; no minister had ever stood in more cordial relations with +his sovereign; and his honours in every kind were his own achievement +against unending disadvantage. But he was soon to suffer irretrievable +defeat. A confused and unsatisfactory war in Afghanistan, troubles yet +more unsatisfactory in South Africa, conspired with two or three years +of commercial distress to invigorate "the swing of the pendulum" when he +dissolved parliament in 1880. Dissolution the year before would have +been wiser, but a certain pride forbade. The elections went heavily +against him. He took the blow with composure, and sank easily into a +comparative retirement. Yet he still watched affairs as a great party +leader should, and from time to time figured vigorously in debate. +Meanwhile he had another novel to sit down to--the poor though highly +characteristic _Endymion_; which, to his great surprise and equal +pleasure, was replaced on his table by a cheque for ten thousand pounds. +Yet even this satisfaction had its tang of disappointment; for though +_Endymion_ was not wholly written in his last days, it was in no respect +the success that _Lothair_ was. This also he could bear. His description +of his grandfather recurs to us: "A man of ardent character, sanguine, +courageous and fortunate, with a temper which no disappointment could +disturb." + + + Death and influence. + +As earl of Beaconsfield (failing health had compelled him to take refuge +in the House of Lords in 1876) Benjamin Disraeli died in his house in +Curzon Street on the 19th of April 1881. The likelihood of his death was +publicly known for some days before the event, and then the greatness of +his popularity and its warmth were declared for the first time. No such +demonstration of grief was expected even by those who grieved the most. He +lies in Hughenden churchyard, in a rail-enclosed grave, with liberty for +the turf to grow between him and the sky. Within the church is a marble +tablet, placed there by his queen, with a generous inscription to his +memory. The anniversary of his death has since been honoured in an +unprecedented manner, the 19th of April being celebrated as "Primrose +Day"--the primrose, for reasons impossible accurately to define, being +popularly supposed to have been Disraeli's favourite flower. Even among +his friends in youth (Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer, for example), and not +improbably among the city men who wagered their money in irrecoverable +loans to him on the chance of his success, there may have been some who +compassed the thought of Benjamin Disraeli as prime minister and peer; but +at no time could any fancy have imagined him remembered so enduringly as +Lord Beaconsfield has been. It is possible that Sarah Disraeli (the Myra +of _Endymion_), or that "the most severe of critics but a perfect wife," +may have had such dreams--hardly that they could have occurred to any mind +but a devoted woman's. Disraeli's life was a succession of surprises, but +none was so great as that he should be remembered after death more +widely, lastingly, respectfully, affectionately, than any other statesman +in the long reign of Queen Victoria. While he lived he did not seem at all +cut out for that distinction even as an Imperialist. Significant as was +the common grief when he died, no such consequence could be inferred from +it, and certainly not from the elections of 1880. It stands, however, this +high distinction, and with it the thought that it would have been denied +to him altogether had the "adventurer" and "mystery man" of the sixties +died at the age of threescore years and ten. We have said that never till +1872 did he look upon the full cup of popularity. It might have been said +that even at that time intrigue to get rid of him had yet to cease in his +own party; and but a few years before, a man growing old, he was still in +the lowest deeps of his disappointments and humiliations. How, then, could +it be imagined that with six years of power from his seventieth year, the +Jew "adventurer," mysterious and theatrical to the last, should fill a +greater space in the mind of England twenty years after death than Peel or +Palmerston after five? Of course it can be explained; and when explained, +we see that Disraeli's good fortune in this respect is not due entirely to +his own merits. His last years of power might have been followed by as +long a period of more acceptable government than his own, to the +effacement of his own from memory; but that did not happen. What did +follow was a time of universal turbulence and suspicion, in which the +pride of the nation was wounded again and again. To say "Majuba" and +"Gordon" recalls its deepest hurts, but not all of them; and it may be +that a pained and angry people, looking back, saw in the man whom they +lately displaced more than they had ever seen before. From that time, at +any rate, Disraeli has been acknowledged as the regenerator and +representative of the Imperial idea in England. He has also been accused +on the same grounds; and if the giver of good wine may be blamed for the +guest who gets drunk on it, there is justice in the accusation. It is but +a statement of fact, however, that Disraeli retains his hold upon the +popular mind on this account mainly. The rekindling of the Imperial idea +is understood as a timely act of revolt and redemption: of revolt against +continuous humiliations deeply felt, redemption from the fate of nations +obviously weak and suspected of timidity. It has been called +rescue-work--deliverance from the dangers of invited aggression and a +philosophical neglect of the means of defence. And its first achievement +for the country (this is again a mere statement of fact) was the +restoration of a much-damaged self-respect and the creation of a great +defensive fleet not a day too soon for safety. So much for "the great +heart of the people." Meanwhile political students find to their +satisfaction that he never courted popularity, and never practised the art +of working for "quick returns" of sympathy or applause. As "adventurer," +he should have done so; yet he neglected the cultivation of that paying +art for the wisdom that looks to the long future, and bears its fruit, +perchance, when no one cares to remember who sowed the seed. So it is that +to read some of his books and many of his speeches is to draw more respect +and admiration from their pages than could have been found there +originally. The student of his life understands that Disraeli's claim to +remembrance rests not only on the breadth of his views, his deep insight, +his long foresight, but even more on the courage which allowed him to +declare opinions supplied from those qualities when there was no visible +likelihood of their justification by experience, and therefore when their +natural fate was to be slighted. His judgments had to wait the event +before they were absolved from ridicule or delivered from neglect. The +event arrives; he is in his grave; but his reputation loses nothing by +that. It gains by regret that death was beforehand with him. + + + Character. + +"Adventurer," as applied to Disraeli, was a mere term of abuse. +"Mystery-man" had much of the same intention, but in a blameless though +not in a happy sense it was true of him to the end of his days. Even to +his friends, and to many near him, he remained mysterious to the last. +It is impossible to doubt that some two or three, four or five +perchance, were at home in his mind, being freely admitted there; but of +partial admissions to its inner places there seem to have been few or +none. Men who were long associated with him in affairs, and had much of +his stinted companionship, have confessed that with every wish to +understand his character they never succeeded. Sometimes they fancied +they had got within the topping walls of the maze, and might hope to +gain the point whence survey could be made of the whole; but as often +they found themselves, in a moment, where they stood at last and at +first--outside. His speeches carry us but a little way beyond the mental +range; his novels rather baffle than instruct. It is commonly believed +that Disraeli looked in the glass while describing Sidonia in +_Coningsby_. We group the following sentences from this description for +a purpose that will be presently seen:--(1) "He was admired by women, +idolized by artists, received in all circles with great distinction, and +appreciated for his intellect by the very few to whom he at all opened +himself." (2) "For, though affable and generous, it was impossible to +penetrate him: though unreserved in his manners his frankness was +limited to the surface. He observed everything, thought ever, but +avoided serious discussion. If you pressed him for an opinion he took +refuge in raillery, and threw out some paradox with which it was not +easy to cope. The secret history of the world was Sidonia's pastime. His +great pleasure was to contrast the hidden motive with the public pretext +of transactions." (3) "He might have discovered a spring of happiness in +susceptibilities of the heart; but this was a sealed fountain for +Sidonia. In his organization there was a peculiar, perhaps a great +deficiency; he was a man without affection. It would be hard to say that +he had no heart, for he was susceptible of deep emotions; but not for +individuals. Woman was to him a toy, man a machine." These sentences are +separately grouped here for the sake of suggesting that they will more +truly illustrate Disraeli's character if taken as follows:--The first as +representing his most cherished social ambitions--in whatever degree +achieved. The second group as faithfully and closely descriptive of +himself; descriptive too of a character purposely cloaked. The third as +much less simple; in part a mixture of truth with Byronic affectation, +and for the rest (and more significantly), as intimating the resolute +exercise of extraordinary powers of control over the promptings and +passions by which so many capable ambitions have come to grief. So read, +Sidonia and Benjamin Disraeli are brought into close resemblance by +Disraeli himself; for what in this description is untrue to the +suspected fundamentals of his character is true to his known foibles. +But for a general interpretation of Lord Beaconsfield and his career +none serves so well as that which Froude insists on most. He was +thoroughly and unchangeably a Jew. At but one remove by birth from +southern Europe and the East, he was an Englishman in nothing but his +devotion to England and his solicitude for her honour and prosperity. It +was not wholly by volition and design that his mind was strange to +others and worked in absolute detachment. He had "none of the hereditary +prepossessions of the native Englishman." No such prepossessions +disturbed his vision when it was bent upon the rising problems of the +time, or rested on the machinery of government and the kind of men who +worked it and their ways of working. The advantages of Sidonia's +intellect and temperament were largely his, in affairs, but not without +their drawbacks. His pride in his knowledge of the English character was +the pride of a student; and we may doubt if it ever occurred to him that +there would have been less pride but more knowledge had he been an +Englishman. It is certain that in shrouding his own character he checked +the communication of others to himself, and so could continue to the end +of his career the costly mistake of being theatrical in England. There +was a great deal too (though little to his blame) in Lord Malmesbury's +observation that he was not only disliked in the House of Commons for +his mysterious manner, but prejudiced by a pronounced foreign air and +aspect. Lord Malmesbury does not put it quite as strongly as that, but +he might have done so with truth. No Englishman could approach Disraeli +without some immediate consciousness that he was in the presence of a +foreigner. + +Lord Beaconsfield has been praised for his integrity in money matters; +the praise could have been spared--it does not rise high enough. It is +also said to his honour that he "never struck at a little man," and that +was well; but it is explained as readily by pride and calculation as by +magnanimity. A man of extraordinary coolness and self-control, his +faults in every kind were faults of excess: it is the mark of them all. +But whatever offence they gave, whatever mischief they did, was soon +exhausted, and has long since been pardoned. + + AUTHORITIES.--The writer's personal knowledge is largely represented + in the above article. Among the biographical literature available + prior to the authoritative _Life_ the following may be cited:--Lord + Beaconsfield's Preface to 1849 edition of Isaac D'Israeli's works; + _Correspondence with his Sister_, and _Home Letters_, edited by Ralph + Disraeli; Samuel Smiles, _Memoirs and Correspondence of John Murray; + Life of the Earl of Beaconsfield_, by F. Hitchman; _Memoir_ by T.E. + Kebbel; _Memoir_ by J.A. Froude; _Memoir_ by Harold Gorst; Sir William + Fraser's _Disraeli and his Day; The Speeches of Lord Beaconsfield_, + edited by T.E. Kebbel. In 1904, however, the large collection of + material for Lord Beaconsfield's life, in the hands of his executors + Lord Rowton and Lord Rothschild, was acquired by _The Times_, and the + task of preparing the biography was assigned to Mr W.F. Monypenny, an + assistant editor of _The Times_ (1894-1899), who was best known to the + public as editor of the Johannesburg _Star_ during the crisis of + 1899-1903. (F. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The crown had in 1871 appointed the Rev. W.W. Harvey (1810-1883), + a Cambridge man, to the living of Ewelme, near Oxford, for which + members of the Oxford house of convocation were alone eligible. + Gladstone was charged with evading this limitation in allowing Harvey + to qualify for the appointment by being formally admitted M.A. by + incorporation. + + [2] For a detailed, if somewhat controversial, account of this + affair, see Lucien Wolf's article in _The Times_ of December 26, + 1905, and Mr Greenwood's letters on the subject. + + + + +BEACONSFIELD, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, on the river Tamar, 28 +m. direct N.W. of Launceston. Pop. (1901) 2658. From its port at Beauty +Point, 3-1/2 m. distant, with which it is connected by a steam tramway, +communication is maintained with Georgetown and Launceston. It is the +centre of the most important gold-field in the island. + + + + +BEACONSFIELD, a town of South Africa in Griqualand West, about 3 m. S.W. +of Kimberley, of which it is practically a suburb, though possessing a +separate municipality. Pop. (1904) 9378, of whom 2780 were whites. +Beaconsfield was founded in 1870 near the famous Dutoitspan diamond +mine. The land on which the town is built belongs to the De Beers +Company. (See KIMBERLEY.) + + + + +BEACONSFIELD, a town in the Wycombe parliamentary division of +Buckinghamshire, England. 23 m. W. by N. of London, on the main road to +Oxford, and on the Great Central & Great Western joint railway. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 1570. It lies in a hilly well-wooded district +above the valley of the small river Wye, a tributary of the Thames. The +broad Oxford road forms its picturesque main street. It was formerly a +posting station of importance, and had a considerable manufacture of +ribbons. The Perpendicular church of St Mary and All Saints is the +burial place of Edmund Burke (d. 1797), who lived at Gregories, or as he +named it Butler's Court, near the town. He would have taken his title +from Beaconsfield had he survived to enter the peerage. A monument to +his memory was erected in 1898. Edmund Waller the poet owned the +property of Hall Barn, and died here in 1687. His tomb is in the +churchyard. Benjamin Disraeli chose the title of earl of Beaconsfield in +1876, his wife having in 1868 received the title of Viscountess +Beaconsfield. The opening of railway communication with London in 1906 +resulted in a considerable accretion of residential population. + + + + +BEAD, a small globule or ball used in necklaces, and made of different +materials, as metal, coral, diamond, amber, ivory, stone, pottery, +glass, rock-crystal and seeds. The word is derived from the Middle Eng. +_bede_, from the common Teutonic word for "to pray," cf. German _beten_ +and English _bedesman_, the meaning being transferred from "prayer" to +the spherical bodies strung on a rosary and used in counting prayers. +Beads have been made from remote antiquity, and are found in early +Egyptian tombs; variegated glass beads, found in the ground in certain +parts of Africa, as Ashantiland, and highly prized by the natives as +_aggry_-beads, are supposed to be of Egyptian or Phoenician origin. +Beads of the more expensive materials are strung in necklaces and worn +as articles of personal adornment, while the cheaper kinds are employed +for the decoration of women's dress. Glass beads have long been used for +purposes of barter with savage tribes, and are made in enormous numbers +and varieties, especially in Venice, where the manufacture has existed +from at least the 14th century. Glass, either transparent, or of opaque +coloured enamel (_smalti_), or having complex patterns produced by the +twisting of threads of coloured glass through a transparent body, is +drawn out into long tubes, from which the beads are pinched off, and +finished by being rotated with sand and ashes in heated cylinders. + +In architecture, the term "bead" is given to a small cylindrical +moulding, in classic work often cut into bead and reel. + + + + +BEADLE, also BEDEL or BEDELL (from A.S. _bydel_, from _beodan_, to bid), +originally a subordinate officer of a court or deliberative assembly, +who summoned persons to appear and answer charges against them (see Du +Cange, _supra tit. Bedelli_). As such, the beadle goes back to early +Teutonic times; he was probably attached to the moot as its messenger or +summoner, being under the direction of the reeve or constable of the +leet. After the Norman Conquest, the beadle seems to have diminished in +importance, becoming merely the crier in the manor and forest courts, +and sometimes executing processes. He was also employed as the messenger +of the parish, and thus became, to a certain extent, an ecclesiastical +officer, but in reality acted more as a constable by keeping order in +the church and churchyard during service. He also attended upon the +clergy, the churchwardens and the vestry. He was appointed by the +parishioners in vestry, and his wages were payable out of the church +rate. From the Poor Law Act of 1601 till the act of 1834 by which +poor-law administration was transferred to guardians, the beadle in +England was an officer of much importance in his capacity of agent for +the overseers. In all medieval universities the bedel was an officer who +exercised various executive and spectacular functions (H. Rashdall, +_Hist. of Universities in the Middle Ages_, i. 193). He still survives +in many universities on the continent of Europe and in those of Oxford +and Cambridge, but he is now shorn of much of his importance. At Oxford +there are four bedels, representing the faculties of law, medicine, arts +and divinity. Their duties are chiefly processional, the junior or +sub-bedel being the official attendant on the vice-chancellor, before +whom he bears a silver mace. At Cambridge there are two, termed +esquire-bedels, who both walk before the vice-chancellor, bearing maces. + + + + +BEAK (early forms _beke_ and _becke_, from Fr. _bec_, late Lat. +_beccus_, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the Celtic _bec_ and _beq_, +however, are taken from the English), the horny bill of a bird, and so +used of the horny ends of the mandibles of the octopus, the duck-billed +platypus and other animals; hence the rostrum (q.v.) or ornamented prow +of ancient war vessels. The term is also applied, in classic +architecture, to the pendent fillet on the edge of the corona of a +cornice, which serves as a drip, and prevents the rain from flowing +inwards. + +The slang use of "beak" for a magistrate or justice of the peace has not +been satisfactorily explained. The earlier meaning, which lasted down to +the beginning of the 19th century, was "watchman" or "constable." +According to _Slang and its Analogues_ (J.S. Farmer and W.E. Henley, +1890), the first example of its later use is in the name of "the Blind +Beak," which was given to Henry Fielding's half-brother, Sir John +Fielding (about 1750). Thomas Harman, in his book on vagrants, _Caveat +or Warening for commen cursitors, Vulgarely called Vagabones_, 1573, +explains _harmans beck_ as "counstable," _harman_ being the word for the +stocks. Attempts have been made to connect "beak" in this connexion with +the Old English _beag_, a gold torque or collar, worn as a symbol of +authority, but this could only be plausible on the assumption that +"magistrate" was the earlier significance of the word. + + + + +BEAKER (Scottish _bicker_, Lat. _bicarium_, Ger. _Becher_, a +drinking-bowl), a large wide-mouthed drinking-cup or laboratory vessel. +See DRINKING-VESSELS. + + + + +BEALE, DOROTHEA (1831-1906), English schoolmistress, was born on the +21st of March 1831 in London, her father being a physician of good +family and cultivated tastes. She had already shown a strong +intellectual bent and considerable force of character when in 1848 she +was one of the first to attend lectures at the newly opened Queen's +College for Ladies, London, and from 1849 to 1856 she herself took +classes there. In 1857 for a few months she became head teacher of the +Clergy Daughters' school at Casterton, Westmoreland, but narrow +religious prejudices on the part of the governors led to her retirement. +In 1858 she was appointed principal of the Ladies College at Cheltenham +(opened 1854), then in very low water. Her tact and strenuousness, +backed by able financial management, led to its success being thoroughly +established by 1864, and as the college increased in numbers new +buildings were erected from 1873 onwards. Under Miss Beale's headship it +grew into one of the great girls' schools of the country, and its +development and example played an important part in the revolution +effected in regard to the higher education of women. Miss Beale retained +her post till her death on the 9th of November 1906. Strongly religious +by nature, broad-minded and keenly interested in all branches of +culture, she exercised a far-reaching influence on her pupils. + + Her _Life_ was written by Elizabeth Raikes (1908). + + + + +BEAM (from the O. Eng. _beam_, cf. Ger. _Baum_, a tree, to which sense +may be referred the use of "beam" as meaning the rood or crucifix, and +the survival in certain names of trees, as hornbeam), a solid piece of +timber, as a beam of a house, of a plough, a loom, or a balance. In the +last case, from meaning simply the cross-bar of the balance, "beam" has +come to be used of the whole, as in the expression "the king's beam," or +"common beam," which refers to the old English standard balance for +wholesale goods, for several hundred years in the custody of the +Grocers' Company, London. As a nautical term, "beam" was transferred +from the main cross-timbers to the side of the ship; thus "on the +weather-beam" means "to windward," and a ship is said to be "wide in the +beam" when she is wide horizontally. The phrase "to be on one's +beam-ends," denoting a position of extreme peril or helplessness, is +borrowed from the position of a ship which has heeled over so far as to +stand on the ends of her horizontal beams. The meaning of "beam" for +shafts or rays of light comes apparently from the use of the word to +translate the Latin _columna lucis_, a pillar of light. + + + + +BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _Bohne_), the seed of certain +leguminous plants cultivated for food all over the world, and furnished +chiefly by the genera _Vicia, Phaseolus, Dolichos_ and others. The +common bean, in all its varieties, as cultivated in Britain and on the +continents of Europe and America, is the produce of _Vicia Faba_. The +French bean, kidney bean, or haricot, is the seed of _Phaseolus +vulgaris_; but in India several other species of this genus of plants +are raised, and form no small portion of the diet of the inhabitants. +Besides these there are numerous other pulses cultivated for the food +both of man and domestic animals, to which the name bean is frequently +given. The common bean is even more nutritious than wheat; and it +contains a very high proportion of nitrogenous matter under the form of +legumin, which amounts on an average to 24%. It is, however, a rather +coarse food, and difficult of digestion, and is chiefly used to feed +horses, for which it is admirably adapted. In England French beans are +chiefly, almost exclusively, used in the green state; the whole pod +being eaten as a table vegetable or prepared as a pickle. It is +wholesome and nutritious; and in Holland and Germany the pods are +preserved in salt by almost every family for winter and spring use. The +green pods are cut across obliquely, most generally by a machine +invented for the purpose, and salted in barrels. When wanted for use +they are steeped in fresh water to remove the salt, and broiled or +stewed they form an agreeable addition to the diet at a time when no +other vegetable may be had. + +The broad bean--_Vicia Faba_, or _Faba vulgaris_, as it is known by +those botanists who regard the slight differences which distinguish it +from the great majority of the species of the vetch genus (_Vicia_) as +of generic importance--is an annual which has been cultivated fiom +prehistoric times for its nutritious seeds. + +The lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and northern Italy in the bronze age +cultivated a small-fruited variety, and it was grown in ancient Egypt, +though, according to Herodotus, regarded by the priests as unclean. The +ancient Greeks called it [Greek: kuamos], the Latins _faba_, but there +is no suggestion that the plant is a native of Europe. Alphonse de +Candolle (_Origin of Cultivated Plants_, p. 320) concludes that the bean +was introduced into Europe probably by the western Aryans at the time of +their earliest migrations. He suggests that its wild habitat was twofold +some thousands of years ago, one of the centres being to the south of +the Caspian, the other in the north of Africa, and that its area has +long been in process of diminution and extinction. The nature of the +plant favours this hypothesis, for its seed has no means of dispersing +itself, and rodents or other animals can easily make prey of it; the +struggle for existence which was going against this plant as against +maize would have gradually isolated it and caused it to disappear, if +man had not saved it by cultivation. It was introduced into China a +little before the Christian era, later into Japan and more recently into +India, though it has been suggested that in parts of the higher +Himalayas its cultivation has survived from very ancient times. It is a +plant which will flourish in all ordinary good garden soil. The seeds +are sown about 4 in. apart, in drills 2-1/2 ft. asunder for the smaller +and 3 ft. for the larger sorts. The soil should, preferably, be a rather +heavy loam, deeply worked and well enriched. For an early crop, seeds +may be sown in November, and protected during winter in the same manner +as early peas. An early crop may also be obtained by dibbling in the +seeds in November, sheltering by a frame, and in February transplanting +them to a warm border. Successional crops are obtained by sowing +suitable varieties from January to the end of June. All the culture +necessary is that the earth be drawn up about the stems. The plants are +usually topped when the pods have set, as this not only removes the +black aphides which often settle there, but is also found to promote the +filling of the pods. + +The following are some of the best sorts:--for early use, Early Mazagan, +Long-pod, Marshall's Early Prolific and Seville Long-pod; for late use, +Carter's Mammoth Long-pod and Broad Windsor. + +The horse-bean is a variety--var. _equina_. + +_Cultivation of Field-bean._--Several varieties of _Vicia Faba_ (e.g. +the horse bean, the mazagan, the tick bean, the winter bean) are +cultivated in the field for the sake both of the grain, which is used as +food for live-stock, and of the haulm, which serves for either fodder or +litter. They are best adapted for heavy soils such as clays or clayey +loams. The time for sowing is from the end of January to the beginning +of March, or in the case of winter beans from the end of September to +the middle of November. The bean-crop is usually interposed between two +crops of wheat or some other cereal. If spring beans are to be sown, the +land after harvest is dressed with farmyard manure, which is then +ploughed in. In January the soil is levelled with the harrows, and the +seed, which should be hard and light brown in colour, is drilled in rows +from 15 to 24 in. apart at the rate of from 2 to 2-1/2 bushels to the +acre and then harrowed in. The alternative is to "dibble" the seed in +the furrow left by the autumn ploughing and cover it in with the +harrows; or the land may be ridged with the double-breasted plough, +manure deposited in the furrows and the seed sown broadcast, the ridges +being then split back so as to cover both manure and seed. After the +plant shows, horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing between the rows is carried on +so long as the plant is small enough to suffer no injury therefrom. The +routine of cultivation for winter beans hardly differs from that +described except as regards the time of sowing. + +Beans are cut when the leaf is fallen and the haulm is almost black +either with the fagging hook or the reaping machine, though the +stoutness of the stalks causes a severe strain on the latter implement. +They are tied and stocked, and are so left for a considerable time +before stacking. There is less fear of injury to the crop through damp +than in the case of other cereals. Their value for feeding purposes +increases in the stack, where they may remain for a year or more before +threshing. Pea and bean weevils, both striped (_Sitones lineatus_) and +spotted (_Sitones crinitus_), and the bean aphis (_Aphis rumicis_), are +noted pests of the crop. Winter beans come to maturity earlier than the +spring-sown varieties, and are therefore strong enough to resist the +attacks of the aphis by the end of June, when it begins its ravages. +Field-beans yield from 25 to 35 bushels to the acre. + +_Phascolus vulgaris_, the kidney, French or haricot bean, an annual, +dwarf and bushy in growth, is widely cultivated in temperate, +sub-tropical and tropical regions, but is nowhere known as a wild plant. +It was long supposed to be of Indian origin, an idea which was disproved +by Alphonse de Candolle, who sums up the facts bearing on its origin as +follows:--_Phaseolus vulgaris_ has not been long cultivated in India, +the south-west of Asia and Egypt, and it is not certain that it was +known in Europe before the discovery of America. At the latter epoch the +number of varieties in European gardens suddenly increased, and all +authors began to mention them. The majority of the species of the genus +exist in South America, and seeds apparently belonging to the species in +question have been found in Peruvian tombs of an uncertain date, +intermixed with many species, all American. Hence it is probable that +the plant is of South American origin. + +It is a tender annual, and should be grown in a rich light loamy soil +and a warm sheltered situation. The soil should be well enriched with +hot-bed dung. The earliest crop may be sown by the end of March or +beginning of April. If, however, the temperature of the soil is below 45 +deg., the beans make but little progress. The main crops should be got +in early in May; and a later sowing may be made early in July. The +earlier plantings may be sown in small pots, and put in frames or +houses, until they can be safely planted out-of-doors. A light covering +of straw or some other simple shelter suffices to protect from late +frosts. The seeds should be covered 1-1/2 or 2 in. deep, the distance +between the rows being about 2 ft., or for the dwarfest sorts 18 in., +and that between plants from 4 to 6 in. The pods may be used as a green +vegetable, in which case they should be gathered whilst they are so +crisp as to be readily snapped in two when bent; but when the dry seeds +are to be used the pods should be allowed to ripen. As the green pods +are gathered others will continue to be formed in abundance, but if old +seed-forming pods are allowed to remain the formation of young ones will +be greatly checked. There are numerous varieties; among the best are +Canadian Wonder, Canterbury and Black Negro. + +_Phaseolus multiflorus_, scarlet runner, is nearly allied to _P. +vulgaris_, of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety, but differs +in its climbing habit. It is naturally perennial and has a thick fleshy +root, but is grown in Great Britain as a tender annual. Its bright, +generally scarlet flowers, arranged in long racemes, and the fact that +it will flourish in any ordinary good garden soil, combine to make it a +favourite garden plant. It is also of interest as being one of the few +plants that twine in a direction contrary to the apparent motion of the +sun. The seeds of the runner beans should be sown in an open plot,--the +first sowing in May, another at the beginning of June, and a third about +the middle of June. In the London market-gardens they are sown 8 to 12 +in. apart, in 4 ft. rows if the soil is good. The twining tops are +pinched or cut off when the plants are from 2 to 2-1/2 ft. high, to save +the expense of staking. It is better, however, in private gardens to +have the rows standing separately, and to support the plants by stakes 6 +or 7 ft. high and about a foot apart, the tops of the stakes being +crossed about one-third down. If the weather is dry when the pods are +forming abundantly, plenty of tepid water should be supplied to the +plants. In training the shoots to their supports, they should be twined +from right to left, contrary to the course of the sun, or they will not +lay hold. By frequently picking the pods the plants are encouraged to +form fresh blooms from which pods may be picked until the approach of +frost. + +The ordinary scarlet runner is most commonly grown, but there is a +white-flowered variety which has also white seeds; this is very prolific +and of excellent quality. Another variety called Painted Lady, with the +flowers red and white, is very ornamental, but not so productive. +Carter's Champion is a large-podded productive variety. + +Another species _P. lunatus_, the Lima bean, a tall biennial with a +scimitar-shaped pod (whence the specific name) 2 to 3 in. long +containing a few large seeds, is widely cultivated in the warmer parts +of the world. + +The young pods of another leguminous climbing herb, _Dolichos Lablab_, +as well as the seeds, are widely used in the tropics, as we use the +kidney bean. The plant is probably a native of tropical Africa, but is +now generally cultivated in the tropics. The word _Dolichos_ is of Greek +origin, and was used by Theophrastus for the scarlet runner. + +Another species, _D. biflorus_, is the horse gram, the seed of which is +eaten by the poorer class of natives in India, and is also, as are the +pods, a food for horses and cattle. + +The Soy bean, _Glycine hispida_, was included by Linnaeus in the genus +_Dolichos_. It is extensively cultivated in China and Japan, chiefly for +the pleasant-flavoured seed from which is prepared a piquant sauce. It +is also widely grown in India, where the bean is eaten, while the plant +forms a valuable fodder; it is cultivated for the latter purpose in the +United States. + +Other references to beans will be found under special headings, such as +CALABAR BEAN, LOCUST-TREE. There are also several non-leguminous seeds +to which the popular name bean is attached. Among these may be mentioned +the sacred Egyptian or Pythagorean bean (_Nelumbium speciosum_), and the +Ignatius bean (probably _Strychnos multiflora_), a source of strychnine. + +The ancient Greeks and Romans made use of beans in gathering the votes +of the people, and for the election of magistrates. A white bean +signified absolution, and a black one condemnation. Beans had a +mysterious use in the _lemuralia_ and _parentalia_, where the master of +the family, after washing his hands three times, threw black beans over +his head nine times, reiterating the words "I redeem myself and my +family by these beans." + + + + +BEAN-FEAST, primarily an annual dinner given by an employer to his +workpeople, and then colloquially any jollification. The phrase is +variously derived. The most probable theory is that which connects it +with the custom in France, and afterwards in Germany and England, of a +feast on Twelfth Night, at which a cake with a bean buried in it was a +great feature. The bean-king was he who had the good fortune to have the +slice of cake in which was the bean. This choosing of a king or queen by +a bean was formerly a common Christmas diversion at the English and +Scottish courts, and in both English universities. This monarch was +master of the revels like his congener the lord of misrule. A clue to +his original functions is possibly found in the old popular belief that +the weather for the ensuing twelve months was determined by the weather +of the twelve days from Christmas to Twelfth Night, the weather of each +particular month being prognosticated from each day. Thus the king of +the bean of Twelfth Night may have originally reigned for the twelve +days, his chief duty being the performance of magical ceremonies for +ensuring good weather during the ensuing twelve months. Probably in him +and the lord of misrule it is correct to find the lineal descendant of +the old king of the Saturnalia, the real man who personated Saturn and, +when the revels ceased, suffered a real death in his assumed character. +Another but most improbable derivation for bean-feast connects it with +M.E. _bene_ "prayer," "request," the allusion being to the soliciting of +alms towards the cost of their Twelfth Night dinner by the workpeople. + + See WAYZGOOSE; MISRULE, LORD OF; also J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et + ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; Laisnel de la Salle, + _Croyances et legendes du centre de la France_, i. 19-29; Lecoeur, + _Esquisses du Bocage normand_, ii. 125; Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen des + Eifler Volkes_, i. 6; Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ + (Hazlitt's edit. 1905), under "Twelfth Night"; Cortet, _Fetes + religieuses_, p. 29 sqq. + + + + +BEAR, properly the name of the European brown bear (_Ursus arctus_), but +extended to include all the members of the _Ursidae_, the typical family +of Arctoid carnivora, distinguished by their massive bodies, short +limbs, and almost rudimentary tails. With the single exception of the +Indian sloth-bear, all the species have forty-two teeth, of which the +incisors and canines closely resemble those of purely carnivorous +mammals; while the molars, and especially the one known as the +"sectorial" or "carnassial," have their surfaces tuberculated so as to +adapt them for grinding vegetable substances. As might have been +supposed from their dentition, the bears are omnivorous; but most prefer +vegetable food, including honey, when a sufficient supply of this can +be had. The grizzly bear, however, is chiefly carnivorous; while the +polar bear is almost wholly so. + +Bears are five-toed, and provided with formidable claws, which are not +retractile, and thus better fitted for digging and climbing than for +tearing. Most climb trees in a slow, lumbering fashion, and, in +descending, always come hind-quarters first. The grizzly bear is said to +lose this power of climbing in the adult stage. In northern countries +bears retire during the winter into caves and the hollows of trees, or +allow the falling snow to cover them, and there remain dormant till the +advent of spring, about which time the female usually produces her +young. These are born naked and blind, and it is commonly five weeks +before they see, or become covered with hair. Before hibernating the +adults grow very fat, and it is by the gradual consumption of this +fat--known in commerce as bear's grease--that such vital action as is +necessary to the continuance of life is sustained. + +The bear family is widely distributed, being found in every quarter of +the globe except Australia, and in all climates, from the highest +northern latitudes yet reached by man to the warm regions of India and +Malaya. In the north-west corner of Africa the single representative of +the family found on that continent occurs. + +The polar or white bear (_Ursus maritimus_), common to the Arctic +regions of both hemispheres, is distinguished from the other species by +having the soles of the feet covered with close-set hairs,--in +adaptation to the wants of the creature, the bear being thereby enabled +to walk securely on slippery ice. In the whiteness of its fur also, it +shows such an assimilation in colour to that of surrounding nature as +must be of considerable service in concealing it from its prey. The food +of the white bear consists chiefly of seals and fish, in pursuit of +which it shows great power of swimming and diving, and a considerable +degree of sagacity; but its food also includes the carcases of whales, +birds and their eggs, and grass and berries when these can be had. That +it can sustain life on a purely vegetable diet is proved by instances on +record of its being fed for years on bread only, in confinement. These +bears are strong swimmers, Sir Edward Sabine having found one "swimming +powerfully 40 m. from the nearest shore, and with no ice in sight to +afford it rest." They are often carried on floating ice to great +distances, and to more southern latitudes than their own, no fewer than +twelve Polar bears having been known to reach Iceland in this way during +one winter. The female always hibernates, but the male may be seen +abroad at all seasons. In bulk the white bear exceeds most other members +of the family, measuring nearly 9 ft. in length, and often weighing 1600 +lb. + +Land bears have the soles of the feet destitute of hair, and their fur +more or less shaggy. On these the brown bear (_Ursus arctus_,--[Greek: +arktos] of Aristotle) is found in one or other of its varieties all over +the temperate and north temperate regions of the eastern hemisphere, +from Spain to Japan. The fur is usually brownish, but there are black, +blackish-grey and yellowish varieties. It is a solitary animal, +frequenting the wooded parts of the regions it inhabits, and living on a +mixed diet of fruits, vegetable, honey, fish and the smaller animals. In +winter it hibernates, concealing itself in some hollow or cavern. It +does not seek to attack man; but when baited, or in defence of its +young, shows great courage and strength, rising on its hind legs and +endeavouring to grasp its antagonist in an embrace. Bear-baiting, till +within comparatively recent times, was a favourite sport throughout +Europe, but, along with cock-fighting and badger-baiting, has gradually +disappeared before a more humane civilization. It was a favourite +pastime among the Romans, who imported their bears from Britain, a proof +that the animal was then comparatively abundant in that country; indeed, +from reference made to it in early Scottish history, the bear does not +appear to have been extirpated in Britain before the end of the 11th +century. It is now found in greatest abundance in Norway, Russia and +Siberia, where hunting the bear is a favourite sport, and where, when +dead, its remains are highly valued. Among the Kamchadales "the skin of +the bear," says a traveller, "forms their beds and their coverlets, +bonnets for their heads, gloves for their hands and collars for their +dogs. The flesh and fat are their dainties. Of the intestines they make +masks or covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the +sun in the spring, and use them as a substitute for glass, by extending +them over their windows. Even the shoulder-blades are said to be put in +requisition for cutting grass." In confinement the brown bear is readily +tamed; and advantage has been taken of the facility with which it can +sustain itself on the hind feet to teach it to dance to the sound of +music. It measures 4 ft. in length, and is about 2-1/2 ft. high. Of this +species Crowther's bear from the Atlas Mountains, the Syrian bear +(_Ursus arctus pyriacus_) and the snow or isabelline bear (_Ursus arctus +isabellinus_) of the Himalaya are local races, or at most subspecies.[1] +American naturalists regard the big brown bears of Alaska as a distinct +group. They range from Sitka to the extremity of the Alaskan Peninsula, +over Kodiak Island, and inland. Their distinctive external features are +their large size, light-brown colour, high shoulders, massive heads of +great breadth and shaggy coat. + +The grizzly bear (_Ursus arctus horribilis_, formerly known as _U. +ferox_) is regarded by some naturalists as a distinct species and by +others as a variety of the brown bear, to which it is closely allied. It +was said to exceed all other American mammals in ferocity of disposition +and muscular strength. Stories were told of its attacking the bison, and +it has been reported to carry off the carcase of a wapiti, weighing +nearly 1000 lb., for a considerable distance to its den, there to devour +it at leisure. It also eats fruit and vegetables. Its fur is usually of +a yellowish-brown colour, coarse and grizzled, and of little value +commercially, while its flesh, unlike that of other bears, is uneatable +even by the Indians. The grizzly bear is now rare in the United States, +save in the Yellowstone Park and the Clearwater Mountains of Idaho, +though more common in British Columbia. Several geographical races are +recognized. The Tibet bear (_U. pruinosus_) is a light-coloured small +species. + +The American black bear (_Ursus americanus_) occurs throughout the +wooded parts of the North American continent, whence it is being +gradually driven to make room for man. It is similar in size to the +brown bear, but its fur is of a soft even texture, and of a shining +black colour, to which it owes its commercial value. At the beginning of +the 19th century black bears were killed in enormous numbers for their +furs, which at that time were highly valued. In 1803 the skins imported +into England numbered 25,000, but the imports have since decreased to +one-half of that number. They are chiefly used for military +accoutrements. This is a timid animal, feeding almost solely on fruits, +and lying dormant during winter, at which period it is most frequently +killed. It is an object of superstitious reverence to the Indians, who +never kill it without apologizing and deploring the necessity which +impels them to do so. + +The Himalayan black bear (_U. torquatus_) is found in the forest regions +ranging from the Persian frontier eastward to Assam. The average length +is about 5 ft.; there is no under-fur, and the coat is smooth, black in +colour, with the exception of a white horseshoe-mark on the chest. It +feeds chiefly on fruit and roots, but kills sheep, goats, deer, ponies +and cattle, and sometimes devours carrion. + +The small bruang or Malayan bear (_Ursus malayanus_) is of a jet-black +colour, with a white semilunar mark on the chest, and attains a length +of 4-1/2 ft. Its food consists almost solely of vegetables and honey, +but the latter is its favourite food,--the extreme length and pliability +of the tongue enabling it to scoop out the honeycombs from the hollows +of trees. It is found in the Malay Peninsula and Islands, and is readily +tamed. + +Not much larger than the Malay bear is the South American spectacled +bear of the Andes (_U. ornatus_), distinguished from all the rest by the +presence of a perforation in the lower end of the humerus, and hence +sometimes separated as _Tremarctus_. It is black, with tawny rings round +the eyes, and white cheeks, throat and chest. A second race or species +exists. + +The sloth-bear (_Melursus labiatus_ or _ursinus_) is distinguished by +the absence of one pair of upper incisors, the small size of the +cheek-teeth and the very extensile character of the lips. It is also +known as the aswail and the honey-bear, the last name being also given +to the Malay bear and the kinkajou. It is about the size of the brown +bear, is covered with long, black hair, and of extremely uncouth aspect. +It inhabits the mountainous regions of India, is readily tamed and is +the bear usually exhibited by the Hindu jugglers. The food consists of +fruits, honey and white ants. + +Fossil remains of extinct bears first occur in strata of the Pliocene +age. Those of the great cave bear (_Ursus spelaeus_), found abundantly +in certain caverns of central Europe and Asia, show that it must have +exceeded in size the polar bear of the present day. Its remains are also +found in similar situations in Britain associated with those of an +allied species (_Ursus priscus_). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Lydekker, in _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1897, p. 412. + + + + +BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING, sports formerly very popular in England +but now suppressed on account of their cruelty. They took place in +arenas built in the form of theatres which were the common resort even +of cultivated people. In the bear-gardens, which are known to have +existed since the time of Henry II., the bear was chained to a stake by +one hind leg or by the neck and worried by dogs. Erasmus, writing (about +1500) from the house of Sir Thomas More, spoke of "many herds of bears +maintained in the country for the purpose of baiting." Sunday was the +favourite day for these sports. Hentzner, writing in 1598, describes the +bear-garden at Bankside as "another place, built in the form of a +theatre, which serves for the baiting of Bulls and Bears. They are +fastened behind, and then worried by great English bull-dogs, but not +without great risk to the dogs from the horns of the one and the teeth +of the other, and it sometimes happens they are killed upon the spot; +fresh ones are immediately supplied in the places of those that are +wounded or tired." He also describes the whipping of a blinded bear, a +favourite variation of bear-baiting. For a famous baiting which took +place before Queen Elizabeth in 1575 thirteen bears were provided. Of it +Robert Laneham (fl. 1575) wrote, "it was a sport very pleasant to see, +to see the bear, with his pink eyes, tearing after his enemies' +approach; the nimbleness and wait of the dog to take his advantage and +the force and experience of the bear again to avoid his assaults: if he +were bitten in one place how he would pinch in another to get free; that +if he were taken once, then by what shift with biting, with clawing, +with roaring, with tossing and tumbling he would work and wind himself +from them; and when he was loose to shake his ears twice or thrice with +the blood and the slaver hanging about his physiognomy." The famous +"Paris Garden" in Southwark was the chief bear-garden in London. A +Spanish nobleman of the time, who was taken to see a pony baited that +had an ape tied to its back, expressed himself to the effect that "to +see the animal kicking amongst the dogs, with the screaming of the ape, +beholding the curs hanging from the ears and neck of the pony, is very +laughable." Butler describes a bear-baiting at length in the first canto +of his _Hudibras_. + +The Puritans endeavoured to put an end to animal-baiting, although +Macaulay sarcastically suggested that this was "not because it gave pain +to the bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spectators." The +efforts of the Puritans seem, however, to have had little effect, for we +find the sport flourishing at the Restoration; but the conscience of +cultivated people seems to have been touched, for Evelyn wrote in his +_Diary_, under the date of June 16th, 1670: "I went with some friends to +the bear-garden, where was cock-fighting, dog-fighting, bear and bull +baiting, it being a famous day for all these butcherly sports, or rather +barbarous cruelties. The bulls did exceedingly well, but the Irish +wolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall greyhound, a stately creature +indeed, who beat a cruel mastiff. One of the bulls tossed a dog full +into a lady's lap, as she sat in one of the boxes at a considerable +height from the arena. Two poor dogs were killed, and so all ended with +the ape on horseback, and I most heartily weary of the rude and dirty +pastime, which I had not seen, I think, in twenty years before." Steele +also attacked these cruel sports in the _Tatler_. Nevertheless, when the +tsar Nicholas I. visited England as cesarevich, he was taken to see a +prize-fight and a bull-baiting. In this latter form of the sport the +bull's nose was usually blown full of pepper to render him the more +furious. The bull was often allowed a hole in the ground, into which to +thrust his nose and lips, his most vulnerable parts. Sometimes the bull +was tethered, and dogs, trained for the purpose, set upon him one by +one, a successful attack resulting in the dog fastening his teeth firmly +in the bull's snout. This was called "pinning the bull." A sport called +bull-running was popular in several towns of England, particularly at +Tutbury and Stamford. Its establishment at Tutbury was due to John of +Gaunt, to whose minstrels, on the occasion of their annual festival on +August 16th the prior of Tutbury, for his tenure, delivered a bull, +which had his horns sawn off, his ears and tail cut off, his nostrils +filled with pepper and his whole body smeared with soap. The minstrels +gave chase to the bull, which became the property of any minstrel of the +county of Stafford who succeeded in holding him long enough to cut off a +lock of his hair. Otherwise he was returned to the prior. At the +dissolution of the monasteries this tenure devolved upon the dukes of +Devonshire, who suppressed it in 1788. At Stamford the running took +place annually on November 13th, the bull being provided by the butchers +of the town, the townspeople taking part in the chase, which was carried +on until both people and beast were exhausted, and ended in the killing +of the bull. Certain rules were strictly observed, such as the +prohibition of carrying sticks or staves that were shod with iron. The +Stamford bull-running survived well into the 19th century. Bear-baiting +and bull-baiting were prohibited by act of parliament in 1835. + + + + +BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900), American painter, was born on the +13th of April 1825 at Painesville, Ohio. He studied abroad, and in 1861 +removed to New York City, where in 1862 he became a member of the +National Academy of Design. He was a prolific worker and a man of much +inventiveness and originality, though of modest artistic endowment. His +humorous treatment of cats, dogs, horses and monkeys, generally with +some human occupation and expression, usually satirical, gave him a +great vogue at one time, and his pictures were largely reproduced. His +brother, James Henry Beard (1814-1893), was also a painter. + + + + +BEARD (A.S. _beard_, O.H. and Mod. Ger. _Bart_, Dan. _baard_, Icel. +_bar_, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slav, _barda_, Russ. _baroda_. +Cf. Welsh _barf_, Lat. _barba_, though, according to the _New English +Dictionary_, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful). Modern +usage applies this word to the hair grown upon a man's chin and cheek. +When the chin is shaven, what remains upon the cheeks is called +whiskers. "Moustache" or "moustaches" describes the hair upon the upper +lip. But the words have in the past had less exact meaning. Beard has +stood alone for all these things, and whisker has in its time signified +what we now call moustache, as in the case of Robinson Crusoe's great +pair of "Turkish whiskers." + +The bearded races of mankind have ever held the beard in high honour. It +is the sign of full manhood; the lad or the eunuch is beardless, and the +bearded woman is reckoned a witch, a loathsome thing to all ages. Also +the beard shrinks from the profane hand; a tug at the beard is sudden +pain and dishonour. The Roman senator sat like a carven thing until the +wondering Goth touched his long beard; but then he struck, although he +died for the blow. The future King John gave deadly offence to the +native chieftains, when visiting Ireland in 1185, by plucking at their +flowing beards. + +David's ambassadors had their beards despitefully shaven by a bold +heathen. Their own king mercifully covered their shame--"Tarry ye at +Jericho until your beards be grown"--but war answered the insult. The +oath on the beard is as old as history, and we have an echo of it in the +first English political ballad when Sir Simon de Montfort swears "by his +chin" revenge on Warenne. + +Adam, our first father, was by tradition created with a beard: Zeus +Allfather is bearded, and the old painters and carvers who hardily +pictured the first person of the Trinity gave Him the long beard of his +fatherhood. The race-fathers have it and the ancient heroes. Abraham and +Agamemnon, Woden and King Arthur and Charlemagne, must all be bearded in +our pictures. With the Mahommedan peoples the beard as worn by an +unshaven prophet has ever been in high renown, the more so that amongst +most of the conquering tribes who first acknowledged the unity of God +and prophethood of Mahomet it grows freely. But before Mahomet's day, +kings of Persia had plaited their sacred beards with golden thread, and +the lords of Nineveh had curiously curled and oiled beards such as their +winged bull wears. Bohadin tells us that Saladin's little son wept for +terror when he saw the crusaders' envoys "with their clean-shaven +chins." Selim I. (1512-1521) comes down as a Turkish sultan who broke +into holy custom and cut off his beard, telling a remonstrating Mufti +that his vizier should now have nothing to lead him by. But such +tampering with tradition has its dangers, and the absolute rule of Peter +the Great is made clear when we know that he taxed Russian beards and +shaved his own, and yet died in his bed. Alexander the Great did as much +and more with his well-drilled Macedonians, and was obeyed when he bade +them shave off the handle by which an enemy could seize them. + +With other traditions of their feudal age, the Japanese nation has +broken with its ancient custom of the razor, and their emperor has beard +and moustache; a short moustache is common amongst Japanese officers and +statesmen, and generals and admirals of Nippon follow the imperial +example. The Nearer East also is abandoning the full beard, even in +Mahommedan lands. Earlier shahs of the Kajar house have glorious beards +below their girdles, but Nasiru'd-Din and his successor have shaved +their chins. In later years the sultan of Turkey has added a beard to +his moustache; the khedive of Egypt, son of a bearded father, has a +soldier's moustache only. In Europe the great Russian people is faithful +to the beard, Peter's law being forgotten. The tsar Alexander III.'s +beard might have satisfied Ivan the Terrible, whose hands played +delightedly with the five-foot beard of Queen Elizabeth's agent George +Killingworth. Indeed the royal houses of Europe are for the most part +bearded or whiskered. It may be that the race of Olivier le Dain, of the +man who can be trusted with a sharp razor near a crowned king's throat, +is extinct. Leopold II., king of the Belgians, however, was in 1909 the +only sovereign with the full beard unclipped. The Austrian emperor, +Francis Joseph, retained the moustache and whiskers of the 'sixties, and +the German emperor, William II., for a short period, commemorated by a +few very rare photographs, had a beard, although it was never suffered +to reach the length of that beard which gave his father an air of +Charlemagne or Barbarossa. In France bearded presidents have followed +each other, but it may be noted that the waxed moustache and "imperial" +beard of the Second Empire is now all but abandoned to the Frenchman of +English comedy. The modern English fashion of shaving clean is rare in +France save among actors, and during 1907 many Parisian waiters struck +against the rule which forbade them to grow the moustache. + +For the most part the clergy of the Roman obedience shave clean, as have +done the popes for two centuries and more. But missionary bishops +cultivate the long beard with some pride, and the orders have varying +customs, the Dominican shaving and the Franciscan allowing the hair to +grow. The Roman Catholic clergy of Dalmatia, secular and regular, are +allowed to wear the moustache without beard or whiskers, as a concession +to national prejudices. + +Amongst English people, always ready to be swayed by fashion, the hair +of the face has been, age by age, cherished or shaved away, curled or +clipped into a hundred devices. Before the immigration from Sleswick the +Briton knew the use of the razor, sometimes shaving his chin, but +leaving the moustaches long. The old English also wore moustaches and +forked beards, but, save for aged men, the beard had passed out of +fashion before the Norman Conquest. Thus, in the Bayeux needlework, +Edward the king is venerable with a long beard, but Harold and his +younger fighting men have their chins reaped. "The English," says +William of Malmesbury, "leave the upper lip unshaven, suffering the hair +continually to increase," and to Harold's spies the Conqueror's knights, +who had "the whole face with both lips shaven," were strange and +priest-like. Matthew Paris had a strange idea that the beard was +distinctive of Englishmen; he asserts that those who remained in England +were compelled to shave their beards, while the native nobles who went +into exile kept their beards and flowing locks "like the Easterns and +especially the Trojans." He even believed that "William with the beard," +who headed a rising in London under Richard I., came of a stock which +had scorned to shave, out of hatred for the Normans, a statement which +Thierry developed. + +The _Chanson de Roland_ shows us "the pride of France" as "that good +bearded folk," with their beards hanging over coats of mail, and it +makes the great emperor swear to Naimes by his beard. It was only about +the year 1000, according to Rodolf Glaber, that men began in the north +of France to wear short hair and shave "like actors"; and even in the +Bayeux tapestry the old Norman shipwrights wear the beard. But so rare +was hair on the face amongst the Norman invaders that William, the +forefather of the Percys, was known in his lifetime and remembered after +his death as William "Asgernuns" or "Oht les gernuns," i.e. "William +with the moustaches," the epithet revived by one of his descendants +making our modern name of Algernon. Count Eustace of Boulogne was +similarly distinguished. Fashion swung about after the Conquest, and, in +the day of Henry I., Serle the bishop could compare bearded men of the +Norman-English court with "filthy goats and bristly Saracens." The +crusades, perhaps, were accountable for the beards which were oddly +denounced as effeminate in the young courtiers of William Rufus. Not +only the Greeks but the Latins in the East sometimes adopted the Saracen +fashion, and the siege of Antioch (1098) was as unfavourable to the use +of the razor as that of Sevastopol. When the Latins stormed the town by +night, bearded knights owed their death to the assumption that every +Christian would be a shaven man. But for more than four centuries +diversity is allowed, beards, moustaches and shaven faces being found +side by side, although now and again one fashion or another comes +uppermost to be followed by those nice in such matters. Henry II. is a +close-shaven king, and Richard II.'s effigy shows but a little tuft on +each side of the chin, tufts which are two curled locks on the chin of +Henry IV. But Henry III. is long-bearded, Edward II. curls his beard in +three great ringlets, and the third Edward's long forked beard flows +down his breast in patriarchal style. The mid-13th century, as seen in +the drawings attributed to Matthew Paris, is an age of many full and +curled beards, although the region about the lips is sometimes clipped +or shaved. The beard is common in the 14th century, the forked pattern +being favoured and the long drooping moustache. Amongst those who ride +with him to Canterbury, Chaucer, a bearded poet, notes the merchant's +"forked beard," the white beard of the franklin and the red beard of the +miller, but the reeve's beard is "shave as ny as ever he can." Henry of +Monmouth and his son are shaven, and thereafter beards are rare save +with a few old folk until they come slowly back with the 16th century. +In Ireland the statute enacted by a parliament at Trim in 1447 recited +that no manner of man who will be taken for an Englishman should have +beard above his mouth--the upper lip must be shaven at least every +fortnight or be of equal growth with the nether lip,--and this statute +remained unrepealed for nigh upon two hundred years. Henry VIII., always +a law to himself, brought back the beard to favour, Stowe's annals +giving 1535 as the year in which he caused his beard "to be knotted and +no more shaven," his hair being polled at the same time. Many portraits +give his fashion of wearing a thin moustache, whose ends met a short and +squarely trimmed beard parted at the chin, a fashion in which he was +followed by his brother-in-law Charles Brandon. But it is remarkable +that those about him rarely imitated their most dread sovereign. While +Cromwell and Howard the Admiral go clean shaven, the Seymour brothers, +Denny and Russell, have the beard long and flowing. Even the forty +shilling a year man, says Hooper in 1548, will waste his morning time +while he sets his beard in order. About this time the clergy began to +break with the long tradition of smooth faces. A priest in 1531 is +commanded to abstain from wearing a beard, and Cardinal Pole, coming +from the court of a bearded pope, appears bearded like a Greek +patriarch. The law too, the church's kinswoman, begins to forbid, a sign +of the change, and from 1542 the society of Lincoln's Inn makes rules +for fining and expelling those who appear bearded at their mess, rules +which the example of exalted lawyers caused to be withdrawn in 1560. + +The age of Elizabeth saw lawyers, soldiers, courtiers and merchants all +bearded. Her Cecils, Greshams, Raleighs, Drakes, Dudleys and Walsinghams +have the beard. A shaven chin such as that seen in the portrait of +Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, is rare, but the beards take a hundred +fashions, and satirists and Puritan pamphleteers were busy with them and +with the men who wasted hours in perfuming or starching them, in dusting +them with orris powder, in curling them with irons and quills. Stubbs +gives them a place amongst his abuses. "It is a world to consider how +their mowchatowes must be preserved or laid out from one cheek to +another and turned up like two horns towards the forehead." Of the +English variety of beards Harrison has a good word: "beards of which +some are shaven from the chin like those of Turks, not a few cut short +like to the beard of Marquess Otto, some made round like a rubbing +brush, others with a _pique de vant_ (O! fine fashion) or now and then +suffered to grow long, the barbers being grown to be so cunning in this +behalf as the tailors. And therefore if a man have a lean and straight +face, a Marquess Otto's cut will make it broad and large; if it be +platter-like, a long slender beard will make it seem the narrower; if he +be weasel-becked, then much hair left on the cheeks will make the owner +look big like a bowdled hen, and as grim as a goose, if Cornelis of +Chelmersford say true." Nevertheless he adds that "many old men do wear +no beards at all." The Elizabethan fashions continued under King James, +the beard trimmed to a point being common wear; but under King Charles +there is a certain reaction, and the royal style of shaving the cheeks +and leaving the moustache whose points sweep upward and the chin beard +like a downward flame is followed by most of the gentry. With some the +beard disappears altogether or remains a mere fleck below the lip. +Archbishop Laud has a cavalier-like chin tuft and upturned moustache, +but Abbot his predecessor wore the spade beard, the "cathedral beard" of +Randle Holme, seen in all its dignity on the Chigwell brass of Samuel +Harsnett, archbishop of York (died 1631), a grim figure with his angry +moustache and a long and broad beard, cut square at the bottom. + +From the Restoration year the razor comes more into use. Young men shave +clean. The restored king curls a few dark hairs of a moustache over each +cheek, but his brother James is shaven. With the reign of Queen Anne the +country enters the beardless age, and beards, moustaches and whiskers +are no more seen. In the 18th century the moustache indicated a soldier +from beyond sea. A Jew or a Turk was known by the beard, an appendage +loathsome as comic. Matthew Robinson, the second Lord Rokeby, was indeed +wearing a beard in 1798, but he was reckoned a madman therefor, and +Phillips's _Public Character_ pictures him as "the only peer and perhaps +the only gentleman of either Great Britain or Ireland who is thus +distinguished." That George III. in his madness should have been left +unshaved was a circumstance of his misery that wrung the hearts of all +loyal folk. But in the very year of 1798, when Lord Rokeby's image was +engraved for the curious, the Worcestershire militia officers quartered +near Brighton were copying the Austrian moustache of the foreign troops, +and we may note that the hair of the face, which disappeared when wigs +came in, began to reappear as wigs went out. Early in the 19th century +the bucks began to show a patch of whisker beside the ear, and the +soldier's moustache became a common sight. Before Waterloo, guardsmen +were complaining that officers of humbler regiments imitated their +fashion of the moustache, and by the Waterloo year most young cavalry +officers were moustached. The Horse Artillery were the next moustached +corps, the rest of the army, already whiskered, following their example +in the 'fifties. But for a civilian to grow a moustache was long +reckoned a piece of unseemly swagger. Clive Newcome, it will be +remembered, wore one until the taunting question whether he was "going +in the Guards" shamed him into shaving clean. When in 1840 Mr George +Frederick Muntz appeared in parliament with a full beard there were +those who felt that this tall Radical had taken his own strange method +of insulting English parliamentary institutions. James Ward, R.A. (d. +1859), painter of animals, was another breaker of the unwritten law, +defending his beard in a pamphlet of eighteen arguments as a thing +pleasing at once to the artist and to his Creator. Freedom in these +matters only came when the troops were home from the Crimea, when +officers who had grown beards and acquired the taste for tobacco during +the long months in the trenches showed their beards and their cigars in +Piccadilly. Then came the Volunteer movement, and every man was a +soldier, taking a soldier's licence. The dominant fashion was the +moustache, worn with long and drooping whiskers. But the "Piccadilly +weepers" of the 'sixties were out of the mode for the younger men when +the 'eighties began, and by the end of the century whiskers were seen in +the army only upon a few veteran officers. The fashion of clean shaving +had made some way, the popularity of the shaven actor having a part in +this. In 1909 all modes of dealing with the hair of the face might be +recognized, but the full beard had become somewhat rare in England and +the full whiskers rarer still. The upper class showed an inclination to +shave clean, although the army grudgingly recognized a rule which +ordered the moustache to be worn. Naval men, by regulation, shaved or +wore both beard and moustache, but their beards were always trimmed. +Most barristers shaved the lips, although the last judge unable to hear +an advocate whose voice a moustache interrupted had left the bench. +Clergymen followed the lay fashions as they did under the first Stuart +kings, although there was still some prejudice against the moustache as +an ornament military and inappropriate. A newspaper of 1857, describing +the appearance of Livingstone the missionary at a Mansion House meeting, +records that he came wearing a moustache, "braving the prejudices of his +countrymen and thus evincing a courage only inferior to that exhibited +by him amongst the savages of Central Africa." Even as late as 1884 the +_Pall Mall Gazette_ has some surprised comments on the beard of Bishop +Ryle, newly consecrated to the see of Liverpool. + +The footman, whose full-dress livery is the court dress of a hundred +years ago, must show no more than the rudimentary whisker of the early +eighteen-hundreds, and butler, coachman and groom come under the same +rule. The jockey and the hunt whip are shaven likewise, but the courier +has the whiskers and moustache that once marked him as a foreigner in +the English milor's service, and the chauffeur, a servant with no +tradition behind him, is often moustached. + +Lastly, we may speak of the practice of the royal house since England +came out of the beardless century. The regent took the new fashion, and +sat "in whiskered state," but his brother and successor shaved clean and +disliked even the hussar's moustache. The prince consort wore the +moustache as a young man, adding whiskers in later years. King Edward +VII. wore moustache and trimmed beard, and his heir apparent also +followed the fashion of many fellow admirals. (O. Ba.) + + + + +BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT (1872-1898), English artist in black and +white, was born at Brighton on the 24th of August 1872. In 1883 his +family settled in London, and in the following year he appeared in +public as an "infant musical phenomenon," playing at several concerts +with his sister. In 1888 he obtained a post in an architect's office, +and afterwards one in the Guardian Life and Fire Insurance Company +(1889). In 1891, under the advice of Sir Edward Burne-Jones and Puvis de +Chavannes, he took up art as a profession. In 1892 he attended the +classes at the Westminster School of Art, then under Professor Brown; +and from 1893 until his death, at Mentone, on the 16th of March 1898, +his work came continually before the public, arousing a storm of +criticism and much hostile feeling. Beardsley had an unswerving tendency +towards the fantastic of the gloomier and "unwholesome" sort. His +treatment of most subjects was revolutionary; he deliberately ignored +proportion and perspective, and the "freedom from convention" which he +displayed caused his work to be judged with harshness. In certain phases +of technique he especially excelled; and his earlier methods of dealing +with the single line in conjunction with masses of black are in their +way unsurpassed, except in the art of Japan, the country which probably +gave his ideas some assistance. He was always an ornamentist, rather +than an illustrator; and his work must be judged from that point of +view. His frontispiece to _Volpone_ is held by some to be, from this +purely technical standpoint, one of the best pen-drawings of the age. +His posters for the Avenue theatre and for Mr Fisher Unwin were among +the first of the modern cult of that art. + + The following are the chief works which are illustrated with drawings + by Beardsley: the _Bon Mot_ Library, _The Pall Mall Budget_, and _The + Studio_ (1893), Sir Thomas Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ (1893-1894), + _Salome_ (1894), _The Yellow Book_ (1894-1895), _The Savoy Magazine_ + (1896), _The Rape of the Lock_ (1896). + + See also J. Pennell, _The Studio_ (1893); Symons, _Aubrey Beardsley_ + (1898); R. Ross, _Volpone_ (1898); H.C. Marillier, _The Early Work of + Aubrey Beardsley_ (1899); Smithers, _Reproductions of Drawings by + Aubrey Beardsley_; John Lane, _The Later Works of Aubrey Beardsley_ + (1901); R. Ross, _Aubrey Beardsley_ (1908). (E. F. S.) + + + + +BEARDSTOWN, a city of Cass county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of +the state, on the E. bank of the Illinois river, about 111 m. N. of St +Louis, Missouri. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western, and +the Burlington (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy) railways, and by +steamboats plying between it and St. Louis. Pop. (1890) 4226; (1900) +4827 (444 foreign-born); (1910) 6107. The industrial establishments of +the city include flour, planing and saw mills, the machine shops (of the +St Louis division) of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway, ice +factories, pearl button factories and a shoe factory. The fishing +interests are also important. Beardstown was laid out in 1827 and was +incorporated as a city in 1896. It was named in honour of Thomas Beard, +who settled in the vicinity in 1820. During the Black Hawk War (1832) it +was a base of supplies for the Illinois troops. The old court house in +which Abraham Lincoln, in 1854, won his famous "Armstrong murder case," +is now used for a city hall. + + + + +BEARER, strictly "one who carries," a term used in India for a +palanquin-bearer, and now especially for a body-servant. The term is +also used in connexion with military ambulances, and "bearer" companies +formed part of the Royal Army Medical Corps until amalgamated with the +field-hospitals to form field-ambulances (1905). In banking and commerce +the word is applied to the holder or presenter of a cheque or draft not +made payable to a specific person; it has also a technical use, as in +printing, of anything that supports pressure in machinery, &c. + + + + +BEARINGS. In engineering a "bearing" is that particular kind of support +which, besides carrying the load imposed upon it by the shaft associated +with it, allows the shaft freedom to revolve. Or, put in another way, a +bearing forms with the shaft a pair of elements having one degree of +freedom to turn relatively to one another about their common axis. The +part of the shaft in the bearing is commonly called the _journal_. The +component parts of a small bearing, pillow block, plummer block or +pedestal, as it is variously styled, are illustrated in fig. 1, and +these parts, put together, are further illustrated in fig. 2 with the +shaft added. Corresponding parts are similarly lettered in the two +illustrations. The shaft (S) is encircled by the _brasses_ (B1 and B2) +made of gun metal, phosphor bronze or other suitable material. The lower +brass fits into the main casting (A) in the semicircular seat provided +for it, and is prevented from moving endways by the flanges (F, F) and +from turning with the shaft by the projections (P, P), which fit into +corresponding recesses in the casting (A), one of which is shown at p. +After the shaft has been placed in position, the upper brass (B2) and +the cap (C) are put on and both are held in place by the bolts (Q1, Q2). +The brasses are bedded into the main casting (A) and the cap (C) +respectively at the surfaces D, D, D, D. The complete bearing is held to +the framework of the machine by bolts (R1, R2) passing through holes (H, +H) which are slotted to allow endwise adjustment of the whole bearing in +order to facilitate the alignment of the shaft. Oil or other lubricant +is introduced through the hole (G), and it passes through the top brass +to grooves or oilways cut into the surface of the brass for the purpose +of distributing the oil uniformly to the journal. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +Some form of lubricator is usually fitted at G in order to supply oil to +the bearing continuously. A form of lubricator used for this purpose is +shown in place, fig. 2, and an enlarged section is shown in fig. 3. It +will be seen that the lubricator consists essentially of a cup the base +of which is pierced centrally by a tube which reaches to within a small +distance of the lid of the cup inside, and projects into the oilway +leading to the journal outside. The annular space round the tube inside +is filled with oil which is transferred to the central tube and thence +to the bearing by the capillary action of a cotton wick thrust down on a +piece of wire. It is only necessary to withdraw the wick from the +central tube to stop the supply of oil. The lubricator is fitted through +a hole in the lid which is usually plugged with a piece of cane or +closed by more elaborate means. A line of shafting would be supported by +several bearings of the kind illustrated, themselves supported by +brackets projecting from or rigidly fixed to the walls of the workshop, +or on frames resting on the floor, or on hangers attached to the roof +girders or principals. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +In bearings of modern design for supporting a line shaft the general +arrangement shown in fig. 1 is modified so that the alignments of the +shaft can be made both vertically or horizontally by means of adjusting +screws, and the brass is jointed with the supporting main body so that +it is free to follow the small deflections of the shaft which take place +when the shaft is working. Another modern improvement is the formation +of an oil reservoir or well in the base of the bearing itself, and the +transference of the oil from this well to the shaft by means of one or +two rings riding loosely on the shaft. The bottom part of the ring dips +into the oil contained in the well of the bearing and, as the shaft +rotates, the ring rolls on the shaft and thus carries oil up to the +shaft continuously, from which it finds its way to the surfaces of the +shaft and bearing in contact. It should be understood that the upper +brass is slotted crossways to allow the ring to rest on the shaft. When +the direction of the load carried by the bearing is constant it is +unnecessary to provide more than one brass, and the construction is +modified accordingly. Figs. 4 and 5 show an axle box used for goods +wagons on the Great Eastern railway, and they also illustrate the method +of pad lubrication in general use for this kind of bearing. The main +casting, A, is now uppermost, and is designed so that the upper part +supports and constrains the spring buckle through which the load W is +transmitted to the bearing, and the lower part inside is arranged to +support the brass, B. The brass is jointed freely with the main casting +by means of a hemispherical hump resting in a corresponding recess in +the casting. What may be called the cap, C, forms the lower part of the +axle box, but instead of supporting a second brass it is formed into an +oil reservoir in which is arranged a pad of cotton wick woven on a tin +frame. The upper part of the pad is formed into a kind of brush, shaped +to fit the underside of the journal, whilst the lower part consists of +streamers of wick resting in the oil. The oil is fed to the brush by the +capillary action of the streamers. The reservoirs are filled with oil +through the apertures P and O. The bottom cap is held in position by the +T-headed bolts Q1 and Q2 (fig. 5). By slackening the nuts and turning +the T-heads fair with the slots in the cap, the cap comes right away and +the axle may be examined. A leather ring L is fitted as shown to prevent +dust from entering the axle box. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +_Footsteps._--A bearing arranged to support the lower end of a vertical +shaft is called a footstep, sometimes a pivot bearing. A simple form of +footstep is shown in fig 6. A casting A, designed so that it can be +conveniently bolted to a foundation block, cross beam, or bracket is +bored out and fitted with a brass B, which is turned inside to carry the +end of the shaft S. The whole vertical load on the shaft is carried by +the footstep, so that it is important to arrange efficient lubricating +apparatus. Results of experiments made on a footstep, reported in _Proc. +Inst. Mech. Eng._, 1891, show that if a diametral groove be cut in the +brass, as indicated at g (fig 6), and if the oil is led to the centre of +this groove by a channel c communicating with the exterior, the rotation +of the shaft draws in a plentiful supply of oil which radiates from the +centre and makes its way vertically between the shaft and the brass and +finally overflows at the top of the brass. The overflowing oil may be +led away and may be re-introduced into the footsteps at c. The rotation +of the shaft thus causes a continuous circulation of oil through the +footstep. One experiment from the report mentioned above may be quoted. +A 3-in. shaft, revolving 128 times per minute and supported on a +manganese bronze bearing lubricated in the way explained above sustained +increasing loads until, at a load of 300 pounds per square inch of the +area of the end of the shaft, it seized. The mechanical details of a +footstep may be varied for purposes of adjustment in a variety of ways +similarly to the variations of a common bearing already explained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +_Thrust Block Bearing._--In cases where a bearing is required to resist +a longitudinal movement of the shaft through it, as for example in the +case of the propeller shaft of a marine engine or a vertical shaft +supporting a heavy load not carried on a footstep, the shaft is provided +with one or more collars which are grooved with corresponding recesses +in the brasses of the bearing. A general sketch of a thrust block for a +propeller shaft is shown in fig. 7. There are seven collars turned on +the shaft and into the circumferential grooves between them fit +corresponding circumferential projections on the brasses, these +projections being formed in the case illustrated by means of half rings +which are fitted into grooves turned in the brasses. This method of +construction allows an individual ring to be replaced or adjusted if it +should get hot. The total area of the rubbing surfaces should be +proportioned so that the average load is not more than from 50 to 70 lb. +per sq. in. Arrangements are usually made for cooling a thrust block +with water in case of heating. The spindles of drilling machines, boring +machine spindles, turbine shafts may be cited as examples of vertical +shafts supported on one collar. Experiments on the friction of a collar +bearing have been made by the Research Committee of the Institution of +Mechanical Engineers (_Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng._, 1888). + +_Roller and Ball Bearings._--If rollers are placed between two surfaces +having relative tangential motion the frictional resistance to be +overcome is the small resistance to rolling. The rollers move along with +a velocity equal to one half the relative velocity of the surfaces. This +way of reducing frictional resistance has been applied to all kinds of +mechanical contrivances, including bearings for shafts, railway axle +boxes, and axle boxes for tramcars. An example of a roller bearing for a +line shaft is illustrated in figs. 8 and 9. The main casting, A, and +cap, C, bolted together, form a spherical seating for the part of the +bearing E corresponding to the brasses in a bearing of the usual type. +Between the inside of the casting E and the journal are placed rollers +held in position relatively to one another by a "squirrel cage" casting, +the section of the bars of which are clearly shown in the half sectional +elevation, fig. 9. This squirrel cage ensures that the several axes of +the rollers keep parallel to the axis of the journal during the rolling +motion. The rollers are made of hard tool steel, and the surfaces of the +journal and bearing between which they roll are hardened. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +Two rings of balls may be used instead of a single ring of rollers, and +the kind of ball bearing thus obtained is in general use principally in +connexion with bicycles and motor cars (see BICYCLE). In ball bearings +the load is concentrated at a few points, the points where the balls +touch the race, and in the roller bearing at a few lines, the lines of +contact between the rollers and the surfaces of the journal and bearing; +consequently the load which bearings of this kind carry must not be +great enough to cause any indentation at the points or lines of contact. +Both rollers and balls, and the paths on which they roll, therefore, are +made of hard material; further, balls and rollers must all be exactly +the same size in an individual bearing in order to distribute the load +between the points or lines of contact as uniformly as possible. The +finest workmanship is required therefore to make good roller or good +ball bearings. + +_Bearings for High Speeds and Forced Lubrication._--When the shaft turns +the metallic surfaces of the brass and the journal are prevented from +actual contact by a film of oil which is formed and maintained by the +motion of the shaft and which sustains the pressure between the journal +and the brass provided the surfaces are accurately formed and the supply +of oil is unlimited. This film changes what would otherwise be the +friction between metallic surfaces into a viscous resistance within the +film itself. When through a limited supply of oil or imperfect +lubrication this film is imperfect or fails altogether and allows the +journal to make metallic contact with the brass, the friction increases; +and it may increase so much that the bearing rapidly becomes hot and may +ultimately seize, that is to say the rubbing surfaces may become stuck +together. With the object of reducing the friction at the points of +metallic contact and of confining the damage of a hot bearing to the +easily renewable brass, the latter is partially, sometimes wholly, lined +with a soft fusible metal, technically known as white metal, which melts +away before actual seizure takes place, and thus saves the journal which +is more expensive because it is generally formed on a large and +expensive shaft. However perfectly the film fulfils its function, the +work required to overcome the viscous resistance of the film during the +continuous rotation of the shaft appears as heat, and in consequence the +temperature of the bearing gradually rises until the rate at which heat +is produced is equal to the rate at which it is radiated from the +bearing. Hence in order that a journal may revolve with a minimum +resistance and without undue heating two precautions must be taken: (1) +means must be taken to ensure that the film of oil is complete and never +fails; and (2) arrangements must be made for controlling the temperature +should it rise too high. The various lubricating devices already +explained supply sufficient oil to form a partial film, since +experiments have shown that the friction of bearings lubricated in this +way is akin to solid friction, thus indicating at least partial metallic +contact. In order to supply enough oil to form and maintain a film with +certainty the journal should be run in an oil bath, or oil should be +supplied to the bearing under pressure sufficient to force it in between +the surfaces against the load. A bearing to which forced lubrication and +water cooling are applied is illustrated in fig. 10, which represents +one of the bearings of a Westinghouse turbo-alternator installed at the +power station of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London at +Lots Road, Chelsea. Oil flows under pressure from a tank on the top of a +tower along a supply pipe to the oil inlet O, and after passing through +the bearing and performing its duty as a film it falls away from each +end of the journal into the bottom of the main casting, from which a +pipe, E, conveys the oil back to the base of the tank tower where it is +cooled and finally pumped back into the tank. There is thus a continuous +circulation of oil through the bearing. The space C is for cooling +water; in fact the bearing is water jacketed and the jacket is connected +to a supply pipe and a drain pipe so that a continuous circulation may +be maintained if desired. This bearing is 12 in. in diameter and 48 in. +long, and it carries a load of about 12.8 tons. The rise in temperature +of the bearing under normal conditions of working without water +circulating in the jacket is approximately 38 deg. F. The speed of +rotation is such that the surface velocity is about 50 ft. per second. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +Forced lubrication in connexion with the bearings of high-speed engines +was introduced in 1890 by Messrs Belliss & Morcom, Ltd., under patents +taken out in the name of A.C. Pain. It should be understood that +providing the film of oil in the bearing of an engine can be properly +maintained a double-acting engine can be driven at a high speed without +any knocking, and without perceptible wear of the rubbing surfaces. Fig. +11 shows that the general arrangement of the bearings of a Belliss & +Morcom engine arranged for forced lubrication. A small force-pump F, +driven from the eccentric strap X, delivers oil into the pipe P, along +which it passes to A, the centre of the right-hand main bearing. There +is a groove turned on the inside of the brass from which a slanting hole +leads to B. The oil when it arrives at A thus has two paths open to it, +one to the right and left of the groove through the bearing, the other +along the slanting hole to B. At B it divides again into two streams, +one stream going upwards to the eccentric sheave, and a part continuing +up the pipe Q to the eccentric pin. The second stream from B follows the +slanting hole in the crank shaft to C, where it is led to the big end +journal through the pipe R to the crosshead pin, and through the +slanting hole to D, where it finds its way into the left main bearing. +The oil forced through each bearing falls away to the right and to the +left of the journal and drops into the bottom of the engine framing, +whence it is again fed to the pump through a strainer. The parts of an +engine lubricated in this way must be entirely enclosed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +_Load on bearings._--The distribution of pressure over the film of +lubricant separating the rubbing surfaces of a bearing is variable, +being greatest at a point near but not at the crown of the brass, and +falling away to zero in all directions towards the boundaries of the +film. It is usual in practice to ignore this variation of pressure +through the film, and to indicate the severity with which the bearing is +loaded by stating the load per square inch of the rubbing surfaces +projected on to the diametral plane of the journal. Thus the projected +area of the surfaces of a journal 6 in. in diameter and 8 in. long is 48 +sq. in., and if the total load carried by the bearing is 20,000 pounds, +the bearing would be said to carry a load of 417 pounds per square inch. +When a shaft rotates in a bearing continuously in one direction the load +per square inch with which it is safe to load the bearing in order to +avoid undue heating is much less than if the motion is intermittent. A +table of a few values of the bearing loads used in practice is given in +the article LUBRICANTS. + + _Bearing Friction._--If W is the total load on a bearing, and if [mu] + is the coefficient of friction between the rubbing surfaces, the + tangential resistance to turning is expressed by the product [mu]W. If + v is the relative velocity of the rubbing surfaces, the work done per + second against friction is [mu]Wv foot pounds. This quantity of work + is converted into heat, and the heat produced per second is therefore + [mu]Wv/778 British Thermal Units. The coefficient [mu] is a variable + quantity, and bearing in mind that a properly lubricated journal is + separated from its supporting brass by a film of lubricant it might be + expected that [mu] would have values characteristic of the coefficient + of friction between two metallic surfaces, merging into the + characteristics properly belonging to fluid friction, according as the + oil film varied from an imperfect to a perfect condition, that is, + according as the lubrication is partial or complete, completeness + being attained by the use of an oil bath or by some method of forced + lubrication. This expectation is entirely borne out by experimental + researches. Beauchamp Tower ("Report on Friction Experiments," _Proc. + Inst. Mech. Eng._, November 1883) found that when oil was supplied to + a bearing by means of a pad the coefficient of friction was + approximately constant with the value of 1/100, thus following the law + of solid friction; but when the journal was lubricated by means of an + oil bath the coefficient of friction varied nearly inversely as the + load on the bearing, thus making [mu]W = constant. The tangential + resistance in this case is characteristic of fluid friction since it + is independent of the pressure. Tower's experiments were carried out + at a nearly constant temperature. The later experiments of O. Lasche + (_Zeitsch. Verein deutsche Ingenieure_, 1902, 46, pp. 1881 et seq.) + show how [mu] depends upon the temperature. Lasche's main results with + regard to the variation of [mu] are briefly:--[mu]W is a constant + quantity, thus confirming Tower's earlier experiments; [mu] is + practically independent of the relative velocity of the rubbing + surfaces within the limits of 3 to 50 ft. per second; and the product + [mu]t is constant, t being the temperature of the bearing. Writing p + for the load per unit of projected area of the bearing, Lasche found + that the result of the experiments could be expressed by the simple + formula p[mu]t = constant = 2, where p = the pressure in kilograms per + square centimetre, and t = the temperature in degrees centigrade. If p + is changed to pounds per square inch the constant in the expression is + approximately 30. The expression is valid between limits of pressure + 14 to 213 pounds per square inch, limits of temperature 30 deg. to 100 + deg. C., and between limits of velocity 3 to 50 ft. per second. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + _Theory of Lubrication._--After the publication of Tower's experiments + on journal friction Professor Osborne Reynolds showed (_Phil. Trans._, + 1886, p. 157) that the facts observed in connexion with a journal + lubricated by means of an oil bath could be explained by a theory + based upon the general principles of the motion of a viscous fluid. It + is first established as an essential part of the theory that the + radius of the brass must be slightly greater than the radius of the + journal as indicated in fig. 12, where J is the centre of the journal + and I the centre of the brass. Given this difference of curvature and + a sufficient supply of oil, the rotation of the journal produces and + maintains an oil film between the rubbing surfaces, the + circumferential extent of which depends upon the rate of the oil + supply and the external load. With an unlimited supply of oil, that is + with oil-bath lubrication, the film extends continuously to the + extremities of the brass, unless such extension would lead to negative + pressures and therefore to a discontinuity, in which case the film + ends where the pressures in the film become negative. The minimum + distance between the journal and the brass occurs at the point H (fig. + 12), on the off side of the point O where the line of action of the + load cuts the surface of the journal. To the right and left of H the + thickness of the film gradually increases, this being the condition + that the oil-flow to and from the film may be automatically + maintained. With an unlimited supply of oil the point H moves farther + from O as the load increases until it reaches a maximum distance, and + then it moves back again towards O as the load is further increased + until a limiting load is reached at which the pressure in the film + becomes negative at the boundaries of the film, when the boundaries + recede from the edges of the brass as though the supply of oil were + limited. + + In the mathematical development of the theory it is first necessary to + define the coefficient of viscosity. This is done as follows:--If two + parallel surfaces AB, CD are separated by a viscous film, and if + whilst CD is fixed AB moves in a tangential direction with velocity U, + the surface of the film in contact with CD clings to it and remains at + rest, whilst the lower surface of the film clings to and moves with + the surface AB. At intermediate points in the film the tangential + motion of the fluid will vary uniformly from zero to U, and the + tangential resistance will be F = [mu]U/h, where [mu] is the + coefficient of viscosity and h is the thickness of the film. With this + definition of viscosity and from the general equations representing + the stress in a viscous fluid, the following equation is established, + giving the relations between p, the pressure at any point in the film, + h the thickness of the film at a point x measured round the + circumference of the journal in the direction of relative motion, and + U the relative tangential velocity of the surfaces, + + d / dp\ dh + -- ( h^3-- ) = 6[mu]U -- (1) + dx \ dx/ dx + + In this equation all the quantities are independent of the co-ordinate + parallel to the axis of the journal, and U is constant. The thickness + of the film h is some function of x, and for a journal Professor + Reynolds takes the form, + + h = a {1 + c sin([theta] - [phi]0)} + + in which the various quantities have the significance indicated in + fig. 12. Reducing and integrating equation (1) with this value of h it + becomes + + dp 6R_[mu]U_c {sin([theta] - [phi]0) - sin([phi]1 - [phi]0)} + -------- = --------------------------------------------------------- (2) + d[theta] a^2{1 + c sin([theta] - [phi]0)}^3 + + [phi]1 being the value of [theta] for which the pressure is a maximum. + In order to integrate this the right-hand side is expanded into a + trigonometrical series, the values of the coefficients are computed, + and the integration is effected term by term. If, as suggested by + Professor J. Perry, the value of h is taken to be h = h0 + ax^2, where + h0 is the minimum thickness of the film, the equation reduces to the + form + + dp 6[mu]U C + - -- = ------------- + ------------- (3) + dx (h0 + ax^2)^2 (h0 + ax^2)^3 + + and this can be integrated. The process of reduction from the form (1) + to the form (3) with the latter value of h, is shown in full in _The + Calculus for Engineers_ by Professor Perry (p. 331), and also the + final solution of equation (3), giving the pressure in terms of x. + + Professor Reynolds, applying the results of his investigation to one + of Tower's experiments, plotted the pressures through the film both + circumferentially and longitudinally, and the agreement with the + observed pressure of the experiment was exceedingly close. The whole + investigation of Professor Reynolds is a remarkable one, and is in + fact the first real explanation of the fact that oil is able to + insinuate itself between the journal and the brass of a bearing + carrying a heavy load. (See also LUBRICATION.) (W. E. D.) + + + + +BEAR-LEADER, formerly a man who led bears about the country. In the +middle ages and Tudor times these animals were chiefly used in the +brutal sport of bear-baiting and were led from village to village. +Performing bears were also common, and are even still sometimes seen +perambulating the country with their keepers, generally Frenchmen or +Italians. The phrase "bear-leader" has now come colloquially to mean a +tutor or guardian, who escorts any lad of rank or wealth on his travels. + + + + +BEARN, formerly a small frontier province in the south of France, now +included within the department of Basses-Pyrenees. It was bounded on the +W. by Soule and Lower Navarre, on the N. by Chalosse, Tursan and +Astarac, E. by Bigorre and S. by the Pyrenees. Its name can be traced +back to the town of Beneharnum (Lescar). The _civitas Beneharnensium_ +was included in the _Novempopulania_. It was conquered by the Vascones +in the 6th century, and in 819 became a viscounty dependent on the dukes +of Aquitaine--a feudal link which was broken in the 11th century, when +the viscounts ceased to acknowledge any suzerain. They then reigned over +the two dioceses of Lescar and Oloron; but their capital was Morlaas, +where they had a mint which was famous throughout the middle ages. In +the 13th century Gaston VII., of the Catalonian house of Moncade, made +Orthez his seat of government. His long reign (1229-1290) was a +perpetual struggle with the kings of France and England, each anxious to +assert his suzerainty over Bearn. As Gaston left only daughters, the +viscounty passed at his death to the family of Foix, from whom it was +transmitted through the houses of Grailly and Albret to the Bourbons, +and they, in the person of Henry IV., king of Navarre, made it an +apanage of the crown of France. It was not formally incorporated in the +royal domains, however, until 1620. None of these political changes +weakened the independent spirit of the Bearnais. From the 11th century +onward, they were governed by their own special customs or _fors_. These +were drawn up in the language of the country, a Romance dialect (1288 +being the date of the most ancient written code), and are remarkable for +the manner in which they define the rights of the sovereign, determining +the reciprocal obligations of the viscount and his subjects or vassals. +Moreover, from the 12th century Bearn enjoyed a kind of representative +government, with _cours plenieres_ composed of deputies from the three +estates. From 1220 onward, the judiciary powers of these assemblies were +exercised by a _cour majour_ of twelve barons _jurats_ charged with the +duty of maintaining the integrity of the _fors_. When Gaston-Phoebus +wished to establish a regular annual hearth-tax (_fouage_) in the +viscounty, he convoked the deputies of the three estates in assemblies +called _etats_. These soon acquired extensive political and financial +powers, which continued in operation till 1789. Although, when Bearn was +annexed to the domains of the crown, it was granted a _conseil d'etat_ +and a parlement, which sat at Pau, the province also retained its _fors_ +until the Revolution. + + See also Olhagaray, _Histoire de Foix, Bearn et Navarre_ (1609); + Pierre de Marca, _Histoire de Bearn_ (1640). This work does not go + beyond the end of the 13th century; it contains a large number of + documents. Faget de Baure, _Essais historiques sur le Bearn_ (1818); + _Les Fors de Bearn_, by Mazure and Hatoulet (1839), completed by J. + Brissaud and P. Roge in _Textes additionnels aux anciens Fors de + Bearn_ (1905); Leon Cadier, _Les Etats de Bearn depuis leur origine + jusqu'au commencement du XVI^e siecle_ (1888). (C. B.*) + + + + +BEAS or BIAS, a river of India. The Beas, which was the Hyphasis of the +Greeks, is one of the Five Rivers of the Punjab. It issues in the snowy +mountains of Kulu at an altitude of 13,326 ft. above sea-level, flows +through the Kangra valley and the plains of the Punjab, and finally +joins the Sutlej after a course of 290 m. It is crossed by a railway +bridge near Jullundur. + + + + +BEAT (a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages; it is +connected with the similar Romanic words derived from the Late Lat. +_battere_), a blow or stroke; from the many applications of the verb "to +beat" come various meanings of the substantive, in some of which the +primary sense has become obscure. It is applied to the throbbing of the +pulse or heart, to the beating of a drum, either for retreat, or charge, +or to quarters; in music to the alternating sound produced by the +striking together of two notes not exactly of the same pitch (see +SOUND), and also to the movement of the baton by which a conductor of an +orchestra or chorus indicates the time, and to the divisions of a bar. +As a nautical term, a "beat" is the zigzag course taken by a ship in +sailing against the wind. The application of the word to a policeman's +or sentry's round comes either from beating a covert for game and hence +the term means an exhaustive search of a district, or from the repeated +strokes of the foot in constantly walking up and down. In this sense the +word is used in America, particularly in Alabama and Mississippi, of a +voting precinct. + + + + +BEATIFICATION (from the Lat. _beatus_, happy, blessed, and _facere_, to +make), the act of making blessed; in the Roman Catholic Church, a stage +in the process of canonization (q.v.). + + + + +BEATON (or BETHUNE), DAVID, (c. 1494-1546), Scottish cardinal and +archbishop of St Andrews, was a younger son of John Beaton of Balfour in +the county of Fife, and is said to have been born in the year 1494. He +was educated at the universities of St Andrews and Glasgow, and in his +sixteenth year was sent to Paris, where he studied civil and canon law. +About this time he was presented to the rectory of Campsie by his uncle +James Beaton, then archbishop of Glasgow. When James Beaton was +translated to St Andrews in 1522 he resigned the rich abbacy of Arbroath +in his nephew's favour, under reservation of one half of the revenues to +himself during his lifetime. The great ability of Beaton and the +patronage of his uncle ensured his rapid promotion to high offices in +the church and kingdom. He was sent by King James V. on various missions +to France, and in 1528 was appointed keeper of the privy seal. He took a +leading part in the negotiations connected with the king's marriages, +first with Madeleine of France, and afterwards with Mary of Guise. At +the French court he was held in high estimation by King Francis I., and +was consecrated bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc in December 1537. On the +20th of December 1538 he was appointed a cardinal priest by Pope Paul +III., under the title of St Stephen in the Coelian Hill. He was the only +Scotsman who had been named to that high office by an undisputed right, +Cardinal Wardlaw, bishop of Glasgow, having received his appointment +from the anti-pope Clement VII. On the death of Archbishop James Beaton +in 1539, the cardinal was raised to the primatial see of Scotland. + +Beaton was one of King James's most trusted advisers, and it was mainly +due to his influence that the king drew closer the French alliance and +refused Henry VIII.'s overtures to follow him in his religious policy. +On the death of James in December 1542 he attempted to assume office as +one of the regents for the infant sovereign Mary, founding his +pretensions on an alleged will of the late king; but his claims were +disregarded, and the earl of Arran, head of the great house of Hamilton, +and next heir to the throne, was declared regent by the estates. The +cardinal was, by order of the regent, committed to the custody of Lord +Seaton; but his imprisonment was merely nominal, and he was soon again +at liberty and at the head of the party opposed to the English alliance. +Arran too was soon won over to his views, dismissed the preachers by +whom he had been surrounded, and joined the cardinal at Stirling, where +in September 1543 Beaton crowned the young queen. In the same year he +was raised to the office of chancellor of Scotland, and was appointed +protonotary apostolic and legate _a latere_ by the pope. Had Beaton +confined himself to secular politics, his strenuous opposition to the +plans of Henry VIII. for the subjugation of Scotland would have earned +him the lasting gratitude of his countrymen. Unfortunately politics were +inextricably interwoven with the religious controversies of the time, +and resistance to English influence involved resistance to the +activities of the reformers in the church, whose ultimate victory has +obscured the cardinal's genuine merits as a statesman. During the +lifetime of his uncle, Beaton had shared in the efforts of the hierarchy +to suppress the reformed doctrines, and pursued the same line of conduct +still more systematically after his elevation to the primacy. The +popular accounts of the persecution for which he was responsible are no +doubt exaggerated, and it sometimes ceased for considerable periods so +far as capital punishments were concerned. When the sufferers were of +humble rank not much notice was taken of them. It was otherwise when a +more distinguished victim was selected in the person of George Wishart. +Wishart had returned to Scotland, after an absence of several years, +about the end of 1544. His sermons produced a great effect, and he was +protected by several barons of the English faction. These barons, with +the knowledge and approbation of King Henry, were engaged in a plot to +assassinate the cardinal, and in this plot Wishart is now proved to have +been a willing agent. The cardinal, though ignorant of the details of +the plot, perhaps suspected Wishart's knowledge of it, and in any case +was not sorry to have an excuse for seizing one of the most eloquent +supporters of the new opinions. For some time he was unsuccessful; but +at last, with the aid of the regent, he arrested the preacher, and +carried him to his castle of St Andrews. On the 28th of February 1546 +Wishart was brought to trial in the cathedral before the cardinal and +other judges, the regent declining to take any active part, and, being +found guilty of heresy, was condemned to death and burnt. + +The death of Wishart produced a deep effect on the Scottish people, and +the cardinal became an object of general dislike, which encouraged his +enemies to proceed with the design they had formed against him. +Naturally resolute and fearless, he seems to have under-estimated his +danger, the more so since his power had never seemed more secure. He +crossed over to Angus, and took part in the wedding of his illegitimate +daughter with the heir of the earl of Crawford. On his return to St +Andrews he took up his residence in the castle. The conspirators, the +chief of whom were Norman Leslie, master of Rothes, and William Kirkaldy +of Grange, contrived to obtain admission at daybreak of the 29th of May +1546, and murdered the cardinal under circumstances of horrible mockery +and atrocity. + +The character of Beaton has already been indicated. As a statesman he +was able, resolute, and in his general policy patriotic. As an +ecclesiastic he maintained the privileges of the hierarchy and the +dominant system of belief conscientiously, but always with harshness and +sometimes with cruelty. His immoralities, like his acts of persecution, +were exaggerated by his opponents; but his private life was undoubtedly +a scandal to religion, and has only the excuse that it was not worse +than that of most of his order at the time. The authorship of the +writings ascribed to him in several biographical notices rests on no +better authority than the apocryphal statements of Thomas Dempster. + +Beaton's uncle, James Beaton, or Bethune (d. 1539), archbishop of +Glasgow and St Andrews, was lord treasurer of Scotland before he became +archbishop of Glasgow in 1509, was chancellor from 1513 to 1526, and was +appointed archbishop of St Andrews and primate of Scotland in 1522. He +was one of the regents during the minority of James V., and was chiefly +responsible for this king's action in allying himself with France and +not with England. He burned Patrick Hamilton and other heretics, and +died at St Andrews in September 1539. + +This prelate must not be confused with another, James Beaton, or Bethune +(1517-1603), the last Roman Catholic archbishop of Glasgow. A son of +John Bethune of Auchmuty and a nephew of Cardinal Beaton, James was a +trusted adviser of the Scottish regent, Mary of Lorraine, widow of James +V., and a determined foe of the reformers. In 1552 he was consecrated +archbishop of Glasgow, but from 1560 until his death in 1603 he lived in +Paris, acting as ambassador for Scotland at the French court. + + See John Knox, _Hist. of the Reformation in Scotland_, ed. D. Laing + (1846-1864); John Spottiswoode, archbishop of St Andrews, _Hist. of + the Church of Scotland_ (Spottiswoode Soc., 1847-1851); Art. in _Dict. + of Nat. Biog._ and works there quoted; and A. Lang, _Hist. of + Scotland_, vols. i. and ii. (1900-1902). + + + + +BEATRICE, a city and the county-seat of Gage county, in S.E. Nebraska, +U.S.A., about 40 m. S. of Lincoln. Pop. (1900) 7875 (852 foreign-born); +(1910) 9356. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the +Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Union Pacific railways. Beatrice +is the seat of the state institute for feeble-minded youth, and has a +Carnegie library. The city is very prettily situated in the valley of +the Big Blue river, in the midst of a fine agricultural region. Among +its manufactures are dairy products (there is a large creamery), canned +goods, flour and grist mill products, gasoline engines, well-machinery, +barbed wire, tiles, ploughs, windmills, corn-huskers, and hay-balers. +Beatrice was founded in 1857, becoming the county-seat in the same year. +It was reached by its first railway and was incorporated as a town in +1871, was chartered as a city in 1873, and in 1901 became a city of the +first class. + + + + +BEATTIE, JAMES (1735-1803), Scottish poet and writer on philosophy, was +born at Laurencekirk, Kincardine, Scotland, on the 25th of October 1735. +His father, a small farmer and shopkeeper, died when he was very young; +but an elder brother sent him to Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he +gained a bursary. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster of Fordoun in +his native county. Here he had as neighbours the eccentric Francis +Garden (afterwards Lord Gardenstone, judge of the supreme court of +Scotland), and Lord Monboddo. In 1758 he became an usher in the grammar +school of Aberdeen, and two years later he was made professor of moral +philosophy at Marischal College. Here he became closely acquainted with +Dr Thomas Reid, Dr George Campbell, Dr Alexander Gerard and others, who +formed a kind of literary or philosophic society known as the "Wise +Club." They met once a fortnight to discuss speculative questions, David +Hume's philosophy being an especial object of criticism. In 1761 Beattie +published a small volume of _Original Poems and Translations_, which +contained little work of any value. Its author in later days destroyed +all the copies he found. In 1770 Beattie published his _Essay on the +Nature and Immutability of Truth in opposition to sophistry and +scepticism_, the object of which, as explained by its author, was to +"prove the universality and immutability of moral sentiment" (letter to +Sir W. Forbes, 17th January 1765). It was in fact a direct attack on +Hume, and part of its great popularity was due to the fact. Hume is said +to have justly complained that Beattie "had not used him like a +gentleman," but made no answer to the book, which has no philosophical +value. Beattie's portrait, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, hangs at Marischal +College, Aberdeen. The philosopher is painted with the _Essay on Truth_ +in his hand, while a figure of Truth thrusts down three figures +representing, according to Sir W. Forbes, sophistry, scepticism and +infidelity. Reynolds in a letter to Beattie (February 1774) intimates +that he is well enough pleased that one of the figures is identified +with Hume, and that he intended Voltaire to be one of the group. Beattie +visited London in 1773, and was received with the greatest honour by +George III., who conferred on him a pension of L200 a year. In 1771 and +1774 he published the first and second parts of _The Minstrel_, a poem +which met with great and immediate success. The Spenserian stanza in +which it is written is managed with smoothness and skill, and there are +many fine descriptions of natural scenery. It is entirely on his poetry +that Beattie's reputation rests. The best known of his minor poems are +"The Hermit" and "Retirement." + +In 1773 he was offered the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh +University, but did not accept it. Beattie made many friends, and lost +none. "We all love Beattie," said Dr Johnson. "Mrs Thrale says, if ever +she has another husband she will have him." He was in high favour too +with Mrs Montagu and the other _bas bleus_. Beattie was unfortunate in +his domestic life. Mary Dunn, whom he married in 1767, became insane, +and his two sons died just as they were attaining manhood. The elder, +James Hay Beattie, a young man of great promise, who at the age of +nineteen had been associated with his father in his professorship, died +in 1790. In 1794 the father published _Essays and Fragments in Prose and +Verse by James Hay Beattie_ with a touching memoir. The younger brother +died in 1796. Beattie never recovered from this second bereavement. His +mind was seriously affected, and, although he continued to lecture +occasionally, he neither wrote nor studied. In April 1799 he had a +stroke of paralysis, and died on the 18th of August 1803. + +Beattie's other poetical works include _The Judgment of Paris_ (1765), +and "Verses on the death of [Charles] Churchill," a bitter attack which +the poet afterwards suppressed. The best edition is the _Poetical Works_ +(1831, new ed. 1866) in the _Aldine Edition of the British Poets_, with +an admirable memoir by Alexander Dyce. + + See also _An Account of the Life of James Beattie_ (1804), by A. + Bower; and _An Account of the Life and Writings of James Beattie_ + (1807), by Sir William Forbes; a quantity of new material is to be + found in _Beattie and his Friends_ (1904), by the poet's + great-grand-niece, Margaret Forbes; and _James Beattie, the Minstrel. + Some Unpublished Letters_, edited by A. Mackie (Aberdeen, 1908). + + + + +BEATUS, of Liebana and Valcavado, Spanish priest and monk, theologian +and geographer, was born about 730, and died in 798. About 776 he +published his _Commentaria in Apocalypsin_, containing one of the oldest +Christian world-maps. He took a prominent part in the Adoptionist +controversy, and wrote against the views of Felix of Urgel, especially +as upheld by Elipandus of Toledo. As confessor to Queen Adosinda, wife +of King Silo of Oviedo (774-783), and as the master of Alcuin and +Etherius of Osma, Beatus exercised wide influence. His original map, +which was probably intended to illustrate, above all, the distribution +of the Apostolic missions throughout the world--depicting the head of +Peter at Rome, of Andrew in Achaia, of Thomas in India, of James in +Spain, and so forth--has survived in ten more or less modified copies. +One only of these--the "Osma" of 1203--preserves the Apostolic pictures; +among the remaining examples, that of "St Sever," now at Paris, and +dating from about 1030, is the most valuable; that of "Valcavado," +recently in the Ashburnham Library, executed in 970, is the earliest; +that of "Turin," dating from about 1100, is perhaps the most curious. +Three others--"Valladolid" of about 1035, "Madrid" of 1047, and "London" +of 1109--are derivatives of the "Valcavado-Ashburnham" of 970; the +eighth, "Paris II," is connected, though not very intimately, with "St +Sever," otherwise "Paris I"; the ninth and tenth, "Gerona" and "Paris +III," belong to the Turin group of Beatus maps. All these works are +emphatically of "dark-age" character; very seldom do they suggest the +true forms of countries, seas, rivers or mountains, but they embody some +useful information as to early medieval conditions and history. St +Isidore appears to be their principal authority; they also draw, +directly or indirectly, from Orosius, St Jerome, St Augustine, and +probably from a lost map of classical antiquity, represented in a +measure by the Peutinger Table of the 13th century. + + The chief MSS. of the _Commentaria in Apocalypsin_ are (1-3) Paris, + National Library, Lat. 8878; Lat. nouv. acq. 1366 and 2290; (4) + Ashburnham MSS. xv.; (5) London, B. Mus., Addit. MSS. 11695; (6) + Turin, National Library 1, ii. (1); (7) Valladolid, University + Library, 229; (8) the MS. in the Episcopal Library at Osma, in Old + Castile. + + There is only one complete edition of the text, that by Florez + (Madrid, 1770). See also Konrad Miller, _Die Weltkarte des Beatus_, + Heft I. of _Mappaemundi: die altesten Weltkarten_ (Stuttgart, 1895); + d'Avezac in _Annales de ... geographie_ (June 1870); Beazley, _Dawn of + Modern Geography_, i. 387-388 (1897); ii. 549-559; 591-605 (1901). + (C. R. B.) + + + + +BEAUCAIRE, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Gard, 17 +m. E. by S. of Nimes on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 7284. +Beaucaire is situated on the right bank of the Rhone, opposite Tarascon, +with which it is connected by two handsome bridges, a suspension-bridge +of four spans and 1476 ft. in length, and a railway bridge. A triangular +keep, a chapel, and other remains of a chateau (13th and 14th centuries) +of the counts of Toulouse stand on the rocky pine-clad hill which rises +to the north of the town; the chapel, dedicated to St Louis, belongs to +the latest period of Romanesque architecture, and contains fine +sculptures. The town derives celebrity from the great July fair, which +has been held here annually since the 12th century, but has now lost its +former importance (see FAIR). Beaucaire gives its name to the canal +which communicates with the sea (near Aigues-Mortes) and connects it +with the Canal du Midi, forming part of the line of communication +between the Rhone and the Garonne. The town is an important port on the +Rhone, and its commerce, the chief articles of which are wine, and +freestone from quarries in the vicinity, is largely water-borne. Among +its industries are distilling and the manufacture of furniture, and the +preparation of vermicelli, sausages and other provisions. + +Beaucaire occupies the site of the ancient _Ugernum_, and several +remains of the Roman city have been discovered, as well as (in 1734) the +road that led from Nimes. The present name is derived from _Bellum +Quadrum_, a descriptive appellation applied in the middle ages either to +the chateau or to the rock on which it stands. In 1125 Beaucaire came +into the possession of the counts of Toulouse, one of whom, Raymund VI., +established the importance of its fairs by the grant of privileges. In +the Wars of the League it suffered severely, and in 1632 its castle was +destroyed by Richelieu. + + + + +BEAUCE (Lat. _Belsia_), a physical region of north-central France, +comprising large portions of the departments of Eure-et-Loir and +Loir-et-Cher, and also extending into those of Loiret and Seine-et-Oise. +It has an area of over 2800 sq. m., its limits being roughly defined by +the course of the Essonne on the E., of the Loire on the S., and of the +Brenne, the Loir and the Eure towards the W., though in the latter +direction it extends somewhat beyond these boundaries. The Beauce is a +treeless, arid and monotonous plain of limestone formation; windmills +and church spires are the only prominent features of the landscape. +Apart from the rivers on its borders, it is watered by insignificant +streams, of which the Conie in the west need alone be mentioned. The +inhabitants live in large villages, and are occupied in agriculture, +particularly in the cultivation of wheat, for which the Beauce is +celebrated. Clover and lucerne are the other leading crops, and large +flocks of sheep are kept in the region. Chartres is its chief commercial +centre. + + + + +BEAUCHAMP, the name of several important English families. The baronial +house of Beauchamp of Bedford was founded at the Conquest by Hugh de +Beauchamp, who received a barony in Bedfordshire. His eldest son Simon +left a daughter, whose husband Hugh (brother of the count of Meulan) was +created earl of Bedford by Stephen. But the heir-male, Miles de +Beauchamp, nephew of Simon, held Bedford Castle against the king in +1137-1138. From his brother Payn descended the barons of Bedford, of +whom William held Bedford Castle against the royal forces in the +struggle for the Great Charter, and was afterwards made prisoner at the +battle of Lincoln, while John, who sided with the barons under Simon de +Montfort, fell at Evesham. With him the line ended, but a younger branch +was seated at Eaton Socon, Beds., where the earthworks of their castle +remain, and held their barony there into the 14th century. + +The Beauchamps of Elmley, Worcestershire, the greatest house of the +name, were founded by the marriage of Walter de Beauchamp with the +daughter of Urise d'Abetot, a Domesday baron, which brought him the +shrievalty of Worcestershire, the office of a royal steward, and large +estates. His descendant William, of Elmley, married Isabel, sister and +eventually heiress to William Mauduit, earl of Warwick, and their son +succeeded in 1268 to Warwick Castle and that earldom, which remained +with his descendants in the male line till 1445. The earls of the +Beauchamp line played a great part in English history. Guy, the 2nd, +distinguished himself in the Scottish campaigns of Edward I., who warned +him at his death against Piers Gaveston. Under Edward II. he was one of +the foremost foes of Piers, who had styled him "the black cur of Arden," +and with whose death he was closely connected. As one of the "lords +ordainers" he was a recognized leader of the opposition to Edward II. By +the heiress of the Tonis he left at his death in 1315 a son Earl Thomas, +who distinguished himself at Crecy and Poitiers, was marshal of the +English host, and, with his brother John, one of the founders of the +order of the Garter. In 1369 his son Earl Thomas succeeded; from 1376 to +1379 he was among the lords striving for reform, and in the latter year +he was appointed governor to the king. Under Richard II. he joined the +lords appellant in their opposition to the king and his ministers, and +was in power with them 1388-1389; treacherously arrested by Richard in +1397, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London (the Beauchamp Tower +being called after him), but liberated by Henry IV. on his triumph +(1399). In 1401 he was succeeded by his son Earl Richard, a brave and +chivalrous warrior, who defeated Owen Glendower, fought the Percys at +Shrewsbury, and, after travelling in state through Europe and the Holy +Land, was employed against the Lollards and afterwards as lay ambassador +from England to the council of Constance (1414). He held command for a +time at Calais, and took an active part in the French campaigns of Henry +V., who created him earl and count of Aumale in Normandy. He had charge +of the education of Henry VI., and in 1437 was appointed lieutenant of +France and of Normandy. Dying at Rouen in 1439, he left by Isabel, widow +of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Worcester, a son, Earl Henry, who was +created duke of Warwick, 1445, and is alleged, but without authority, to +have been crowned king of the Isle of Wight by Henry VI. He died, the +last of his line, in June 1445. On the death of Anne, his only child, in +1449, his vast inheritance passed to Anne, his sister of the whole +blood, wife of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury ("the Kingmaker"), who +thereupon became earl of Warwick. + +Of the cadet branches of the house, the oldest was that of Powyke and +Alcester, which obtained a barony in 1447 and became extinct in 1496; +from it sprang the Beauchamps, Lords St. Amand from 1448, of whom was +Richard, bishop of Salisbury, first chancellor of the order of the +Garter, and who became extinct in 1508, being the last known male heirs +of the race. Another cadet was Sir John Beauchamp of Holt, minister of +Richard II., who was created Lord Beauchamp of Kidderminster (the first +baron created by patent) 1387, but beheaded 1388; the barony became +extinct with his son in 1400. Roger, Lord Beauchamp of Bletsoe, summoned +in 1363, is said to have been descended from the Powyke branch; his line +ended early in the 15th century. Later cadets were John, brother of the +3rd earl, who carried the standard at Crecy, became captain of Calais, +and was summoned as a peer in 1350, but died unmarried; and William, +brother of the 4th earl, who was distinguished in the French wars, and +succeeding to the lands of the Lords Abergavenny was summoned in that +barony 1392; his son was created earl of Worcester in 1420, but died +without male issue in 1422; from his daughter, who married Sir Edward +Neville, descended the Lords Abergavenny. + +The Lords Beauchamp of "Hache" (1299-1361) were so named from their seat +of Hatch Beauchamp, Somerset, and were of a wholly distinct family. +Their title, "Beauchamp of Hache," was revived for the Seymours in 1536 +and 1559. The title of "Beauchamp of Powyke" was revived as a barony in +1806 for Richard Lygon (descended through females from the Beauchamps of +Powyke), who was created Earl Beauchamp in 1815. + + See Sir W. Dugdale, _Baronage_ (1675-1676) and _Warwickshire_ (2nd + ed., 1730); G.E. C[okayne], _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); W. + Courthope, _Rows Roll_ (1859); and J.H. Round, _Geoffrey de + Mandeville_ (1892). (J. H. R.) + + + + +BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE, French historian and man of letters, was born at +Monaco in 1767, and died in 1832. In 1784 he entered a Sardinian +regiment of marines, but on the outbreak of war with the French +Republic, he refused to fight in what he considered an unjust cause, and +was imprisoned for several months. After being liberated he took up his +residence in Paris, where he obtained a post in one of the government +offices. On the fall of Robespierre, Beauchamp was transferred to the +_bureau_ of the minister of police, and charged with the superintendence +of the press. This situation opened up to him materials of which he made +use in his first and most popular historical work, _Histoire de la +Vendee et des Chouans_, 3 vols., 1806. The book, received with great +favour by the people, was displeasing to the authorities. The third +edition was confiscated; its writer was deprived of his post, and in +1809 was compelled to leave Paris and take up his abode in Reims. In +1811 he obtained permission to return, and again received a government +appointment. This he had to resign on the Restoration, but was rewarded +with a small pension, which was continued to his widow after his death. + +Beauchamp wrote extensively for the public journals and for the +magazines. His biographical and historical works are numerous, and those +dealing with contemporary events are valuable, owing to the sources at +his disposal. They must, however, be used with great caution. The +following are worth mention:--_Vie politique, militaire et privee du +general Moreau_ (1814); _Catastrophe de Murat, ou Recit de la derniere +revolution de Naples_ (1815); _Histoire de la guerre d'Espagne et du +Portugal, 1807-1813_ (2 vols., 1810); _Collection de memoires relatifs +aux revolutions d'Espagne_ (2 vols., 1824); _Histoire de la revolution +de Piemont_ (2 vols., 1821, 1823); _Memoires secrets et inedits pour +servir a l'histoire contemporaine_ (2 vols., 1825). The _Memoires de +Fouche_ have also been ascribed to him, but it seems certain that he +only revised and completed a work really composed by Fouche himself. + + See an article by Louis Madelin in _La Revolution francaise_ (1900). + + + + +BEAUFORT, the name of the family descended from the union of John of +Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, with Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford, +taken from a castle in Anjou which belonged to John of Gaunt. There were +four children of this union--John, created earl of Somerset and marquess +of Dorset; Henry, afterwards bishop of Winchester and cardinal (see +BEAUFORT, HENRY); Thomas, made duke of Exeter and chancellor; and Joan, +who married Ralph Neville, first earl of Westmorland, and died in 1440. +In 1396, some years after the birth of these children, John of Gaunt and +Catherine were married, and in 1397 the Beauforts were declared +legitimate by King Richard II. In 1407 this action was confirmed by +their half-brother, King Henry IV., but on this occasion they were +expressly excluded from the succession to the English throne. + +JOHN BEAUFORT, earl of Somerset (c. 1373-1410), assisted Richard II. in +1397 when the king attacked the lords appellants, and made himself an +absolute ruler. For these services he was made marquess of Dorset, but +after the deposition of Richard in 1399, he was degraded to his former +rank as earl. In 1401, however, he was declared loyal, and appeared +later in command of the English fleet. He married Margaret, daughter of +Thomas Holland, second earl of Kent, and died in March 1410, leaving +three sons, Henry, John, and Edmund, and two daughters, Jane or Joan, +who married James I., king of Scotland, and Margaret, who married Thomas +Courtenay, earl of Devon. + +THOMAS BEAUFORT (d. 1426) held various high offices under Henry IV., and +took a leading part in suppressing the rising in the north in 1405. He +became chancellor in 1410, but resigned this office in January 1412 and +took part in the expedition to France in the same year. He was then +created earl of Dorset, and when Henry V. became king in 1413, he was +made lieutenant of Aquitaine and took charge of Harfleur when this town +passed into the possession of the English. In 1416 he became lieutenant +of Normandy, and was created duke of Exeter; and returning to England he +compelled the Scots to raise the siege of Roxburgh. Crossing to France +in 1418 with reinforcements for Henry V., he took an active part in the +subsequent campaign, was made captain of Rouen, and went to the court of +France to treat for peace. He was then captured by the French at Bauge, +but was soon released and returned to England when he heard of the death +of Henry V. in August 1422. He was one of Henry's executors, and it is +probable that the king entrusted his young son, King Henry VI., to his +care. However this may be, Exeter did not take a very prominent part in +the government, although he was a member of the council of regency. +Having again shared in the French war, the duke died at Greenwich about +the end of the year 1426. He was buried at Bury St. Edmunds, where his +remains were found in good condition 350 years later. He married +Margaret, daughter of Sir Thomas Neville of Nornby, but left no issue. +The Beaufort family was continued by HENRY BEAUFORT (1401-1419), the +eldest son of John Beaufort, earl of Somerset, who was succeeded as earl +of Somerset by his brother JOHN BEAUFORT (1403-1444). The latter fought +under Henry V. in the French wars, and having been taken prisoner +remained in France as a captive until 1437. Soon after his release he +returned to the war, and after the death of Richard Beauchamp, earl of +Warwick, in 1439, acted as commander of the English forces, and, with +his brother Edmund, was successful in recapturing Harfleur. Although +chagrined when Richard, duke of York, was made regent of France, +Beaufort led an expedition to France in 1442, and in 1443 was made duke +of Somerset. He died, probably by his own hand, in May 1444. He married +Margaret, daughter of Sir John Beauchamp, and left a daughter, MARGARET +BEAUFORT, afterwards countess of Richmond and Derby, who married, for +her first husband, Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, by whom she became +the mother of King Henry VII. In this way the blood of the Beauforts was +mingled with that of the Tudors, and of all the subsequent occupants of +the English throne. + +The title of earl of Somerset descended on the death of John Beaufort in +1444 to his brother EDMUND BEAUFORT, duke of Somerset (q.v.), who was +killed at St Albans in 1455. By his marriage with Eleanor Beauchamp, +daughter of the fifth earl of Warwick, he left three sons, Henry, Edmund +and John, and a daughter, Margaret. + +HENRY BEAUFORT (1436-1464) became duke of Somerset in 1455, and soon +began to take part in the struggle against Richard, duke of York, but +failed to dislodge Richard's ally, Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, +from Calais. He took part in the victory of the Lancastrians at +Wakefield in 1460, escaped from the carnage at Towton in 1461, and +shared the attainder of Henry VI. in the same year. In May 1464 he was +captured at Hexham and was beheaded immediately after the battle. The +title of duke of Somerset was assumed by his brother, EDMUND BEAUFORT +(c. 1438-1471), who fled from the country after the disasters to the +Lancastrian arms, but returned to England in 1471, in which year he +fought at Tewkesbury, and in spite of a promise of pardon was beheaded +after the battle on the 6th of May 1471. His younger brother JOHN +BEAUFORT had been killed probably at this battle, and so on the +execution of Edmund the family became extinct. + +MARGARET BEAUFORT married Humphrey, earl of Stafford, and was the mother +of Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham. Henry Beaufort, third duke of +Somerset (d. 1464), left an illegitimate son, Charles Somerset, who was +created earl of Worcester by Henry VIII. in 1514. His direct descendant, +Henry Somerset, fifth earl of Worcester, was a loyal partisan of Charles +I. and in 1642 was created marquess of Worcester. His grandson, Henry, +the third marquess, was made duke of Beaufort in 1682, and the present +duke of Beaufort is his direct descendant. + + See Thomas Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, edited by H.T. Riley + (London, 1863-1864); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_, + vols. ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895); _The Paston Letters_, edited by + James Gairdner (London, 1904). + + + + +BEAUFORT, FRANCOIS DE VENDOME, DUC DE (1616-1669), a picturesque figure +in French history of the 17th century, was the second son of Cesar de +Vendome, and grandson of Henry IV., by Gabrielle d'Estrees. He began his +career in the army and served in the first campaigns of the Thirty +Years' War, but his ambitions and unscrupulous character soon found a +more congenial field in the intrigues of the court. In 1642 he joined in +the conspiracy of Cinq Mars against Richelieu, and upon its failure was +obliged to live in exile in England until Richelieu's death. Returning +to France, he became the centre of a group, known as the "Importants," +in which court ladies predominated, especially the duchess of Chevreuse +and the duchess of Montbazon. For an instant after the king's death, +this group seemed likely to prevail, and Beaufort to be the head of the +new government. But Mazarin gained the office, and Beaufort, accused of +a plot to murder Mazarin, was imprisoned in Vincennes, in September +1643. He escaped on the 31st of May 1648, just in time to join the +Fronde, which began in August 1648. He was then with the parlement and +the princes, against Mazarin. His personal appearance, his affectation +of popular manners, his quality of grandson (legitimized), of Henry IV., +rendered him a favourite of the Parisians, who acclaimed him everywhere. +He was known as the _Roi des Halles_ ("king of the markets"), and +popular subscriptions were opened to pay his debts. He had hopes of +becoming prime minister. But among the members of the parlement and the +other leaders of the Fronde, he was regarded as merely a tool. His +intelligence was but mediocre, and he showed no talent during the war. +Mazarin, on his return to Paris, exiled him in October 1652; and he was +only allowed to return in 1654, when the cardinal had no longer any +reason to fear him. Henceforth Beaufort no longer intrigued. In 1658 he +was named general superintendent of navigation, or chief of the naval +army, and faithfully served the king in naval wars from that on. In 1664 +he directed the expedition against the pirates of Algiers. In 1669 he +led the French troops defending Candia against the Turks, and was killed +in a night sortie, on the I5th of June 1669. His body was brought back +to France with great pomp, and official honours rendered it. + + See the memoirs of the time, notably those of La Rochefoucauld, the + Cardinal de Retz, and Madame de Motteville. Also D'Avenel, _Richelieu + et la monarchic absolue_ (1884); Cheruel, _La France sous le ministere + Mazarin_ (1879); and _La France sous la minorite de Louis XIV_ (1882). + + + + +BEAUFORT, HENRY (c. 1377-1447), English cardinal and bishop of +Winchester, was the second son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, by +Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford. His parents were not married until +1396, and in 1397 King Richard II. declared the four children of this +union to be legitimate. Henry spent some of his youth at Aix +la-Chapelle, and having entered the church received various +appointments, and was consecrated bishop of Lincoln in July 1398. When +his half-brother became king as Henry IV. in 1399, Beaufort began to +take a prominent place in public life; he was made chancellor in 1403, +but he resigned this office in 1404, when he was translated from Lincoln +to Winchester as the successor of William of Wykeham. He exercised +considerable influence over the prince of Wales, afterwards King Henry +V., and although he steadily supported the house of Lancaster he opposed +the party led by Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury. A dispute +over money left by John Beaufort, marquess of Dorset, caused or widened +a breach in the royal family which reached a climax in 1411. The details +are not quite clear, but it seems tolerably certain that the prince and +the bishop, anxious to retain their power, sought to induce Henry IV. to +abdicate in favour of his son. Angry at this request, the king dismissed +his son from the council, and Beaufort appears to have shared his +disgrace. When Henry V. ascended the throne in 1413 the bishop again +became chancellor and took a leading part in the government until 1417, +when he resigned his office, and proceeded to the council which was then +sitting at Constance. His arrival had an important effect on the +deliberations of this council, and the compromise which was subsequently +made between the rival parties was largely his work. Grateful for +Beaufort's services, the new pope Martin V. offered him a cardinal's hat +which Henry V. refused to allow him to accept. Returning to England, he +remained loyal to Henry; and after the king's death in 1422 became a +member of the council and was the chief opponent of the wild and selfish +schemes of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. In 1424 he became chancellor +for the third time, and was mainly responsible for the conduct of +affairs during Gloucester's expedition to Hainaut. He was disliked by +the citizens of London; and this ill-feeling was heightened when +Gloucester, who was a favourite of the Londoners, returned to England +and was doubtless reproached by Beaufort for the folly of his +undertaking. A riot took place in London, and at the bishop's entreaty, +the protector, John, duke of Bedford, came back to England. As this +dispute was still unsettled when the parliament met at Leicester in +February 1426, Bedford and the lords undertook to arbitrate. Charged by +Gloucester with treason against Henry IV. and his successors, Beaufort +denied the accusations. But although a reconciliation was effected, the +bishop evidently regarded this as a defeat; and having resigned the +chancellorship his energies were diverted into another channel. + +Anxious to secure his aid for the crusade against the Hussites, Pope +Martin again offered him a cardinal's hat, which Beaufort accepted. He +went to France in 1427, and was then appointed papal legate for Germany, +Hungary and Bohemia; and proceeding eastwards, he made a bold but futile +effort to rally the crusaders at Tachau. Returning to England to raise +money for a fresh crusade, he was received with great state in London; +but his acceptance of the cardinalate had weakened his position and +Gloucester refused to recognize his legatine commission. Beaufort gave +way on this question, but an unsuccessful attempt was made in 1429 to +deprive him of his see. Having raised some troops he set out for +Bohemia; but owing to the disasters which had just attended the English +arms in France, he was induced to allow these soldiers to serve in the +French war; and in February 1431 the death of Martin V. ended his +commission as legate. Meanwhile an attempt on the part of Gloucester to +exclude the cardinal from the council had failed, and it was decided +that his attendance was required except during the discussion of +questions between the king and the papacy. He accompanied King Henry VI. +to Normandy in April 1430, and in December 1431 crowned him king of +France. About this time Gloucester made another attempt to deprive +Beaufort of his see, and it was argued in the council that as a cardinal +he could not hold an English bishopric. The general council was not +inclined to press the case against him; but the privy council, more +clerical and more hostile, sealed writs of praemunire and attachment +against him, and some of his jewels were seized. On his return to +England he attended the parliament in May 1432, and asked to hear the +charges against him. The king declared him loyal, and a statute was +passed freeing him from any penalties which he might have incurred under +the Statute of Provisors or in other ways. He supported Bedford in his +attempts to restore order to the finances. In August 1435 he attended +the congress at Arras, but was unable to make peace with France; and +after Bedford's death his renewed efforts to this end were again opposed +by Gloucester, who favoured a continuance of the war. On two occasions +the council advised the king to refuse him permission to leave England, +but in 1437 he obtained a full pardon for all his offences. In 1439 and +1440 he went to France on missions of peace, and apparently at his +instigation the English council decided to release Charles, duke of +Orleans. This step further irritated Gloucester, who drew up and +presented to the king a long and serious list of charges against +Beaufort; but the council defended the policy of the cardinal and +ignored the personal accusations against him. Beaufort, however, +gradually retired from public life, and after witnessing the conclusion +of the treaty of Troyes died at Wolvesey palace, Winchester, on the 10th +of April 1447. The "black despair" which Shakespeare has cast round his +dying hours appears to be without historical foundation. He was buried +in Winchester cathedral, the building of which he finished. He also +refounded and enlarged the hospital of St Cross near Winchester. + +Beaufort was a man of considerable wealth, and on several occasions he +lent large sums of money to the king. He was the lover of Lady Alice +Fitzalan, daughter of Richard, earl of Arundel, by whom he had a +daughter, Joan, who married Sir Edward Stradling of St Donat's in +Glamorganshire. His interests were secular and he was certainly proud +and ambitious; but Stubbs has pictured the fairer side of his character +when he observes that Beaufort "was merciful in his political enmities, +enlightened in his foreign policy; that he was devotedly faithful, and +ready to sacrifice his wealth and labour for the king; that from the +moment of his death everything began to go wrong, and went worse and +worse until all was lost." + + See _Historiae Croylandensis continuatio_, translated by H.T. Riley + (London, 1854); _Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council_, + edited by N.H. Nicolas (London, 1834-1837); Aeneas Sylvius + Piccolomini, _Historica Bohemica_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1707); W. + Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895): M. + Creighton, _A History of the Papacy during the Period of the + Reformation_ (London, 1897); and L.B. Radford, _Henry Beaufort_ + (1908). + + + + +BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE (d. 1795), French historian, of whose life little is +known. In 1738 he published at Utrecht a _Dissertation sur l'incertitude +des cinq premiers siecles de l'histoire romaine_, in which he showed +what untrustworthy guides even the historians of highest repute, such as +Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were for that period, and pointed +out by what methods and by the aid of what documents truly scientific +bases might be given to its history. This was an ingenious plea, bold +for its time, against traditional history such as Rollin was writing at +that very moment. A German, Christopher Saxius, endeavoured to refute it +in a series of articles published in vols. i.-iii. of the _Miscellanea +Liviensia_. Beaufort replied by some brief and ironical _Remarques_ in +the appendix to the second edition of his _Dissertation_ (1750). +Beaufort also wrote an _Histoire de Cesar Germanicus_ (Leyden, 1761), +and _La Republique romaine, ou plan general de L'ancien gouvernement de +Rome_ (The Hague, 1766, 2 vols. quarto). Though not a scholar of the +first rank, Beaufort has at least the merit of having been a pioneer in +raising the question, afterwards elaborated by Niebuhr, as to the +credibility of early Roman history. + + + + +BEAUFORT SCALE, a series of numbers from 0 to 12 arranged by Admiral Sir +Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) in 1805, to indicate the strength of the +wind from a calm, force 0, to a hurricane, force 12, with sailing +directions such as "5, smacks shorten sails" for coast purposes, and +"royals, &c., 'full and by'" for the open sea. An exhaustive report was +made in 1906 by the Meteorological Office on the relation between the +estimates of wind-force according to Beaufort's scale and the velocities +recorded by anemometers belonging to the office, from which the +following table is taken:-- + + +---------------+--------------------+------------------+ + | | | Limits of hourly | + |Beaufort scale.| Corresponding wind.| velocity. | + +---------------+--------------------+------------------+ + | Numbers. | | Miles per hour. | + | 0 | Calm | Under 2 | + | 1-3 | Light breeze | 2-12 | + | 4-5 | Moderate wind | 13-23 | + | 6-7 | Strong wind | 24-37 | + | 8-9 | Gale | 38-55 | + | 10-11 | Storm | 56-75 | + | 12 | Hurricane |Above 75 | + +---------------+--------------------+------------------+ + + + + +BEAUFORT WEST, in Cape province, South Africa, the capital of a division +of this name, 339 m. by rail N.E. of Cape Town. Pop.(1904) 5481. The +largest town in the western part of the Great Karroo, it lies, at an +elevation of 2792 ft., at the foot of the southern slopes of the +Nieuwveld mountains. It has several fine public buildings and the +streets are lined with avenues of pear trees, while an abundant supply +of water, luxuriant orchards, fields and gardens give it the appearance +of an oasis in the desert. It is a favourite resort of invalids. The +town was founded in 1819, and in its early days was largely resorted to +by Griquas and Bechuana for the sale of ivory, skins and cattle. The +Beaufort West division has an area of 6374 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of +10,762, 45% being whites. Sheep-farming is the principal industry. + + + + +BEAUGENCY, a town of central France, in the department of Loiret, 16 m. +S.W. of Orleans on the Orleans railway, between that city and Blois. +Pop. (1906) 2993. It is situated at the foot of vine-clad hills on the +right bank of the Loire, to the left bank of which it is united by a +bridge of twenty-six arches, many of them dating from the 13th century. +The chief buildings are the chateau, mainly of the 15th century, of +which the massive donjon of the 11th century known as the Tour de Cesar +is the oldest portion; and the abbey-church of Notre-Dame, a building in +the Romanesque style of architecture, frequently restored. Some of the +buildings of the Benedictine abbey, to which this church belonged, +remain. The hotel de ville, the facade of which is decorated with +armorial bearings of Renaissance carving, and the church of St Etienne, +an unblemished example of Romanesque architecture, are of interest. +Several old houses, some remains of the medieval ramparts and the Tour +de l'Horloge, an ancient gateway, are also preserved. The town carries +on trade in grain, and has flour mills. + +The lords of Beaugency attained considerable importance in the 11th, +12th and 13th centuries; at the end of the 13th century the fief was +sold to the crown, and afterwards passed to the house of Orleans, then +to those of Dunois and Longueville and ultimately again to that of +Orleans. Joan of Arc defeated the English here in 1429. In 1567 the town +was sacked and burned by the Protestants. On the 8th, 9th and 10th of +December 1870 the German army, commanded by the grand-duke of +Mecklenburg, defeated the French army of the Loire, under General +Chanzy, in the battle of Beaugency (or Villorceau-Josnes), which was +fought on the left bank of the Loire to the N.W. of Beaugency. + + + + +BEAUHARNAIS, the name of a French family, well known from the 15th +century onward in Orleanais, where its members occupied honourable +positions. One of them, Jean Jacques de Beauharnais, seigneur de +Miramion, had for wife Marie Bonneau, who in 1661 founded a female +charitable order, called after her the Miramiones. Francois de +Beauharnais, marquis de la Ferte-Beauharnais, was a deputy in the +states-general of 1789, and a devoted defender of the monarchy. He +emigrated and served in Conde's army. Later he gave his adherence to +Napoleon, and became ambassador in Etruria and Spain; he died in 1823. +His brother Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, married Josephine Tascher +de la Pagerie (afterwards the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte) and had two +children by her--Eugene de Beauharnais (q.v.) and Hortense, who married +Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, and became mother of Napoleon III. +Claude de Beauharnais, comte des Roches-Baritaud, uncle of the marquis +and of the vicomte de Beauharnais, served in the navy and became a +vice-admiral. He married Marie Anne Francoise (called Fanny) Mouchard, a +woman of letters who had a celebrated salon. His son, also named Claude +(d. 1819), was created a peer of France in 1814, and was the father of +Stephanie de Beauharnais, who married the grand-duke of Baden. The house +of Beauharnais is still represented in Russia by the dukes of +Leuchtenberg, descendants of Prince Eugene. (M. P.*) + + + + +BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE (1781-1824), step-son of Napoleon I., was born at +Paris on the 3rd of September 1781. He was the son of the general +Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais (1760-1794) and Josephine Tascher de +la Pagerie. The father, who was born in Martinique, and served in the +American War of Independence, took part in the politics of the French +Revolution, and in June-August 1793 commanded the army of the Rhine. His +failure to fulfil the tasks imposed on him (especially that of the +relief of Mainz) led to his being arrested, and he was guillotined (23rd +June 1794) not long before the fall of Robespierre. The marriage of his +widow Josephine to Napoleon Bonaparte in March 1796 was at first +resented by Eugene and his sister Hortense; but their step-father proved +to be no less kind than watchful over their interests. In the Italian +campaigns of 1796-1797 Eugene served as aide-de-camp to Bonaparte, and +accompanied him to Egypt in the same capacity. There he distinguished +himself by his activity and bravery, and was wounded during the siege of +Acre. Bonaparte brought him back to France in the autumn of 1799, and it +is known that the intervention of Eugene and Hortense helped to bring +about the reconciliation which then took place between Bonaparte and +Josephine. The services rendered by Eugene at the time of the _coup +d'etat_ of Brumaire (1799) and during the Consulate (1799-1804) served +to establish his fortunes, despite the efforts of some of the Bonapartes +to destroy the influence of the Beauharnais and bring about the divorce +of Josephine. + +After the proclamation of the Empire, Eugene received the title of +prince, with a yearly stipend of 200,000 francs, and became general of +the _chasseurs a cheval_ of the Guard. A year later, when the Italian +republic became the kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon as king, Eugene +received the title of viceroy, with large administrative powers. (See +ITALY.) Not long after the battle of Austerlitz (2nd December 1805) +Napoleon dignified the elector of Bavaria with the title of king and +arranged a marriage between Eugene and the princess Augusta Amelia of +Bavaria. On the whole the government of Eugene gave general satisfaction +in the kingdom of Italy; it comprised the districts between the Simplon +Pass and Rimini, and also after the peace of Presburg (December 1805), +Istria and Dalmatia. In 1808 (on the further partition of the papal +states) the frontier of the kingdom was extended southwards to the +borders of the kingdom of Naples, in the part known as the Abruzzi. In +the campaign of 1809 Eugene commanded the army of Italy, with General +(afterwards Marshal) Macdonald as his _adlatus_. The battle of Sacile, +where he fought against the Austrian army of the Archduke John, did not +yield proofs of military talent on the part of Eugene or of Macdonald; +but on the retreat of the enemy into Austrian territory (owing to the +disasters of their main army on the Danube) Eugene's forces pressed them +vigorously and finally won an important victory at Raab in the heart of +the Austrian empire. Then, joining the main army under Napoleon, in the +island of Lobau in the Danube, near Vienna, Eugene and Macdonald +acquitted themselves most creditably in the great battle of Wagram (6th +July 1809). In 1810 Eugene received the title of grand-duke of +Frankfort. Equally meritorious were his services and those of the large +Italian contingent in the campaign of 1812 in Russia. He and they +distinguished themselves especially at the battles of Borodino and +Malojaroslavitz; and on several occasions during the disastrous retreat +which ensued, Eugene's soldierly constancy and devotion to Napoleon +shone out conspicuously in 1813-1814, especially by contrast with the +tergiversations of Murat. On the downfall of the Napoleonic regime +Eugene retired to Munich, where he continued to reside, with the title +duke of Leuchtenberg and prince of Eichstadt. He died in 1824, leaving +two surviving sons and three daughters. + + For further details concerning Eugene see _Memoires et correspondance + politique et militaire du Prince Eugene_, edited by Baron A. Ducasse + (10 vols., Paris, 1858-1860); F.J.A. Schneidewind, _Prinz Eugen, + Herzog van Leuchtenberg in den Feldzugen seiner Zeit_ (Stockholm, + 1857); A. Purlitzer, _Une Idylle sous Napoleon I^er: le roman du + Prince Eugene_ (Paris, 1895); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ + (Paris, 1897-1900). (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +BEAUJEU. The French province of Beaujolais was formed by the development +of the ancient seigniory of Beaujeu (department of Rhone, arrondissement +of Villefranche). The lords of Beaujeu held from the 10th century +onwards a high rank in feudal society. In 1210 Guichard of Beaujeu was +sent by Philip Augustus on an embassy to Pope Innocent III.; he was +present at the French attack on Dover, where he died in 1216. His son +Humbert took part in the wars against the Albigenses and became +constable of France. Isabeau, daughter of this Humbert, married Renaud, +count of Forez; and their second son, Louis, assumed the name and arms +of Beaujeu. His son Guichard, called the Great, had a very warlike life, +fighting for the king of France, for the count of Savoy and for his own +hand. He was taken prisoner by the Dauphinois in 1325, thereby losing +important estates. Guichard's son, Edward of Beaujeu, marshal of France, +fought at Crecy, and perished in the battle of Ardres in 1351. His son +died without issue in 1374, and was succeeded by his cousin, Edward of +Beaujeu, lord of Perreux, who gave his estates of Beaujolais and Dombes +to Louis II., duke of Bourbon, in 1400. Pierre de Bourbon was lord of +Beaujeu in 1474, when he married Anne of France, daughter of Louis XI., +and this is why that princess retained the name of lady of Beaujeu. +Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., got Beaujolais assigned to +herself despite the claims of the constable de Bourbon. In 1531 the +province was reunited to the crown; but Francis II. gave it back to the +Montpensier branch of the Bourbons in 1560, from which house it passed +to that of Orleans. The title of comte de Beaujolais was borne by a son +of Philippe "Egalite," duke of Orleans, born in 1779, died in 1808. + (M. P.*) + + + + +BEAULIEU, a village in the French department of Alpes-Maritimes. Pop. +(1906) 1460. It is about 4 m. by rail E. of Nice (1-1/4 m. from +Villefranche), and on the main line between Marseilles and Mentone; it +is also connected with Nice and Mentone by an electric tramway. Of late +years it has become a much frequented winter resort, and many handsome +villas (among them that built by the 3rd marquess of Salisbury) have +been constructed in the neighbourhood. The harbour has been extended and +adapted for the reception of yachts. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BEAULY (pronounced _Bewley_; a corruption of _Beaulieu_), a town of +Inverness-shire, Scotland, on the Beauly, 10 m. W. of Inverness by the +Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 855. Its chief interest is the beautiful +remains of the Priory of St John, founded in 1230 by John Bisset of the +Aird, for Cistercian monks. At the Reformation the buildings (except the +church, now a ruin) passed into the possession of Lord Lovat. On the +right bank of the river is the site of Lovat Castle, which once belonged +to the Bissets, but was presented by James VI. to Hugh Fraser and +afterwards demolished. To the south-east is the church of Kirkhill +containing the vault of the Lovats. Three miles south of Beauly is +Beaufort Castle, the chief seat of the Lovats, a fine modern mansion in +the Scottish baronial style. It occupies the site of a fortress erected +in the time of Alexander II., which was besieged in 1303 by Edward I. +This was replaced by several castles in succession, of which one--Castle +Dounie--was taken by Cromwell and burned by the duke of Cumberland in +1746, the conflagration being witnessed from a neighbouring hill by +Simon, Lord Lovat, before his capture on Loch Morar. The land around +Beauly is fertile and the town drives a brisk trade in coal, timber, +lime, grain and fish. + + + + +BEAUMANOIR, a seigniory in what is now the department of Cotes-du-Nord, +France, which gave its name to an illustrious family. Jean de +Beaumanoir, marshal of Brittany for Charles of Blois, and captain of +Josselin, is remembered for his share in the famous battle of the +Thirty. This battle, sung by an unknown trouvere and retold with +variations by Froissart, was an episode in the struggle for the +succession to the duchy of Brittany between Charles of Blois, supported +by the king of France, and John of Montfort, supported by the king of +England. John Bramborough, the English captain of Ploermel, having +continued his ravages, in spite of a truce, in the district commanded by +the captain of Josselin, Jean de Beaumanoir sent him a challenge, which +resulted in a fight between thirty picked champions, knights and +squires, on either side, which took place on the 25th of March 1351, +near Ploermel. Beaumanoir commanded thirty Bretons, Bramborough a mixed +force of twenty Englishmen, six German mercenaries and four Breton +partisans of Montfort. The battle, fought with swords, daggers and axes, +was of the most desperate character, in its details very reminiscent of +the last fight of the Burgundians in the _Nibelungenlied_, especially in +the celebrated advice of Geoffrey du Bois to his wounded leader, who was +asking for water: "Drink your blood, Beaumanoir; that will quench your +thirst!" In the end the victory was decided by Guillaume de Montauban, +who mounted his horse and overthrew seven of the English champions, the +rest being forced to surrender. All the combatants on either side were +either dead or seriously wounded, Bramborough being among the slain. The +prisoners were well treated and released on payment of a small ransom. +(See _Le Poeme du combat des Trente_, in the _Pantheon litteraire_; +Froissart, _Chroniques_, ed. S. Luce, c. iv. pp. 45 and 110 ff., and pp. +338-340). + +JEAN DE BEAUMANOIR (1551-1614), seigneur and afterwards marquis de +Lavardin, count of Negrepelisse by marriage, served first in the +Protestant army, but turned Catholic after the massacre of St +Bartholomew, in which his father had been killed, and then fought +against Henry of Navarre. When that prince became king of France, +Lavardin changed over to his side, and was made a marshal of France. He +was governor of Maine, commanded an army in Burgundy in 1602, was +ambassador extraordinary to England in 1612, and died in 1614. One of +his descendants, Henry Charles, marquis de Lavardin (1643-1701), was +sent as ambassador to Rome in 1689, on the occasion of a difference +between Louis XIV. and Innocent XI. + + + + +BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE REMI, SIRE DE (c. 1250-1296), French jurist, was +born in the early part of the 13th century and died in 1296. The few +facts known regarding his life are to be gathered from legal documents +in which his name occurs. From these it appears that in 1273 he filled +the post of _bailli_ at Senlis, and in 1280 held a similar office at +Clermont. He is also occasionally referred to as presiding at the +assizes held at various towns. His great work is entitled _Coutumes de +Beauvoisis_ and first appeared in 1690, a second edition with +introduction by A.A. Beugnot being published in 1842. It is regarded as +one of the best works bearing on old French law, and was frequently +referred to with high admiration by Montesquieu. Beaumanoir also +obtained fame as a poet, and left over 20,000 verses, the best known of +his poems being _La Manekine_, _Jehan et Blonde_ and _Salut d'amour_. + + + + +BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE (1732-1799), French dramatist, +was born in Paris on the 24th of January 1732. His father, a watchmaker +named Caron, brought him up to the same trade. He was an unusually +precocious and lively boy, shrewd, sagacious, passionately fond of music +and imbued with a strong desire for rising in the world. At the age of +twenty-one he invented a new escapement for watches, which was pirated +by a rival maker. Young Caron at once published his grievance in the +_Mercure_, and had the matter referred to the Academy of Sciences, which +decided in his favour. This affair brought him into notice at court; he +was appointed, or at least called himself, watchmaker to the king, who +ordered from him a watch similar to one he had made for Mme de +Pompadour. His handsome figure and cool assurance enabled him to make +his way at court. Mme Franquet, the wife of an old court official, +persuaded her husband to make over his office to young Caron, and, on +her husband's death, a few months later, married the handsome +watchmaker. Caron at the same time assumed the name Beaumarchais; and +four years later, by purchasing the office of secretary to the king +obtained a patent of nobility. + +At court his musical talents brought him under the notice of the king's +sisters, who engaged him to teach them the harp. This position enabled +him to confer a slight favour on the great banker Joseph Duverney, who +testified his gratitude by giving Beaumarchais a share in his +speculations. The latter turned the opportunity to good account, and +soon realized a handsome fortune. In 1764 he took a journey to Spain, +partly with commercial objects in view, but principally on account of +the Clavijo affair. Jose Clavijo y Fajardo had twice promised to marry +the sister of Beaumarchais, and had failed to keep his word. The +adventure had not the tragic ending of Goethe's _Clavigo_, for +Beaumarchais did not pursue his vengeance beyond words. Beaumarchais +made his first essay as a writer for the stage with the sentimental +drama _Eugenie_ (1767), in which he drew largely on the Clavijo +incident. This was followed after an interval of two years by _Les Deux +Amis_, but neither play had more than moderate success. His first wife +had died within a year of the marriage and in 1768 Beaumarchais married +Mme Leveque. Her death in 1771 was the signal for unfounded rumours of +poisoning. Duverney died in 1770; but some time before his death a +duplicate settlement of the affairs between him and Beaumarchais had +been drawn up, in which the banker acknowledged himself debtor to +Beaumarchais for 15,000 francs. Duverney's heir, the comte de La Blache, +denied the validity of the document though without directly stigmatizing +it as a forgery. The matter was put to trial. Beaumarchais gained his +cause, but his adversary at once carried the case before the parlement. +In the meantime the duc de Chaulnes forced Beaumarchais into a quarrel +over Mdlle Menard, an actress at the Comedie Italienne, which resulted +in the imprisonment of both parties. This moment was chosen by La Blache +to demand judgment from the parlement in the matter of the Duverney +agreement. Beaumarchais was released from prison for three or four days +to see his judges. He was, however, unable to obtain an interview with +Goezman, the member of the parlement appointed to report on his case. At +last, just before the day on which the report was to be given in, he was +informed privately that, by presenting 200 _louis_ to Mme Goezman and 15 +to her secretary, the desired interview might take place, if the result +should prove unfavourable the money would be refunded. The money was +sent and the interview obtained; but the decision was adverse, and 200 +_louis_ were returned, the 15 going as business expenses to the +secretary. Beaumarchais, who had learned that there was no secretary +save Mme Goezman herself, insisted on restitution of the 15 _louis_, but +the lady denied all knowledge of the affair. Her husband, who was +probably not cognisant of the details of the transaction at first, +doubtless thought the defeated litigant would be easily put down, and +at once brought an accusation against him for an attempt to corrupt +justice. The battle was fought chiefly through the _Memoires_, or +reports published by the adverse parties, and in it Beaumarchais's +success was complete. For vivacity of style, fine satire and broad +humour, his famous _Memoires_ have never been surpassed. Even Voltaire +was constrained to envy them. Beaumarchais was skilful enough to make +his particular case of universal application. He was attacking the +parlement through one of its members, and the parlement was the +universally detested body formed by the chancellor Maupeou. The +_Memoires_ were, therefore, hailed with general delight; and the author, +from being perhaps the most unpopular man in France, became at once the +idol of the people. The decision went against Beaumarchais. The +parlement condemned both him and Mme Goezman _au blame_, i.e. to civic +degradation, while the husband was obliged to abandon his position. +Beaumarchais was reduced to great straits, but he obtained restitution +of his rights within two years, and finally triumphed over his adversary +La Blache. + +During the next few years he was engaged in the king's secret service. +One of his missions was to England to destroy the _Memoires secrets +d'une femme publique_ in which Charles Theveneau de Morande made an +attack on Mme Du Barry. Beaumarchais secured this pamphlet, and burnt +the whole impression in London. Another expedition to England and +Holland to seize a pamphlet attacking Marie Antoinette led to a series +of incidents more amazing than the intrigues in Beaumarchais's own +plays, but his own account must be received with caution. Beaumarchais +pursued the libeller to Germany and overtook him in a wood near +Neustadt. After a struggle he had gained possession of the document when +he was attacked by brigands. Unfortunately the wound alleged to have +been received in this fight was proved to be self-inflicted. The +Austrian government regarded Beaumarchais with a suspicion justified by +the circumstances. He was imprisoned for some time in Vienna, and only +released on the receipt of explanations from Paris. + +His various visits to England led him to take a deep interest in the +impending struggle between the American colonies and the mother-country. +His sympathies were entirely with the former; and by his unwearied +exertions he succeeded in inducing the French government to give ample, +though private, assistance in money and arms to the Americans. He +himself, partly on his own account, but chiefly as the agent of the +French and Spanish governments, carried on an enormous traffic with +America. Under the name of Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie, he employed a fleet +of forty vessels to provide help for the insurgents. + +During the same period he produced his two famous comedies. The earlier, +_Le Barbier de Seville_, after a prohibition of two years, was put on +the stage in 1775. The first representation was a complete failure. +Beaumarchais had overloaded the last scene with allusions to the facts +of his own case and the whole action of the piece was laboured and +heavy. But he cut down and remodelled the piece in time for the second +representation, when it achieved a complete success. The intrigues which +were necessary in order to obtain a licence for the second and more +famous comedy, _Le Mariage de Figaro_, are highly amusing, and throw +much light on the unsettled state of public sentiment at the time. The +play was completed in 1778, but the opposition of Louis XVI., who alone +saw its dangerous tendencies, was not overcome till 1784. The comedy had +an unprecedented success. The principal character in both plays, Figaro, +is a completely original conception; in fact Beaumarchais drew a +portrait of himself in the resourceful adventurer, who, for mingled wit, +shrewdness, gaiety and philosophic reflection, may not unjustly be +ranked with Tartuffe. To English readers the Figaro plays are generally +known through the adaptations of them in the grand opera of Mozart and +Rossini; but in France they long retained popularity as acting pieces. +The success of _Le Mariage de Figaro_ was helped on by the methods of +self-advertisement so well understood by Beaumarchais. The proceeds of +the fiftieth performance were devoted to a charity, the choice of which +provoked numerous epigrams. Beaumarchais had the imprudence to retaliate +by personalities that were reported by his enemies to be dedicated +against the king and queen. Beaumarchais was imprisoned for a short time +by royal order in the prison of St Lazare. Brilliant pamphleteer as he +was, Beaumarchais was at last to meet more than his match. He undertook +to defend the company of the "Eaux de Paris," in which he had a large +interest, against Mirabeau, and brought down on himself an invective to +which he could offer no reply. His real influence was gone from that +date (1785-1786). Shortly afterwards he was violently attacked by +Nicolas Bergasse, whom he sued for defamation of character. He gained +his case, but his reputation had suffered in the pamphlet war. +Beaumarchais's later productions, the bombastic opera _Tarare_ (1787) +and the drama _La Mere coupable_ (1792), which was very popular, are in +no way worthy of his genius. + +By his writings Beaumarchais contributed greatly, though quite +unconsciously, to hurry on the events that led to the Revolution. At +heart he hardly seems to have been a republican, and the new state of +affairs did not benefit him. The astonishing thing is that the society +travestied in _Le Mariage de Figaro_ was the most vehement in its +applause. The court looked on at a play justly characterized by Napoleon +as the "revolution already in action" apparently without a suspicion of +its real character. His popularity had been destroyed by the Mirabeau +and Bergasse affairs, and his great wealth exposed him to the enmity of +the envious. A speculation into which he entered, to supply the +Convention with muskets from Holland, proved a ruinous failure. He was +accused of concealing arms and corn in his house, but when his house was +searched nothing was discovered but some thousands of copies of the +edition (1783-1790) of the works of Voltaire which he had had printed at +his private press at Kehl, in Baden. He was charged with treason to the +republic and was imprisoned in the Abbaye on the 20th of August 1792. A +week later he was released at the intercession of Mme Houret de la +Mariniere, who had been his mistress. He took refuge in Holland and +England. His memoirs entitled, _Mes six epoques_, detailing his +sufferings under the republic, are not unworthy of the Goezman period. +His courage and happy disposition never deserted him, although he was +hunted as an agent of the Convention in Holland and England, while in +Paris he was proscribed as an _emigre_. He returned to Paris in 1796, +and died there, suddenly, on the 18th of May 1799. + + Gudin de la Brenellerie's _Histoire de Beaumarchais_ (1809) was edited + by M. Maurice Tourneux in 1888. See also L. de Lomenie, _Beaumarchais + et son temps_ (1855), Eng. trans. by H.S. Edwards, (4. vols., 1856); + A. Hallay's _Beaumarchais_ (1897); M. de Lescure, _Eloge de + Beaumarchais_ (1886); and Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. vi. + Beaumarchais's works have been edited by Gudin (7 vols., 1809); by + Furne (6 vols., 1827); and by E. Fournier (1876). A variorum edition + of his _Theatre complet_ was published by MM. d'Heylli and de Marescot + (4 vols., 1869-1875); and a _Bibliographie des oeuvres de + Beaumarchais_, by H. Cordier in 1883. + + + + +BEAUMARIS, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of +Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the Bay of Beaumaris, not far from +Penmon, the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. Pop. (1901) 2326. It +has but one considerable street. The large castle chapel, dedicated to +the Virgin, has some fine monuments. David Hughes, of Jesus College, +Oxford, founded the free grammar school in 1603. Buildings include +town-hall and county-hall, with St Mary's church of the 13th century, +with chancel of the 16th. Practically without trade and with no +manufactures, Beaumaris is principally noted as a bathing-place. Its +earliest charter dates from 1283 and was revised under Elizabeth. The +town was formerly called Barnover and, still earlier, Rhosfair, and +bears its present name of French origin since Edward I. built its castle +in 1293. This extensive building was erected on low ground, so that the +fosse might communicate with the sea, and vessels might unload under its +walls. The castle capitulated, after siege, to General Mytton (1646). + + + + +BEAUMONT, BELMONT, or BELLOMONT, the name of a Norman and English +family, taken from Beaumont-le-Roger in Normandy. Early in the 11th +century Roger de Beaumont, a kinsman of the dukes of Normandy, married a +daughter of Waleran, count of Meulan, and their son, ROBERT DE BEAUMONT +(d. 1118), became count of Meulan or Mellent about 1080. Before this +date, however, he had fought at Hastings, and had added large estates in +Warwickshire to the Norman fiefs of Beaumont and Pont Audemer, which he +received when his father entered the abbey of St Peter at Preaux. It was +during the reigns of William II. and Henry I. that the count rose to +eminence, and under the latter monarch he became "the first among the +counsellors of the king." A "strenuous and sagacious man" he rendered +valuable service to both kings in their Norman wars, and Henry I. was +largely indebted to him for the English crown. He obtained lands in +Leicestershire, and it has been said he was created earl of Leicester; +this statement, however, is an error, although he exercised some of the +privileges of an earl. His abilities as a counsellor, statesman and +diplomatist gained him the admiration of his contemporaries, and Henry +of Huntingdon describes him as "the wisest man between this and +Jerusalem." He seems to have been a man of independent character, for he +assisted Anselm against William Rufus, although he supported Henry I. in +his quarrel with Pope Paschal II. When Robert died on the 5th of June +1118 his lands appear to have been divided between his twin sons, Robert +and Waleran, while a third son, Hugh, became earl of Bedford in 1138. + +ROBERT DE BEAUMONT (1104-1168), justiciar of England, married a +granddaughter of Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, and receiving his +father's English fiefs in 1118 became earl of Leicester. He and his +brother, Waleran, were the chief advisers of Stephen, and helped this +king to seize the bishops of Salisbury and Lincoln in 1139; later, +however, Robert made his peace with Henry II., and became chief +justiciar of England. First among the lay nobles he signed the +Constitutions of Clarendon, he sought to reconcile Henry and Archbishop +Becket, and was twice in charge of the kingdom during the king's +absences in France. The earl founded the abbey of St Mary de Pre at +Leicester and other religious houses, and by a charter confirmed the +burgesses of Leicester in the possession of their merchant-gild and +customs. His son, Robert, succeeded to the earldom of Leicester, and +with other English barons assisted prince Henry in his revolt against +his father the king in 1173. For this participation, and also on a later +occasion, he was imprisoned; but he enjoyed the favour of Richard I., +and died in Greece when returning from a pilgrimage in 1190. His son and +heir, Robert, died childless in 1204. + +WALERAN DE BEAUMONT (1104-1166) obtained his father's French fiefs and +the title of count of Meulan in 1118. After being imprisoned for five +years by Henry I. he spent some time in England, and during the civil +war between Stephen and the empress Matilda he fought for the former +until about 1150, when he deserted the king and assisted the empress. +His later history appears to have been uneventful. The county of Meulan +remained in possession of the Beaumont family until 1204, when it was +united with the royal domain. + +Another member of the Beaumont family, possibly a relative of the +earlier Beaumonts, was LOUIS DE BEAUMONT (d. 1333), bishop of Durham +from 1317 until his death. This prelate was related to the English king, +Edward II., and after a life spent in strife and ostentation, he died on +the 24th of September 1333. JOHN BEAUMONT, master of the rolls under +Edward VI., was probably a member of the same family. A dishonest and +corrupt judge, he was deprived of his office and imprisoned in 1552. + +The barony of Beaumont dates from 1309, when HENRY BEAUMONT (d. 1340), +who was constable of England in 1322, was summoned to parliament under +this title. It was retained by his descendants until the death of +William, the 7th baron and the 2nd viscount,[1] in 1507, when it fell +into abeyance. In 1840 the barony was revived in favour of Miles Thomas +Stapleton (1805-1854), a descendant of Joan, Baroness Lovel, a daughter +of the 6th baron, and it has since been retained by his descendants. + +In 1906 WENTWORTH BLACKETT BEAUMONT (1829-1907), the head of a family +well known in the north of England, was created Baron Allendale. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] His father John (d. 1460), the 6th baron, great chamberlain and + constable of England, was the first person advanced to the dignity of + a viscount in England. + + + + +BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE (1703-1781), French ecclesiastic and archbishop +of Paris, was a cadet of the Les Adrets and Saint-Quentin branch of the +illustrious Dauphine family of Beaumont. He became bishop of Bayonne in +1741, then archbishop of Vienne in 1743, and in 1746, at the age of +forty-three, archbishop of Paris. Beaumont is noted for his struggle +with the Jansenists. To force them to accept the bull _Unigenitus_ which +condemned their doctrines, he ordered the priests of his diocese to +refuse absolution to those who would not recognize the bull, and to deny +funeral rites to those who had confessed to a Jansenist priest. While +other bishops sent Beaumont their adhesion to his crusade, the parlement +of Paris threatened to confiscate his temporalities. The king forbade +the parlement to interfere in these spiritual questions, and upon its +proving obdurate it was exiled (September 18, 1753). The "royal +chamber," which was substituted, having failed to carry on the +administration of justice properly, the king was obliged to recall the +parlement, and the archbishop was sent into honourable exile (August +1754). An effort was made to induce him to resign the active duties of +his see to a coadjutor, but in spite of the most tempting +offers--including a cardinal's hat--he refused. On the contrary, to his +polemic against the Jansenists he added an attack on the _philosophes_, +and issued a formal mandatory letter condemning Rousseau's _Emile_. +Rousseau replied in his masterly _Lettre a M. de Beaumont_ (1762), in +which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is +essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force. + + De Beaumont's _Mandements, lettres et instructions pastorales_ were + published in two volumes in 1780, the year before his death. + + + + +BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN (1583-1627), English poet, second son of the judge, +Sir Francis Beaumont, was born at Grace-Dieu in Leicestershire in 1583. +The deaths of his father (in 1598) and of his elder brother, Sir Henry +Beaumont (in 1605), made the poet early the head of this brilliant +family; the dramatist, Francis Beaumont, being a younger brother. John +went to Oxford in February 1597, and entered as a gentleman commoner in +Broadgates Hall, the present Pembroke College. He was admitted to the +Inner Temple in 1600, but on the death of Henry he no doubt went down to +Grace-Dieu to manage the family estates. He began to write verse early, +and in 1602, at the age of nineteen, he published anonymously his +_Metamorphosis of Tabacco_, written in very smooth couplets, in which he +addressed Drayton as his "loving friend." He lived in Leicestershire for +many years as a bachelor, being one "who never felt Love's dreadful +arrow." But in process of time he became a tardy victim, and married a +lady of the Fortescue family, who bore him four stout sons, the eldest +of whom, another John, was accounted one of the most athletic men of his +time. "He could leap 16 ft. at one leap, and would commonly, at a +stand-leap, jump over a high long table in the hall, light on a settle +beyond the table, and raise himself straight up." This magnificent young +man was not without literary taste; he edited his father's posthumous +poems, and wrote an enthusiastic elegy on him; he was killed in 1644 at +the siege of Gloucester. Another of Sir John Beaumont's sons, Gervaise, +died in childhood, and the incidents of his death are recorded in one of +his father's most touching poems. Sir John Beaumont concentrated his +powers on a poem in eight books, entitled _The Crown of Thorns_, which +was greatly admired in MS. by the earl of Southampton and others, but +which is lost. After long retirement, Beaumont was persuaded by the duke +of Buckingham to move in larger circles; he attended court and in 1626 +was made a baronet. This honour he did not long survive, for he died on +the 19th of April 1627, and was buried in Westminster Abbey ten days +later. The new Sir John, the strong man, published in 1629 a volume +entitled _Bosworth Field; with a taste of the variety of other Poems +left by Sir John Beaumont_. No more "tastes" were ever vouchsafed, so +that it is by this volume and by the juvenile _Metamorphosis of Tobacco_ +that Beaumont's reputation has to stand. Of late years, the +peculiarities of John Beaumont's prosody have drawn attention to his +work. He wrote the heroic couplet, which was his favourite measure, with +almost unprecedented evenness. Bosworth Field, the scene of the battle +of which Beaumont's principal poem gives a vaguely epical narrative, lay +close to the poet's house of Grace-Dieu. He writes on all occasions with +a smoothness which was very remarkable in the first quarter of the 17th +century, and which marks him, with Edmund Waller and George Sandys, as +one of the pioneers of the classic reformation of English verse. + + The poems of Sir John Beaumont were included in A. Chalmers's _English + Poets_, vol. vi. (1810). An edition, with "memorial introduction" and + notes, was included (1869) in Dr A.B. Grosart's _Fuller Worthies' + Library_; and the _Metamorphosis of Tobacco_ was included in J.P. + Collier's _Illustrations of Early English Popular Literature_, vol. i. + (1863). (E. G.) + + + + +BEAUMONT and FLETCHER, English dramatists[1] The names of FRANCIS +BEAUMONT (1584-1616) and JOHN FLETCHER (1579-1625) are inseparably +connected in the history of the English drama. John Fletcher was born in +December 1579 at Rye in Sussex, and baptized on the 20th of the same +month. Richard Fletcher, his father, afterwards queen's chaplain, dean +of Peterborough, and bishop successively of Bristol, Worcester and +London, was then minister of the parish in which the son was born who +was to make their name immortal. That son was just turned of seven when +the dean distinguished and disgraced himself as the spiritual tormentor +of the last moments on earth of Mary Stuart. When not quite twelve he +was admitted pensioner of Bene't College, Cambridge, and two years later +was made one of the Bible-clerks: of this college Bishop Fletcher had +been president twenty years earlier, and six months before his son's +admission had received from its authorities a first letter of thanks for +various benefactions, to be followed next year by a second. Four years +later than this, when John Fletcher wanted five or six months of his +seventeenth year, the bishop died suddenly of over much tobacco and the +displeasure of Queen Elizabeth at his second marriage--this time, it +appears, with a lady of such character as figures something too +frequently on the stage of his illustrious son. He left eight children +by his first marriage in such distress that their uncle, Dr Giles +Fletcher, author of a treatise on the Russian commonwealth which is +still held in some repute, was obliged to draw up a petition to the +queen on their behalf, which was supported by the intercession of Essex, +but with what result is uncertain. + +From this date we know nothing of the fortunes of John Fletcher, till +the needy orphan boy of seventeen reappears as the brilliant and +triumphant poet whose name is linked for all time with the yet more +glorious name of Francis Beaumont, third and youngest son of Sir Francis +Beaumont of Grace-Dieu, one of the justices of the common pleas--born, +according to general report, in 1586, but, according to more than one +apparently irrefragable document, actually born two years earlier. The +first record of his existence is the entry of his name, together with +those of his elder brothers Henry and John, as a gentleman-commoner of +Broadgates Hall, Oxford, now supplanted by Pembroke College. But most +lovers of his fame will care rather to remember the admirable lines of +Wordsworth on the "eager child" who played among the rocks and woodlands +of Grace-Dieu; though it may be doubted whether even the boy's first +verses were of the peaceful and pastoral character attributed to them by +the great laureate of the lakes. That passionate and fiery genius which +was so soon and for so short a time to "shake the buskined stage" with +heroic and tragic notes of passion and of sorrow, of scorn and rage, and +slighted love and jealousy, must surely have sought vent from the first +in fancies of a more ardent and ambitious kind; and it would be a +likelier conjecture that when Frank Beaumont (as we know on more +authorities than one that he was always called by his contemporaries, +even in the full flush of his adult fame--"never more than Frank," says +Heywood) went to college at the ripe age of twelve, he had already +committed a tragedy or two in emulation of _Tamburlaine_, _Andronicus_ +or _Jeronymo_. The date of his admission was the 4th of February 1597; +on the 22nd of April of the following year his father died; and on the +3rd of November 1600, having left Oxford without taking his degree, the +boy of fifteen was entered a member of the Inner Temple, his two +brothers standing sponsors on the grave occasion. But the son of Judge +Beaumont was no fitter for success at the bar than the son of Bishop +Fletcher for distinction in the church: it is equally difficult to +imagine either poet invested with either gown. Two years later appeared +the poem of _Salmacis and Hermaphroditus_, generally attributed to +Beaumont, a voluptuous and voluminous expansion of the Ovidian legend, +not on the whole discreditable to a lad of eighteen, fresh from the +popular love-poems of Marlowe and Shakespeare, which it naturally +exceeds in long-winded and fantastic diffusion of episodes and conceits. +At twenty-three Beaumont prefixed to the magnificent masterpiece of Ben +Jonson some noticeable verses in honour of his "dear friend" the author; +and in the same year (1607) appeared the anonymous comedy of _The Woman +Hater_, usually assigned to Fletcher alone; but being as it is in the +main a crude and puerile imitation of Jonson's manner, and certainly +more like a man's work at twenty-two than at twenty-eight, internal +evidence would seem to justify, or at least to excuse those critics who +in the teeth of high authority and tradition would transfer from +Fletcher to Beaumont the principal responsibility for this first play +that can be traced to the hand of either. As Fletcher also prefixed to +the first edition of _Volpone_ a copy of commendatory verses, we may +presume that their common admiration for a common friend was among the +earliest and strongest influences which drew together the two great +poets whose names were thenceforward to be for ever indivisible. During +the dim eleven years between the death of his father and the dawn of his +fame, we cannot but imagine that the career of Fletcher had been +unprosperous as well as obscure. From seventeen to twenty-eight his +youth may presumably have been spent in such painful struggles for +success, if not for sustenance, as were never known to his younger +colleague, who, as we have seen, was entered at Oxford a few months +after Fletcher must in all likelihood have left Cambridge to try his +luck in London: a venture most probably resolved on as soon as the youth +had found his family reduced by the father's death to such ruinous +straits that any smoother course can hardly have been open to him. +Entering college at the same age as Fletcher had entered six years +earlier, Beaumont had before him a brighter and briefer line of life +than his elder. But whatever may have been their respective situations +when, either by happy chance or, as Dyce suggests, by the good offices +of Jonson, they were first brought together, their intimacy soon became +so much closer than that of ordinary brothers that the household which +they shared as bachelors was conducted on such thoroughly communistic +principles as might have satisfied the most trenchant theorist who ever +proclaimed as the cardinal point of his doctrine, a complete and +absolute community of bed and board, with all goods thereto +appertaining. But in the year following that in which the two younger +poets had united in homage to Jonson, they had entered into a +partnership of more importance than this in "the same clothes and cloak, +etc.," with other necessaries of life specified by Aubrey. + +In 1608, if we may trust the reckoning which seems trust-worthiest, the +twin stars of our stage rose visibly together for the first time. The +loveliest, though not the loftiest, of tragic plays that we owe to the +comrades or the successors of Shakespeare, _Philaster_, has generally +been regarded as the first-born issue of their common genius. The noble +tragedy of _Thierry and Theodoret_ has sometimes been dated earlier and +assigned to Fletcher alone; but we can be sure neither of the early date +nor the single authorship. The main body of the play, comprising both +the great scenes which throw out into full and final relief the +character of either heroine for perfect good or evil, bears throughout +the unmistakable image and superscription of Fletcher; yet there are +parts which for gravity and steady strength of style, for reserve and +temperance of effect, would seem to suggest the collaboration of a +calmer and more patient hand; and these more equable and less passionate +parts of the poem recall rather the touch of Massinger than of Beaumont. +In the second act, for example, the regular structure of the verse, the +even scheme of the action, the exaggerated braggardism which makes of +the hero a mere puppet or mouthpiece of his own self-will, are all +qualities which, for better or for worse, remind us of the strength or +the weakness of a poet with whom we know that Fletcher, before or after +his alliance with Beaumont, did now and then work in common. Even the +Arbaces of Beaumont, though somewhat too highly coloured, does not +"write himself down an ass," like Thierry on his first entrance, after +the too frequent fashion of Massinger's braggarts and tyrants; does not +proclaim at starting or display with mere wantonness of exposure his +more unlovely qualities in the naked nature of their deformity. Compare +also the second with the first scene of the fourth act. In style and +metre this second scene is as good an example of Massinger as the first +is of Fletcher at his best. Observe especially in the elaborate +narrative of the pretended self-immolation of Ordella these distinctive +notes of the peculiar style of Massinger; the excess of parenthetic +sentences, no less than five in a space of twenty lines; the classical +common-place of allusion to Athens, Rome and Sparta in one superfluous +breath; the pure and vigorous but somewhat level and prosaic order of +language, with the use of certain cheap and easy phrases familiar to +Massinger as catchwords; the flat and feeble terminations by means of +which the final syllable of one verse runs on into the next without more +pause or rhythm than in a passage of prose; the general dignity and +gravity of sustained and measured expression. These are the very points +in which the style of Massinger differs from that of Fletcher; whose +lightest and loosest verses do not overlap each other without sensible +distinction between the end of one line and the beginning of the next; +who is often too fluent and facile to be choice or forcible in his +diction, but seldom if ever prosaic or conventional in phrase or +allusion, and by no means habitually given to weave thoughts within +thoughts, knit sentence into sentence, and hang whole paragraphs +together by the help of loops and brackets. From these indications we +might infer that this poem belongs altogether to a period later than the +death of Beaumont; though even during his friend's life it appears that +Fletcher was once at least allied with Massinger and two lesser +dramatists in the composition of a play, probably the _Honest Man's +Fortune_, of which the accounts are to be found in Henslowe's papers. + +Hardly eight years of toil and triumph of joyous and glorious life were +spared by destiny to the younger poet between the date assigned to the +first radiant revelation of his genius in _Philaster_ and the date which +marks the end of all his labours. On the 6th of March 1616 Francis +Beaumont died--according to Jonson and tradition, "ere he was thirty +years of age," but this we have seen to be inconsistent with the +registry of his entrance at Oxford. If we may trust the elegiac evidence +of friends, he died of his own genius and fiery overwork of brain; yet +from the magnificent and masculine beauty of his portrait one should +certainly never have guessed that any strain of spirit or stress of +invention could have worn out so long before its time so fair and royal +a temple for so bright and affluent a soul. A student of physiognomy +will not fail to mark the points of likeness and of difference between +the faces of the two friends; both models of noble manhood, handsome and +significant in feature and expression alike;--Beaumont's the statelier +and serener of the two, with clear thoughtful eyes, full arched brows, +and strong aquiline nose, with a little cleft at the tip; a grave and +beautiful mouth, with full and finely curved lips; the form of face a +long pure oval, and the imperial head with its "fair large front" and +clustering hair set firm and carried high with an aspect at once of +quiet command and kingly observation: Fletcher's a more keen and fervid +face, sharper in outline every way, with an air of bright ardour and +glad fiery impatience; sanguine and nervous, suiting the complexion and +colour of hair; the expression of the eager eyes and lips almost +recalling that of a noble hound in act to break the leash it strains +at;--two heads as lordly of feature and as expressive of aspect as any +gallery of great men can show. That spring of 1616, we may note in +passing, was the darkest that ever dawned upon England or the world; +for, just forty-eight days afterwards, it witnessed, on the 23rd of +April, the removal from earth of the mightiest genius that ever dwelt +among men. Scarcely more than a month and a half divided the death-days +of Beaumont and of Shakespeare. Some three years earlier by Dyce's +estimate, when about the age of twenty-nine, Beaumont had married +Ursula, daughter and co-heiress to Henry Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by +whom he left two daughters, one of them posthumous. Fletcher survived +his friend just nine years and five months; he died "in the great +plague, 1625," and was buried on the 29th of August in St Saviour's, +Southwark; not, as we might have wished, beside his younger fellow in +fame, who but three days after his untimely death had added another +deathless memory to the graves of our great men in Westminster Abbey, +which he had sung in such noble verse. Dying when just four months short +of forty-six, Fletcher had thus, as well as we can now calculate, +altogether some fourteen years and six months more of life than the poet +who divides with him the imperial inheritance of their common glory. + +The perfect union in genius and in friendship which has made one name of +the two names of these great twin brothers in song is a thing so +admirable and so delightful to remember, that it would seem ungracious +and unkindly to claim for either a precedence which we may be sure he +would have been eager to disclaim. But if a distinction must be made +between the Dioscuri of English poetry, we must admit that Beaumont was +the twin of heavenlier birth. Only as Pollux was on one side a demigod +of diviner blood than Castor can it be said that on any side Beaumont +was a poet of higher and purer genius than Fletcher; but so much must be +allowed by all who have eyes and ears to discern in the fabric of their +common work a distinction without a difference. Few things are stranger +than the avowal of so great and exquisite a critic as Coleridge, that he +could trace no faintest line of demarcation between the plays which we +owe mainly to Beaumont and the plays which we owe solely to Fletcher. To +others this line has always appeared in almost every case unmistakable. +Were it as hard and broad as the line which marks off, for example, +Shakespeare's part from Fletcher's in _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, the +harmony would of course be lost which now informs every work of their +common genius, and each play of their writing would be such another +piece of magnificent patchwork as that last gigantic heir of +Shakespeare's invention, the posthumous birth of his parting Muse which +was suckled at the breast of Fletcher's as a child of godlike blood +might be reared on the milk of a mortal mother--or in this case, we +might sometimes be tempted to say, of a she-goat who left in the veins +of the heaven-born suckling somewhat too much of his nurse Amalthaea. +That question however belongs in any case more properly to the study of +Shakespeare than to the present subject in hand. It may suffice here to +observe that the contributions of Fletcher to the majestic temple of +tragedy left incomplete by Shakespeare show the lesser workman almost +equally at his best and at him worst, at his weakest and at his +strongest. In the plays which we know by evidence surer than the most +trustworthy tradition to be the common work of Beaumont and Fletcher, +there is indeed no trace of such incongruous and incompatible admixture +as leaves the greatest example of romantic tragedy--for _Cymbeline_ and +the _Winter's Tale_, though not guiltless of blood, are in their issues +no more tragic than _Pericles_ or the _Tempest_--a unique instance of +glorious imperfection, a hybrid of heavenly aid other than heavenly +breed, disproportioned and divine. But throughout these noblest of the +works inscribed generally with the names of both dramatists we trace on +every other page the touch of a surer hand, we hear at every other turn +the note of a deeper voice, than we can ever recognize in the work of +Fletcher alone. Although the beloved friend of Jonson, and in the field +of comedy his loving and studious disciple, yet in that tragic field +where his freshest bays were gathered Beaumont was the worthiest and the +closest follower of Shakespeare. In the external but essential matter of +expression by rhythm and metre he approves himself always a student of +Shakespeare's second manner, of the style in which the graver or tragic +part of his historical or romantic plays is mostly written; doubtless, +the most perfect model that can be studied by any poet who, like +Beaumont, is great enough to be in no danger of sinking to the rank of a +mere copyist, but while studious of the perfection set before him is yet +conscious of his own personal and proper quality of genius, and enters +the presence of the master not as a servant but as a son. The general +style of his tragic or romantic verse is as simple and severe in its +purity of note and regularity of outline as that of Fletcher's is by +comparison lax, effusive, exuberant. The matchless fluency and rapidity +with which the elder brother pours forth the stream of his smooth swift +verse gave probably the first occasion for that foolish rumour which has +not yet fallen duly silent, but still murmurs here and there its +suggestion that the main office of Beaumont was to correct and contain +within bounds the overflowing invention of his colleague. The poet who +while yet a youth had earned by his unaided mastery of hand such a crown +as was bestowed by the noble love and the loving "envy" of Ben Jonson +was, according to this tradition, a mere precocious pedagogue, fit only +to revise and restrain the too liberal effusions of his elder in genius +as in years. Now, in every one of the plays common to both, the real +difficulty for a critic is not to trace the hand of Beaumont, but to +detect the touch of Fletcher. Throughout the better part of every such +play, and above all of their two masterpieces, _Philaster_ and _The +Maid's Tragedy_, it should be clear to the most sluggish or cursory of +readers that he has not to do with the author of _Valentinian_ and _The +Double Marriage_. In those admirable tragedies the style is looser, more +fluid, more feminine. From the first scene to the last we are swept as +it were along the race of a running river, always at full flow of light +and buoyant melody, with no dark reaches or perilous eddies, no stagnant +pools or sterile sandbanks; its bright course only varied by sudden +rapids or a stronger ripple here and there, but in rough places or +smooth still stirred and sparkling with summer wind and sun. But in +those tragic poems of which the dominant note is the note of Beaumont's +genius a subtler chord of thought is sounded, a deeper key of emotion is +touched, than ever was struck by Fletcher. The lighter genius is +palpably subordinate to the stronger, and loyally submits itself to the +impression of a loftier spirit. It is true that this distinction is +never grave enough to produce a discord: it is also true that the plays +in which the predominance of Beaumont's mind and style is generally +perceptible make up altogether but a small section of the work that +bears their names conjointly; but it is no less true that within this +section the most precious part of that work is comprised. Outside it we +shall find no figures so firmly drawn, no such clearness of outline, no +such cunning of hands as we recognize in the three great studies of +Bellario, Evadne and Aspatia. In his male characters, as for instance in +the parts of Philaster and Arbaces, Beaumont also is apt to show +something of that exaggeration or inconsistency for which his colleague +is perhaps more frequently and more heavily to blame; but in these there +is not a jarring note, not a touch misplaced; unless, indeed, a rigid +criticism may condemn as unfeminine and incongruous with the gentle +beauty of her pathetic patience the device by which Aspatia procures +herself the death desired at the hand of Amintor. This is noted as a +fault by Dyce; but may well be forgiven for the sake of the magnificent +scene which follows, and the highest tragic effect ever attained on the +stage of either poet. That this as well as the greater part of those +other scenes which are the glory of the poem is due to Beaumont might +readily be shown at length by the process of comparison. The noble scene +of regicide, which it was found expedient to cancel during the earlier +years of the Restoration, may indeed be the work of Fletcher; but the +part of Evadne must undoubtedly be in the main assigned to the more +potent hand of his fellow. There is a fine harmony of character between +her naked audacity in the second act and her fierce repentance in the +fourth, which is not unworthy a disciple of the tragic school of +Shakespeare; Fletcher is less observant of the due balance, less heedful +of the nice proportions of good and evil in a faulty and fiery nature, +compounded of perverse instinct and passionate reaction. From him we +might have had a figure as admirable for vigour of handling, but hardly +in such perfect keeping as this of Beaumont's Evadne, the +murderess-Magdalen, whose penitence is of one crimson colour with her +sin. Nor even in Fletcher's Ordella, worthy as the part is throughout +even of the precious and exquisite praise of Lamb, is there any such +cunning touch of tenderness or delicate perfume of pathos as in the +parts of Bellario and Aspatia. These have in them a bitter sweetness, a +subtle pungency of mortal sorrow and tears of divine delight, beyond the +reach of Fletcher. His highest studies of female character have dignity, +energy, devotion of the heroic type; but they never touch us to the +quick, never waken in us any finer and more profound sense than that of +applause and admiration. There is a modest pathos now and then in his +pictures of feminine submission and slighted or outraged love; but this +submission he is apt to make too servile, this love too dog-like in its +abject devotion to retain that tender reverence which so many +generations of readers have paid to the sweet memories of Aspatia and +Bellario. To excite compassion was enough for Fletcher as in the +masculine parts of his work it was enough for him to excite wonder, to +sustain curiosity, to goad and stimulate by any vivid and violent means +the interest of readers or spectators. The single instance of noble +pathos, the one scene he has left us which appeals to the higher and +purer kind of pity, is the death of the child Hengo in _Bonduca_--a +scene which of itself would have sufficed to enrol his name for ever on +the list of our great tragic poets. To him we may probably assign the +whole merit of that fiery and high-toned tragedy, with all its spirit +and splendour of national and martial passion; the conscious and +demonstrative exchange of courtesy between Roman and Briton, which is +one of the leading notes of the poem, has in it a touch of overstrained +and artificial chivalry characteristic of Fletcher; yet the parts of +Caratach and Poenius may be counted among the loftiest and most equal of +his creations. But no surer test or better example can be taken of the +distinctive quality which denotes the graver genius of either poet than +that supplied by a comparison of Beaumont's _Triumph of Love_ with +Fletcher's _Triumph of Death_. Each little play, in the brief course of +its single act, gives proof of the peculiar touch and special trick of +its author's hand: the deeper and more delicate passion of Beaumont, the +rapid and ardent activity of Fletcher, have nowhere found a more +noticeable vent for the expression respectively of the most tender and +profound simplicity of quiet sweetness, the most buoyant and impatient +energy of tragic emotion. + +In the wider field of their comic or romantic drama it is yet easier to +distinguish the respective work of either hand. The bias of Fletcher was +towards mixed comedy; his lightest and wildest humour is usually crossed +or tempered by an infusion of romance; like Shakespeare in this one +point at least, he has left no single play without some touch on it of +serious interest, of poetic eloquence or fancy, however slight and +fugitive. Beaumont, evidently under the imperious influence of Ben +Jonson's more rigid theories, seems rather to have bent his genius with +the whole force of a resolute will into the form or mould prescribed for +comedy by the elder and greater comic poet. The admirable study of the +worthy citizen and his wife, who introduce to the stage and escort with +their applause _The Knight of the Burning Pestle_ through his +adventurous career to its untimely end, has all the force and fulness of +Jonson's humour at its best, with more of freshness and freedom. In pure +comedy, varied with broad farce and mock-heroic parody, Beaumont was the +earliest as well as the ablest disciple of the master whose mantle was +afterwards to be shared among the academic poets of a younger +generation, the Randolphs and Cartwrights who sought shelter under the +shadow of its voluminous folds. The best example of the school of Jonson +to be found outside the ample range of his own work is _The Scornful +Lady_, a comedy whose exceptional success and prolonged popularity must +have been due rather to the broad effect of its forcible situations, its +wealth and variety of ludicrous incidents, and the strong gross humour +of its dialogue, than to any finer quality of style, invention or +character. It is the only work of Beaumont and Fletcher which a critic +who weighs the meaning of his words can admit to be as coarse as the +coarsest work of Ben Jonson. They are prone, indeed, to indulge +elsewhere in a wanton and exuberant licence of talk; and Fletcher, at +least, is liable to confuse the shades of right and wrong, to deface or +efface the boundary lines of good and evil, to stain the ermine of +virtue and palliate the nakedness of vice with the same indecorous and +incongruous laxity of handling. Often in mere haste to despatch the +business of a play, to huddle up a catastrophe or throw out some +particular scene into sharp and immediate relief, he will sacrifice all +seemliness and consistency of character to the present aim of stage +effect, and the instant impression of strong incident or audacious +eloquence. His heroines are too apt to utter sentiments worthy of Diana +in language unworthy of Doll Tearsheet. But in this play both style and +sentiment are throughout on a lower level, the action and emotion are of +a baser kind than usual; the precept of Aristotle and the practice of +Jonson have been so carefully observed and exaggerated that it might +almost be said to offer us in one or two places an imitation not merely +of the sorrier but of the sorriest qualities of human nature; and full +as it is of spontaneous power and humorous invention, the comedy +extolled by the moral Steele (with just so much of reservation as +permits him to deprecate the ridicule cast upon the clerical character) +is certainly more offensive to artistic law and aesthetic judgment by +the general and ingrained coarseness of its tone, than the tragi-comedy +denounced by the immoral Dryden as exceeding in licence his own worst +work and that of his fellow playwrights; an imputation, be it said in +passing, as groundless as the protest pleaded on their behalf is +impudent; for though we may hardly agree with the uncompromising +panegyrist who commends that play in particular to the approval of "the +austere scarlet" (remembering, perhaps, that Aristophanes was the chosen +bedfellow of Chrysostom), there is at least no such offence against art +or taste in the eccentricity of its situations or the daring of its +dialogue. The buoyant and facile grace of Fletcher's style carries him +lightly across quagmires in which a heavier-footed poet, or one of +slower tread, would have stuck fast, and come forth bemired to the +knees. To Beaumont his stars had given as birthright the gifts of tragic +pathos and passion, of tender power and broad strong humour; to Fletcher +had been allotted a more fiery and fruitful force of invention, a more +aerial ease and swiftness of action, a more various readiness and +fulness of bright exuberant speech. The genius of Beaumont was deeper, +sweeter, nobler than his elder's; the genius of Fletcher more brilliant, +more supple, more prodigal, and more voluble than his friend's. Without +a taint or a shadow on his fame of such imitative servility as marks and +degrades the mere henchman or satellite of a stronger poet, Beaumont may +fairly be said to hold of Shakespeare in his tragedy, in his comedy of +Jonson; in each case rather as a kinsman than as a client, as an ally +than as a follower: but the more special province of Fletcher was a land +of his own discovering, where no later colonist has ever had power to +settle or to share his reign. With the mixed or romantic comedy of +Shakespeare it has nothing in common except the admixture or alternation +of graver with lighter interest, of serious with humorous action. +Nothing is here of his magic exaltation or charm of fairy empire. The +rare and rash adventures of Fletcher on that forbidden track are too +sure to end in pitiful and shameful failure. His crown of praise is to +have created a wholly new and wholly delightful form of mixed comedy or +dramatic romance, dealing merely with the humours and sentiments of men, +their passions and their chances; to have woven of all these a web of +emotion and event with such gay dexterity, to have blended his colours +and combined his effects with such exquisite facility and swift light +sureness of touch, that we may return once and again from those heights +and depths of poetry to which access was forbidden him, ready as ever to +enjoy as of old the fresh incomparable charm, the force and ease and +grace of life, which fill and animate the radiant world of his romantic +invention. Neither before him nor after do we find, in this his special +field of fancy and of work, more than shadows or echoes of his coming or +departing genius. Admirable as are his tragedies already mentioned, rich +in splendid eloquence and strong in large grasp of character as is the +Roman history of _The False One_, full of interest and vigour as is the +better part of _Rollo Duke of Normandy_, and sublime in the loveliness +of passion as is the one scene of perfect beauty and terror which crowns +this latter tragedy, Fletcher may claim a yet higher and more special +station among his great dramatic peers by right of his comic and +romantic than by right of his tragic and historic plays. Even in these +he is more a romantic than a tragic poet. The quality of his genius, +never sombre or subtle or profound, bears him always towards fresh air +and sunshine. His natural work is in a midday world of fearless boyish +laughter and hardly bitter tears. There is always more of rainbow than +of storm in his skies; their darkest shadow is but a tragic twilight. +What with him is the noon of night would seem as sunshine on the stage +of Ford or Webster. There is but one passage in all these noble plays +which lifts us beyond a sense of the stage, which raises our admiration +out of speech into silence, tempers and transfigures our emotion with a +touch of awe. And this we owe to the genius of Beaumont, exalted for an +instant to the very tone and manner of Shakespeare's tragedy, when +Amintor stands between the dead and the dying woman whom he has +unwittingly slain with hand and tongue. The first few lines that drop +from his stricken lips are probably the only verses of Beaumont or +Fletcher which might pass for Shakespeare's even with a good judge of +style-- + + "This earth of mine doth tremble," &c. + +But in Fletcher's tragedy, however we may be thrilled and kindled with +high contagious excitement, we are never awed into dumb delight or +dread, never pierced with any sense of terror or pity too deep or even +deep enough for tears. Even his Brunhalts and Martias can hardly +persuade us to forget for the moment that "they do but jest, poison in +jest." A critic bitten with the love of classification might divide +those plays of Fletcher usually ranked together as comedies into three +kinds: the first he would class under the head of pure comedy, the next +of heroic or romantic drama, the third of mixed comedy and romance; in +this, the last and most delightful division of the poet's work the +special qualities of the two former kinds being equally blended and +delicately harmonized. The most perfect and triumphant examples of this +class are _The Spanish Curate, Monsieur Thomas, The Custom of the +Country_, and _The Elder Brother_. Next to these and not too far below +them, we may put _The Little French Lawyer_ (a play which in its broad +conception of a single eccentric humour suggests the collaboration of +Beaumont and the influence of Jonson, but in style and execution +throughout is perfect Fletcher), _The Humorous Lieutenant_ (on which an +almost identical verdict might be passed), _Women Pleased, Beggars' +Bush_, and perhaps we might add _The Fair Maid of the Inn_; in most if +not in all of which the balance of exultant and living humour with +serious poetic interest of a noble and various kind is held with even +hand and the skill of a natural master. In pure comedy _Rule a Wife and +have a Wife_ is the acknowledged and consummate masterpiece of Fletcher. +Next to it we might class, for comic spirit and force of character, _Wit +without Money, The Wildgoose Chase, The Chances_, and _The Noble +Gentleman_, a broad poetic farce to whose overflowing fun and masterdom +of extravagance no critic has ever done justice but Leigh Hunt, who has +ventured, not without reason, to match its joyous and preposterous +audacities of superlative and sovereign foolery with the more +sharp-edged satire and practical merriment of _King and No King_, where +the keen prosaic humour of Bessus and his swordsmen is as typical of the +comic style in which Beaumont had been trained up under Ben Jonson as +the high interest and graduated action of the serious part of the play +are characteristic of his more earnest genius. Among the purely romantic +plays of Fletcher, or those in which the comic effect is throughout +subordinate to the romantic, _The Knight of Malta_ seems most worthy of +the highest place for the noble beauty and exaltation of spirit which +informs it with a lofty life, for its chivalrous union of heroic passion +and Catholic devotion. This poem is the fairest and the first example of +those sweet fantastic paintings in rose-colour and azure of visionary +chivalry and ideal holiness, by dint of which the romance of more recent +days has sought to cast the glamour of a mirage over the darkest and +deadliest "ages of faith." The pure and fervent eloquence of the style +is in perfect keeping with the high romantic interest of character and +story. In the same class we may rank among the best samples of +Fletcher's workmanship _The Pilgrim, The Loyal Subject, A Wife for a +Month, Love's Pilgrimage_, and _The Lover's Progress_,--rich all of them +in exquisite writing, in varied incident, in brilliant effects and +graceful and passionate interludes. In _The Coxcomb_, and _The Honest +Man's Fortune_--two plays which, on the whole, can hardly be counted +among the best of their class--there are tones of homelier emotion, +touches of a simpler and more pathetic interest than usual; and here, as +in the two admirable first scenes between Leucippus and Bacha, which +relieve and redeem from contempt the tragic burlesque of _Cupid's +Revenge_, the note of Beaumont's manner is at once discernible. + +Even the most rapid revision of the work done by these great twin poets +must impress every capable student with a sense of the homage due to +this living witness of their large and liberal genius. The loss of their +names from the roll of English poetry would be only less than the loss +of the few greatest inscribed on it. Nothing could supply the want of +their tragic, their comic or romantic drama; no larger or more fiery +planet can ever arise to supplant or to eclipse the twin lights of our +zodiac. Whatever their faults of shortcoming or excess, there is in +their very names or the mere thought of their common work a kind of +special and personal attraction for all true lovers of high dramatic +poetry. There is the glory and grace of youth in all they have left us; +if there be also somewhat too much of its graceless as well as its +gracious qualities, yet there hangs about their memory as it were a +music of the morning, a breath and savour of bright early manhood, a +joyous and vigorous air of free life and fruitful labour, which might +charm asleep for ever all thought or blame of all mortal infirmity or +folly, or any stain of earth that may have soiled in passing the feet of +creatures half human and half divine while yet they dwelt among men. For +good or for evil, they are above all things poets of youth; we cannot +conceive of them grown grey in the dignity of years, venerable with the +authority of long life, and weighted with the wisdom of experience. In +the Olympian circle of the gods and giants of our race who on earth were +their contemporaries and corrivals, they seem to move among the graver +presences and figures of sedater fame like the two spoilt boys of +heaven, lightest of foot and heart and head of all the brood of deity. +Shakespeare may have smiled as Jonson may have nodded approval of their +bright swift work, neither of these great elders grudging his praise to +the special charm which won for it a preference during one generation at +least even over their own loftier and weightier verse; and indeed the +advance in natural ease, in truth and grace of dialogue, is alike +manifest whether we turn to such of their comic characters as Valentine +and Don John, Rutilio and Monsieur Thomas, from the Truewit of Jonson or +even from the Mercutio of Shakespeare; the one too stiff with classic +starch, the other too full of mere verbal catches and forced conceits, +to persuade us that either can in any age have fairly represented the +light free talk and facile humour of its youth. In another field than +this Beaumont and Fletcher hold as high and secure a station of their +own as any poet of their race. In perfect workmanship of lyrical +jewellery, in perfect bloom and flower of song-writing, they equal all +compeers whom they do not excel; the blossoms of their growth in this +kind may be matched for colour and fragrance against Shakespeare's, and +for morning freshness and natural purity of form exceed the finest +grafts of Jonson. _The Faithful Shepherdess_ alone might speak for +Fletcher on this score, being as it is simply a lyric poem in +semi-dramatic shape, to be judged only as such, and as such almost +faultless; but in no wise to be classed for praise or blame among the +acting plays of its author, whose one serious error in the matter was +the submission of his Dryad to the critical verdict of an audience too +probably in great part composed of clowns and satyrs far unlike the +loving and sweet-tongued sylvan of his lovely fancy. And whether we +assign to him or to Beaumont the divine song of melancholy (_moestius +lacrymis Simonideis_), perfect in form as Catullus and profound in +sentiment as Shelley, which Milton himself could but echo and expand, +could not heighten or deepen its exquisite intensity of thought and word +alike, there will remain witness enough for the younger brother of a +lyric power as pure and rare as his elder's. + +The excess of influence and popularity over that of other poets usually +ascribed to the work of Beaumont and Fletcher for some half century or +so after their own time has perhaps been somewhat overstated by +tradition. Whatever may have been for a season the fashion of the stage, +it is certain that Shakespeare can show two editions for one against +them in folio; four in all from 1623 to 1685, while they have but their +two of 1647 and 1679. Nor does one see how it can accurately or even +plausibly be said that they were in any exact sense the founders of a +school either in comedy or in tragedy. Massinger, for some years their +survivor, and in some points akin to them as a workman, cannot properly +be counted as their disciple; and no leading poet of the time had so +much in common with them as he. At first sight, indeed, his choice of +romantic subject and treatment of foreign stories, gathered from the +fertile tale-tellers of the south, and ranging in date from Boccaccio to +Cervantes, may seem to mark him out as a member of the same school; but +the deepest and most distinctive qualities of his genius set it far +apart from theirs; though undoubtedly not so far that any discrepancy or +discord should impair the excellence or injure the keeping of works in +which he took part with Fletcher. Yet, placed beside theirs, the tone of +his thought and speech seems by comparison severe as well as sober, and +sad as well as severe. Their extravagant and boyish insanity of +prostrate royalism is not more alien from his half pensive and half +angry undertone of political protest than his usually careful and +complete structure of story from their frequently lax and slovenly +incoherence of character or plot, than his well composed and +proportioned metre from their lighter and looser melodies, than the +bitter insistence and elaborate acrimony of his judicial satire on +hypocrisy or oppression from the gaiety or facility of mood which +suffers them in the shifting of a scene to redeem their worst characters +by some juggler's trick of conversion at the last moment allowed them to +wind up a play with universal reconciliation and an act of oblivion on +all hands. They could hardly have drawn with such steady skill and +explicit finish an Overreach or a Luke; but the strenuous and able work +of Massinger at its highest point of success has no breath in it of +their brighter and more immediate inspiration. Shirley, on the other +hand, may certainly be classed as a pupil who copied their style in +water-colour; his best tragedy and his best comedy, _The Traitor_ and +_The Lady of Pleasure_, might pass muster undetected among the plays of +Fletcher, and might fairly claim to take rank above the lowest class of +these. In the finest work of Middleton we recognize an almost exact +reproduction of Fletcher's metrical effects,--a reverberation of that +flowing music, a reiteration of those feminine final notes. In his later +tragi-comedies, throughout his masterpiece of _Women beware Women_, and +in the noble scenes which make up the tragic or serious parts of _The +Changeling_ or _The Spanish Gipsy_,--wherever, in a word, we find the +admirable but unequal genius of this poet at its best--we find a +likeness wholly wanting in his earlier and ruder work, which undoubtedly +suggests the influence of Fletcher. Other instances of imitation, other +examples of discipleship, might perhaps be found among lesser men of the +next generation; but the mass of succeeding playwrights began in a very +short time to lower the style and debase the scheme of dramatic poetry; +and especially to loosen the last ties of harmony, to deface the very +form and feature of tragic verse. In Shirley, the last and least of +those in whom the lineal blood of the old masters was yet discernible, +we find side by side with the fine ancestral indications of legitimate +descent exactly such marks of decadence rather than degeneracy as we +might have anticipated in the latest heir of a long line which began +with the rise of Marlowe, "sun of the morning," in the highest heaven of +our song, to prepare a pathway for the sun. After Shakespeare there was +yet room for Beaumont and Fletcher; but after these and the other +constellations had set, whose lights filled up the measure of that +diviner zodiac through which he moved, there was but room in heaven for +the pallid moonrise of Shirley; and before this last reflex from a +sunken sun was itself eclipsed, the glory had passed away from English +drama, to alight upon that summit of epic song, whence Milton held +communion with darkness and the stars. (A. C. S.) + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX + +The chief collected editions of the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher are: +_Comedies and Tragedies written by Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher +Gentlemen_, printed by Humphrey Moseley in folio in 1647 as containing +plays "never printed before"; _Fifty Comedies and Tragedies written, +etc._ (fol. 1679); _Works_ ... (11 vols. 1843-1846), edited by Alexander +Dyce, which superseded earlier editions by L. Theobald, G. Colman and H. +Weber, and presented a modernized text; a second two-volume edition by +Dyce in 1852; _The Works of Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher_ (15 +vols. 1905, &c.) edited by Arnold Glover and A.R. Waller in the +"Cambridge English Classics" from the text of the 2nd folio, and giving +variant readings from all separate issues of the plays previous to that +edition; and _Works_ ... (12 vols. 1904, &c.), under the general +editorship of A.H. Bullen, the text of which is founded on Dyce but with +many variant readings, the last volume containing memoirs and excursuses +by the editor. + +The foundation of all critical work on Beaumont and Fletcher is to be +found in Dyce. Discrimination between the work of the two dramatists and +their collaborators has been the object of a series of studies for the +establishment of metrical and other tests. Fletcher's verse is +recognizable by the frequency of an extra syllable, often an accented +one, at the end of a line, the use of stopped lines, and the frequency +of trisyllabic feet. He thus obtained an adaptable instrument enabling +him to dispense with prose even in comic scenes. The pioneer work in +these matters was done by F.G. Fleay in a paper read before the New +Shakspere Society in 1874 on "Metrical Tests as applied to Fletcher, +Beaumont and Massinger." His theories were further developed in the +article "Fletcher" in his _Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama_. Further +investigations were published by R. Boyle in _Englische Studien_ (vols. +v.-x., Heilbronn, 1882-1887), and in the New Shakspere Society +_Transactions_ (1880-1886), by Benno Leonhardt in _Anglia_ (Halle, vols. +xix. _seq._), and by E.H. Oliphant in _Englische Studien_ (vols. xiv. +_seq._). Mr Oliphant restores to Beaumont much which other critics had +been inclined to deny him. On the sources of the plays see E. Koppel in +_Munchener Beitrage zur roman. u. eng. Phil._ (Erlangen and Leipzig, +1895). Consult further articles by A.H. Bullen and R. Boyle respectively +on Fletcher and Massinger in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._; G.C. Macaulay, +_Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study_ (1883); and Dr A.W. Ward's chapter +on "Beaumont and Fletcher" in vol. ii. of his _Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit._ +(new ed. 1899). + +A list of the plays attributed to Beaumont and Fletcher, with some +details, is added, with the premiss that beyond the main lines of +criticism laid down in Mr Swinburne's article above it is often +difficult to dogmatize on authorship. Even in cases where the play was +produced long after Beaumont had ceased to write for the stage there can +be no certainty that we are not dealing with a piece which is an +adaptation of an earlier play by a later hand. + + _The Joint Works of Beaumont and Fletcher.--The Scornful Lady_ (acted + c. 1609, pr. 1616) is a farcical comedy of domestic life, in which + Oliphant finds traces of alteration by a third and perhaps a fourth + hand. _Philaster or Love Lies a-Bleeding_ is assigned by Macaulay to + Beaumont practically in its entirety, while Fleay attributes only + three scenes to Fletcher. It was probably acted c. 1609, and was + printed 1620; it was revised (1695) by Elkanah Settle and (1763) by + the younger Colman, probably owing its long popularity to the touching + character of Bellario. Beaumont's share also predominated in _The + Maid's Tragedy_ (acted c. 1609, pr. 1619), in _A King and No King_ + (acted at court December 26, 1611, and perhaps earlier, pr. 1619), + while _The Knight of the Burning Pestle_ (c. 1610, pr. 1613), + burlesquing the heroic and romantic play of which Heywood's _Four + Prentices_ is an example, might perhaps be transferred entire to + Beaumont's account. In _Cupid's Revenge_ (acted at court January 1612, + and perhaps at Whitefriars in 1610, pr. 1615), founded on Sidney's + _Arcadia_, the two dramatists appear to have had a third collaborator + in Massinger and perhaps a fourth in Nathaniel Field. + + The _Coxcomb_ (acted c. 1610, and by the Children of the Queen's + Revels in 1612, pr. 1647) seems to have undergone later revision by + Massinger. Fletcher's collaboration with other dramatists had begun + during his connexion with Beaumont, who apparently ceased to write for + the stage two or three years before his death. + + _Works Assigned to Beaumont's Sole Authorship.--The Woman-Hater_ (pr. + 1607, as "lately acted by the children of Paul's") was assigned + formerly to Fletcher. The _Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_ + was presented at Whitehall on the 26th of February 1612, on the + marriage of the Prince and Princess Palatine. Of _Four Plays, or Moral + Representations, in One_ (acted 1608, pr. 1647), the _Induction_, with + _The Triumph of Honour_ and _The Triumph of Love_, both founded on + tales from the _Decameron_, are by Beaumont. + + _Works Assigned to Fletcher's Sole Authorship.--The Faithful + Shepherdess_ (pr. c. 1609) was ill received on its original + production, but was revived in 1634. That Fletcher was the sole author + is practically unquestioned, though Ben Jonson in Drummond's + _Conversations_ is made to assert that "Beaumont and Fletcher ten + years since hath written _The Faithful Shepherdess_." It was + translated into Latin verse by Sir R. Fanshawe in 1658, and Milton's + _Comus_ owes not a little to it. In _Four Plays in One_, the two last, + _The Triumph of Death_ and _The Triumph of Time_, are Fletcher's. In + the indifferent comedy of _The Captain_ (acted 1612-1613, revived + 1626, pr. 1647) there is no definite evidence of any other hand than + Fletcher's, though the collaboration of Beaumont, Massinger and Rowley + has been advanced. Other Fletcher plays are: _Wit Without Money_ + (acted 1614, pr. 1639); the two romantic tragedies of _Bonduca_ (in + which Caradach or Caractacus is the chief figure rather than Bonduca + or Boadicea) and _Valentinian_, both dating from c. 1616 and printed + in the first folio; _The Loyal Subject_ (acted 1618, revived at court + 1633, pr. 1647); _The Mad Lover_ (acted before March 1619, pr. 1647), + which borrows something from the story of Mundus and Paulina in + Josephus (bk. xviii.); _The Humorous Lieutenant_ (1619, pr. 1647); + _Woman Pleased_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647); _The Woman's Prize or The Tamer + Tam'd_ (produced probably between 1610 and 1613, acted 1633 at + Blackfriars and at court, pr. 1647), a kind of sequel to _The Taming + of the Shrew_; _The Chances_ (uncertain date, pr. 1647), taken from + _La Sennora Cornelia_ of Cervantes, and repeatedly revived after the + Restoration and in the 18th century; _Monsieur Thomas_ (acted perhaps + as early as 1609, pr. 1639); _The Island Princess_ (c. 1621, pr. + 1647); _The Pilgrim_ and _The Wild Goose-Chase_ (pr. 1652), the second + of which was adapted in prose by Farquhar, both acted at court in + 1621, and possibly then not new pieces; _A Wife for a Month_ (acted + 1624, pr. 1647); _Rule a Wife and Have a Wife_ (lic. 1624, pr. 1640). + _The Pilgrim_ received additions from Dryden, and was adapted by + Vanbrugh. + + _Fletcher in Collaboration with other Dramatists._--External evidence + of Fletcher's connexion with Massinger is given by Sir Aston Cokaine, + who in an epitaph on Fletcher and Massinger wrote: "Playes they did + write together, were great friends," and elsewhere claimed for + Massinger a share in the plays printed in the 1647 folio. James + Shirley and William Rowley have their part in the works that used to + be included in the Beaumont and Fletcher canon; and to a letter from + Field, Daborne and Massinger, asking for L5 for their joint + necessities from Henslowe about the end of 1615, there is a postscript + suggesting the deduction of the sum from the "mony remaynes for the + play of Mr Fletcher and ours." The problem is complicated when the + existing versions of the play are posterior to Fletcher's lifetime, + that is, revisions by Massinger or another of pieces which were even + originally of double authorship. In this way Beaumont's work may be + concealed under successive revisions, and it would be rash to assert + that none of the late plays contains anything of his. Mr R. Boyle + joins the name of Cyril Tourneur to those of Fletcher and Massinger in + connexion with _The Honest Man's Fortune_ (acted 1613, pr. 1647), + which Fleay identifies with "the play of Mr Fletcher's and ours." _The + Knight of Malta_ (acted 1618-1619, pr. 1647) is in its existing form a + revision by Fletcher, Massinger, and possibly Field, of an earlier + play which Oliphant thinks was probably written by Beaumont about + 1608. The same remarks (with the exclusion of Field's name) apply to + _Thierry and Theodoret_ (acted c. 1617, pr. 1621), perhaps a satire on + contemporary manners at the French court, though Beaumont's share in + either must be regarded as problematical. Fletcher and Massinger's + great tragedy of _Sir John van Olden Barnaveldt_ (acted 1619) was + first printed in Bullen's _Old Plays_ (vol. ii., 1883). They followed + it up with _The Custom of the Country_ (acted 1619, pr. 1647), based + on an English translation (1619) of _Los Trabajos de Persiles y + Sigismunda; The Double Marriage_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647); _The Little + French Lawyer_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647), the plot of which can be traced + indirectly to a _novellino_ by Massuccio Salernitano; _The Laws of + Candy_ (c. 1618, pr. 1647), of disputed authorship; _The False One_ + (c. 1620, pr. 1647), dealing with the subject of Caesar and + Cleopatra; _The Spanish Curate_ (acted 1622, pr. 1647), repeatedly + revived after the Restoration, was derived from Leonard Digges's + translation (1622) of a Spanish novel, _Gerardo, the Unfortunate + Spaniard; The Prophetess_ (1622, pr. 1647), afterwards made into an + opera by Betterton to Purcell's music; _The Sea-Voyage_ (1622, pr. + 1647); _The Elder Brother_ (perhaps originally written by Fletcher + c. 1614; revised and acted 1635, pr. 1647); _Beggar's Bush_ (acted + at court 1622, probably then not new, pr. 1647); and _The Noble + Gentleman_ (1625-1626, pr. 1647). Fletcher only had a small share in + _Wit at Several Weapons_--"if he but writ an act or two," says an + epilogue on its revival (1623 or 1626),--and the play is probably a + revision by Rowley and Middleton of an early Beaumont and Fletcher + play. _A Very Woman_ (1634, pr. 1655) is a revision by Massinger of + _The Woman's Plot_ ascribed to Fletcher and acted at court in 1621. + Field worked with Fletcher and Massinger on the lost play of the + _Jeweller of Amsterdam_ (1619), as on the _Faithful Friends_ + (1613-1614) and _The Queen of Corinth_ (c. 1618, pr. 1647). _The + Lover's Progress_ (acted 1634, pr. 1647) is probably a revision by + Massinger of the Fletcher play licensed in 1623 as _The Wandering + Lovers_, and is perhaps identical with _Cleander_, licensed in 1634. + _Love's Cure or The Martial Maid_ (1623 or 1625) is thought by Mr + Fleay to be a revision by Massinger of a Beaumont and Fletcher play + produced as early as 1607-1608. W. Rowley joined Fletcher in _The Maid + in the Mill_ (1623, pr. 1647), and had a share with Massinger in the + revision of _The Fair Maid of the Inn_ (licensed 1626, pr. 1647), + based on _La illustre Fregona_ of Cervantes. _Nice Valour_ (acted + 1625-1626, pr. 1647) seems to have been altered by Middleton from an + earlier play; _The Widow_, printed in 1652 as by Jonson, Fletcher and + Middleton, must be ascribed almost exclusively to Middleton. _The + Night Walker_ (1633) is a revision by Shirley of a Fletcher play. + + _Fletcher and Jonson in Collaboration._--The history of _The Bloody + Brother or Rollo, Duke of Normandy_, printed in 1637 as by "B.J.F.," + is matter of varied speculation. Mr Oliphant thinks the basis of the + play to be an early work (c. 1604) of Beaumont, on which is + superimposed a revision (1616) by Fletcher, Jonson and Middleton, and + a subsequent revision (1636-1637) by Massinger. The general view is + that the main portion of the play is referable to Jonson and Fletcher. + Jonson apparently had a share in Fletcher's _Love's Pilgrimage_ (pr. + 1647), which seems to have been revised by Massinger in 1635. + + _Fletcher and Shakespeare._--_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ was printed in + 1634 as by Mr John Fletcher and Mr William Shakespeare. If its first + representation was in 1625 it was in the year of Fletcher's death. It + was included in the second folio of Beaumont and Fletcher's comedies + and tragedies. If Shakespeare and Fletcher worked in concert it was + probably in 1612-1613, and the existing play probably represents a + revision by Massinger in 1625. _Henry VIII._ (played at the Globe in + 1613) is usually ascribed mainly to Fletcher and Massinger, and the + conditions of its production were probably similar. Fletcher and + Shakespeare are together credited at Stationers' Hall with the lost + play of _Cardenio_, destroyed by Warburton's cook. (M. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Recent research has resulted in some variation of opinion as to + the precise authorship of some of the plays commonly attributed to + them; but this article, contributed to the ninth edition of the + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, remains the classical modern criticism of + Beaumont and Fletcher, and its value is substantially unaffected. As + representing to the end the views of its distinguished author, it is + therefore retained as written, the results of later research being + epitomized in the Bibliographical Appendix at the end. (_Ed._) + + + + +BEAUMONT, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Texas, U.S.A., +situated on the Neches river, in the E. part of the state, about 28 m. +from the Gulf of Mexico and 72 m. N.E. of Galveston. Pop. (1890) 3296; +(1900) 9427, of whom 2953 were negroes; (1910, census) 20,640. It is +served by the Gulf & Interstate, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the +Kansas City Southern, the Texas & New Orleans, the Colorado Southern, +New Orleans & Pacific, the Beaumont, Sour Lake & Western (from Beaumont +to Sour Lake, Tex.), and the (short) Galveston, Beaumont & North-Eastern +railways. The Neches river from Beaumont to its mouth has a depth of not +less than 19 ft.; from its mouth extends a canal (9 ft. deep, 100 ft. +wide, and 12 m. long) which connects with the Port Arthur Canal (180 ft. +wide and 25 ft. deep) extending to the sea. Situated in the midst of a +region covered with dense forests of pine and cypress, Beaumont is one +of the largest lumber centres of the southern states; it is also the +centre of a large rice-growing region. The manufactories include rice +mills, saw mills, sash, door and blind factories, shingle mills, iron +works, oil refineries, broom factories and a dynamite factory. In 1905 +the cleaning and polishing of rice was the most important industry, its +output being valued at $1,203,123, being nearly twice the value of the +product of the rice mills of the city in 1900, 25.9% of the total value +of the state's product of polished and cleaned rice, 46.1% of the value +($2,609,829) of all of Beaumont's factory products, and about 7.4% of +the value of the product of polished and cleaned rice for the whole +United States in 1905. After the sinking of oil wells in 1901, Beaumont +became one of the principal oil-producing places in the United States; +its oil refineries are connected by pipe lines with the surrounding oil +fields, and two 6-in. pipe lines extend from Beaumont to Oklahoma. +Beaumont was first settled in 1828, and was first chartered as a city in +1899. + + + + +BEAUNE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Cote-d'Or, on the Bouzoise, 23 m. S.S.W. of Dijon on the +main line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 11,668. Beaune lies at +the foot of the hills of Cote-d'Or. Portions of its ancient +fortifications are still to be seen, but they have been for the most +part replaced by a shady promenade which separates the town from its +suburbs. The most interesting feature of Beaune is the old hospital of +St Esprit, founded in 1443 by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of Burgundy. +Though it is built largely of wood, the fabric is in good preservation. +The exterior is simple, but the buildings which surround the main +courtyard have high-pitched roofs surmounted by numerous dormer windows +with decorated gables, recalling the Flemish style of architecture. In +the interior there are several interesting apartments; the chief of +these is the ample council chamber with its fine tapestries, where an +important wine sale is held annually. The hospital possesses many +artistic treasures, among them the mural paintings of the 17th century +in the Salle St Hugues and an altar-piece, the Last Judgment, attributed +to Roger van der Weyden. The principal church of the town, Notre-Dame, +dating mainly from the 12th and 13th centuries, has a fine central tower +and a triple portal with handsome wooden doors. In the interior there is +some valuable tapestry of the 15th century, and other works of art. Two +round towers (15th century) are a survival of the castle of Beaune, +dismantled by Henry IV. A belfry of 1403 and several houses of the +Renaissance period, some of which are built over ancient wine-cellars, +are architecturally notable. There is a statue to the mathematician, G. +Monge, born in the town (1746), and a monument to Pierre Joigneaux the +politician (d. 1892). Beaune has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a chamber of commerce, a school of agriculture and viticulture +and colleges for girls and boys. It carries on considerable trade in +live-stock and cereals and in the vegetables of its market-gardens, and +manufactures of casks, corks, white metal, oil, vinegar and machinery +for the wine-trade are included among the industries; it is chiefly +important for its vineyards and as the centre of the wine-trade of +Burgundy. + +Beaune was a fortified Roman camp and a stronghold during the middle +ages. It was the capital of a separate county which in 1227 was united +to the duchy of Burgundy; it then became the first seat of the +Burgundian parlement or _jours generaux_ and a ducal residence. On the +death of Charles the Bold, it sided with his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, +but was besieged and taken by the forces of Louis XI. in 1478. Its rank +as commune, conceded to it in 1203, was confirmed by Francis I. in 1521. +In the Wars of Religion it at first sided with the League, but +afterwards opened its gates to the troops of Henry IV., from whom it +received the confirmation of its communal privileges and permission to +demolish its fortifications. The revocation of the edict of Nantes +struck a severe blow at the cloth and iron industries, which had +previously been a source of prosperity to the town. In the 18th century +there were no fewer than seven monastic buildings in Beaune, besides a +Bernardine abbey, a Carthusian convent and an ecclesiastical college. + + + + +BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE (c. 1772-?), French adventurer, the son of a +poor vinegrower named Leuthraud, was born about 1772. He received the +name Beauregard from a nobleman in whose service he was engaged as +valet. On the outbreak of the revolution, this nobleman converted all +his fortune into gold, and entrusting the bag containing the cash to his +valet, fled to the frontier. For security's sake master and man took +different roads, but Beauregard turned back with the money to Paris. By +speculations in provisions and military equipments under the +Directorate he amassed a considerable fortune, and styling himself the +marquis de Beauregard, purchased a splendid mansion and began giving +magnificent entertainments. Detected at the height of his success, the +impostor was arrested and condemned to four years in irons and to be +branded. He soon escaped from prison, and had the audacity to reappear +in Paris and start his old life afresh. After a short time, however, he +disappeared again, and is supposed to have committed suicide. It is +probable that most of the information available about him is a blend of +fact and fiction. + + + + +BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT (1818-1893), American soldier, was +born near New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 28th of May 1818. At the United +States military academy he graduated second in his class in July 1838, +and was appointed lieutenant of engineers. In the Mexican War he +distinguished himself in siege operations at Vera Cruz, and took part in +all the battles around Mexico, being wounded at Chapultepec, and +receiving the brevets of captain and major. In 1853 he became captain +and was in charge of fortification and other engineer works of various +points, on the Gulf coast from 1853 to 1860. He had just been appointed +superintendent of West Point when the secession of his state brought +about his resignation (20th February 1861). As a brigadier-general of +the new Confederate army he directed the bombardment of Fort Sumter, +S.C. As the commander of the Southern "Army of the Potomac" he opposed +McDowell's advance to Bull Run, and during the battle was second in +command under Joseph E. Johnston, who had joined him on the previous +evening. He was one of the five full generals appointed in August 1861, +and in 1862 was second in command under Sidney Johnston on the +Tennessee. After Johnston's death he directed the battle of Shiloh, +subsequent to which he retired to Corinth. This place he defended +against the united armies under Halleck, until the end of May 1862, when +he retreated in good order to the southward. His health now failing, he +was employed in less active work. He defended Charleston against the +Union forces from September 1862 to April 1864. In May 1864 he fought a +severe and eventually successful battle at Drury's Bluff against General +Butler and the Army of the James. Later in the year he endeavoured to +gather troops wherewith to oppose Sherman's advance from Atlanta, and +eventually surrendered with Johnston's forces in April 1865. After the +war he engaged in railway management, became adjutant-general of his +state and managed the Louisiana lottery. He declined high commands which +were offered to him in the Rumanian and later in the Egyptian armies. +General Beauregard died in New Orleans on the 20th of February 1893. He +was the author of _Principles and Maxims of the Art of War_ (Charleston, +1863); _Report on the Defence of Charleston_ (Richmond, 1864). + + See Alfred Roman, _Military Operations of General Beauregard_ (New + York, 1883). + + + + +BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE (1659-1738), French Protestant divine, was born at +Niort on the 8th of March 1659. After studying theology at the +Protestant academy of Saumur, he was ordained at the age of twenty-two, +becoming pastor at Chatillon-sur-Indre. After the revocation of the +edict of Nantes he fled to Rotterdam (November 1685), and in 1686 was +appointed chaplain to the princess of Dessau, Henrietta Catherine of +Orange. In 1693, on the death of the prince of Dessau, he went to Berlin +and became chaplain to the court at Oranienbaum, and in 1695 pastor of +the French church at Berlin. He became court preacher, counsellor of the +Consistory, director of the _Maison francaise_, a hospice for French +people, inspector of the French gymnasium and superintendent of all the +French churches in Brandenburg. He died on the 5th of June 1738. He had +strong sense with profound erudition, was one of the best writers of his +time and an excellent preacher. + + + + +BEAUVAIS, a town of northern France, capital of the department of Oise, +49 m. N. by W. of Paris, on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 17,045. +Beauvais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the left bank of the +Therain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its ancient ramparts have +been destroyed, and it is now surrounded by boulevards, outside which +run branches of the Therain. In addition, there are spacious promenades +in the north-east of the town. Its cathedral of St Pierre, in some +respects the most daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists +only of a transept and choir with apse and seven apse-chapels. The +vaulting in the interior exceeds 150 ft. in height. The small Romanesque +church of the 10th century known as the Basse-Oeuvre occupies the site +destined for the nave. Begun in 1247, the work was interrupted in 1284 +by the collapse of the vaulting of the choir, in 1573 by the fall of a +too ambitious central tower, after which little addition was made. The +transept was built from 1500 to 1548. Its facades, especially that on +the south, exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved +wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are masterpieces +respectively of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship. The church possesses +an elaborate astronomical clock (1866) and tapestries of the 15th and +17th centuries; but its chief artistic treasures are stained glass +windows of the 13th, 14th and 16th centuries, the most beautiful of them +from the hand of the Renaissance artist, Engrand Le Prince, a native of +Beauvais. To him also is due some of the stained glass in St. Etienne, +the second church of the town, and an interesting example of the +transition stage between the Romanesque and Gothic styles. + +In the Place de l'Hotel de Ville and in the old streets near the +cathedral there are several houses dating from the 12th to the 16th +centuries. The hotel de ville, close to which stands the statue of +Jeanne Hachette (see below), was built in 1752. The episcopal palace, +now used as a court-house, was built in the 16th century, partly upon +the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The industry of Beauvais comprises, +besides the state manufacture of tapestry, which dates from 1664, the +manufacture of various kinds of cotton and woollen goods, brushes, toys, +boots and shoes, and bricks and tiles. Market-gardening flourishes in +the vicinity and an extensive trade is carried on in grain and wine. + +The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assizes; it +has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, together with a chamber +of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a higher ecclesiastical +seminary, a lycee and training colleges. + +Beauvais was known to the Romans as _Caesaromagus_, and took its present +name from the Gallic tribe of the Bellovaci, whose capital it was. In +the 9th century it became a countship, which about 1013 passed to the +bishops of Beauvais, who ultimately became peers of France. In 1346 the +town had to defend itself against the English, who again besieged it in +1433. The siege which it suffered in 1472 at the hands of the duke of +Burgundy was rendered famous by the heroism of the women, under the +leadership of Jeanne Hachette, whose memory is still celebrated by a +procession on the 14th of October (the feast of Ste Angadreme), in which +the women take precedence of the men. + + See V. Lhuillier, _Choses du vieux Beauvais et au Beauvaisis_ (1896). + + + + +BEAUVILLIER, the name of a very ancient French family belonging to the +country around Chartres, members of which are found filling court +offices from the 15th century onward. For Charles de Beauvillier, +gentleman of the chamber to the king, governor and _bailli_ of Blois, +the estate of Saint Aignan was created a countship in 1537. Francois de +Beauvillier, comte de Saint Aignan, after having been through the +campaigns in Germany (1634-1635), Franche-Comte (1636), and Flanders +(1637), was sent to the Bastille in consequence of his having lost the +battle of Thionville in 1640. In reward for his devotion to the court +party during the Fronde he obtained many signal favours, and Saint +Aignan was raised to a duchy in the peerage of France (duche-pairie) in +1663. His son Paul, called the duc de Beauvillier, was several times +ambassador to England; he became chief of the council of finance in +1685, governor of the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou and Berri from 1689 to +1693, minister of state in 1691, and grandee of Spain in 1701. He +married a daughter of Colbert. Paul Hippolyte de Beauvillier, comte de +Montresor, afterwards duc de Saint Aignan, was ambassador at Madrid from +1715 to 1718 and at Rome in 1731, and a member of the council of regency +in 1719. (M. P.*) + + + + +BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE, the _nom de plume_ of EUGENE AUGUSTE ROGER DE BULLY +(1806-1866), French writer, who was born on the 8th of November 1806 in +Paris. He was the son and nephew of public officials who did not approve +his literary inclinations, and it was at their request that he wrote +over the signature of Roger de Beauvoir. A good-looking young fellow, of +independent means, an indefatigable _viveur_, he astonished all Paris +with his ostentatious luxury and his adventures, while his romantic +novels gave him a more serious if not durable reputation. Among the best +of them are _L'Ecolier de Cluny ou le Sophisme_ (1832), which is said to +have furnished Alexandre Dumas and Theodore Gaillardet (1808-1882) with +the idea of the _Tour de Nesle_, and _Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_ +(1840). He had married in 1847 an actress, Eleonore Leocadie Doze +(1822-1859), from whom he obtained a judicial separation a year or two +later after a long and notorious trial, following which his +mother-in-law got him imprisoned for three months and fined 500 francs +for a satirical poem, _Mon Proces_ (1849). Ruined by extravagance and +tied to his chair by gout, he spent the last years of his life in +retirement, and died in Paris on the 27th of August 1866. + + + + +BEAUX, CECILIA (1863- ), American portrait-painter, was born in +Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became a pupil of William Sartain. +But her real art training was obtained in Paris, where she started in +the _atelier_ Julian and had the coaching of painters like +Robert-Fleury, Bouguereau and Dagnan Bouveret. In 1890 she exhibited at +the Paris Exposition. Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in +1893 the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge +prize at the New York National Academy, and later various other +distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy of Design, New +York, in 1902. Among her portraits are those of Bishop-Coadjutor Greer +(exhibited at the Salon in 1896); Mrs Roosevelt and her daughter; and +Mrs Larz Anderson. Her "Dorothea and Francesca," and "Ernesta and her +Little Brother," are good examples of her skill in painting children. + + + + +BEAVER,[1] the largest European aquatic representative of the mammalian +order RODENTIA (q.v.), easily recognized by its large trowel-like, scaly +tail, which is expanded in the horizontal direction. The true beaver +(_Castor fiber_) is a native of Europe and northern Asia, but it is +represented in North America by a closely-allied species (_C. +canadensis_), chiefly distinguished by the form of the nasal bones of +the skull. Beavers are nearly allied to the squirrels (_Sciuridae_), +agreeing in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. +In the _Sciuridae_ the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower +half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the +habits are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or _Castoridae_ +these bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is +depressed, expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic. Beavers have +webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double. In length +beavers--European and American--measure about 2 ft. exclusive of the +tail, which is about 10 in. long. They are covered with a fur to which +they owe their chief commercial value; this consists of two kinds of +hair--the one close-set, silky and of a greyish colour, the other much +coarser and longer, and of a reddish brown. Beavers are essentially +aquatic in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by +necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver has not only +been exterminated there, but likewise in most of the countries of the +continent, although a few remain on the Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of +Scandinavia. The American species is also greatly diminished in numbers +from incessant pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur. Beavers are +sociable anirrals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water +of sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and boughs +of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the neighbourhood +they make their "lodges," which are roomy chambers, with the entrance +beneath the water. The mud is plastered down by the fore-feet, and not, +as often supposed, by the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder. +They are mainly nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the +roots of water plants. The dam differs in shape according to the nature +of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it is almost +straight; where the current is considerable it is curved, with its +convexity towards the stream. The materials made use of are driftwood, +green willows, birch and poplars; also mud and stones intermixed in such +a manner as contributes to the strength of the dam, but there is no +particular method observed, except that the work is carried on with a +regular sweep, and that all the parts are made of equal strength. "In +places," writes Hearne, "which have been long frequented by beavers +undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, +capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as the +willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by +degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some +places so tall that birds have built their nests among the branches." +Their houses are formed of the same materials as the dams, with little +order or regularity of structure, and seldom contain more than four old, +and six or eight young beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of +the larger houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts +of the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for the +apartments have usually no communication with each other except by +water. The beavers carry the mud and stones with their fore-paws and the +timber between their teeth. They always work in the night and with great +expedition. They cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, +which, freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone, +so that neither wolves nor wolverines can disturb their repose. + +The favourite food of the American beaver is the water-lily (_Nuphar +luteum_), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk, and grows at the +bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also gnaw the bark of birch, poplar +and willow trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the +addition of berries, is consumed. When the ice breaks up in spring they +always leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before the +fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations, and lay in +their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to repair the houses till +the frost sets in, and never finish the outer coating till the cold +becomes severe. When they erect a new habitation they fell the wood +early in summer, but seldom begin building till towards the end of +August. + +The flesh of the American beaver is eaten by the Indians, and when +roasted in the skin is esteemed a delicacy and is said to taste like +pork. _Castoreum_ is a substance contained in two pear-shaped pouches +situated near the organs of reproduction, of a bitter taste and slightly +foetid odour, at one time largely employed as a medicine, but now used +only in perfumery. + +Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial +deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the +Pleistocene formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant +extinct beaver, _Trogontherium cuvieri_, representing a genus by itself. + + For an account of beavers in Norway see R. Collett, in the _Bergens + Museum Aarbog_ for 1897. See also R.T. Martin, _Castorologia, a + History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver_ (London, 1892). + (R. L.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf. + Sanskrit _babhrus_, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. _fiber_, Ger. + _Biber_, Swed. _bafver_, Russ. _bobr'_; the root _bhru_ has given + "brown," and, through Romanic, "bronze" and "burnish." + + + + +BEAVER (from Fr. _baviere_, a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva), the +lower part of the helmet, fixed to the neck-armour to protect the face +and cheeks; properly it moved upwards, as the visor moved down, but the +word is sometimes used to include the visor. The right form of the word, +"baver," has been altered from a confusion with "beaver," a hat made of +beaver-fur or a silk imitation, also, in slang, called a "castor," from +the zoological name of the beaver family. + + + + +BEAVER DAM, a city of Dodge county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated in the +S.E. part of the state, 63 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, on Beaver Lake, which +is 9 m. long and 3 m. wide. Pop. (1890) 4222; (1900) 5128, of whom 1023 +were foreign-born; (1905) 5615; (1910) 6758. Most of the population is +of German descent. Beaver Dam is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St +Paul railway. The city is a summer resort, has a public library, and is +the seat of Wayland Academy (1855, Baptist), a co-educational +preparatory school affiliated with the university of Chicago. Beaver Dam +is situated in the midst of a fine farming country; it has a good +water-power derived from Beaver Lake, and among its manufactures are +woollen and cotton goods, malleable iron, foundry products, gasolene +engines, agricultural implements, stoves and beer. The city was first +settled about 1841, and was incorporated in 1856. + + + + +BEAVER FALLS, a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on +Beaver river, about 3-1/2 m. from its confluence with the Ohio, opposite +New Brighton, and about 32 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 9735; +(1900) 10,054, of whom 1554 were foreign-born; (1910), census, 12,191. +The borough is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie +railways. It is built for the most part on a plateau about 50 ft. above +the river, hemmed in on either side by hills that rise abruptly, +especially on the W., to a height of more than 200 ft. Bituminous coal, +natural gas and oil abound in the vicinity; the river provides excellent +water-power; the borough is a manufacturing centre of considerable +importance, its products including iron and steel bridges, boilers, +steam drills, carriages, saws, files, axes, shovels, wire netting, +stoves, glass-ware, scales, chemicals, pottery, cork, decorative tile, +bricks and typewriters. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued +at $4,907,536. Geneva College (Reformed Presbyterian, co-educational), +established in 1849 at Northwood, Logan county, Ohio, was removed in +1880 to the borough of College Hill (pop. in 1900, 899), 1 m. N. of +Beaver Falls; it has a preparatory and a collegiate department, +departments of music, oratory and art, and a physical department, and in +1907-1908 had 13 instructors and 235 students. Beaver Falls was first +settled in 1801; was laid out as a town and named Brighton in 1806; +received its present name a few years later; and in 1868 was +incorporated as a borough. + + + + +BEAWAR, or NAYANAGAR, a town of British India, the administrative +headquarters of Merwara district in Ajmere-Merwara. It is 33 m. from +Ajmere. Pop. (1901) 21,928. It is an important centre of trade, +especially in raw cotton, and has cotton presses and the Krishna cotton +mills. It was founded by Colonel Dixon in 1835. + + + + +BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST (1840- ), German socialist, was born at Cologne +on the 22nd of February 1840; he became a turner and worked at Leipzig. +Here he took a prominent part in the workmen's movement and in the +association of working men which had been founded under the influence of +Schultz-Delitzsch; at first an opponent of socialism, he came under the +influence of Liebknecht, and after 1865 he was a confirmed advocate of +socialism. With Liebknecht he belonged to the branch of the socialists +which was in close correspondence with Karl Marx and the International, +and refused to accept the leadership of Schweitzer, who had attempted to +carry on the work after Lassalle's death. He was one of those who +supported a vote of want of confidence in Schweitzer at the Eisenach +conference in 1867, from which his party was generally known as "the +Eisenacher." In this year he was elected a member of the North German +Reichstag for a Saxon constituency, and, with an interval from 1881 to +1883, remained a member of the German parliament. His great organizing +talent and oratorical power quickly made him one of the leaders of the +socialists and their chief spokesman in parliament. In 1870 he and +Liebknecht were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary +subsidy required for the war with France; the followers of Lassalle, on +the other hand, voted for the government proposals. He was the only +Socialist who was elected to the Reichstag in 1871, but he used his +position to protest against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and to +express his full sympathy with the Paris Commune. Bismarck afterwards +said that this speech of Bebel's was a "ray of light," showing him that +Socialism was an enemy to be fought against and crushed; and in 1872 +Bebel was accused in Brunswick of preparation for high treason, and +condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress, and, for insulting +the German emperor, to nine months' ordinary imprisonment. After his +release he helped to organize, at the congress of Gotha, the united +party of Social Democrats, which had been formed during his +imprisonment. After the passing of the Socialist Law he continued to +show great activity in the debates of the Reichstag, and was also +elected a member of the Saxon parliament; when the state of siege was +proclaimed in Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886 +condemned to nine months' imprisonment for taking part in a secret +society. Although the rules of the Social Democratic party do not +recognize a leader or president, Bebel subsequently became by far the +most influential member of the party. In the party meetings of 1890 and +1891 his policy was severely attacked, first by the extremists, the +"young" Socialists from Berlin, who wished to abandon parliamentary +action; against these Bebel won a complete victory. On the other side he +was involved in a quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put +aside from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the +Socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bringing +about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual amelioration. +This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel came to be regarded as +the chief exponent of the traditional views of the orthodox Marxist +party. He was exposed to some natural ridicule on the ground that the +"Kladderadatsch," which he often spoke of as imminent, failed to make +its appearance. On the other hand, though a strong opponent of +militarism, he publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany +must not expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. His +book, _Die Frau und der Socialismus_ (1893), which went through many +editions and contained an attack on the institution of marriage, +identified him with the most extreme forms of Socialism. + + See also Mehring, _Geschichte der deutschen Social-Demokratie_ + (Stuttgart, 1898); _Reports of the Annual Meetings of the Social + Democratic Party_, Berlin Vorwarts Publishing Company (from 1890); B. + Russell, _German Social-Democracy_ (London, 1897). (J. W. He.) + + + + +BECCAFICO (Ital. for "fig-pecker"), a small migratory bird of the +warbler (_Sylviidae_) family, which frequents fig-trees and vineyards, +and, when fattened, is considered a great delicacy. + + + + +BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE (1486-1551), Italian painter, of the school +of Siena. In the early days of the Tuscan republics Siena had been in +artistic genius, and almost in political importance, the rival of +Florence. But after the great plague in 1348 the city declined; and +though her population always comprised an immense number of skilled +artists and artificers, yet her school did not share in the general +progress of Italy in the 15th century. About the year 1500, indeed, +Siena had no native artists of the first importance; and her public and +private commissions were often given to natives of other cities. But +after the uncovering of the works of Raphael and Michelangelo at Rome in +1508, all the schools of Italy were stirred with the desire of imitating +them. Among these accomplished men who now, without the mind and +inspiration of Raphael or Michelangelo, mastered a great deal of their +manner, and initiated the decadence of Italian art, several of the most +accomplished arose in the school of Siena. Among these was Domenico, the +son of a peasant, one Giacomo di Pace, who worked on the estate of a +well-to-do citizen named Lorenzo Beccafumi. Seeing some signs of a +talent for drawing in his labourer's son, Lorenzo Beccafumi took the boy +into his service and presently adopted him, causing him to learn +painting from masters of the city. Known afterwards as Domenico +Beccafumi, or earlier as Il Mecarino (from the name of a poor artist +with whom he studied), the peasant's son soon gave proof of +extraordinary industry and talent. In 1509 he went to Rome and steeped +himself in the manner of the great men who had just done their first +work in the Vatican. Returning to his native town, Beccafumi quickly +gained employment and a reputation second only to Sodoma. He painted a +vast number both of religious pieces for churches and of mythological +decorations for private patrons. But the work by which he will longest +be remembered is that which he did for the celebrated pavement of the +cathedral of Siena. For a hundred and fifty years the best artists of +the state had been engaged laying down this pavement with vast designs +in _commesso_ work,--white marble, that is, engraved with the outlines +of the subject in black, and having borders inlaid with rich patterns in +many colours. From the year 1517 to 1544 Beccafumi was engaged in +continuing this pavement. He made very ingenious improvements in the +technical processes employed, and laid down multitudinous scenes from +the stories of Ahab and Elijah, of Melchisedec, of Abraham and of Moses. +These are not so interesting as the simpler work of the earlier schools, +but are much more celebrated and more jealously guarded. Such was their +fame that the agents of Charles I. of England, at the time when he was +collecting for Whitehall, went to Siena expressly to try and purchase +the original cartoons. But their owner would not part with them, and +they are now in the Siena Academy and elsewhere. The subjects have been +engraved on wood, by the hand, as it seems, of Beccafumi himself, who at +one time or another essayed almost every branch of fine art. He made a +triumphal arch and an immense mechanical horse for the procession of the +emperor Charles V. on his entry into Siena. In his later days, being a +solitary liver and continually at work, he is said to have accelerated +his death by over-exertion upon the processes of bronze-casting. + + + + +BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1716-1781), Italian physicist, was born at +Mondovi on the 3rd of October 1716, and entered the religious order of +the Pious Schools in 1732. He became professor of experimental physics, +first at Palermo and then at Rome, and was appointed to a similar +situation at Turin in 1748. He was afterwards made tutor to the young +princes de Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally +at Turin during the remainder of his life. In May 1755 he was elected a +fellow of the Royal Society of London, and published several papers on +electrical subjects in the _Phil. Trans_. He died at Turin on the 27th +of May 1781. Beccaria did much, in the way both of experiment and +exposition, to spread a knowledge of the electrical researches of +Franklin and others. His principal work was the treatise _Dell' +Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale_ (1753), which was translated into +English in 1776. + + + + +BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE, MARCHESE DE (1735-1794), Italian publicist, +was born at Milan on the 15th of March 1735. He was educated in the +Jesuit college at Parma, and showed at first a great aptitude for +mathematics. The study of Montesquieu seems to have directed his +attention towards economic questions; and his first publication (1762) +was a tract on the derangement of the currency in the Milanese states, +with a proposal for its remedy. Shortly after, in conjunction with his +friends the Verris, he formed a literary society, and began to publish a +small journal, in imitation of the _Spectator_, called _Il Caffe_. In +1764 he published his brief but justly celebrated treatise _Dei Delitti +e delle Pene_ ("On Crimes and Punishments"). The weighty reasonings of +this work were expounded with all the additional force of a clear and +animated style. It pointed out distinctly and temperately the grounds of +the right of punishment, and from these principles deduced certain +propositions as to the nature and amount of punishment which should be +inflicted for any crime. The book had a surprising success. Within +eighteen months it passed through six editions. It was translated into +French by Morellet in 1766, and published with an anonymous commentary +by Voltaire. An English translation appeared in 1768 and it was +translated into several other languages. Many of the reforms in the +penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable to +Beccaria's treatise. In November 1768 he was appointed to the chair of +law and economy, which had been founded expressly for him at the +Palatine college of Milan. His lectures on political economy, which are +based on strict utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with +the theories of the English school of economists. They are published in +the collection of Italian writers on political economy (_Scrittori +Classici Italiani di Economia politico_., vols. xi. and xii.). In 1771 +Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic council; and in 1791 +he was appointed one of the board for the reform of the judicial code. +In this post his labours were of very great value. He died at Milan on +the 28th of November 1794. + + + + +BECCLES, a market town and municipal borough, in the Lowestoft +parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; on the right bank of the +river Waveney, 109 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway. +Pop. (1901) 6898. It has a pleasant, well-wooded site overlooking the +flat lands bordering the Waveney. The church of St Michael, wholly +Perpendicular, is a fine example of the style, having an ornate south +porch of two storeys and a detached bell tower. There are a grammar +school (1712), and boys' school and free school on the foundation of Sir +John Leman (1631). Rose Hall, in the vicinity, is a moated manor of +brick, of the 16th century. Printing works, malting, brick and tile, and +agricultural implement works are the chief industries. Beccles was +incorporated in 1584. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 2017 acres. + + + + +BECERRA, GASPAR (1520-1570), Spanish painter and sculptor, was born at +Baeza in Andalusia. He studied at Rome, it is said under Michelangelo, +and assisted Vasari in painting the hall of the Concelleria. He also +contributed to the anatomical plates of Valverde. After his return to +Spain he was extensively employed by Philip II., and decorated many of +the rooms in the palace at Madrid with frescoes. He also painted +altar-pieces for several of the churches, most of which have been +destroyed. His fame as a sculptor almost surpassed that as a painter. +His best work was a magnificent figure of the Virgin, which was +destroyed during the French war. He became court painter at Madrid in +1563, and played a prominent part in the establishment of the fine arts +in Spain. + + + + +BECHE-DE-MER (sometimes explained as "sea-spade," from the shape of the +prepared article, but more probably from the Port, _bicho_, a worm or +grub), or TREPANG (Malay, _tripang_), an important food luxury among the +Chinese and other Eastern peoples, connected with the production of +which considerable trade exists in the Eastern Archipelago and the +coasts of New Guinea, and also in California. It consists of several +species of echinoderms, generally referred to the genus _Holothuria_, +especially _H. edulis_. The creatures, which exist on coral reefs, have +bodies from 6 to 15 in. long, shaped like a cucumber, hence their name +of "sea-cucumbers." The skin is sometimes covered with spicules or +prickles, and sometimes quite smooth, and with or without "teats" or +ambulacral feet disposed in rows. Five varieties are recognized in the +commerce of the Pacific Islands, the finest of which is the "brown with +teats." The large black come next in value, followed by the small black, +the red-bellied and the white. They are used in the gelatinous soups +which form an important article of food in China. They are prepared for +use by being boiled for about twenty minutes, and then dried first in +the sun and afterwards over a fire, so that they are slightly smoked. + + + + +BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM (1635-1682), German chemist, physician, scholar and +adventurer, was born at Spires in 1635. His father, a Lutheran minister, +died while he was yet a child, leaving a widow and three children. The +mother married again; the stepfather spent the tiny patrimony of the +children; and at the age of thirteen Becher found himself responsible not +only for his own support but also for that of his mother and brothers. He +learned and practised several small handicrafts, and devoting his nights +to study of the most miscellaneous description earned a pittance by +teaching. In 1654, at the age of nineteen, he published an edition of +Salzthal's _Tractatus de lapide trismegisto_; his _Metallurgia_ followed +in 1660; and the next year appeared his _Character pro notitia linguarum +universali_, in which he gives 10,000 words for use as a universal +language. In 1663 he published his _Oedipum Chemicum_ and a book on +animals, plants and minerals (_Thier- Krauter- und Bergbuch_). At the same +time he was full of schemes, practical and unpractical. He negotiated with +the elector palatine for the establishment of factories at Mannheim; +suggested to the elector of Bavaria the creation of German colonies in +Guiana and the West Indies; and brought down upon himself the wrath of the +Munich merchants by planning a government monopoly of cloth manufacture +and of trade. He fled from Munich, but found a ready welcome elsewhere. In +1666 he was appointed teacher of medicine at Mainz and body-physician to +the archbishop-elector; and the same year he was made councillor of +commerce (_Commerzienrat_) at Vienna, where he had gained the powerful +support of Albrecht, Count Zinzendorf, prime minister and grand +chamberlain of the emperor Leopold I. Sent by the emperor on a mission to +Holland, he there wrote in ten days his _Methodus Didactica_, which was +followed by the _Regeln der Christlichen Bundesgenossenschaft_ and the +_Politischer Discurs vom Auj- und Abbluhen der Stadte_. In 1669 he +published his _Physica subterranea_, and the same year was engaged with +the count of Hanau in a scheme for settling a large territory between the +Orinoco and the Amazon. Meanwhile he had been appointed physician to the +elector of Bavaria; but in 1670 he was again in Vienna advising on the +establishment of a silk factory and propounding schemes for a great +company to trade with the Low Countries and for a canal to unite the Rhine +and Danube. He then returned to Bavaria, and his absence bringing him into +ill odour at Vienna, he complained of the incompetence of the council of +commerce and dedicated a tract on trade (_Commercien-Tractat_) to the +emperor Leopold. His _Psychosophia_ followed, and "An invitation to a +psychological community" (_Einladung zu einer psychologischen Societat_), +for the realization of which Duke Gustavus Adolphus of Mecklenburg-Gustrow +(d. 1695) offered him in 1674 a site in his duchy. The plan came to +nothing, and next year Becher was again busy at Vienna, trying to +transmute Danube sand into gold, and writing his _Theses chemicae +veritatem transmutationis metallorum evincentes_. For some reason he +incurred the disfavour of Zinzendorf and fled to Holland, where with the +aid of the government he continued his experiments. Pursued even there by +the resentment of his former patron, he crossed to England, whence he +visited the mines of Scotland at the request of Prince Rupert. He +afterwards went for the same purpose to Cornwall, where he spent a year. +At the beginning of 1680 he presented a paper to the Royal Society, _De +nova temporis dimetiendi ratione et accurata horologiorum constructione_, +in which he attempted to deprive Huygens of the honour of applying the +pendulum to the measurement of time. The views of Becher on the +composition of substances mark little essential advance on those of the +two preceding centuries, and the three elements or principles of salt, +mercury and sulphur reappear as the vitrifiable, the mercurial and the +combustible earths. When a substance was burnt he supposed that the last +of these, the _terra pinguis_, was liberated, and this conception is the +basis on which G.E. Stahl founded his doctrine of "phlogiston." His ideas +and experiments on the nature of minerals and other substances are +voluminously set forth in his _Physica Subterranea_ (Frankfort, 1669); an +edition of this, published at Leipzig in 1703, contains two supplements +(_Experimentum chymicum novum_ and _Demonstratio Philosophica_), proving +the truth and possibility of transmuting metals, _Experimentum novum ac +curiosum de minera arenaria perpetua_, the paper on timepieces already +mentioned and also _Specimen Becherianum_, a summary of his doctrines by +Stahl, who in the preface acknowledges indebtedness to him in the words +_Becheriana sunt quae profero_. At Falmouth he wrote his _Laboratorium +portabile_ and at Truro the _Alphabetum minerale_. In 1682 he returned to +London, where he wrote the _Chemischer Gluckshafen oder grosse Concordanz +und Collection van 1500 Processen_ and died in October of the same year. + + + + +BECHUANA, a South African people, forming a branch of the great +Bantu-Negroid family. They occupy not only Bechuanaland, to which they +have given their name, and Basutoland, but are the most numerous native +race in the Orange River Colony and in the western and northern +districts of the Transvaal. It seems certain that they reached their +present home later than the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples who came down the +east coast of the continent, but it is probable that they started on +their southward journey before the latter. It would appear that the +forerunners of the movement were the Bakalahari and Balala, who were +subsequently reduced to the condition of serfs by the later arrivals, +and who by intermingling to a certain extent with the aborigines gave +rise to the "Kalahari Bushmen" (see KALAHARI DESERT). The Bechuana +family may be classed in two great divisions, the western or Bechuana +proper, and the eastern or Basuto. The Bechuana proper consist of a +large number of tribes, whose early history is extremely confused and +involved owing to continual inter-tribal wars and migrations, during +which many tribes were practically annihilated. Further confusion was +produced by subsequent marauding expeditions by the coast "Kaffirs." An +ingenious attempt to disentangle the highly complicated tribal movements +which took place in the early 19th century may be found in Stow's +_Native Races of South Africa_. One migration of particular interest +calls for mention. In the early part of the 19th century a number of +Basuto, led by the chief Sebituane, crossed the Zambezi near the +Victoria Falls, and, under the name Makololo, established a supremacy +over the Barotse and neighbouring tribes on the upper portion of the +river, imposing their language on the conquered peoples. After the death +of Sekeletu, Sebituane's successor, the vassal tribes arose and +exterminated their conquerors. Only a few escaped, whom Sekeletu had +sent with David Livingstone to the coast. These established themselves +to the south of Lake Nyasa, where they are still to be found. Sesuto +speech, however, still prevails in Barotseland. The chief Bechuana +tribes were the Batlapin and Barolong (the last including the Baratlou, +Bataung, Barapulana and Baseleka), together with the great Bakuena or +Bakone people (including the Bahurutsi, Batlaru, Bamangwato, Batauana, +Bangwaketse and Bakuena). The clans representing the southern Bakuena +were in comparatively recent times welded together to form the Basuto +nation, of which the founder was the chief Moshesh (see BASUTOLAND). The +Basuto have been not only influenced in certain cultural details (e.g. +the form of their huts) by the neighbouring Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples, +but have moreover received an infusion of their blood which has improved +their physique. They are good riders and make considerable use of their +horses in war and the chase. + +The Bechuana, though not so tall as Kaffirs, average 5 ft. 6 in. in +stature; they are of slender build and their musculature is but +moderately developed except where a Kaffir strain is found. Their skin +is of a reddish-brown or bronze colour, and their features are fairly +regular, though in all cases coarser than those of Europeans. One of +their chief peculiarities lies in the fact that each tribe respects +(usually) a particular animal, which the members of the tribe may not +eat, and the killing of which, if necessary, must be accompanied by +profuse apologies and followed by subsequent purification. Many of the +tribes take their name from their _siboko_, as the animal in question is +called; e.g. the Batlapin, "they of the fish"; Bakuena, "they of the +crocodile." The _siboko_ of the Barolong, who as a tribe are +accomplished smiths, is not an animal but the metal iron; other tribes +have adopted as their particular emblem respectively the sun, rain, dew, +&c. Certain ceremonies are performed in honour of the tribal emblem, +hence an inquiry as to the tribe of an individual is put in the form +"What do you dance?" In certain tribes the old and feeble and the sickly +children were killed, and albinos and the deaf and dumb exposed; those +born blind were strangled, and if a mother died in childbirth the infant +was buried alive in the same grave. With the extension of British +authority these practices were prohibited. Circumcision is universally +practised, though there is no fixed age for it. It is performed at +puberty, when the boys are secluded for a period in the bush. The +operation is accompanied by whipping and even tortures. Girls at puberty +must undergo trials of endurance, e.g. the holding of a bar of heated +iron without crying out. The Bechuana inhabit, for the most part, towns +of considerable size, containing from 5000 to 40,000. Politically they +live under a tribal despotism limited by a council of elders, the chief +seldom exercising his individual authority independently, though the +extent of his power naturally depends on his personality. They have +their public assemblies, but only when circumstances, chiefly in +reference to war, require. These are generally characterized by great +freedom of speech, and there is no interruption of the speaker. The +chief generally closes the meeting with a long speech, referring to the +subjects which each speaker has either supported or condemned, not +forgetting to clear his own character of any imputation. These public +assemblies are now, except in Basutoland, of very rare occurrence. The +clothing of the men consists of a leather bandage; the women wear a skin +apron, reaching to the knee, under which is a fringed girdle. Skin +cloaks (_kaross_) are worn by both sexes, with the difference that the +male garment is distinguished by a collar. The hair is kept short for +the most part; women shave the head, leaving a tuft on the crown which +is plastered with fat and earth, and adorned with beads. Beads are worn, +and various bracelets of iron, copper and brass. + +The Bechuana are mainly an agricultural people, the Bangwaketse and +Bakuena excelling as cultivators. Cattle they possess, but these are +used chiefly for the purpose of purchasing wives, especially among the +Basuto. At the same time they are excellent craftsmen, and show no +little skill in smelting and working iron and copper and the preparation +of hides and pottery vessels. The most efficient smiths are the Barolong +and Bamangwato (the latter were spared by the Matabele chief Umsilikazi +on this account); the Bangwaketse excel as potters; the Barolong as wood +carvers, and the Bakuena as hut builders. The huts, with the exception +of those of the Basuto who have adopted the Kaffir model, are +cylindrical, with clay-plastered walls and a conical roof of thatch. In +spite of the constant tribal feuds dating from the beginning of the 19th +century, the Bechuana cannot be classed as a warlike people, especially +when they are compared with the Zulu. Their weapons consist of the +throwing assegai, usually barbed, axes, daggers in carved sheaths, and, +occasionally, bows and arrows, the last sometimes poisoned. Hide shields +of a peculiar shape, resembling a depressed hour-glass, are found except +among the Basuto, who use a somewhat different pattern. Hunting usually +takes the form of great drives organized in concert, and the game is +driven by means of converging fences to a large pitfall or series of +pits. Their religious beliefs are very vague; they appear to recognize a +somewhat indeterminate spirit of, mainly, evil tendencies, called +_Morimo_. The plural form of this word, _Barimo_, is used of the _manes_ +of dead ancestors, to whom a varying amount of reverence is paid. There +is universal belief in charms and witchcraft, and divination by means of +dice is common. Witchdoctors, who are supposed to counteract evil magic, +play a not insignificant part, and the magician who claims the power of +making rain occupies a very important position, as might be expected +among an agricultural people inhabiting a country where droughts are not +infrequent. They have a great dread of anything connected with death; +when an old man is on the point of expiring, a net is thrown over him, +and he is dragged from his hut by a hole in the wall, if possible before +life is extinct. The dead are buried in a sitting position with their +faces to the north, in which direction lies their ancestral home. Under +the influence of missionaries, however, large numbers of the Bechuana +have become Christianized, and many of the customs mentioned are no +longer practised. + +Polygamy is the rule, but, except in the case of chiefs, is not found to +the same extent as among the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffirs]. The woman is purchased +from her father, chiefly by means of cattle, though among the western +Bechuana other articles are included, many of which become the property +of the girl herself. The wives live in separate huts, and the first is +given priority over those purchased subsequently. Chastity after +marriage is the rule, and adultery and rape are severely punished, as +offences against property. Cannibalism is found, but is rare and +confined to certain tribes. + +The Bechuana language, which belongs to the Bantu linguistic family, is +copious, with but few slight dialectic differences, and is free from the +Hottentot elements found in the Kaffir and Zulu tongues. The richness of +the language may be judged from the fact that, though only oral until +reduced to writing by the missionaries, it has sufficed for the +translation of the whole Bible. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G.W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_ (London, + 1905); Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrikas_ (Breslau, 1872); + Robert Moffat, _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_ + (1842); David Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South + Africa_ (London, 1857); J.C. MacGregor, _Basuto Traditions_ (Cape + Town, 1905). (T. A. J.) + + + + +BECHUANALAND (a name given from its inhabitants, the Bechuana, q.v.), a +country of British South Africa occupying the central part of the vast +tableland which stretches north to the Zambezi. It is bounded S. by the +Orange river, N.E. and E. by Matabeleland, the Transvaal and Orange +River Colony, and W. and N. by German South-West Africa. Bechuanaland +geographically and ethnically enjoys almost complete unity, but +politically it is divided as follows:-- + +I. British Bechuanaland, since 1895 an integral part of Cape Colony. +Area, 51,424 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 84,210, of whom 9276 were whites. + +II. The Bechuanaland Protectorate, the northern part of the country, +governed on the lines of a British crown colony. Area (estimated), +225,000 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 120,776, of whom Europeans numbered 1004. The +natives, in addition to the Bechuana tribes, include some thousands of +Bushmen (Masarwa). Administratively attached to the protectorate is the +Tati concession, which covers 2500 sq. m. and forms geographically the +south-west corner of Matabeleland. + +The Griqualand West province of Cape Colony belongs also geographically +to Bechuanaland, and except in the Kimberley diamond mines region is +still largely inhabited by Bechuana. (See GRIQUALAND.) + +_Physical Features._--The average height of the tableland of which +Bechuanaland consists is nearly 4000 ft. The surface is hilly and +undulating with a general slope to the west, where the level falls in +considerable areas to little over 2000 ft. A large part of the country +is covered with grass or shrub, chiefly acacia. There is very little +forest land. The western region, the Kalahari Desert (q.v.), is mainly +arid, with a sandy soil, and is covered in part by dense bush. In the +northern region are large marshy depressions, in which the water is +often salt. The best known of these depressions, Ngami (q.v.), lies to +the north-west and is the central point of an inland water system +apparently in process of drying up. To the north-east and connected with +Ngami by the Botletle river, is the great Makari-Kari salt pan, which +also drains a vast extent of territory, receiving in the rainy season a +large volume of water. The marsh then becomes a great lake, the water +surface stretching beyond the horizon, while in the dry season a mirage +is often seen. The permanent marsh land covers a region 60 m. from south +to north and from 30 to 60 m. east to west. In the south the rivers, +such as the Molopo and the Kuruman, drain towards the Orange. Other +streams are tributaries of the Limpopo, which for some distance is the +frontier between Bechuanaland and the Transvaal. + +The rivers of Bechuanaland are, with few exceptions, intermittent or +lose themselves in the desert. It is evident, however, from the extent +of the beds of these streams and of others now permanently dry, and from +remains of ancient forests, that at a former period the country must +have been abundantly watered. From the many cattle-folds and walls of +defence scattered over the country, and ruins of ancient settlements, it +is also evident that at that period stone-dykes were very common. The +increasing dryness of the land is partly, perhaps largely, attributable +to the cutting down of timber trees both by natives and by whites, and +to the custom of annually burning the grass, which is destructive to +young wood. + +_Climate._--The climate is healthy and bracing, except in the lower +valleys along the river banks and in the marsh land, where malarial +fever is prevalent. Though in great part within the tropics, the heat is +counteracted by the dryness of the air. Throughout the year the nights +are cool and refreshing; in winter the cold at night is intense. In the +western regions the rainfall does not exceed 10 in. in the year; in the +east the average rainfall is 26 in. and in places as much as 30 in. The +rainy season is the summer months, November to April, but the rains are +irregular, and, from the causes already indicated, the rainfall is +steadily declining. From December to February violent thunder and hail +storms are experienced. In the whiter or dry season there are occasional +heavy dust storms. + +_Geology._--The greater part of Bechuanaland is covered with superficial +deposits consisting of the sands of the desert regions of the Kalahari +and the alluvium and saliferous marls of the Okavango basin. The oldest +rocks, granites, gneisses and schistose sandstones, the Ngami series, +rise to the surface in the east and south-east and doubtless immediately +underlie much of the sand areas. A sandstone found in the neighbourhood +of Palapye is considered to be the equivalent of the Waterberg formation +of the Transvaal. The Karroo formation and associate dolerites +(_Loalemandelstein_) occur in the same region. A deposit of sinter and a +calcareous sandstone, known as the Kalahari Kalk, considered by Dr +Passarge to be of Miocene age, overlies a sandstone and curious breccia +(_Botletle Schnichten_). These deposits are held by Passarge to indicate +Tertiary desert conditions, to which the basin of the Zambezi is slowly +reverting. + +_Fauna._--Until towards the close of the 19th century Bechuanaland +abounded in big game, and the Kalahari is still the home of the lion, +leopard, hyena, jackal, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, buffalo, +antelope of many species, ostrich and even the giraffe. Venomous +reptiles, e.g. puff-adders and cobras, are met with, enormous frogs are +common, and walking and flying locusts, mosquitoes, white ants, flying +beetles, scorpions, spiders and tarantulas are very numerous. The +crocodile is found in some of the rivers. Many of the rivers are well +stocked with fish. In those containing water in the rainy season only, +the fish preserve life when the bed is dry by burrowing deeply in the +ooze before it hardens. The principal fish are the baba or cat-fish +(_clarias_ sp.) and the yellow-fish, both of which attain considerable +size. Bustards (the great kori and the koorhaan) are common. + +_Flora._--In the eastern district are stretches of grass land, both +sweet and sour veld. In the "bush" are found tufts of tall coarse grass +with the space between bare or covered with herbaceous creepers or +water-bearing tubers. A common creeper is one bearing a small scarlet +cucumber, and a species of watermelon called _tsoma_ is also abundant. +Of the melon and cucumber there are both bitter and sweet varieties. +Besides the grass and the creepers the bush is made up of berry-yielding +bushes (some of the bushes being rich in aromatic resinous matter), the +wait-a-bit thorn and white thorned mimosa. The indigo and cotton plants +grow wild. Among the rare big trees--found chiefly in the +north-east--are baobab and palmyra and certain fruit trees, one bearing +a pink plum. There are remains of ancient forests consisting of wild +olive trees and the camel thorn, near which grows the _ngotuane_, a +plant with a profusion of fine, strongly scented yellow flowers. + +_Chief Towns._--The chief town in southern Bechuanaland, i.e. the part +incorporated in Cape Colony, is Mafeking (q.v.), near the headwaters of +the Molopo river. It is the headquarters of the Barolong tribe, and +although within the Cape border is the seat of the administration of the +protectorate. Vryburg (pop., 1904, 2985), founded by Boer filibusters in +1882, and Taungs, are towns on the railway between Kimberley and +Mafeking. Taungs has some 22,000 inhabitants, being the chief kraal of +the Batlapin tribe. About 7 m. south of Vryburg, at Tiger Kloof, is an +Industrial Training Institute for natives founded in 1904 by the London +Missionary Society. Upington (2508) on the north bank of the Orange, an +agricultural centre, is the chief town in Gordonia, the western division +of southern Bechuanaland. Kuruman (q.v.) is a native town near the +source of the Kuruman river, 85 m. south-west of Vryburg. It has been +the scene of missionary labours since the early years of the 19th +century. North of Mafeking on the railway to Bulawayo are the small +towns of Gaberones and Francistown. The last named is the chief township +in the Tati concession, the centre of a gold-mining region, and the most +important white settlement in the protectorate. Besides these places +there are five or six large native towns, each the headquarters of a +distinct tribe. The most important is Serowe, with over 20,000 +inhabitants, the capital of the Bamangwato, founded by the chief Khama +in 1903. It is about 250 m. north-north-east of Mafeking, and took the +place of the abandoned capital Palapye, which in its turn had succeeded +Shoshong. The chief centre in the western Kalahari is Lehututu. + +_Agriculture and Trade._--The soil is very fertile, and if properly +irrigated would yield abundant harvests. Unirrigated land laid under +wheat by the natives is said to yield twelve bushels an acre. Cereals +are grown in many of the river valleys. Maize and millet are the chief +crops. The wealth of the Bechuana consists principally in their cattle, +which they tend with great care, showing a shrewd discrimination in the +choice of pasture suited to oxen, sheep and goats. Water can usually be +obtained all the year round by sinking wells from 20 to 30 ft. deep. The +"sweet veld" is specially suitable to cattle, and the finer shorter +grass which succeeds it affords pasturage for sheep. + +Gold mines are worked in the Tati district, the first discoveries having +been made there in 1864. There are gold-bearing quartz reefs at Madibi, +near Mafeking, where mining began in 1906. Diamonds have been found near +Vryburg. The existence of coal near Palapye about 60 ft. below the +surface has been proved. The coal, however, is not mined, and much of +the destruction of timber in southern Bechuanaland was caused by the +demand for fuel for Kimberley. Copper ore has been found near +Francistown. + +Formerly there was a trade in ostrich feathers and ivory; but this has +ceased, and the chief trade has since consisted in supplying the natives +with European goods in exchange for cattle, hides, the skins and horns +of game, firewood and fencing poles, and in forwarding goods north and +south. The protectorate is a member of the South African Customs Union. +The value of the goods imported into the protectorate in 1906 was +L118,322; the value of the exports was L77,736. The sale of spirits to +natives is forbidden. + +_Communications._--As the great highway from Cape Colony to the north, +Bechuanaland has been described as the "Suez canal of South Africa." The +trunk railway from Cape Town to the Victoria Falls traverses the eastern +edge of Bechuanaland throughout its length. The railway enters the +country at Fourteen Streams, 695 m. from Cape Town, and at Ramaquabane, +584 m. farther north, crosses into Rhodesia. The old trade route to +Bulawayo, which skirts the eastern edge of the Kalahari, is now rarely +used. Wagon tracks lead to Ngami, 320 m. N.W. from Palapye Road Station, +and to all the settlements. From the scarcity of water on the main +routes through the Kalahari these roads are known as "the thirsts"; +along some of them wells have been sunk by the administration. + +_Government._--The protectorate is administered by a resident +commissioner, responsible to the high commissioner for South Africa. +Legislation is enacted by proclamations in the name of the high +commissioner. Order is maintained by a small force of semi-military +police recruited in Basutoland and officered by Europeans. Revenue is +obtained mostly from customs and a hut tax, while the chief items of +expenditure have been the police force and a subsidy of L20,000 per +annum towards the cost of the railway, a liability which terminated in +the year 1908. The average annual revenue for the five years ending the +31st of March 1906 was L30,074; the average annual expenditure during +the same period was L80,114. There is no public debt, the annual +deficiency being made good by a grant-in-aid from the imperial +exchequer. The tribal organization of the Bechuana is maintained, and +native laws and customs, with certain modifications, are upheld. + + + Missionary work. + +_History._--Bechuanaland was visited by Europeans towards the close of +the 18th century. The generally peaceful disposition of the tribes +rendered the opening up of the country comparatively easy. The first +regular expedition to penetrate far inland was in 1801-1802, when John +(afterwards Sir John) Truter, of the Cape judicial bench, and William +Somerville--an army physician and afterwards husband of Mary +Somerville--were sent to the Bechuana tribes to buy cattle. The London +Missionary Society established stations in what is now Griqualand West +in 1803, and in 1818 the station of Kuruman, in Bechuanaland proper, was +founded. In the meantime M.H.K. Lichtenstein (1804) and W.J. Burchell +(1811-1812), both distinguished naturalists, and other explorers, had +made familiar the general characteristics of the southern part of the +country. The Rev. John Campbell, one of the founders of the Bible +Society, also travelled in southern Bechuanaland and the adjoining +districts in 1812-1814 and 1819-1821, adding considerably to the +knowledge of the river systems. About 1817 Mosilikatze, the founder of +the Matabele nation, fleeing from the wrath of Chaka, the Zulu king, +began his career of conquest, during which he ravaged a great part of +Bechuanaland and enrolled large numbers of Bechuana in his armies. +Eventually the Matabele settled to the north-east in the country which +afterwards bore their name. In 1821 Robert Moffat arrived at Kuruman as +agent of the London Missionary Society, and made it his headquarters for +fifty years. Largely as the result of the work of Moffat (who reduced +the Bechuana tongue to writing), and of other missionaries, the Bechuana +advanced notably in civilization. The arrival of David Livingstone in +1841 marked the beginning of the systematic exploration of the northern +regions. His travels, and those of C.J. Andersson (1853-1858) and +others, covered almost every part of the country hitherto unknown. In +1864 Karl Mauch discovered gold in the Tati district. + + + Boer encroachment. + +At the time of the first contact of the Bechuana with white men the Cape +government was the only civilized authority in South Africa; and from +this cause, and the circumstance that the missionaries who lived among +and exercised great influence over them were of British nationality, the +connexion between Bechuanaland and the Cape became close. As early as +1836 an act was passed extending the jurisdiction of the Cape courts in +certain cases as far north as 25 deg. S.--a limit which included the +southern part of Bechuanaland. Although under strong British influence +the country was nevertheless ruled by its own chiefs, among whom the +best-known in the middle of the 19th century were Montsioa, chief of the +Barolong, and Sechele, chief of the Bakwena and the friend of +Livingstone. At this period the Transvaal Boers were in a very unsettled +state, and those living in the western districts showed a marked +inclination to encroach upon the lands of the Bechuana. In 1852 Great +Britain by the Sand river convention acknowledged the independence of +the Transvaal. Save the Vaal river no frontier was indicated, and +"boasting," writes Livingstone in his _Missionary Travels_, "that the +English had given up all the blacks into their power ... they (the +Boers) assaulted the Bakwains" (Bakwena). + +With this event the political history of Bechuanaland may be said to +have begun. Not only was Sechele attacked at his capital Kolobeng, and +the European stores and Livingstone's house there looted, but the Boers +stopped a trader named M'Cabe from going northward. Again to quote +Livingstone, "The Boers resolved to shut up the interior and I +determined to open the country." In 1858 the Boers told the missionaries +that they must not go north without their (the Boers') consent. Moffat +complained to Sir George Grey, the governor of Cape Colony, through +whose intervention the molestation by Transvaal Boers of British +subjects in their passage through Bechuanaland was stopped. At a later +date (1865) the Boers tried to raise taxes from the Barolong, but +without success, a commando sent against them in 1868 being driven off +by Montsioa's brother Molema. This led to a protest (in 1870) from +Montsioa, which he lodged with a landdrost at Potchefstroom in the +Transvaal, threatening to submit the matter to the British high +commissioner if any further attempt at taxation were made on the part of +the Boers. The Boers then resorted to cajolery, and at a meeting held in +August 1870, at which President Pretorius and Paul Kruger represented +the Transvaal, invited the Barolong to join their territories with that +of the republic, in order to save them from becoming British. Montsioa's +reply was short: "No one ever spanned-in an ass with an ox in one yoke." +In the following year the claims of the Boers, the Barolong, and other +tribes were submitted to the arbitration of R.W. Keate, +lieutenant-governor of Natal, and his award placed Montsioa's territory +outside the limits of the Transvaal. This attempt of the Boers to gain +possession of Bechuanaland having failed, T.F. Burgers, the president of +the Transvaal in 1872, endeavoured to replace Montsioa as chief of the +Barolong by Moshette, whom he declared to be the rightful ruler and +paramount chief of that people. The attacks of the Boers at length +became so unbearable that Montsioa in 1874 made a request to the British +authorities to be taken under their protection. In formulating this +appeal he declared that when the Boers were at war with Mosilikatze, +chief of the Matabele, he had aided them on the solemn understanding +that they were to respect his boundaries. This promise they had broken. +Khama, chief of the Bamangwato in northern Bechuanaland, wrote in August +1876 to Sir Henry Barkly making an appeal similar to that sent by the +Barolong. The letter contained the following significant passages: + + "I write to you, Sir Henry, in order that your queen may preserve for + me my country, it being in her hands. The Boers are coming into it, + and I do not like them." "Their actions are cruel among us black + people. We are like money, they sell us and our children." "I ask Her + Majesty to defend me, as she defends all her people. There are three + things which distress me very much--war, selling people, and drink. + All these things I shall find in the Boers, and it is these things + which destroy people to make an end of them in the country. The custom + of the Boers has always been to cause people to be sold, and to-day + they are still selling people." + + + Stellaland and Goshen. + +The statements of Khama in this letter do not appear to have been +exaggerated. The testimony of Livingstone confirms them, and even a +Dutch clergyman, writing in 1869, described the system of apprenticeship +of natives which obtained among the Boers "as slavery in the fullest +sense of the word." These representations on the part of the Barolong, +and the Bamangwato under Khama, supported by the representations of Cape +politicians, led in 1878 to the military occupation of southern +Bechuanaland by a British force under Colonel (afterwards General Sir +Charles) Warren. A small police force continued to occupy the district +until April 1881, but, ignoring the wishes of the Bechuana and the +recommendations of Sir Bartle Frere (then high commissioner), the home +government refused to take the country under British protection. On the +withdrawal of the police, southern Bechuanaland fell into a state of +anarchy, nor did the fixing (on paper) of the frontier between it and +the Transvaal by the Pretoria convention of August 1881 have any +beneficial effect. There was fighting between Montsioa and Moshette, +while Massow, a Batlapin chief, invited the aid of the Boers against +Mankoroane, who claimed to be paramount chief of the Batlapin. The +Transvaal War of that date offered opportunities to the freebooting +Boers of the west which were not to be lost. At this time the British, +wearied of South African troubles, were disinclined to respond to native +appeals for help. Consequently the Boers proceeded without let or +hindrance with their conquest and annexation of territory. In 1882 they +set up the republic of Stellaland, with Vryburg as its capital, and +forthwith proceeded to set up the republic of Goshen, farther north, in +spite of the protests of Montsioa, and established a small town called +Rooi Grond as capital. They then summoned Montsioa to quit the +territory. The efforts of the British authorities at this period +(1882-1883) to bring about a satisfactory settlement were feeble and +futile, and fighting continued until peace was made entirely on Boer +lines. The Transvaal government was to have supreme power, and to be the +final arbiter in case of future quarrels arising among the native +chiefs. This agreement, arrived at without any reference to the British +government, was a breach of the Pretoria convention, and led to an +intimation on the part of Great Britain that she could not recognize the +new republics. In South Africa, as well as in England, strong feeling +was aroused by this act of aggression. Unless steps were taken at once, +the whole of Bechuanaland might be permanently lost, while German +territory on the west might readily be extended to join with that of the +Boers. In the London convention of February 1884, conceded by Lord Derby +in response to the overtures of Boer delegates, the Transvaal boundaries +were again defined, part of eastern Bechuanaland being included in Boer +territory. In spite of the convention the Boers remained in Stellaland +and Goshen--which were west of the new Transvaal frontier, and in April +1884 the Rev. John Mackenzie, who had succeeded Livingstone, was sent to +the country to arrange matters. He found very little difficulty in +negotiating with the various Bechuana chiefs, but with the Boers he was +not so successful. In Goshen the Boers defied his authority, while in +Stellaland only a half-hearted acceptance of it was given. At the +instance of the new Cape government, formed in May and under control of +the Afrikander Bond, Mackenzie, who was accused of being too +"pro-Bechuana" and who had been refused the help of any armed force, was +recalled on the 30th of July by the high commissioner, Sir Hercules +Robinson. In his place Cecil Rhodes, then leader of the Opposition in +the Cape parliament, was sent to Bechuanaland. + + + Rhodes's Mission. + + Warren expedition. + +Rhodes's mission was attended with great difficulty. British prestige +after the disastrous Boer War of 1881 was at a very low ebb, and he +realized that he could not count on any active help from the imperial or +colonial authorities. He adopted a tone of conciliation, and decided +that the Stellaland republic should remain under a sort of British +suzerainty. But in Goshen the Boers would let him do nothing. Commandant +P.J. Joubert, after meeting him at Rooi Grond, entered the country and +attacked Montsioa. Rhodes then left under protest, declaring that the +Boers were making war against Great Britain. The Boers now (10th of +September) proclaimed the country under Transvaal protection. This was a +breach of the London convention, and President Kruger explained that the +steps had been taken in the "interests of humanity." Indignant protest +in Cape Town and throughout South Africa, as well as England, led to the +despatch in October 1884 of the Warren expedition, which was sent out by +the British government to remove the filibusters, to bring about peace +in the country, and to hold it until further measures were decided upon. +Before Sir Charles Warren reached Africa, Sir Thomas Upington, the Cape +premier, and Sir Gordon Sprigg, the treasurer-general, went to +Bechuanaland and arranged a "settlement" which would have left the Boer +filibusters in possession, but the imperial government refused to take +notice of this "settlement." Public opinion throughout Great Britain was +too strong to be ignored. The limit of concessions to the Boers had been +reached, and Sir Charles Warren's force--4000 strong--had reached the +Vaal river in January 1885. On the 22nd of January Kruger met Warren at +the Modder river, and endeavoured to stop him from proceeding farther, +saying that he would be responsible for keeping order in the country. +Warren, however, continued his march, and without firing a shot broke up +the republics of Stellaland and Goshen. Bechuanaland was formally taken +under British protection (30th of September 1885), and the sphere of +British influence was declared to extend N. to 22 deg. S. and W. to 20 +deg. E. (which last-mentioned line marks the eastern limit of German +South-West Africa). + + + British protectorate. + +The natives cheerfully accepted this new departure in British policy, +and from this time forward Khama's country was known as the British +protectorate of Bechuanaland. That portion lying to the south of the +Molopo river was described as British Bechuanaland, and was constituted +a crown colony. In 1891 the northern frontier of the protectorate was +extended to its present boundaries, and the whole of it placed under the +administration of a resident commissioner, a protest being made at the +time by the British South Africa Company on the ground that the +protectorate was included in the sphere of their charter. Under the able +administration (1885-1895) of Sir Sidney Shippard (q.v.) peace was +maintained among the natives, who have shown great loyalty to British +rule. + +The history of the country shows how much has been due to the efforts of +men like Livingstone, Mackenzie and Rhodes. It is quite clear that had +they not represented the true state of affairs to the authorities the +whole of this territory would have gradually been absorbed by the Boers, +until they had effected a union with the Germans on the west. The great +road to the north would thus have been effectually shut against trade +and British colonization. With regard to the precise effect of +missionary influence upon the natives, opinion will always remain +divided. But Livingstone, who was not only a missionary but also an +enlightened traveller, stated that a considerable amount of benefit had +been conferred upon the native races by missionary teaching. Livingstone +was a great advocate of the prohibition of alcohol among the natives, +and that policy was always adhered to by Khama. + +In 1891 the South African Customs Union was extended to British +Bechuanaland, and in 1895 the country was annexed to Cape Colony. At the +same time it was provisionally arranged that the Bechuanaland +protectorate should pass under the administration of the British South +Africa Company (see RHODESIA). Khama and two other Bechuana chiefs came +to England and protested against this arrangement. The result was that +their territories and those of other petty chiefs lying to the north of +the Molopo were made native reserves, into which the importation of +alcohol was forbidden. A British resident officer was to be appointed to +each of the reserves. A stipulation, however, was made with these chiefs +that a strip of country sufficient for the purposes of a railway to +Matabeleland should be conceded to the Chartered Company. In December +1895 the occurrence of the Jameson Raid, which started from these +territories, prevented the completion of negotiations, and the +administration of the protectorate remained in the hands of the imperial +government. The administration, besides fostering the scanty material +resources of the country, aids the missionaries in their endeavours to +raise the Bechuanas in the scale of civilization. The results are full +of encouragement. The natives proved staunch to the British connexion +during the war of 1899-1902, and Khama and other chiefs gave help by +providing transport. Anxiety was caused on the western frontier during +the German campaigns against the Hottentots and Herero (1903-1908), many +natives seeking refuge in the protectorate. A dispute concerning the +chieftainship of the Batawana in the Ngami district threatened trouble +in 1906, but was brought to a peaceful issue. The Bechuana were entirely +unaffected by the Kaffir rebellion in Natal. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of early works the most valuable are David Livingstone, + _Missionary Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1857); Robert Moffat, + _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_ (London, 1842); J. + Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1815), _Travels ... a + Second Journey_ ... (2 vols., London, 1822); and A.A. Anderson, + _Twenty-five Years in a Waggon in the Gold Regions of Africa_, vol. i. + (London, 1887). See also J.D. Hepburn, _Twenty Years in Khama's + Country_ (London, 1895); S. Passarge's _Die Kalahari_ (Berlin, 1904) + deals chiefly with geological and allied questions; John Mackenzie's + _Austral Africa, Losing it or Ruling it_ (London, 1887); _John + Mackenzie_, a biography by W.D. Mackenzie (London, 1902); and the + article "Bechuanaland" by Sir S. Shippard in _British Africa_ (London, + 1899), give the story of the beginnings of British rule in the + protectorate. Of larger works dealing incidentally with Bechuanaland + consult G.M. Theal's _History of South Africa_; E.A. Pratt's _Leading + Points in South African History_ (London, 1900); and _Cecil Rhodes, + His Political Life and Speeches_, by Vindex (London, 1900). See also + the _Statistical Register, Cape of Good Hope_, issued yearly at Cape + Town, and the _Annual Report, Bechuanaland Protectorate_, issued by + the Colonial Office, London. (F. R. C.; A. P. H.) + + + + +BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (1757-1832), German philologist, historian, +theologian and antiquarian, one of the most learned men of his time, was +born at Leipzig on the 22nd of January 1757. He studied at Leipzig +University, where he was appointed (1785) professor of Greek and Latin +literature. This post he resigned in 1819 in order to take up the +professorship of history, but resumed it in 1825. He also had the +management of the university library, was director of the institute for +the deaf and dumb, and filled many educational and municipal offices. In +1784 he founded a philological society, which grew into a philological +seminary, superintended by him until his death. In 1808 he was made a +_Hofrath_ by the king of Saxony, and in 1820 a knight of the civil order +of merit. His philological lectures, in which grammar and criticism were +subordinated to history, were largely attended by hearers from all parts +of Germany. He died at Leipzig on the 13th of December 1832. He edited a +number of classical authors: _Pedo Albinovanus_ (1783), Pindar and the +Scholia (1792-1795), Aristophanes (with others, 1794, &c.), Euripides +(1778-1788), Apollonius Rhodius (1797), Demosthenes _De Pace_ (1799), +Plato (1813-1819), Cicero (1795-1807), Titus Calpurnius Siculus (1803). +He translated Ferguson's _Fall of the Roman Republic_ and Goldsmith's +_History of Greece_, and added two volumes to Bauer's Thucydides. He +also wrote on theological and historical subjects, and edited +philological and bibliographical journals. He possessed a large and +valuable library of 24,000 volumes. + + See Nobbe, _Vita C.D. Beckii_ (1837); and G. Hermann, _Opuscula_, v. + 312. + + + + +BECK (or BEEK), DAVID (1621-1656), Dutch portrait-painter, was born at +Arnheim in Guelderland. He was trained by Van Dyck, from whom he +acquired the fine manner of pencilling and sweet style of colouring +peculiar to that great master. He possessed likewise that freedom of +hand and readiness, or rather rapidity of execution, for which Van Dyck +was so remarkable, insomuch that when King Charles I. observed the +expeditious manner of Beck's painting, he exclaimed, "Faith! Beck, I +believe you could paint riding post." He was appointed portrait-painter +and chamberlain to Queen Christina of Sweden, and he executed portraits +of most of the sovereigns of Europe to adorn her gallery. His death at +the Hague was suspected of being due to poisoning. + + + + +BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND (1761-1840), German philosopher, was born at +Danzig in 1761. Educated at Konigsberg, he became professor of +philosophy first at Halle (1791-1799) and then at Rostock. He devoted +himself to criticism and explanation of the doctrine of Kant, and in +1793 published the _Erlauternder Auszug aus Kants kritischen Schriften_, +which has been widely used as a compendium of Kantian doctrine. He +endeavoured to explain away certain of the contradictions which are +found in Kant's system by saying that much of the language is used in a +popular sense for the sake of intelligibility, e.g. where Kant +attributes to things-in-themselves an existence under the conditions of +time, space and causality, and yet holds that they furnish the material +of our apprehensions. Beck maintains that the real meaning of Kant's +theory is idealism; that of objects outside the domain of consciousness, +knowledge is impossible, and hence that nothing positive remains when we +have removed the subjective element. Matter is deduced by the "original +synthesis." Similarly, the idea of God is a symbolical representation of +the voice of conscience guiding from within. The value of Beck's +exegesis has been to a great extent overlooked owing to the greater +attention given to the work of Fichte. Beside the three volumes of the +_Erlauternder Auszug_, he published the _Grundriss der krit. +Philosophie_ (1796), containing an interpretation of the Kantian +_Kritik_ in the manner of Salomon Maimon. + + See Ueberweg, _Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos. der Neuzeit_; Dilthey + in the _Archiv fur Geschichte der Philos._, vol. ii. (1889), pp. + 592-650. For Beck's letters to Kant, see R. Reicke, _Aus Kants + Briefwechsel_ (Konigsberg, 1885). + + + + +BECKENHAM, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary division of +Kent, England, 10 m. S.S.E. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham +railway. Pop. (1881) 13,045; (1901) 26,331. It is a long straggling +parish extending from the western tower of the Crystal Palace almost to +the south end of Bromley, and contains the residential suburb of +Shortlands. Its rapid increase in size in the last decade of the 19th +century was owing to the popularity which it attained as a place of +residence for London business men. It retains, however, some of its +rural character, and has wide thoroughfares and many handsome residences +standing in extensive grounds. King William IV.'s Naval Asylum was +endowed by Queen Adelaide for 12 widows of naval officers. The church of +St George was built in 1866 on the site of an ancient Perpendicular +church. Some 16th-century brasses, an altar tomb and a piscina were +removed hither from the old church. The tower of the church was +completed in 1903, and furnished with two bells in memory of Cecil +Rhodes, in addition to the old bells, one of which dates from 1624. + + + + +BECKER, HEINRICH (1770-1822), German actor, whose real name was +BLUMENTHAL, was born at Berlin. He obtained, while quite a young man, an +appointment in the court theatre at Weimar, at that time under Goethe's +auspices. The poet recognized his talent, appointed him stage-manager, +entrusted him with several of the leading roles in his dramas and +consulted him in all matters connected with the staging of his plays. +For many years Becker was the favourite of the Weimar stage, and +although he was at his best in comedy, he played, to Goethe's great +satisfaction, Vansen in _Egmont_, and was also seen to great advantage +in the leading parts of several of Schiller's plays; notably Burleigh in +_Maria Stuart_, Karl Moor in _Die Rauber_, and Antonio in _Torquato +Tasso_. Becker left Weimar in the spring of 1809, played for a short +time at Hamburg (under Schroder) and at Breslau, and then began a +wandering life, now joining travelling companies, now playing at +provincial theatres. Broken in health and ruined in fortune he returned +in 1820 to Weimar, where he was again cordially received by Goethe, who +reinstated him at the theatre. After playing for two short years with +indifferent success, he died at Weimar in 1822. + +Becker was twice married. His first wife, CHRISTIANE LUISE AMALIE BECKER +(1778-1797), was the daughter of a theatrical manager and dramatic poet, +Johann Christian Neumann, and made her first stage appearance in 1787 at +Weimar. Here she received some training from Goethe and from Corona +Schroter, the singer, and her beauty and charm made her the favourite +both of court and public. She married Heinrich Becker in 1793. She died +on the 22nd of September 1797. Her last part was that of Euphrosyne in +the opera _Das Petermannchen_, and it is under this name that Goethe +immortalized her in a poem which first appeared in Schiller's _Musen +Almanack_ of 1799. + + + + +BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF (1796-1846), German classical archaeologist, was +born at Dresden. At first destined for a commercial life, he was in 1812 +sent to the celebrated school at Pforta. In 1816 he entered the +university of Leipzig, where he studied under Beck and Hermann. After +holding subordinate posts at Zerbst and Meissen, he was in 1842 +appointed professor of archaeology at Leipzig. He died at Meissen on the +30th of September 1846. The works by which Becker is most widely known +are the _Gallus_ or _Romische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts_ (1838, new +ed. by Goll, 1880-1882), and the _Charicles_ or _Bilder altgriechischer +Sitte_, (1840, new ed. by Goll, 1877-1878). These two books, which have +been translated into English by Frederick Metcalfe, contain a very +interesting description of the everyday life of the ancient Greeks and +Romans, in the form of a romance. The notes and appendixes are valuable. +More important is the great _Handbuch der rom. Alterthumer_ (1843-1868), +completed after Becker's death by Marquardt and Mommsen. Becker's +treatises _De Comicis Romanorum Fabulis_ (1837), _De Romae Veteris Muris +atque Portis_ (1842), _Die romische Topographie in Rom_ (1844), and _Zur +romischen Topographie_ (1845) may also be mentioned. + + + + +BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118-1170), by his contemporaries more commonly +called Thomas of London, English chancellor and archbishop of Canterbury +under Henry II., was born about the year 1118 in London. His mother was +a native of Caen; his father, who came of a family of small Norman +landowners, had been a citizen of Rouen, but migrated to London before +the birth of Thomas, and held at one time the dignified office of +portreeve, although he ended his life in straitened circumstances. The +young Thomas received an excellent education. At the age of ten he was +put to school with the canons of Merton priory in Surrey. Later he spent +some time in the schools of London, which enjoyed at that time a high +reputation, and finally studied theology at Paris. Returning at the age +of twenty-two he was compelled, through the misfortunes of his parents, +to become a notary in the service of a wealthy kinsman, Osbert Huit +Deniers, who was of some importance in London politics. About 1142 a +family friend brought Thomas under the notice of Archbishop Theobald, of +whose household he at once became an inmate. He accompanied the primate +to Rome in 1143, and also to the council of Reims (1148), which Theobald +attended in defiance of a prohibition from the king. It appears to have +been at some time between the dates of these two journeys that he +visited Bologna and Auxerre, and began those studies in the canon law +to which he was in no small degree indebted for his subsequent +advancement and misfortunes. Although the bent of his mind was legal, he +never made himself an expert jurist; but he had the art of turning his +knowledge, such as it was, to excellent account. In 1151 he was sent to +Rome by the archbishop with instructions to dissuade the Curia from +sanctioning the coronation of Stephen's eldest son Eustace. It is said +that Thomas distinguished himself by the ability with which he executed +his commission; in any case it gave him a claim on the gratitude of the +Angevin party which was not forgotten. In 1154 he was promoted to be +archdeacon of Canterbury, after first taking deacon's orders. In the +following year Henry II., at the primate's recommendation, bestowed on +him the important office of chancellor. In this capacity Thomas +controlled the issue of royal writs and the distribution of +ecclesiastical patronage; but it was more important for his future that +he had ample opportunities of exercising his personal fascination upon a +prince who was comparatively inexperienced, and thirteen or fourteen +years his junior. He became Henry's bosom friend and was consulted in +all affairs of state. It had been the hope of Theobald that Becket's +influence would be exercised to support the extensive privileges which +the Church had wrested from Stephen. But the chancellor, although +preserving friendly relations with his old patron, subordinated the +interests of the Church to those of his new master. Under his +administration the Church was severely taxed for the prosecution of +Henry's foreign wars; and the chancellor incurred the reproach "of +plunging his sword into the bowels of his mother." Like Wolsey he +identified himself with the military aspirations of his sovereign. It +was Thomas who organized the Toulouse campaign of 1159; even in the +field he made himself conspicuous by commanding a company of knights, +directing the work of devastation, and superintending the conduct of the +war after the king had withdrawn his presence from the camp. When there +was war with France upon the Norman border, the chancellor acted as +Henry's representative; and on one occasion engaged in single combat and +unhorsed a French knight of reputation. Later it fell to his part to +arrange the terms of peace with France. He discharged the duties of an +envoy with equal magnificence and dexterity; the treaty of May 1160, +which put an end to the war, was of his making. + +In 1162 he was transferred to a new sphere of action. Henry bestowed on +him the see of Canterbury, left vacant by the death of Theobald. The +appointment caused some murmurs; since Becket, at the time when it was +made, was still a simple deacon. But it had been desired by Theobald as +the one means of averting an attack on clerical privileges which had +been impending almost since the accession of Henry II.; and the bishops +accepted it in silence. Henry on his side looked to find in Becket the +archbishop a coadjutor as loyal as Becket the archdeacon; and +anticipated that the Church would once more be reduced to that state of +dependence in which she had stood during the latter years of Henry I. +Becket, however, disappointed all the conflicting expectations excited +by his appointment. He did not allow himself to be made the king's tool; +nor on the other hand did he attempt to protect the Church by humouring +the king in ordinary matters. He devoted himself to ascetic practices, +confined himself to the society of churchmen, and resigned the +chancellorship in spite of a papal dispensation (procured by the king) +which authorized him to hold that office concurrently with the primacy. +By nature a violent partisan, the archbishop now showed himself the +uncompromising champion of his order and his see. Hence he was on the +worst of terms with the king before a year had elapsed. They came into +open conflict at the council of Woodstock (July 1163), when Becket +successfully opposed the king's proposal that a land-tax, known as the +sheriff's aid, which formed part of that official's salary, should be +henceforth paid into the Exchequer. But there were more serious +differences in the background. Becket had not shrunk from +excommunicating a tenant in chief who had encroached upon the lands of +Canterbury, and had protected against the royal courts a clerk named +Philip de Brois who was charged with an assault upon a royal officer. +These disputes involved questions of principle which had long occupied +Henry's attention, and Becket's defiant attitude was answered by the +famous Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.), in which the king defined, +professedly according to ancient use and custom, the relations of Church +and State. Becket and the bishops were required to give these +constitutions their approval. Henry's demands were more defensible in +substance than might be supposed from the manner in which he pressed +them on the bishops. On the most burning question, that of criminous +clerks, he offered a compromise. He was willing that the accused should +be tried in the courts Christian provided that the punishment of the +guilty were left to the lay power. Becket's opposition rested upon a +casuistic interpretation of the canon law, and an extravagant conception +of the dignity attaching to the priesthood; he showed, moreover, a +disposition to quibble, to equivocate, and to make promises which he had +no intention of fulfilling. His conduct may be excused on the ground +that the bishops were subjected to unwarrantable intimidation. But when +he renounced his promise to observe the constitutions his conduct was +reprobated by the other bishops, although approved by the pope. It was +fortunate for Becket's reputation that Henry punished him for his change +of front by a systematic persecution in the forms of law. The archbishop +was thus enabled to invoke the pope's assistance, and to quit the +country with some show of dignity. + +Becket fled to France in November 1164. He at once succeeded in +obtaining from Alexander III. a formal condemnation of the +constitutions. But Alexander, a fugitive from Italy and menaced by an +alliance of the emperor with an antipope, was indisposed to take extreme +measures against Henry; and six years elapsed before the king found +himself definitely confronted with the choice between an interdict and a +surrender. For the greater part of this time the archbishop resided at +the Burgundian monastery of Pontigny, constantly engaged in negotiations +with Alexander, whose hand he desired to force, and with Henry, from +whom he hoped to extract an unconditional submission. In 1166 Becket +received from the pope a commission to publish what censures he thought +fit; of which he at once availed himself to excommunicate the king's +principal counsellors. In 1169 he took the same step against two of the +royalist bishops. In more sweeping measures, however, the pope refused +to support him, until in 1170 Henry infringed the rights of Canterbury +by causing Archbishop Roger of York to crown the young king. In that +year the threats of the pope forced Henry to a reconciliation which took +place later at Freteval on the 22nd of July. It was a hollow truce, +since the subject of the constitutions was not mentioned; and Thomas +returned to England with the determination of riding roughshod over the +king's supporters. If he had not given a definite pledge to forgive the +bishops who had taken part in the young king's coronation, he had at +least raised expectations that he would overlook all past offences. But +the archbishop prevailed upon the pope to suspend the bishops, and +before his return published papal letters which, in announcing these +sentences, spoke of the constitutions as null and void. It was only to +be expected that such a step, which was virtually a declaration of war +against the king, should arouse in him the strongest feelings of +resentment. The archbishop's murder, perpetrated within a month of his +return to England (29th December 1170), was, however, the work of over +zealous courtiers and regretted by no one more than Henry. + +Becket was canonized in 1172. Within a short time his shrine at +Canterbury became the resort of innumerable pilgrims. Plenary +indulgences were given for a visit to the shrine, and an official +register was kept to record the miracles wrought by the relics of the +saint. The shrine was magnificently adorned with the gold and silver and +jewels offered by the pious. It was plundered by Henry VIII., to whom +the memory of Becket was specially obnoxious; but the reformers were +powerless to expunge the name of the saint from the Roman calendar, on +which it still remains. Even to those who are in sympathy with the +principles for which he fought, the posthumous reputation of Becket must +appear strangely exaggerated. It is evident that in the course of his +long struggle with the state he fell more and more under the dominion of +personal motives. At the last he fought not so much for an idea as for +the humiliation of an opponent by whom he had been ungenerously treated. +William of Newburgh appears to express the verdict of the most impartial +contemporaries when he says that the bishop was _zelo justitiae +fervidus, utrum autem plene secundum scientiam novit Deus_: "burning +with zeal for justice, but whether altogether according to wisdom God +knows." + + AUTHORITIES.--_Original:_--The correspondence of Becket and most of + the contemporary biographies are collected by J.C. Robertson in + _Materials for the History of Thomas Becket_ (7 vols., Rolls Series, + 1875-1885). See also the _Vie de Saint Thomas_, by Garnier de Pont + Sainte Maxence (ed. Hippeau, Paris, 1859). For the chronology of the + controversy see Eyton's _Itinerary of Henry II._ + + _Modern:_--Morris, _Life and Martyrdom of St Thomas Becket_ (London, + 1885); Lhuillier, _Saint Thomas de Cantorbery_ (2 vols., Paris, + 1891-1892); J.C. Robertson, _Becket_ (London, 1859); F.W. Maitland, + _Roman Canon Law in the Church of England_, c. iv.; J.A. Froude in his + _Short Studies_, vol. iv., and Freeman in his _Historical Essays_ + (1871), give noteworthy but conflicting appreciations. + (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +BECKFORD, WILLIAM (1760-1844), English author, son of Alderman William +Beckford (1709-1770), was born on the 1st of October 1760. His father +was lord mayor of London in 1762 and again in 1769; he was a famous +supporter of John Wilkes, and on his monument in the Guildhall were +afterwards inscribed the words of his manly and outspoken reproof to +George III. on the occasion of the City of London address to the king in +1770. At the age of eleven young Beckford inherited a princely fortune +from his father. He married Lady Margaret Gordon in 1783, and spent his +brief married life in Switzerland. After his wife's death (1786) he +travelled in Spain and Portugal, and wrote his _Portuguese Letters_ +(published 1834, 1835), which rank with his best work. He afterwards +returned to England, and after selling his old house, Fonthill Abbey, +Wiltshire, began to build a magnificent residence there, on which he +expended in about eighteen years the sum of L273,000. His +eccentricities, together with the strict seclusion in which he lived, +gave rise to scandal, probably unjustified. In 1822 he sold his house, +together with its splendid library and pictures, to John Farquhar, and +soon after one of the towers, 260 ft. high, fell, destroying part of the +villa in the ruins. Beckford erected another lofty structure on +Lansdowne Hill, near Bath, where he continued to reside till his death +in 1844. His first work, _Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary +Painters_ (1780) was a slight, sarcastic _jeu d'esprit_. In 1782 he +wrote in French his oriental romance, _The History of the Caliph +Vathek_, which appeared in English, translated by the Rev. Samuel +Henley, in 1786 and has taken its place as one of the finest productions +of luxuriant imagination. + +Beckford's wealth and large expenditure, his position as a collector and +patron of letters (he bought Gibbon's library at Lausanne), his literary +industry, and his reputation as author of _Vathek_, make him an +interesting figure in literary history. He had a seat in parliament from +1784 to 1793, and again from 1806 to 1820. He left two daughters, the +eldest of whom was married to the 10th duke of Hamilton. + + Cyrus Redding's _Memoir_ (1859) is the only full biography, but + prolix; see Dr R. Garnett's introduction to his edition of _Vathek_ + (1893). + + + + +BECKINGTON (or BEKYNTON), THOMAS (c. 1390-1465), English statesman and +prelate, was born at Beckington in Somerset, and was educated at +Winchester and New College, Oxford. Having entered the church he held +many ecclesiastical appointments, and became dean of the Arches in 1423; +then devoting his time to secular affairs he was sent on an embassy to +Calais in 1439, and to John IV., count of Armagnac, in 1442. At this +time Beckington was acting as secretary to Henry VI., and soon after his +return in 1443 he was appointed lord privy seal and bishop of Bath and +Wells. The bishop erected many buildings in Wells, and died there on the +14th of January 1465. The most important results of Beckington's +missions to France were one Latin journal, written by himself, referring +to the embassy to Calais; and another, written by one of his attendants, +relating to the journey to Armagnac. + + Beckington's own journal is published in the _Proceedings of the Privy + Council_, vol. v., edited by N.H. Nicolas (1835); and the other + journal in the _Official Correspondence of Thomas Bekynton_, edited by + G. Williams for the Rolls Series (1872), which contains many + interesting letters. This latter journal has been translated into + English by N.H. Nicolas (1828). See G.G. Perry, "Bishop Beckington and + Henry VI.," in the _English Historical Review_ (1894). + + + + +BECKMANN, JOHANN (1739-1811), German scientific author, was born on the +4th of June 1739 at Hoya in Hanover, where his father was postmaster and +receiver of taxes. He was educated at Stade and the university of +Gottingen. The death of his mother in 1762 having deprived him of his +means of support, he went in 1763 on the invitation of the pastor of the +Lutheran community, Anton Friedrich Busching, the founder of the modern +historic statistical method of geography, to teach natural history in +the Lutheran academy, St Petersburg. This office he relinquished in +1765, and travelled in Denmark and Sweden, where he studied the methods +of working the mines, and made the acquaintance of Linnaeus at Upsala. +In 1766 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy at +Gottingen. There he lectured on political and domestic economy with such +success that in 1770 he was appointed ordinary professor. He was in the +habit of taking his students into the workshops, that they might acquire +a practical as well as a theoretical knowledge of different processes +and handicrafts. While thus engaged he determined to trace the history +and describe the existing condition of each of the arts and sciences on +which he was lecturing, being perhaps incited by the _Bibliothecae_ of +Albrecht von Haller. But even Beckmann's industry and ardour were unable +to overtake the amount of study necessary for this task. He therefore +confined his attention to several practical arts and trades; and to +these labours we owe his _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Erfindungen_ +(1780-1805), translated into English as the _History of Inventions_--a +work in which he relates the origin, history and recent condition of the +various machines, utensils, &c., employed in trade and for domestic +purposes. This work entitles Beckmann to be regarded as the founder of +scientific technology, a term which he was the first to use in 1772. In +1772 Beckmann was elected a member of the Royal Society of Gottingen, +and he contributed valuable scientific dissertations to its proceedings +until 1783, when he withdrew from all further share in its work. He died +on the 3rd of February 1811. Other important works of Beckmann are +_Entwurf einer allgemeinen Technologie_ (1806); _Anleitung zur +Handelswissenschaft_ (1789); _Vorbereitung zur Warenkunde_ (1795-1800); +_Beitrage zur Okonomie, Technologie, Polizei- und, Kameralwissenschaft_ +(1777-1791). + + + + +BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL (1852-), American portrait-painter, was born at +Hannibal, Missouri, on the 23rd of September 1852. He studied in the +National Academy of Design, New York City, of which he afterwards became +a member, and in Paris (1873-1878) under Carolus Duran. Returning to the +United States in 1878, he gradually became a prominent figure in +American art. He took an active part in the formation of the Fine Arts +Society, and was president of the National Free Art League, which +attempted to secure the repeal of the American duty on works of art. +Among his portraits are those of W.M. Chase (1882), of Miss Jordan +(1883), of Mark Twain, T.A. Janvier, General Schofield and William +Walton. He decorated one of the domes of the Manufactures Building at +the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. + + + + +BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY (1772-1831), British general, was the son of +Major-General John Beckwith, who was colonel of the 20th regiment +(Lancashire Fusiliers) in the charge at Minden. In 1791 he entered the +71st regiment (then commanded by Colonel David Baird), in which he +served in India and elsewhere until 1800, when he obtained a company in +Colonel Coote Manningham's experimental regiment of riflemen, shortly +afterwards numbered as the 95th Rifles and now called the Rifle Brigade. +In 1802 he was promoted major, and in the following year +lieutenant-colonel. Beckwith was one of the favourite officers of Sir +John Moore in the famous camp of Shorncliffe, and aided that general in +the training of the troops which afterwards became the Light Division. +In 1806 he served in the expedition to Hanover, and in 1807 in that +which captured Copenhagen. In 1806 the Rifles were present at Vimeira, +and in the campaign of Sir John Moore they bore the brunt of the +rearguard fighting. Beckwith took part in the great march of Craufurd to +the field of Talavera, in the advanced guard fights on the Coa in 1810 +and in the campaign in Portugal. On the formation of the Light Division +he was given a brigade command in it. After the brilliant action of +Sabugal, Beckwith had to retire for a time from active service, but the +Rifles and the brigade he had trained and commanded added to their fame +on every subsequent battlefield. In 1812 he went to Canada as assistant +quartermaster-general, and he took part in the war against the United +States. In 1814 he became major-general, and in 1815 was created K.C.B. +In 1827 he was made colonel commandant of the Rifle Brigade. He went to +India as commander-in-chief at Bombay in 1829, and was promoted +lieutenant-general in the following year. He died on the 15th of January +1831 at Mahableshwar. + +His elder brother, Sir GEORGE BECKWITH (1753-1823), distinguished +himself as a regimental officer in the American War of Independence, and +served subsequently in high administrative posts and in numerous +successful military operations in the West Indies during the French +Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. He was made a K.B. for his capture of +Martinique in 1809, and attained the full rank of general in 1814. Sir +George Beckwith commanded the forces in Ireland, 1816-1820. He died in +London on the 20th of March 1823. + +Their nephew, Major-General JOHN CHARLES BECKWITH (1789-1862), joined +the 50th regiment in 1803, exchanging in 1804 into the 95th Rifles, with +which regiment he served in the Peninsular campaigns of 1808-10. He was +subsequently employed on the staff of the Light Division, and he was +repeatedly mentioned in despatches, becoming in 1814 a brevet-major, and +after the battle of Waterloo (in which he lost a leg) lieutenant-colonel +and C.B. In 1820 he left active service. Seven years later an accident +drew his attention to the Waldenses, whose past history and present +condition influenced him so strongly that he settled in the valleys of +Piedmont. The rest of his life was spent in the self-imposed task of +educating the Waldenses, for whom he established and maintained a large +number of schools, and in reviving the earlier faith of the people. In +1848 King Charles Albert made him a knight of the order of St Maurice +and St Lazarus. He was promoted colonel in the British army in 1837 and +major-general in 1846. He died on the 19th of July 1862 at La Torre, +Piedmont. + + + + +BECKX, PIERRE JEAN (1795-1887), general of the Society of Jesus, was +born at Sichem in Belgium on the 8th of February 1795, and entered the +novitiate of the order at Hildesheim in 1819. His first important post +was as procurator for the province of Austria, 1847; next year he became +rector of the Jesuit college at Louvain, and, after serving as secretary +to the provincials of Belgium and Austria, was elected head of the order +in 1853. His tenure of office was marked by an increased zeal for +missions in Protestant lands, and by the removal of the society's +headquarters from Rome to Fiesole near Florence in 1870. His chief +literary work was the often-translated _Month of Mary_ (Vienna, 1843). +He retired in September 1883, being succeeded by Anthony M. Anderledy, a +Swiss, who had seen service in the United States. He died at Rome on the +4th of March 1887. + + + + +BECQUE, HENRY FRANCOIS (1837-1899), French dramatist, was born on the +9th of April 1837 in Paris. He wrote the book of an opera _Sardanapale_ +in imitation of Lord Byron for the music of M. Victorin Joncieres in +1867, but his first important work, _Michel Pauper_, appeared in 1870. +The importance of this sombre drama was first realized when it was +revived at the Odeon in 1886. _Les Corbeaux_ (1882) established Becque's +position as an innovator, and in 1885 he produced his most successful +play, _La Parisienne_. Becque produced little during the last years of +his life, but his disciples carried on the tradition he had created. He +died in May 1899. + + See his _Querelles litteraires_ (1890), and _Souvenirs d'un auteur + dramatique_ (1895), consisting chiefly of reprinted articles in which + he does not spare his opponents. His _Theatre complet_ (3 vols., 1899) + includes _L'Enfant prodigue_ (Vaudeville Theatre, 6th of Nov. 1868); + _Michel Pauper_ (Theatre de la Porte-Saint-Martin, 17th of June 1870); + _L'Enlevement_ (Vaudeville, 18th of Nov. 1871); _La Navette_ (Gymnase, + 15th of Nov. 1878); _Les Honnetes Femmes_ (Gymnase, 1st of Jan. 1880); + _Les Corbeaux_ (Comedie Francaise, 14th of Sept. 1882); _La + Parisienne_ (Theatre de la Renaissance, 7th of Feb. 1885). + + + + +BECQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO (1836-1870), Spanish poet and romance-writer, +was born at Seville on the 17th of February 1836. Left an orphan at an +early age, he was educated by his godmother, refused to adopt any +profession, and drifted to Madrid, where he obtained a small post in the +civil service. He was dismissed for carelessness, became an incorrigible +Bohemian, and earned a precarious living by translating foreign novels; +he died in great poverty at Madrid on the 22nd of December 1870. His +works were published posthumously in 1873. In such prose tales as _El +Rayo de Luna_ and _La Mujer de piedra_, Becquer is manifestly influenced +by Hoffmann, and as a poet he has analogies with Heine. He dwells in a +fairyland of his own, crooning a weird elfin music which has no parallel +in Spanish; his work is unfinished and unequal, but it is singularly +free from the rhetoric characteristic of his native Andalusia, and its +lyrical ardour is of a beautiful sweetness and sincerity. + + + + +BECQUEREL, the name of a French family, several members of which have +been distinguished in chemical and physical research. + +ANTOINE CESAR BECQUEREL (1788-1878), was born at Chatillon sur Loing on +the 8th of March 1788. After passing through the Ecole Polytechnique he +became _ingenieur-officier_ in 1808, and saw active service with the +imperial troops in Spain from 1810 to 1812, and again in France in 1814. +He then resigned from the army and devoted the rest of his life to +scientific investigation. His earliest work was mineralogical in +character, but he soon turned his attention to the study of electricity +and especially of electrochemistry. In 1837 he received the Copley medal +from the Royal Society "for his various memoirs on electricity, and +particularly for those on the production of metallic sulphurets and +sulphur by the long-continued action of electricity of very low +tension," which it was hoped would lead to increased knowledge of the +"recomposition of crystallized bodies, and the processes which may have +been employed by nature in the production of such bodies in the mineral +kingdom." In biological chemistry he worked at the problems of animal +heat and at the phenomena accompanying the growth of plants, and he also +devoted much time to meteorological questions and observations. He was a +prolific writer, his books including _Traite d'electricite et du +magnetisme_ (1834-1840), _Traite de physique dans ses rapports avec la +chimie_ (1842), _Elements de l'electro-chimie_ (1843), _Traite complet +du magnetisme_ (1845), _Elements de physique terrestre et de +meteorologie_ (1847), and _Des climats et de l'influence qu'exercent les +sols boises et deboises_ (1853). He died on the 18th of January 1878 in +Paris, where from 1837 he had been professor of physics at the Musee +d'Histoire Naturelle. + +His son, ALEXANDRE EDMOND BECQUEREL (1820-1891), was born in Paris on +the 24th of March 1820, and was in turn his pupil, assistant and +successor at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle; he was also appointed +professor at the short-lived Agronomic Institute at Versailles in 1849, +and in 1853 received the chair of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts +et Metiers. Edmond Becquerel was associated with his father in much of +his work, but he himself paid special attention to the study of light, +investigating the photochemical effects and spectroscopic characters of +solar radiation and the electric light, and the phenomena of +phosphorescence, particularly as displayed by the sulphides and by +compounds of uranium. It was in connexion with these latter inquiries +that he devised his phosphoroscope, an apparatus which enabled the +interval between exposure to the source of light and observation of the +resulting effects to be varied at will and accurately measured. He +published in 1867-1868 a treatise in two volumes on _La Lumiere, ses +causes et ses effets_. He also investigated the diamagnetic and +paramagnetic properties of substances; and was keenly interested in the +phenomena of electrochemical decomposition, accumulating much evidence +in favour of Faraday's law and proposing a modified statement of it +which was intended to cover certain apparent exceptions. He died in +Paris on the 11th of May 1891. + +ANTOINE HENRI BECQUEREL (1852-1908), son of the last-named, who +succeeded to his chair at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle in 1892, was +born in Paris on the 15th of December 1852, studied at the Ecole +Polytechnique, where he was appointed a professor in 1895, and in 1875 +entered the department _des ponts et chaussees_, of which in 1894 he +became _ingenieur en chef_. He was distinguished as the discoverer of +radioactivity, having found in 1896 that uranium at ordinary +temperatures emits an invisible radiation which in many respects +resembles Rontgen rays, and can affect a photographic plate after +passing through thin plates of metal. For his researches in this +department he was in 1903 awarded a Nobel prize jointly with Pierre +Curie. He also engaged in work on magnetism, the polarization of light, +phosphorescence and the absorption of light in crystals. He died at +Croisic in Brittany on the 25th of August 1908. + + + + +BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German _Bett_, probably connected with +the Indo-European root _bhodh_, seen in the Lat. _fodere_, to dig; so "a +dug-out place" for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden +"bed"), a general term for a resting or sleeping place for men and +animals, and in particular for the article of household furniture for +that object, and so used by analogy in other senses, involving a +supporting surface or layer. The accompaniments of a domestic bed +(bedding, coverlets, &c.) have naturally varied considerably in +different times, and its form and decoration and social associations +have considerable historical interest. The Egyptians had high bedsteads +which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and curtains to +hang round. Often there was a head-rest as well, semi-cylindrical and +made of stone, wood or metal. Assyrians, Medes and Persians had beds of +a similar kind, and frequently decorated their furniture with inlays or +_appliques_ of metal, mother-of-pearl and ivory. The oldest account of a +bedstead is probably that of Ulysses which Homer describes him as making +in his own house, but he also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork of +beds with gold, silver and ivory. The Greek bed had a wooden frame, with +a board at the head and bands of hide laced across, upon which skins +were placed. At a later period the bedstead was often veneered with +expensive woods; sometimes it was of solid ivory veneered with +tortoise-shell and with silver feet; often it was of bronze. The pillows +and coverings also became more costly and beautiful; the most celebrated +places for their manufacture were Miletus, Corinth and Carthage. Folding +beds, too, appear in the vase paintings. The Roman mattresses were +stuffed with reeds, hay, wool or feathers; the last was used towards the +end of the Republic, when custom demanded luxury. Small cushions were +placed at the head and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high +and could only be ascended by the help of steps. They were often +arranged for two persons, and had a board or railing at the back as well +as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were sometimes very +costly, generally purple embroidered with figures in gold; and rich +hangings fell to the ground masking the front. The bedsteads themselves +were often of bronze inlaid with silver, and Elagabalus, like some +modern Indian princes, had one of solid silver. In the walls of some of +the houses at Pompeii bed niches are found which were probably closed by +curtains or sliding partitions. The marriage bed, _lectus genialis_, was +much decorated, and was placed in the atrium opposite the door. A low +pallet-bed used for sick persons was known as _scimpodium_. Other forms +of couch were called _lectus_, but were not beds in the modern sense of +the word except the _lectus funebris_, on which the body of a dead +person lay in state for seven days, clad in a toga and rich garments, +and surrounded by flowers and foliage. This bed rested on ivory legs, +over which purple blankets embroidered with gold were spread, and was +placed in the atrium with the foot to the door and with a pan of incense +by its side. The ancient Germans lay on the floor on beds of leaves +covered with skins, or in a kind of shallow chest filled with leaves and +moss. In the early middle ages they laid carpets on the floor or on a +bench against the wall, placed upon them mattresses stuffed with +feathers, wool or hair, and used skins as a covering. They appear to +have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping themselves in the large linen +sheets which were stretched over the cushions. In the 13th century +luxury increased, and bedsteads were made of wood much decorated with +inlaid, carved and painted ornament. They also used folding beds, which +served as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon +leather. At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed, while +silk-covered skins served as coverlets. Curtains were hung from the +ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall. The Carolingian +MSS. show metal bedsteads much higher at the head than at the feet, and +this shape continued in use till the 13th century in France, many +cushions being added to raise the body to a sloping position. In the +12th-century MSS. the bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving +and painting, and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony. +Curtains were hung above the bed, and a small hanging lamp is often +shown. In the 14th century the woodwork became of less importance, being +generally entirely covered by hangings of rich materials. Silk, velvet +and even cloth of gold were much used. Inventories from the beginning of +the 14th century give details of these hangings lined with fur and +richly embroidered. Then it was that the tester bed made its first +appearance, the tester being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the +walls, a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut in +by double curtains, sometimes even so as to exclude all draughts. The +space between bed and wall was called the _ruelle_, and very intimate +friends were received there. In the 15th century beds became very large, +reaching to 7 or 8 ft. by 6 or 7 ft. Viollet-le-Duc says that the +mattresses were filled with pea-shucks or straw--neither wool nor +horsehair is mentioned--but feathers also were used. At this time great +personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property about +with them, including beds and bed-hangings, and for this reason the +bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks to be covered up; but +about the beginning of the 16th century bedsteads were made lighter and +more decorative, since the lords remained in the same place for longer +periods. In the museum at Nancy is a fine bedstead of this period which +belonged to Antoine de Lorraine. It has a carved head and foot as well +as the uprights which support the tester. Another is in the Musee Cluny +ascribed to Pierre de Gondi, very architectural in design, with a +bracketed cornice, and turned and carved posts; at the head figures of +warriors watch the sleeper. Louis XIV. had an enormous number of +sumptuous beds, as many as 413 being described in the inventories of his +palaces. Some of them had embroideries enriched with pearls, and figures +on a silver or golden ground. The carving was the work of Proux or +Caffieri, and the gilding by La Baronniere. The great bed at Versailles +had crimson velvet curtains on which "The Triumph of Venus" was +embroidered. So much gold was used that the velvet scarcely showed. +Under the influence of Madame de Maintenon "The Sacrifice of Abraham," +which is now on the tester, replaced "The Triumph of Venus." In the 17th +century, which has been called "the century of magnificent beds," the +style _a la duchesse_, with tester and curtains only at the head, +replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though they lasted much +longer in England. In the 18th century feather pillows were first used +as coverings in Germany, which in the fashions of the bed and the +curious etiquette connected with the bedchamber followed France for the +most part. The beds were _a la duchesse_, but in France itself there was +great variety both of name and shape--the _lit a alcove, lit d'ange_, +which had no columns, but a suspended tester with curtains drawn back, +_lit a l'Anglaise_, which looked like a high sofa by day, _lit en +baldaquin_, with the tester fixed against the wall, _lit a couronne_ +with a tester shaped like a crown, a style which appeared under Louis +XVI., and was fashionable under the Restoration and Louis Philippe, and +_lit a l'imperiale_, which had a curved tester, are a few of their +varieties. The _lit en baldaquin_ of Napoleon I. is still at +Fontainebleau, and the Garde Meuble contains several richly carved beds +of a more modern date. The custom of the "bed of justice" upon which the +king of France reclined when he was present in parliament, the princes +being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials +kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the throne. +Louis XI. is credited with its first use, and the custom lasted till the +end of the monarchy. From the habit of using this bed to hear petitions, +etc., came the usage of the _grand lit_, which was provided wherever the +king stayed, called also _lit de parement_ or _lit de parade_, rather +later. Upon this bed the dead king lay in state. The beds of the king +and queen were saluted by the courtiers as if they were altars, and none +approached them even when there was no railing to prevent it. These +railings were apparently placed for other than ceremonial reasons +originally, and in the accounts of several castles in the 15th century +mention is made of a railing to keep dogs from the bed. In the _chambre +de parade_, where the ceremonial bed was placed, certain persons, such +as ambassadors or great lords, whom it was desired to honour, were +received in a more intimate fashion than the crowd of courtiers. The +_petit lever_ was held in the bedroom itself, the _grand lever_ in the +_chambre de parade_. At Versailles women received their friends in their +beds, both before and after childbirth, during periods of mourning, and +even directly after marriage--in fact in any circumstances which were +thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During the 17th +century this curious custom became general, perhaps to avoid the +tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used in high society +in France till the end of the _ancien regime_. The earliest of which +mention has been found belonged to Charles the Bold (see _Memoirs_ of +Philippe de Comines). They had curtains over a light framework, and were +in their way as fine as the stationary beds. Iron beds appear in the +18th century; the advertisements recommend them as free from the insects +which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads, but one is mentioned in the +inventory of the furniture of the castle of Nerac in 1569, "un lit de +fer et de cuivre, avec quatre petites colonnes de laiton, ensemble +quatre satyres de laiton, quatre petits vases de laiton pour mettre sur +les colonnes; dedans le dit lit il y a la figure d'Olopherne ensemble de +Judith, qui sont d'albatre." In Scotland, Brittany and Holland the +closed bed with sliding or folding shutters has persisted till our own +day, and in England--where beds were commonly quite simple in form--the +four-poster, with tester and curtains all round, was the usual citizen's +bed till the middle of the 19th century. Many fine examples exist of +17th-century carved oak bedsteads, some of which have found their way +into museums. The later forms, in which mahogany was usually the wood +employed, are much less architectural in design. Some exceedingly +elegant mahogany bedsteads were designed by Chippendale, Hepplewhite and +Sheraton, and there are signs that English taste is returning to the +wooden bedstead in a lighter and less monumental form. (J. P.-B.) + + + + +BED, in geology, a term for certain kinds of rock usually found to be +arranged in more or less distinct layers; these are the beds of rock or +strata. Normally, the bedding of rocks is horizontal or very nearly so; +when the upper and lower surfaces of a bed are parallel, the bedding is +said to be regular; if it is thickest at one point and thins away thence +in every direction, the bedding is lenticular. Beds may be thick (50 ft. +or more) or so thin as to be like sheets of paper, e.g. paper shales, +such thin beds being often termed layers or laminae; intermediate +regular varieties may be called flags, flagstones or tilestones. In +fine-grained rocks the bedding is usually thinner and more regular than +in coarser rocks, such as sandstones and grits. Bedding is confined to +rocks which have been formed under water or by the agency of wind; these +are the "stratified" rocks. + +The deposition of rock material by moving water is not as a rule +uniform, slight changes in the velocity produce an immediate change in +the size of the particles deposited upon a given area; thus a coarse +sand layer may be succeeded by a finer sand or a mud, or two sandy +layers may be separated by a thin layer of muddy shale. Bedding is most +often induced by a change in the nature of the contiguous strata; thus a +sandstone is followed by a shale or vice versa--changes which may be due +to the varying volume or velocity of a current. Or the nature of the +deposit may be influenced by chemical actions, whereby we get beds of +rock-salt or gypsum between beds of marl. Or again, organic activities +may influence the deposit, beds of coal may succeed layers of shale, +iron-stone may lie between limestones or clays, a layer of large fossils +or of flints may determine a bedding plane in massive limestones. Flaky +minerals like mica frequently assist in the formation of bedding planes; +and the pressure of superincumbent strata upon earlier formed deposits +has no doubt often produced a tendency in the particles to arrange +themselves normal to the direction of pressure, thus causing the rock to +split more readily along the same direction. + +Where rapidly-moving currents of water (or air) are transporting or +depositing sand, &c., the bedding is generally not horizontal, but +inclined more or less steeply; this brings about the formation of what +is variously called "cross-bedding," "diagonal bedding", "current +bedding" or improperly "false-bedding." Igneous materials, when +deposited through the agency of water or air, exhibit bedding, but no +true stratification is seen in igneous rocks that have solidified after +cooling, although in granites and similar rocks the process of +weathering frequently produces an appearance resembling this structure. +Miners not infrequently describe a bed of rock as a "vein," if it is one +that has some economic value, e.g. a "vein of coal or ironstone." + (J. A. H.) + + + + +BEDARESI, YEDAIAH (1270-1340), Jewish poet, physician and philosopher of +Provence. His most successful work was an ethical treatise, _Behinath +'Olam_ (Examination of the World), a didactic poem in thirty-seven short +sections. The work is still very popular. It was translated into English +by Tobias Goodman. + + + + +BEDARIEUX, a town of southern France, in the department of Herault, on +the Orb, 27 m. N.N.W. of Beziers by rail. Pop. (1906) 5594. The town has +a 16th-century church, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of arts +and manufactures, a communal college and a school of drawing. Bedarieux +was at one time a notable manufacturing centre. Its cloth-weaving +industry, carried on under a special royal privilege from the end of the +17th century to the Revolution, employed in 1789 as many as 5000 +workmen, while some thousand more were occupied in wool and cotton +spinning, &c. In spite of the introduction of modern machinery from +England, the industries of the place declined, mainly owing to the loss +of the trade with the Levant; but of late years they have somewhat +revived, owing partly to the opening up of coal mines in the +neighbourhood. Besides cloth factories and wool-spinning mills, there +are now numerous tanneries and leather-dressing works. There is some +trade in timber, wool and agricultural produce. + + + + +BEDDGELERT ("Gelert's grave"), a village in Carnarvonshire, North Wales, +at the foot of Snowdon. The tradition of Gelert, Llewelyn's hound, being +buried there is old in Wales; and common to it and India is the legend +of a dog (or ichneumon) saving a child from a beast of prey (or +reptile), and being killed by the child's father under the delusion that +the animal had slain the infant. The English poet, W.R. Spencer, has +versified the tale of Llewelyn, king of Wales, leaving Gelert and the +baby prince at home, returning to find Gelert stained with the blood of +a wolf, and killing the hound because he thought his child was slain. +Sir W. Jones, the Welsh philologist and linguist, gives the Indian +equivalent (Lord Teignmouth's _Life of Jones_, ed. Rev. S.C. Wilkes, +editor's supplement). A Brahmin, leaving home, left his daughter in +charge of an ichneumon, which he had long cherished. A black snake came +up and was killed by the ichneumon, mistakenly killed, in its turn, by +the Brahmin on his coming back. Another version is the medieval romance +in _The Seven Wise Masters of Rome_. In the edition printed by Wynkyn de +Worde it is told by "the first master"--a knight had one son, a +greyhound and a falcon; the knight went to a tourney, a snake attacked +the son, the falcon roused the hound, which killed the serpent, lay down +by the cradle, and was killed by the knight, who discovered his error, +like Llewelyn, and similarly repented (Villon Society, British Museum +reprint, by Gomme and Wheatley). + +On the west of Beddgelert is Moel Hebog (Bare-hill of the falcon), a +hiding-place of Owen Glendower. Here, in 1784, was found a brass Roman +shield. Near is the famous Aberglaslyn Pass, dividing Carnarvon and +Merioneth. In the centre is Cadair Rhys Goch o'r Eryri, a rock named as +the chair of Rhys Goch, a bard contemporary with Glendower (died +traditionally, 1429). Not far hence passed the Roman road from Uriconium +to Segontium (see CARNARVON). + + + + +BEDDOES, THOMAS (1760-1808), English physician and scientific writer, +was born at Shiffnall in Shropshire on the 13th of April 1760. After +being educated at Bridgnorth grammar school and at Pembroke College, +Oxford, he studied medicine in London under John Sheldon (1752-1808). In +1784 he published a translation of L. Spallanzani's _Dissertations on +Natural History_, and in 1785 produced a translation, with original +notes, of T.O. Bergman's _Essays on Elective Attractions_. He took his +degree of doctor of medicine at Oxford in 1786, and, after visiting +Paris, where he became acquainted with Lavoisier, was appointed reader +in chemistry at Oxford University in 1788. His lectures attracted large +and appreciative audiences; but his sympathy with the French Revolution +exciting a clamour against him, he resigned his readership in 1792. In +the following year he published _Observations on the Nature of +Demonstrative Evidence_, and the _History of Isaac Jenkins_, a story +which powerfully exhibits the evils of drunkenness, and of which 40,000 +copies are reported to have been sold. About the same time he began to +work at his project for the establishment of a "Pneumatic Institution" +for treating disease by the inhalation of different gases. In this he +was assisted by Richard Lovell Edgeworth, whose daughter, Anna, became +his wife in 1794. In 1798 the institution was established at Clifton, +its first superintendent being Humphry Davy, who investigated the +properties of nitrous oxide in its laboratory. The original aim of the +institution was gradually abandoned; it became an ordinary +sick-hospital, and was relinquished by its projector in the year before +his death, which occurred on the 24th of December 1808. Beddoes was a +man of great powers and wide acquirements, which he directed to noble +and philanthropic purposes. He strove to effect social good by +popularizing medical knowledge, a work for which his vivid imagination +and glowing eloquence eminently fitted him. Besides the writings +mentioned above, he was the author of _Political Pamphlets_ (1795-1797), +a popular _Essay on Consumption_ (1799), which won the admiration of +Kant, an _Essay on Fever_ (1807), and _Hygeia, or Essays Moral and +Medical_ (1807). He also edited John Brown's _Elements of Medicine_ +(1795), and _Contributions to Physical and Medical Knowledge, +principally from the West of England_ (1799). + + A life of Beddoes by Dr John E. Stock was published in 1810. + + + + +BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL (1803-1849), English dramatist and poet, son of +the physician, Thomas Beddoes, was born at Clifton on the 20th of July +1803. His mother was a sister of Maria Edgeworth, the novelist. He was +sent to Bath grammar school and then to the Charterhouse. At school he +wrote a good deal of verse and a novel in imitation of Fielding. In 1820 +he was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in his first year +published _The Improvisatore_, afterwards carefully suppressed, and in +1822 _The Bride's Tragedy_, which showed him as the disciple of the +later Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists. The play found a small circle +of admirers, and procured for Beddoes the friendship of Bryan Waller +Procter (Barry Cornwall). Beddoes retired to Southampton to read for his +degree, and there Procter introduced him to a young lawyer, Thomas +Forbes Kelsall, with whom he became very intimate, and who became his +biographer and editor. At this time he composed the dramatic fragments +of _The Second Brother_ and _Torrismond_. Unfortunately he lacked the +power of constructing a plot, and seemed to suffer from a constitutional +inability to finish anything. Beddoes was one of the first outside the +limited circle of Shelley's own friends to recognize Shelley's genius, +and he was certainly one of the earliest imitators of his lyrical +method. In the summer of 1824 he was summoned to Florence by the illness +of his mother, but she died before he arrived. He remained some time in +Italy, and met Mrs Shelley and Walter Savage Landor before he returned +to England. In 1825 he took his degree at Oxford, and in that year he +began what he calls (_Letters_, p. 68) "a very Gothic styled tragedy" +with "a jewel of a name." This work was completed in 1829 as the +fantastic and incoherent drama, _Death's Jest Book or The Fool's +Tragedy_; but he continued to revise it until his death, and it was only +published posthumously. On leaving Oxford he decided to study anatomy +and physiology, not, however, without some hope that his studies might, +by increasing his knowledge of the human mechanism, further his efforts +as a dramatist. In the autumn of 1825 he entered on his studies at +Gottingen, where he remained for four years. In 1829 he removed to +Wurzburg, and in 1832 obtained his doctorate in medicine, but his +intimate association with democratic and republican leaders in Germany +and Switzerland forced him to leave Bavaria without receiving his +diploma. He settled in Zurich, where he practised for some time as a +physician, and was even elected to be professor of comparative anatomy +at the university, but the authorities refused to ratify his appointment +because of his revolutionary views. He frequently contributed political +poems and articles to German and Swiss papers, but none of his German +work has been identified. The years at Zurich seem to have been the +happiest of his life, but in 1839 the anti-liberal riots in the town +rendered it unsafe for him, and early in the next year he had to escape +secretly. From this time he had no settled home, though he stored his +books at Baden in Aargau. His long residence in Germany was only broken +by visits to England in 1828 to take his master of arts degree, in 1835, +in 1842 and for some months in 1846. He had adopted German thought and +manners to such an extent that he hardly felt at home in England; and +his study of the German language, which he had begun in 1825, had almost +weaned him from his mother-tongue; he was, as he says in a letter, "a +non-conductor of friendship"; and it is not surprising that his old +friends found him much changed and eccentric. In 1847 he returned to +Frankfort, where he lived with a baker called Degen, to whom he became +much attached, and whom he persuaded to become an actor. He took Degen +with him to Zurich, where he chartered the theatre for one night to give +his friend a chance of playing Hotspur. The two separated at Basel, and +in a fit of dejection (May 1848) Beddoes tried to bleed himself to +death. He was taken to the hospital, and wrote to his friends in England +that he had had a fall from horseback. His leg was amputated, and he was +in a fair way to recovery when, on the first day he was allowed to leave +the hospital, he took curare, from the effects of which he died on the +26th of January 1849. His MSS. he left in the charge of his friend +Kelsall. + +In one of his letters to Kelsall Beddoes wrote:--"I am convinced the man +who is to awaken the drama must be a bold, trampling fellow--no creeper +into worm-holes--no reviser even--however good. These reanimations are +vampire cold. Such ghosts as Marloe, Webster, &c., are better +dramatists, better poets, I dare say, than any contemporaries of +ours--but they are ghosts--the worm is in their pages" (_Letters_, p. +50). In spite of this wise judgment, Beddoes was himself a "creeper into +worm-holes," a close imitator of Marston and of Cyril Tourneur, +especially in their familiar handling of the phenomena of death, and in +the remoteness from ordinary life of the passions portrayed. In his +blank verse he caught to a certain degree the manner of his Jacobean +models, and his verse abounds in beautiful imagery, but his _Death's +Jest Book_ is only finished in the sense of having five acts completed; +it remains a bizarre production which appeals to few minds, and to them +rather for the occasional excellence of the poetry than as an entire +composition. His lyrics show the influence of Shelley as well as the +study of 17th-century models, but they are by no means mere imitations, +and some of them, like the "Dirge for Wolfram" ("If thou wilt ease thy +heart"), and "Dream Pedlary" ("If there were dreams to sell"), are among +the most exquisite of 19th-century lyrics. + + Kelsall published Beddoes' great work, _Death's Jest Book: or, The + Fool's Tragedy_, in 1850. The drama is based on the story that a + certain Duke Boleslaus of Munsterberg was stabbed by his court-fool, + the "Isbrand" of the play (see C.F. Floegel, _Geschichte der + Hofnarren_, Leipzig, 1789, pp. 297 et seq.). He followed this in 1851 + with _Poems of the late Thomas Lovell Beddoes_, to which a memoir was + prefixed. The two volumes were printed together (1851) with the title + of _Poems, Posthumous and Collected_. All these volumes are very rare. + Kelsall bequeathed the Beddoes MSS. to Robert Browning, with a note + stating the real history of Beddoes' illness and death, which was kept + back out of consideration for his relatives. Browning is reported to + have said that if he were ever Professor of Poetry his first lecture + would be on Beddoes, "a forgotten Oxford poet." Mr Edmund Gosse + obtained permission to use the documents from Browning, and edited a + fuller selection of the _Poetical Works_ (2 vols., 1890) for the + "Temple Library," supplying a full account of his life. He also edited + the _Letters of Thomas Lovell Beddoes_ (1894), containing a selection + from his correspondence, which is full of gaiety and contains much + amusing literary criticism. See also the edition of Beddoes by Ramsay + Colles in the "Muses' Library" (1906). + + + + +BEDE, BEDA, or BAEDA (672 or 673-735), English historian and theologian. +Of Baeda, commonly called "the Venerable Bede," almost all that we know +is contained in the short autobiographical notice which he has appended +to his _Ecclesiastical History_:--"Thus much concerning the +ecclesiastical history of Britain, and especially of the race of the +English, I, Baeda, a servant of Christ and priest of the monastery of +the blessed apostles St Peter and St Paul, which is at Wearmouth and at +Jarrow, have with the Lord's help composed, so far as I could gather it, +either from ancient documents, or from the tradition of the elders, or +from my own knowledge. I was born in the territory of the said +monastery, and at the age of seven I was, by the care of my relations, +given to the reverend Abbot Benedict (Biscop), and afterwards to +Ceolfrid, to be educated. From that time I have spent the whole of my +life within that monastery devoting all my pains to the study of the +scriptures; and amid the observance of monastic discipline, and the +daily charge of singing in the church, it has ever been my delight to +learn or teach or write. In my nineteenth year I was admitted to the +diaconate, in my thirtieth to the priesthood, both by the hands of the +most reverend Bishop John (of Hexham), and at the bidding of Abbot +Ceolfrid. From the time of my admission to the priesthood to my +(present) fifty-ninth year, I have endeavoured, for my own use and that +of my brethren, to make brief notes upon the Holy Scripture, either out +of the works of the venerable fathers, or in conformity with their +meaning and interpretation." Then follows a list of his works, so far +as, at that date, they had been composed. As the _Ecclesiastical +History_ was written in 731, we obtain the following dates for the +principal events in Bede's uneventful life:--birth, 672-673; entrance +into the monastery, 679-680; ordination as deacon, 691-692; as priest, +702-703. + +The monastery of Wearmouth was founded by Benedict Biscop in 674, and +that of Jarrow in 681-682. Though some 5 or 6 m. apart, they were +intended to form a single monastery under a single abbot, and so Bede +speaks of them in the passage given above. It is with Jarrow that Bede +is chiefly associated, though no doubt from the close connexion of the +two localities he would often be at Wearmouth. The preface to the prose +life of Cuthbert proves that he had stayed at Lindisfarne prior to 721, +while the Epistle to Egbert shows that he had visited him at York in +733. The tradition that he went to Rome in obedience to a summons from +Pope Sergius is contradicted by his own words above, and by his total +silence as to any such visit. In the passage cited above, "monastic +discipline, the daily charge of singing in the church, learning, +teaching, writing," in other words devotion and study make up the even +tenor of Bede's tranquil life. Anecdotes have been preserved which +illustrate his piety both in early and in later years; of his studies +the best monument is to be found in his writings. As a little boy he +would take his place among the pupils of the monastic school, though he +would soon pass to the ranks of the teachers, and the fact that he was +ordained deacon at nineteen, below the canonical age, shows that he was +regarded as remarkable both for learning and goodness. + +For the rest, it is in his works that we must chiefly seek to know him. +They fall into three main classes: (1) scientific; (2) historical; (3) +theological. The first class comprises works on grammar, one on natural +phenomena, and two on chronology and the calendar. These last were +inspired largely by the Paschal Question, which was the subject of such +bitter controversy between the Roman and Celtic Churches in the 7th +century. They form a natural transition to the second class. In this the +chief place is held by the _Ecclesiastical History of the English +Nation_. By this Bede has justly earned the title of the Father of +English History. By this almost exclusively he is known to others than +professed students. It is indeed one of the most valuable and one of the +most beautiful of historical works. Bede has the artist's instinct of +proportion, the artist's sense for the picturesque and the pathetic. His +style too, modelled largely, in the present writer's opinion, on that of +Gregory in the _Dialogues_, is limpid and unaffected. And though it +would be wrong to call Bede a critical historian in the modern sense of +the words, he shows a very unusual conscientiousness in collecting his +information from the best available sources, and in distinguishing +between what he believed to be fact, and what he regarded only as rumour +or tradition. Other historical works of Bede are the _History of the +Abbots_ (of Wearmouth and Jarrow), and the lives of Cuthbert in verse +and prose. The _History of the Abbots_ and the prose life of Cuthbert +were based on earlier works which still survive. In the case of the +latter it cannot honestly be said that Bede has improved on his +original. In the _History of the Abbots_ he was much nearer to the +facts, and could make additions out of his own personal knowledge. The +Epistle to Egbert, though not historical in form, may be mentioned here, +because of the valuable information which it contains as to the state of +the Northumbrian Church, on which the disorders and revolutions of the +Northumbrian kingdom had told with disastrous effect. It is probably the +latest of Bede's extant works, as it was written in November 734, only +six months before his death. The third or theological class of writings +consists mainly of commentaries, or of works which, if not commentaries +in name, are so in fact. They are based largely on the works of the four +great Latin Fathers, SS. Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory; though +Bede's reading is very far from being limited to these. His method is +largely allegorical. For the text of scripture he uses both the Latin +versions, the Itala and the Vulgate, often comparing them together. But +he certainly knew Greek, and possibly some Hebrew. Indeed it may be said +that his works, scientific, historical and theological, practically sum +up all the learning of western Europe in his time, which he thus made +available for his countrymen. And not for them only; for in the school +of York, founded by his pupil Archbishop Ecgberht, was trained Alcuin +(Ealhwine) the initiator under Charles the Great of the Frankish +schools, which did so much for learning on the continent. And though +Bede makes no pretensions to originality, least of all in his +theological works, freely taking what he needed, and (what is very rare +in medieval writers) acknowledging what he took, "out of the works of +the venerable Fathers," still everything he wrote is informed and +impressed with his own special character and temper. His earnest yet +sober piety, his humility, his gentleness, appear in almost every line. +"In history and in science, as well as in theology, he is before all +things the Christian thinker and student." (Plummer's _Bede_, i. 2.) Yet +it should not be forgotten that Bede could hardly have done what he did +without the noble library of books collected by Benedict Biscop. + +Several quaint and beautiful legends have been handed down as to the +origin of the epithet of "venerable" generally attached to his name. +Probably it is a mere survival of a title commonly given to priests in +his day. It has given rise to a false idea that he lived to a great +age; some medieval authorities making him ninety when he died. But he +was not born before 672 (see above); and though the date of his death +has been disputed, the traditional year, 735, is most probably correct. +This would make him at most sixty-three. Of his death a most touching +and beautiful account has been preserved in a contemporary letter. His +last hours were spent, like the rest of his life, in devotion and +teaching, his latest work being to dictate, amid ever-increasing bodily +weakness, a translation into the vernacular of the Gospel of St John, a +work which unhappily has not survived. It was a fitting close to such a +life as his. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The above sketch is largely based on the present + writer's essay on Bede's Life and Works, prefixed to his edition of + Bede's _Historia Ecclesiastica, &c._ (2 vols., Clarendon Press, 1896). + _Beda der Ehrwurdige und seine Zeit_, by Dr Karl Werner (Vienna, + 1875), is excellent. Gehle, _Disputatio ... de Bedae vita et Scriptis_ + (Leiden, 1838), is still useful. Dr William Bright's _Chapters of + Early English Church History_ (3rd ed., Clarendon Press, 1897) is + indispensable. See also Ker, _Dark Ages_, pp. 141 ff. Of the collected + works of Bede the most convenient edition is that by Dr Giles in + twelve volumes (8vo., 1843-1844), which includes translations of the + _Historical Works_. The Continental folio editions (Basel, 1563; + Cologne, 1612 and 1688) contain many works which cannot by any + possibility be Bede's. The edition of Migne, _Patralogia Latina_ (1862 + ff.) is based on a comparison of the Cologne edition with Giles and + Smith (see below), and is open to the same criticism. On the + chronology and genuineness of the works commonly ascribed to Bede, see + Plummer's ed., i., cxlv-clix. + + On the MSS. early editions and translations of the _Historia + Ecclesiastica_, see Plummer, u.s., i., lxxx-cxxxii. The edition of + Whelock (Cambridge, fol. 1643-1644) is noteworthy as the first English + edition of the Latin text, and as the _editio princeps_ of the + Anglo-Saxon version ascribed to King Alfred (see ALFRED THE GREAT). + Smith's edition (Cambridge, fol. 1722) contained not only these, but + also the other historical works of Bede, with notes and appendices. It + is a monument of learning and scholarship. The most recent edition is + that with notes and introduction by the present writer, u.s. It + includes also the _History of the Abbots_, and the Epistle to Egbert. + Of books iii. and iv. only, there is a learned edition by Professors + Mayor and Lumby of Cambridge (3rd ed., 1881). A cheap and handy + edition of the text alone is that by A. Holder (Freiburg im Breisgau, + 1882, &c.). The best-known modern English translation is that by the + Rev. L. Gidley (1870). Of the minor historical works a good edition + was edited by Rev. J. Stevenson for the Eng. Hist. Soc. in 1841; and a + translation by the same hand was included in _Church Historians of + England_, vol. i., part ii. (1853). See also Plummer's edition, pp. + cxxxii-cxlii. (C. Pl.) + + + + +BEDE, CUTHBERT, the pen-name of Edward Bradley (1827-1889), English +author, who was born at Kidderminster on the 25th of March 1827. He +entered University College, Durham, in 1845, and later studied at +Oxford, where he made the acquaintance of J.G. Wood, the naturalist. He +took holy orders, and eventually became rector of Stretton in +Rutlandshire. Here he gained a reputation as a humorist and numbered +among his friends Cruikshank, Frank Smedley, Mark Lemon and Albert +Smith. He wrote for various magazines and, in the pages of the +_Illustrated London News_, introduced the double acrostic. He is chiefly +known as the author of _The Adventures of Mr Verdant Green, an Oxford +Freshman_ (1853), which he also illustrated and of which a third part +appeared in 1856. Several well-known Oxford characters of the time are +depicted in its pages, such as Dr Plumptre the vice-chancellor, Dr Bliss +the registrar, and the waiter at the Mitre. The book abounds in innocent +fun. In 1883 he was given the living of Lenton, or Lavington, +Lincolnshire, where he died on the 12th of December 1889. + + + + +BEDELL, WILLIAM (1571-1642), Anglican divine, was born at Black Notley +in Essex, in 1571. He was educated at Cambridge, became fellow of +Emmanuel in 1593, and took orders. In 1607 he was appointed chaplain to +Sir H. Wotton, then English ambassador at Venice, where he remained for +four years, acquiring a great reputation as a scholar and theologian. He +translated the _Book of Common Prayer_ into Italian, and was on terms of +closest friendship with the reformer, Sarpi (Fra Paolo). In 1616 he was +appointed to the rectory of Horningsheath (near to Bury St Edmunds, +where he had previously laboured), which he held for twelve years. In +1627 he became provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and, in 1629, bishop +of Kilmore and Ardagh. He set himself to reform the abuses of his +diocese, encouraged the use of the Irish language, and personally +undertook the duties generally discharged by the bishop's lay +chancellor. In 1633 he resigned his see. In 1641, when the Protestants +were being massacred, Bedell's house was not only left untouched, but +became the place of refuge for many fugitives. In the end, however, the +rebels insisted upon the dismissal of all who had taken shelter in his +house, and on the bishop's refusal he was seized and imprisoned with +some others in the ruined castle of Loughboughter. Here he was detained +for several weeks, and when released, rapidly sank from the effects of +exposure, and died on the 7th of February 1642. + + His life was written by Bishop Gilbert Burnet in 1685, and also by his + elder son (ed. T.W. Jones, for the Camden Society, 1872). + + + + +BEDESMAN, or BEADSMAN (Med. Eng. _bede_, prayer, from O. Eng. _biddan_, +to pray; literally "a man of prayer"), generally a pensioner or almsman +whose duty it was to pray for his benefactor. In Scotland there were +public almsmen supported by the king and expected in return to pray for +his welfare and that of the state. These men wore long blue gowns with a +pewter badge on the right arm, and were nicknamed Blue Gowns. Their +number corresponded to the king's years, an extra one being added each +royal birthday. They were privileged to ask alms throughout Scotland. On +the king's birthday each bedesman received a new blue gown, a loaf, a +bottle of ale, and a leathern purse containing a penny for every year of +the king's life. On the pewter badge which they wore were their name and +the words "pass and repass," which authorized them to ask alms. In 1833 +the appointment of bedesmen was stopped. In 1863 the last payment was +paid to a bedesman. In consequence of its use in this general sense of +pensioner, "bedesman" was long used in English as equivalent to +"servant." The word had a special sense as the name for those almsmen +attached to cathedral and other churches, whose duty it was to pray for +the souls of deceased benefactors. A relic of pre-Reformation times, +these old men still figure in the accounts of English cathedrals. + + + + +BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The present English title of duke of +Bedford comes from a line of earls and dukes in the Russell family. In +January 1550 John, Baron Russell, was created earl of Bedford, and in +May 1694 his descendant, William, the 5th earl, became duke of Bedford. +The Russell line is dealt with in the later part of this article. The +title of duke of Bedford had, however, been previously held, notably by +the third son of Henry IV.; and the earlier creations may first be +considered here. + +JOHN PLANTAGENET, duke of Bedford (1389-1435), third son of Henry IV., +king of England, was born on the 20th of June 1389. He received various +dignities after his father became king in 1399, and gained his early +experiences in warfare when he undertook the office of warden of the +east marches of Scotland in 1404; he was fairly successful in this +command, which he held until September 1414. In the previous May his +brother, the new king Henry V., had created him duke of Bedford, and +after resigning the wardenship he began to take a leading part in the +royal councils. He acted as lieutenant of the kingdom during Henry's +expedition to France in 1415, and in August 1416 commanded the ships +which defeated the French fleet at the mouth of the Seine, and was +instrumental in relieving Harfleur. Again appointed lieutenant in July +1417, he marched against the Scots, who abandoned the siege of Berwick +at his approach; and on his return to London he brought Sir John +Oldcastle to trial and was present at his execution. He appears to have +governed the country with considerable success until December 1419, when +he resigned his office as lieutenant and joined the king in France. +Returning to England, he undertook the lieutenancy for the third time in +June 1421, and in the following May conducted the queen to join Henry in +Normandy. He then took his brother's place and led the English troops to +the relief of Cosne, but on hearing of the king's serious illness he +left the army and hurried to his side. Henry's last wish was that +Bedford should be guardian of the kingdom and of the young king, and +that Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, should act as regent in France. +But when Philip declined to undertake this office, it too was assumed by +Bedford, who, after the death of the French king Charles VI. in October +1422, presided at a session of the parlement of Paris, and compelled +all present to take an oath of fidelity to King Henry VI. Meanwhile the +English parliament had decided that Bedford should be "protector and +defender" of the kingdom, and that in his absence the office should +devolve upon his brother Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. Confining himself +to the conduct of affairs in France the protector took up Henry V.'s +work of conquest, captured Meulan and other places, and sought to +strengthen his position by an alliance with Philip of Burgundy. This +task was rendered more difficult as Gloucester had just married +Jacqueline, countess of Holland and Hainaut, a union which gave the +English duke a claim on lands which Philip hoped to secure for himself. +Bedford, however, having allayed Philip's irritation, formed an alliance +with him and with John VI., duke of Brittany, at Amiens in April 1423, +and himself arranged to marry Anne, a sister of the Burgundian duke. +This marriage was celebrated at Troyes in the following June, and the +war against Charles, the dauphin of France, was prosecuted with vigour +and success. Bedford sought to restore prosperity to the districts under +his rule by reforming the debased coinage, granting privileges to +merchants and manufacturers, and removing various abuses. He then +granted some counties to Philip to check the growing hostility between +him and Gloucester, and on the 17th of August 1424 gained a great +victory over a combined army of French and Scots at Verneuil. But in +spite of the efforts of the protector the good understanding between +England and Burgundy was partially destroyed when Gloucester invaded +Hainaut in October 1424. The ambition of his brother gave Bedford +trouble in another direction also; for on his return from Hainaut +Gloucester quarrelled with the chancellor, Henry Beaufort, bishop of +Winchester, and the council implored Bedford to come to England to +settle this dispute. He reached London in January 1426, and after +concluding a bond of alliance with Gloucester effected a reconciliation +between the duke and the chancellor; and knighted the young king, Henry +VI. Bedford then promised to act in accordance with the will of the +council, and in harmony with the decision of this body raised a body of +troops and returned to France in March 1427. Having ordered Gloucester +to desist from a further attack on Hainaut, he threatened Brittany and +compelled Duke John to return to the English alliance; and the success +of his troops continued until the siege of Orleans, to which he +consented with reluctance, was undertaken in October 1428. Having +assured himself that Philip was prepared to desert him, Bedford sent +orders to his army to raise the siege in April 1429. He then acted with +great energy and judgment in attempting to stem the tide of disasters +which followed this failure, strengthened his hold upon Paris, and sent +to England for reinforcements; but before any engagement took place he +visited Rouen, where he sought to bind the Normans closer to England, +and after his return to Paris resigned the French regency to Philip of +Burgundy in accordance with the wish of the Parisians. Retaining the +government of Normandy Bedford established himself at Rouen and directed +the movements of the English forces with some success. He did not +interfere to save the life of Joan of Arc. He was joined by Henry VI. in +April 1430, when the regency was temporarily suspended, and he secured +Henry's coronation at Paris in December 1431. In November 1432 his wife +Anne died, and in April 1433 he was married at Therouanne to Jacqueline, +daughter of Pierre I., count of St Pol. But notwithstanding Bedford's +vigour the English lost ground steadily; and the death of Anne and this +marriage destroyed the friendly relations between England and Burgundy. +Negotiations for peace had no result, and when the duke returned to +England in June 1433 he told parliament that he had come home to defend +himself against the charge that the losses in France were caused by his +neglect, and demanded that his detractors should make their accusations +public. The chancellor replied that no such charges were known to the +king or the council, and the duke was thanked for his great services. +His next act was to secure an inquiry into the national finances; and +when asked by the parliament to stay in England he declared that his +services were at the king's disposal. As chief councillor he offered to +take a smaller salary than had been previously paid to Gloucester, and +undertook this office in December 1433, when his demands with regard to +a continual council were conceded. Bedford, who was anxious to prosecute +the war in France, left England again in 1434, but early in 1435 was +obliged to consent to the attendance of English r epresentatives at a +congress held to arrange terms of peace at Arras. Unable to consent to +the French terms the English envoys left Arras in September, and Philip +of Burgundy made a separate treaty with France. Bedford only lived to +see the ruin of the cause for which he struggled so loyally. He died at +Rouen on the 14th of September 1435, and was buried in the cathedral of +that city. He left a natural son, Richard, but no legitimate issue. +Bedford was a man of considerable administrative ability, brave and +humane in war, wise and unselfish in peace. He was not responsible for +the misfortunes of the English in France, and his courage in the face of +failure was as admirable as his continued endeavour to make the people +under his rule contented and prosperous. + + The chief contemporary authorities for Bedford's life are: _Vita et + gesta Henrici Quinti_, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); E. de + Monstrelet, _Chronique_, edited by L.D. d'Arcq. (Paris, 1857-1862); + William of Worcester, _Annales rerum Anglicarum_, edited by J. + Stevenson (London, 1864). See also _Proceedings and Ordinances of the + Privy Council of England_, edited by J.R. Dasent (London, 1890-1899); + W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895); P.A. + Barante, _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne_ (Paris, 1824). + +In 1470 GEORGE NEVILL (c. 1457-1483), son of John, earl of +Northumberland, was created duke of Bedford; but after his father's +attainder and death at the battle of Barnet in 1471 he was degraded from +the peerage. + +The next duke of Bedford was JASPER TUDOR (c. 1430-1495), half-brother +of King Henry VI. and uncle of Henry VII. He was made earl of Pembroke +in 1453. Having survived the vicissitudes of the Wars of the Roses he +was restored to his earldom and created duke of Bedford in 1485. The +duke, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1486 to 1494, died without +legitimate issue on the 21st of December 1495. + +JOHN RUSSELL, 1st earl of Bedford (c. 1486-1555), was a son of James +Russell (d. 1509). Having travelled widely, he attained some position at +the court of Henry VII., and was subsequently in great favour with Henry +VIII. In 1513 he took part in the war with France, and, having been +knighted about the same time, was afterwards employed on several +diplomatic errands. He was with Henry at the Field of the Cloth of Gold +in 1520, and, returning to military service when the French war was +renewed, lost his right eye at the siege of Morlaix in 1522. He was soon +made knight marshal of the royal household, and in 1523 went secretly to +France, where he negotiated a treaty between Henry and Charles, duke of +Bourbon, who was anxious to betray the French king Francis I. After a +short visit to England Russell was sent with money to Bourbon, joining +the constable at the siege of Marseilles. In 1524 he visited Pope +Clement VII. at Rome, and, having eluded the French, who endeavoured to +capture him, was present at the battle of Pavia in February 1525, +returning to England about the close of the year. In January 1527 he was +sent as ambassador to Clement, who employed him to treat on his behalf +with Charles de Lannoy, the general of Charles V. The next few years of +Russell's life were mainly spent in England. He was member of parliament +for Buckingham in the parliament of 1529, and although an opponent of +the party of Anne Boleyn, retained the favour of Henry VIII. He took an +active part in suppressing the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, and was one +of the commissioners appointed to try the Lincolnshire prisoners. +Honours now crowded upon him. His appointment as comptroller of the +king's household in 1537 was followed by that of a privy councillor in +1538; then he was made lord high admiral, high steward of the duchy of +Cornwall and a knight of the garter. In March 1539 he was created Baron +Russell of Chenies, and in 1542 became high steward of the university of +Oxford, and keeper of the privy seal. In 1539, when Charles V. and +Francis I. were threatening to invade England, he was sent into the +west, and crossed to France when Henry attacked Francis in 1544. He was +in command of an army in the west of England in 1545, and when Henry +died in January 1547 was one of the executors of his will. Under Edward +VI. Russell was lord high steward and keeper of the privy seal, and the +defeat which he inflicted on the rebels at Clyst St Mary near Exeter in +August 1549, was largely instrumental in suppressing the rising in +Devonshire. In January 1550 he was created earl of Bedford, and was one +of the commissioners appointed to make peace with France in this year. +He opposed the proposal to seat Lady Jane Grey on the throne; supported +Queen Mary, who reappointed him lord privy seal; and assisted to prevent +Sir Thomas Wyat's rising from spreading to Devonshire. In 1554 he went +to Spain to conclude the marriage treaty between Mary and Philip II., +and soon after his return died in London on the 14th of March 1555. By +extensive acquisitions of land Bedford was the founder of the wealth and +greatness of the house of Russell. Through his wife, Anne (d. 1550), +daughter of Sir Guy Sapcote, whom he married in 1526, he obtained +Chenies, and in 1539 was granted the forest of Exmoor, and also +Tavistock, and a number of manors in Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, which +had formerly belonged to the abbey of Tavistock. In 1549 he received +Thorney, the abbey of Woburn, and extensive lands in the eastern +counties; and in 1552 Covent Garden and seven acres of land in London, +formerly the property of the protector Somerset. He left an only son, +Francis, who succeeded him in the title. + + See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ (London, 1862-1901); _State + Papers during the Reign of Henry VIII._ (London, 1831-1852); _Calendar + of State Papers, Edward VI. and Mary_ (London, 1861); J.H. Wiffen, + _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833); J.A. + Froude, _History of England, passim_ (London, 1881 fol.). + +FRANCIS RUSSELL, 2nd earl of Bedford (c. 1527-1585), was educated at +King's Hall, Cambridge. He accompanied his father to the French war in +1544, and from 1547 to 1552 was member of parliament for +Buckinghamshire, being probably the first heir to a peerage to sit in +the House of Commons. He assisted to quell the rising in Devonshire in +1549, and after his father had been created earl of Bedford in January +1550, was known as Lord Russell, taking his seat in the House of Lords +under this title in 1552. Russell was in sympathy with the reformers, +whose opinions he shared, and was in communication with Sir Thomas Wyat; +and in consequence of his religious attitude was imprisoned during the +earlier part of Mary's reign. Being released he went into exile; visited +Italy; came into touch with foreign reformers; and fought at the battle +of St Quentin in 1557. Afterwards he seems to have enjoyed some measure +of the royal favour, and was made lord-lieutenant of the counties of +Devon, Cornwall and Dorset early in 1558. When Elizabeth ascended the +throne in November 1558 the earl of Bedford, as Russell had been since +1555, became an active figure in public life. He was made a privy +councillor, and was sent on diplomatic errands to Charles IX. of France +and Mary queen of Scots. From February 1564 to October 1567 he was +governor of Berwick and warden of the east marches of Scotland, in which +capacity he conducted various negotiations between Elizabeth and Mary. +He appears to have been an efficient warden, but was irritated by the +vacillating and tortuous conduct of the English queen. When the northern +insurrection broke out in 1569, Bedford was sent into Wales, and he sat +in judgment upon the duke of Norfolk in 1572. In 1576 he was president +of the council of Wales, and in 1581 was one of the commissioners +deputed to arrange a marriage between Elizabeth and Francis, duke of +Anjou. Bedford, who was made a knight of the garter in 1564, was lord +warden of the Stannaries from 1553 to 1580. He appears to have been a +generous and popular man, and died in London on the 28th of July 1585. +He was buried at Chenies. His first wife was Margaret (d. 1562), +daughter of Sir John St John, by whom he had four sons and three +daughters. His three eldest sons predeceased their father. His second +wife was Bridget (d. 1601), daughter of John, Lord Hussey. He was +succeeded as 3rd earl by his grandson, EDWARD (1572-1627), only son of +Francis, Lord Russell (c. 1550-1585). The 3rd earl left no children when +he died on the 3rd of May 1627, and was succeeded by his cousin. + +FRANCIS RUSSELL, 4th earl of Bedford (1593-1641), was the only son of +William, Lord Russell of Thornhaugh, to which barony he succeeded in +August 1613. For a short time previously he had been member of +parliament for the borough of Lyme Regis; in 1623 he was made +lord-lieutenant of Devonshire; and in May 1627 became earl of Bedford by +the death of his cousin, Edward, the 3rd earl. When the quarrel broke +out between Charles I. and the parliament, Bedford supported the demands +of the House of Commons as embodied in the Petition of Right, and in +1629 was arrested for his share in the circulation of Sir Robert +Dudley's pamphlet, "Proposition for His Majesty's service," but was +quickly released. The Short parliament meeting in April 1640 found the +earl as one of the king's leading opponents. He was greatly trusted by +John Pym and Oliver St John, and is mentioned by Clarendon as among the +"great contrivers and designers" in the House of Lords. In July 1640 he +was among the peers who wrote to the Scottish leaders refusing to invite +a Scottish army into England, but promising to stand by the Scots in all +legal and honourable ways; and his signature was afterwards forged by +Thomas, Viscount Savile, in order to encourage the Scots to invade +England. In the following September he was among those peers who urged +Charles to call a parliament, to make peace with the Scots, and to +dismiss his obnoxious ministers; and was one of the English +commissioners appointed to conclude the treaty of Ripon. When the Long +parliament met in November 1640, Bedford was generally regarded as the +leader of the parliamentarians. In February 1641 he was made a privy +councillor, and during the course of some negotiations was promised the +office of lord high treasurer. He was essentially a moderate man, and +seemed anxious to settle the question of the royal revenue in a +satisfactory manner. He did not wish to alter the government of the +Church, was on good terms with Archbishop Laud, and, although convinced +of Stafford's guilt, was anxious to save his life. In the midst of the +parliamentary struggle Bedford died of smallpox on the 9th of May 1641. +Clarendon described him as "a wise man, and of too great and plentiful a +fortune to wish the subversion of the government," and again referring +to his death said that "many who knew him well thought his death not +unseasonable as well to his fame as his fortune, and that it rescued him +as well from some possible guilt as from those visible misfortunes which +men of all conditions have since undergone." Bedford was the head of +those who undertook to drain the great level of the fens, called after +him the "Bedford level." He spent a large sum of money over this work +and received 43,000 acres of land, but owing to various jealousies and +difficulties the king took the work into his own hands in 1638, making a +further grant of land to the earl. Bedford married Catherine (d. 1657), +daughter of Giles, 3rd Lord Chandos, by whom he had four sons and four +daughters. His eldest son, WILLIAM (1613-1700), succeeded him as 5th +earl, fought first on the side of the parliament and then on that of the +king during the Civil War, and in 1694 was created marquess of Tavistock +and duke of Bedford. + + See Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion, passim_ (Oxford, 1888); J.H. + Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833); + J.L. Sanford, _Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion_ + (London, 1858). + +The first duke, who married Anne (d. 1684), daughter of Robert Carr, +earl of Somerset, was succeeded in the title by his grandson Wriothesley +(1680-1711), who was a son of Lord William Russell (q.v.) by his +marriage with Rachel, daughter of Thomas Wriothesley, 4th earl of +Southampton, and who became second duke in 1700. Eleven years later the +second duke was succeeded by his eldest son Wriothesley (1708-1732), who +died without issue in October 1732, when the title passed to his brother +John. + +JOHN RUSSELL, 4th duke of Bedford (1710-1771), second son of Wriothesley +Russell, 2nd duke of Bedford, by his wife, Elizabeth, daughter and +heiress of John Howland of Streatham, Surrey, was born on the 30th of +September 1710. Known as Lord John Russell, he married in October 1731 +Lady Diana Spencer, daughter of Charles, 3rd earl of Sunderland; became +duke of Bedford on his brother's death a year later; and having lost +his first wife in 1735, married in April 1737 Lady Gertrude +Leveson-Gower (d. 1794), daughter of John, Earl Gower. In the House of +Lords he joined the party hostile to Sir Robert Walpole, took a fairly +prominent part in public business, and earned the dislike of George II. +When Carteret, now Earl Granville, resigned office in November 1744, +Bedford became first lord of the admiralty in the administration of +Henry Pelham, and was made a privy councillor. He was very successful at +the admiralty, but was not equally fortunate after he became secretary +of state for the southern department in February 1748. Pelham accused +him of idleness; he was constantly at variance with the duke of +Newcastle, and resigned office in June 1751. Instigated by his friends +he was active in opposition to the government, and after Newcastle's +resignation in November 1756, became lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the +ministry of William Pitt and the duke of Devonshire, retaining this +office after Newcastle, in alliance with Pitt, returned to power in June +1757. In Ireland he favoured a relaxation of the penal laws against +Roman Catholics, but did not keep his promises to observe neutrality +between the rival parties, and to abstain from securing pensions for his +friends. His own courtly manners and generosity, and his wife's good +qualities, however, seem to have gained for him some popularity, +although Horace Walpole says he disgusted everybody. In March 1761 he +resigned this office. Having allied himself with the earl of Bute and +the party anxious to bring the Seven Years' War to a close, Bedford was +noticed as the strongest opponent of Pitt, and became lord privy seal +under Bute after Pitt resigned in October 1761. The cabinet of Bute was +divided over the policy to be pursued with regard to the war, but +pacific counsels prevailed, and in September 1762 Bedford went to France +to treat for peace. He was considerably annoyed because some of the +peace negotiations were conducted through other channels, but he signed +the peace of Paris in February 1763. Resigning his office as lord privy +seal soon afterwards, various causes of estrangement arose between Bute +and Bedford, and the subsequent relations of the two men were somewhat +virulent. The duke refused to take office under George Grenville on +Bute's resignation in April 1763, and sought to induce Pitt to return to +power. A report, however, that Pitt would only take office on condition +that Bedford was excluded, incensed him and, smarting under this rebuff, +he joined the cabinet of Grenville as lord president of the council in +September 1763. His haughty manner, his somewhat insulting language, and +his attitude with regard to the regency bill in 1765 offended George +III., who sought in vain to supplant him, and after this failure was +obliged to make humiliating concessions to the ministry. In July 1765, +however, he was able to dispense with the services of Bedford and his +colleagues, and the duke became the leader of a political party, +distinguished for rapacity, and known as the "Bedford party," or the +"Bloomsbury gang." During his term of office he had opposed a bill to +place high import duties on Italian silks. He was consequently assaulted +and his London residence attacked by a mob. He took some part in +subsequent political intrigues, and although he did not return to +office, his friends, with his consent, joined the ministry of the duke +of Grafton in December 1767. This proceeding led "Junius" to write his +"letter to the duke of Bedford," one of especial violence. Bedford was +hostile to John Wilkes, and narrowly escaped from a mob favourable to +the agitator at Honiton in July 1769. His health had been declining for +some years, and in 1770 he became partially paralysed. He died at Woburn +on the 15th of January 1771, and was buried in the family burying place +at Chenies. His three sons all predeceased him, and he was succeeded in +the title by his grandson, Francis. The duke held many public offices: +lord-lieutenant of Bedfordshire and Devonshire, and chancellor of Dublin +University among others, and was a knight of the garter. Bedford was a +proud and conceited man, but possessed both ability and common-sense. +The important part which he took in public life, however, was due rather +to his wealth and position than to his personal taste or ambition. He +was neither above nor below the standard of political morality of the +time, and was influenced by his duchess, who was very ambitious, and by +followers who were singularly unscrupulous. + + See _Correspondence of John, 4th Duke of Bedford_, edited by Lord John + Russell (London, 1842-1846); J.H. Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the + House of Russell_ (London, 1833); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England_, + vol. iii. (London, 1892); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of + George II._ (London, 1847), and _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, + edited by G.F.R. Barker (London, 1894.) + +FRANCIS RUSSELL, 5th duke of Bedford (1765-1802), eldest son of Francis +Russell, marquess of Tavistock (d. 1767), by his wife, Elizabeth (d. +1768), daughter of William Keppel, 2nd earl of Albemarle, was baptized +on the 23rd of July 1765. In January 1771 he succeeded his grandfather +as duke of Bedford, and was educated at Westminster school and Trinity +College, Cambridge, afterwards spending nearly two years in foreign +travel. Regarding Charles James Fox as his political leader, he joined +the Whigs in the House of Lords, and became a member of the circle of +the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. Having overcome some +nervousness and educational defects, he began to speak in the House, and +soon became one of the leading debaters in that assembly. He opposed +most of the measures brought forward by the ministry of William Pitt, +and objected to the grant of a pension to Edmund Burke, an action which +drew down upon him a scathing attack from Burke's pen. Bedford was +greatly interested in agriculture. He established a model farm at +Woburn, and made experiments with regard to the breeding of sheep. He +was a member of the original board of agriculture, and was the first +president of the Smithfield club. He died at Woburn on the 2nd of March +1802, and was buried in the family burying-place at Chenies. The duke +was never married, and was succeeded in the title by his brother, John. + + See Lord Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (London, 1854); J.H. + Wiffen, _Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell_ (London, 1833): + E. Burke, _Letter to a Noble Lord_ (Edinburgh, 1837); and Earl + Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_ (London, 1861-1862). + +JOHN RUSSELL, 6th duke of Bedford (1766-1839), was succeeded as seventh +duke by his eldest son, Francis (1788-1861), who had an only son, +William (1809-1872), who became duke on his father's death in 1861. When +the eighth duke died in 1872, he was succeeded by his cousin, Francis +Charles Hastings (1819-1891), who was member of parliament for +Bedfordshire from 1847 until he succeeded to the title. The ninth duke +was the eldest son of Major-General Lord George William Russell +(1790-1846), who was a son of the sixth duke. He married Elizabeth, +daughter of George John, 5th Earl de la Warr, and both his sons, George +William Francis Sackville (1852-1893), and Herbrand Arthur (b. 1858), +succeeded in turn to the title. + + + + +BEDFORD, a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county town of +Bedfordshire, England, 50 m. north-north-west of London by the Midland +railway; served also by a branch of the London & North-Western. Pop. +(1901) 35,144. It lies in the fertile valley of the Ouse, on both banks, +but mainly on the north, on which stands the mound which marks the site +of the ancient castle. The church of St Paul is Decorated and +Perpendicular, but its central tower and spire are modern; it contains +the tomb of Sir William Harper or Harpur (c. 1496-1573), lord mayor of +London, a notable benefactor of his native town of Bedford. St Peter's +church has in its central tower masonry probably of pre-Conquest date; +that of St Mary's is in part Norman, and that of St John's Decorated; +but the bodies of these churches are largely restored. There are some +remains of a Franciscan friary of the 14th century. The Congregational +chapel called Bunyan's or the "Old Meeting" stands on the site of the +building in which John Bunyan preached from 1656 onward. His chair is +preserved here, and a tablet records his life in the town, where he +underwent a long but in part nominal imprisonment. He was born at +Elstow, 1-1/2 m. from Bedford, where, while playing on the green, he +believed himself to have received the divine summons to renounce sin. In +the panels of a fine pair of bronze doors in the chapel are scenes +illustrative of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. Bedford is noted for its +grammar school, founded by Edward VI. in 1552, and endowed by Sir +William Harper. The existing buildings date from 1891, and have been +increased since that date, and the school is one of the important +public schools of England. Harper's endowment includes land in London, +and is now of great value, and the Harper Trust supports in addition +modern and elementary schools for boys and girls, a girls' high school, +and almshouses. The grammar school annually awards both entrance +exhibitions and two exhibitions to a university or other higher +educational institution. The old grammar school buildings are used as a +town hall; and among other modern buildings may be mentioned the shire +hall and county hospital. There are statues of John Bunyan (1874) and +John Howard (1894) the philanthropist (1726-1790), who founded the +Congregational chapel which bears his name, and resided at Cardington in +the vicinity. There are two parks. Bedford has a large trade as a market +town for agricultural produce, and extensive engineering works and +manufactures of agricultural implements. The parliamentary borough +returns one member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen +and 18 councillors. Area, 2223 acres. + +Bedford (Bedcanforda, Bedanforda, Bedeford) is first mentioned in 571, +when Cuthwulf defeated the Britons here. It subsequently became a Danish +borough, which in 914 was captured by Edward the Elder. In Domesday, as +the county town, it was entered apart from the rest of the shire, and +was assessed at half a hundred for the host and for ship service. The +prescriptive borough received its first charter from Henry II., who gave +the town to the burgesses to hold at a fee-farm rent of L40 in lieu of +all service. The privileges included a gild-merchant, all tolls, and +liberties and laws in common with the citizens of Oxford. This charter +was confirmed by successive sovereigns down to Charles II. During the +15th century, owing to the rise of other market towns, Bedford became +less prosperous, and the fee-farm rent was finally reduced to L20 by +charter of Henry VII. Henry VIII. granted a November fair to St +Leonard's hospital, which was still held in the 19th century at St +Leonard's farm, the site of the hospital. Mary granted two fairs, one in +Lent and one on the Feast of the Conception, and also a weekly market. A +17th century pamphlet on river navigation in Bedfordshire mentions the +trade which Bedford carried on in coal, brought by the Ouse from Lynn +and Yarmouth. The town was also one of the earliest centres of the lace +trade, to the success of which French refugees in the 17th and 18th +centuries largely contributed. + +Bedford was represented in the parliament of 1295, and after that date +two members were returned regularly, until by the Redistribution of +Seats Act in 1885 Bedford lost one of its members. The unlimited power +of creating freemen, an inherent right of the borough, led to great +abuse, noticeably in 1769 when 500 freemen[1] were created to support +the political interest of Sir Robert Barnard, afterwards recorder of the +borough. + +Bedford castle, of which mention is first heard during Stephen's reign +(1136), was destroyed by order of Henry III. in 1224. The mound marking +its site is famous as a bowling-green. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Called "guinea-pigs." + + + + +BEDFORD, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, Indiana, U.S.A., +in the south-central part of the state, about 60 m. north-west of +Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 3351; (1910) 8716. It is served by the +Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern, the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, +the Southern Indiana, and (for freight from the Wallner quarries about 5 +m. distant) the Bedford & Wallner railways. It is the shipping point of +the Bedford Indiana (oolitic) limestone, which is found in the vicinity +and is one of the most valuable and best known building stones in the +United States--of this stone were built the capitols of Indiana, +Georgia, Mississippi and Kentucky; the state historical library at +Madison, Wisconsin; the art building at St Louis, Missouri; and many +other important public buildings. The city has large cement works, +foundries and machine shops (stone-working machinery being +manufactured), and the repair shops of the Southern Indiana railway. +Bedford was settled in 1826 and received a city charter in 1889. + + + + +BEDFORD, a borough and the county-seat of Bedford county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the Raystown branch of the Juniata river, about 35 m. south +by west of Altoona. Pop. (1890) 2242; (1910) 2235. Bedford is served by +the Bedford branch of the Pennsylvania railway. It lies in a beautiful +valley. In the borough are some interesting old houses, erected in the +latter part of the 18th century, an art gallery and a soldiers' +monument. There are deposits of hematite and limestone near the borough, +and less than 2 m. south of it are the widely-known Bedford Mineral +Springs--a magnesia spring, a limestone spring, a sulphur spring, and a +"sweet-water" spring--which attract many visitors during the summer +season. There are also chalybeate and other less important springs about +the same distance east of the borough, and a white sulphur spring 10 m. +south-west of it. Bedford has a large wholesale grocery trade, +manufactures flour, dressed lumber, kegs and handles, and is situated in +a fine fruit-growing district, especially known for its apples and +plums. The borough owns and operates the water works. A temporary +settlement was made on or near the site of the present borough about +1750 by an Indian trader named Ray, and for a few years the place was +known as Raystown; the present name was adopted not later than 1759. In +July 1758 Fort Bedford, for many years an important military post on the +frontier, was constructed, and here, later in the year, General John +Forbes brought together his troops preparatory to advancing against Fort +Duquesne. The town of Bedford was laid out in 1769, and in 1771 it was +made the county-seat of Bedford county which was organized in that year. +The borough was incorporated in 1795, and received a new charter in +1817. Washington came here in 1794 to review the army sent to quell the +Whisky Insurrection, and the Espy house, which he then occupied, is +still standing. + + + + +BEDFORDSHIRE [abbreviated Beds], a south midland county of England, +bounded N.E. by Huntingdonshire, E. by Cambridgeshire, S.E. by +Hertfordshire, W. by Buckinghamshire and N.W. by Northamptonshire. It is +the fourth smallest English county, having an area of 466.4 sq. m. It +lies principally in the middle part of the basin of the river Ouse, +which, entering in the north-west, traverses the rich and beautiful Vale +of Bedford with a serpentine course past the county town of Bedford to +the north-eastern corner near St Neots. North of it the land is +undulating, but low; to the south, a well-wooded spur of the Chiltern +Hills separates the Vale of Bedford from the flat open tributary valley +of the Ivel. A small part of the main line of the Chilterns is included +in the south of the county, the hills rising sharply from the lowland to +bare heights exceeding 600 ft. above Dunstable. In this neighbourhood +the county includes the headwaters of the Lea, and thus a small portion +of it falls within the Thames basin. In the north a few streams are +tributary to the Nene. + + _Geology._--The general trend of the outcrops of the various + formations is from south-west to north-east; the dip is + south-easterly. In the northern portion of the county, the Middle + Oolites are the most important, and of these, the Oxford Clay + predominates over most of the low ground upon which Bedford is + situated. At Ampthill a development of clay, the Ampthill clay, + represents the Corallian limestones of neighbouring counties. The + Cornbrash is represented by no more than about 2 ft. of limestone; but + the Kellaways Rock is well exposed near Bedford; the sandy parts of + this rock are frequently cemented to form hard masses called + "doggers." The Great Ouse, from the point where it enters the county + on the west, has carved through the Middle Oolites and exposed the + Great Oolite as far as Bedford; their alternating limestones and clays + may be seen in the quarries not far from the town. From Woburn through + Ampthill to Potton a more elevated tract is formed by the Lower + Greensand. These rocks are sandy throughout. At Leighton Buzzard they + are dug on a large scale for various purposes. Beds of fuller's earth + occur in this formation at Woburn. At Potton, phosphatized nodules may + be obtained, and here a hard bed, the "Carstone," lies at the top of + the formation. Above the Lower Greensand comes the Gault Clay, which + lies in the broad vale south-east of the former and north-west of the + Chalk hills. The Chalk rises up above the Gault and forms the high + ground of Dunshill Moors and the Chiltern Hills. At the base of the + Chalk is the Chalk Marl, above this is the Totternhoe Stone, which, on + account of its great hardness, usually stands out as a well-marked + feature. The Lower Chalk, which comes next in the upward succession, + is capped in a similar manner by the hard Chalk Rock, as at Royston + and elsewhere. The upper Chalk-with-Flints occurs near the + south-eastern boundary. Patches of glacial boulder clay and gravel lie + upon the older rocks over most of the area. Many interesting mammalian + fossils, rhinoceros, mammoth, &c., with palaeolithic implements, have + been found in the valley gravels of the river Ouse and its + tributaries. + +_Industries._--Agriculture is important, nearly nine-tenths of the total +area being under cultivation. The chief crop is wheat, for which the +soil in the Vale of Bedford is specially suited; while on the sandy loam +of the Ivel valley, in the neighbourhood of Biggleswade, +market-gardening is extensively carried on, the produce going +principally to London, whither a considerable quantity of butter and +other dairy-produce is also sent. The manufacture of agricultural +machinery and implements employs a large number of hands at Bedford and +Luton. Luton, however, is specially noted for the manufacture of straw +hats. Straw-plaiting was once extensively carried on in this +neighbourhood by women and girls in their cottage homes, but has now +almost entirely disappeared owing to the importation of Chinese and +Japanese plaited straw. Another local industry in the county is the +manufacture of pillow-lace. Many of the lace designs are French, as a +number of French refugees settled in and near Cranfield. Mechlin and +Maltese patterns are also copied. + +_Communications_ are provided in the east by the Great Northern main +line, passing Biggleswade, and in the centre by that of the Midland +railway, serving Ampthill and Bedford. The Bletchley and Cambridge +branch of the London & North-Western railway crosses these main lines at +Bedford and Sandy respectively. The main line of the same company serves +Leighton Buzzard in the south-west, and there is a branch thence to +Dunstable, which, with Luton, is also served by a branch of the Great +Northern line. A branch of the Midland railway south from Bedford +connects with the Great Northern line at Hitchin, and formerly afforded +the Midland access to London over Great Northern metals. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +298,494 acres, with a population in 1891 of 161,704 and in 1901 of +171,240. The area of the administrative county is 302,947 acres. The +municipal boroughs are Bedford (pop. 35,144), Dunstable (5157) and Luton +(36,404). The other urban districts are--Ampthill (2177), Biggleswade +(5120), Kempston, connected with Bedford to the south-west (4729), and +Leighton Buzzard (6331). Potton (2033), Shefford (874), and Woburn +(1129) are lesser towns, and local centres of the agricultural trade. +The county is the midland circuit, and assizes are held at Bedford. It +has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided into eight petty +sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bedford, Dunstable and Luton have +separate commissions of the peace, and Bedford has a separate court of +quarter-sessions. There are 133 civil parishes. Bedfordshire forms an +archdeaconry in the diocese of Ely, with 125 ecclesiastical parishes and +parts of 6 others. The county has two parliamentary divisions, Northern +(or Biggleswade), and Southern (or Luton), each returning one member; +and Bedford is a parliamentary borough, returning one member. The +principal institution, apart from those in the towns, is the great Three +Counties asylum (for Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and Huntingdonshire), +in the south-east of the county near Arlesey. + +_History._--Although the Saxon invaders were naturally attracted to +Bedfordshire by its abundant water supply and facilities for +agriculture, the remains of their settlements are few and scattered. +They occur, with one exception, south of the Ouse, the most important +being a cemetery at Kempston, where two systems--cremation and +earth-burial--are found side by side. Early reference to Bedfordshire +political history is scanty. In 571 Cuthwulf inflicted a severe defeat +on the Britons at Bedford and took four towns. During the Heptarchy what +is now the shire formed part of Mercia; by the treaty of Wedmore, +however, it became Danish territory, but was recovered by King Edward +(919-921). The first actual mention of the county comes in 1016 when +King Canute laid waste to the whole shire. There was no organized +resistance to the conqueror within Bedfordshire, though the Domesday +survey reveals an almost complete substitution of Norman for English +holders. In the civil war of Stephen's reign the county suffered +severely; the great Roll of the Exchequer of 1165 proves the shire +receipts had depreciated in value to two-thirds of the assessment for +the Danegeld. Again the county was thrown into the barons' war when +Bedford Castle, seized from the Beauchamps by Falkes de Breaute, one of +the royal partisans, was the scene of three sieges before it was +demolished by the king's orders in 1224. The peasants' revolt +(1377-1381) was marked by less violence here than in neighbouring +counties; the Annals of Dunstable make brief mention of a rising in that +town and the demand for and granting of a charter. In 1638 ship-money +was levied on Bedfordshire, and in the Civil War that followed, the +county was one of the foremost in opposing the king. Clarendon observes +that here Charles had no visible party or fixed quarter. + +Bedfordshire is divided into nine hundreds, Barford, Biggleswade, +Clifton, Flitt, Manshead, Redbornestoke, Stodden, Willey and Wiscamtree, +and the liberty, half hundred or borough of Bedford. From the Domesday +survey it appears that in the 11th century there were three additional +half hundreds, viz. Stanburge, Buchelai and Weneslai, which had by the +14th century become parts of the hundreds of Manshead, Willey and +Biggleswade respectively. Until 1574 one sheriff did duty for +Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, the shire court of the former being +held at Bedford. The jurisdiction of the hundred courts, excepting +Flitt, remained in the king's possession. Flitt was parcel of the manor +of Luton, and formed part of the marriage portion of Eleanor, sister of +Henry III. and wife of William Marshall. The burgesses of Bedford and +the prior of Dunstable claimed jurisdictional freedom in those two +boroughs. The _Hundred Rolls_ and the _Placita de quo warranto_ show +that important jurisdiction had accrued to the great over-lordships, +such as those of Beauchamp, Wahull and Caynho, and to several religious +houses, the prior of St John of Jerusalem claiming rights in more than +fifty places in the county. + +With regard to parliamentary representation, the first original writ +which has been discovered was issued in 1290 when two members were +returned for the county. In 1295 in addition to the county members, +writs are found for two members to represent Bedford borough. +Subsequently until modern times two county and two borough members were +returned regularly. + +Owing to its favourable situation Bedfordshire has always been a +prominent agricultural rather than manufacturing county. From the 13th +to the 15th century sheep farming flourished, Bedfordshire wool being in +request and plentiful. Surviving records show that in assessments of +wool to the king, Bedfordshire always provided its full quota. Tradition +says that the straw-plait industry owes its introduction to James I., +who transferred to Luton the colony of Lorraine plaiters whom Mary queen +of Scots had settled in Scotland. Similarly the lace industry is +associated with Catherine of Aragon, who, when trade was dull, burnt her +lace and ordered new to be made. As late as the 19th century the lace +makers kept "Cattern's Day" as the holiday of their craft. The Flemings, +expelled by Alva's persecutions (1569), brought the manufacture of +Flemish lace to Cranfield, whence it spread to surrounding districts. +The revocation of the edict of Nantes, and consequent French +immigration, gave further impetus to the industry. Defoe writing in +1724-1727 mentions the recent improvements in the Bedfordshire bone-lace +manufacture. In 1794 further French refugees joined the Bedfordshire +lace makers. + +Woburn Abbey, belonging to the Russells since 1547, is the seat of the +duke of Bedford, the greatest landowner in the county. The Burgoynes of +Sutton, whose baronetcy dates from 1641, have been in Bedfordshire since +the 15th century, whilst the Osborn family have owned Chicksands Priory +since its purchase by Peter Osborn in 1576. Sir Phillip Monoux Payne +represents the ancient Monoux family of Wootton. Other county families +are the Crawleys of Stockwood near Luton, the Brandreths of Houghton +Regis, and the Orlebars of Hinwick. + +With the division of the Mercian diocese in 679 Bedfordshire fell +naturally to the new see of Dorchester. It formed part of Lincoln +diocese from 1075 until 1837, when it was finally transferred to Ely. In +1291 Bedfordshire was an archdeaconry including six rural deaneries, +which remained practically unaltered until 1880, when they were +increased to eleven with a new schedule of parishes. + +_Antiquities._--The monastic remains in Bedfordshire include the fine +fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory at Dunstable, serving +as the parish church; the church (also imperfect) of Elstow near +Bedford, which belonged to a Benedictine nunnery founded by Judith, +niece of William the Conqueror; and portions of the Gilbertine +Chicksands Priory and of a Cistercian foundation at Old Warden. In the +parish churches, many of which are of great interest, the predominant +styles are Decorated and Perpendicular. Work of pre-Conquest date, +however, is found in the massive tower of Clapham church, near Bedford +on the north, and in a door of Stevington church. Fine Norman and Early +English work is seen at Dunstable and Elstow, and the later style is +illustrated by the large cruciform churches at Leighton Buzzard and at +Felmersham on the Ouse above Bedford. Among the Perpendicular additions +to the church last named may be noted a very beautiful oaken +rood-screen. To illustrate Decorated and Perpendicular the churches of +Clifton and of Marston Moretaine, with its massive detached campanile, +may be mentioned; and Cople church is a good specimen of fine +Perpendicular work. The church of Cockayne Hatley, near Potton, is +fitted with rich Flemish carved wood, mostly from the abbey of Alne near +Charleroi, and dating from 1689, but brought here by a former rector +early in the 19th century. In medieval domestic architecture the county +is not rich. The mansion of Woburn Abbey dates from the middle of the +18th century. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Victoria County History_ (London, 1904, &c.); Fishe, + _Collections, Historical, Genealogical and Topographical, for + Bedfordshire_ (London, 1812-1816, and also 1812-1836); J.D. Parrv, + _Select Illustrations of Bedfordshire_ (London, 1827); _Bedfordshire + Domesday Book_ (Bedford, 1881); _Visitation of Bedford, 1566, 1582, + and 1634_, in _Harleian Society's Publications_, vol. xiv. (London, + 1884); _Genealogica Bedfordiensis_, 1538, 1800 (London, 1890); and + _Illustrated Bedfordshire_ (Nottingham, 1895). See also _Bedfordshire + Notes and Queries_, ed. F.A. Blades, and _Transactions of the + Bedfordshire Natural History and Field Club._ + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 3 SLICE 4 *** + +***** This file should be named 34405.txt or 34405.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/4/0/34405/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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